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2nd Escort Group (Royal Navy)

2024-03-19T21:33:45Z

92.8.58.251:

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox military unit
|unit_name=2nd Escort Group
|image=
|caption=
|dates=April 1943–May 1945
|country={{UK}}
|allegiance=[[British Empire]]
|branch={{flagicon|UK|naval}} [[Royal Navy]]
|type=Support Group
|role=[[Anti-Submarine Warfare]]
|size=~6 ships
|command_structure=Part of [[Western Approaches Command]]
|current_commander=
|garrison=[[Liverpool]]
|ceremonial_chief=
|colonel_of_the_regiment=
|nickname=
|patron=
|motto=
|colors=
|march="[[A-Hunting We Will Go]]"
|mascot=
|battles=Operation Musketry [[Convoy ON 207|ON 207]] HX 264 SL 140/MKS 31 JW 58
|notable_commanders=[[Frederic John Walker|Capt. F.J. Walker]] Cdr. N.W. Duck Cdr. D.E.G. Wemyss <ref>Note; pronounced "Weems".</ref>
|commander2="The Boss"
|commander2_label=Commander nickname
}}
The '''2nd Escort Group''' (2 EG) was a British [[Anti-submarine weapon|anti-submarine]] formation of the [[Royal Navy]] which saw action during the [[Second World War]], principally in the [[Battle of the Atlantic]].

2 EG was formed in April 1943, one of five such [[support groups]] formed at the crisis point of the campaign. It was to act as reinforcement to convoys under attack, with the capacity to actively hunt and destroy [[U-boat]]s, rather than be restricted to escort duties. Comprising six sloops of the [[Black Swan class sloop|''Black Swan''-class]], the group was led by Captain [[Frederic John Walker|F.J. "Johnnie" Walker]], Britain's most successful [[anti-submarine warfare]] commander, in {{HMS|Starling|U66|2}}. The combination of an active hunting group and a charismatic, determined and innovative anti-submarine specialist such as Walker proved to be a potent force; 2 EG was the most successful anti-submarine unit of the war, being credited with the destruction of 23 U-boats during two years of active service.

==Formation==
Officially called 2nd [[Escort Group (naval)|Escort Group]], it was more commonly referred to as the "2nd Support Group" (2 SG). It was formed in April 1943, one of five such [[Support Group (naval)|support groups]]. Its purpose was to provide reinforcement to convoys at sea, being equipped to spend extended periods at sea moving from one convoy to another as needed. Its function primarily was to assist a convoy's escort in its defence, though it also had the facility to spend time, which escorts did not have, to continue attacks on U-boats to a successful conclusion rather than having to break off to maintain the guard on the convoy.

Walker, however, was determined that the group would be active in destroying U-boats and impressed this aim on his commanders from the outset.<ref>Wemyss p.74</ref>

The group comprised six sloops of the Black Swan class, making it a highly uniform group, and the [[sloop of war|sloop]] design was well suited to the task, with good endurance, adequate speed and specialized anti-submarine armament. In addition, Walker had developed a range of A/S tactics, which 2 SG became adept at, such as the "[[Creeping attack (naval tactic)|creeping attack]]" and the "[[Barrage attack (naval tactic)|barrage attack]]".

The group originally comprised:
* {{HMS|Starling|U66|2}} (Capt. F.J. Walker),
* {{HMS|Wren|U28|2}} (Cdr. R.M. Aubrey),
* {{HMS|Woodpecker|U08|2}} (Lt.Cdr. R.E.S. Hugonin),
* {{HMS|Cygnet|U38|2}} (Lt.Cdr. F.B. Proudfoot),
* {{HMS|Wild Goose|U45|2}} (Lt.Cdr. D.E.G. Wemyss),
* {{HMS|Kite|U87|2}} (Lt.Cdr. W.F. Segrave)<ref>Wemyss p.73</ref>

During April the group was engaged in working up and training; ''Starling'', ''Wild Goose'' and ''Kite'' were new ships, and none had worked together before. Under Walkers training (previously the Experimental Commander at [[RNAS Portland (HMS Osprey)|HMS ''Osprey'']], the RN Anti-submarine training school) the group became a highly effective and successful unit.

The primary goal and strategy of the 2nd Escort Group as 'hunter-killers of U-boats' was reflected in the group practice of playing the song '[[A-Hunting We Will Go]]' upon entering and leaving harbour. This practice was emulated by other Royal Navy ships and was evidence of the change of attitude and strategy of anti-submarine units from defenders to hunter/killers of U-boats.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lamb|first1=James B.|title=On the triangle run|date=1987|publisher=Totem Books|location=Toronto|isbn=0-00-217909-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ontrianglerun0000lamb/page/34 34, 35]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/ontrianglerun0000lamb/page/34}}</ref>

==History==

===First patrols===
The group's first patrol in May 1943 was uneventful. There were several major convoy battles during the month, but none involving 2 SG. The group operated in support of HX 235 and ONS 8, sailing ahead in an attempt to encounter and breach any U-boat patrol lines drawn across the convoy routes.

The group's first success came in June. Its first U-boat was detected on 1 June 1943: fortuitously on a fine day, and identified by a Lt. Earl Howe Pitt, the event was dubbed another "[[Glorious First of June]]" by Walker.<ref>Wemyss p.76</ref> Over a 15-hour period the group found, tracked and destroyed {{Ship|German submarine|U-202||2}}, in the longest hunt of the Atlantic campaign up to that point, and a vindication of the support group ethos, leaving ships free of escort responsibilities to destroy U-boats.

===Bay offensive===
After a refit at Liverpool, after which ''Cygnet'' departed to another group, 2SG was assigned to "[[Operation Musketry]]", an attempt in concert with [[Coastal Command]] to interdict the U-boat transit routes across the [[Bay of Biscay]]. On 24 June 1943 the group was successful in destroying {{Ship|German submarine|U-119|1942|2}} and {{Ship|German submarine|U-449||2}}, though ''Starling'' was damaged in the process of ramming ''U-119'' and was forced to retire. Walker elected to stay with the group, exchanging commands with ''Wild Goose'', and, after the group returned to port, with ''Kite''. 2 SG was joined at this point by {{HMS|Woodcock|U90|2}} (Lt.Cdr [[Clive Gwinner|C. Gwinner]]), as a replacement for the damaged ''Starling''.

On 30 July 1943 Walker's group saw further success when they encountered a group of three U-boats on the surface (two were vital submarine [[German Type XIV submarine|type XIV]] replenishment boats known as "Milk Cows") while in the [[Bay of Biscay]]. He signalled the "[[general chase]]" to his group and fired at them, causing damage that prevented them from diving. Two of the submarines, {{Ship|German submarine|U-462||2}}, a Type XIV, and {{Ship|German submarine|U-504||2}}, a Type IX/C40, were then sunk by Walker's group, and the second Type XIV, {{Ship|German submarine|U-461||2}}, by Australian [[Short Sunderland]] aircraft.

But whilst the remainder of the operation saw the destruction of 20 U-boats over a nine-week period,<ref>Blair p.274</ref> 2 SG's time was unproductive, and no further successes were recorded.

===Atlantic operations===
In September 1943, after a further refit, 2 SG went to the North Atlantic, in the company of the escort carrier {{HMS|Tracker|D24|2}}. The group was joined by {{HMS|Magpie|U82|2}} (Lt.Cdr R.S. Abrams), while ''Woodpecker'' was in for repairs.

In October, in concert with B-7 Escort Group, the group worked in support of [[Convoy ON 207|ON 207]]. No successes were recorded, although the convoy battle saw three U-boats destroyed, with no ships lost.<ref>Blair pp.436-438</ref>

However, in November 1943, in operations around HX 264, 2 SG accounted for two more U-boats, {{Ship|German submarine|U-226||2}} and {{Ship|German submarine|U-842||2}}. Whilst the United States Navy had had much success using carrier groups in a hunter-killer role on the mid-Atlantic route, the Royal Navy's experience was less positive. Winter gales made flying difficult and hazardous, while the need to provide protection to the carrier hampered A/S operations. 2 SG at least generally had more success operating without carrier assistance.<ref>Wemyss pp.98-99</ref>

On 2 December SG was acting in support of SL 140/MKS 31 with 4 SG (Cdr. E.H. Chavasse). 2 SG put in a determined attack on a U-boat, (thought to be {{Ship|German submarine|U-843||2}}<ref>[http://www.naval-history.net/xGM-Chrono-18SL-Starling.htm naval-history.net : HMS ''Starling'']</ref>), but was unsuccessful, though the battle for SL 140/MKS 31 saw the destruction of a U-boat, without loss of ships.<ref>Roskill p.53</ref>

===Six in one trip===
[[File:HMS Kite depth charge attack 1944 IWM A 21989.jpg|thumb|right|HMS Kite of the 2nd Escort Group conducting a depth charge attack.]]
In January 1944 2 SG sailed on its most famous exploit, accounting for six U-boats in one patrol, three of them in one 15-hour period.

On 31 January 1944 Walker's group gained their first kill of the year when they sank {{Ship|German submarine|U-592||2}}. On 9 February his group sank {{Ship|German submarine|U-762||2}}, {{Ship|German submarine|U-238||2}}, and {{Ship|German submarine|U-734||2}} in one action, then sank {{Ship|German submarine|U-424||2}} on 11 February, and {{Ship|German submarine|U-264||2}} on 19 February. This patrol was ended on 20 February 1944, when one of Walker's group, {{HMS|Woodpecker|U08|2}}, was torpedoed (possibly by {{Ship|German submarine|U-764||2}}<ref>[http://www.naval-history.net/xGM-Chrono-18SL-Woodpecker.htm naval-history.net : HMS ''Woodpecker'']</ref> or by {{Ship|German submarine|U-256||2}}).<ref>Blair p.500</ref> After an 8-day struggle to get her home, ''Woodpecker'' sank in a gale off the Scillies; all of her crew were saved. ''Woodpecker'' was the only ship of 2 SG lost in action.

The group returned to its base at Liverpool to the thrilled jubilation of the city's inhabitants and the [[British Admiralty|Admiralty]]. The [[A. V. Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Hillsborough|First Lord of the Admiralty]] was present to greet Walker and his ships. Walker's seniority as Captain was backdated from 30 Jun 42 to 30 Jun 40 and awarded a second Bar to his DSO.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=36390|supp=y|page=902|date=10 September 1943}}</ref>

===Arctic convoy===
In March 1944 the group returned to North Atlantic, destroying {{Ship|German submarine|U-653||2}} on weather patrol, before joining Arctic convoy JW 58. It was joined in this for a short period by {{HMS|Whimbrel|U29|2}}. 2 SG met and destroyed {{Ship|German submarine|U-961||2}} in transit across the "Rosegarden", but had no other success, though three U-boats were destroyed in attacks on JW 58. The return convoy, RA 58, was also attacked but neither side saw any success.

In May 1944, 2 SG responded to an attack on {{USS|Donnell|DE-56|6}} by {{Ship|German submarine|U-473||2}}. Though starting from 300 miles away Walker, in an inspired piece of work, divined where to search and after a three-day search gained contact. An 18-hour hunt brought ''U-473'' to the surface, where she was sunk by gunfire.

In June 1944, 2 SG was joined by {{HMS|Dominica|K507|2}}, {{HMS|Loch Fada|K390|2}}, and {{HMS|Loch Killin|K391|2}}, replacements for ''Kite'' and ''Magpie''. That month the group was on a [[search and destroy]] operations in the [[South-Western Approaches]], as part of "[[Operation Neptune]]" - the invasion of Normandy, and was instrumental in preventing any attacks on the invasion fleet. In all fifteen U-boats were destroyed in attempts to attack the invasion fleet. Eight ships were sunk.<ref>Blair pp.581-592</ref>

On 2 July SG received its heaviest blow when Capt. Walker died suddenly of a [[Stroke|cerebral haemorrhage]].

===Later operations===
In July 1944, 2 SG was back in action, led initially by ''Dominica'' (Cdr. N.A. Duck) and later by ''Wild Goose'' (Cdr. D.E.G. Wemyss).

The group had one successful patrol during August operating in the Bay of Biscay.
Four U-boats, {{Ship|German submarine|U-333||2}}, {{Ship|German submarine|U-736||2}}, {{Ship|German submarine|U-608||2}}, and {{Ship|German submarine|U-385||2}} were accounted for while attempting to cross the bay to and from their bases.

The months following this were unfruitful, however, as the [[U-boat Arm]] changed its tactics to operate in the shallow inland waters around Britain, using the ''[[Submarine snorkel|schnorkel]]'' to remain submerged for entire patrols. This created a different set of tactical problems, requiring different tactics of the escorts.

===Last successes===
In 1945 ''Loch Fada'' and ''Loch Killin'' were transferred, to be replaced by {{HMS|Loch Ruthven|K645|2}}, {{HMS|Tobago|K585|2}}, and {{HMS|Labuan|K584|2}}.

As 2 SG grappled with the changed nature of the campaign the group saw its last successes. In February 1945 the group destroyed two more U-boats, {{Ship|German submarine|U-1018||2}} and {{Ship|German submarine|U-327||2}}<ref>Wemyss p.172</ref>(some sources say this was {{Ship|German submarine|U-1208||2}}).<ref>Neistle p.?</ref>

2 SG was also credited with {{Ship|German submarine|U-683||2}}, bringing its score to 23. Wemyss reports the attack, in March 1945, but after a report of another sinking in the same area six months earlier, concluded they were "flogging a dead horse".<ref>Wemyss p.148</ref>

However a post-war report of ''U-683'' missing in the area led to 2 SG being credited with her destruction. More recent analysis has questioned this, and the assessment was changed in 1989. It is now thought that 2 SG's attack was on the wreck of {{Ship|German submarine|U-247||2}}, sunk in September 1944.<ref>Neistle pp.82, 232</ref>

Despite this, 2nd Support Group was responsible for the confirmed destruction of 22 U-boats during World War II, making it the most successful anti-submarine unit of the entire conflict.

==References==
;Notes
{{Reflist|2}}
;Bibliography
* {{cite book|last=Blair|first=Clay|title=Hitler's U-boat war: the hunted, 1942-1945 |publisher=Cassel|location=London|year=1998|volume=2|isbn=0-304-35261-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Kemp|first=Paul
|title=U-boats destroyed: German submarine losses in the World Wars |publisher=Arms and Armour |location=London|year=1997|isbn=1-85409-515-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Niestlé|first=Alex
|title=German U-boat losses during World War II: details of destruction |publisher=Greenhill |location=London|year=1998|isbn=978-1-85367-352-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Roskill|first=Stephen|title=The war at sea 1939-1945 |publisher=HMSO |location=London|date=1954–1961|series=History of the Second World War |oclc=472844916}}
* {{cite book|last=Wemyss|first=David E.G.|title=Walker's Groups in the Western Approaches |publisher=Liverpool Daily Post & Echo|year=1948|oclc= 2663097}}

[[Category:Escort Groups of the Royal Navy in World War II]]

Bottom trawling

2024-03-19T21:28:08Z

92.8.58.251:

{{Short description|Fishing method for fishing trawlers}}
[[File:RV Celtic Explorer, Galway Bay, Ireland.jpg | thumb | The ''[[RV Celtic Explorer|Celtic Explorer]]'', a [[research vessel]] engaged in bottom trawling]]
'''Bottom trawling''' is [[trawling]] (towing a '''trawl''', which is a [[fishing net]]) along the seafloor. It is also referred to as "dragging". The scientific community divides bottom trawling into benthic trawling and [[Demersal zone|demersal]] trawling. Benthic trawling is towing a net at the very bottom of the ocean and demersal trawling is towing a net just above the [[benthic zone]]. Bottom trawling can be contrasted with [[midwater trawling]] (also known as [[Pelagic zone|pelagic]] trawling), where a net is towed higher in the [[water column]]. Midwater trawling catches [[pelagic fish]] such as [[anchovies]] and [[mackerel]], whereas bottom trawling targets both bottom-living fish ([[groundfish]]) and [[semi-pelagic]] species such as [[cod]], [[squid]], [[shrimp]], and [[Sebastes|rockfish]].

Trawling is done by a [[Fishing trawler|trawler]], which can be a small open boat with only {{convert|30|hp|abbr=on}} or a large factory trawler with {{convert|10000|hp|abbr=on}}. Bottom trawling can be carried out by one trawler or by two trawlers fishing cooperatively ([[pair trawling]]).

Global catch from bottom trawling has been estimated at over 30 million tonnes per year, an amount larger than any other fishing method.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Watson|first1=Reg A.|last2=Tidd|first2=A.|date=2018-07-01|title=Mapping nearly a century and a half of global marine fishing: 1869–2015|journal= [[Marine Policy]] |language=en|volume=93|pages=171–177|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2018.04.023|s2cid=158305071 |issn=0308-597X|url=http://osf.io/mcvp5/}}</ref> Concerns about the environmental impacts of bottom trawling have led to changes in gear design, such as the addition of [[turtle excluder device]]s to reduce [[bycatch]], and limitations on locations where bottom trawling is allowed, such as [[marine protected area]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.seafoodwatch.org/ocean-issues/fishing-and-farming-methods|title=Fishing and Farming Methods from the Seafood Watch Program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium|website=www.seafoodwatch.org|language=en|access-date=2018-08-23}}</ref> Moreover, a 2021 paper estimated that bottom trawling contributed between 600 and 1500 million tons of carbon dioxide a year by disturbing carbon dioxide in the sea floor – emissions approximately equivalent to [[Climate change in Germany|those of Germany]], or [[Environmental impact of aviation|the aviation industry]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sala|first1=Enric|last2=Mayorga|first2=Juan|last3=Bradley|first3=Darcy|last4=Cabral|first4=Reniel B.|last5=Atwood|first5=Trisha B.|last6=Auber|first6=Arnaud|last7=Cheung|first7=William|last8=Costello|first8=Christopher|last9=Ferretti|first9=Francesco|last10=Friedlander|first10=Alan M.|last11=Gaines|first11=Steven D.|date=2021-03-17|title=Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03371-z|journal=Nature|volume=592|issue=7854|language=en|pages=397–402|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03371-z|pmid=33731930|bibcode=2021Natur.592..397S|s2cid=232301777 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Einhorn|first=Catrin|date=2021-03-17|title=Trawling for Fish May Unleash as Much Carbon as Air Travel, Study Says|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/17/climate/climate-change-oceans.html|access-date=2021-03-18|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2021-03-17|title=Bottom trawling releases as much carbon as air travel, landmark study finds|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/17/trawling-for-fish-releases-as-much-carbon-as-air-travel-report-finds-climate-crisis|access-date=2021-03-20|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> International attempts to limit bottom trawling have been ineffective.

==History==
[[File:Pino Ladra 29.jpg|thumb|right|[[Viveiro]]|alt=Ship, [[Viveiro]]]]

An early reference to fishery conservation measures comes from a complaint about a form of trawling dating from the 14th century, during the reign of [[Edward III]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=Peter |date=May 2018 |title=The long 'lost' history of bottom trawling in England, c.1350–1650 |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0843871418766765 |journal=International Journal of Maritime History |language=en |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=201–217 |doi=10.1177/0843871418766765 |s2cid=134879666 |issn=0843-8714}}</ref> A petition was presented to [[Good Parliament|Parliament]] in 1376 calling for the prohibition of a "subtlety contrived instrument called the ''wondyrchoum''". This was an early beam trawl with a wooden beam, and consisted of a net 6 m (18 ft) long and 3 m (10 ft) wide,
<blockquote>
of so small a mesh, no manner of fish, however small, entering within it can pass out and is compelled to remain therein and be taken...by means of which instrument the fishermen aforesaid take so great abundance of small fish aforesaid, that they know not what to do with them, but feed and fatten the pigs with them, to the great damage of the whole commons of the kingdom, and the destruction of the fisheries in like places, for which they pray remedy.<ref>March, Page 33</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Collins |first=J.W. |date=1887 |title=The Beam Trawl Fishery of Great Britain with Notes on Beam-Trawling in Other European Countries |url=https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/pdf-content/fish-bull/fb7.60.pdf |access-date=17 March 2017 |publisher=[[Fishery Bulletin|Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission]] |page=292 |quote=100 MegaByte PDF}}</ref>
</blockquote>
Another source describes the wondyrchoum as:
<blockquote>
three fathom long and ten men's feet wide, and that it had a beam ten feet long, at the end of which were two frames formed like a colerake, that a leaded rope weighted with a great many stones was fixed on the lower part of the net between the two frames, and that another rope was fixed with nails on the upper part of the beam, so that the fish entering the space between the beam and the lower net were caught. The net had maskes of the length and breadth of two men's thumbs<ref>Davis, F (1958) ''An Account of the Fishing Gear of England and Wales.'' 4th edition, HMSO.</ref>
</blockquote>
The response from the Crown was to "let Commission be made by qualified persons to inquire and certify on the truth of this allegation, and thereon let right be done in the [[Court of Chancery]]". Thus, already back in the Middle Ages, basic arguments about three of the most sensitive current issues surrounding trawling - the effect of trawling on the wider environment, the use of small mesh size, and of industrial fishing for animal feed - were already being raised.

Until the late 18th century sailing vessels were only capable of towing small trawls. However, in the closing years of that century a type of vessel emerged that was capable of towing a large trawl, in deeper waters. The development of this type of craft, the sailing trawler, is credited to the fishermen of Brixham in Devon. The new method proved to be far more efficient than traditional long-lining. At first its use was confined to the western half of the English Channel, but as the Brixham men extended their range to the North Sea and Irish Sea it became the norm there too.

By the end of the 19th century there were more than 3,000 sailing trawlers in commission in UK waters and the practice had spread to neighbouring European countries. Despite the availability of steam, trawling under sail continued to be economically efficient, and sailing trawlers continued to be built until the middle of the 1920s. Some were still operating in UK waters until the outbreak of [[World War II]], and in Scandinavia and the Faroe Islands until the 1950s.

English commissions in the 19th century determined that there should be no limitation on trawling. They believed that bottom trawling, like tilling of land, actually increased production. As evidence, they noted that a second trawler would often follow a first trawler, and that the second trawler would often harvest even more fish than the first. The reason for this peculiarity is that the destruction caused by the first trawl resulted in many dead and dying organisms, which temporarily attracted a large number of additional species to feed on this moribund mass.

Bottom trawling does not only have a long tradition in European waters. It was also recognized in 1704 during the Edo era in Japan as a common fishing method. A slightly different approach was developed where the "Utase Ami" or "trawled bottom net" was deployed from a sideways sailing boat.<ref>Nakamoura E, Ourakami T (1900) Histoire de l’industrie de la pêche maritime etfluviale ouJapon. (Translated from the Japanese into French). Bureau des produits maritimes etfleuviauxdu ministère d’agriculture et commerce, Tokyo</ref>

Bottom trawling has been widely implicated in the population collapse of a variety of fish species, locally and worldwide, including [[orange roughy]], [[barndoor skate]], [[shark]], and many others.<ref>Roberts, Callum (2007). ''The Unnatural History of the Sea'', Island Press, p. 238</ref>

==Fishing gear==
{{externalimage
|float=right
|width=160px
|image1=[https://www.afma.gov.au/methods-and-gear/trawling]
}}
The design requirements of a bottom trawl are relatively simple, a mechanism for keeping the mouth of the net open in horizontal and vertical dimensions, a "body" of net which guides fish inwards, and a "cod-end" of a suitable mesh size, where the fish are collected. The size and design of net used is determined by the species being targeted, the engine power and design of the fishing vessel and locally enforced regulations.

===Beam trawling===
<gallery>
File:FMIB 36649 Beam Trawl.jpeg|A beam trawl
File:FMIB 34023 Grampus.jpeg|A detail
</gallery>
The simplest method of bottom trawling, the mouth of the net is held open by a solid metal beam, attached to two "shoes", which are solid metal plates, welded to the ends of the beam, which slide over and disturb the seabed. This method is mainly used on smaller vessels, fishing for [[flatfish]] or [[prawn]]s, relatively close inshore.

===Otter trawling===
[[File:FMIB 36645 Otter trawl.jpeg|thumb|right|Otter trawl]]
Otter trawling derives its name from the large rectangular '''otter boards''' which are used to keep the mouth of the trawl net open. Otter boards are made of timber or steel and are positioned in such a way that the hydrodynamic forces, acting on them when the net is towed along the seabed, push them outwards and prevent the mouth of the net from closing. They also act like a [[plough]], digging up to {{convert|15|cm|in|0}} into the seabed, creating a [[turbid]] cloud, and scaring fish towards the net mouth.

The net is held open vertically on an otter trawl by [[Float (nautical)|float]]s and/or kites attached to the "headline" (the rope which runs along the upper mouth of the net), and weighted "bobbins" attached to the "foot rope" (the rope which runs along the lower mouth of the net). These bobbins vary in their design depending on the [[surface roughness|roughness]] of the sea bed which is being fished, varying from small rubber discs for very smooth, sandy ground, to large metal balls, up to {{convert|0.5|m|ft|1}} in diameter, for very rough ground. These bobbins can also be designed to lift the net off the seabed when they hit an obstacle. These are known as "rock-hopper" gear.

===Body of the trawl===

[[File:Pelagisches Schleppnetz.jpg|thumb|left|Pelagic (midwater) otter trawl. 1: trawl warp, 2: otter boards, 3: longline chains, 4 hunter, 5: weights 6: headline with floats, 7: pre-net, 8: tunnel and belly, 9: codend]]
The body of the trawl is funnel-like, wide at its "mouth" and narrowing towards the cod end, and usually is fitted with wings of netting on both sides of the mouth. It is long enough to assure adequate flow of water and prevent fish from escaping the net, after having been caught. It is made of diamond-meshed netting, the size of the meshes decreasing from the front of the net towards the codend. Into the body, fish and turtle escape devices can be fitted. These can be simple structures like "square mesh panels", which are easier for smaller fish to pass through, or more complicated devices, such as [[bycatch]] grills.

===Cod end===
The cod end is the trailing end of the net where fish are finally "caught". The size of mesh in the cod end is a determinant of the size of fish which the net catches. Consequently, regulation of mesh size is a common way of managing [[death|mortality]] of [[juvenile (animal)|juvenile]] fishes in trawl nets.

==Environmental damage==
{{see also|Environmental impact of fishing|environmental damage|Marine conservation}}
[[File:Lake Michigan Bottom Trawl Debris.webm|thumb|loop|Short clip of a bottom trawl of a lake and the large amounts of debris produced]]
Trawling gear produces acute impacts on biota and the physical substratum of the seafloor by disrupting the sediment column structure, overturning boulders, re-suspending sediments and imprinting deep scars on muddy bottoms.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Urbina|first=Ian|date=July 28, 2015|title=A Renegade Trawler, Hunted for 10,000 Miles by Vigilantes.|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/28/world/a-renegade-trawler-hunted-for-10000-miles-by-vigilantes.html|access-date=November 20, 2020}}</ref> Also, the repetitive passage of trawling gear over the same areas creates long-lasting, cumulative impacts that modify the cohesiveness and texture of sediments. It can be asserted nowadays that due to its recurrence, mobility and wide geographical extent, industrial trawling has become a major force driving seafloor change and affecting not only its physical integrity on short spatial scales but also imprinting measurable modifications to the geomorphology of entire continental margins.<ref name="researchgate.net">Oberle et al. (2018), [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319112762_Submarine_Geomorphology_Bottom_Trawling_and_other_Fishing_Activities “Submarine Geomorphology: Bottom Trawling and other Fishing Activities”], Book: Submarine Geomorphology Chapter 25, Springer, doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-57852</ref>

Bottom fishing has operated for over a century on heavily fished grounds such as the [[North Sea]] and [[Grand Banks]]. While [[overfishing]] has long been recognised as causing major ecological changes to the fish community on the Grand Banks, concern has been raised more recently about the damage which benthic trawling inflicts upon seabed communities.<ref>
{{cite web
|title=Beam trawling on the North Sea
|publisher=Greenpeace
|url=http://archive.greenpeace.org/comms/cbio/beam.html
|access-date=2009-01-12
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210112607/http://archive.greenpeace.org/comms/cbio/beam.html
|archive-date=2008-12-10
}}
</ref> A species of particular concern is the slow growing, deep water [[coral]] ''[[Lophelia pertusa]]''. This species is home to a diverse community of deep sea organisms, but is easily damaged by fishing gear. On 17 November 2004, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] urged nations to consider temporary bans on high seas bottom trawling.<ref>{{UN document |docid=A-59-PV.56 |body=General Assembly |type=Verbatim Report |session=59 |meeting=56 |page=4 |anchor=pg004-bk02 |date=17 November 2004 |speakername=Ms. Kimball | speakernation=International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources |access-date=2009-05-09 }}</ref> A global analysis of the impacts of bottom trawling found that the impact on seabed [[Biota (biology)|biota]] was strongly dependent on the type of gear used, with otter trawls estimated as having the smallest impact and removing 6% of biota per pass while hydraulic dredges had the largest impact and removed 41% of biota per pass.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hiddink|first1=Jan Geert|last2=Jennings|first2=Simon|last3=Sciberras|first3=Marija|last4=Szostek|first4=Claire L.|last5=Hughes|first5=Kathryn M.|last6=Ellis|first6=Nick|last7=Rijnsdorp|first7=Adriaan D.|last8=McConnaughey|first8=Robert A.|last9=Mazor|first9=Tessa|date=2017-07-14|title=Global analysis of depletion and recovery of seabed biota after bottom trawling disturbance|journal= [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=114|issue=31|language=en|pages=8301–8306|doi=10.1073/pnas.1618858114|issn=0027-8424|pmid=28716926|pmc=5547586|bibcode=2017PNAS..114.8301H |doi-access=free}}</ref> Other research found trawled canyon sediments contained 52 percent less organic matter than the undisturbed seafloor. There were 80 percent fewer sea worms in the trawled region and only half as much diversity of species in the trawled seafloor.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/5/140519-bottom-trawling-seafloor-oceans-damage-science/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920075127/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/5/140519-bottom-trawling-seafloor-oceans-damage-science/ | url-status=dead | archive-date=September 20, 2020 |title = In Brief: Deep-sea Trawling Has "Devastating" Impact, Study Finds| website=[[National Geographic Society]] |date = 2014-05-19}}</ref>

[[Image:Louisiana trawling landsat cropped.jpg|right|thumb|Satellite image of trawler mud trails off the Louisiana coast]]

===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===
Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1038/srep43332|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes|year = 2017|last1 = Paradis|first1 = Sarah|last2 = Puig|first2 = Pere|last3 = Masqué|first3 = Pere|last4 = Juan-Díaz|first4 = Xènia|last5 = Martín|first5 = Jacobo|last6 = Palanques|first6 = Albert|journal = Scientific Reports|volume = 7|page = 43332|pmid = 28233856|pmc = 5324136|bibcode = 2017NatSR...743332P}}</ref> Bottom trawling-induced resuspended sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated at approximately 22 [[gigatonne]]s per year, approximately the same as the sediment mass supplied to the continental shelves through the world's rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberle|first1=Ferdinand K.J.|last2=Storlazzi|first2=Curt D.|last3=Hanebuth|first3=Till J.J.|date=2016|title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment|journal=Journal of Marine Systems|language=en|volume=159|pages=109–119|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007|bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}

Bottom trawling can both resuspend and bury biologically recyclable organic material, changing the flow of nutrients and carbon through the food web and thereby alter geomorphological landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for many [[persistent organic pollutants]], usually [[lipophilic]] pollutants like [[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane|DDT]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]] and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon|PAH]].{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} Bottom trawling mixes these pollutants into the [[plankton|plankton ecology]] where they can move back up the [[food chain]] and into our food supply.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019|pmid=22842052|title=Bottom trawling resuspends sediment and releases bioavailable contaminants in a polluted fjord|journal=Environmental Pollution|volume=170|pages=232–241|year=2012|last1=Bradshaw|first1=C.|last2=Tjensvoll|first2=I.|last3=Sköld|first3=M.|last4=Allan|first4=I.J.|last5=Molvaer|first5=J.|last6=Magnusson|first6=J.|last7=Naes|first7=K.|last8=Nilsson|first8=H.C.|bibcode=2012EPoll.170..232B }}</ref>

[[Phosphorus]] is often found in high concentration in soft shallow sediments.<ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08153-6|chapter=The Global Phosphorus Cycle|title=Treatise on Geochemistry|pages=585–643|year=2003|last1=Ruttenberg|first1=K.C.|isbn=9780080437514}}</ref> Resuspending nutrient solids like these can introduce oxygen demand into the water column, and result in oxygen deficient [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zone]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=US Department of Commerce |first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |title=What is a dead zone? |url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html#:~:text=%22Dead%20zone%22%20is%20a%20more%20common%20term%20for,as%20a%20result%20are%20often%20called%20%22dead%20zones.%22 |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov |access-date=16 October 2020 |language=EN-US}}</ref>
Even in areas where the bottom sediments are ancient, bottom trawling, by reintroducing the sediment into the water column, can create [[algae bloom|harmful algae blooms]].<ref>Giannakourou, A., Orlova, T.Y., Assimakopoulou, G., Pagou, K. (2005) ''Dinoflagellate cysts in recent marine sediments from Thermaikos Gulf, Greece.'' Continental Shelf Research 25, 2585-2596.
</ref><ref>Weaver, Dallas E (2007) [http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html ''Remote Impacts of Bottom Trawling''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410185854/http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html |date=2009-04-10 }}.</ref> More suspended solids are introduced into the oceans from bottom trawling than any other man-made source.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Palanques |first1=A. |last2=Guillén |first2=J. |last3=Puig |first3=P. |title=Impact of bottom trawling on water turbidity and muddy sediment of an unfished continental shelf |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |date=July 2001 |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=1100–1110 |doi=10.4319/lo.2001.46.5.1100 |bibcode=2001LimOc..46.1100P |doi-access=free |hdl=10261/244111 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Multiple large-scale reviews on bottom trawling have noted that there is a great need for further studies that properly examine the effects of nutrient and toxin remobilization as well as [[Carbon cycle|carbon cycling]],<ref>NRC (2002) (National Research Council) Effects of trawling and dredging on seafloor habitat. National Academies Press, Washington, DC</ref><ref>ICES (2006) International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES): report of the WorkingGroup on Ecosystem Effects of Fishing Activities. ACE 05:1 179</ref> in order to better estimate [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and hence the impact on [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2019-02-01|title=Quantifying and valuing carbon flows and stores in coastal and shelf ecosystems in the UK|journal=Ecosystem Services|language=en|volume=35|pages=67–76|doi=10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.10.013|issn=2212-0416|doi-access=free|last1=Luisetti|first1=Tiziana|last2=Turner|first2=R. Kerry|last3=Andrews|first3=Julian E.|last4=Jickells|first4=Timothy D.|last5=Kröger|first5=Silke|last6=Diesing|first6=Markus|last7=Paltriguera|first7=Lucille|last8=Johnson|first8=Martin T.|last9=Parker|first9=Eleanor R.|last10=Bakker|first10=Dorothee C.E.|last11=Weston|first11=Keith}}</ref>

===Deep sea damage===
[[File:Results of trawling.png|thumb|right|(A) The coral community and seabed on an untrawled seamount. (B) The exposed bedrock of a trawled seamount. Both are {{ Convert | 1,000–2,000 | m }} below the surface.]]

The [[Secretary General of the United Nations]] reported in 2006 that 95 percent of damage to [[seamount]] ecosystems worldwide is caused by [[deep sea]] bottom trawling.<ref>Report of the Secretary-General (2006) [https://www.un.org/Depts/los/general_assembly/documents/impact_of_fishing.pdf ''The Impacts of Fishing on Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems'']. [[United Nations]]. Retrieved on 10 August 2008</ref><ref>Reed JK, Koenig CC, Shepard AN, and Gilmore Jr RG (2007) {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20100104131308/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7004 ''Long Term Monitoring of a Deep-water Coral Reef: Effects of Bottom Trawling'']}} Twenty-sixth annual Scientific Diving Symposium. Retrieved on 10 August 2008</ref> A study published in ''[[Current Biology]]'' suggests a cutoff of {{convert|600|m|ft}} is a point which ecological damage increases significantly.<ref>{{Cite news|title = Drawing the line|url = https://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21663195-when-regulating-fishing-it-always-helps-have-data-drawing-line|newspaper = The Economist|access-date = 2015-09-18|issn = 0013-0613}}</ref>

=== Carbon release ===
An estimated 370 million tonnes a year of carbon dioxide stored in seafloor sediment is released by bottom-trawling fishing.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McVeigh |first=Karen |date=2024-01-18 |title=Carbon released by bottom trawling 'too big to ignore', says study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/jan/18/carbon-released-by-bottom-trawling-too-big-to-ignore-says-study |access-date=2024-03-13 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Most carbon released into the sea enters the atmosphere within a decade.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Atwood |first1=Trisha B. |last2=Romanou |first2=Anastasia |last3=DeVries |first3=Tim |last4=Lerner |first4=Paul E. |last5=Mayorga |first5=Juan S. |last6=Bradley |first6=Darcy |last7=Cabral |first7=Reniel B. |last8=Schmidt |first8=Gavin A. |last9=Sala |first9=Enric |date=2024 |title=Atmospheric CO2 emissions and ocean acidification from bottom-trawling |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |volume=10 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2023.1125137 |doi-access=free |issn=2296-7745}}</ref> Banning bottom trawling in marine protected areas has been suggested.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-13 |title=Bottom trawling is huge source of carbon emissions, new study reveals |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/climate-change-bottom-trawling-fishing |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=Environment |language=en}}</ref>

===Current restrictions===
Today, some countries regulate bottom trawling within their jurisdictions:<ref>[http://www.savethehighseas.org/recentaction.cfm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204193626/http://www.savethehighseas.org/recentaction.cfm|date=February 4, 2012}}</ref>

* The [[U.S. Regional Fishery Management Councils|United States Regional Fishery Management Councils]] limit bottom trawling in specific closed areas to protect specific species or habitat. For instance, on the [[West Coast of the United States|United States West Coast]] a large Rockfish Conservation Area was created in 2002 prohibiting trawling in most areas of the coast between 75 and 150 [[fathom]]s – {{convert|450|to|900|ft|m}} – to protect [[overfished]] [[Sebastes|rockfish]] species.<ref>{{citation |title=Trawl Rockfish Conservation Area (RCA) Boundary Modifications Draft Environmental Assessment September 2013, National Marine Fisheries Service Sustainable Fisheries Division Northwest Region|url=https://www.pcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/G6b_RCA_DRAFT_EA_SEPT2013BB.pdf}}</ref> In 2018, these closures were revised to allow trawling in some previously closed areas while closing new areas of sensitive habitat to bottom trawling.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2019-12-26/west-coast-fishery-rebounds-in-rare-conservation-home-run|title=West Coast fishery rebounds in a rare conservation 'home run'|agency=Associated Press|date=2019-12-26|via=[[Los Angeles Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-27|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
* The [[Council of the European Union]] in 2004 applied "a precautionary approach" and closed the sensitive [[Darwin Mounds]] off [[Scotland]] to bottom trawling.
* In 2005, the [[United Nations]] [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]'s General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) banned bottom trawling below 1000 meters (3,281 ft) and, in January 2006, completely closed ecologically sensitive areas off [[Italy]], [[Cyprus]], and [[Egypt]] to all bottom trawling.
* [[Norway]] first recognized in 1999 that trawling had caused significant damage to its cold-water ''[[lophelia]]'' [[coral]]s. Norway has since established a program to determine the location of cold-water corals within its [[exclusive economic zone]] (EEZ) so as to quickly close those areas to bottom trawling.
* [[Canada]] has acted to protect vulnerable [[coral reef]] [[ecosystem]]s from bottom trawling off [[Nova Scotia]]. The [[Gulf of Maine|Northeast Channel]] was protected by a fisheries closure in 2002, and the [[The Gully (Atlantic)|Gully]] area was protected by its designation as a [[Marine Protected Area]] (MPA) in 2004.
* [[Australia]] in 1999 established the [[Tasmanian Seamounts Marine Reserve]] to prohibit bottom trawling in the south [[Tasman Sea]]. Australia also prohibits bottom trawling in the [[Great Australian Bight Marine Park]] off [[South Australia]] near [[Ceduna, South Australia|Ceduna]]. In 2004, Australia established the world's largest marine protected area in the [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]], where fishing and other extractive activities are prohibited.
* [[New Zealand]] in 2001 closed 19 [[seamount]]s within its EEZ to bottom trawling, including in the [[Chatham Rise]], sub-Antarctic waters, and off the east and west coasts of the [[North Island]]. New Zealand Fisheries Minister [[Jim Anderton]] announced on 14 February 2006 that a draft agreement had been reached with fishing companies to ban bottom trawling in 30 percent of New Zealand's EEZ, an area of about {{convert|1,200,000|km²|sqmi}} reaching from [[subantarctic]] waters to [[subtropical]] ones.<ref name="nzherald1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=1&ObjectID=10368258 |title=NZ to close 30pc of waters to trawling - National - NZ Herald News |publisher=Nzherald.co.nz |date=2006-02-14 |access-date=2013-09-09}}</ref> But only a small fraction of the area proposed for protection will cover areas actually vulnerable to bottom trawling.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3766013a6160,00.html |title=New Zealand, world, sport, business & entertainment news on Stuff.co.nz |access-date=2006-08-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930041505/http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3766013a6160,00.html |archive-date=2007-09-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Palau]] has banned all bottom trawling within its jurisdiction and by any Palauan or Palauan corporation anywhere in the world.<ref>[http://www.savethehighseas.org/display.cfm?ID=104] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060515010559/http://www.savethehighseas.org/display.cfm?ID=104|date=May 15, 2006}}</ref>
* The President of [[Kiribati]], Anote Tong, announced in early 2006 the formation of the world's first deep-sea marine reserve area. This measure – the [[Phoenix Islands Protected Area]] – created the world's third-largest marine protected area and may protect deep sea corals, fish, and seamounts from bottom trawling.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://smh.com.au/news/world/kiribati-creates-worlds-first-deepsea-marine-reserve/2006/03/29/1143441214620.html |title=Kiribati creates world's first deep-sea marine reserve - World |newspaper=smh.com.au |date= 2006-03-30|access-date=2013-09-09}}</ref> However, the actual boundaries of this reserve and what harvest limitations may occur therein have not been detailed. Moreover, Kiribati currently{{when|date=October 2019}} has only one [[patrol boat]] to monitor this proposed region.
*[[Venezuela]] was the first country to ban industrial trawling in its [[territorial waters]] and EEZ in 2009.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mendoza|first=Jeremy|title=Rise and fall of Venezuelan industrial and artisanal marine fisheries : 1950-2010 |journal=Fisheries Centre the University of British Columbia Working Paper Series|s2cid=141051731}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fischer|first=Johanne|date=2010|title=Review of the implementation of the international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks|url=http://www.fao.org/tempref/FI/DOCUMENT/COFI/COFI_30/SBD8e.pdf|journal=FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular|volume=1076}}</ref>
* [[Hong Kong]] passed legislation banning trawling on 18 May 2011 in an effort to restore the territory's devastated fish stocks and marine ecosystem. The ban came into effect on 31 December 2012. The government paid [[Hong Kong dollar|HK$]]1.72 billion to affected trawlers in a buyout scheme. Persons who contravene the ban can be fined or imprisoned under the Fisheries Protection Ordinance (Cap 171).<ref>{{cite web|title=Facts About the Trawling Ban in Hong Kong Waters|url=http://www.wwf.org.hk/en/whatwedo/conservation/marine/sos/abouttrawlban/|publisher=WWF Hong Kong|access-date=27 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=AFCD officers intercept illegal trawler (with photo)|url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201607/26/P2016072600978.htm|publisher=Hong Kong Government|date=26 July 2016}}</ref>

===Lack of regulation===
Beyond national jurisdictions, most bottom trawling is unregulated either because there is no [[Regional Fisheries Management Organisation]] (RFMO) with competence to regulate, or else what RFMOs that do exist have not actually regulated. The major exception to this is in the Antarctic region, where the [[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources]] regime has instituted extensive bottom trawling restrictions.<ref>[http://www.ccamlr.org/pu/E/e_pubs/am/man-ant/p4.htm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090913233502/http://www.ccamlr.org/pu/E/e_pubs/am/man-ant/p4.htm|date=September 13, 2009}}</ref>

The [[North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission]] (NEAFC) also recently closed four seamounts and part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge from all fishing, including bottom trawling, for three years. This still leaves most of international waters completely without bottom trawl regulation.

As of May 2007 the area managed under the [[South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organisation]] (SPRFMO) has gained a new level of protection. All countries fishing in the region (accounting for about 25 percent of the global ocean) agreed to exclude bottom trawling on high seas areas where vulnerable ecosystems are likely or known to occur until a specific impact assessment is undertaken and precautionary measures have been implemented. Observers will also be required on all high seas bottom trawlers to ensure enforcement of the regulations.

===Failed United Nations ban===
[[Palau]] President [[Tommy Remengesau]] has called for a ban on destructive and unregulated bottom trawling beyond national jurisdictions. Palau has led the effort at the [[United Nations]] and in the [[Pacific]] to achieve a [[Consensus decision-making|consensus]] by countries to take this action at an international level.<ref>[http://www.palauun.org/news_archive.cfm?news_id=76] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060626070249/http://www.palauun.org/news_archive.cfm?news_id=76|date=June 26, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iisd.ca/vol25/enb2525e.html |title=Earth Negotiations Bulletin - ENB SUMMARY OF THE WORKING GROUP ON MARINE BIODIVERSITY BEYOND AREAS OF NATIONAL JURISDICTION - MONDAY, 20 FEBRUARY 2006 |publisher=Iisd.ca |access-date=2013-09-09 |archive-date=2012-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722004448/http://www.iisd.ca/vol25/enb2525e.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Palau has been joined by the [[Federated States of Micronesia]], the [[Republic of the Marshall Islands]], and [[Tuvalu]] in supporting an interim bottom trawling ban at the United Nations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/PO0608/S00026.htm |title=Pacific Leaders Back Bottom Trawling Ban | Scoop News |publisher=Scoop.co.nz |access-date=2013-09-09}}</ref> The proposal for this ban did not result in any actual legislation and was blocked.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6181396.stm |title=Science/Nature | Ban on 'brutal' fishing blocked |work=BBC News |date=2006-11-24 |access-date=2013-09-09}}</ref>

In 2006, [[New Zealand]] Fisheries Minister [[Jim Anderton]] promised to support a global ban on bottom trawling if there was sufficient support to make that a practical option. Bottom trawling has been banned in a third of New Zealand's waters (although a large percentage of these areas were not viable for bottom trawling in the first place) <ref name="nzherald1"/>

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Environmental impact of fishing}}
* {{annotated link|Deep Sea Conservation Coalition}} (DSCC)
* {{annotated link|Demersal fish}}
* {{annotated link|Mincarlo (trawler)|''Mincarlo''}}, a historic sidewinder trawler
* {{annotated link|Fishing dredge}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
* National Research Council (US) (2002) [https://books.google.com/books?id=orSv2JlXPykC&dq=%22fisheries+science%22&pg=PA78 ''Effects of Trawling and Dredging on Seafloor Habitats.''] National Academies Press. {{ISBN|0-309-08340-0}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0012730|pmid=20856885|pmc=2938353|title=Human Activities on the Deep Seafloor in the North East Atlantic: An Assessment of Spatial Extent|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=5|issue=9|pages=e12730|year=2010|last1=Benn|first1=Angela R.|last2=Weaver|first2=Philip P.|last3=Billet|first3=David S. M.|last4=Van Den Hove|first4=Sybille|last5=Murdock|first5=Andrew P.|last6=Doneghan|first6=Gemma B.|last7=Le Bas|first7=Tim|bibcode=2010PLoSO...512730B|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.dsr2.2013.05.036|title=Trawling-induced daily sediment resuspension in the flank of a Mediterranean submarine canyon|journal=Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography|volume=104|pages=174–183|year=2014|last1=Martín|first1=Jacobo|last2=Puig|first2=Pere|last3=Palanques|first3=Albert|last4=Ribó|first4=Marta|bibcode=2014DSRII.104..174M|hdl=10261/80451|hdl-access=free}}
* March, E. J. (1953). Sailing Trawlers: The Story of Deep-Sea Fishing with Long Line and Trawl. Percival Marshal and Company. Reprinted by Charles & David, 1970, Newton Abbot, UK. {{ISBN|071534711X}}

==External links==
*[http://overfishing.org/pages/Satellite_images_from_bottom.php Bottom trawling imagery] Annotated satellite images from a number of bottom trawling activities around the world
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060503035750/http://www.savethehighseas.org/trawling.cfm Deep Sea Conservation Coalition] Campaign for a ban on deep sea bottom trawling
*[https://www.fao.org/fishery/geartype/205/en FAO Gear type fact sheets] Gear type fact sheet on various types of bottom trawls
*[https://usa.oceana.org/bottom-trawling Oceana: bottom trawling facts]
*{{cite web
|url=http://earthwatch.unep.net/oceans/oceanfisheries.php
|publisher=[[UNEP: System-Wide EarthWatch]]
|title=Oceans and Coastal Areas
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20061014005916/http%3A//earthwatch%2Eunep%2Enet/oceans/oceanfisheries%2Ephp
|archive-date= 2006-10-14
}} On the role bottom trawling plays in global fisheries
* [http://home.istar.ca/~gadus/ImpactBiblio.pdf Bibliography of the Effects of Fishing Gear on the Seabed and Benthic Communities]
* [http://www.baconsdozen.co.uk/fishing.htm Pictures of beam trawlers from the east coast of the UK]

{{fishing industry topics}}
{{fisheries and fishing}}

[[Category:Marine biology]]
[[Category:Environmental impact of fishing]]

Bottom trawling

2024-03-19T21:27:42Z

92.8.58.251:

{{Short description|Fishing method for fishing trawlers}}
[[File:RV Celtic Explorer, Galway Bay, Ireland.jpg | thumb | The ''[[RV Celtic Explorer|Celtic Explorer]]'', a [[research vessel]] engaged in bottom trawling]]
'''Bottom trawling''' is [[trawling]] (towing a '''trawl''', which is a [[fishing net]]) along the seafloor. It is also referred to as "dragging". The scientific community divides bottom trawling into benthic trawling and [[Demersal zone|demersal]] trawling. Benthic trawling is towing a net at the very bottom of the ocean and demersal trawling is towing a net just above the [[benthic zone]]. Bottom trawling can be contrasted with [[midwater trawling]] (also known as [[Pelagic zone|pelagic]] trawling), where a net is towed higher in the [[water column]]. Midwater trawling catches [[pelagic fish]] such as [[anchovies]] and [[mackerel]], whereas bottom trawling targets both bottom-living fish ([[groundfish]]) and [[semi-pelagic]] species such as [[cod]], [[squid]], [[shrimp]], and [[Sebastes|rockfish]].

Trawling is done by a [[Fishing trawler|trawler]], which can be a small open boat with only {{convert|30|hp|abbr=on}} or a large factory trawler with {{convert|10000|hp|abbr=on}}. Bottom trawling can be carried out by one trawler or by two trawlers fishing cooperatively ([[pair trawling]]).

Global catch from bottom trawling has been estimated at over 30 million tonnes per year, an amount larger than any other fishing method.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Watson|first1=Reg A.|last2=Tidd|first2=A.|date=2018-07-01|title=Mapping nearly a century and a half of global marine fishing: 1869–2015|journal= [[Marine Policy]] |language=en|volume=93|pages=171–177|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2018.04.023|s2cid=158305071 |issn=0308-597X|url=http://osf.io/mcvp5/}}</ref> Concerns about the environmental impacts of bottom trawling have led to changes in gear design, such as the addition of [[turtle excluder device]]s to reduce [[bycatch]], and limitations on locations where bottom trawling is allowed, such as [[marine protected area]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.seafoodwatch.org/ocean-issues/fishing-and-farming-methods|title=Fishing and Farming Methods from the Seafood Watch Program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium|website=www.seafoodwatch.org|language=en|access-date=2018-08-23}}</ref> Moreover, a 2021 paper estimated that bottom trawling contributed between 600 and 1500 million tons of carbon dioxide a year by disturbing carbon dioxide in the sea floor – emissions approximately equivalent to [[Climate change in Germany|those of Germany]], or [[Environmental impact of aviation|the aviation industry]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sala|first1=Enric|last2=Mayorga|first2=Juan|last3=Bradley|first3=Darcy|last4=Cabral|first4=Reniel B.|last5=Atwood|first5=Trisha B.|last6=Auber|first6=Arnaud|last7=Cheung|first7=William|last8=Costello|first8=Christopher|last9=Ferretti|first9=Francesco|last10=Friedlander|first10=Alan M.|last11=Gaines|first11=Steven D.|date=2021-03-17|title=Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03371-z|journal=Nature|volume=592|issue=7854|language=en|pages=397–402|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03371-z|pmid=33731930|bibcode=2021Natur.592..397S|s2cid=232301777 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Einhorn|first=Catrin|date=2021-03-17|title=Trawling for Fish May Unleash as Much Carbon as Air Travel, Study Says|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/17/climate/climate-change-oceans.html|access-date=2021-03-18|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2021-03-17|title=Bottom trawling releases as much carbon as air travel, landmark study finds|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/17/trawling-for-fish-releases-as-much-carbon-as-air-travel-report-finds-climate-crisis|access-date=2021-03-20|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> International attempts to limit bottom trawling have been ineffective.

==History==
[[File:Pino Ladra 29.jpg|thumb|right|[[Viveiro]]|alt=Ship, [[Viveiro]]]]

An early reference to fishery conservation measures comes from a complaint about a form of trawling dating from the 14th century, during the reign of [[Edward III]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=Peter |date=May 2018 |title=The long 'lost' history of bottom trawling in England, c.1350–1650 |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0843871418766765 |journal=International Journal of Maritime History |language=en |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=201–217 |doi=10.1177/0843871418766765 |s2cid=134879666 |issn=0843-8714}}</ref> A petition was presented to [[Good Parliament|Parliament]] in 1376 calling for the prohibition of a "subtlety contrived instrument called the ''wondyrchoum''". This was an early beam trawl with a wooden beam, and consisted of a net 6 m (18 ft) long and 3 m (10 ft) wide,
<blockquote>
of so small a mesh, no manner of fish, however small, entering within it can pass out and is compelled to remain therein and be taken...by means of which instrument the fishermen aforesaid take so great abundance of small fish aforesaid, that they know not what to do with them, but feed and fatten the pigs with them, to the great damage of the whole commons of the kingdom, and the destruction of the fisheries in like places, for which they pray remedy.<ref>March, Page 33</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Collins |first=J.W. |date=1887 |title=The Beam Trawl Fishery of Great Britain with Notes on Beam-Trawling in Other European Countries |url=https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/pdf-content/fish-bull/fb7.60.pdf |access-date=17 March 2017 |publisher=[[Fishery Bulletin|Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission]] |page=292 |quote=100 MegaByte PDF}}</ref>
</blockquote>
Another source describes the wondyrchoum as:
<blockquote>
three fathom long and ten men's feet wide, and that it had a beam ten feet long, at the end of which were two frames formed like a colerake, that a leaded rope weighted with a great many stones was fixed on the lower part of the net between the two frames, and that another rope was fixed with nails on the upper part of the beam, so that the fish entering the space between the beam and the lower net were caught. The net had maskes of the length and breadth of two men's thumbs<ref>Davis, F (1958) ''An Account of the Fishing Gear of England and Wales.'' 4th edition, HMSO.</ref>
</blockquote>
The response from the Crown was to "let Commission be made by qualified persons to inquire and certify on the truth of this allegation, and thereon let right be done in the [[Court of Chancery]]". Thus, already back in the Middle Ages, basic arguments about three of the most sensitive current issues surrounding trawling - the effect of trawling on the wider environment, the use of small mesh size, and of industrial fishing for animal feed - were already being raised.

Until the late 18th century sailing vessels were only capable of towing small trawls. However, in the closing years of that century a type of vessel emerged that was capable of towing a large trawl, in deeper waters. The development of this type of craft, the sailing trawler, is credited to the fishermen of Brixham in Devon. The new method proved to be far more efficient than traditional long-lining. At first its use was confined to the western half of the English Channel, but as the Brixham men extended their range to the North Sea and Irish Sea it became the norm there too.

By the end of the 19th century there were more than 3,000 sailing trawlers in commission in UK waters and the practice had spread to neighbouring European countries. Despite the availability of steam, trawling under sail continued to be economically efficient, and sailing trawlers continued to be built until the middle of the 1920s. Some were still operating in UK waters until the outbreak of [[World War II]], and in Scandinavia and the Faroe Islands until the 1950s.

English commissions in the 19th century determined that there should be no limitation on trawling. They believed that bottom trawling, like tilling of land, actually increased production. As evidence, they noted that a second trawler would often follow a first trawler, and that the second trawler would often harvest even more fish than the first. The reason for this peculiarity is that the destruction caused by the first trawl resulted in many dead and dying organisms, which temporarily attracted a large number of additional species to feed on this moribund mass.

Bottom trawling does not only have a long tradition in European waters. It was also recognized in 1704 during the Edo era in Japan as a common fishing method. A slightly different approach was developed where the "Utase Ami" or "trawled bottom net" was deployed from a sideways sailing boat.<ref>Nakamoura E, Ourakami T (1900) Histoire de l’industrie de la pêche maritime etfluviale ouJapon. (Translated from the Japanese into French). Bureau des produits maritimes etfleuviauxdu ministère d’agriculture et commerce, Tokyo</ref>

Bottom trawling has been widely implicated in the population collapse of a variety of fish species, locally and worldwide, including [[orange roughy]], [[barndoor skate]], [[shark]], and many others.<ref>Roberts, Callum (2007). ''The Unnatural History of the Sea'', Island Press, p. 238</ref>

==Fishing gear==
{{externalimage
|float=right
|width=160px
|image1=[https://www.afma.gov.au/methods-and-gear/trawling]
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The design requirements of a bottom trawl are relatively simple, a mechanism for keeping the mouth of the net open in horizontal and vertical dimensions, a "body" of net which guides fish inwards, and a "cod-end" of a suitable mesh size, where the fish are collected. The size and design of net used is determined by the species being targeted, the engine power and design of the fishing vessel and locally enforced regulations.

===Beam trawling===
<gallery>
File:FMIB 36649 Beam Trawl.jpeg|A beam trawl
File:FMIB 34023 Grampus.jpeg|A detail
</gallery>
The simplest method of bottom trawling, the mouth of the net is held open by a solid metal beam, attached to two "shoes", which are solid metal plates, welded to the ends of the beam, which slide over and disturb the seabed. This method is mainly used on smaller vessels, fishing for [[flatfish]] or [[prawn]]s, relatively close inshore.

===Otter trawling===
[[File:FMIB 36645 Otter trawl.jpeg|thumb|right|Otter trawl]]
Otter trawling derives its name from the large rectangular '''otter boards''' which are used to keep the mouth of the trawl net open. Otter boards are made of timber or steel and are positioned in such a way that the hydrodynamic forces, acting on them when the net is towed along the seabed, push them outwards and prevent the mouth of the net from closing. They also act like a [[plough]], digging up to {{convert|15|cm|in|0}} into the seabed, creating a [[turbid]] cloud, and scaring fish towards the net mouth.

The net is held open vertically on an otter trawl by [[Float (nautical)|float]]s and/or kites attached to the "headline" (the rope which runs along the upper mouth of the net), and weighted "bobbins" attached to the "foot rope" (the rope which runs along the lower mouth of the net). These bobbins vary in their design depending on the [[surface roughness|roughness]] of the sea bed which is being fished, varying from small rubber discs for very smooth, sandy ground, to large metal balls, up to {{convert|0.5|m|ft|1}} in diameter, for very rough ground. These bobbins can also be designed to lift the net off the seabed when they hit an obstacle. These are known as "rock-hopper" gear.

===Body of the trawl===

[[File:Pelagisches Schleppnetz.jpg|thumb|left|Pelagic (midwater) otter trawl. 1: trawl warp, 2: otter boards, 3: longline chains, 4 hunter, 5: weights 6: headline with floats, 7: pre-net, 8: tunnel and belly, 9: codend]]
The body of the trawl is funnel-like, wide at its "mouth" and narrowing towards the cod end, and usually is fitted with wings of netting on both sides of the mouth. It is long enough to assure adequate flow of water and prevent fish from escaping the net, after having been caught. It is made of diamond-meshed netting, the size of the meshes decreasing from the front of the net towards the codend. Into the body, fish and turtle escape devices can be fitted. These can be simple structures like "square mesh panels", which are easier for smaller fish to pass through, or more complicated devices, such as [[bycatch]] grills.

===Cod end===
The cod end is the trailing end of the net where fish are finally "caught". The size of mesh in the cod end is a determinant of the size of fish which the net catches. Consequently, regulation of mesh size is a common way of managing [[death|mortality]] of [[juvenile (animal)|juvenile]] fishes in trawl nets.

==Environmental damage==
{{see also|Environmental impact of fishing|environmental damage|Marine conservation}}
[[File:Lake Michigan Bottom Trawl Debris.webm|thumb|loop|Short clip of a bottom trawl of a lake and the large amounts of debris produced]]
Trawling gear produces acute impacts on biota and the physical substratum of the seafloor by disrupting the sediment column structure, overturning boulders, re-suspending sediments and imprinting deep scars on muddy bottoms.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Urbina|first=Ian|date=July 28, 2015|title=A Renegade Trawler, Hunted for 10,000 Miles by Vigilantes.|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/28/world/a-renegade-trawler-hunted-for-10000-miles-by-vigilantes.html|access-date=November 20, 2020}}</ref> Also, the repetitive passage of trawling gear over the same areas creates long-lasting, cumulative impacts that modify the cohesiveness and texture of sediments. It can be asserted nowadays that due to its recurrence, mobility and wide geographical extent, industrial trawling has become a major force driving seafloor change and affecting not only its physical integrity on short spatial scales but also imprinting measurable modifications to the geomorphology of entire continental margins.<ref name="researchgate.net">Oberle et al. (2018), [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319112762_Submarine_Geomorphology_Bottom_Trawling_and_other_Fishing_Activities “Submarine Geomorphology: Bottom Trawling and other Fishing Activities”], Book: Submarine Geomorphology Chapter 25, Springer, doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-57852</ref>

Bottom fishing has operated for over a century on heavily fished grounds such as the [[North Sea]] and [[Grand Banks]]. While [[overfishing]] has long been recognised as causing major ecological changes to the fish community on the Grand Banks, concern has been raised more recently about the damage which benthic trawling inflicts upon seabed communities.<ref>
{{cite web
|title=Beam trawling on the North Sea
|publisher=Greenpeace
|url=http://archive.greenpeace.org/comms/cbio/beam.html
|access-date=2009-01-12
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210112607/http://archive.greenpeace.org/comms/cbio/beam.html
|archive-date=2008-12-10
}}
</ref> A species of particular concern is the slow growing, deep water [[coral]] ''[[Lophelia pertusa]]''. This species is home to a diverse community of deep sea organisms, but is easily damaged by fishing gear. On 17 November 2004, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] urged nations to consider temporary bans on high seas bottom trawling.<ref>{{UN document |docid=A-59-PV.56 |body=General Assembly |type=Verbatim Report |session=59 |meeting=56 |page=4 |anchor=pg004-bk02 |date=17 November 2004 |speakername=Ms. Kimball | speakernation=International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources |access-date=2009-05-09 }}</ref> A global analysis of the impacts of bottom trawling found that the impact on seabed [[Biota (biology)|biota]] was strongly dependent on the type of gear used, with otter trawls estimated as having the smallest impact and removing 6% of biota per pass while hydraulic dredges had the largest impact and removed 41% of biota per pass.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hiddink|first1=Jan Geert|last2=Jennings|first2=Simon|last3=Sciberras|first3=Marija|last4=Szostek|first4=Claire L.|last5=Hughes|first5=Kathryn M.|last6=Ellis|first6=Nick|last7=Rijnsdorp|first7=Adriaan D.|last8=McConnaughey|first8=Robert A.|last9=Mazor|first9=Tessa|date=2017-07-14|title=Global analysis of depletion and recovery of seabed biota after bottom trawling disturbance|journal= [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=114|issue=31|language=en|pages=8301–8306|doi=10.1073/pnas.1618858114|issn=0027-8424|pmid=28716926|pmc=5547586|bibcode=2017PNAS..114.8301H |doi-access=free}}</ref> Other research found trawled canyon sediments contained 52 percent less organic matter than the undisturbed seafloor. There were 80 percent fewer sea worms in the trawled region and only half as much diversity of species in the trawled seafloor.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/5/140519-bottom-trawling-seafloor-oceans-damage-science/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920075127/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/5/140519-bottom-trawling-seafloor-oceans-damage-science/ | url-status=dead | archive-date=September 20, 2020 |title = In Brief: Deep-sea Trawling Has "Devastating" Impact, Study Finds| website=[[National Geographic Society]] |date = 2014-05-19}}</ref>

[[Image:Louisiana trawling landsat cropped.jpg|right|thumb|Satellite image of trawler mud trails off the Louisiana coast]]

===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===
Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1038/srep43332|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes|year = 2017|last1 = Paradis|first1 = Sarah|last2 = Puig|first2 = Pere|last3 = Masqué|first3 = Pere|last4 = Juan-Díaz|first4 = Xènia|last5 = Martín|first5 = Jacobo|last6 = Palanques|first6 = Albert|journal = Scientific Reports|volume = 7|page = 43332|pmid = 28233856|pmc = 5324136|bibcode = 2017NatSR...743332P}}</ref> Bottom trawling-induced resuspended sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated to approximately 22 [[gigatonne]]s per year, approximately the same as the sediment mass supplied to the continental shelves through the world's rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberle|first1=Ferdinand K.J.|last2=Storlazzi|first2=Curt D.|last3=Hanebuth|first3=Till J.J.|date=2016|title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment|journal=Journal of Marine Systems|language=en|volume=159|pages=109–119|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007|bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}

Bottom trawling can both resuspend and bury biologically recyclable organic material, changing the flow of nutrients and carbon through the food web and thereby alter geomorphological landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for many [[persistent organic pollutants]], usually [[lipophilic]] pollutants like [[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane|DDT]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]] and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon|PAH]].{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} Bottom trawling mixes these pollutants into the [[plankton|plankton ecology]] where they can move back up the [[food chain]] and into our food supply.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019|pmid=22842052|title=Bottom trawling resuspends sediment and releases bioavailable contaminants in a polluted fjord|journal=Environmental Pollution|volume=170|pages=232–241|year=2012|last1=Bradshaw|first1=C.|last2=Tjensvoll|first2=I.|last3=Sköld|first3=M.|last4=Allan|first4=I.J.|last5=Molvaer|first5=J.|last6=Magnusson|first6=J.|last7=Naes|first7=K.|last8=Nilsson|first8=H.C.|bibcode=2012EPoll.170..232B }}</ref>

[[Phosphorus]] is often found in high concentration in soft shallow sediments.<ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08153-6|chapter=The Global Phosphorus Cycle|title=Treatise on Geochemistry|pages=585–643|year=2003|last1=Ruttenberg|first1=K.C.|isbn=9780080437514}}</ref> Resuspending nutrient solids like these can introduce oxygen demand into the water column, and result in oxygen deficient [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zone]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=US Department of Commerce |first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |title=What is a dead zone? |url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html#:~:text=%22Dead%20zone%22%20is%20a%20more%20common%20term%20for,as%20a%20result%20are%20often%20called%20%22dead%20zones.%22 |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov |access-date=16 October 2020 |language=EN-US}}</ref>
Even in areas where the bottom sediments are ancient, bottom trawling, by reintroducing the sediment into the water column, can create [[algae bloom|harmful algae blooms]].<ref>Giannakourou, A., Orlova, T.Y., Assimakopoulou, G., Pagou, K. (2005) ''Dinoflagellate cysts in recent marine sediments from Thermaikos Gulf, Greece.'' Continental Shelf Research 25, 2585-2596.
</ref><ref>Weaver, Dallas E (2007) [http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html ''Remote Impacts of Bottom Trawling''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410185854/http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html |date=2009-04-10 }}.</ref> More suspended solids are introduced into the oceans from bottom trawling than any other man-made source.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Palanques |first1=A. |last2=Guillén |first2=J. |last3=Puig |first3=P. |title=Impact of bottom trawling on water turbidity and muddy sediment of an unfished continental shelf |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |date=July 2001 |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=1100–1110 |doi=10.4319/lo.2001.46.5.1100 |bibcode=2001LimOc..46.1100P |doi-access=free |hdl=10261/244111 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Multiple large-scale reviews on bottom trawling have noted that there is a great need for further studies that properly examine the effects of nutrient and toxin remobilization as well as [[Carbon cycle|carbon cycling]],<ref>NRC (2002) (National Research Council) Effects of trawling and dredging on seafloor habitat. National Academies Press, Washington, DC</ref><ref>ICES (2006) International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES): report of the WorkingGroup on Ecosystem Effects of Fishing Activities. ACE 05:1 179</ref> in order to better estimate [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and hence the impact on [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2019-02-01|title=Quantifying and valuing carbon flows and stores in coastal and shelf ecosystems in the UK|journal=Ecosystem Services|language=en|volume=35|pages=67–76|doi=10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.10.013|issn=2212-0416|doi-access=free|last1=Luisetti|first1=Tiziana|last2=Turner|first2=R. Kerry|last3=Andrews|first3=Julian E.|last4=Jickells|first4=Timothy D.|last5=Kröger|first5=Silke|last6=Diesing|first6=Markus|last7=Paltriguera|first7=Lucille|last8=Johnson|first8=Martin T.|last9=Parker|first9=Eleanor R.|last10=Bakker|first10=Dorothee C.E.|last11=Weston|first11=Keith}}</ref>

===Deep sea damage===
[[File:Results of trawling.png|thumb|right|(A) The coral community and seabed on an untrawled seamount. (B) The exposed bedrock of a trawled seamount. Both are {{ Convert | 1,000–2,000 | m }} below the surface.]]

The [[Secretary General of the United Nations]] reported in 2006 that 95 percent of damage to [[seamount]] ecosystems worldwide is caused by [[deep sea]] bottom trawling.<ref>Report of the Secretary-General (2006) [https://www.un.org/Depts/los/general_assembly/documents/impact_of_fishing.pdf ''The Impacts of Fishing on Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems'']. [[United Nations]]. Retrieved on 10 August 2008</ref><ref>Reed JK, Koenig CC, Shepard AN, and Gilmore Jr RG (2007) {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20100104131308/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7004 ''Long Term Monitoring of a Deep-water Coral Reef: Effects of Bottom Trawling'']}} Twenty-sixth annual Scientific Diving Symposium. Retrieved on 10 August 2008</ref> A study published in ''[[Current Biology]]'' suggests a cutoff of {{convert|600|m|ft}} is a point which ecological damage increases significantly.<ref>{{Cite news|title = Drawing the line|url = https://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21663195-when-regulating-fishing-it-always-helps-have-data-drawing-line|newspaper = The Economist|access-date = 2015-09-18|issn = 0013-0613}}</ref>

=== Carbon release ===
An estimated 370 million tonnes a year of carbon dioxide stored in seafloor sediment is released by bottom-trawling fishing.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McVeigh |first=Karen |date=2024-01-18 |title=Carbon released by bottom trawling 'too big to ignore', says study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/jan/18/carbon-released-by-bottom-trawling-too-big-to-ignore-says-study |access-date=2024-03-13 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Most carbon released into the sea enters the atmosphere within a decade.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Atwood |first1=Trisha B. |last2=Romanou |first2=Anastasia |last3=DeVries |first3=Tim |last4=Lerner |first4=Paul E. |last5=Mayorga |first5=Juan S. |last6=Bradley |first6=Darcy |last7=Cabral |first7=Reniel B. |last8=Schmidt |first8=Gavin A. |last9=Sala |first9=Enric |date=2024 |title=Atmospheric CO2 emissions and ocean acidification from bottom-trawling |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |volume=10 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2023.1125137 |doi-access=free |issn=2296-7745}}</ref> Banning bottom trawling in marine protected areas has been suggested.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-13 |title=Bottom trawling is huge source of carbon emissions, new study reveals |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/climate-change-bottom-trawling-fishing |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=Environment |language=en}}</ref>

===Current restrictions===
Today, some countries regulate bottom trawling within their jurisdictions:<ref>[http://www.savethehighseas.org/recentaction.cfm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204193626/http://www.savethehighseas.org/recentaction.cfm|date=February 4, 2012}}</ref>

* The [[U.S. Regional Fishery Management Councils|United States Regional Fishery Management Councils]] limit bottom trawling in specific closed areas to protect specific species or habitat. For instance, on the [[West Coast of the United States|United States West Coast]] a large Rockfish Conservation Area was created in 2002 prohibiting trawling in most areas of the coast between 75 and 150 [[fathom]]s – {{convert|450|to|900|ft|m}} – to protect [[overfished]] [[Sebastes|rockfish]] species.<ref>{{citation |title=Trawl Rockfish Conservation Area (RCA) Boundary Modifications Draft Environmental Assessment September 2013, National Marine Fisheries Service Sustainable Fisheries Division Northwest Region|url=https://www.pcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/G6b_RCA_DRAFT_EA_SEPT2013BB.pdf}}</ref> In 2018, these closures were revised to allow trawling in some previously closed areas while closing new areas of sensitive habitat to bottom trawling.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2019-12-26/west-coast-fishery-rebounds-in-rare-conservation-home-run|title=West Coast fishery rebounds in a rare conservation 'home run'|agency=Associated Press|date=2019-12-26|via=[[Los Angeles Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-27|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
* The [[Council of the European Union]] in 2004 applied "a precautionary approach" and closed the sensitive [[Darwin Mounds]] off [[Scotland]] to bottom trawling.
* In 2005, the [[United Nations]] [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]'s General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) banned bottom trawling below 1000 meters (3,281 ft) and, in January 2006, completely closed ecologically sensitive areas off [[Italy]], [[Cyprus]], and [[Egypt]] to all bottom trawling.
* [[Norway]] first recognized in 1999 that trawling had caused significant damage to its cold-water ''[[lophelia]]'' [[coral]]s. Norway has since established a program to determine the location of cold-water corals within its [[exclusive economic zone]] (EEZ) so as to quickly close those areas to bottom trawling.
* [[Canada]] has acted to protect vulnerable [[coral reef]] [[ecosystem]]s from bottom trawling off [[Nova Scotia]]. The [[Gulf of Maine|Northeast Channel]] was protected by a fisheries closure in 2002, and the [[The Gully (Atlantic)|Gully]] area was protected by its designation as a [[Marine Protected Area]] (MPA) in 2004.
* [[Australia]] in 1999 established the [[Tasmanian Seamounts Marine Reserve]] to prohibit bottom trawling in the south [[Tasman Sea]]. Australia also prohibits bottom trawling in the [[Great Australian Bight Marine Park]] off [[South Australia]] near [[Ceduna, South Australia|Ceduna]]. In 2004, Australia established the world's largest marine protected area in the [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]], where fishing and other extractive activities are prohibited.
* [[New Zealand]] in 2001 closed 19 [[seamount]]s within its EEZ to bottom trawling, including in the [[Chatham Rise]], sub-Antarctic waters, and off the east and west coasts of the [[North Island]]. New Zealand Fisheries Minister [[Jim Anderton]] announced on 14 February 2006 that a draft agreement had been reached with fishing companies to ban bottom trawling in 30 percent of New Zealand's EEZ, an area of about {{convert|1,200,000|km²|sqmi}} reaching from [[subantarctic]] waters to [[subtropical]] ones.<ref name="nzherald1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=1&ObjectID=10368258 |title=NZ to close 30pc of waters to trawling - National - NZ Herald News |publisher=Nzherald.co.nz |date=2006-02-14 |access-date=2013-09-09}}</ref> But only a small fraction of the area proposed for protection will cover areas actually vulnerable to bottom trawling.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3766013a6160,00.html |title=New Zealand, world, sport, business & entertainment news on Stuff.co.nz |access-date=2006-08-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930041505/http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3766013a6160,00.html |archive-date=2007-09-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Palau]] has banned all bottom trawling within its jurisdiction and by any Palauan or Palauan corporation anywhere in the world.<ref>[http://www.savethehighseas.org/display.cfm?ID=104] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060515010559/http://www.savethehighseas.org/display.cfm?ID=104|date=May 15, 2006}}</ref>
* The President of [[Kiribati]], Anote Tong, announced in early 2006 the formation of the world's first deep-sea marine reserve area. This measure – the [[Phoenix Islands Protected Area]] – created the world's third-largest marine protected area and may protect deep sea corals, fish, and seamounts from bottom trawling.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://smh.com.au/news/world/kiribati-creates-worlds-first-deepsea-marine-reserve/2006/03/29/1143441214620.html |title=Kiribati creates world's first deep-sea marine reserve - World |newspaper=smh.com.au |date= 2006-03-30|access-date=2013-09-09}}</ref> However, the actual boundaries of this reserve and what harvest limitations may occur therein have not been detailed. Moreover, Kiribati currently{{when|date=October 2019}} has only one [[patrol boat]] to monitor this proposed region.
*[[Venezuela]] was the first country to ban industrial trawling in its [[territorial waters]] and EEZ in 2009.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mendoza|first=Jeremy|title=Rise and fall of Venezuelan industrial and artisanal marine fisheries : 1950-2010 |journal=Fisheries Centre the University of British Columbia Working Paper Series|s2cid=141051731}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fischer|first=Johanne|date=2010|title=Review of the implementation of the international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks|url=http://www.fao.org/tempref/FI/DOCUMENT/COFI/COFI_30/SBD8e.pdf|journal=FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular|volume=1076}}</ref>
* [[Hong Kong]] passed legislation banning trawling on 18 May 2011 in an effort to restore the territory's devastated fish stocks and marine ecosystem. The ban came into effect on 31 December 2012. The government paid [[Hong Kong dollar|HK$]]1.72 billion to affected trawlers in a buyout scheme. Persons who contravene the ban can be fined or imprisoned under the Fisheries Protection Ordinance (Cap 171).<ref>{{cite web|title=Facts About the Trawling Ban in Hong Kong Waters|url=http://www.wwf.org.hk/en/whatwedo/conservation/marine/sos/abouttrawlban/|publisher=WWF Hong Kong|access-date=27 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=AFCD officers intercept illegal trawler (with photo)|url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201607/26/P2016072600978.htm|publisher=Hong Kong Government|date=26 July 2016}}</ref>

===Lack of regulation===
Beyond national jurisdictions, most bottom trawling is unregulated either because there is no [[Regional Fisheries Management Organisation]] (RFMO) with competence to regulate, or else what RFMOs that do exist have not actually regulated. The major exception to this is in the Antarctic region, where the [[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources]] regime has instituted extensive bottom trawling restrictions.<ref>[http://www.ccamlr.org/pu/E/e_pubs/am/man-ant/p4.htm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090913233502/http://www.ccamlr.org/pu/E/e_pubs/am/man-ant/p4.htm|date=September 13, 2009}}</ref>

The [[North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission]] (NEAFC) also recently closed four seamounts and part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge from all fishing, including bottom trawling, for three years. This still leaves most of international waters completely without bottom trawl regulation.

As of May 2007 the area managed under the [[South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organisation]] (SPRFMO) has gained a new level of protection. All countries fishing in the region (accounting for about 25 percent of the global ocean) agreed to exclude bottom trawling on high seas areas where vulnerable ecosystems are likely or known to occur until a specific impact assessment is undertaken and precautionary measures have been implemented. Observers will also be required on all high seas bottom trawlers to ensure enforcement of the regulations.

===Failed United Nations ban===
[[Palau]] President [[Tommy Remengesau]] has called for a ban on destructive and unregulated bottom trawling beyond national jurisdictions. Palau has led the effort at the [[United Nations]] and in the [[Pacific]] to achieve a [[Consensus decision-making|consensus]] by countries to take this action at an international level.<ref>[http://www.palauun.org/news_archive.cfm?news_id=76] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060626070249/http://www.palauun.org/news_archive.cfm?news_id=76|date=June 26, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iisd.ca/vol25/enb2525e.html |title=Earth Negotiations Bulletin - ENB SUMMARY OF THE WORKING GROUP ON MARINE BIODIVERSITY BEYOND AREAS OF NATIONAL JURISDICTION - MONDAY, 20 FEBRUARY 2006 |publisher=Iisd.ca |access-date=2013-09-09 |archive-date=2012-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722004448/http://www.iisd.ca/vol25/enb2525e.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Palau has been joined by the [[Federated States of Micronesia]], the [[Republic of the Marshall Islands]], and [[Tuvalu]] in supporting an interim bottom trawling ban at the United Nations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/PO0608/S00026.htm |title=Pacific Leaders Back Bottom Trawling Ban | Scoop News |publisher=Scoop.co.nz |access-date=2013-09-09}}</ref> The proposal for this ban did not result in any actual legislation and was blocked.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6181396.stm |title=Science/Nature | Ban on 'brutal' fishing blocked |work=BBC News |date=2006-11-24 |access-date=2013-09-09}}</ref>

In 2006, [[New Zealand]] Fisheries Minister [[Jim Anderton]] promised to support a global ban on bottom trawling if there was sufficient support to make that a practical option. Bottom trawling has been banned in a third of New Zealand's waters (although a large percentage of these areas were not viable for bottom trawling in the first place) <ref name="nzherald1"/>

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Environmental impact of fishing}}
* {{annotated link|Deep Sea Conservation Coalition}} (DSCC)
* {{annotated link|Demersal fish}}
* {{annotated link|Mincarlo (trawler)|''Mincarlo''}}, a historic sidewinder trawler
* {{annotated link|Fishing dredge}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
* National Research Council (US) (2002) [https://books.google.com/books?id=orSv2JlXPykC&dq=%22fisheries+science%22&pg=PA78 ''Effects of Trawling and Dredging on Seafloor Habitats.''] National Academies Press. {{ISBN|0-309-08340-0}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0012730|pmid=20856885|pmc=2938353|title=Human Activities on the Deep Seafloor in the North East Atlantic: An Assessment of Spatial Extent|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=5|issue=9|pages=e12730|year=2010|last1=Benn|first1=Angela R.|last2=Weaver|first2=Philip P.|last3=Billet|first3=David S. M.|last4=Van Den Hove|first4=Sybille|last5=Murdock|first5=Andrew P.|last6=Doneghan|first6=Gemma B.|last7=Le Bas|first7=Tim|bibcode=2010PLoSO...512730B|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.dsr2.2013.05.036|title=Trawling-induced daily sediment resuspension in the flank of a Mediterranean submarine canyon|journal=Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography|volume=104|pages=174–183|year=2014|last1=Martín|first1=Jacobo|last2=Puig|first2=Pere|last3=Palanques|first3=Albert|last4=Ribó|first4=Marta|bibcode=2014DSRII.104..174M|hdl=10261/80451|hdl-access=free}}
* March, E. J. (1953). Sailing Trawlers: The Story of Deep-Sea Fishing with Long Line and Trawl. Percival Marshal and Company. Reprinted by Charles & David, 1970, Newton Abbot, UK. {{ISBN|071534711X}}

==External links==
*[http://overfishing.org/pages/Satellite_images_from_bottom.php Bottom trawling imagery] Annotated satellite images from a number of bottom trawling activities around the world
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060503035750/http://www.savethehighseas.org/trawling.cfm Deep Sea Conservation Coalition] Campaign for a ban on deep sea bottom trawling
*[https://www.fao.org/fishery/geartype/205/en FAO Gear type fact sheets] Gear type fact sheet on various types of bottom trawls
*[https://usa.oceana.org/bottom-trawling Oceana: bottom trawling facts]
*{{cite web
|url=http://earthwatch.unep.net/oceans/oceanfisheries.php
|publisher=[[UNEP: System-Wide EarthWatch]]
|title=Oceans and Coastal Areas
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20061014005916/http%3A//earthwatch%2Eunep%2Enet/oceans/oceanfisheries%2Ephp
|archive-date= 2006-10-14
}} On the role bottom trawling plays in global fisheries
* [http://home.istar.ca/~gadus/ImpactBiblio.pdf Bibliography of the Effects of Fishing Gear on the Seabed and Benthic Communities]
* [http://www.baconsdozen.co.uk/fishing.htm Pictures of beam trawlers from the east coast of the UK]

{{fishing industry topics}}
{{fisheries and fishing}}

[[Category:Marine biology]]
[[Category:Environmental impact of fishing]]

Battle of Trafalgar

2024-03-19T08:32:24Z

92.8.58.251:

{{Short description|1805 British naval victory in the Napoleonic Wars}}
{{For|the painting|The Battle of Trafalgar (painting)}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2014}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Trafalgar
| partof = the [[Trafalgar campaign]] of the [[War of the Third Coalition]]
| image = The Battle of Trafalgar by William Clarkson Stanfield.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = ''The Battle of Trafalgar, 21 October 1805'' by [[Clarkson Frederick Stanfield]]
| date = 21 October 1805
| place = Off [[Cape Trafalgar]], [[Atlantic Ocean]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|36.25|N|6.20|W|display=inline,title}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://threedecks.org/index.php?display_type=show_battle&id=157 |title=Battle of Trafalgar, 21st October 1805 |editor-last=Harrison |editor-first=Cy |date=26 April 2020 |website=Three Decks |publisher=Three Decks, Cy Harrison |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=3 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603043559/https://threedecks.org/index.php?display_type=show_battle&id=157 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| map_type = Europe
| map_relief = 1
| map_size = 300
| result = British victory
| territory =
| combatant1 = {{plainlist|
* {{flagicon|First French Empire}} [[First French Empire|France]]
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[History of Spain (1700–1808)|Spain]]
}}
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
| commander1 = {{plainlist|
* {{flagicon|First French Empire}} [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve|Pierre Villeneuve]]{{POW}}{{Surrendered}}
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Federico Gravina]]{{DOW}}
}}
| commander2 = {{plainlist|
* {{flagdeco|UKGBI|naval}} [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Horatio Nelson]]{{KIA}}
* {{flagdeco|UKGBI|naval}} [[Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood|Cuthbert Collingwood]]
}}
| strength1 = 33 ships of the line 5 frigates 2 brigs 2,632 guns 30,000 men{{sfn|Goodwin|2002|p=257}}
| strength2 = 27 ships of the line 4 frigates 1 schooner 1 cutter 2,148 guns 17,000 men{{sfn|Goodwin|2002|p=257}}
| casualties1 = 4,395 killed 2,541 wounded 7,000–8,000 captured 21 ships of the line captured 1 ship of the line destroyed.{{sfnp|Adkins|2004|p=190}}
| casualties2 = 458 killed 1,208 wounded.{{sfnp|Adkin|2005|p=524}}
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Trafalgar}} {{Campaignbox French Revolutionary Wars: Anglo-Spanish War (1796)}} {{Campaignbox Third Coalition}}
}}
The '''Battle of Trafalgar''' was a [[naval battle|naval engagement]] that took place on 21 October 1805 between the [[Royal Navy|British Royal Navy]] and the combined fleets of the [[French Navy|French]] and [[Spanish Navy|Spanish Navies]] during the [[War of the Third Coalition]] (August–December 1805) of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] (1803–1815).<ref>{{cite web |title=Napoleonic Wars |url=http://www.westpoint.edu/history/SitePages/Napoleonic%20Wars.aspx |website=Westpoint.edu |publisher=U.S. Army |access-date=1 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728203458/http://www.westpoint.edu/history/SitePages/Napoleonic%20Wars.aspx |archive-date=28 July 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

As part of [[Napoleon]]'s plans to invade [[the United Kingdom]], the French and Spanish fleets combined to take control of the [[English Channel]] and provide the [[Grande Armée]] safe passage. The allied fleet, under the command of the French admiral, [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]], sailed from the port of [[Cádiz]] in the south of Spain on 18 October 1805. They encountered the British fleet under [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Lord Nelson]], recently assembled to meet this threat, in the Atlantic Ocean along the southwest coast of Spain, off [[Cape Trafalgar]].

Nelson was outnumbered, with 27 British [[Ship of the line|ships of the line]] to 33 allied ships including the largest warship in either fleet, the Spanish ''[[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora de la Santísima Trinidad|Santísima Trinidad]]''. To address this imbalance, Nelson sailed his fleet directly at the allied battle line's flank, hoping to break the line into pieces. Villeneuve had worried that Nelson might attempt this tactic but, for various reasons, had made no plans for this eventuality. The plan worked almost perfectly; Nelson's columns split the Franco-Spanish fleet in three, isolating the rear half from Villeneuve's flag aboard ''[[French ship Bucentaure (1803)|Bucentaure]]''. The allied vanguard sailed off while it attempted to turn around, giving the British temporary superiority over the remainder of their fleet. In the ensuing fierce battle 20 allied ships were lost, while the British lost none.

The tactic exposed the leading ships in the British lines to intense fire from multiple ships as they approached the Franco-Spanish lines. Nelson's own {{HMS|Victory}} led the front column and was almost knocked out of action. Nelson was shot by a French musketeer during the battle, and died shortly before it ended. Villeneuve was captured along with his flagship ''Bucentaure''. He attended Nelson's funeral while a captive on parole in Britain. The senior Spanish fleet officer, Admiral [[Federico Carlos Gravina y Nápoli|Federico Gravina]], escaped with the remnant of the Franco-Spanish fleet (a third of the original number of ships); he died five months later of wounds sustained during the battle.

The victory confirmed the naval supremacy Britain had established during the course of the eighteenth century, and was achieved in part through Nelson's departure from [[naval tactics in the Age of Sail|prevailing naval tactical orthodoxy]].<ref>Bennet, Geoffrey (2004). ''The Battle of Trafalgar''. England: Pen & Sword Books Limited, CPI UK, South Yorkshire.</ref>

==Background==
{{Main|Trafalgar Campaign}}In 1805, the [[First French Empire]], under [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]], was the dominant military land power on the European continent, while the British Royal Navy controlled the seas.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kongstam |first=Angus |year=2003 |chapter=The New Alexander |page=46 |title=Historical Atlas of the Napoleonic Era |publisher=Mercury Books |location=London |isbn=1904668046}}</ref> During the course of the war, the British imposed a naval [[blockade]] on France, which affected trade and kept the French from fully mobilising their naval resources.{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|pp=22–24}} Despite several successful evasions of the blockade by the French navy, it failed to inflict a major defeat upon the British, who were able to attack French interests at home and abroad with relative ease.{{sfnp|Willis|2013|p=247}}

When the [[Third Coalition]] declared war on France, after the short-lived [[Peace of Amiens]], Napoleon renewed his determination to invade Britain. To do so, he needed to ensure that the Royal Navy would be unable to disrupt the invasion [[flotilla]], which would require control of the [[English Channel]].{{sfnp|Adkins|Adkins|2006|p=134}}

The main French [[Naval fleet|fleets]] were at [[Brest, France|Brest]] in Brittany and at [[Toulon]] on the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coast. Other ports on the French Atlantic coast harboured smaller [[Squadron (naval)|squadrons]]. France and Spain were allied, so the Spanish fleet based in [[Cádiz]] and [[Ferrol, Galicia|Ferrol]] was also available.{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|p=107}}

The British possessed an experienced and well-trained corps of naval officers.{{efn|When offered his pick from the [[Navy List]] by [[Charles Middleton, 1st Baron Barham|Lord Barham]] (the [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]), Nelson replied "Choose yourself, my lord, the same spirit actuates the whole profession; you cannot choose wrong" {{harv|Allen|1853|p=210}}.}} By contrast, some of the best officers in the French navy had either been executed or had left the service during the early part of the [[French Revolution]].{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|p=104}}

Vice-Admiral [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]] had taken command of the French Mediterranean fleet following the death of [[Latouche-Treville|Latouche Treville]]. There had been more competent officers, but they had either been employed elsewhere or had fallen from Napoleon's favour.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=97}} Villeneuve had shown a distinct lack of enthusiasm for facing Nelson and the Royal Navy after the French defeat at the [[Battle of the Nile]] in 1798.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=121}}

Napoleon's naval plan in 1805 was for the French and Spanish fleets in the Mediterranean and Cádiz to break through the blockade and join forces in the [[Caribbean]]. They would then return, assist the fleet in Brest to emerge from the blockade, and together clear the English Channel of Royal Navy ships, ensuring a safe passage for the invasion barges.{{sfnp|Lavery|2009|p=171}}<gallery mode="packed" heights="180" caption="The Admirals of the Campaign">
File:HoratioNelson1.jpg|Vice Admiral [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Horatio, Lord Nelson]], by [[Lemuel Francis Abbott]]
File:Cuthbert Collingwood, Baron Collingwood by Henry Howard.jpg|Vice Admiral [[Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood|Cuthbert Collingwood]]
File:Amiraldevilleneuve.jpg|[[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]], the French Admiral
File:FedericoGravinaYNápoliAnónimoHacia1810.jpg|[[Federico Carlos Gravina y Nápoli|Federico Gravina]], the Spanish Admiral
</gallery>

===Pursuit of Villeneuve===
[[File:Nelson's Search in the Mediterranean.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Nelson's Search in the Mediterranean]]
Early in 1805, [[Vice Admiral]] Lord Nelson commanded the British fleet blockading [[Toulon]]. Unlike [[William Cornwallis]], who maintained a [[Blockade#Close, distant, and loose blockades|close blockade]] off Brest with the [[Channel Fleet]], Nelson adopted a loose blockade in the hope of luring the French out for a major battle, saying, "to be able to get at the enemy you must let ''them'' come out to ''you'', if ''you'' cannot get at ''them''."<ref>{{cite journal |title=Rear Admiral Bertie |journal=Naval Chronicle |date=1811 |volume=26 |page=23}}</ref>{{sfnp|Lavery|2009|p=171}} However, Villeneuve's fleet successfully evaded Nelson's when the British were blown off station by storms. Nelson commenced a search of the Mediterranean, supposing that the French intended to make for [[Egypt]], but Villeneuve instead took his fleet through the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], rendezvoused with the Spanish fleet in Cádiz, and sailed as planned for the Caribbean. Once Nelson realised that the French were crossing the Atlantic Ocean, he set off in pursuit.{{efn|Admirals of the time, due to the slowness of communications, were given considerable autonomy to make [[Naval strategy|strategic]] as well as [[Naval tactics|tactical]] decisions.}}[[File:The Chase to the West Indies.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The Chase to the West Indies]] He missed them by just days in the West Indies as a result of false information.{{Sfnp|Hannah|2021|page=106}}

===Cádiz===
Having lured the British to the West Indies, Villeneuve returned from the Caribbean to [[Europe]], intending to break the blockade at Brest.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=121}} Nelson, still in fear for Egypt, made to return to the Mediterranean. The fast sailing corvette taking word of his plans back to the admiralty spotted the French heading further north. On receiving this intelligence [[Lord Barham]] was alive to the enemy strategy and immediately ordered Admiral [[William Cornwallis]] to combine his squadron with that of Vice Admiral Sir [[Robert Calder]] off Ferrol and to stretch out thirty to forty leagues into the Atlantic to block the French from entering the Channel.{{Sfnp|Hannah|2021|page=186}}

Calder intercepted the French resulting in an inconclusive engagement during the [[Battle of Cape Finisterre (1805)|Battle of Cape Finisterre]] in which two of the Spanish ships were captured. Villeneuve abandoned his plan and sailed back to [[Ferrol, Galicia|Ferrol]] in northern Spain.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=137}} There he received orders from Napoleon to return to Brest according to the main plan.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=141}}

Napoleon's invasion plans for Britain depended on having a sufficiently large number of ships of the line before [[Boulogne-sur-Mer|Boulogne]] in France. This would require Villeneuve's force of 33 ships to join Vice-Admiral [[Honoré Joseph Antoine Ganteaume|Ganteaume]]'s force of 21 ships at Brest, along with a squadron of five ships under Captain Allemand, which would have given him a combined force of 59 ships of the line.

When Villeneuve set sail from Ferrol on 10 August, he was under orders from Napoleon to sail northward toward Brest. Instead, he worried that the British were observing his manoeuvres, so on 11 August, he sailed southward towards Cádiz on the southwestern coast of Spain.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=142}} With no sign of Villeneuve's fleet, on 25 August, the three French army corps' invasion force near Boulogne broke camp and marched into Germany, where it was later engaged. This ended the immediate threat of invasion.{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|p=32}}{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=157}}

The same month, Admiral Lord Nelson returned home to Britain after two years of duty at sea.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=145}} He remained ashore for 25 days and was warmly received by his countrymen.{{sfnp|Best|2005|pp=161–162}} Word reached Britain on 2 September about the combined French and Spanish fleet in Cádiz harbour.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=268}} Nelson had to wait until 15 September before his ship, [[HMS Victory|HMS ''Victory'']], was ready to sail.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=273}}

On 15 August, Cornwallis decided to detach 20 ships of the line from the fleet guarding the English Channel to sail southward to engage the enemy forces in Spain.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=283}} This left the Channel short of large vessels, with only 11 ships of the line present.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|pp=283–284}} This detached force formed the nucleus of the British fleet at Trafalgar. This fleet, under the command of Vice-Admiral Calder, reached Cádiz on 15 September. Nelson joined the fleet on 28 September to take command.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=170}}

The British fleet used [[frigate]]s (faster, but too fragile for the line of battle), to keep a constant watch on the harbour, while the main force remained out of sight, approximately {{convert|50|mi|km}} west of the shore.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=288}} Nelson's hope was to lure the combined Franco-Spanish force out and engage it in a decisive battle. The force watching the harbour was led by Captain [[Henry Blackwood|Blackwood]], commanding [[HMS Euryalus (1803)|HMS ''Euryalus'']].{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=288}} His squadron of seven ships comprised five frigates, a [[schooner]], and a [[brig]].{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=190}}

===Supply situation===
At this point, Nelson's fleet badly needed provisioning. On 2 October, five ships of the line, [[HMS Queen (1769)|HMS ''Queen'']], [[HMS Canopus (1798)|''Canopus'']], [[HMS Spencer (1800)|''Spencer'']], [[HMS Zealous (1785)|''Zealous'']], {{HMS|Tigre|1795|2}}, and the frigate [[HMS Endymion (1797)|HMS ''Endymion'']] were dispatched to [[Gibraltar]] under [[Thomas Louis|Rear-Admiral Sir Thomas Louis]] for supplies.<ref>James p. 22</ref>{{Citation not found|date=August 2020}}

[[File:Battle Of Trafalgar By William Lionel Wyllie, Juno Tower, CFB Halifax Nova Scotia.jpg|upright=1.35|left|thumb|''Battle of Trafalgar'' by [[William Lionel Wyllie]], Juno Tower, [[CFB Halifax]], Nova Scotia, Canada]]

These ships were later diverted for convoy duty in the [[Mediterranean]], although Nelson had expected them to return. Similarly, [[HMS Superb (1798)|HMS ''Superb'']] under Captain [[Richard Goodwin Keats]] had been sent to the dockyard for a re-fit after four years at sea including the chase of Villeneuve and was expected to return to the fleet where Keats was to be Nelson's second, but the ship was not released in time.{{Sfnp|Hannah|2021|page=120–124}} Other British ships continued to arrive, and by 15 October the fleet was up to full strength for the battle. Nelson also lost Calder's [[flagship]], the 98-gun [[HMS Prince of Wales (1794)|''Prince of Wales'']], which he sent home as Calder had been recalled by the Admiralty to face a court-martial for his apparent lack of aggression during the engagement off Cape Finisterre on 22 July.

Meanwhile, Villeneuve's fleet in Cádiz was also suffering from a serious supply shortage that could not be easily rectified by the cash-poor French.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=278}} The blockade maintained by the British fleet had made it difficult for the Franco-Spanish allies to obtain stores, and their ships were ill-equipped. Villeneuve's ships were also more than two thousand men short of the force needed to sail. These were not the only problems faced by the Franco-Spanish fleet. The main French ships of the line had been kept in harbour for years by the British blockade with only brief sorties. The French crews included few experienced sailors, and, as most of the crew had to be taught the elements of seamanship on the few occasions when they got to sea, gunnery was neglected.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=154}} The hasty voyage across the Atlantic and back used up vital supplies. Villeneuve's supply situation began to improve in October, but news of Nelson's arrival made Villeneuve reluctant to leave port. His captains had held a vote on the matter and decided to stay in harbour.

On 16 September, Napoleon gave orders for the French and Spanish ships at Cádiz to put to sea at the first favourable opportunity, join with seven Spanish ships of the line then at [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]], go to [[Naples]] and land the soldiers they carried to reinforce his troops there, then fight decisively if they met a numerically inferior British fleet.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=153}}

==Fleets==
{{main|Order of battle at the Battle of Trafalgar}}

===British===
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align:right;"
|-
!
!British
!Franco- Spanish
|-
|First rates
|3
|4
|-
|Second rates
|4
|0
|-
|Third rates
|20
|29
|-
|Total ships of the line
|27
|33
|-
|Other ships
|6
|7
|}

On 21 October, Admiral Nelson had 27 ships of the line with 2,148 cannons, and a total of 17,000 crewmen and marines under his command.{{sfn|Goodwin|2002|p=259}} Nelson's flagship, [[HMS Victory|HMS ''Victory'']], captained by [[Thomas Masterman Hardy]], was one of three 100-gun [[first-rate]]s in his fleet. He also had four 98-gun [[second-rate]]s and 20 [[third-rate]]s. One of the third rates was an 80-gun vessel, and 16 were 74-gun vessels. The remaining three were 64-gun ships, which were being phased out of the Royal Navy at the time of the battle. Nelson also had four frigates of 38 or 36 guns, a 12-gun [[schooner]] and a 10-gun [[cutter (boat)|cutter]].

===Franco-Spanish===
Against Nelson, Vice-Admiral Villeneuve, sailing on his flagship ''Bucentaure'', fielded 33 ships of the line, including some of the largest in the world at the time. The Spanish contributed four first-rates to the fleet - three of these ships, one at 130 guns ([[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora de la Santísima Trinidad|''Santísima Trinidad'']]) and two at 112 guns (''Príncipe de Asturias'', ''Santa Ana''), were much larger than anything under Nelson's command. The fourth first-rate carried 100 guns. The fleet had six 80-gun third-rates, (four French and two Spanish), and one Spanish 64-gun third-rate. The remaining 22 third-rates were 74-gun vessels, of which 14 were French and eight Spanish. In total, the Spanish contributed 15 ships of the line and the French 18 along with some 30,000 men and marines manning 2,632 cannons. The fleet also included five 40-gun frigates and two 18-gun [[brig]]s, all French.{{sfn|Goodwin|2002|p=257}}

==Battle==

===Nelson's plan===
The prevailing tactical orthodoxy at the time involved manoeuvring to approach the enemy fleet in a single [[line of battle]] and then engaging broadside in parallel lines.{{sfnp|Fremont-Barnes|2007|p=66}} In previous times, fleets had usually engaged in a mixed mêlée of chaotic one-on-one battles. One reason for the development of the line of battle system was to facilitate control of the fleet: if all the ships were in line, signalling in battle became possible.{{sfnp|Ireland|2000|p=52}} The line also allowed either side to disengage by breaking away in formation; if the attacker chose to continue, their line would be broken as well.{{sfnp|Fremont-Barnes|2007|p=66}} This often led to inconclusive battles, or allowed the losing side to minimise its losses; but Nelson wanted a conclusive action, giving his well-trained crews a chance to fight ship to ship.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=154}}

Nelson's solution to the problem was to cut the opposing line in three. Approaching in two columns, sailing perpendicular to the enemy's line, one towards the centre of the opposing line and one towards the trailing end, his ships would surround the middle third, and force them to fight to the end.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=182}} Nelson hoped specifically to cut the line just in front of the French flagship, ''Bucentaure''; the isolated ships in front of the break would not be able to see the flagship's signals, which he hoped would take them out of combat while they re-formed. This echoed the [[Naval tactics in the Age of Sail|tactics]] used by [[Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan|Admiral Duncan]] at the [[Battle of Camperdown]] and [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Admiral Jervis]] at the [[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1797)|Battle of Cape St. Vincent]], both in 1797.{{sfnp|White|2002|p=238}}
[[File:The Battle of Trafalgar, 21 October 1805 RMG BHC0550.tiff|thumb|''The Battle of Trafalgar'' painted by [[Samuel Drummond]] in 1825]]

The plan had three principal advantages. First, the British fleet would close with the Franco-Spanish as quickly as possible, preventing their escape.{{sfnp|White|2005|p=174}} Second, it would quickly bring on a mêlée and frantic battle by breaking the Franco-Spanish line and inducing a series of individual ship-to-ship actions, in which the British knew they were likely to prevail. Nelson knew that the superior seamanship, faster gunnery and better morale of his crews were great advantages.{{sfnp|White|2005|p=173}} Third, it would bring a decisive concentration on the rear of the Franco-Spanish fleet. The ships in the [[Vanguard|van]] of the enemy fleet would have to turn back to support the rear, which would take a long time.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=182}} Additionally, once the Franco-Spanish line had been broken, their ships would be relatively defenceless against powerful broadsides from the British fleet, and it would take them a long time to reposition to return fire.

The main drawback of attacking head-on was that as the leading British ships approached, the Franco-Spanish Combined Fleet would be able to direct [[raking fire|raking]] [[Broadside (naval)|broadside]] fire at their bows, to which they would be unable to reply. To lessen the time the fleet was exposed to this danger, Nelson had his ships make all available sail (including [[Studding sail|stunsails]]), yet another departure from the norm.<ref name=NB215>Tracy (2008) p. 215</ref> He was also well aware that French and Spanish gunners were ill-trained and would have difficulty firing accurately from a moving gun platform. The Combined Fleet was sailing across a heavy [[Swell (ocean)|swell]], causing the ships to roll heavily and exacerbating the problem. Nelson's plan was indeed a gamble, but a carefully calculated one.{{sfnp|Willis|2013|p=266}}

During the period of blockade off the coast of Spain in October, Nelson instructed his captains, over two dinners aboard ''Victory'', on his plan for the approaching battle. In an animated conversation with his favourite captain, Richard Goodwin Keats, who was expected to be his second in the forthcoming battle, Nelson explained a refined battle plan whilst the two were walking in the garden of Merton in August 1805.{{Sfnp|Hannah|2021|loc=ch. 9}} The order of sailing, in which the fleet was arranged when the enemy was first sighted, was to be the order of the ensuing action so that no time would be wasted in forming two lines.{{sfnp|White|2002|p=239}} The first, led by his second-in-command Vice-Admiral [[Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood|Cuthbert Collingwood]], was to sail into the rear of the enemy line, while the other, led by Nelson, was to sail into the centre and vanguard.{{sfnp|White|2005|p=174}} In preparation for the battle, Nelson ordered the ships of his fleet to be painted in a distinctive yellow and black pattern (later known as the [[Nelson Chequer]]) that would make them easy to distinguish from their opponents.{{sfnp|Best|2005|pp=182–183}}

Nelson was careful to point out that something had to be left to chance. Nothing is sure in a sea battle, so he left his captains free from all hampering rules by telling them that "No captain can do very wrong if he places his ship alongside that of the enemy."{{sfnp|White|2002|p=238}} In short, [[emergence|circumstances]] would dictate the execution, subject to the guiding rule that the enemy's rear was to be cut off and superior force concentrated on that part of the enemy's line.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=154}}

Admiral Villeneuve himself expressed his belief that Nelson would use some sort of unorthodox attack, presciently speculating that Nelson would drive right at his line. But his long game of [[cat and mouse]] with Nelson had worn him down, and he was suffering from a loss of nerve. Fearing that his inexperienced officers would be unable to maintain formation in more than one group, he chose to keep the single line that became Nelson's target.{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|pp=115–116}}

===Departure===
{{more citations needed|section|date=October 2017}}
The Combined Fleet of French and Spanish warships anchored in Cádiz under the leadership of Admiral Villeneuve was in disarray. On 16 September 1805 Villeneuve received orders from Napoleon to sail the Combined Fleet from Cádiz to Naples. At first, Villeneuve was optimistic about returning to the Mediterranean, but soon had second thoughts. A war council was held aboard his flagship, ''[[French ship Bucentaure (1803)|Bucentaure]]'', on 8 October.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=178}} While some of the French captains wished to obey Napoleon's orders, the Spanish captains and other French officers, including Villeneuve, thought it best to remain in Cádiz.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=179}} Villeneuve changed his mind yet again on 18 October 1805, ordering the Combined Fleet to sail immediately even though there were only very light winds.{{sfnp|Schom|1990|pp=301–06}}

The sudden change was prompted by a letter Villeneuve had received on 18 October, informing him that Vice-Admiral [[François Rosily]] had arrived in [[Madrid]] with orders to take command of the Combined Fleet.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|pp=289–290}} Stung by the prospect of being disgraced before the fleet, Villeneuve resolved to go to sea before his successor could reach Cádiz.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=153}} At the same time, he received intelligence that a detachment of six British ships (Admiral Louis' squadron), had docked at Gibraltar, thus weakening the British fleet. This was used as the pretext for sudden change.

The weather, however, suddenly turned calm following a week of gales. This slowed the progress of the fleet leaving the harbour, giving the British plenty of warning. Villeneuve had drawn up plans to form a force of four squadrons, each containing both French and Spanish ships. Following their earlier vote on 8 October to stay put, some captains were reluctant to leave Cádiz, and as a result they failed to follow Villeneuve's orders closely and the fleet straggled out of the harbour in no particular formation.

It took most of 20 October for Villeneuve to get his fleet organised; it eventually set sail in three columns for the Straits of Gibraltar to the southeast. That same evening, ''[[French ship Achille (1804)|Achille]]'' spotted a force of 18 British ships of the line in pursuit. The fleet began to prepare for battle and during the night, they were ordered into a single line. The following day, Nelson's fleet of 27 ships of the line and four frigates was spotted in pursuit from the northwest with the wind behind it. Villeneuve again ordered his fleet into three columns, but soon changed his mind and restored a single line. The result was a sprawling, uneven formation.

At 5:40 a.m. on 21 October, the British were about 21 miles  (34 km) to the northwest of Cape Trafalgar, with the Franco-Spanish fleet between the British and the Cape. About 6 a.m., Nelson gave the order to prepare for battle.<ref>Signal log of HMS ''Bellerophon'', 21 October 1805{{Original research inline|date=November 2023}}</ref> At 8 a.m., the British frigate ''Euryalus'', which had been keeping watch on the Combined Fleet overnight, observed the British fleet still "forming the lines" in which it would attack.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Battle of Trafalgar: The Logbook of the Euryalus, 21st October 1805 |url=http://chasingnelson.blogspot.co.uk/2013/10/the-battle-of-trafalgar-logbook-of_22.html |website=chasingnelson.blogspot.co.uk |access-date=11 June 2017 |date=22 October 2013 |archive-date=29 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929135216/http://chasingnelson.blogspot.co.uk/2013/10/the-battle-of-trafalgar-logbook-of_22.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

At 8 a.m., Villeneuve ordered the fleet to ''wear together'' (turn about) and return to Cádiz. This reversed the order of the allied line, placing the rear division under Rear-Admiral [[Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley]] in the vanguard. The wind became contrary at this point, often shifting direction. The very light wind rendered manoeuvring virtually impossible for all but the most expert seamen. The inexperienced crews had difficulty with the changing conditions, and it took nearly an hour and a half for Villeneuve's order to be completed. The French and Spanish fleet now formed an uneven, angular crescent, with the slower ships generally to [[leeward]] and closer to the shore.

By 11 a.m. Nelson's entire fleet was visible to Villeneuve, drawn up in two parallel columns. The two fleets would be within range of each other within an hour. Villeneuve was concerned at this point about forming up a line, as his ships were unevenly spaced in an irregular formation drawn out nearly five miles (8 km) long as Nelson's fleet approached.

As the British drew closer, they could see that the enemy was not sailing in a tight order, but in irregular groups. Nelson could not immediately make out the French flagship as the French and Spanish were not flying command pennants.

Nelson was outnumbered and outgunned, the enemy totalling nearly 30,000 men and 2,568 guns to his 17,000 men and 2,148 guns. The Franco-Spanish fleet also had six more ships of the line, and so could more readily combine their fire. There was no way for some of Nelson's ships to avoid being "doubled on" or even "trebled on".

As the two fleets drew closer, anxiety began to build among officers and sailors; one British sailor described the approach thus: "During this momentous preparation, the human mind had ample time for meditation, for it was evident that the fate of England rested on this battle".{{sfnp|Adkins|2004a|p={{page needed|date=February 2012}}}}

===Combat===
{{more citations needed|section|date=October 2017}}
[[File:England expects...retouched.jpg|thumb|Nelson's signal, "[[England expects that every man will do his duty]]", flying from ''Victory'' on the bicentenary of the Battle of Trafalgar]]
[[File:England Expects Signal.svg|thumb|Nelson's signal.<ref name=SignalWasFamous/>]]

The battle progressed largely according to Nelson's plan. At 11:45, Nelson sent the flag signal, "[[England expects that every man will do his duty]]".<ref name=SignalWasFamous>{{cite web |url=http://www.aboutnelson.co.uk/england%20expcts.htm |title=England Expects |publisher=aboutnelson.co.uk |access-date=16 September 2006 |archive-date=23 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211223162755/http://www.aboutnelson.co.uk/england%20expcts.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{blockquote|His Lordship came to me on the [[Poop deck|poop]], and after ordering certain signals to be made, about a quarter to noon, he said, "Mr. [[John Pasco|Pasco]], I wish to say to the fleet, ENGLAND CONFIDES THAT EVERY MAN WILL DO HIS DUTY" and he added "You must be quick, for I have one more to make which is for close action." I replied, "If your Lordship will permit me to substitute 'expects' for 'confides' the signal will soon be completed, because the word 'expects' is in the vocabulary, and 'confides' must be spelt," His Lordship replied, in haste, and with seeming satisfaction, "That will do, Pasco, make it directly."<ref name="NS">{{cite web |url=http://www.nelson-society.org.uk/html/body_england_expects.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050324080325/http://www.nelson-society.org.uk/html/body_england_expects.htm |archive-date=24 March 2005 |title=England Expects |publisher=The Nelson Society |access-date=24 March 2005}}</ref>}}

The term "England" was widely used at the time to refer to the United Kingdom; the British fleet included significant contingents from Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Unlike the photographic depiction above, this signal would have been shown on the [[mizzen]] mast only and would have required 12 lifts.

As the battle opened, the French and Spanish were in a ragged curved line headed north. As planned, the British fleet was approaching the Franco-Spanish line in two columns. Leading the northern, [[windward and leeward|windward]] column in ''Victory'' was Nelson, while Collingwood in the 100-gun [[HMS Royal Sovereign (1786)|''Royal Sovereign'']] led the second, leeward, column. The two British columns approached from the west at nearly a right angle to the allied line. Nelson led his column into a feint toward the van of the Franco-Spanish fleet and then abruptly turned toward the actual point of attack. Collingwood altered the course of his column slightly so that the two lines converged at this line of attack.

[[File:Trafalgar-Auguste Mayer.jpg|thumb|left|Artist's conception of [[HMS Sandwich (1759)|HMS ''Sandwich'']] fighting the French [[flagship]] ''[[French ship Bucentaure (1803)|Bucentaure]]'' (completely dismasted) at Trafalgar. ''Bucentaure'' is also fighting [[HMS Temeraire (1798)|HMS ''Temeraire'']] (on the left) and being fired into by [[HMS Victory|HMS ''Victory'']] (behind her). In fact, this is a mistake by [[Auguste Étienne François Mayer|Auguste Mayer]], the painter; HMS ''Sandwich'' never fought at Trafalgar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.musee-marine.fr/cartel2.php?id=55 |title=Auguste Mayer's picture as described by the official website of the Musée national de la Marine (in French) |publisher=Musee-marine.fr |access-date=6 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100526163947/http://www.musee-marine.fr/cartel2.php?id=55 |archive-date=26 May 2010}}</ref>]]

Just before his column engaged the allied forces, Collingwood said to his officers, "Now, gentlemen, let us do something today which the world may talk of hereafter."{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}} Because the winds were very light during the battle, all the ships were moving extremely slowly, and the foremost British ships were under heavy fire from several of the allied ships for almost an hour before their own guns could bear.

At noon, Villeneuve sent the signal "engage the enemy", and [[French ship Fougueux (1785)|''Fougueux'']] fired her first trial shot at ''Royal Sovereign''.{{sfnp|Fraser|1906|pp=114, 211–213}}{{sfnp|Corbett|1919|p=440}}{{sfnp|Thiers|1850|p=45}} ''Royal Sovereign'' had all sails out and, having recently had her bottom cleaned, outran the rest of the British fleet. As she approached the allied line, she came under fire from ''Fougueux'', [[French ship Indomptable (1790)|''Indomptable'']], ''San Justo'', and ''San Leandro'', before breaking the line just astern of Admiral Alava's flagship ''[[Spanish ship Santa Ana|Santa Ana]]'', into which she fired a devastating [[double-shotted]] raking broadside. On board ''Victory'', Nelson pointed to ''Royal Sovereign'' and said, "See how that noble fellow Collingwood carries his ship into action!" At approximately the same moment, Collingwood remarked to his captain, [[Edward Rotheram]], "What would Nelson give to be here?"<ref name="Heathcote41">{{cite book |last=Heathcote |title=Nelson's Trafalgar Captains |page=41}}</ref>

[[File:Trafalgar 1200hr.svg|thumb|Artist's conception of the situation at noon as ''[[HMS Royal Sovereign (1786)|Royal Sovereign]]'' was breaking into the Franco-Spanish line]]

The second ship in the British lee column, [[HMS Belleisle (1795)|''Belleisle'']], was engaged by [[French ship Aigle (1800)|''Aigle'']], ''Achille'', [[French ship Neptune (1803)|''Neptune'']], and ''Fougueux''; she was soon completely dismasted, unable to manoeuvre and largely unable to fight, as her sails blinded her batteries, but kept flying her flag for 45 minutes until the following British ships came to her rescue.

For 40 minutes, ''Victory'' was under fire from [[French ship Héros (1801)|''Héros'']], [[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora de la Santísima Trinidad (1769)|''Santísima Trinidad'']], [[French ship Redoutable (1795)|''Redoutable'']], and ''Neptune''; although many shots went astray, others killed and wounded a number of her crew and shot her wheel away, so that she had to be steered from her tiller belowdecks, all before she could respond. At 12:45, ''Victory'' cut the enemy line between Villeneuve's flagship ''Bucentaure'' and ''Redoutable''; she came close to ''Bucentaure'' with her guns loaded with double or treble shots each, and her 68-pounder carronades loaded with 500 musketballs, she unleashed a devastating treble-shotted raking broadside through ''Bucentaure''{{'s}} stern which killed and wounded some 200-400 men of the ship's 800 man complement and dismasted the ship.<ref>{{Citation |author=Drachinifel |title=HMS Victory - The Original Fast Battleship |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F8udR6Hyr60 |access-date=2023-03-26 |language=en |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314162236/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F8udR6Hyr60 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{bsn|date=November 2023|reason=Drachinifel makes some interesting videos, but he's not a reliable source}} This volley of gunfire from the ''Victory'' immediately knocked the French Flagship out of action. Villeneuve thought that boarding would take place, and with the [[French Imperial Eagle|Eagle]] of his ship in hand, told his men, "I will throw it onto the enemy ship and we will take it back there!" However, ''Victory'' engaged the 74-gun ''Redoutable''; ''Bucentaure'' was left to the next three ships of the British windward column: [[HMS Temeraire (1798)|''Temeraire'']], [[HMS Conqueror (1801)|''Conqueror'']], and {{HMS|Neptune|1797|6}}.

[[File:Fall of Nelson.jpg|thumb|left|Painter Denis Dighton's imagining of Nelson being shot on the quarterdeck of ''Victory'']]
A general mêlée ensued. ''Victory'' locked masts with the French ''Redoutable,'' whose crew, including a strong infantry corps (with three captains and four lieutenants), gathered for an attempt to board and seize ''Victory''. A [[musket]] bullet fired from the [[Top (sailing ship)|mizzentop]] of ''Redoutable'' struck Nelson in the left shoulder, passed through his spine at the sixth and seventh thoracic vertebrae, and lodged two inches below his right scapula in the muscles of his back. Nelson exclaimed, "They finally succeeded, I am dead." He was carried below decks.

[[File:The Battle of Trafalgar, 21 October 1805- Beginning of the Action RMG BHC0548.tiff|thumb|Painter Nicholas Pocock's conception of the situation at 1300h]]

''Victory''{{'}}s gunners were called on deck to fight boarders, and she ceased firing. The gunners were forced back below decks by French [[grenade]]s. As the French were preparing to board ''Victory'', ''Temeraire'', the second ship in the British windward column, approached from the starboard bow of ''Redoutable'' and fired on the exposed French crew with a [[carronade]], causing many casualties.

At 13:55, the French [[Jean Jacques Etienne Lucas|Captain Lucas]] of ''Redoutable'', with 99 fit men out of 643 and severely wounded himself, surrendered. The French ''Bucentaure'' was isolated by ''Victory'' and ''Temeraire'', and then engaged by HMS ''Neptune'', {{HMS|Leviathan|1790|6}}, and ''Conqueror''; similarly, ''Santísima Trinidad'' was isolated and overwhelmed, surrendering after three hours.

[[File:Trafalgar2.jpg|thumb|left|Painter Nicholas Pocock's conception of the situation at 1700h]]

As more and more British ships entered the battle, the ships of the allied centre and rear were gradually overwhelmed. The allied van, after long remaining quiescent, made a futile demonstration and then sailed away.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=154}} During the combat, Gravina was wounded, while [[Dionisio Alcalá Galiano|Dionisio Alcalá-Galiano]] and [[Cosme Damián de Churruca y Elorza|Cosme Damián Churruca]] —commanders of the ''Bahama'' and ''[[Spanish ship San Juan Nepomuceno|San Juan Nepomuceno]]'', respectively— were killed after ordering their ships not to surrender.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ocampo Aneiros |first=José Antonio |title=Biografía de Cosme Damián Churruca y Elorza |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/12143/cosme-damian-churruca-y-elorza |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=[[Real Academia de la Historia]] |archive-date=16 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716145320/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/12143/cosme-damian-churruca-y-elorza |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=O'Donnell y Duque de Estrada |first=Hugo |author-link=Hugo O'Donnell, 7th Duke of Tetuan |title=Biografía de Dionisio Alcalá-Galiano y Alcalá-Galiano |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/6053/dionisio-alcala-galiano-y-alcala-galiano |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=[[Real Academia de la Historia]] |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808022215/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/6053/dionisio-alcala-galiano-y-alcala-galiano |url-status=live }}</ref> Gravina died from his wounds months later.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Benítez Martín |first=Manuel |title=Biografía de Federico Carlos Gravina y Napoli |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/11283/federico-carlos-gravina-y-napoli |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=[[Real Academia de la Historia]] |archive-date=13 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813234321/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/11283/federico-carlos-gravina-y-napoli |url-status=live }}</ref> The British took 20 vessels of the Franco-Spanish fleet and lost none. Among the captured French ships were ''Aigle'', [[French ship Algésiras (1804)|''Algésiras'']], {{HMS|Berwick|1775|2}}, ''Bucentaure'', ''Fougueux'', [[French ship Intrépide (1800)|''Intrépide'']], ''Redoutable'', and [[French ship Swiftsure|''Swiftsure'']]. The Spanish ships taken were ''Argonauta'', ''Bahama'', ''Monarca'', ''Neptuno'', [[Spanish ship San Agustín|''San Agustín'']], ''San Ildefonso'', ''San Juan Nepomuceno'', [[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora de la Santísima Trinidad (1769)|''Santísima Trinidad'']], and ''Santa Ana''. Of these, ''Redoutable'' sank, and ''Santísima Trinidad'' and ''Argonauta'' were scuttled by the British. ''Achille'' exploded, ''Intrépide'' and ''San Augustín'' burned, and ''Aigle'', ''Berwick'', ''Fougueux'', and ''Monarca'' were wrecked in a gale following the battle.

As Nelson lay dying, he ordered the fleet to anchor, as a storm was predicted. However, when the storm blew up, many of the severely damaged ships sank or ran aground on the [[shoals]]. A few of them were recaptured, some by the French and Spanish prisoners overcoming the small prize crews, others by ships sallying from Cádiz. Surgeon [[William Beatty (surgeon)|William Beatty]] heard Nelson murmur, "Thank God I have done my duty"; when he returned, Nelson's voice had faded, and his pulse was very weak.{{sfnp|Hibbert|1994|pp=376–377}} He looked up as Beatty took his pulse, then closed his eyes. Nelson's chaplain, [[Alexander John Scott|Alexander Scott]], who remained by Nelson as he died, recorded his last words as "God and my country."<ref name="Hayward 63">{{harvnb|Hayward|2003|page=63}}.</ref> It has been suggested by Nelson historian Craig Cabell that Nelson was actually reciting his own prayer as he fell into his death coma, as the words 'God' and 'my country' are closely linked therein. Nelson died at half-past four, three hours after being hit.{{sfnp|Hibbert|1994|pp=376–377}}

Towards the end of the battle, and with the combined fleet being overwhelmed, the still relatively un-engaged portion of the van under Rear-Admiral Dumanoir Le Pelley tried to come to the assistance of the collapsing centre. After failing to fight his way through, he decided to break off the engagement, and led four French ships, his flagship the 80-gun [[French ship Formidable (1795)|''Formidable'']], the 74-gun ships [[French ship Scipion (1801)|''Scipion'']], [[French ship Duguay-Trouin (1800)|''Duguay-Trouin'']] and [[French ship Mont Blanc (1793)|''Mont Blanc'']] away from the fighting. He headed at first for the Straits of Gibraltar, intending to carry out Villeneuve's original orders and make for Toulon.<ref name="Adkin530">{{harvnb|Adkin|2005|p=530}}</ref> On 22 October he changed his mind, remembering a powerful British squadron under Rear-Admiral Thomas Louis was patrolling the straits, and headed north, hoping to reach one of the French Atlantic ports. With a storm gathering in strength off the Spanish coast, he sailed westwards to clear [[Cape St. Vincent]], prior to heading north-west, swinging eastwards across the [[Bay of Biscay]], and aiming to reach the French port at [[Rochefort, Charente-Maritime|Rochefort]].<ref name="Adkin530"/> These four ships remained at large until their encounter with and attempt to chase a British frigate brought them in range of a British squadron under [[Sir Richard Strachan, 6th Baronet|Sir Richard Strachan]], which captured them all on 4 November 1805 at the [[Battle of Cape Ortegal]].<ref name="Adkin530"/>

====Cosmao and MacDonnell sortie====
[[File:Trafalgar, ships scattered.jpg|thumb|The gale after Trafalgar, depicted by [[Thomas Buttersworth]].]]

Only eleven allied ships escaped to Cádiz, and, of those, only five were considered seaworthy. The seriously wounded Admiral Gravina passed command of the remainder of the fleet over to Commodore [[Julien Cosmao]] on 23 October. From shore, the allied commanders could see an opportunity for a rescue mission. Cosmao claimed in his report that the rescue plan was entirely his idea, but Vice-Admiral [[Antonio de Escaño|Escaño]] recorded a meeting of Spanish and French commodores at which a planned rescue was discussed and agreed upon. [[Enrique MacDonell]] and Cosmao were of equal rank and both raised commodore's pennants before hoisting anchor.{{Sfn|Clayton|Craig|2004}} Both sets of mariners were determined to make an attempt to recapture some of the prizes.{{Sfn|Clayton|Craig|2004}} Cosmao ordered the rigging of his ship, the 74-gun [[French ship Pluton (1805)|''Pluton'']], to be repaired and reinforced her crew (which had been depleted by casualties from the battle), with sailors from the French frigate ''[[French frigate Hermione (1804)|Hermione]]''. Taking advantage of a favourable northwesterly wind, ''Pluton'', the 80-gun ''Neptune'' and ''Indomptable'', the Spanish 100-gun [[Spanish ship Rayo (1749)|''Rayo'']] and 74-gun [[Spanish ship San Francisco de Asis (1767)|''San Francisco de Asís'']], together with five French frigates and two brigs, sailed out of the harbour towards the British.<ref name="Yonge-p335">{{harvnb|Yonge|1863|p=335}}.</ref><ref name="Fremont-Barnes-p81" />

====The British cast off the prizes====
Soon after leaving port, the wind shifted to west-southwest, raising a heavy sea with the result that most of the British prizes broke their tow ropes, and drifting far to [[Windward and leeward|leeward]], were only partially resecured. The combined squadron came in sight at noon, causing Collingwood to summon his most battle-ready ships to meet the threat. In doing so, he ordered them to cast off towing their prizes. He had formed a defensive line of ten ships by three o'clock in the afternoon and approached the Franco-Spanish squadron, covering the remainder of their prizes which stood out to sea.<ref name="Fremont-Barnes-p81">{{harvnb|Fremont-Barnes|2005|p=81}}.</ref><ref name="Fremont-Barnes-p82">{{harvnb|Fremont-Barnes|2005|p=82}}.</ref> The Franco-Spanish squadron, numerically inferior, chose not to approach within gunshot and then declined to attack.<ref>{{harvnb|Pocock|2005|p=175}}.</ref> Collingwood also chose not to seek action, and in the confusion of the powerful storm, the French frigates managed to retake two Spanish ships of the line which had been cast off by their British captors, the 112-gun ''Santa Ana'' and 80-gun [[Spanish ship Neptuno (1795)|''Neptuno'']], taking them in tow and making for Cádiz.<ref name="Yonge-p336">{{harvnb|Yonge|1863|p=336}}.</ref> On being taken in tow, the Spanish crews rose up against their British prize crews, putting them to work as prisoners.{{sfnp|Thiers|1850|p=45}}<ref>{{harvnb|TB staff|2004}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

[[File:Retour a Rota Mayer.jpg|thumb|left|Painting depicting the French [[frigate]] [[French frigate Thémis (1799)|''Thémis'']] towing the re-taken Spanish [[first-rate]] [[ship of the line]] ''Santa Ana'' into [[Cádiz]]. [[Auguste Étienne François Mayer|Auguste Mayer]], 19th century.]]

Despite this initial success the Franco-Spanish force, hampered by battle damage, struggled in the heavy seas. ''Neptuno'' was eventually wrecked off [[Rota, Andalusia|Rota]] in the gale, while ''Santa Ana'' reached port.{{sfn|Adkin|2005|p=524–529}} The French 80-gun ship ''Indomptable'' was wrecked on the 24th or 25th off the town of Rota on the northwest point of the bay of Cádiz.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} At the time ''Indomptable'' had 1,200 men on board, but no more than 100 were saved. ''San Francisco de Asís'' was driven ashore in [[Bay of Cádiz|Cádiz Bay]], near Fort Santa Catalina, although her crew was saved. ''Rayo'', an old three-decker with more than 50 years of service, anchored off [[Sanlúcar de Barrameda|Sanlúcar]], a few [[league (unit)|leagues]] to the northwest of Rota. There, she lost her masts, already damaged in the battle.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} Heartened by the approach of the squadron, the French crew of the former flagship ''Bucentaure'' also rose up and retook the ship from the British prize crew but she was wrecked later on 23 October. ''[[French ship Aigle (1800)|Aigle]]'' escaped from the British ship [[HMS Defiance (1783)|HMS ''Defiance'']], but was wrecked off the [[El Puerto de Santa María|Port of Santa María]] on 23 October; while the French prisoners on ''Berwick'' cut the tow cables, but caused her to founder off Sanlúcar on 22 October. The crew of ''[[French ship Algésiras (1804)|Algésiras]]'' rose up and managed to sail into Cádiz.{{sfnp|Thiers|1850|p=45}}

Observing that some of the leewardmost of the prizes were escaping towards the Spanish coast, ''Leviathan'' asked for and was granted permission by Collingwood to try to retrieve the prizes and bring them to anchor. ''Leviathan'' chased [[Spanish ship Monarca (1794)|''Monarca'']], but on 24 October she came across ''Rayo'', dismasted but still flying Spanish colours, at anchor off the shoals of Sanlúcar.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} At this point the 74-gun [[HMS Donegal (1798)|HMS ''Donegal'']], en route from Gibraltar under Captain [[Pulteney Malcolm]], was seen approaching from the south on the [[larboard]] tack with a moderate breeze from northwest-by-north and steered directly for the Spanish three-decker.<ref>James (Vol. IV) pp. 89–90</ref>{{incomplete short citation|date=April 2021}} At about ten o'clock, just as ''Monarca'' had got within little more than a mile of ''Rayo'', ''Leviathan'' fired a warning shot wide of ''Monarca'', to oblige her to drop anchor. The shot fell between ''Monarca'' and ''Rayo''. The latter, conceiving that it was probably intended for her, hauled down her colours, and was taken by HMS ''Donegal'', who anchored alongside and took off the prisoners.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} ''Leviathan'' resumed her pursuit of ''Monarca'', eventually catching up and forcing her to surrender. On boarding her, her British captors found that she was in a sinking state, and so removed the British prize crew, and nearly all of her original Spanish crew members. The nearly empty ''Monarca'' parted her cable and was wrecked during the night. Despite the efforts of her British prize crew, ''Rayo'' was driven onshore on 26 October and wrecked, with the loss of 25 men. The remainder of the prize crew were made prisoners by the Spanish.<ref>James (Vol. IV) p. 91</ref>{{incomplete short citation|date=April 2021}}

====Casualties====
[[File:Battle of Trafalgar Casualties.svg|thumb|none|upright=2|Casualties % by ship.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}} The number is the order in the line. {{legend0|#ffff00|[[HMS Africa (1781)|HMS ''Africa'']]}} • {{legend0|#91ef91|British weather column, led by [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Nelson]]}} • {{legend0|#c0c0c0|British lee column, led by [[Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood|Collingwood]]}} • {{legend0|#0000ff|French}} • {{legend0|#ff0000|Spanish}}]]

====Aftermath====
In the aftermath of the storm, Collingwood wrote:

{{blockquote|The condition of our own ships was such that it was very doubtful what would be their fate. Many a time I would have given the whole group of our capture, to ensure our own ... I can only say that in my life I never saw such efforts as were made to save these [prize] ships, and would rather fight another battle than pass through such a week as followed it.|Vice-Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood to the [[British Admiralty|Admiralty]], November 1805.{{sfnp|Tracy|2008|p=249}}}}

On balance, the allied counter-attack achieved little. In forcing the British to suspend their repairs to defend themselves, it influenced Collingwood's decision to sink or set fire to the most damaged of his remaining prizes.<ref name="Yonge-p336" /> Cosmao retook two Spanish ships of the line, but it cost him one French and two Spanish vessels to do so. Fearing their loss, the British burnt or sank ''Santísima Trinidad'', ''Argonauta'', ''San Antonio'' and ''[[French ship Intrépide (1800)|Intrepide]]''.{{sfnp|Thiers|1850|p=45}} Only four of the British prizes, the French ''Swiftsure'' and the Spanish ''Bahama'', [[Spanish ship San Ildefonso|''San Ildefonso'']] and ''San Juan Nepomuceno'' survived to be taken to Britain.<ref name="Yonge-p336"/> After the end of the battle and storm only nine ships of the line were left in Cádiz.<ref name="Yonge-p335" />{{sfnp|Ward|Prothero|Leathers|1906|p=234}}

Spanish military garrisons and civilians set out to rescue survivors from the numerous shipwrecks scattered along the Andalusian coast. British prize crews were captured and given good treatment. On 27 October, Collingwood offered the governor of Cádiz to put his Spanish wounded prisoners ashore and set them free. The governor and Gravina offered in exchange to release their British prisoners, who boarded the British fleet. The French later joined this humanitarian agreement.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://abcblogs.abc.es/espejo-de-navegantes/2015/10/20/el-epilogo-de-trafalgar/ |title=El epílogo de Trafalgar |last=Rodríguez González |first=Agustín Ramón |date=20 October 2015 |work=Espejo de navegantes |access-date=21 October 2018 |language=es-ES |archive-date=21 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021151311/http://abcblogs.abc.es/espejo-de-navegantes/2015/10/20/el-epilogo-de-trafalgar/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The disparity in losses has been attributed by some historians less to Nelson's daring tactics than to the difference in fighting readiness of the two fleets.{{sfnp|Nicolson|2005|p=9–10}} Nelson's fleet was made up of ships of the line which had spent a considerable amount of sea time during the months of blockades of French ports, whilst the French fleet had generally been at anchor in port. However, Villeneuve's fleet had just spent months at sea crossing the Atlantic twice, which supports the proposition that the main difference between the two fleets' combat effectiveness was the morale of the leaders. The daring tactics employed by Nelson were to ensure a strategically decisive result. The results vindicated his naval judgement.

==Results==
[[File:MuseoNaval Hispalois bajas españolas batalla Trafalgar.jpg|thumb|Report of Spanish losses in the combat of 21 October.]]

When Rosily arrived in Cádiz, he found only five French ships, rather than the 18 he was expecting. The surviving ships remained bottled up in Cádiz until 1808 when Napoleon invaded Spain. The French ships were then [[Capture of Rosily Squadron|seized by the Spanish forces]] and put into service against France.

HMS ''Victory'' made her way to Gibraltar for repairs, carrying Nelson's body. She put into Rosia Bay, Gibraltar and after emergency repairs were carried out, returned to Britain. Many of the injured crew were taken ashore at Gibraltar and treated in the Naval Hospital. Men who subsequently died from injuries sustained at the battle are buried in or near the [[Trafalgar Cemetery]], at the south end of [[Main Street, Gibraltar]].

One [[Royal Marine]] officer, Captain Charles Adair, was killed on board ''Victory'', and Royal Marine Lieutenant Lewis Buckle Reeve was seriously wounded and laid next to Nelson.{{efn|Reeve's Naval General Service Medal with Trafalgar clasp and Muster List for HMS ''Victory'' are on show at the [[Royal Marines Museum]], [[Southsea]], Britain {{harv|BBC staff|2008}}.}}

The battle took place the day after the [[Battle of Ulm]], and Napoleon did not hear about it for weeks—the [[Grande Armée]] had left Boulogne to fight Britain's allies before they could combine their armies. He had tight control over the Paris media and kept the defeat a closely guarded secret for over a month, at which point newspapers proclaimed it to have been a tremendous victory.{{sfnp|Adkins|2004}} In a counter-propaganda move, a fabricated text declaring the battle a "spectacular victory" for the French and Spanish was published in ''Herald'' and attributed to ''[[Le Moniteur Universel]]''.<ref>See for example: {{cite journal |author=NC staff |date=July–December 1805 |title=First Bulletin of the Grand Naval Army [From the Moniteur] As it appeared in the Herald. Battle of Trafalgar |journal=Naval Chronicle |volume=14 |location=Fleet Street, London |publisher=J. Gold}} cited by {{harv|ACS staff |2009}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Westmacott |first1=Charles Molloy |last2=Jones |first2=Stephen |title=The Spirit of the Public Journals: Being an Impartial Selection of the Most Exquisite Essays and Jeux D'esprits, Principally Prose, that Appear in the Newspapers and Other Publications, Volume 9 |date=1806 |publisher=James Ridgeway |page=322 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xpp349sTMhwC&pg=PA322 |access-date=27 March 2015 |quote=Footnote of one claim: "This turned out to be really asserted afterwards by the French newspapers". The authors hence believe the rest to be a fabrication. |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324110549/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xpp349sTMhwC&pg=PA322 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Vice-Admiral Villeneuve was taken prisoner aboard his flagship and taken back to Britain. After his parole in 1806, he returned to France, where he was found dead in his inn room during a stop on the way to Paris, with six stab wounds in the chest from a dining knife. It was officially recorded that he had committed suicide.

Despite the British victory over the Franco-Spanish navies, Trafalgar had negligible impact on the remainder of the [[War of the Third Coalition]]. Less than two months later, Napoleon decisively defeated the Third Coalition at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]], knocking Austria out of the war and forcing the dissolution of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Although Trafalgar meant France could no longer challenge Britain at sea, Napoleon proceeded to establish the [[Continental System]] in an attempt to deny Britain trade with the continent. The Napoleonic Wars continued for another ten years after Trafalgar.{{sfnp|Harding|1999|pp=96–117}}

Nelson's body was preserved in a barrel of brandy for the trip home to a hero's funeral.{{sfnp|Adkins|2004a}}{{page needed|date=April 2021}}

==Consequences==
[[File:Broadside titled "The Battle of Trafalgar".jpg|thumb|A [[Broadside (printing)|broadside]] from the 1850s recounts the story]]

Following the battle, the Royal Navy was never again seriously challenged by the French fleet in a large-scale engagement. Napoleon had already abandoned his plans of invasion before the battle and they were never revived. The battle did not mean, however, that the French naval challenge to Britain was over. First, as the French control over the continent expanded, Britain had to take active steps with the [[Battle of Copenhagen (1807)|Battle of Copenhagen]] in 1807 and elsewhere in 1808 to prevent the ships of smaller European navies from falling into French hands. This effort was largely successful, but did not end the French threat as Napoleon instituted a large-scale shipbuilding programme that had produced a fleet of 80 ships of the line at the time of his fall from power in 1814, with more under construction.{{sfnp|Glover|1967|pp=233–252}} However, despite constituting a substantial [[fleet in being]], these had no impact on Britain’s naval superiority throughout the conflict. For almost 10 years after Trafalgar, the Royal Navy maintained a close blockade of French bases and observed the growth of the French fleet. In the end, Napoleon's Empire was destroyed by land before his ambitious naval build-up could be completed. The next naval battles between the British and Spanish would be the British Invasions of the River Plate in 1806 and 1807, where the British Navy would fail to capture [[Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata]].

The Royal Navy proceeded to dominate the sea until the [[Second World War]].<ref>''Nelson's Navy: The Ships, Men, and Organization, 1793–1815'' Brian Lavery</ref> Although the victory at Trafalgar was typically given as the reason at the time, modern historical analyses suggest that relative economic strength was an important underlying cause of British naval mastery.[[File:Battle of Trafalgar Poster 1805.jpg|thumb|left|Detail from a modern reproduction of an 1805 poster commemorating the battle]]

Nelson became – and remains – Britain's greatest naval war hero, and an inspiration to the Royal Navy, yet his unorthodox tactics were seldom emulated by later generations. The first monument to be erected in Britain to commemorate Nelson may be that raised on [[Glasgow Green]] in 1806, albeit possibly preceded by a monument at [[Taynuilt]], near [[Oban]] in Scotland dated 1805, both also commemorating the many Scots crew and captains at the battle.{{sfnp|Spicer|2005}}{{efn|Five of Nelson's 27 captains of the Fleet were Scottish, as were almost 30% of the crew {{harv|MercoPress staff|2005}}}} The {{convert|144|ft|m|adj=mid|-tall|0}} ''Nelson Monument'' on Glasgow Green was designed by [[David Hamilton (architect)|David Hamilton]] and paid for by public subscription. Around the base are the names of his major victories: [[Battle of Aboukir Bay|Aboukir]] (1798), [[Battle of Copenhagen (1801)|Copenhagen]] (1801) and Trafalgar (1805). [[The Nelson Monument, Portsdown Hill|The Nelson Monument overlooking Portsmouth]] was built in 1807–08 with money subscribed by sailors and marines who served at Trafalgar.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.visitportsmouth.co.uk/history/207.htm |title=Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson 1758 - 1805 |publisher=Portsmouth City Council's Economy, Culture and Community Safety www.visitportsmouth.co.uk |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070503002811/http://www.visitportsmouth.co.uk/history/207.htm |archive-date=3 May 2007}}</ref> In 1808, [[Nelson's Pillar]] was erected by leading members of the Anglo-Irish aristocracy in [[Dublin]] to commemorate Nelson and his achievements (between 10% and 20% of the sailors at Trafalgar had been from Ireland{{sfnp|Cowan|2005}}{{sfnp|Poppyland staff|2012}}), and remained until it was destroyed in a bombing by "Old [[Irish Republican Army (1922–1969)|IRA]]" members in 1966.{{sfnp|Spicer|2005}} [[Nelson Monument, Edinburgh|Nelson's Monument]] in Edinburgh was built between 1807 and 1815 in the form of an upturned [[telescope]], and in 1853 a [[time ball]] was added which still drops at noon [[GMT]] to give a time signal to ships in [[Leith]] and the [[Firth of Forth]]. In summer this coincides with the ''one o'clock gun'' being fired. The [[Britannia Monument]] in [[Great Yarmouth]] was raised by 1819. [[Nelson's Column, Montreal]] began public subscriptions soon after news of the victory at Trafalgar arrived; the column was completed in the autumn of 1809 and still stands in [[Place Jacques Cartier]]. A [[Statue of Lord Nelson, Bridgetown|statue of Lord Nelson]] stood in Bridgetown, Barbados, in what was also once known as [[National Heroes Square|Trafalgar Square]], from 1813 to 2020.

[[File:Admiral Horatio Nelson, Nelson's Column, Trafalgar Square, London.JPG|thumb|upright|Nelson on top of [[Nelson's Column]] in [[Trafalgar Square]] in London]]

London's [[Trafalgar Square]] was named in honour of Nelson's victory; at the centre of the square there is the {{convert|45.1|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[Nelson's Column]], with a {{convert|5.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} statue of Nelson on top. It was finished in 1843.

==100th anniversary==
In 1905, there were events up and down the country to commemorate the centenary, although none were attended by any member of the Royal Family, apparently to avoid upsetting the French, with whom the United Kingdom had recently entered the ''[[Entente cordiale]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rjerrard.co.uk/royalnavy/broadside/broadside2008.htm |title=Review of "Nelson Remembered – The Nelson Centenary 1905" by David Shannon |access-date=12 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025095810/http://www.rjerrard.co.uk/royalnavy/broadside/broadside2008.htm |archive-date=25 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> King [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]] did support the ''Nelson Centenary Memorial Fund'' of the [[Sailors' Society|British and Foreign Sailors Society]], which sold Trafalgar centenary souvenirs marked with the [[Royal cypher]]. A gala was held on 21 October at the [[Royal Albert Hall]] in aid of the fund, which included a specially commissioned film by [[Alfred John West]] entitled ''Our Navy''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://user29269.vs.easily.co.uk/Nelson.htm |title=Sea Salts and Celluloid |website=user29269.vs.easily.co.uk |access-date=12 April 2012 |archive-date=23 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023081423/http://user29269.vs.easily.co.uk/Nelson.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> The event ended with ''[[God Save the King]]'' and ''[[La Marseillaise]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=14022 |title=Review of Hoock, Holger, ed., History, Commemoration and National Preoccupation: Trafalgar 1805-2005 |first=Antoine |last=Capet |date=22 January 2008 |publisher=H-Albion, H-Review |via=www.h-net.org |access-date=22 July 2019 |archive-date=18 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718142851/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=14022 |url-status=live}}</ref> The first performance of Sir [[Henry Wood]]'s ''[[Fantasia on British Sea Songs]]'' occurred on the same day at a special [[The Proms|Promenade Concert]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFvkAAAAMAAJ&q=Trafalgar+Day+Concert+of+21+October+1905 |first=Arthur |last=Jacobs |title=Henry J. Wood: ''Maker of the Proms'' |publisher=Methuen |ol=10185704M |isbn=9780413693402 |date=2004 |orig-date=1995 |page=104 |access-date=1 July 2015 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324110615/https://books.google.com/books?id=xFvkAAAAMAAJ&q=Trafalgar+Day+Concert+of+21+October+1905 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==200th anniversary==
{{Commons|Trafalgar 200}}
In 2005 a series of events around the UK, part of the ''Sea Britain'' theme, marked the bicentenary of the Battle of Trafalgar. The 200th anniversary of the battle was also commemorated on six occasions in [[Portsmouth]] during June and July, at [[St Paul's Cathedral]] (where Nelson is entombed), in Trafalgar Square in London in October (''[[T Square 200]]''), and across the UK.

On 28 June, the [[Elizabeth II|Queen]] was involved in the largest [[International Fleet Review 2005|Fleet Review]] in modern times in the [[Solent]], in which 167 ships from 35 nations took part. The Queen inspected the international fleet from the Antarctic patrol ship [[HMS Endurance (A171)|HMS ''Endurance'']]. The fleet included six aircraft carriers (modern capital ships): [[French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle (R91)|''Charles De Gaulle'']], [[HMS Illustrious (R06)|''Illustrious'']], [[HMS Invincible (R05)|''Invincible'']], [[HMS Ocean (L12)|''Ocean'']], [[Spanish aircraft carrier Principe de Asturias|''Príncipe de Asturias'']] and [[USS Saipan (LHA-2)|''Saipan'']]. In the evening a symbolic re-enactment of the battle was staged with fireworks and various small ships playing parts in the battle.

Lieutenant [[John Richards Lapenotière|John Lapenotière]]'s historic voyage in [[HMS Pickle (1800)|HMS ''Pickle'']] bringing the news of the victory from the fleet to [[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]] and thence by [[post chaise]] to the [[British Admiralty|Admiralty]] in London was commemorated by the inauguration of [[The Trafalgar Way]] and further highlighted by the [[New Trafalgar Dispatch]] celebrations from July to September in which an actor played the part of Lapenotière and re-enacted parts of the historic journey.

On the actual anniversary day, 21 October, naval manoeuvres were conducted in Trafalgar Bay near Cádiz involving a combined fleet from Britain, Spain, and France. Many descendants of people present at the battle, including members of Nelson's family, were at the ceremony.{{sfnp|Elmundo staff|2005}}

==In popular culture==
[[File:Turner, The Battle of Trafalgar (1822).jpg|thumb|''[[The Battle of Trafalgar (painting)|The Battle of Trafalgar]]'' by [[J. M. W. Turner]] (oil on canvas, 1822–1824) combines events from several moments during the battle]]

===Novels===
* [[The Knight of Sainte-Hermine|''Le Chevalier de Sainte-Hermine'']] (1869), by [[Alexandre Dumas]], is an adventure story in which the main character is alleged to be the one who shot Nelson.
* ''Trafalgar'' (1873), a Spanish novel about the battle, written by [[Benito Pérez Galdós]] and starting point of the historical cycle ''[[Episodios Nacionales]]''. It is a fictional account of a boy aboard the ship ''Santísima Trinidad''.
* In [[James Clavell]]'s 1966 novel ''[[Tai-Pan (novel)|Tai-Pan]]'', the Scots chieftain of Hong Kong, Dirk Struan, reflects on his experiences as a [[powder monkey]] on board HMS ''Royal Sovereign'' at Trafalgar.
* In the unfinished novel ''[[Hornblower and the Crisis]]'' (1967) in the [[Horatio Hornblower]] series by [[C. S. Forester]], Hornblower was to deliver false orders to Villeneuve causing him to send his fleet out of Cádiz and hence fight the battle. In ''Hornblower and the Atropos'' (1953), Hornblower is put in charge of Admiral Nelson's funeral in London.
* In ''Ramage at Trafalgar'' (1986), by [[Dudley Pope]], [[Lord Ramage|Ramage]] commands the fictitious [[frigate]] HMS ''Calypso'', which is attached to Nelson's fleet.
* In ''[[Sharpe's Trafalgar]]'' (2000), by [[Bernard Cornwell]], Sharpe finds himself at the battle aboard the fictitious HMS ''Pucelle''.
* In the 2006 novel ''[[His Majesty's Dragon]]'', the first of the historical fantasy [[Temeraire (series)|''Temeraire'' series]] by [[Naomi Novik]], in which aerial [[dragon]]-mounted combat units form major divisions of European militaries during the Napoleonic Wars, Trafalgar is actually a massive feint by Napoleon to distract British forces away from the aerial and seaborne invasion of Britain near [[Dover]]. Nelson survives, though he is burned by dragon fire.

===In other media===
* ''[[The Battle of Trafalgar (1911 film)|The Battle of Trafalgar]]'' is a [[Lost film|lost]] 1911 American [[Silent film|silent]] short film directed by [[J. Searle Dawley]] and produced by [[Edison Studios]] in New York City. Some [[film still|stills]] from the production survive and show actor Sydney Booth performing as Nelson on [[film set]]s simulating various decks of ''Victory''.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/moviwor09chal/page/n711/mode/2up "Scene from 'Trafalgar', by the Edison Company"], ''[[The Moving Picture World]]'' (New York, N.Y.), 9 September 1911, p. 695. Retrieved via the [[Internet Archive]], 30 November 2021.</ref><ref>La Roche, Edwin M. (1911). [https://archive.org/stream/motionpicturesto02moti#page/n265/mode/2up "The Battle of Trafalgar (Edison)"], ''[[The Motion Picture Story Magazine]]'' (New York, N.Y.), September 1911, p. 91. Retrieved via the Internet Archive, 30 November 2021.</ref>
* ''[[Nelson (1918 film)|Nelson]]'' (also cited ''Nelson: The Story of England's Immortal Naval Hero'') is a silent 1918 British [[historical film]] directed by [[Maurice Elvey]] and starring [[Donald Calthrop]], [[Malvina Longfellow]] and [[Ivy Close]].<ref name="BFI">[https://player.bfi.org.uk/free/film/watch-nelson-the-story-of-englands-immortal-naval-hero-1918-online "Nelson; The Story of England's Immortal Naval Hero"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130054900/https://player.bfi.org.uk/free/film/watch-nelson-the-story-of-englands-immortal-naval-hero-1918-online |date=30 November 2021 }}, catalogue, [[British Film Institute]] (BFI), London, UK. Retrieved 29 November 2021.</ref> The [[screenplay]], which includes recreations of the battle, is based on [[Robert Southey]]'s 1813 biography ''The Life of Horatio, Lord Viscount Nelson''.<ref>Southey, Robert. [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015088602530&view=1up&seq=5&skin=2021 ''The Life of Horatio, Lord Viscount Nelson''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201183459/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015088602530&view=1up&seq=5&skin=2021 |date=1 December 2021 }}, reprint of original 1813 publication. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1841. Retrieved via [[HathiTrust]] Digital Library, 1 December 2021.</ref>
* ''[[Nelson (1926 film)|Nelson]]'' is another silent British biographical film that depicts events in the battle. Released in 1926, it features [[Cedric Hardwicke|Sir Cedric Hardwicke]] in the title role.<ref>[http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b6b158550 "Nelson (1926)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129214700/https://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b6b158550 |date=29 November 2021 }}, catalogue, BFI, London, UK. Retrieved 29 November 2021.</ref>
* ''[[That Hamilton Woman]]'' is a 1941 film about [[Horatio Nelson]] and [[Emma, Lady Hamilton]] and also includes recreations of battle scenes.
* ''[[Bequest to the Nation (film)|Bequest to the Nation]] (released in the US as [[Bequest to the Nation (film)|The Nelson Affair]]) a 1973'' British [[historical film|historical]] drama [[historical film|film]], directed by [[James Cellan Jones]], and starring [[Glenda Jackson]], [[Peter Finch]], and [[Michael Jayston]]. The majority of the film revolves around Nelson's shore leave with Lady Hamilton, followed by Nelson's recall to duty and the climactic Battle of Trafalgar.
* [[Jonathan Willcocks]] composed a major choral work, ''A Great and Glorious Victory'', to mark the bicentenary of the battle in October 2005.
* The BBC marked the bicentenary with ''Nelson's Trafalgar'', a 2005 vivid drama-documentary which took full advantage of the computer-generated effects of the time. Presented by Michael Portillo, the two-disc DVD version runs 76 minutes plus extras. Portillo later revisited the format and the event, presenting the BBC's 2019 drama-documentary ''The HMS Victory Story''.
* "Admiral over the Oceans" is a song composed by Swedish [[Power Metal]] band, Civil War, detailing the battle from the point of view of a sailor and from Nelson himself.

==See also==
{{Portal|France}}
* [[List of Royal Navy ships]]
* [[List of ships captured in the 19th century#Battle of Trafalgar|List of ships captured at the Battle of Trafalgar]]
* [[Bibliography of 18th-19th century Royal Naval history]]
* [[Trafalgar Day]]
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

===Sources cited===
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{Cite web |last=Elmundo staff |date=21 October 2005 |title=Los países que combatieron en Trafalgar homenajean a sus caídos en el 200 aniversario de la batalla (Countries that fought at Trafalgar pay tribute to their fallen on the 200th anniversary of the battle) |url=http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2005/10/21/espana/1129885217.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019075245/http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2005/10/21/espana/1129885217.html |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=28 September 2011 |publisher=Elmundo.es |language=es}}
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* {{Cite journal |last=Glover |first=Richard |date=1967 |title=The French Fleet, 1807–1814; Britain's Problem; and Madison's Opportunity |journal=[[The Journal of Modern History]] |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=233–52 |doi=10.1086/240080 |s2cid=143376566}}
* {{Cite book |last=Goodwin |first=Peter |title=Nelson's Ships A History of the Vessels in which He Served 1771-1805 |date=2002 |publisher=Conway Maritime |isbn=9780851777429}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hannah |first=Peter |title=Keats, A Treasure to the Service, |date=2021 |publisher=Green Hill |isbn=978-1-922629-73-9 |ol=OL39811024M}}
* {{Cite book |last=Harding |first=Richard |title=European Warfare 1453–1815 |date=1999 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-333-69223-3 |editor-last=Black |editor-first=Jeremy |location=Hampshire |pages=96–117 |chapter=Naval Warfare 1453–1815}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hayward |first=Joel S. |title=For God and Glory: Lord Nelson and His Way of War |date=2003 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=978-1-6125-1779-7 |page=63}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hibbert |first=Christopher |title=Nelson: a personal history |date=1994 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |isbn=978-0-201-62457-1 |ol=1113624M}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ireland |first=Bernard |title=Naval Warfare in the Age of Sail |date=2000 |publisher=Harper Collins Publishing |isbn=0-00-762906-0 |location=Hammersmith, London.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lavery |first=Brian |title=Empire of the Seas |date=2009 |publisher=Conway Publishing |isbn=9781844861095 |location=London}}
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* {{Cite news |last=MercoPress staff |date=4 June 2005 |title=Majestic Royal Navy display in Faslane |publisher=MercoPress |location=Falkland Islands |url=http://en.mercopress.com/2005/06/04/majestic-royal-navy-display-in-faslane |url-status=live |access-date=1 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527123914/http://en.mercopress.com/2005/06/04/majestic-royal-navy-display-in-faslane |archive-date=27 May 2012}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nicolson |first=Adam |title=Men of Honour: Trafalgar and the Making of the English Hero (U.S. title Seize the Fire: Heroism, Duty, and the Battle of Trafalgar) |date=2005 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=0-00-719209-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pocock |first=Tom |url=https://archive.org/details/trafalgareyewitn0000unse |title=Trafalgar: an eyewitness history |date=2005 |publisher=Penguin Classics |isbn=0-14-144150-X}}
* {{Cite web |last=Poppyland staff |date=2012 |title=Poppyland Activity 1: Nelson's Crew at Trafalgar |url=http://www.poppyland.co.uk/index.php?s=NELACT1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208090458/http://www.poppyland.co.uk/index.php?s=NELACT1 |archive-date=8 December 2008 |access-date=4 February 2009 |publisher=Poppyland.co.uk}}
* {{Cite book |last=Schom |first=Alan |url=https://archive.org/details/trafalgarcountdo00scho_0 |title=Trafalgar: Countdown to Battle, 1803–1805 |date=1990 |publisher=New York |isbn=0-689-12055-9}}
* {{Cite web |last=Spicer |first=Graham |date=3 August 2005 |title=England expects – on the trail of Admiral Lord Nelson |url=http://www.culture24.org.uk/history+%26+heritage/war+%26+conflict/pre%2d20th+century+conflict/tra29483 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523001856/http://www.culture24.org.uk/history+%26+heritage/war+%26+conflict/pre%2d20th+century+conflict/tra29483 |archive-date=23 May 2013 |access-date=1 February 2012 |publisher=[[Culture24]]}}
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* {{Cite book |title=The Cambridge Modern History |date=1906 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |editor-last=Ward |editor-first=A.W. |volume=IX |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x7A8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA234 234] |editor-last2=Prothero |editor-first2=G.W. |editor-last3=Leathers |editor-first3=Stanley}}
* {{Cite book |last=White |first=Colin |title=The Nelson Encyclopaedia |date=2002 |publisher=Chatham Publishing, Lionel Leventhal Limited |isbn=1-86176-253-4 |location=Park House, Russell Gardens, London.}}
* {{Cite book |last=White |first=Colin |title=Nelson the Admiral |date=2005 |publisher=Sutton Publishing Limited |isbn=0-7509-3713-0 |location=Phoenix Mill, Stroud, Glos.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Willis |first=Sam |title=In the Hour of Victory – The Royal Navy at War in the Age of Nelson |date=2013 |publisher=Atlantic Books Ltd |isbn=978-0-85789-570-7 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Yonge |first=Charles D |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WQY-AAAAcAAJ |title=The history of the British navy: From the earliest period to the present time |date=1863 |volume=II |author-link=Charles Duke Yonge}}

'''Attribution:'''
* {{EB1911|last=Hannay |first=David |author-link=David Hannay (historian) |wstitle=Trafalgar, Battle of|volume=27|pages=153–155}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Desbrière |first=Edouard |title=The Naval Campaign of 1805: Trafalgar |date=1907 |edition=English 1933 |publisher=Clarendon Press |translator-last=Eastwick |translator-first=Constance}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fernández |first=Cayuela |title=Trafalgar. Hombres y naves entre dos épocas |last2=Gregorio |first2=José |date=2004 |publisher=Ariel |isbn=84-344-6760-7 |location=Barcelona |language=es}}
* {{Cite book |last=Frasca |first=Francesco |title=Il potere marittimo in età moderna, da Lepanto a Trafalgar |date=2008 |publisher=Lulu Enterprises UK |isbn=978-1-4092-4348-9 |edition=1st}}
** 2nd ed. 2008, Lulu Enterprises UK, {{ISBN|978-1-84799-550-6}}
** 3rd ed. 2009, Lulu Enterprises UK, {{ISBN|978-1-4092-6088-2}}
** 4th ed. 2009, Lulu Enterprises UK, {{ISBN|978-1-4092-7881-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gardiner |first=Robert |title=The campaign of Trafalgar, 1803–1805 |publisher=Mercury Books |year=2006 |isbn=1-84560-008-8 |ref={{harvid|Gardiner}}}}
* Harbron, John D., ''Trafalgar and the Spanish Navy'', 1988, London, {{ISBN|0-85177-963-8}}.
* [[David Howarth (author)|Howarth, David]], ''Trafalgar: The Nelson Touch'', 2003, Phoenix Press, {{ISBN|1-84212-717-9}}.
* Huskisson, Thomas, ''Eyewitness to Trafalgar'', reprinted in 1985 as a limited edition of 1000; Ellisons' Editions, {{ISBN|0-946092-09-5}}—the author was half-brother of [[William Huskisson]]
* Lambert, Andrew, ''War at Sea in the Age of Sail'', Chapter 8, 2000, London, {{ISBN|1-55278-127-5}}
* Pocock, Tom, ''Horatio Nelson'', Chapter XII, 1987, London, {{ISBN|0-7126-6123-9}}
* Pope, Dudley, ''England Expects'' (US title ''Decision at Trafalgar''), 1959, Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
* [[Oliver Warner|Warner, Oliver]], ''Trafalgar''. First published 1959 by Batsford{{snd}}republished 1966 by Pan.
* {{Cite book |last=Warwick |first=Peter |title=Voices from the Battle of Trafalgar |publisher=David & Charles Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=0-7153-2000-9 |ref={{harvid|Warwick}}}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070427051506/http://www.nelsonsnavy.co.uk/battle-of-trafalgar.html Nelson's Navy]
* [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documentsonline/frenchmusterrolls.asp Read about French Muster Rolls from the Battle of Trafalgar on The National Archives' website.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080315204240/http://www.historicdockyard.co.uk/dockyard/hmsvictory.php Visit HMS Victory at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard]
* [http://www.hms-victory.com/ HMS ''Victory'' Royal Navy Web Site]
* [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/histtexts/nelson/ Nelson's Memorandum – battle plan – in the British Library] 
* [https://www.theguardian.com/flash/0,5860,1504015,00.html Interactive guide:Battle of Trafalgar] educational presentation by [[Guardian Unlimited]]
* [http://mcs-notes2.open.ac.uk/Our-Navy-Video.nsf/0/0EF9501708ACCAB1802575C70073896D?opendocument&autostart=true A. J. West's "Our Navy": Wreath laying on HMS Victory, October 1905] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331225353/http://mcs-notes2.open.ac.uk/Our-Navy-Video.nsf/0/0EF9501708ACCAB1802575C70073896D?opendocument&autostart=true |date=31 March 2012 }}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/launch_gms_trafalgar_bfacademy.shtml BBC Battlefield Academy: Battle of Trafalgar] game created by [https://web.archive.org/web/20110716102645/http://www.solarismedia.com/ Solaris Media] (now [https://web.archive.org/web/20110715093254/http://www.playniac.com/ Playniac]) for the bicentenary.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4627453.stm BBC video (42 min.) of the re-enactment of the Battle of Trafalgar off Portsmouth on 28 June 2005]
* {{YouTube|id=s9mZvemKXJw |title=Concert Overture – Trafalgar 1805}}
* [http://www.bruzelius.info/Nautica/Naval_History/GB/Times(1805-11-07)a.html The London Gazette Extraordinary, 6 November 1805] original published dispatches, Naval History: Great Britain, EuroDocs: Primary Historical Documents From Western Europe, Brigham Young University Library. Retrieved 27 July 2006
* {{YouTube|id=PR_io1t8FtA|title=English folk song about the Battle of Trafalgar}}
* {{commons-inline}}

{{Sequence
| prev = [[Battle of Verona (1805)]]
| list = Napoleonic Wars
| curr = Battle of Trafalgar
| next = [[Battle of Caldiero (1805)]]
}}

{{Napoleonic Wars}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Trafalgar}}
[[Category:Battle of Trafalgar| ]]
[[Category:Horatio Nelson]]
[[Category:Battles of the War of the Third Coalition]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1805]]
[[Category:Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving France]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving Spain]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Naval battles of the Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:War of the Third Coalition]]
[[Category:1805 in Gibraltar]]
[[Category:1805 in Spain]]
[[Category:19th-century history of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:October 1805 events]]

Battle of Trafalgar

2024-03-19T08:30:42Z

92.8.58.251:

{{Short description|1805 British naval victory in the Napoleonic Wars}}
{{For|the painting|The Battle of Trafalgar (painting)}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2014}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Trafalgar
| partof = the [[Trafalgar campaign]] of the [[War of the Third Coalition]]
| image = The Battle of Trafalgar by William Clarkson Stanfield.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = ''The Battle of Trafalgar, 21 October 1805'' by [[Clarkson Frederick Stanfield]]
| date = 21 October 1805
| place = Off [[Cape Trafalgar]], [[Atlantic Ocean]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|36.25|N|6.20|W|display=inline,title}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://threedecks.org/index.php?display_type=show_battle&id=157 |title=Battle of Trafalgar, 21st October 1805 |editor-last=Harrison |editor-first=Cy |date=26 April 2020 |website=Three Decks |publisher=Three Decks, Cy Harrison |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=3 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603043559/https://threedecks.org/index.php?display_type=show_battle&id=157 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| map_type = Europe
| map_relief = 1
| map_size = 300
| result = British victory
| territory =
| combatant1 = {{plainlist|
* {{flagicon|First French Empire}} [[First French Empire|France]]
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[History of Spain (1700–1808)|Spain]]
}}
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
| commander1 = {{plainlist|
* {{flagicon|First French Empire}} [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve|Pierre Villeneuve]]{{POW}}{{Surrendered}}
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Federico Gravina]]{{DOW}}
}}
| commander2 = {{plainlist|
* {{flagdeco|UKGBI|naval}} [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Horatio Nelson]]{{KIA}}
* {{flagdeco|UKGBI|naval}} [[Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood|Cuthbert Collingwood]]
}}
| strength1 = 33 ships of the line 5 frigates 2 brigs 2,632 guns 30,000 men{{sfn|Goodwin|2002|p=257}}
| strength2 = 27 ships of the line 4 frigates 1 schooner 1 cutter 2,148 guns 17,000 men{{sfn|Goodwin|2002|p=257}}
| casualties1 = 4,395 killed 2,541 wounded 7,000–8,000 captured 21 ships of the line captured 1 ship of the line destroyed.{{sfnp|Adkins|2004|p=190}}
| casualties2 = 458 killed 1,208 wounded.{{sfnp|Adkin|2005|p=524}}
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Trafalgar}} {{Campaignbox French Revolutionary Wars: Anglo-Spanish War (1796)}} {{Campaignbox Third Coalition}}
}}
The '''Battle of Trafalgar''' was a [[naval battle|naval engagement]] that took place on 21 October 1805 between the [[Royal Navy|British Royal Navy]] and the combined fleets of the [[French Navy|French]] and [[Spanish Navy|Spanish Navies]] during the [[War of the Third Coalition]] (August–December 1805) of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] (1803–1815).<ref>{{cite web |title=Napoleonic Wars |url=http://www.westpoint.edu/history/SitePages/Napoleonic%20Wars.aspx |website=Westpoint.edu |publisher=U.S. Army |access-date=1 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728203458/http://www.westpoint.edu/history/SitePages/Napoleonic%20Wars.aspx |archive-date=28 July 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

As part of [[Napoleon]]'s plans to invade [[the United Kingdom]], the French and Spanish fleets combined to take control of the [[English Channel]] and provide the [[Grande Armée]] safe passage. The allied fleet, under the command of the French admiral, [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]], sailed from the port of [[Cádiz]] in the south of Spain on 18 October 1805. They encountered the British fleet under [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Lord Nelson]], recently assembled to meet this threat, in the Atlantic Ocean along the southwest coast of Spain, off [[Cape Trafalgar]].

Nelson was outnumbered, with 27 British [[Ship of the line|ships of the line]] to 33 allied ships including the largest warship in either fleet, the Spanish ''[[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora de la Santísima Trinidad|Santísima Trinidad]]''. To address this imbalance, Nelson sailed his fleet directly at the allied battle line's flank, hoping to break the line into pieces. Villeneuve had worried that Nelson might attempt this tactic but, for various reasons, had made no plans for this eventuality. The plan worked almost perfectly; Nelson's columns split the Franco-Spanish fleet in three, isolating the rear half from Villeneuve's flag aboard ''[[French ship Bucentaure (1803)|Bucentaure]]''. The allied vanguard sailed off while it attempted to turn around, giving the British temporary superiority over the remainder of their fleet. In the ensuing fierce battle 20 allied ships were lost, while the British lost none.

The tactic exposed the leading ships in the British lines to intense fire from multiple ships as they approached the Franco-Spanish lines. Nelson's own {{HMS|Victory}} led the front column and was almost knocked out of action. Nelson was shot by a French musketeer during the battle, and died shortly before it ended. Villeneuve was captured along with his flagship ''Bucentaure''. He attended Nelson's funeral while a captive on parole in Britain. The senior Spanish fleet officer, Admiral [[Federico Carlos Gravina y Nápoli|Federico Gravina]], escaped with the remnant of the Franco-Spanish fleet (a third of the original number of ships); he died five months later of wounds sustained during the battle.

The victory confirmed the naval supremacy Britain had established during the course of the eighteenth century, and was achieved in part through Nelson's departure from [[naval tactics in the Age of Sail|prevailing naval tactical orthodoxy]].<ref>Bennet, Geoffrey (2004). ''The Battle of Trafalgar''. England: Pen & Sword Books Limited, CPI UK, South Yorkshire.</ref>

==Background==
{{Main|Trafalgar Campaign}}In 1805, the [[First French Empire]], under [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]], was the dominant military land power on the European continent, while the British Royal Navy controlled the seas.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kongstam |first=Angus |year=2003 |chapter=The New Alexander |page=46 |title=Historical Atlas of the Napoleonic Era |publisher=Mercury Books |location=London |isbn=1904668046}}</ref> During the course of the war, the British imposed a naval [[blockade]] on France, which affected trade and kept the French from fully mobilising their naval resources.{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|pp=22–24}} Despite several successful evasions of the blockade by the French navy, it failed to inflict a major defeat upon the British, who were able to attack French interests at home and abroad with relative ease.{{sfnp|Willis|2013|p=247}}

When the [[Third Coalition]] declared war on France, after the short-lived [[Peace of Amiens]], Napoleon renewed his determination to invade Britain. To do so, he needed to ensure that the Royal Navy would be unable to disrupt the invasion [[flotilla]], which would require control of the [[English Channel]].{{sfnp|Adkins|Adkins|2006|p=134}}

The main French [[Naval fleet|fleets]] were at [[Brest, France|Brest]] in Brittany and at [[Toulon]] on the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coast. Other ports on the French Atlantic coast harboured smaller [[Squadron (naval)|squadrons]]. France and Spain were allied, so the Spanish fleet based in [[Cádiz]] and [[Ferrol, Galicia|Ferrol]] was also available.{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|p=107}}

The British possessed an experienced and well-trained corps of naval officers.{{efn|When offered his pick from the [[Navy List]] by [[Charles Middleton, 1st Baron Barham|Lord Barham]] (the [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]), Nelson replied "Choose yourself, my lord, the same spirit actuates the whole profession; you cannot choose wrong" {{harv|Allen|1853|p=210}}.}} By contrast, some of the best officers in the French navy had either been executed or had left the service during the early part of the [[French Revolution]].{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|p=104}}

Vice-Admiral [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]] had taken command of the French Mediterranean fleet following the death of [[Latouche-Treville|Latouche Treville]]. There had been more competent officers, but they had either been employed elsewhere or had fallen from Napoleon's favour.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=97}} Villeneuve had shown a distinct lack of enthusiasm for facing Nelson and the Royal Navy after the French defeat at the [[Battle of the Nile]] in 1798.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=121}}

Napoleon's naval plan in 1805 was for the French and Spanish fleets in the Mediterranean and Cádiz to break through the blockade and join forces in the [[Caribbean]]. They would then return, assist the fleet in Brest to emerge from the blockade, and together clear the English Channel of Royal Navy ships, ensuring a safe passage for the invasion barges.{{sfnp|Lavery|2009|p=171}}<gallery mode="packed" heights="180" caption="The Admirals of the Campaign">
File:HoratioNelson1.jpg|Vice Admiral [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Horatio, Lord Nelson]], by [[Lemuel Francis Abbott]]
File:Cuthbert Collingwood, Baron Collingwood by Henry Howard.jpg|Vice Admiral [[Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood|Cuthbert Collingwood]]
File:Amiraldevilleneuve.jpg|[[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]], the French Admiral
File:FedericoGravinaYNápoliAnónimoHacia1810.jpg|[[Federico Carlos Gravina y Nápoli|Federico Gravina]], the Spanish Admiral
</gallery>

===Pursuit of Villeneuve===
[[File:Nelson's Search in the Mediterranean.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Nelson's Search in the Mediterranean]]
Early in 1805, [[Vice Admiral]] Lord Nelson commanded the British fleet blockading [[Toulon]]. Unlike [[William Cornwallis]], who maintained a [[Blockade#Close, distant, and loose blockades|close blockade]] off Brest with the [[Channel Fleet]], Nelson adopted a loose blockade in the hope of luring the French out for a major battle, saying, "to be able to get at the enemy you must let ''them'' come out to ''you'', if ''you'' cannot get at ''them''."<ref>{{cite journal |title=Rear Admiral Bertie |journal=Naval Chronicle |date=1811 |volume=26 |page=23}}</ref>{{sfnp|Lavery|2009|p=171}} However, Villeneuve's fleet successfully evaded Nelson's when the British were blown off station by storms. Nelson commenced a search of the Mediterranean, supposing that the French intended to make for [[Egypt]], but Villeneuve instead took his fleet through the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], rendezvoused with the Spanish fleet in Cádiz, and sailed as planned for the Caribbean. Once Nelson realised that the French were crossing the Atlantic Ocean, he set off in pursuit.{{efn|Admirals of the time, due to the slowness of communications, were given considerable autonomy to make [[Naval strategy|strategic]] as well as [[Naval tactics|tactical]] decisions.}}[[File:The Chase to the West Indies.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The Chase to the West Indies]] He missed them by just days in the West Indies as a result of false information.{{Sfnp|Hannah|2021|page=106}}

===Cádiz===
Having lured the British to the West Indies, Villeneuve returned from the Caribbean to [[Europe]], intending to break the blockade at Brest.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=121}} Nelson, still in fear for Egypt, made to return to the Mediterranean. The fast sailing corvette taking word of his plans back to the admiralty spotted the French heading further north. On receiving this intelligence [[Lord Barham]] was alive to the enemy strategy and immediately ordered Admiral [[William Cornwallis]] to combine his squadron with that of Vice Admiral Sir [[Robert Calder]] off Ferrol and to stretch out thirty to forty leagues into the Atlantic to block the French from entering the Channel.{{Sfnp|Hannah|2021|page=186}}

Calder intercepted the French resulting in an inconclusive engagement during the [[Battle of Cape Finisterre (1805)|Battle of Cape Finisterre]] in which two of the Spanish ships were captured. Villeneuve abandoned his plan and sailed back to [[Ferrol, Galicia|Ferrol]] in northern Spain.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=137}} There he received orders from Napoleon to return to Brest according to the main plan.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=141}}

Napoleon's invasion plans for Britain depended on having a sufficiently large number of ships of the line before [[Boulogne-sur-Mer|Boulogne]] in France. This would require Villeneuve's force of 33 ships to join Vice-Admiral [[Honoré Joseph Antoine Ganteaume|Ganteaume]]'s force of 21 ships at Brest, along with a squadron of five ships under Captain Allemand, which would have given him a combined force of 59 ships of the line.

When Villeneuve set sail from Ferrol on 10 August, he was under orders from Napoleon to sail northward toward Brest. Instead, he worried that the British were observing his manoeuvres, so on 11 August, he sailed southward towards Cádiz on the southwestern coast of Spain.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=142}} With no sign of Villeneuve's fleet, on 25 August, the three French army corps' invasion force near Boulogne broke camp and marched into Germany, where it was later engaged. This ended the immediate threat of invasion.{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|p=32}}{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=157}}

The same month, Admiral Lord Nelson returned home to Britain after two years of duty at sea.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=145}} He remained ashore for 25 days and was warmly received by his countrymen.{{sfnp|Best|2005|pp=161–162}} Word reached Britain on 2 September about the combined French and Spanish fleet in Cádiz harbour.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=268}} Nelson had to wait until 15 September before his ship, [[HMS Victory|HMS ''Victory'']], was ready to sail.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=273}}

On 15 August, Cornwallis decided to detach 20 ships of the line from the fleet guarding the English Channel to sail southward to engage the enemy forces in Spain.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=283}} This left the Channel short of large vessels, with only 11 ships of the line present.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|pp=283–284}} This detached force formed the nucleus of the British fleet at Trafalgar. This fleet, under the command of Vice-Admiral Calder, reached Cádiz on 15 September. Nelson joined the fleet on 28 September to take command.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=170}}

The British fleet used [[frigate]]s (faster, but too fragile for the line of battle), to keep a constant watch on the harbour, while the main force remained out of sight, approximately {{convert|50|mi|km}} west of the shore.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=288}} Nelson's hope was to lure the combined Franco-Spanish force out and engage it in a decisive battle. The force watching the harbour was led by Captain [[Henry Blackwood|Blackwood]], commanding [[HMS Euryalus (1803)|HMS ''Euryalus'']].{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=288}} His squadron of seven ships comprised five frigates, a [[schooner]], and a [[brig]].{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=190}}

===Supply situation===
At this point, Nelson's fleet badly needed provisioning. On 2 October, five ships of the line, [[HMS Queen (1769)|HMS ''Queen'']], [[HMS Canopus (1798)|''Canopus'']], [[HMS Spencer (1800)|''Spencer'']], [[HMS Zealous (1785)|''Zealous'']], {{HMS|Tigre|1795|2}}, and the frigate [[HMS Endymion (1797)|HMS ''Endymion'']] were dispatched to [[Gibraltar]] under [[Thomas Louis|Rear-Admiral Sir Thomas Louis]] for supplies.<ref>James p. 22</ref>{{Citation not found|date=August 2020}}

[[File:Battle Of Trafalgar By William Lionel Wyllie, Juno Tower, CFB Halifax Nova Scotia.jpg|upright=1.35|left|thumb|''Battle of Trafalgar'' by [[William Lionel Wyllie]], Juno Tower, [[CFB Halifax]], Nova Scotia, Canada]]

These ships were later diverted for convoy duty in the [[Mediterranean]], although Nelson had expected them to return. Similarly, [[HMS Superb (1798)|HMS ''Superb'']] under Captain [[Richard Goodwin Keats]] had been sent to the dockyard for a re-fit after four years at sea including the chase of Villeneuve and was expected to return to the fleet where Keats was to be Nelson's second, but the ship was not released in time.{{Sfnp|Hannah|2021|page=120–124}} Other British ships continued to arrive, and by 15 October the fleet was up to full strength for the battle. Nelson also lost Calder's [[flagship]], the 98-gun [[HMS Prince of Wales (1794)|''Prince of Wales'']], which he sent home as Calder had been recalled by the Admiralty to face a court-martial for his apparent lack of aggression during the engagement off Cape Finisterre on 22 July.

Meanwhile, Villeneuve's fleet in Cádiz was also suffering from a serious supply shortage that could not be easily rectified by the cash-poor French.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=278}} The blockade maintained by the British fleet had made it difficult for the Franco-Spanish allies to obtain stores, and their ships were ill-equipped. Villeneuve's ships were also more than two thousand men short of the force needed to sail. These were not the only problems faced by the Franco-Spanish fleet. The main French ships of the line had been kept in harbour for years by the British blockade with only brief sorties. The French crews included few experienced sailors, and, as most of the crew had to be taught the elements of seamanship on the few occasions when they got to sea, gunnery was neglected.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=154}} The hasty voyage across the Atlantic and back used up vital supplies. Villeneuve's supply situation began to improve in October, but news of Nelson's arrival made Villeneuve reluctant to leave port. His captains had held a vote on the matter and decided to stay in harbour.

On 16 September, Napoleon gave orders for the French and Spanish ships at Cádiz to put to sea at the first favourable opportunity, join with seven Spanish ships of the line then at [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]], go to [[Naples]] and land the soldiers they carried to reinforce his troops there, then fight decisively if they met a numerically inferior British fleet.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=153}}

==Fleets==
{{main|Order of battle at the Battle of Trafalgar}}

===British===
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align:right;"
|-
!
!British
!Franco- Spanish
|-
|First rates
|3
|4
|-
|Second rates
|4
|0
|-
|Third rates
|20
|29
|-
|Total ships of the line
|27
|33
|-
|Other ships
|6
|7
|}

On 21 October, Admiral Nelson had 27 ships of the line with 2,148 cannons, and a total of 17,000 crewmen and marines under his command.{{sfn|Goodwin|2002|p=259}} Nelson's flagship, [[HMS Victory|HMS ''Victory'']], captained by [[Thomas Masterman Hardy]], was one of three 100-gun [[first-rate]]s in his fleet. He also had four 98-gun [[second-rate]]s and 20 [[third-rate]]s. One of the third rates was an 80-gun vessel, and 16 were 74-gun vessels. The remaining three were 64-gun ships, which were being phased out of the Royal Navy at the time of the battle. Nelson also had four frigates of 38 or 36 guns, a 12-gun [[schooner]] and a 10-gun [[cutter (boat)|cutter]].

===Franco-Spanish===
Against Nelson, Vice-Admiral Villeneuve, sailing on his flagship ''Bucentaure'', fielded 33 ships of the line, including some of the largest in the world at the time. The Spanish contributed four first-rates to the fleet - three of these ships, one at 130 guns ([[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora de la Santísima Trinidad|''Santísima Trinidad'']]) and two at 112 guns (''Príncipe de Asturias'', ''Santa Ana''), were much larger than anything under Nelson's command. The fourth first-rate carried 100 guns. The fleet had six 80-gun third-rates, (four French and two Spanish), and one Spanish 64-gun third-rate. The remaining 22 third-rates were 74-gun vessels, of which 14 were French and eight Spanish. In total, the Spanish contributed 15 ships of the line and the French 18 along with some 30,000 men and marines manning 2,632 cannon. The fleet also included five 40-gun frigates and two 18-gun [[brig]]s, all French.{{sfn|Goodwin|2002|p=257}}

==Battle==

===Nelson's plan===
The prevailing tactical orthodoxy at the time involved manoeuvring to approach the enemy fleet in a single [[line of battle]] and then engaging broadside in parallel lines.{{sfnp|Fremont-Barnes|2007|p=66}} In previous times, fleets had usually engaged in a mixed mêlée of chaotic one-on-one battles. One reason for the development of the line of battle system was to facilitate control of the fleet: if all the ships were in line, signalling in battle became possible.{{sfnp|Ireland|2000|p=52}} The line also allowed either side to disengage by breaking away in formation; if the attacker chose to continue, their line would be broken as well.{{sfnp|Fremont-Barnes|2007|p=66}} This often led to inconclusive battles, or allowed the losing side to minimise its losses; but Nelson wanted a conclusive action, giving his well-trained crews a chance to fight ship to ship.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=154}}

Nelson's solution to the problem was to cut the opposing line in three. Approaching in two columns, sailing perpendicular to the enemy's line, one towards the centre of the opposing line and one towards the trailing end, his ships would surround the middle third, and force them to fight to the end.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=182}} Nelson hoped specifically to cut the line just in front of the French flagship, ''Bucentaure''; the isolated ships in front of the break would not be able to see the flagship's signals, which he hoped would take them out of combat while they re-formed. This echoed the [[Naval tactics in the Age of Sail|tactics]] used by [[Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan|Admiral Duncan]] at the [[Battle of Camperdown]] and [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Admiral Jervis]] at the [[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1797)|Battle of Cape St. Vincent]], both in 1797.{{sfnp|White|2002|p=238}}
[[File:The Battle of Trafalgar, 21 October 1805 RMG BHC0550.tiff|thumb|''The Battle of Trafalgar'' painted by [[Samuel Drummond]] in 1825]]

The plan had three principal advantages. First, the British fleet would close with the Franco-Spanish as quickly as possible, preventing their escape.{{sfnp|White|2005|p=174}} Second, it would quickly bring on a mêlée and frantic battle by breaking the Franco-Spanish line and inducing a series of individual ship-to-ship actions, in which the British knew they were likely to prevail. Nelson knew that the superior seamanship, faster gunnery and better morale of his crews were great advantages.{{sfnp|White|2005|p=173}} Third, it would bring a decisive concentration on the rear of the Franco-Spanish fleet. The ships in the [[Vanguard|van]] of the enemy fleet would have to turn back to support the rear, which would take a long time.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=182}} Additionally, once the Franco-Spanish line had been broken, their ships would be relatively defenceless against powerful broadsides from the British fleet, and it would take them a long time to reposition to return fire.

The main drawback of attacking head-on was that as the leading British ships approached, the Franco-Spanish Combined Fleet would be able to direct [[raking fire|raking]] [[Broadside (naval)|broadside]] fire at their bows, to which they would be unable to reply. To lessen the time the fleet was exposed to this danger, Nelson had his ships make all available sail (including [[Studding sail|stunsails]]), yet another departure from the norm.<ref name=NB215>Tracy (2008) p. 215</ref> He was also well aware that French and Spanish gunners were ill-trained and would have difficulty firing accurately from a moving gun platform. The Combined Fleet was sailing across a heavy [[Swell (ocean)|swell]], causing the ships to roll heavily and exacerbating the problem. Nelson's plan was indeed a gamble, but a carefully calculated one.{{sfnp|Willis|2013|p=266}}

During the period of blockade off the coast of Spain in October, Nelson instructed his captains, over two dinners aboard ''Victory'', on his plan for the approaching battle. In an animated conversation with his favourite captain, Richard Goodwin Keats, who was expected to be his second in the forthcoming battle, Nelson explained a refined battle plan whilst the two were walking in the garden of Merton in August 1805.{{Sfnp|Hannah|2021|loc=ch. 9}} The order of sailing, in which the fleet was arranged when the enemy was first sighted, was to be the order of the ensuing action so that no time would be wasted in forming two lines.{{sfnp|White|2002|p=239}} The first, led by his second-in-command Vice-Admiral [[Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood|Cuthbert Collingwood]], was to sail into the rear of the enemy line, while the other, led by Nelson, was to sail into the centre and vanguard.{{sfnp|White|2005|p=174}} In preparation for the battle, Nelson ordered the ships of his fleet to be painted in a distinctive yellow and black pattern (later known as the [[Nelson Chequer]]) that would make them easy to distinguish from their opponents.{{sfnp|Best|2005|pp=182–183}}

Nelson was careful to point out that something had to be left to chance. Nothing is sure in a sea battle, so he left his captains free from all hampering rules by telling them that "No captain can do very wrong if he places his ship alongside that of the enemy."{{sfnp|White|2002|p=238}} In short, [[emergence|circumstances]] would dictate the execution, subject to the guiding rule that the enemy's rear was to be cut off and superior force concentrated on that part of the enemy's line.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=154}}

Admiral Villeneuve himself expressed his belief that Nelson would use some sort of unorthodox attack, presciently speculating that Nelson would drive right at his line. But his long game of [[cat and mouse]] with Nelson had worn him down, and he was suffering from a loss of nerve. Fearing that his inexperienced officers would be unable to maintain formation in more than one group, he chose to keep the single line that became Nelson's target.{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|pp=115–116}}

===Departure===
{{more citations needed|section|date=October 2017}}
The Combined Fleet of French and Spanish warships anchored in Cádiz under the leadership of Admiral Villeneuve was in disarray. On 16 September 1805 Villeneuve received orders from Napoleon to sail the Combined Fleet from Cádiz to Naples. At first, Villeneuve was optimistic about returning to the Mediterranean, but soon had second thoughts. A war council was held aboard his flagship, ''[[French ship Bucentaure (1803)|Bucentaure]]'', on 8 October.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=178}} While some of the French captains wished to obey Napoleon's orders, the Spanish captains and other French officers, including Villeneuve, thought it best to remain in Cádiz.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=179}} Villeneuve changed his mind yet again on 18 October 1805, ordering the Combined Fleet to sail immediately even though there were only very light winds.{{sfnp|Schom|1990|pp=301–06}}

The sudden change was prompted by a letter Villeneuve had received on 18 October, informing him that Vice-Admiral [[François Rosily]] had arrived in [[Madrid]] with orders to take command of the Combined Fleet.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|pp=289–290}} Stung by the prospect of being disgraced before the fleet, Villeneuve resolved to go to sea before his successor could reach Cádiz.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=153}} At the same time, he received intelligence that a detachment of six British ships (Admiral Louis' squadron), had docked at Gibraltar, thus weakening the British fleet. This was used as the pretext for sudden change.

The weather, however, suddenly turned calm following a week of gales. This slowed the progress of the fleet leaving the harbour, giving the British plenty of warning. Villeneuve had drawn up plans to form a force of four squadrons, each containing both French and Spanish ships. Following their earlier vote on 8 October to stay put, some captains were reluctant to leave Cádiz, and as a result they failed to follow Villeneuve's orders closely and the fleet straggled out of the harbour in no particular formation.

It took most of 20 October for Villeneuve to get his fleet organised; it eventually set sail in three columns for the Straits of Gibraltar to the southeast. That same evening, ''[[French ship Achille (1804)|Achille]]'' spotted a force of 18 British ships of the line in pursuit. The fleet began to prepare for battle and during the night, they were ordered into a single line. The following day, Nelson's fleet of 27 ships of the line and four frigates was spotted in pursuit from the northwest with the wind behind it. Villeneuve again ordered his fleet into three columns, but soon changed his mind and restored a single line. The result was a sprawling, uneven formation.

At 5:40 a.m. on 21 October, the British were about 21 miles  (34 km) to the northwest of Cape Trafalgar, with the Franco-Spanish fleet between the British and the Cape. About 6 a.m., Nelson gave the order to prepare for battle.<ref>Signal log of HMS ''Bellerophon'', 21 October 1805{{Original research inline|date=November 2023}}</ref> At 8 a.m., the British frigate ''Euryalus'', which had been keeping watch on the Combined Fleet overnight, observed the British fleet still "forming the lines" in which it would attack.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Battle of Trafalgar: The Logbook of the Euryalus, 21st October 1805 |url=http://chasingnelson.blogspot.co.uk/2013/10/the-battle-of-trafalgar-logbook-of_22.html |website=chasingnelson.blogspot.co.uk |access-date=11 June 2017 |date=22 October 2013 |archive-date=29 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929135216/http://chasingnelson.blogspot.co.uk/2013/10/the-battle-of-trafalgar-logbook-of_22.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

At 8 a.m., Villeneuve ordered the fleet to ''wear together'' (turn about) and return to Cádiz. This reversed the order of the allied line, placing the rear division under Rear-Admiral [[Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley]] in the vanguard. The wind became contrary at this point, often shifting direction. The very light wind rendered manoeuvring virtually impossible for all but the most expert seamen. The inexperienced crews had difficulty with the changing conditions, and it took nearly an hour and a half for Villeneuve's order to be completed. The French and Spanish fleet now formed an uneven, angular crescent, with the slower ships generally to [[leeward]] and closer to the shore.

By 11 a.m. Nelson's entire fleet was visible to Villeneuve, drawn up in two parallel columns. The two fleets would be within range of each other within an hour. Villeneuve was concerned at this point about forming up a line, as his ships were unevenly spaced in an irregular formation drawn out nearly five miles (8 km) long as Nelson's fleet approached.

As the British drew closer, they could see that the enemy was not sailing in a tight order, but in irregular groups. Nelson could not immediately make out the French flagship as the French and Spanish were not flying command pennants.

Nelson was outnumbered and outgunned, the enemy totalling nearly 30,000 men and 2,568 guns to his 17,000 men and 2,148 guns. The Franco-Spanish fleet also had six more ships of the line, and so could more readily combine their fire. There was no way for some of Nelson's ships to avoid being "doubled on" or even "trebled on".

As the two fleets drew closer, anxiety began to build among officers and sailors; one British sailor described the approach thus: "During this momentous preparation, the human mind had ample time for meditation, for it was evident that the fate of England rested on this battle".{{sfnp|Adkins|2004a|p={{page needed|date=February 2012}}}}

===Combat===
{{more citations needed|section|date=October 2017}}
[[File:England expects...retouched.jpg|thumb|Nelson's signal, "[[England expects that every man will do his duty]]", flying from ''Victory'' on the bicentenary of the Battle of Trafalgar]]
[[File:England Expects Signal.svg|thumb|Nelson's signal.<ref name=SignalWasFamous/>]]

The battle progressed largely according to Nelson's plan. At 11:45, Nelson sent the flag signal, "[[England expects that every man will do his duty]]".<ref name=SignalWasFamous>{{cite web |url=http://www.aboutnelson.co.uk/england%20expcts.htm |title=England Expects |publisher=aboutnelson.co.uk |access-date=16 September 2006 |archive-date=23 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211223162755/http://www.aboutnelson.co.uk/england%20expcts.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{blockquote|His Lordship came to me on the [[Poop deck|poop]], and after ordering certain signals to be made, about a quarter to noon, he said, "Mr. [[John Pasco|Pasco]], I wish to say to the fleet, ENGLAND CONFIDES THAT EVERY MAN WILL DO HIS DUTY" and he added "You must be quick, for I have one more to make which is for close action." I replied, "If your Lordship will permit me to substitute 'expects' for 'confides' the signal will soon be completed, because the word 'expects' is in the vocabulary, and 'confides' must be spelt," His Lordship replied, in haste, and with seeming satisfaction, "That will do, Pasco, make it directly."<ref name="NS">{{cite web |url=http://www.nelson-society.org.uk/html/body_england_expects.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050324080325/http://www.nelson-society.org.uk/html/body_england_expects.htm |archive-date=24 March 2005 |title=England Expects |publisher=The Nelson Society |access-date=24 March 2005}}</ref>}}

The term "England" was widely used at the time to refer to the United Kingdom; the British fleet included significant contingents from Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Unlike the photographic depiction above, this signal would have been shown on the [[mizzen]] mast only and would have required 12 lifts.

As the battle opened, the French and Spanish were in a ragged curved line headed north. As planned, the British fleet was approaching the Franco-Spanish line in two columns. Leading the northern, [[windward and leeward|windward]] column in ''Victory'' was Nelson, while Collingwood in the 100-gun [[HMS Royal Sovereign (1786)|''Royal Sovereign'']] led the second, leeward, column. The two British columns approached from the west at nearly a right angle to the allied line. Nelson led his column into a feint toward the van of the Franco-Spanish fleet and then abruptly turned toward the actual point of attack. Collingwood altered the course of his column slightly so that the two lines converged at this line of attack.

[[File:Trafalgar-Auguste Mayer.jpg|thumb|left|Artist's conception of [[HMS Sandwich (1759)|HMS ''Sandwich'']] fighting the French [[flagship]] ''[[French ship Bucentaure (1803)|Bucentaure]]'' (completely dismasted) at Trafalgar. ''Bucentaure'' is also fighting [[HMS Temeraire (1798)|HMS ''Temeraire'']] (on the left) and being fired into by [[HMS Victory|HMS ''Victory'']] (behind her). In fact, this is a mistake by [[Auguste Étienne François Mayer|Auguste Mayer]], the painter; HMS ''Sandwich'' never fought at Trafalgar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.musee-marine.fr/cartel2.php?id=55 |title=Auguste Mayer's picture as described by the official website of the Musée national de la Marine (in French) |publisher=Musee-marine.fr |access-date=6 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100526163947/http://www.musee-marine.fr/cartel2.php?id=55 |archive-date=26 May 2010}}</ref>]]

Just before his column engaged the allied forces, Collingwood said to his officers, "Now, gentlemen, let us do something today which the world may talk of hereafter."{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}} Because the winds were very light during the battle, all the ships were moving extremely slowly, and the foremost British ships were under heavy fire from several of the allied ships for almost an hour before their own guns could bear.

At noon, Villeneuve sent the signal "engage the enemy", and [[French ship Fougueux (1785)|''Fougueux'']] fired her first trial shot at ''Royal Sovereign''.{{sfnp|Fraser|1906|pp=114, 211–213}}{{sfnp|Corbett|1919|p=440}}{{sfnp|Thiers|1850|p=45}} ''Royal Sovereign'' had all sails out and, having recently had her bottom cleaned, outran the rest of the British fleet. As she approached the allied line, she came under fire from ''Fougueux'', [[French ship Indomptable (1790)|''Indomptable'']], ''San Justo'', and ''San Leandro'', before breaking the line just astern of Admiral Alava's flagship ''[[Spanish ship Santa Ana|Santa Ana]]'', into which she fired a devastating [[double-shotted]] raking broadside. On board ''Victory'', Nelson pointed to ''Royal Sovereign'' and said, "See how that noble fellow Collingwood carries his ship into action!" At approximately the same moment, Collingwood remarked to his captain, [[Edward Rotheram]], "What would Nelson give to be here?"<ref name="Heathcote41">{{cite book |last=Heathcote |title=Nelson's Trafalgar Captains |page=41}}</ref>

[[File:Trafalgar 1200hr.svg|thumb|Artist's conception of the situation at noon as ''[[HMS Royal Sovereign (1786)|Royal Sovereign]]'' was breaking into the Franco-Spanish line]]

The second ship in the British lee column, [[HMS Belleisle (1795)|''Belleisle'']], was engaged by [[French ship Aigle (1800)|''Aigle'']], ''Achille'', [[French ship Neptune (1803)|''Neptune'']], and ''Fougueux''; she was soon completely dismasted, unable to manoeuvre and largely unable to fight, as her sails blinded her batteries, but kept flying her flag for 45 minutes until the following British ships came to her rescue.

For 40 minutes, ''Victory'' was under fire from [[French ship Héros (1801)|''Héros'']], [[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora de la Santísima Trinidad (1769)|''Santísima Trinidad'']], [[French ship Redoutable (1795)|''Redoutable'']], and ''Neptune''; although many shots went astray, others killed and wounded a number of her crew and shot her wheel away, so that she had to be steered from her tiller belowdecks, all before she could respond. At 12:45, ''Victory'' cut the enemy line between Villeneuve's flagship ''Bucentaure'' and ''Redoutable''; she came close to ''Bucentaure'' with her guns loaded with double or treble shots each, and her 68-pounder carronades loaded with 500 musketballs, she unleashed a devastating treble-shotted raking broadside through ''Bucentaure''{{'s}} stern which killed and wounded some 200-400 men of the ship's 800 man complement and dismasted the ship.<ref>{{Citation |author=Drachinifel |title=HMS Victory - The Original Fast Battleship |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F8udR6Hyr60 |access-date=2023-03-26 |language=en |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314162236/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F8udR6Hyr60 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{bsn|date=November 2023|reason=Drachinifel makes some interesting videos, but he's not a reliable source}} This volley of gunfire from the ''Victory'' immediately knocked the French Flagship out of action. Villeneuve thought that boarding would take place, and with the [[French Imperial Eagle|Eagle]] of his ship in hand, told his men, "I will throw it onto the enemy ship and we will take it back there!" However, ''Victory'' engaged the 74-gun ''Redoutable''; ''Bucentaure'' was left to the next three ships of the British windward column: [[HMS Temeraire (1798)|''Temeraire'']], [[HMS Conqueror (1801)|''Conqueror'']], and {{HMS|Neptune|1797|6}}.

[[File:Fall of Nelson.jpg|thumb|left|Painter Denis Dighton's imagining of Nelson being shot on the quarterdeck of ''Victory'']]
A general mêlée ensued. ''Victory'' locked masts with the French ''Redoutable,'' whose crew, including a strong infantry corps (with three captains and four lieutenants), gathered for an attempt to board and seize ''Victory''. A [[musket]] bullet fired from the [[Top (sailing ship)|mizzentop]] of ''Redoutable'' struck Nelson in the left shoulder, passed through his spine at the sixth and seventh thoracic vertebrae, and lodged two inches below his right scapula in the muscles of his back. Nelson exclaimed, "They finally succeeded, I am dead." He was carried below decks.

[[File:The Battle of Trafalgar, 21 October 1805- Beginning of the Action RMG BHC0548.tiff|thumb|Painter Nicholas Pocock's conception of the situation at 1300h]]

''Victory''{{'}}s gunners were called on deck to fight boarders, and she ceased firing. The gunners were forced back below decks by French [[grenade]]s. As the French were preparing to board ''Victory'', ''Temeraire'', the second ship in the British windward column, approached from the starboard bow of ''Redoutable'' and fired on the exposed French crew with a [[carronade]], causing many casualties.

At 13:55, the French [[Jean Jacques Etienne Lucas|Captain Lucas]] of ''Redoutable'', with 99 fit men out of 643 and severely wounded himself, surrendered. The French ''Bucentaure'' was isolated by ''Victory'' and ''Temeraire'', and then engaged by HMS ''Neptune'', {{HMS|Leviathan|1790|6}}, and ''Conqueror''; similarly, ''Santísima Trinidad'' was isolated and overwhelmed, surrendering after three hours.

[[File:Trafalgar2.jpg|thumb|left|Painter Nicholas Pocock's conception of the situation at 1700h]]

As more and more British ships entered the battle, the ships of the allied centre and rear were gradually overwhelmed. The allied van, after long remaining quiescent, made a futile demonstration and then sailed away.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=154}} During the combat, Gravina was wounded, while [[Dionisio Alcalá Galiano|Dionisio Alcalá-Galiano]] and [[Cosme Damián de Churruca y Elorza|Cosme Damián Churruca]] —commanders of the ''Bahama'' and ''[[Spanish ship San Juan Nepomuceno|San Juan Nepomuceno]]'', respectively— were killed after ordering their ships not to surrender.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ocampo Aneiros |first=José Antonio |title=Biografía de Cosme Damián Churruca y Elorza |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/12143/cosme-damian-churruca-y-elorza |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=[[Real Academia de la Historia]] |archive-date=16 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716145320/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/12143/cosme-damian-churruca-y-elorza |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=O'Donnell y Duque de Estrada |first=Hugo |author-link=Hugo O'Donnell, 7th Duke of Tetuan |title=Biografía de Dionisio Alcalá-Galiano y Alcalá-Galiano |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/6053/dionisio-alcala-galiano-y-alcala-galiano |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=[[Real Academia de la Historia]] |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808022215/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/6053/dionisio-alcala-galiano-y-alcala-galiano |url-status=live }}</ref> Gravina died from his wounds months later.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Benítez Martín |first=Manuel |title=Biografía de Federico Carlos Gravina y Napoli |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/11283/federico-carlos-gravina-y-napoli |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=[[Real Academia de la Historia]] |archive-date=13 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813234321/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/11283/federico-carlos-gravina-y-napoli |url-status=live }}</ref> The British took 20 vessels of the Franco-Spanish fleet and lost none. Among the captured French ships were ''Aigle'', [[French ship Algésiras (1804)|''Algésiras'']], {{HMS|Berwick|1775|2}}, ''Bucentaure'', ''Fougueux'', [[French ship Intrépide (1800)|''Intrépide'']], ''Redoutable'', and [[French ship Swiftsure|''Swiftsure'']]. The Spanish ships taken were ''Argonauta'', ''Bahama'', ''Monarca'', ''Neptuno'', [[Spanish ship San Agustín|''San Agustín'']], ''San Ildefonso'', ''San Juan Nepomuceno'', [[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora de la Santísima Trinidad (1769)|''Santísima Trinidad'']], and ''Santa Ana''. Of these, ''Redoutable'' sank, and ''Santísima Trinidad'' and ''Argonauta'' were scuttled by the British. ''Achille'' exploded, ''Intrépide'' and ''San Augustín'' burned, and ''Aigle'', ''Berwick'', ''Fougueux'', and ''Monarca'' were wrecked in a gale following the battle.

As Nelson lay dying, he ordered the fleet to anchor, as a storm was predicted. However, when the storm blew up, many of the severely damaged ships sank or ran aground on the [[shoals]]. A few of them were recaptured, some by the French and Spanish prisoners overcoming the small prize crews, others by ships sallying from Cádiz. Surgeon [[William Beatty (surgeon)|William Beatty]] heard Nelson murmur, "Thank God I have done my duty"; when he returned, Nelson's voice had faded, and his pulse was very weak.{{sfnp|Hibbert|1994|pp=376–377}} He looked up as Beatty took his pulse, then closed his eyes. Nelson's chaplain, [[Alexander John Scott|Alexander Scott]], who remained by Nelson as he died, recorded his last words as "God and my country."<ref name="Hayward 63">{{harvnb|Hayward|2003|page=63}}.</ref> It has been suggested by Nelson historian Craig Cabell that Nelson was actually reciting his own prayer as he fell into his death coma, as the words 'God' and 'my country' are closely linked therein. Nelson died at half-past four, three hours after being hit.{{sfnp|Hibbert|1994|pp=376–377}}

Towards the end of the battle, and with the combined fleet being overwhelmed, the still relatively un-engaged portion of the van under Rear-Admiral Dumanoir Le Pelley tried to come to the assistance of the collapsing centre. After failing to fight his way through, he decided to break off the engagement, and led four French ships, his flagship the 80-gun [[French ship Formidable (1795)|''Formidable'']], the 74-gun ships [[French ship Scipion (1801)|''Scipion'']], [[French ship Duguay-Trouin (1800)|''Duguay-Trouin'']] and [[French ship Mont Blanc (1793)|''Mont Blanc'']] away from the fighting. He headed at first for the Straits of Gibraltar, intending to carry out Villeneuve's original orders and make for Toulon.<ref name="Adkin530">{{harvnb|Adkin|2005|p=530}}</ref> On 22 October he changed his mind, remembering a powerful British squadron under Rear-Admiral Thomas Louis was patrolling the straits, and headed north, hoping to reach one of the French Atlantic ports. With a storm gathering in strength off the Spanish coast, he sailed westwards to clear [[Cape St. Vincent]], prior to heading north-west, swinging eastwards across the [[Bay of Biscay]], and aiming to reach the French port at [[Rochefort, Charente-Maritime|Rochefort]].<ref name="Adkin530"/> These four ships remained at large until their encounter with and attempt to chase a British frigate brought them in range of a British squadron under [[Sir Richard Strachan, 6th Baronet|Sir Richard Strachan]], which captured them all on 4 November 1805 at the [[Battle of Cape Ortegal]].<ref name="Adkin530"/>

====Cosmao and MacDonnell sortie====
[[File:Trafalgar, ships scattered.jpg|thumb|The gale after Trafalgar, depicted by [[Thomas Buttersworth]].]]

Only eleven allied ships escaped to Cádiz, and, of those, only five were considered seaworthy. The seriously wounded Admiral Gravina passed command of the remainder of the fleet over to Commodore [[Julien Cosmao]] on 23 October. From shore, the allied commanders could see an opportunity for a rescue mission. Cosmao claimed in his report that the rescue plan was entirely his idea, but Vice-Admiral [[Antonio de Escaño|Escaño]] recorded a meeting of Spanish and French commodores at which a planned rescue was discussed and agreed upon. [[Enrique MacDonell]] and Cosmao were of equal rank and both raised commodore's pennants before hoisting anchor.{{Sfn|Clayton|Craig|2004}} Both sets of mariners were determined to make an attempt to recapture some of the prizes.{{Sfn|Clayton|Craig|2004}} Cosmao ordered the rigging of his ship, the 74-gun [[French ship Pluton (1805)|''Pluton'']], to be repaired and reinforced her crew (which had been depleted by casualties from the battle), with sailors from the French frigate ''[[French frigate Hermione (1804)|Hermione]]''. Taking advantage of a favourable northwesterly wind, ''Pluton'', the 80-gun ''Neptune'' and ''Indomptable'', the Spanish 100-gun [[Spanish ship Rayo (1749)|''Rayo'']] and 74-gun [[Spanish ship San Francisco de Asis (1767)|''San Francisco de Asís'']], together with five French frigates and two brigs, sailed out of the harbour towards the British.<ref name="Yonge-p335">{{harvnb|Yonge|1863|p=335}}.</ref><ref name="Fremont-Barnes-p81" />

====The British cast off the prizes====
Soon after leaving port, the wind shifted to west-southwest, raising a heavy sea with the result that most of the British prizes broke their tow ropes, and drifting far to [[Windward and leeward|leeward]], were only partially resecured. The combined squadron came in sight at noon, causing Collingwood to summon his most battle-ready ships to meet the threat. In doing so, he ordered them to cast off towing their prizes. He had formed a defensive line of ten ships by three o'clock in the afternoon and approached the Franco-Spanish squadron, covering the remainder of their prizes which stood out to sea.<ref name="Fremont-Barnes-p81">{{harvnb|Fremont-Barnes|2005|p=81}}.</ref><ref name="Fremont-Barnes-p82">{{harvnb|Fremont-Barnes|2005|p=82}}.</ref> The Franco-Spanish squadron, numerically inferior, chose not to approach within gunshot and then declined to attack.<ref>{{harvnb|Pocock|2005|p=175}}.</ref> Collingwood also chose not to seek action, and in the confusion of the powerful storm, the French frigates managed to retake two Spanish ships of the line which had been cast off by their British captors, the 112-gun ''Santa Ana'' and 80-gun [[Spanish ship Neptuno (1795)|''Neptuno'']], taking them in tow and making for Cádiz.<ref name="Yonge-p336">{{harvnb|Yonge|1863|p=336}}.</ref> On being taken in tow, the Spanish crews rose up against their British prize crews, putting them to work as prisoners.{{sfnp|Thiers|1850|p=45}}<ref>{{harvnb|TB staff|2004}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

[[File:Retour a Rota Mayer.jpg|thumb|left|Painting depicting the French [[frigate]] [[French frigate Thémis (1799)|''Thémis'']] towing the re-taken Spanish [[first-rate]] [[ship of the line]] ''Santa Ana'' into [[Cádiz]]. [[Auguste Étienne François Mayer|Auguste Mayer]], 19th century.]]

Despite this initial success the Franco-Spanish force, hampered by battle damage, struggled in the heavy seas. ''Neptuno'' was eventually wrecked off [[Rota, Andalusia|Rota]] in the gale, while ''Santa Ana'' reached port.{{sfn|Adkin|2005|p=524–529}} The French 80-gun ship ''Indomptable'' was wrecked on the 24th or 25th off the town of Rota on the northwest point of the bay of Cádiz.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} At the time ''Indomptable'' had 1,200 men on board, but no more than 100 were saved. ''San Francisco de Asís'' was driven ashore in [[Bay of Cádiz|Cádiz Bay]], near Fort Santa Catalina, although her crew was saved. ''Rayo'', an old three-decker with more than 50 years of service, anchored off [[Sanlúcar de Barrameda|Sanlúcar]], a few [[league (unit)|leagues]] to the northwest of Rota. There, she lost her masts, already damaged in the battle.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} Heartened by the approach of the squadron, the French crew of the former flagship ''Bucentaure'' also rose up and retook the ship from the British prize crew but she was wrecked later on 23 October. ''[[French ship Aigle (1800)|Aigle]]'' escaped from the British ship [[HMS Defiance (1783)|HMS ''Defiance'']], but was wrecked off the [[El Puerto de Santa María|Port of Santa María]] on 23 October; while the French prisoners on ''Berwick'' cut the tow cables, but caused her to founder off Sanlúcar on 22 October. The crew of ''[[French ship Algésiras (1804)|Algésiras]]'' rose up and managed to sail into Cádiz.{{sfnp|Thiers|1850|p=45}}

Observing that some of the leewardmost of the prizes were escaping towards the Spanish coast, ''Leviathan'' asked for and was granted permission by Collingwood to try to retrieve the prizes and bring them to anchor. ''Leviathan'' chased [[Spanish ship Monarca (1794)|''Monarca'']], but on 24 October she came across ''Rayo'', dismasted but still flying Spanish colours, at anchor off the shoals of Sanlúcar.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} At this point the 74-gun [[HMS Donegal (1798)|HMS ''Donegal'']], en route from Gibraltar under Captain [[Pulteney Malcolm]], was seen approaching from the south on the [[larboard]] tack with a moderate breeze from northwest-by-north and steered directly for the Spanish three-decker.<ref>James (Vol. IV) pp. 89–90</ref>{{incomplete short citation|date=April 2021}} At about ten o'clock, just as ''Monarca'' had got within little more than a mile of ''Rayo'', ''Leviathan'' fired a warning shot wide of ''Monarca'', to oblige her to drop anchor. The shot fell between ''Monarca'' and ''Rayo''. The latter, conceiving that it was probably intended for her, hauled down her colours, and was taken by HMS ''Donegal'', who anchored alongside and took off the prisoners.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} ''Leviathan'' resumed her pursuit of ''Monarca'', eventually catching up and forcing her to surrender. On boarding her, her British captors found that she was in a sinking state, and so removed the British prize crew, and nearly all of her original Spanish crew members. The nearly empty ''Monarca'' parted her cable and was wrecked during the night. Despite the efforts of her British prize crew, ''Rayo'' was driven onshore on 26 October and wrecked, with the loss of 25 men. The remainder of the prize crew were made prisoners by the Spanish.<ref>James (Vol. IV) p. 91</ref>{{incomplete short citation|date=April 2021}}

====Casualties====
[[File:Battle of Trafalgar Casualties.svg|thumb|none|upright=2|Casualties % by ship.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}} The number is the order in the line. {{legend0|#ffff00|[[HMS Africa (1781)|HMS ''Africa'']]}} • {{legend0|#91ef91|British weather column, led by [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Nelson]]}} • {{legend0|#c0c0c0|British lee column, led by [[Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood|Collingwood]]}} • {{legend0|#0000ff|French}} • {{legend0|#ff0000|Spanish}}]]

====Aftermath====
In the aftermath of the storm, Collingwood wrote:

{{blockquote|The condition of our own ships was such that it was very doubtful what would be their fate. Many a time I would have given the whole group of our capture, to ensure our own ... I can only say that in my life I never saw such efforts as were made to save these [prize] ships, and would rather fight another battle than pass through such a week as followed it.|Vice-Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood to the [[British Admiralty|Admiralty]], November 1805.{{sfnp|Tracy|2008|p=249}}}}

On balance, the allied counter-attack achieved little. In forcing the British to suspend their repairs to defend themselves, it influenced Collingwood's decision to sink or set fire to the most damaged of his remaining prizes.<ref name="Yonge-p336" /> Cosmao retook two Spanish ships of the line, but it cost him one French and two Spanish vessels to do so. Fearing their loss, the British burnt or sank ''Santísima Trinidad'', ''Argonauta'', ''San Antonio'' and ''[[French ship Intrépide (1800)|Intrepide]]''.{{sfnp|Thiers|1850|p=45}} Only four of the British prizes, the French ''Swiftsure'' and the Spanish ''Bahama'', [[Spanish ship San Ildefonso|''San Ildefonso'']] and ''San Juan Nepomuceno'' survived to be taken to Britain.<ref name="Yonge-p336"/> After the end of the battle and storm only nine ships of the line were left in Cádiz.<ref name="Yonge-p335" />{{sfnp|Ward|Prothero|Leathers|1906|p=234}}

Spanish military garrisons and civilians set out to rescue survivors from the numerous shipwrecks scattered along the Andalusian coast. British prize crews were captured and given good treatment. On 27 October, Collingwood offered the governor of Cádiz to put his Spanish wounded prisoners ashore and set them free. The governor and Gravina offered in exchange to release their British prisoners, who boarded the British fleet. The French later joined this humanitarian agreement.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://abcblogs.abc.es/espejo-de-navegantes/2015/10/20/el-epilogo-de-trafalgar/ |title=El epílogo de Trafalgar |last=Rodríguez González |first=Agustín Ramón |date=20 October 2015 |work=Espejo de navegantes |access-date=21 October 2018 |language=es-ES |archive-date=21 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021151311/http://abcblogs.abc.es/espejo-de-navegantes/2015/10/20/el-epilogo-de-trafalgar/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The disparity in losses has been attributed by some historians less to Nelson's daring tactics than to the difference in fighting readiness of the two fleets.{{sfnp|Nicolson|2005|p=9–10}} Nelson's fleet was made up of ships of the line which had spent a considerable amount of sea time during the months of blockades of French ports, whilst the French fleet had generally been at anchor in port. However, Villeneuve's fleet had just spent months at sea crossing the Atlantic twice, which supports the proposition that the main difference between the two fleets' combat effectiveness was the morale of the leaders. The daring tactics employed by Nelson were to ensure a strategically decisive result. The results vindicated his naval judgement.

==Results==
[[File:MuseoNaval Hispalois bajas españolas batalla Trafalgar.jpg|thumb|Report of Spanish losses in the combat of 21 October.]]

When Rosily arrived in Cádiz, he found only five French ships, rather than the 18 he was expecting. The surviving ships remained bottled up in Cádiz until 1808 when Napoleon invaded Spain. The French ships were then [[Capture of Rosily Squadron|seized by the Spanish forces]] and put into service against France.

HMS ''Victory'' made her way to Gibraltar for repairs, carrying Nelson's body. She put into Rosia Bay, Gibraltar and after emergency repairs were carried out, returned to Britain. Many of the injured crew were taken ashore at Gibraltar and treated in the Naval Hospital. Men who subsequently died from injuries sustained at the battle are buried in or near the [[Trafalgar Cemetery]], at the south end of [[Main Street, Gibraltar]].

One [[Royal Marine]] officer, Captain Charles Adair, was killed on board ''Victory'', and Royal Marine Lieutenant Lewis Buckle Reeve was seriously wounded and laid next to Nelson.{{efn|Reeve's Naval General Service Medal with Trafalgar clasp and Muster List for HMS ''Victory'' are on show at the [[Royal Marines Museum]], [[Southsea]], Britain {{harv|BBC staff|2008}}.}}

The battle took place the day after the [[Battle of Ulm]], and Napoleon did not hear about it for weeks—the [[Grande Armée]] had left Boulogne to fight Britain's allies before they could combine their armies. He had tight control over the Paris media and kept the defeat a closely guarded secret for over a month, at which point newspapers proclaimed it to have been a tremendous victory.{{sfnp|Adkins|2004}} In a counter-propaganda move, a fabricated text declaring the battle a "spectacular victory" for the French and Spanish was published in ''Herald'' and attributed to ''[[Le Moniteur Universel]]''.<ref>See for example: {{cite journal |author=NC staff |date=July–December 1805 |title=First Bulletin of the Grand Naval Army [From the Moniteur] As it appeared in the Herald. Battle of Trafalgar |journal=Naval Chronicle |volume=14 |location=Fleet Street, London |publisher=J. Gold}} cited by {{harv|ACS staff |2009}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Westmacott |first1=Charles Molloy |last2=Jones |first2=Stephen |title=The Spirit of the Public Journals: Being an Impartial Selection of the Most Exquisite Essays and Jeux D'esprits, Principally Prose, that Appear in the Newspapers and Other Publications, Volume 9 |date=1806 |publisher=James Ridgeway |page=322 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xpp349sTMhwC&pg=PA322 |access-date=27 March 2015 |quote=Footnote of one claim: "This turned out to be really asserted afterwards by the French newspapers". The authors hence believe the rest to be a fabrication. |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324110549/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xpp349sTMhwC&pg=PA322 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Vice-Admiral Villeneuve was taken prisoner aboard his flagship and taken back to Britain. After his parole in 1806, he returned to France, where he was found dead in his inn room during a stop on the way to Paris, with six stab wounds in the chest from a dining knife. It was officially recorded that he had committed suicide.

Despite the British victory over the Franco-Spanish navies, Trafalgar had negligible impact on the remainder of the [[War of the Third Coalition]]. Less than two months later, Napoleon decisively defeated the Third Coalition at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]], knocking Austria out of the war and forcing the dissolution of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Although Trafalgar meant France could no longer challenge Britain at sea, Napoleon proceeded to establish the [[Continental System]] in an attempt to deny Britain trade with the continent. The Napoleonic Wars continued for another ten years after Trafalgar.{{sfnp|Harding|1999|pp=96–117}}

Nelson's body was preserved in a barrel of brandy for the trip home to a hero's funeral.{{sfnp|Adkins|2004a}}{{page needed|date=April 2021}}

==Consequences==
[[File:Broadside titled "The Battle of Trafalgar".jpg|thumb|A [[Broadside (printing)|broadside]] from the 1850s recounts the story]]

Following the battle, the Royal Navy was never again seriously challenged by the French fleet in a large-scale engagement. Napoleon had already abandoned his plans of invasion before the battle and they were never revived. The battle did not mean, however, that the French naval challenge to Britain was over. First, as the French control over the continent expanded, Britain had to take active steps with the [[Battle of Copenhagen (1807)|Battle of Copenhagen]] in 1807 and elsewhere in 1808 to prevent the ships of smaller European navies from falling into French hands. This effort was largely successful, but did not end the French threat as Napoleon instituted a large-scale shipbuilding programme that had produced a fleet of 80 ships of the line at the time of his fall from power in 1814, with more under construction.{{sfnp|Glover|1967|pp=233–252}} However, despite constituting a substantial [[fleet in being]], these had no impact on Britain’s naval superiority throughout the conflict. For almost 10 years after Trafalgar, the Royal Navy maintained a close blockade of French bases and observed the growth of the French fleet. In the end, Napoleon's Empire was destroyed by land before his ambitious naval build-up could be completed. The next naval battles between the British and Spanish would be the British Invasions of the River Plate in 1806 and 1807, where the British Navy would fail to capture [[Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata]].

The Royal Navy proceeded to dominate the sea until the [[Second World War]].<ref>''Nelson's Navy: The Ships, Men, and Organization, 1793–1815'' Brian Lavery</ref> Although the victory at Trafalgar was typically given as the reason at the time, modern historical analyses suggest that relative economic strength was an important underlying cause of British naval mastery.[[File:Battle of Trafalgar Poster 1805.jpg|thumb|left|Detail from a modern reproduction of an 1805 poster commemorating the battle]]

Nelson became – and remains – Britain's greatest naval war hero, and an inspiration to the Royal Navy, yet his unorthodox tactics were seldom emulated by later generations. The first monument to be erected in Britain to commemorate Nelson may be that raised on [[Glasgow Green]] in 1806, albeit possibly preceded by a monument at [[Taynuilt]], near [[Oban]] in Scotland dated 1805, both also commemorating the many Scots crew and captains at the battle.{{sfnp|Spicer|2005}}{{efn|Five of Nelson's 27 captains of the Fleet were Scottish, as were almost 30% of the crew {{harv|MercoPress staff|2005}}}} The {{convert|144|ft|m|adj=mid|-tall|0}} ''Nelson Monument'' on Glasgow Green was designed by [[David Hamilton (architect)|David Hamilton]] and paid for by public subscription. Around the base are the names of his major victories: [[Battle of Aboukir Bay|Aboukir]] (1798), [[Battle of Copenhagen (1801)|Copenhagen]] (1801) and Trafalgar (1805). [[The Nelson Monument, Portsdown Hill|The Nelson Monument overlooking Portsmouth]] was built in 1807–08 with money subscribed by sailors and marines who served at Trafalgar.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.visitportsmouth.co.uk/history/207.htm |title=Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson 1758 - 1805 |publisher=Portsmouth City Council's Economy, Culture and Community Safety www.visitportsmouth.co.uk |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070503002811/http://www.visitportsmouth.co.uk/history/207.htm |archive-date=3 May 2007}}</ref> In 1808, [[Nelson's Pillar]] was erected by leading members of the Anglo-Irish aristocracy in [[Dublin]] to commemorate Nelson and his achievements (between 10% and 20% of the sailors at Trafalgar had been from Ireland{{sfnp|Cowan|2005}}{{sfnp|Poppyland staff|2012}}), and remained until it was destroyed in a bombing by "Old [[Irish Republican Army (1922–1969)|IRA]]" members in 1966.{{sfnp|Spicer|2005}} [[Nelson Monument, Edinburgh|Nelson's Monument]] in Edinburgh was built between 1807 and 1815 in the form of an upturned [[telescope]], and in 1853 a [[time ball]] was added which still drops at noon [[GMT]] to give a time signal to ships in [[Leith]] and the [[Firth of Forth]]. In summer this coincides with the ''one o'clock gun'' being fired. The [[Britannia Monument]] in [[Great Yarmouth]] was raised by 1819. [[Nelson's Column, Montreal]] began public subscriptions soon after news of the victory at Trafalgar arrived; the column was completed in the autumn of 1809 and still stands in [[Place Jacques Cartier]]. A [[Statue of Lord Nelson, Bridgetown|statue of Lord Nelson]] stood in Bridgetown, Barbados, in what was also once known as [[National Heroes Square|Trafalgar Square]], from 1813 to 2020.

[[File:Admiral Horatio Nelson, Nelson's Column, Trafalgar Square, London.JPG|thumb|upright|Nelson on top of [[Nelson's Column]] in [[Trafalgar Square]] in London]]

London's [[Trafalgar Square]] was named in honour of Nelson's victory; at the centre of the square there is the {{convert|45.1|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[Nelson's Column]], with a {{convert|5.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} statue of Nelson on top. It was finished in 1843.

==100th anniversary==
In 1905, there were events up and down the country to commemorate the centenary, although none were attended by any member of the Royal Family, apparently to avoid upsetting the French, with whom the United Kingdom had recently entered the ''[[Entente cordiale]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rjerrard.co.uk/royalnavy/broadside/broadside2008.htm |title=Review of "Nelson Remembered – The Nelson Centenary 1905" by David Shannon |access-date=12 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025095810/http://www.rjerrard.co.uk/royalnavy/broadside/broadside2008.htm |archive-date=25 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> King [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]] did support the ''Nelson Centenary Memorial Fund'' of the [[Sailors' Society|British and Foreign Sailors Society]], which sold Trafalgar centenary souvenirs marked with the [[Royal cypher]]. A gala was held on 21 October at the [[Royal Albert Hall]] in aid of the fund, which included a specially commissioned film by [[Alfred John West]] entitled ''Our Navy''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://user29269.vs.easily.co.uk/Nelson.htm |title=Sea Salts and Celluloid |website=user29269.vs.easily.co.uk |access-date=12 April 2012 |archive-date=23 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023081423/http://user29269.vs.easily.co.uk/Nelson.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> The event ended with ''[[God Save the King]]'' and ''[[La Marseillaise]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=14022 |title=Review of Hoock, Holger, ed., History, Commemoration and National Preoccupation: Trafalgar 1805-2005 |first=Antoine |last=Capet |date=22 January 2008 |publisher=H-Albion, H-Review |via=www.h-net.org |access-date=22 July 2019 |archive-date=18 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718142851/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=14022 |url-status=live}}</ref> The first performance of Sir [[Henry Wood]]'s ''[[Fantasia on British Sea Songs]]'' occurred on the same day at a special [[The Proms|Promenade Concert]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFvkAAAAMAAJ&q=Trafalgar+Day+Concert+of+21+October+1905 |first=Arthur |last=Jacobs |title=Henry J. Wood: ''Maker of the Proms'' |publisher=Methuen |ol=10185704M |isbn=9780413693402 |date=2004 |orig-date=1995 |page=104 |access-date=1 July 2015 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324110615/https://books.google.com/books?id=xFvkAAAAMAAJ&q=Trafalgar+Day+Concert+of+21+October+1905 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==200th anniversary==
{{Commons|Trafalgar 200}}
In 2005 a series of events around the UK, part of the ''Sea Britain'' theme, marked the bicentenary of the Battle of Trafalgar. The 200th anniversary of the battle was also commemorated on six occasions in [[Portsmouth]] during June and July, at [[St Paul's Cathedral]] (where Nelson is entombed), in Trafalgar Square in London in October (''[[T Square 200]]''), and across the UK.

On 28 June, the [[Elizabeth II|Queen]] was involved in the largest [[International Fleet Review 2005|Fleet Review]] in modern times in the [[Solent]], in which 167 ships from 35 nations took part. The Queen inspected the international fleet from the Antarctic patrol ship [[HMS Endurance (A171)|HMS ''Endurance'']]. The fleet included six aircraft carriers (modern capital ships): [[French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle (R91)|''Charles De Gaulle'']], [[HMS Illustrious (R06)|''Illustrious'']], [[HMS Invincible (R05)|''Invincible'']], [[HMS Ocean (L12)|''Ocean'']], [[Spanish aircraft carrier Principe de Asturias|''Príncipe de Asturias'']] and [[USS Saipan (LHA-2)|''Saipan'']]. In the evening a symbolic re-enactment of the battle was staged with fireworks and various small ships playing parts in the battle.

Lieutenant [[John Richards Lapenotière|John Lapenotière]]'s historic voyage in [[HMS Pickle (1800)|HMS ''Pickle'']] bringing the news of the victory from the fleet to [[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]] and thence by [[post chaise]] to the [[British Admiralty|Admiralty]] in London was commemorated by the inauguration of [[The Trafalgar Way]] and further highlighted by the [[New Trafalgar Dispatch]] celebrations from July to September in which an actor played the part of Lapenotière and re-enacted parts of the historic journey.

On the actual anniversary day, 21 October, naval manoeuvres were conducted in Trafalgar Bay near Cádiz involving a combined fleet from Britain, Spain, and France. Many descendants of people present at the battle, including members of Nelson's family, were at the ceremony.{{sfnp|Elmundo staff|2005}}

==In popular culture==
[[File:Turner, The Battle of Trafalgar (1822).jpg|thumb|''[[The Battle of Trafalgar (painting)|The Battle of Trafalgar]]'' by [[J. M. W. Turner]] (oil on canvas, 1822–1824) combines events from several moments during the battle]]

===Novels===
* [[The Knight of Sainte-Hermine|''Le Chevalier de Sainte-Hermine'']] (1869), by [[Alexandre Dumas]], is an adventure story in which the main character is alleged to be the one who shot Nelson.
* ''Trafalgar'' (1873), a Spanish novel about the battle, written by [[Benito Pérez Galdós]] and starting point of the historical cycle ''[[Episodios Nacionales]]''. It is a fictional account of a boy aboard the ship ''Santísima Trinidad''.
* In [[James Clavell]]'s 1966 novel ''[[Tai-Pan (novel)|Tai-Pan]]'', the Scots chieftain of Hong Kong, Dirk Struan, reflects on his experiences as a [[powder monkey]] on board HMS ''Royal Sovereign'' at Trafalgar.
* In the unfinished novel ''[[Hornblower and the Crisis]]'' (1967) in the [[Horatio Hornblower]] series by [[C. S. Forester]], Hornblower was to deliver false orders to Villeneuve causing him to send his fleet out of Cádiz and hence fight the battle. In ''Hornblower and the Atropos'' (1953), Hornblower is put in charge of Admiral Nelson's funeral in London.
* In ''Ramage at Trafalgar'' (1986), by [[Dudley Pope]], [[Lord Ramage|Ramage]] commands the fictitious [[frigate]] HMS ''Calypso'', which is attached to Nelson's fleet.
* In ''[[Sharpe's Trafalgar]]'' (2000), by [[Bernard Cornwell]], Sharpe finds himself at the battle aboard the fictitious HMS ''Pucelle''.
* In the 2006 novel ''[[His Majesty's Dragon]]'', the first of the historical fantasy [[Temeraire (series)|''Temeraire'' series]] by [[Naomi Novik]], in which aerial [[dragon]]-mounted combat units form major divisions of European militaries during the Napoleonic Wars, Trafalgar is actually a massive feint by Napoleon to distract British forces away from the aerial and seaborne invasion of Britain near [[Dover]]. Nelson survives, though he is burned by dragon fire.

===In other media===
* ''[[The Battle of Trafalgar (1911 film)|The Battle of Trafalgar]]'' is a [[Lost film|lost]] 1911 American [[Silent film|silent]] short film directed by [[J. Searle Dawley]] and produced by [[Edison Studios]] in New York City. Some [[film still|stills]] from the production survive and show actor Sydney Booth performing as Nelson on [[film set]]s simulating various decks of ''Victory''.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/moviwor09chal/page/n711/mode/2up "Scene from 'Trafalgar', by the Edison Company"], ''[[The Moving Picture World]]'' (New York, N.Y.), 9 September 1911, p. 695. Retrieved via the [[Internet Archive]], 30 November 2021.</ref><ref>La Roche, Edwin M. (1911). [https://archive.org/stream/motionpicturesto02moti#page/n265/mode/2up "The Battle of Trafalgar (Edison)"], ''[[The Motion Picture Story Magazine]]'' (New York, N.Y.), September 1911, p. 91. Retrieved via the Internet Archive, 30 November 2021.</ref>
* ''[[Nelson (1918 film)|Nelson]]'' (also cited ''Nelson: The Story of England's Immortal Naval Hero'') is a silent 1918 British [[historical film]] directed by [[Maurice Elvey]] and starring [[Donald Calthrop]], [[Malvina Longfellow]] and [[Ivy Close]].<ref name="BFI">[https://player.bfi.org.uk/free/film/watch-nelson-the-story-of-englands-immortal-naval-hero-1918-online "Nelson; The Story of England's Immortal Naval Hero"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130054900/https://player.bfi.org.uk/free/film/watch-nelson-the-story-of-englands-immortal-naval-hero-1918-online |date=30 November 2021 }}, catalogue, [[British Film Institute]] (BFI), London, UK. Retrieved 29 November 2021.</ref> The [[screenplay]], which includes recreations of the battle, is based on [[Robert Southey]]'s 1813 biography ''The Life of Horatio, Lord Viscount Nelson''.<ref>Southey, Robert. [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015088602530&view=1up&seq=5&skin=2021 ''The Life of Horatio, Lord Viscount Nelson''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201183459/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015088602530&view=1up&seq=5&skin=2021 |date=1 December 2021 }}, reprint of original 1813 publication. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1841. Retrieved via [[HathiTrust]] Digital Library, 1 December 2021.</ref>
* ''[[Nelson (1926 film)|Nelson]]'' is another silent British biographical film that depicts events in the battle. Released in 1926, it features [[Cedric Hardwicke|Sir Cedric Hardwicke]] in the title role.<ref>[http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b6b158550 "Nelson (1926)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129214700/https://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b6b158550 |date=29 November 2021 }}, catalogue, BFI, London, UK. Retrieved 29 November 2021.</ref>
* ''[[That Hamilton Woman]]'' is a 1941 film about [[Horatio Nelson]] and [[Emma, Lady Hamilton]] and also includes recreations of battle scenes.
* ''[[Bequest to the Nation (film)|Bequest to the Nation]] (released in the US as [[Bequest to the Nation (film)|The Nelson Affair]]) a 1973'' British [[historical film|historical]] drama [[historical film|film]], directed by [[James Cellan Jones]], and starring [[Glenda Jackson]], [[Peter Finch]], and [[Michael Jayston]]. The majority of the film revolves around Nelson's shore leave with Lady Hamilton, followed by Nelson's recall to duty and the climactic Battle of Trafalgar.
* [[Jonathan Willcocks]] composed a major choral work, ''A Great and Glorious Victory'', to mark the bicentenary of the battle in October 2005.
* The BBC marked the bicentenary with ''Nelson's Trafalgar'', a 2005 vivid drama-documentary which took full advantage of the computer-generated effects of the time. Presented by Michael Portillo, the two-disc DVD version runs 76 minutes plus extras. Portillo later revisited the format and the event, presenting the BBC's 2019 drama-documentary ''The HMS Victory Story''.
* "Admiral over the Oceans" is a song composed by Swedish [[Power Metal]] band, Civil War, detailing the battle from the point of view of a sailor and from Nelson himself.

==See also==
{{Portal|France}}
* [[List of Royal Navy ships]]
* [[List of ships captured in the 19th century#Battle of Trafalgar|List of ships captured at the Battle of Trafalgar]]
* [[Bibliography of 18th-19th century Royal Naval history]]
* [[Trafalgar Day]]
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

===Sources cited===
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Adkin |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/trafalgarcompani0000adki |title=The Trafalgar Companion: A Guide to History's Most Famous Sea Battle and the Life of Admiral Lord Nelson |date=2005 |publisher=Aurum Press |isbn=1-84513-018-9 |location=London}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Nicolson |first=Adam |title=Men of Honour: Trafalgar and the Making of the English Hero (U.S. title Seize the Fire: Heroism, Duty, and the Battle of Trafalgar) |date=2005 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=0-00-719209-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pocock |first=Tom |url=https://archive.org/details/trafalgareyewitn0000unse |title=Trafalgar: an eyewitness history |date=2005 |publisher=Penguin Classics |isbn=0-14-144150-X}}
* {{Cite web |last=Poppyland staff |date=2012 |title=Poppyland Activity 1: Nelson's Crew at Trafalgar |url=http://www.poppyland.co.uk/index.php?s=NELACT1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208090458/http://www.poppyland.co.uk/index.php?s=NELACT1 |archive-date=8 December 2008 |access-date=4 February 2009 |publisher=Poppyland.co.uk}}
* {{Cite book |last=Schom |first=Alan |url=https://archive.org/details/trafalgarcountdo00scho_0 |title=Trafalgar: Countdown to Battle, 1803–1805 |date=1990 |publisher=New York |isbn=0-689-12055-9}}
* {{Cite web |last=Spicer |first=Graham |date=3 August 2005 |title=England expects – on the trail of Admiral Lord Nelson |url=http://www.culture24.org.uk/history+%26+heritage/war+%26+conflict/pre%2d20th+century+conflict/tra29483 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523001856/http://www.culture24.org.uk/history+%26+heritage/war+%26+conflict/pre%2d20th+century+conflict/tra29483 |archive-date=23 May 2013 |access-date=1 February 2012 |publisher=[[Culture24]]}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Trafalgar Companion |date=2005 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=1-84176-835-9 |editor-last=Stilwell |editor-first=Alexander |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite web |last=TB staff |date=21 October 2004 |title=La Batalla de Trafalgar. Lo que queda tras la batalla (The Battle of Trafalgar. What remains after the battle) |url=http://www.todoababor.es/articulos/tras_labatalla.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223123530/http://todoababor.es/articulos/tras_labatalla.htm |archive-date=23 December 2010 |access-date=30 March 2011 |website=Todo a Babor |language=es}}
* {{Cite book |last=Thiers |first=Adolphe Joseph |title=History of the Consulate and the Empire of France Under Napoleon |date=1850 |publisher=Henery G. Bohn |location=London |author-link=Adolphe Thiers}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=xDQOAAAAQAAJ Url] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324110551/https://books.google.com/books?id=xDQOAAAAQAAJ |date=24 March 2023 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Tracy |first=Nicholas |title=Nelson's Battles: The Triumph of British Seapower |date=2008 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=978-1-59114-609-4 |edition=illustrated, revised}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Cambridge Modern History |date=1906 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |editor-last=Ward |editor-first=A.W. |volume=IX |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x7A8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA234 234] |editor-last2=Prothero |editor-first2=G.W. |editor-last3=Leathers |editor-first3=Stanley}}
* {{Cite book |last=White |first=Colin |title=The Nelson Encyclopaedia |date=2002 |publisher=Chatham Publishing, Lionel Leventhal Limited |isbn=1-86176-253-4 |location=Park House, Russell Gardens, London.}}
* {{Cite book |last=White |first=Colin |title=Nelson the Admiral |date=2005 |publisher=Sutton Publishing Limited |isbn=0-7509-3713-0 |location=Phoenix Mill, Stroud, Glos.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Willis |first=Sam |title=In the Hour of Victory – The Royal Navy at War in the Age of Nelson |date=2013 |publisher=Atlantic Books Ltd |isbn=978-0-85789-570-7 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Yonge |first=Charles D |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WQY-AAAAcAAJ |title=The history of the British navy: From the earliest period to the present time |date=1863 |volume=II |author-link=Charles Duke Yonge}}

'''Attribution:'''
* {{EB1911|last=Hannay |first=David |author-link=David Hannay (historian) |wstitle=Trafalgar, Battle of|volume=27|pages=153–155}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Desbrière |first=Edouard |title=The Naval Campaign of 1805: Trafalgar |date=1907 |edition=English 1933 |publisher=Clarendon Press |translator-last=Eastwick |translator-first=Constance}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fernández |first=Cayuela |title=Trafalgar. Hombres y naves entre dos épocas |last2=Gregorio |first2=José |date=2004 |publisher=Ariel |isbn=84-344-6760-7 |location=Barcelona |language=es}}
* {{Cite book |last=Frasca |first=Francesco |title=Il potere marittimo in età moderna, da Lepanto a Trafalgar |date=2008 |publisher=Lulu Enterprises UK |isbn=978-1-4092-4348-9 |edition=1st}}
** 2nd ed. 2008, Lulu Enterprises UK, {{ISBN|978-1-84799-550-6}}
** 3rd ed. 2009, Lulu Enterprises UK, {{ISBN|978-1-4092-6088-2}}
** 4th ed. 2009, Lulu Enterprises UK, {{ISBN|978-1-4092-7881-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gardiner |first=Robert |title=The campaign of Trafalgar, 1803–1805 |publisher=Mercury Books |year=2006 |isbn=1-84560-008-8 |ref={{harvid|Gardiner}}}}
* Harbron, John D., ''Trafalgar and the Spanish Navy'', 1988, London, {{ISBN|0-85177-963-8}}.
* [[David Howarth (author)|Howarth, David]], ''Trafalgar: The Nelson Touch'', 2003, Phoenix Press, {{ISBN|1-84212-717-9}}.
* Huskisson, Thomas, ''Eyewitness to Trafalgar'', reprinted in 1985 as a limited edition of 1000; Ellisons' Editions, {{ISBN|0-946092-09-5}}—the author was half-brother of [[William Huskisson]]
* Lambert, Andrew, ''War at Sea in the Age of Sail'', Chapter 8, 2000, London, {{ISBN|1-55278-127-5}}
* Pocock, Tom, ''Horatio Nelson'', Chapter XII, 1987, London, {{ISBN|0-7126-6123-9}}
* Pope, Dudley, ''England Expects'' (US title ''Decision at Trafalgar''), 1959, Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
* [[Oliver Warner|Warner, Oliver]], ''Trafalgar''. First published 1959 by Batsford{{snd}}republished 1966 by Pan.
* {{Cite book |last=Warwick |first=Peter |title=Voices from the Battle of Trafalgar |publisher=David & Charles Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=0-7153-2000-9 |ref={{harvid|Warwick}}}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070427051506/http://www.nelsonsnavy.co.uk/battle-of-trafalgar.html Nelson's Navy]
* [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documentsonline/frenchmusterrolls.asp Read about French Muster Rolls from the Battle of Trafalgar on The National Archives' website.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080315204240/http://www.historicdockyard.co.uk/dockyard/hmsvictory.php Visit HMS Victory at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard]
* [http://www.hms-victory.com/ HMS ''Victory'' Royal Navy Web Site]
* [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/histtexts/nelson/ Nelson's Memorandum – battle plan – in the British Library] 
* [https://www.theguardian.com/flash/0,5860,1504015,00.html Interactive guide:Battle of Trafalgar] educational presentation by [[Guardian Unlimited]]
* [http://mcs-notes2.open.ac.uk/Our-Navy-Video.nsf/0/0EF9501708ACCAB1802575C70073896D?opendocument&autostart=true A. J. West's "Our Navy": Wreath laying on HMS Victory, October 1905] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331225353/http://mcs-notes2.open.ac.uk/Our-Navy-Video.nsf/0/0EF9501708ACCAB1802575C70073896D?opendocument&autostart=true |date=31 March 2012 }}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/launch_gms_trafalgar_bfacademy.shtml BBC Battlefield Academy: Battle of Trafalgar] game created by [https://web.archive.org/web/20110716102645/http://www.solarismedia.com/ Solaris Media] (now [https://web.archive.org/web/20110715093254/http://www.playniac.com/ Playniac]) for the bicentenary.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4627453.stm BBC video (42 min.) of the re-enactment of the Battle of Trafalgar off Portsmouth on 28 June 2005]
* {{YouTube|id=s9mZvemKXJw |title=Concert Overture – Trafalgar 1805}}
* [http://www.bruzelius.info/Nautica/Naval_History/GB/Times(1805-11-07)a.html The London Gazette Extraordinary, 6 November 1805] original published dispatches, Naval History: Great Britain, EuroDocs: Primary Historical Documents From Western Europe, Brigham Young University Library. Retrieved 27 July 2006
* {{YouTube|id=PR_io1t8FtA|title=English folk song about the Battle of Trafalgar}}
* {{commons-inline}}

{{Sequence
| prev = [[Battle of Verona (1805)]]
| list = Napoleonic Wars
| curr = Battle of Trafalgar
| next = [[Battle of Caldiero (1805)]]
}}

{{Napoleonic Wars}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Trafalgar}}
[[Category:Battle of Trafalgar| ]]
[[Category:Horatio Nelson]]
[[Category:Battles of the War of the Third Coalition]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1805]]
[[Category:Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving France]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving Spain]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Naval battles of the Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:War of the Third Coalition]]
[[Category:1805 in Gibraltar]]
[[Category:1805 in Spain]]
[[Category:19th-century history of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:October 1805 events]]