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American Nazi Party

2024-10-28T00:29:00Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding information that they have no elected officials to infobox.

{{short description|Fascist political party in the United States}}
{{about|the party formed in 1959 later renamed the ''National Socialist White People's Party''|the 1990s National Socialist White People's Party|Harold Covington|the American Nazi Party from the 1930s |German-American Bund|the party started by Frank Collin|National Socialist Party of America}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox political party
| name = American Nazi Party
| abbreviation = WUFENS (1959) ANP (1959–1966/1967)<ref name=":0">[[George Lincoln Rockwell|Rockwell, George Lincoln]]. [http://www.americannaziparty.com/rockwell/materials/articles/tower.php ''From Ivory Tower to Privy Wall: On The Art of Propaganda''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140803123218/http://www.americannaziparty.com/rockwell/materials/articles/tower.php |date=August 3, 2014 }} c.1966</ref> NSWPP (1966/1967–1983)
| colorcode = #964B00
| logo = Reichsadler Deutsches Reich (1935–1945).svg
| newspaper = ''The Stormtrooper''<ref>“The Stormtrooper Magazine [American Nazi Party publication],” Social Welfare History Image Portal, accessed June 17, 2020, https://images.socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/items/show/266.</ref>
| headquarters = {{small|(Rockwell's headquarters)}} 928 North Randolph Street, [[Arlington, Virginia]], [[U.S.]]
| successor = '''American Nazi Party:''' {{•}}[[Matthias Koehl]] (1967–1983) {{•}}[[Rocky Suhayda]] (2014–present)<ref>{{cite news|title=Top Nazi leader: Trump will be a 'real opportunity' for white nationalists|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2016/08/07/top-nazi-leader-trump-will-be-a-real-opportunity-for-white-nationalists/|last=Holley|first=Peter|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=August 6, 2016}}</ref> '''New Order:''' {{•}}[[Matthias Koehl]] (1983–2014) {{•}}[[Martin Kerr]] (2014–present)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nsm88.org/articles/AmericanNSHistory2016.pdf|title=A Brief History of American National Socialism |last=Michigan|first=NSM|date=2016|website=National Socialist Movement|access-date=March 27, 2018|archive-date=December 26, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226110004/http://www.nsm88.org/articles/AmericanNSHistory2016.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blogs.weta.org/boundarystones/2013/01/02/nazis-arlington-george-rockwell-and-anp|title=Nazis in Arlington: George Rockwell and the ANP|last=|work=Boundary Stones: WETA's Washington DC History Blog|access-date=March 26, 2018|language=en}}</ref>
| foundation = March 1959
| ideology = [[Neo-Nazism]] [[White supremacy]] [[Ultranationalism]] [[Antisemitism]]
| membership = 500{{sfn|Green|Stabler|2015|page=390}} ({{circa}} 1967)
| youth_wing = [[National Socialist Liberation Front|NSLF]] (1969–1974)
| international = {{Nowrap|[[World Union of National Socialists]]}}
| country = United States
| founder = [[George Lincoln Rockwell]]
| dissolution =
| position = [[Far-right politics|Far-right]]
| seats1_title = [[List of current United States senators|Seats]] in the [[United States Senate|Senate]]
| seats1 = {{composition bar|0|100|hex={{party color|Green Party (United States)}}}}
| seats2_title = [[List of current members of the United States House of Representatives|Seats]] in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]
| seats2 = {{composition bar|0|435|hex={{party color|Green Party (United States)}}}}
| seats3_title = [[List of current United States governors#State governors|State governorships]]
| seats3 = {{composition bar|0|50|hex={{party color|Green Party (United States)}}}}
| seats4_title = [[List of U.S. state senators|Seats]] in [[State legislature (United States)|state upper chambers]]
| seats4 = {{composition bar|0|1972|hex={{party color|Green Party (United States)}}}}
| seats5_title = [[List of U.S. state representatives|Seats]] in [[State legislature (United States)|state lower chambers]]
| seats5 = {{composition bar|0|5411|hex={{party color|Green Party (United States)}}}}
| seats6_title = [[List of current United States governors#Territory governors|Territorial governorships]]
| seats6 = {{composition bar|0|5|hex={{party color|Green Party (US)}}}}
| seats7_title = Seats in [[Territories of the United States#Governments and legislatures|territorial upper chambers]]
| seats7 = {{composition bar|0|97|hex={{party color|Green Party (US)}}}}
| seats8_title = Seats in [[Territories of the United States#Governments and legislatures|territorial lower chambers]]
| seats8 = {{composition bar|0|91|hex={{party color|Green Party (US)}}}}

| flag =
| website = {{URL|https://www.americannaziparty.com|americannaziparty.com}}
}}
The '''American Nazi Party''' ('''ANP''') is an American [[far-right]] and [[neo-Nazi]] [[Political parties in the United States|political party]] founded by [[George Lincoln Rockwell]] and headquartered in [[Arlington, Virginia]]. The organization was originally named the '''World Union of Free Enterprise National Socialists''' ('''WUFENS'''), a name to denote opposition to state ownership of property, the same year—it was renamed the American Nazi Party in order to attract 'maximum media attention'.<ref name=":0" /> Since the late 1960s, a number of small groups have used the name "American Nazi Party" with most being independent of each other and disbanding before the 21st century. The party is based largely upon the ideals and policies of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazi Party]] in Germany during the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi era]], and embraced its uniforms and [[Nazi Party#Party symbols|iconography]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Potok |first1=Mark |url=http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-report/browse-all-issues/2001/fall/the-nazi-international |title=The Nazi International |publisher=[[Southern Poverty Law Center]] |date=August 29, 2001 |access-date=May 13, 2016}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Despite sharing ideological roots, the phrase 'American Nazi Party' should not be conflated with the '''German American Bund''' or '''German American Federation''' ({{langx|de|Amerikadeutscher Bund; Amerikadeutscher Volksbund, AV}}), which was an American Nazi organization established in 1936 to succeed [[Friends of New Germany]] (FONG), the new name being chosen to emphasize the group's American credentials after press criticism that the organization was unpatriotic.{{sfn|Green|Stabler|2015|page=390}}{{sfn|Wolter|Masters|2004|page=65}} The Bund was to consist only of [[German American|American citizens of German descent]].<ref name="Van Ells">{{cite book |url=http://www.americainwwii.com/stories/americansforhitler.html |section=Americans for Hitler – The Bund |title=America in WWII |first1=Mark D. |last1=Van Ells |volume=3 |number=2 |year=2007 |pages=44–49|access-date=May 13, 2016}}</ref> Reportedly, it had about 20,000 adherents.{{sfn|Green|Stabler|2015|page=390}}}}

Shortly after Rockwell's murder in 1967, the organization appointed Rockwell's second in command, Deputy Commander [[Matt Koehl]] as the new leader. The American Nazi Party, now under Koehl's command, was subject to ideological disagreements between members in the 1970s and 1980s. "In 1982, Martin Kerr, a leader at the Franklin Road headquarters, announced that the organization was changing its name to the New Order and moving to the Midwest", effective January 1, 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.northernvirginiamag.com/culture/news/2010/12/30/death-of-an-arlington-nazi/|title=Death of an Arlington Nazi|website=www.northernvirginiamag.com|date=December 30, 2010|language=en-US|access-date=March 26, 2018}}</ref> Due to recruitment issues along with financial and legal trouble, Koehl was forced to relocate the group's headquarters from the DC area, eventually finding his way to scattered locations in [[Wisconsin]] and [[Michigan]]. After Koehl's death in 2014, a long-time member and officer of the New Order, Martin Kerr assumed leadership and maintains the New Order website and organization.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2014/10/13/longtime-neo-nazi-matthias-%E2%80%9Cmatt%E2%80%9D-koehl-dies|title=Longtime Neo-Nazi Matthias "Matt" Koehl Dies |work=Southern Poverty Law Center|accessdate=2022-04-24}}</ref>

A former member of the original American Nazi Party, [[Rocky Suhayda]], founded his own organization using the American Nazi Party name and has been active since at least 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://search.vaheritage.org/vivaxtf/view?docId=vt/viblbv01823.xml&chunk.id=&toc.depth=1&toc.id=&brand=default|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812030808/http://search.vaheritage.org/vivaxtf/view?docId=vt%2Fviblbv01823.xml&chunk.id=&toc.depth=1&toc.id=&brand=default|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 12, 2016|title=A Guide to the American Nazi Party Recruiting Materials, c. 1966 American Nazi Party Recruiting Materials Ms2015-060|date=August 12, 2016|access-date=March 26, 2018}}</ref> Suhayda claims Rockwell as its founder despite no direct legal or financial link between it and Rockwell's legacy organization.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.loeser.us/flags/hate.html|title=American Nazi Party (USA), Historical Flags of Our Ancestors – Flags of Extremism – Part 1 (a–m)|last=Loeser Consulting|website=www.loeser.us|access-date=March 26, 2018}}</ref> The one connection between the original American Nazi Party and Rocky Suhayda's group besides ideology is that they sell reprints of Rockwell's 1960s-era magazine ''The Stormtrooper'' on their website''.''

== Headquarters ==
The WUFENS [[headquarters]] was located in a residence on Williamsburg Boulevard in [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington]], but was moved as the ANP headquarters to a house at 928 North Randolph Street (now a hotel and office building site). Rockwell and some party members also established a "Stormtrooper Barracks" in an old mansion owned by the widow of Willis Kern{{sfn|Schmaltz|2013}} in the Dominion Hills section of Arlington at what is now the [[Upton Hill Regional Park]]. After Rockwell's murder, the headquarters was moved again to one side of a duplex brick and concrete storefront at 2507 North Franklin Road which featured a [[swastika]] prominently mounted above the front door. This site was visible from busy Wilson Boulevard. Today, the Franklin Road address is often misidentified as Rockwell's headquarters when in fact it was the successor organization's last physical address in Arlington (now a coffeehouse).<ref name="Fenston">{{cite news |url=http://wamu.org/programs/metro_connection/13/09/06/arlingtons_uneasy_relationship_with_nazi_party_founder |title=Arlington's Uneasy Relationship With Nazi Party Founder |first1=Jacob |last1=Fenston |date=September 6, 2013 |publisher=[[WAMU]] |access-date=May 13, 2016}}</ref><ref>Weingarten, Gene. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/05/AR2008020502676.html "It's Just Nazi Same Place"] ''[[The Washington Post]]'' (February 10, 2008)</ref><ref>Cooper, Rebecca A. [http://www.tbd.com/blogs/tbd-neighborhoods/2011/03/java-shack-glimpses-its-past-as-nazi-headquarters-9269.html "Java Shack glimpses its past as Nazi headquarters"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816102245/http://www.tbd.com/blogs/tbd-neighborhoods/2011/03/java-shack-glimpses-its-past-as-nazi-headquarters-9269.html |date=August 16, 2011 }} TDB.com (March 8, 2011)</ref>

== History ==

=== Name change and party reform ===
Under Rockwell, the party embraced Nazi uniforms and [[Nazi Party#Party symbols|iconography]].{{efn-ua|"The line between the American Nazi Party, the Ku Klux Klan, and other white supremacists has always been blurry."{{sfn|Green|Stabler|2015|page=390}}}}

After several years of living in impoverished conditions, Rockwell began to experience some financial success with paid speaking engagements at universities where he was invited to express his controversial views as exercises in free speech. This prompted him to end the rancorous "Phase One" party tactics and begin "Phase Two", a plan to recast the group as a legitimate political party by toning down the verbal and written attacks against non-whites, replacing the party rallying cry of "[[Sieg Heil]]!" with "[[White nationalism#White power|White Power]]!", limiting public display of the swastika, and entering candidates in local elections.{{sfn|Kaplan|2000|pages=1–3}}{{sfn|Goodrick-Clarke|2003|page=14}}{{sfn|Green|Stabler|2015|p=390}}

The years 1965 and 1967 were possibly the height of Rockwell's profile.{{sfn|Kaplan|2000|pages=1–3}} He was interviewed by ''[[Playboy]]'' magazine, an event that stirred controversy within the ranks.{{sfn|Kaplan|2000|pages=1–3}}<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Alex |last1=Haley |author-link1=Alex Haley |url=https://archive.org/details/1966PlayboyInterview |title=Playboy Interview: George Lincoln Rockwell |year=1966 |journal=Playboy Magazine |via=[[Internet Archive|Internet archive]] |access-date=May 12, 2016}}</ref> At the time Rockwell had about 500 followers.{{sfn|Green|Stabler|2015|page=390}} In 1966 or 1967,{{efn-ua|The actual date of the change in name is unclear. Kaplan reports it as being in 1966, while Goodrick-Clarke and Green and Stabler report it as occurring on January 1, 1967.{{sfn|Kaplan|2000|pages=1–3}}{{sfn|Goodrick-Clarke|2003|page=14}}{{sfn|Green|Stabler|2015|p=390}}}} Rockwell renamed the ANP the '''National Socialist White People's Party''' ('''NSWPP'''), a move that alienated some hard-line members. The new name was a "conscious imitation" of the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]]. Rockwell wanted a more "ecumenical" approach and felt that the swastika banner was impeding organizational growth. Rockwell was killed on August 25, 1967, before he could implement party reforms.{{sfn|Green|Stabler|2015|page=390}} Matt Koehl, a purist Neo-Nazi, succeeded Rockwell as the new leader and this ended the American Nazi Party. Thereafter, the members engaged in internecine disputes, and they were either expelled by Koehl or they resigned. After the murder of Rockwell, the party dissipated and ad hoc organizations usurped the American Nazi Party logo. Those included James Burford in Chicago and John Bishop in Iowa.{{sfn|Kaplan|2000|pages=1–3}}

In 1962, ANP member Roy James was sentenced to 30 days in jail and fined $25 for punching [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], after pleading guilty to charge of assault and battery and disorderly conduct. King had not wanted to press charges, but Birmingham Judge Charles H. Brown insisted on trying James, calling the incident an "uncalled for, unprovoked assault."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-03-20 |title=Rockwellite Sentenced to Jail for Assaulting Negro Clergyman |url=https://www.jta.org/archive/rockwellite-sentenced-to-jail-for-assaulting-negro-clergyman |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=Jewish Telegraphic Agency |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Assassination of Rockwell ===
An assassination attempt was made on Rockwell on June 28, 1967. As Rockwell returned from shopping, he drove into the long driveway of the "Stormtrooper Barracks" located in Arlington's Dominion Hills subdivision and found it blocked by a fallen tree and brush. Rockwell assumed that it was another prank by local teens. As a party member cleared the obstruction, two shots were fired at Rockwell from behind one of the swastika-embossed brick driveway pillars. One of the shots ricocheted off the car, right next to his head. Leaping from the car, Rockwell pursued the gunman. On June 30, Rockwell petitioned the Arlington County Circuit Court for a gun permit; no action was ever taken on his request.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}

On August 25, 1967, as Rockwell left the Econowash laundromat at the Dominion Hills Shopping Center, a former follower named [[John Patler]] shot Rockwell from the roof of the building. Patler fired two bullets into Rockwell's car through the windshield. One missed, the other hit his chest and ruptured his heart. His car rolled backward to a stop and Rockwell staggered out of the front passenger side door of the car, stood briefly while pointing upward at the strip mall's rooftop where the shots had come from and then collapsed on the pavement. He was pronounced dead at the scene.{{sfn|Schmaltz|2013}}<ref name="http://news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/25/newsid_3031000/3031928.stm|title=1967: 'American Hitler' shot dead|access-date=August 7, 2009 | work=[[BBC News]] | date=August 25, 1967}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/08/21/the-shadow-of-an-assassinated-american-nazi-commander-hangs-over-charlottesville/ |title=The Shadow of an Assassinated American Nazi Commander Hangs Over Charlottesville |last=E. Miller |first=Michael |date=August 21, 2017 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=August 10, 2019}}{{dead link|date=June 2020|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}{{subscription required}}</ref>

=== Koehl's succession and ideological divisions ===
Rockwell's second in command, Deputy Commander [[Matt Koehl]], a staunch [[Hitler]]ist, assumed the leadership role after a council agreed that he should retain command. Koehl continued some of Rockwell's restructuring of the group by dropping the use of negative verbal and written attacks against racial minorities. Koehl also began emphasizing the positive aspects of [[Nazism]] and the glories of a future all-white society. Koehl retained the swastika-festooned party literature and the pseudo-Nazi uniforms of the party's "Storm Troopers" which were modeled on those worn by the [[Nazi Party]]'s [[Sturmabteilung]]. In 1968, Koehl moved the party to a new headquarters on 2507 North Franklin Road, clearly visible from [[Arlington, Virginia|Arlington]]'s main thoroughfare, Wilson Boulevard. He also established a printing press, a "Lincoln Rockwell Book Store", and member living quarters on property nearby.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

The party began to experience ideological divisions among its followers as it entered the 1970s. In 1970, member [[Frank Collin]], who was himself secretly the son of a Jewish father, broke away from the group and founded the [[National Socialist Party of America]] in [[Chicago]], which became famous for its attempt to march through [[Skokie, Illinois]], which was home to many [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] survivors. This led to the United States Supreme Court case, [[National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie]]. Other dissatisfied members of the NSWPP chose to support [[William Luther Pierce]], and formed the [[National Alliance (United States)|National Alliance]] in 1974.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

Further membership erosion occurred as Koehl, drawing heavily upon the teachings of Hitlerian mystic [[Savitri Devi]], began to suggest that [[Nazism]] was more akin to a religious movement than a political one. He espoused the belief that [[Adolf Hitler]] was the gift of an inscrutable divine providence who had been sent to rescue the white race from decadence and gradual extinction which had been caused by a declining birth rate and [[miscegenation]]. Hitler's death in 1945 was viewed as a type of [[martyrdom]]; a voluntary, Christ-like self-sacrifice, that looked forward to a spiritual resurrection of Nazism at a later date when the [[Aryan race]] would need it the most. These esoteric beliefs led to disputes with the [[World Union of National Socialists]], which Rockwell had founded and whose leader, [[Denmark|Danish]] [[neo-Nazi]] [[Povl Riis-Knudsen]], had been appointed by Koehl. Undaunted, Koehl continued to recast the party as a [[New religious movement|new religion]] in formation. Public rallies were gradually phased out in favor of low-key gatherings which were held in private venues. On [[Labor Day]] 1979, in a highly unpopular move for some members, Koehl disbanded the party's paramilitary "Storm Troopers."{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

On November 3, 1979, some members of the NSWPP and a [[Ku Klux Klan]] group attacked a [[Communist Workers' Party (United States)|Communist Workers' Party]] protest march in [[Greensboro, North Carolina]]. The group of neo-Nazis and Klansmen [[Greensboro massacre|shot and killed five marchers]]. Forty Klansmen and neo-Nazis were involved in the shootings with sixteen Klansmen and [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazis]] being arrested. The six strongest cases were brought to trial first, but the two criminal trials resulted in the acquittal of the defendants by [[all-white jury|all-white juries]]. However, in a 1985 civil lawsuit, the survivors won a $350,000 judgment against the city, the Klansmen, and the neo-Nazis after they were all found guilty of violating the civil rights of the demonstrators. The shootings became known as the "[[Greensboro Massacre]]."<ref name="agent">{{cite news|title=Agent Tells of '79 Threats by Klan and Nazis |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/05/12/us/agent-tells-of-79-threats-by-klan-and-nazis.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |at=sec. 1, p. 26, col. 1 |date=May 12, 1985 |access-date=2007-09-27 }}</ref>

In 1982 the [[Internal Revenue Service]] took action to foreclose on the group's headquarters in Arlington, Virginia.{{sfn|Kaplan|2000|p=156}} Koehl ceased printing the organization's [[White nationalism#White power|White Power]] newspaper, sold its Arlington, Virginia, real estate holdings, and dispersed the group's various operations to scattered locations in [[Wisconsin]] and [[Michigan]]. A secluded {{convert|88|acre|m2|adj=on}} rural property called "Nordland" was purchased in [[New Berlin, Wisconsin]], to serve as living quarters and to host annual meetings and ceremonial events.

===New Order===
The Koehl organization changed its name to New Order on January 1, 1983, on the grounds that the people in the area "are not people looking to join revolutionary organizations", saying that it was moving to an area in the Midwest which it would not reveal for security reasons.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nazi Party to Relocate |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/12/27/us/nazi-party-to-relocate.html |access-date=26 July 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=27 December 1982}}</ref> The name change reflected the group's [[Nazi mysticism]] and it was still known by that name in 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.northernvirginiamag.com/culture/news/2010/12/30/death-of-an-arlington-nazi/|title=Death of an Arlington Nazi|website=www.northernvirginiamag.com|date=December 30, 2010|language=en-US|access-date=March 27, 2018}}</ref>

The organization briefly attracted the media's attention in October 1983, when it held a private meeting at [[Yorktown High School (Virginia)|Yorktown High School]] in Arlington, Virginia.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.arlingtonmagazine.com/swastikas-on-wilson/|title=Swastikas on Wilson |date=August 12, 2013|work=Arlington Magazine|access-date=March 27, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> A non-uniformed gathering of members was held indoors while the police kept a crowd of counter-protesters at bay outside. This event marked the last publicized appearance of Koehl and the New Order in Arlington. From that point forward the only outward sign that the group was still operational was the annual appearance of the [[swastika]] and [[Betsy Ross]] [[American Revolutionary War]] flags flying from the party's nondescript headquarters building on North Franklin Road every April 20 ([[Hitler's birthday]]).

Today the New Order operates quietly far from the public spotlight, eschewing the confrontational public rallies that were once a hallmark of its previous incarnations. It maintains a web page and a [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], post office box providing information and template material promoting Nazism. It has no members but rather "registered supporters" who pledge to mail in donations on a monthly basis. Financing is also obtained through sales of books and other merchandise under an affiliate business, NS Publications of [[Wyandotte, Michigan]]. The ''NS Bulletin'', a newsletter, is sent to supporters on a quarterly basis. The group holds occasional ceremonial gatherings at undisclosed private locations such as an annual observance of Hitler's birthday each April 20.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

New Order's Chief of Staff, [[Martin Kerr]], claims that the group is no longer a white supremacist group and focuses on advocating "in favor of [white] people, not against other races or ethnicities...we consider the white people of the world to be a gigantic family of racial brothers and sisters, united by ties of common ancestry and common heritage. Being for our own family does not mean that we hate other families." The SPLC still classifies them as neo-Nazis and as a "hate group."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wisconsinwatch.org/2017/11/a-look-at-wisconsins-hate-groups/|title=A look at Wisconsin's 'hate' groups|website=www.WisconsinWatch.org|language=en-US|access-date=April 28, 2018|date=November 12, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.mprnews.org/story/2017/11/12/documenting-hate-across-wisconsin-recent-rises-in-hate-bias-incidents-spark-concern|title=Across Wisconsin, recent rises in hate, bias incidents spark concern|access-date=April 28, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Neo-Nazi |url=https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/ideology/neo-nazi |website=Southern Poverty Law Center |access-date=28 July 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

== Namesake organizations ==
Since the late 1960s, there have been a number of small groups that have used the name "American Nazi Party."
* Perhaps the first was led by James Warner and Allen Vincent and it consisted of members of the California branch of the NSWPP.{{sfn|Kaplan|2000|pages=1–3, 558–562}} This group announced its existence on January 1, 1968. In 1982 James Burford formed another "American Nazi Party" from disaffected branches of the [[National Socialist Party of America]].{{sfn|Kaplan|2000|pages=3, 33}} This Chicago-based group remained in existence until at least 1994.<ref>[[Anti-Defamation League]]. ''Danger: Extremism'', New York; Anti-Defamation League, 1996, p. 177</ref>
*A small American Nazi Party operated from [[Davenport, Iowa]], led by John Robert Bishop until 1985.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://augustana.libraryhost.com/repositories/2/resources/4|title=Special Collections Manuscript Collections {{!}} Bishop (John Robert) papers, 1951–1977 and undated.|website=augustana.libraryhost.com|access-date=March 26, 2018}}</ref>{{sfn|Kaplan|2000|pages=1–3}}{{sfn|Marks|1996|page=58}}
*The name "American Nazi Party" has also been adopted by a group run by [[Rocky J. Suhayda]], a member of Rockwell's original ANP in 1967. Although Suhayda's ANP states that Rockwell was its founder, there is no direct legal or financial link between it and Rockwell's legacy organization now called the New Order.{{citation needed|date=August 2016}} Headquartered in [[Westland, Michigan]], Suhayda's ANP website sells nostalgic reprints of Rockwell's 1960s-era magazine ''[[The Stormtrooper Magazine|The Stormtrooper]]''. 2008 Neo-Nazi presidential candidate John Taylor Bowles was a member. Suhayda holds semi-private yearly meetings at his home and a national convention in California. His followers do not wear uniforms, except for the SA, or Security Arm, and they eschew public demonstrations, frequently criticizing the rival organization the [[National Socialist Movement (United States)|National Socialist Movement]] for "outing" its members with excessive media exposure.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

== Notable former members ==
*[[David Duke]] was a member before he went on to establish the Knights of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] organization{{sfn|Green|Stabler|2015|page=390}}
*[[Frank Collin]], founder of the [[National Socialist Party of America]]
*[[Harold Covington]], author
*[[James Mason (neo-Nazi)|James Mason]], former convict, author, and former associate of [[cult]] [[Manson Family|leader]] [[Charles Manson]]
*[[Joseph Tommasi]], founder of the [[National Socialist Liberation Front]]
*[[Kurt Saxon]], author of ''[[The Poor Man's James Bond]]''
*[[William Luther Pierce]], founder of the [[National Alliance (United States)|National Alliance]]
*[[Arthur J. Jones]], Republican candidate for [[Illinois's 3rd congressional district]] in the November 2018 midterm elections

== See also ==
* [[German American Bund]]
* [[Nazism in the Americas]]
* [[Neo-Nazi groups of the United States]]

==References==
'''Informational notes'''
{{Reflist|group=upper-alpha}}

'''Citations'''
{{reflist}}

'''Bibliography'''

*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZMeCgAAQBAJ&q=american+nazi+party+disappear&pg=RA1-PA390 |first1=Michael S.|last1=Green |first2=Scott L.|last2=Stabler |title=Ideas and Movements that Shaped America: From the Bill of Rights to "Occupy Wall Street" (3 vols.)|date=2015 |location=Santa Barbara, California |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1610692519 |page=390 |access-date=May 12, 2016}}
*{{cite book| last=Goodrick-Clarke | first= Nicholas| title=Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity| location= New York | publisher =New York University Press |date= 2003 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xaiaM77s6N4C&q=Goodrick-Clarke%2C%20Nicholas.%20Black%20Sun%20%3A%20Aryan%20Cults%2C%20Esoteric%20Nazism%20and%20the%20Politics%20of%20Identity.%20New%20York%20%3ANew%20York%20University%20Press%2C%202002.&pg=PA14 |isbn=978-0814731550}}
*{{cite book |editor-first1=Jeffrey |editor-last1=Kaplan |title=Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right |date=2000 |isbn=978-0742503403 |publisher=AltaMira Press|location=[[Walnut Creek, California]] |title-link=Encyclopedia of White Power }}
*{{cite book |last1=Marks |first1=Kathy |title=Faces of Right Wing Extremism |location=Boston |publisher=Branden Books |year=1996 |isbn=978-0828320160 }}
*{{cite book |title=American Nazi Party in Arlington, Virginia 1958–1984 |first1=Herman J. |last1=Obermayer |isbn=978-1494366865 |publisher=CreateSpace Publishing |date=2012 }}
*{{cite book |last1=Schmaltz |first1=William H. |title=For Race And Nation: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party |publisher=River's Bend Press |edition=1st |date=2013 |asin=B00CNFX7BE }}
*{{cite book |first1=Erik V. |last1=Wolter |first2=Robert J. |last2=Masters |title=Loyalty On Trial: One American's Battle With The FBI |location=New York |publisher=[[iUniverse]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0595327034 |page=65 }}

'''Further reading'''

*[[Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke|Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas]] (1998) ''Hitler's Priestess: Savitri Devi, the Hindu-Aryan Myth, and Neo-Nazism''. New York: New York University Press.{{ISBN|0-8147-3111-2}}
*[[Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke|Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas]] (2001) ''[[Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity]]''. New York: New York University Press. {{ISBN|0-8147-3155-4}}
*{{cite book |first1=William H. |last1=Schmaltz |title=Hate: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party |location=Washington, D.C. |type=Paperback |date=2000 |publisher=Brassey's Inc |isbn=1574882627 }}
*Simonelli, Frederick J. (1999) ''American Fuehrer: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. {{ISBN|0-252-02285-8}} and {{ISBN|0-252-06768-1}}

==External links==
*[http://vault.fbi.gov/American%20Nazi%20Party%20 Federal Bureau of Investigation - American Nazi Party monograph, June 1965] – Detailed report on George Lincoln Rockwell and the original American Nazi Party
{{Neo-Nazism}}
{{White Nationalism}}
{{United States political parties}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1959 establishments in Virginia]]
[[Category:Neo-Nazi political parties in the United States]]
[[Category:Organizations based in Alexandria, Virginia]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1959]]

Dan Quayle

2024-10-27T18:28:05Z

ARandomShyGuy: Fixing infobox name error. Sorry.

{{Short description|Vice President of the United States from 1989 to 1993}}
{{Distinguish|Don Quayle}}{{pp-blp|small=yes}}
{{Redirect|Senator Quayle|the Virginia state senator|Fred Quayle}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Dan Quayle
| image = Dan Quayle crop.jpg
| caption = Official portrait, 1989
| order = 44th
| office = Vice President of the United States
| president = [[George H. W. Bush]]
| term_start = January 20, 1989
| term_end = January 20, 1993
| predecessor = George H. W. Bush
| successor = [[Al Gore]]
| jr/sr1 = United States Senator
| state1 = [[Indiana]]
| term_start1 = January 3, 1981
| term_end1 = January 3, 1989
| predecessor1 = [[Birch Bayh]]
| successor1 = [[Dan Coats]]
| state2 = Indiana
| district2 = {{ushr|IN|4|4th}}
| term_start2 = January 3, 1977
| term_end2 = January 3, 1981
| predecessor2 = [[J. Edward Roush|Edward Roush]]
| successor2 = Dan Coats
| birth_name = James Danforth Quayle
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1947|2|4}}
| birth_place = [[Indianapolis]], Indiana, U.S.
| party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Marilyn Quayle|Marilyn Tucker]]|1972}}
| children = 3, including [[Ben Quayle|Ben]]
| parents = [[James C. Quayle]] Martha Pulliam
| relatives = {{plainlist|
* [[Eugene C. Pulliam]] (grandfather)
* [[Eugene S. Pulliam]] (uncle)
* [[Myrta Pulliam]] (cousin)
}}
| education = [[DePauw University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) [[Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis|Indiana University, Indianapolis]] ([[Juris Doctor|JD]])
| signature = Dan Quayle Signature 2.svg
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
| allegiance = United States
| branch = [[United States Army]]
| serviceyears = 1969–1975
| rank = [[Sergeant]]
| unit = [[Indiana Army National Guard]]
| module = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=|title=Dan Quayle's voice|type=speech|description=Dan Quayle answers questions on his fitness to serve as [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] at the [[1992 United States presidential debates|1992 vice presidential debate]] Recorded October 13, 1992}}
}}
'''James Danforth Quayle''' ({{IPAc-en| ˈ|k|w|eɪ|l}}; born February 4, 1947) is an American retired politician who served as the 44th [[vice president of the United States]] from 1989 to 1993 under President [[George H. W. Bush]]. A member of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], Quayle represented [[Indiana]] in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] from 1977 to 1981 and in the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] from 1981 to 1989.

A native of [[Indianapolis]], Quayle spent most of his childhood in [[Paradise Valley, Arizona|Paradise Valley]], a suburb of [[Phoenix, Arizona]]. He married [[Marilyn Quayle|Marilyn Tucker]] in 1972 and obtained his [[Juris Doctor|J.D.]] degree from the [[Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law]] in 1974. He and Marilyn practiced law in [[Huntington, Indiana]], before his election to the [[United States House of Representatives]] in 1976. In [[1980 United States Senate election in Indiana|1980]], he was elected to the [[U.S. Senate]].

In [[1988 United States presidential election|1988]], incumbent vice president and [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] presidential nominee [[George H. W. Bush]] chose Quayle as his running mate. His vice presidential debate against [[Lloyd Bentsen]] was notable for Bentsen's "[[Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy]]" quip. The Bush–Quayle ticket defeated the Democratic ticket of [[Michael Dukakis]] and Bentsen, and Quayle succeeded Bush as vice president in January 1989. During his tenure, Quayle made official visits to 47 countries and was appointed chairman of the [[National Space Council]]. As vice president, he developed a reputation for making comments that some media outlets perceived to be gaffes.<ref name=":1">{{cite news|url=http://www.utsandiego.com/uniontrib/20040721/news_lz1e21deerlin.html|work=San Diego Union-Tribune|title=The value and vitality of V.P.s|author=Lionel Van Deerlin|author-link=Lionel Van Deerlin|date=July 21, 2004|access-date=April 12, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505041437/http://www.utsandiego.com/uniontrib/20040721/news_lz1e21deerlin.html|archive-date=May 5, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>Borowitz, Andy, ''[https://link.newyorker.com/view/5be9ee5d24c17c6adf0abc2chb9it.4oot/7aa93238 Complete Knowledge of Dan Quayle] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171536/https://link.newyorker.com/view/5be9ee5d24c17c6adf0abc2chb9it.4oot/7aa93238 |date=September 20, 2022 }}'', ''Profiles in Ignorance: How America’s Politicians Got Dumb and Dumber'', Avid Reader Press, Simon and Schuster, 2022</ref> He secured re-nomination for vice president in [[1992 United States presidential election|1992]], but was defeated by the Democratic ticket of [[Bill Clinton]] and [[Al Gore]].

In 1994, Quayle published his memoir, ''Standing Firm''. He declined to run for president in 1996 because of [[phlebitis]]. He sought the Republican presidential nomination in 2000 but withdrew his campaign early on and supported the eventual nominee, [[George W. Bush]]. He joined [[Cerberus Capital Management]], a private-equity firm, in 1999. Since leaving office, Quayle has remained active in the Republican Party, including making presidential endorsements in [[2000 United States presidential election|2000]], [[2012 United States presidential election|2012]], and [[2016 United States presidential election|2016]].

==Early life, education, and career==
[[File:Dan Quayle in 1965 Modulus.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Quayle in [[Huntington North High School]]'s 1965 yearbook]]

Quayle was born in [[Indianapolis]], [[Indiana]], to Martha Corinne (née Pulliam) and [[James C. Quayle|James Cline Quayle]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2014/02/dan-quayle-born-feb-4-1947-103039|title=Dan Quayle born, Feb. 4, 1947|work=Politico|access-date=September 19, 2018|archive-date=September 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919211554/https://www.politico.com/story/2014/02/dan-quayle-born-feb-4-1947-103039|url-status=live}}</ref> He has sometimes<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-08-21-mn-1148-story.html|author=Meyer, Richard E.|title=Campaign Becomes Confrontation With Past : Privilege, Wealth Shaped Quayle|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=August 21, 1998|access-date=December 10, 2016|archive-date=December 21, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221035017/http://articles.latimes.com/1988-08-21/news/mn-1148_1_dan-quayle|url-status=live}}</ref> been incorrectly referred to as ''James Danforth Quayle III''. In his memoir he points out that his birth name was simply James Danforth Quayle. The name Quayle originates from the [[Isle of Man]], where his great-grandfather was born.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wargs.com/political/quayle.html |title=Ancestry of Dan Quayle (b. 1947) |publisher=Wargs.com |access-date=January 4, 2012 |archive-date=August 28, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828135806/http://www.wargs.com/political/quayle.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

His maternal grandfather, [[Eugene C. Pulliam]], was a wealthy and influential publishing magnate who founded Central Newspapers, Inc., and owned more than a dozen major newspapers, such as ''[[The Arizona Republic]]'' and ''[[The Indianapolis Star]]''. James C. Quayle moved his family to [[Arizona]] in 1955 to run a branch of the family's publishing empire.

After spending much of his youth in Arizona,<ref name=bio>[http://www.vicepresidentdanquayle.com/biography.html Dan Quayle: Biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206235313/http://www.vicepresidentdanquayle.com/biography.html |date=December 6, 2018 }} Retrieved December 10, 2016.</ref> Quayle returned to his native Indiana and graduated from [[Huntington North High School]] in [[Huntington, Indiana|Huntington]] in 1965. He then matriculated at [[DePauw University]], where he received his [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] degree in [[political science]] in 1969,<ref>{{cite news |first=Jill |last=Lawrence |title=Quayle on a quest to get the last laugh |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/opinion/e193.htm |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |date=August 4, 1999 |access-date=August 6, 2015 |archive-date=March 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324040652/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/opinion/e193.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> was the captain of the university golf team and a member of the fraternity [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] (Psi Phi chapter).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.depauw.edu/arts-and-culture/speakers/ubben-lecture-series/archives/details/dan-quayle-69/|title=Past Ubben Lectures: Dan Quayle '69|website=DePauw University|access-date=June 1, 2024|archive-date=June 5, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240605091508/https://www.depauw.edu/arts-and-culture/speakers/ubben-lecture-series/archives/details/dan-quayle-69/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://dke.org/virtual-museum/|title=Virtual Museum: Letters from Leaders|website=Delta Kappa Epsilon|date=February 13, 2023 |access-date=June 1, 2024|archive-date=March 3, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303192403/https://dke.org/virtual-museum/|url-status=live}}</ref>

After graduation, Quayle joined the [[Indiana National Guard]] and served from 1969 to 1975, reaching the rank of [[Sergeant#United States|sergeant]]; his joining meant that he was not subject to the [[Conscription in the United States|draft]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=August 24, 1988|title=Quayle and Paula Parkinson|url=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/os-xpm-1988-08-24-0060270264-story.html|access-date=December 7, 2020|website=www.orlandosentinel.com| publisher=Orlando Sentinel}}</ref> In 1970, while serving in the Guard, Quayle enrolled at [[Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law]]. He was admitted under a program for students who could demonstrate "special factors" as his grades did not meet the regular admission standards. In 1974, Quayle earned a [[Juris Doctor]] (J.D.) degree.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lauter |first1=Davie |last2=Jehl |first2=Douglas |title='Special Factors' Helped Quayle Law School Admission |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-09-10-mn-1522-story.html |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=September 10, 1988 |access-date=November 27, 2021 |archive-date=November 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128021231/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-09-10-mn-1522-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/08/21/Father-says-Quayle-pretty-good-salesman/2261588139200/ |title=Father says Quayle 'pretty good salesman' |work=[[United Press International]] |date=August 21, 1988 |access-date=November 27, 2021 |archive-date=November 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127185037/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/08/21/Father-says-Quayle-pretty-good-salesman/2261588139200/ |url-status=live }}</ref> At Indiana University, he met his future wife, [[Marilyn Quayle|Marilyn]], who was taking night classes at the same law school at the time.<ref name="Time">Alessandra Stanley, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,956763,00.html "Marilyn Quayle: A New Second Lady"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825010541/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,956763,00.html |date=August 25, 2013 }}, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', January 23, 1989. Accessed September 28, 2014.</ref>

Quayle became an investigator for the Consumer Protection Division of the Office of the [[Indiana Attorney General]] in July 1971. Later that year, he became an administrative assistant to Governor [[Edgar Whitcomb]]. From 1973 to 1974, he was the Director of the Inheritance Tax Division of the Indiana Department of Revenue. After graduating from law school in 1974, Quayle worked as associate publisher of his family's newspaper, the ''[[Huntington Herald-Press]]''.

==Congressional tenure==
[[File:Dan Quayle 1977.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Quayle in 1977, his first term in the House of Representatives]]
In 1976, Quayle was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] from [[Indiana's 4th congressional district]], defeating eight-term [[incumbent]] [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] [[J. Edward Roush]] by a 55%-to-45% margin.<ref name="General Election of 1976">{{Cite web|title=Statistics of the Presidential and Congressional Election of November 2, 1976|url=http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electioninfo/1976election.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720124815/http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electionInfo/1976election.pdf|archive-date=July 20, 2011|access-date=December 22, 2019}}</ref> He was reelected in 1978, 64% to 34%.<ref name="General Election of 1978">{{Cite web|title=Statistics of the Congressional Election of November 7, 1978|url=http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electioninfo/1978election.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021081349/http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electionInfo/1978election.pdf|archive-date=October 21, 2011|access-date=December 22, 2019}}</ref>

In November 1978, Congressman [[Leo Ryan]] of California invited Quayle to accompany him on a delegation to investigate unsafe conditions at the [[Jonestown]] settlement in [[Guyana]], but Quayle was unable to participate. The decision likely saved Quayle's life, because Ryan and his entourage were subsequently murdered at the airstrip in Jonestown as the party tried to escape the massacre.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Quayle|first=Dan|title=Standing Firm: A Vice-Presidential Memoir|publisher=Harpercollins|year=1995|isbn=0-06-109390-4|page=176|author-link=Dan Quayle}}</ref>

In [[1980 United States Senate election in Indiana|1980]], at age 33, Quayle became the youngest person ever elected to the [[United States Senate|Senate]] from the state of Indiana, defeating three-term incumbent Democrat [[Birch Bayh]] with 54% of the vote. Making Indiana political history again, Quayle was reelected to the Senate in [[1986 United States Senate election in Indiana|1986]] with the largest margin ever achieved to that date by a candidate in a statewide Indiana race, taking 61% of the vote against his Democratic opponent, [[Jill Long Thompson|Jill Long]].

In 1986, Quayle was criticized for championing the cause of [[Daniel Anthony Manion]], a candidate for a federal appellate judgeship, who was in law school one year ahead of Quayle. The [[American Bar Association]] had evaluated Manion as "qualified/unqualified", its lower passing grade.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/05/25/us/reagan-judges-get-lower-bar-rating.html | work=[[The New York Times]] | title=Reagan Judges Get Lower Bar Rating | date=May 25, 1986 | access-date=July 3, 2016 | archive-date=August 19, 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819113350/http://www.nytimes.com/1986/05/25/us/reagan-judges-get-lower-bar-rating.html | url-status=live }}</ref> Manion was nominated for the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit|Seventh Circuit]] of the [[United States court of appeals|U.S. Court of Appeals]] by President [[Ronald Reagan]] on February 21, 1986, and confirmed by the Senate on June 26, 1986.<ref name="PostGazette">{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Qa9RAAAAIBAJ&dq=daniel%20manion&pg=6717%2C6531359|title=Senate reaffirms Daniel Manion as judge, 50–49|date=July 24, 1986|work=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette|access-date=June 15, 2012|archive-date=February 18, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218070104/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Qa9RAAAAIBAJ&dq=daniel%20manion&pg=6717%2C6531359|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Vice presidency (1989–1993)==
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox administration
| name = Vice presidency of Dan Quayle
| image = Dan Quayle crop.jpg
| term_start = January 20, 1989
| term_end = January 20, 1993
| vicepresident_link = Vice President of the United States
| cabinet = ''[[Presidency of George H. W. Bush#Administration|See list]]''
| party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| election = [[1988 United States presidential election|1988]]
| seat = [[Number One Observatory Circle]]
| predecessor = [[George_H._W._Bush#Vice_presidency_(1981–1989)|George H. W. Bush]]
| successor = [[Vice Presidency of Al Gore|Al Gore ]]
| official_url =
}}

===1988 campaign===
{{See also|George H. W. Bush 1988 presidential campaign|1988 Republican Party vice presidential candidate selection}}
On August 16, 1988, at the Republican convention in New Orleans, Louisiana, George H. W. Bush chose Quayle to be his running mate in the [[1988 United States presidential election]]. The choice immediately became controversial.<ref name="Quagmire" /> Outgoing President Reagan praised Quayle for his "energy and enthusiasm".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Roberts|first1=Steven|title=Reagan Praises Quayle, Citing 'Enthusiasm'|work=The New York Times |date=August 21, 1988|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/21/us/reagan-praises-quayle-citing-enthusiasm.html|access-date=December 9, 2016|archive-date=June 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614203437/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/21/us/reagan-praises-quayle-citing-enthusiasm.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Press coverage of the convention was dominated by questions about "the three Quayle problems".<ref name="NYTimesGarbled" /> The questions involved his military service, a golf holiday in Florida where he and several other politicians shared a house with lobbyist Paula Parkinson,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Maxa|first=Rudy|date=March 29, 1981|title=The Paula Parkinson Story|language=en-US|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1981/03/29/the-paula-parkinson-story/df932614-289d-4f44-a0fb-5416259c2446/|access-date=December 7, 2020|issn=0190-8286|archive-date=August 6, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806161143/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1981/03/29/the-paula-parkinson-story/df932614-289d-4f44-a0fb-5416259c2446/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> and whether he had enough experience to be vice president. Quayle seemed at times rattled and at other times uncertain or evasive as he responded to questions.<ref name="NYTimesGarbled" /> Delegates to the convention generally blamed television and newspapers for the focus on Quayle's problems, but Bush's staff said they thought Quayle had mishandled the questions about his military record, leaving questions dangling.<ref name="Quagmire">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,968278-1,00.html|title=The Republicans: The Quayle Quagmire|last=Shapiro|first=Walter|date=August 29, 1988|magazine=Time|page=32|access-date=September 1, 2008|archive-date=June 15, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615061345/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,968278-1,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="NYTimesGarbled">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/19/us/the-republicans-in-new-orleans-convention-message-is-garbled-by-quayle-static.html?pagewanted=all|title=The Republicans in New Orleans; Convention Message Is Garbled by Quayle Static|last=Oreskes|first=Michael|date=August 19, 1988|work=The New York Times|access-date=September 1, 2008|archive-date=June 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614203434/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/19/us/the-republicans-in-new-orleans-convention-message-is-garbled-by-quayle-static.html?pagewanted=all|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Ander Plattner et al., "Quayle Under Glass", ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'', August 29, 1988, p. 32.</ref> Although Bush was trailing by up to 15 points in public opinion polls taken before the convention, in August the Bush–Quayle ticket took the lead,<ref>[http://www.gallup.com/poll/110548/gallup-presidential-election-trialheat-trends-19362004.aspx#4 1988 Presidential Trial Heats ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630070844/http://www.gallup.com/poll/110548/gallup-presidential-election-trialheat-trends-19362004.aspx#4 |date=June 30, 2017 }} Gallup.</ref> which it did not relinquish for the rest of the campaign.

In the [[1988 United States presidential debates|October 1988 vice-presidential debate]], Quayle debated Democratic candidate [[Lloyd Bentsen]]. During the debate, Quayle's strategy was to criticize Dukakis as too liberal. When the debate turned to Quayle's relatively limited experience in public life, he compared the length of his congressional service (12 years) with that of President [[John F. Kennedy]] (14 years); Kennedy had less experience than his rivals during the 1960 presidential nomination. It was a factual comparison, although Quayle's advisers cautioned beforehand that it could be used against him. Bentsen's response—"I served with Jack Kennedy. I knew Jack Kennedy. Jack Kennedy was a friend of mine. [[Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy]]"—subsequently became a part of the political lexicon.<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/spc/debatingourdestiny/interviews/quayle.html Dan Quayle Interview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108035528/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/spc/debatingourdestiny/interviews/quayle.html |date=November 8, 2017 }} PBS. December 2, 1999. Retrieved December 10, 2016.</ref>

[[File:President Bush and Vice President and Mrs. Quayle Participate in a Hanukkah Celebration.jpg|thumb|George H. W. Bush, Dan Quayle, and Marilyn Quayle participate in a Hanukkah Celebration in 1989.]]
[[File:Quayle at USS John F. Kennedy, 1991 (1).JPEG|thumb|right|Quayle aboard the aircraft carrier [[USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)|USS ''John F. Kennedy'' (CV-67)]] during [[Gulf War|Operation Desert Shield]] in 1991]]
The Bush–Quayle ticket won the [[1988 United States presidential election|November election]] by a 53–46 percent margin, sweeping 40 states and capturing 426 [[United States Electoral College|electoral votes]]. He was [[Inauguration of George H. W. Bush|sworn in]] on January 20, 1989. Quayle cast no [[List of tie-breaking votes cast by vice presidents of the United States|tie-breaking votes]] as [[president of the Senate]], becoming only the second vice-president (after [[Charles W. Fairbanks]]) not to do so while serving a complete term.

===Tenure===
{{See also|Presidency of George H. W. Bush}}
During his vice presidency, Quayle made official trips to 47 countries.<ref name=bio/> Bush named Quayle head of the [[U.S. Council on Competitiveness|Council on Competitiveness]] and the first chairman of the [[National Space Council]]. As head of the NSC he called for greater efforts to protect Earth against the danger of potential [[asteroid]] impacts.<ref>[http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19900516&slug=1072013 "Quayle Backs Group's Effort To Head Off Asteroid Threat"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127142157/http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19900516&slug=1072013 |date=November 27, 2011 }}, ''[[The Seattle Times]]'', May 16, 1990.</ref>

[[File:Quayle desert storm.jpg|thumb|Quayle and Prince [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia]] at a meeting to discuss US military intervention during Operation Desert Shield in 1990]]
After a briefing by Lt. General [[Daniel O. Graham]], (USA Ret.), Max Hunter, and [[Jerry Pournelle]], Quayle sponsored the development of an experimental Single Stage to Orbit X-Program, which resulted in the building of the [[McDonnell Douglas DC-X]].
[[File:Dan Quayle speaking at the Race for the Cure 1990.jpg|thumb|right|Quayle speaking at Race for the Cure in Washington, D.C. in 1990]]
[[File:President Bush and Vice President Quayle pose together for their official portrait - NARA - 186393.jpg|thumb|right|Quayle with President [[George H. W. Bush]] in 1989]]

Quayle has since described the vice presidency as "an awkward office. You're president of the Senate. You're not even officially part of the executive branch—you're part of the legislative branch. You're paid by the Senate, not by the executive branch. And it's the president's agenda. It's not your agenda. You're going to disagree from time to time, but you salute and carry out the orders the best you can".<ref>[http://www.indianapolismonthly.com/news-opinion/dan-quayle-on-running-for-vice-president/ "Dan Quayle on Running for Vice President: 'It's Not the Easiest Job{{'"}}] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220101457/http://www.indianapolismonthly.com/news-opinion/dan-quayle-on-running-for-vice-president/ |date=December 20, 2016 }}. ''[[Indianapolis Monthly]]''. October 4, 2016. Retrieved December 10, 2016.</ref>

====''Murphy Brown''====
On May 19, 1992, Quayle gave a speech titled ''[[s:Reflections on Urban America|Reflections on Urban America]]'' to the [[Commonwealth Club of California]] on the subject of the [[1992 Los Angeles riots|Los Angeles riots]].<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/26/arts/television/murphy-brown-dan-quayle.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220103/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/26/arts/television/murphy-brown-dan-quayle.html |archive-date=2022-01-03 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=That Time 'Murphy Brown' and Dan Quayle Topped the Front Page|work=The New York Times|date=January 26, 2018|last1=Fortin|first1=Jacey}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In the speech he blamed the violence on a decay of moral values and family structure in American society.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> In an aside, he cited the single mother title character in the television program ''[[Murphy Brown]]'' as an example of how popular culture contributes to this "poverty of values", saying, "It doesn't help matters when [[prime time|prime-time]] TV has Murphy Brown—a character who supposedly epitomizes today's intelligent, highly paid, professional woman—mocking the importance of fathers, by bearing a child alone, and calling it just another 'lifestyle choice'."<ref>{{cite magazine | url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975627,00.html | title=Dan Quayle vs. Murphy Brown | magazine=Time | date=June 1, 1992 | access-date=June 24, 2010 | archive-date=August 25, 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825193119/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975627,00.html | url-status=dead }}</ref>

The "[[Murphy Brown#Murphy becomes a single mother|Murphy Brown speech]]" became one of the most memorable of the 1992 campaign. Long after the outcry had ended, the comment continued to have an effect on U.S. politics. [[Stephanie Coontz]], a professor of family history and the author of several books and essays about the history of [[marriage]], said that this brief remark by Quayle about Murphy Brown "kicked off more than a decade of outcries against the 'collapse of the family{{'"}}.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/04/30/AR2005043000108.html | newspaper=The Washington Post | title=For Better, For Worse | first=Stephanie | last=Coontz | author-link=Stephanie Coontz | date=May 1, 2005 | access-date=April 30, 2010 | archive-date=November 7, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107133949/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/04/30/AR2005043000108.html | url-status=live }}</ref> In 2002, [[Candice Bergen]], the actress who played Brown, said "I never have really said much about the whole episode, which was endless, but his speech was a perfectly intelligent speech about fathers not being dispensable and nobody agreed with that more than I did." Others interpreted it differently; singer [[Tanya Tucker]] was widely quoted as saying "Who the hell is Dan Quayle to come after single mothers?"<ref>{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |title=Candice Bergen agrees with Quayle |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/SHOWBIZ/News/07/11/showbuzz/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=July 11, 2002 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080328133715/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/SHOWBIZ/News/07/11/showbuzz/index.html#1|archive-date=March 28, 2008}}</ref>

====Perceived gaffes====
Throughout his time as vice president, Quayle was characterized by some media outlets and journalists as being unprepared for the position. Given his position, his comments were heavily scrutinized for factual and grammatical errors. Contributing to this perception of Quayle was his tendency to make public statements that were either impossible ("I have made good judgments in the past. I have made good judgments in the future"<ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=http://www.watertowndailytimes.com/ogd/quayle-hunting-turned-up-some-real-turkeys-20150318&|work=Watertown Daily Times|title=Quayle Hunting turned up some real turkeys|date=March 18, 2015|access-date=September 22, 2018}}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>), self-contradictory ("I believe we are on an irreversible trend toward more freedom and democracy, but that could change"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/2012/09/25/the-stunning-sudden-reversal-of-economic-freedom-in-america/#41f093853063|magazine=[[Forbes]]|title=The Stunning, Sudden Reversal of Economic Freedom In America|author=Howard Rich|date=September 25, 2012|access-date=September 22, 2018|archive-date=September 22, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922102305/https://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/2012/09/25/the-stunning-sudden-reversal-of-economic-freedom-in-america/#41f093853063|url-status=live}}</ref>), self-contradictory and confused ("[[The Holocaust]] was an obscene period in our nation's history. ... No, not our nation's, but in [[World War II]]. I mean, we all lived in this century. I didn't live in this century, but in this century's history"<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/lifestyle/features/10-things-politicians-definitely-wish-they-had-not-said--270345.html|work=Irish Examiner|title=10 things politicians definitely wish they had not said ...|author=Dan Kenny|date=May 30, 2014|access-date=September 22, 2018|archive-date=September 22, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922103220/https://www.irishexaminer.com/lifestyle/features/10-things-politicians-definitely-wish-they-had-not-said--270345.html|url-status=live}}</ref>), or just confused (such as the comments he made in a May 1989 address to the [[United Negro College Fund]] (UNCF). Commenting on the UNCF's slogan—which is "a mind is a terrible thing to waste"—Quayle said, "You take the UNCF model that what a waste it is to lose one's mind or not to have a mind is being very wasteful. How true that is").<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/25/magazine/the-education-of-dan-quayle.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm|work=[[The New York Times Magazine]]|title=The Education of Dan Quayle|last=Dowd|first=Maureen|author-link=Maureen Dowd|date=June 25, 1989|access-date=September 22, 2018|archive-date=June 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614195145/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/25/magazine/the-education-of-dan-quayle.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://archives.cjr.org/year/91/5/quayle.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040122163649/http://archives.cjr.org/year/91/5/quayle.asp|archive-date=January 22, 2004|work=Columbia Journalism Review|title=Dan Quayle: The Sequel|author=William Boot (Christopher Hanson)|date=September–October 1991}}</ref>

{{anchor|"Potatoe"|Potatoe}}On June 15, 1992, Quayle altered 12-year-old student William Figueroa's correct spelling of "potato" to "potatoe" at the Muñoz Rivera Elementary School [[spelling bee]] in [[Trenton, New Jersey]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.capitalcentury.com/1992.html|title=1992: Gaffe with an 'e' at the end|first=Paul|last=Mickle|publisher=Capitalcentury.com|access-date=July 1, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060715054720/http://capitalcentury.com/1992.html|archive-date=July 15, 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/29/nyregion/politics-how-do-you-spell-regret-one-man-s-take-on-it.html|title=How Do You Spell Regret? One Man's Take on It|first=Mark|last=Fass|work=The New York Times|access-date=March 20, 2009|date=August 29, 2004|archive-date=March 23, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323093130/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/29/nyregion/politics-how-do-you-spell-regret-one-man-s-take-on-it.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He was the subject of widespread ridicule for his error. According to ''The New York Times''<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/06/17/opinion/mr-quayle-s-e-for-effort.html|work=The New York Times|title=Mr. Quayle's 'e' for Effort|date=June 17, 1992|access-date=February 7, 2017|archive-date=February 18, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218063712/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/06/17/opinion/mr-quayle-s-e-for-effort.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and Quayle's memoirs, he was relying on cards provided by the school, which Quayle says included the misspelling. Quayle said he was uncomfortable with the version he gave, but did so because he decided to trust the school's incorrect written materials instead of his own judgment.

===1992 campaign===
{{Main|George H. W. Bush 1992 presidential campaign}}
In the [[1992 United States presidential election|1992 election]], Bush and Quayle were challenged in their bid for reelection by the Democratic ticket of [[List of Governors of Arkansas|Arkansas Governor]] [[Bill Clinton]] and [[Tennessee]] [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Al Gore]] and the independent ticket of Texas businessman [[Ross Perot]] and retired Vice Admiral [[James Stockdale]].

As Bush lagged in the polls in the weeks preceding the August [[1992 Republican National Convention]], some Republican strategists (led by [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[James Baker]]) viewed Quayle as a liability to the ticket and pushed for his replacement.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2004/07/15/MNGH97LG321.DTL | work=The San Francisco Chronicle | title=Rumor has it that Cheney's on way out / Theory appears far-fetched but is making the rounds | first=Elisabeth | last=Bumiller | date=July 15, 2004 | access-date=February 15, 2021 | archive-date=October 10, 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010203306/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2004%2F07%2F15%2FMNGH97LG321.DTL | url-status=live }}</ref> Quayle ultimately survived the challenge and secured renomination.<ref>''Time'', [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,976809-1,00.html "Quayle Vs. Gore"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015195716/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,976809-1,00.html |date=October 15, 2007 }}, October 19, 1992. Retrieved August 29, 2008.</ref>

During the 1992 presidential campaign, Quayle told the news media that he believed homosexuality was a choice, and "the wrong choice".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/09/14/us/1992-campaign-vice-president-quayle-contends-homosexuality-matter-choice-not.html|title=The 1992 Campaign: The Vice President; Quayle Contends Homosexuality Is a Matter of Choice, Not Biology|last=Witt|first=Karen De|date=September 14, 1992|work=The New York Times|access-date=December 17, 2017|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=January 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115235833/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/09/14/us/1992-campaign-vice-president-quayle-contends-homosexuality-matter-choice-not.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Quayle faced off against Gore and Stockdale in the vice presidential [[debate]] on October 13, 1992.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/14/us/the-1992-campaign-james-stockdale-reluctant-politician-tempers-professional-edge.html|title=The 1992 Campaign: James Stockdale; Reluctant Politician Tempers Professional Edge|first=David E.|last=Rosenbaum|work=The New York Times|date=October 14, 1992|access-date=September 19, 2018|archive-date=September 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919214604/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/14/us/the-1992-campaign-james-stockdale-reluctant-politician-tempers-professional-edge.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He attempted to avoid the one-sided outcome of his debate with Bentsen four years earlier by staying on the offensive.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/14/us/the-1992-campaign-the-debate-quayle-and-gore-exchange-sharp-attacks-in-debate.html|title=The 1992 Campaign: The Debate; Quayle and Gore Exchange Sharp Attacks in Debate|first=Robin|last=Toner|work=The New York Times|date=October 14, 1992|access-date=September 19, 2018|archive-date=September 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919220209/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/14/us/the-1992-campaign-the-debate-quayle-and-gore-exchange-sharp-attacks-in-debate.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Quayle criticized Gore's book ''[[Earth in the Balance]]'' with specific page references, though his claims were subsequently criticized by the liberal group [[Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting|FAIR]] for inaccuracy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fair.org/take-action/media-advisories/post-debate-fact-checking-is-medias-main-job/ |title=FAIR Media Advisory: Post-Debate Fact-Checking Is Media's Main Job |publisher=Fair.org |date=September 29, 2004 |access-date=April 22, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204143847/http://fair.org/take-action/media-advisories/post-debate-fact-checking-is-medias-main-job/ |archive-date=December 4, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In Quayle's closing argument, he sharply asked voters, "Do you really believe Bill Clinton will tell the truth?" and "Do you trust Bill Clinton to be your president?" Gore and Stockdale talked more about the policies and philosophies they espoused.<ref>{{cite web|title=Debate Transcript, Commission on Presidential Debates |url=http://www.debates.org/pages/trans92d.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091009182330/http://www.debates.org/pages/trans92d.html |archive-date=October 9, 2009 }}</ref> Republican loyalists were largely relieved and pleased with Quayle's performance, and his camp attempted to portray it as an upset triumph against a veteran debater, but post-debate polls were mixed on whether Gore or Quayle had won.<ref>''Columbia Journalism Review'', September/October 1993 "{{cite web |url=http://archives.cjr.org/year/93/5/books-rosensteil.asp |title=Leading the Polls |access-date=January 8, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002234724/http://archives.cjr.org/year/93/5/books-rosensteil.asp |archive-date=October 2, 2006 }}</ref> It ultimately proved to be a minor factor in the election, which Bush and Quayle lost, 168 electoral votes to 370.

==Post–vice presidency (1993–present)==
===Initial activities===
In 1993, Quayle became the trustee of the [[Hudson Institute]].<ref name="p2000.us"/> From 1993 to January 1999, he served on the board of Central Newspapers, Inc.,<ref name="p2000.us"/> and from 1995 until January 1999, he headed the Campaign America [[political action committee]].<ref name="p2000.us"/>

Quayle authored a 1994 memoir, ''Standing Firm'', which became a bestseller. Quayle's second book, ''The American Family: Discovering the Values That Make Us Strong'', was co-authored with Diane Medved and published in 1996.<ref name="p2000.us"/> He later published his third book ''Worth Fighting For'', in 1999.

Quayle moved to Arizona in 1996.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2010/04/01/DI2010040102937.html|title=Outlook: Dan Quayle on the tea party, Palin and Ross Perot|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=April 5, 2010|access-date=October 15, 2012|archive-date=February 8, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208125912/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2010/04/01/DI2010040102937.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He considered but decided against running for [[governor of Indiana]] in 1996, and decided against running for the [[1996 Republican Party presidential primaries|1996 Republican presidential nomination]], citing health problems related to [[phlebitis]].<ref name="broder">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/election/july-dec99/quayle_9-27.html |title=David Broder on PBS Newshour |date=September 27, 1999 |publisher=PBS |access-date=January 4, 2012 |archive-date=January 14, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114183200/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/election/july-dec99/quayle_9-27.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1997 and 1998, Quayle was a "distinguished visiting professor of international studies" at the [[Thunderbird School of Global Management]].<ref name="p2000.us"/>

===2000 presidential campaign===
{{Main|Dan Quayle 2000 presidential campaign}}
[[File:Quayle 2000 campaign logo.svg|thumb|Logo from Quayle's 2000 presidential campaign]]

During a January 1999 appearance on ''[[Larry King Live]]'', Quayle said he would run for president in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|date=January 22, 1999|title=Quayle Plans a Bid in 2000 For President|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/22/us/quayle-plans-a-bid-in-2000-for-president.html|access-date=September 16, 2018|website=The New York Times|agency=Reuters|archive-date=September 16, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916235719/https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/22/us/quayle-plans-a-bid-in-2000-for-president.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On January 28, 1999, he officially created an exploratory committee.<ref name="p2000.us">{{cite web |title=Dan Quayle |url=http://p2000.us/quay.html |website=p2000.us |access-date=May 29, 2021 |archive-date=June 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212532/http://p2000.us/quay.html |url-status=live }}</ref> On April 14, 1999, at a rally held at his alma mater Huntington North High School's gymnasium, Quayle officially launched his campaign for the [[2000 Republican Party presidential primaries|2000 Republican presidential nomination]].<ref name="p2000.us" /> In July 1999, he published his book ''Worth Fighting For''.<ref name="p2000.us"/>

During campaign appearances, Quayle criticized fellow candidate [[George W. Bush]]. Early on, he criticized Bush's use of the term "[[compassionate conservative]]".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Conolly |first1=Ceci |title=Dan Quayle plans presidential campaign |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/575357498 |website=Newspapers.com |publisher=The Spokesman-Review |agency=Associated Press |access-date=May 29, 2021 |language=en |url-access=subscription |date=January 22, 1999 |archive-date=January 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122212641/http://www.newspapers.com/image/575357498/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Quayle finished eighth in the August 1999 [[Iowa Straw Poll (1979–2011)|Ames Straw Poll]]. He withdrew from the race the next month and supported Bush.<ref name="broder"/>

===Subsequent activities===
Quayle, then working as an [[Investment banking|investment banker]] in Phoenix, was mentioned as a candidate for [[List of Governors of Arizona|governor of Arizona]] before the [[2002 Arizona gubernatorial election|2002 election]],<ref>{{cite news |title = Political Briefing; From Arizona, Talk Of a Bid by Quayle |author = B. Drummond Ayres Jr. |work = [[The New York Times]] |date= February 11, 2001 |url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F01E2D81031F932A25751C0A9679C8B63 |access-date = September 4, 2008}}</ref> but declined to run.

On January 31, 2011, Quayle wrote a letter to President [[Barack Obama]] urging him to commute [[Jonathan Pollard]]'s sentence.<ref>[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/60792/dan-quayle-urges-pollard-release "Dan Quayle Urges Pollard Release"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112033604/http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/60792/dan-quayle-urges-pollard-release |date=November 12, 2013 }}, ''[[J. The Jewish News of Northern California]]'', February 10, 2011.</ref>

In December 2011, Quayle endorsed [[Mitt Romney]] for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination.<ref name="quayle">{{cite news |first=Mark |last=Halperin |author-link=Mark Halperin |url=http://thepage.time.com/2011/12/05/ap-quayle-to-endorse-romney/ |title=Quayle to Endorse Romney |work=The Page |publisher=Time Inc. |date=December 5, 2011 |access-date=April 1, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142237/http://thepage.time.com/2011/12/05/ap-quayle-to-endorse-romney/ |archive-date=April 2, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the [[2016 United States presidential election|2016 presidential election]], Quayle endorsed [[Jeb Bush presidential campaign, 2016|Jeb Bush]].<ref name="jebarizona">{{cite web|url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/azdc/2015/10/28/jeb-bush-arizona-supporters-dan-quayle-fife-symington/74756070/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20160318001513/http://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/azdc/2015/10/28/jeb-bush-arizona-supporters-dan-quayle-fife-symington/74756070/|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 18, 2016|title=Jeb Bush's Arizona supporters include Dan Quayle, Fife Symington|date=October 28, 2015|work=The Arizona Republic}}</ref> After Bush failed to win the nomination, Quayle endorsed [[Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign|Donald Trump]];<ref>{{Cite web|date=July 30, 2016|title=HUGE: Former VP Dan Quayle Endorses Trump, Says 'I Think He Can Win'!|url=https://en-volve.com/2016/07/30/huge-former-vp-dan-quayle-endorses-trump-says-i-think-he-can-win/|access-date=January 15, 2021|website=enVolve|language=en-US|archive-date=October 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024143735/https://en-volve.com/2016/07/30/huge-former-vp-dan-quayle-endorses-trump-says-i-think-he-can-win/|url-status=live}}</ref> he was later seen visiting with Trump at [[Trump Tower]] in [[Manhattan]] before Trump's inauguration.<ref name="trumptower">{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/dan-quayle-visits-trump-tower-offer-personal-congratulations/story |title=Dan Quayle Visits Trump Tower to Offer 'Personal Congratulations' |date=November 29, 2016 |work=ABC News }}{{Dead link|date=July 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

[[Quayle Vice Presidential Learning Center|The Dan Quayle Center and Museum]], in [[Huntington, Indiana]], features information on Quayle and all U.S. vice presidents.

Quayle is an Honorary Trustee Emeritus of the [[Hudson Institute]] and president of Quayle and Associates. He has also been a member of the board of directors of Heckmann Corporation, a water-sector company, since the company's inception and serves as chair of the company's Compensation and Nominating & Governance Committees. Quayle is a director of [[Aozora Bank]], based in Tokyo, Japan.<ref>{{cite web|title=Board of Directors website |url=http://heckmanncorp.com/boardofdirectors.htm |publisher=Heckmann corporation |access-date=March 10, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110316195646/http://heckmanncorp.com/boardofdirectors.htm |archive-date=March 16, 2011 }}</ref> He has also been on the boards of directors of other companies, including [[K2 Sports]], [[AmTran]] Inc., Central Newspapers Inc.,<ref>{{cite web |title = RightWeb.com profile for J. Danforth Quayle |url = http://rightweb.irc-online.org/profile/Quayle_J_Danforth_Dan |access-date = March 10, 2011 |archive-date = January 22, 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110122200759/http://www.rightweb.irc-online.org/profile/Quayle_J_Danforth_Dan |url-status = live }}</ref> BTC Inc.<ref>{{cite web |title = CampaignMoney.com donation page for Quayle for Congress, 2010 election cycle |url = http://www.campaignmoney.com/political/committees/quayle-for-congress.asp?cycle=10 |access-date = March 10, 2011 |archive-date = February 23, 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110223193959/http://www.campaignmoney.com/political/committees/quayle-for-congress.asp?cycle=10 |url-status = live }}</ref> and Carvana Co.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1690820/000119312517125104/d297157ds1a.htm#toc297157_16|title=S-1/A|website=www.sec.gov|access-date=April 20, 2017|archive-date=April 21, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421095233/https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1690820/000119312517125104/d297157ds1a.htm#toc297157_16|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to the book [[Peril (book)|''Peril'']], by [[Bob Woodward]] and [[Robert Costa (journalist)|Robert Costa]], Quayle played a central role in advising his fellow Hoosier and Vice President [[Mike Pence]] to [[2021 United States Electoral College vote count|certify]] the [[2020 United States presidential election]] as per the [[Standing Rules of the United States Senate|Senate rules]], rather than cooperate with a plan by then-president [[Donald Trump]] that sought to overturn the election.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Stanley-Becker|first=Isaac|date=September 14, 2021|title=Top general was so fearful Trump might spark war that he made secret calls to his Chinese counterpart, new book says|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/09/14/peril-woodward-costa-trump-milley-china/|newspaper=[[Washington Post]]|access-date=September 14, 2021|archive-date=September 15, 2021|archive-url=https://archive.today/20210915233648/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/09/14/peril-woodward-costa-trump-milley-china/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=September 16, 2021|first=Virginia|last=Chamlee|title=How Dan Quayle Helped Convince Mike Pence Not to Overturn Election, According to New Book: 'Forget It'|url=https://people.com/politics/new-book-details-how-dan-quayle-convinced-mike-pence-not-to-overturn-election/|access-date=2022-02-06|website=people.com|language=en|archive-date=February 6, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206222119/https://people.com/politics/new-book-details-how-dan-quayle-convinced-mike-pence-not-to-overturn-election/|url-status=live}}</ref> Quayle attended President [[Joe Biden]]'s [[Inauguration of Joe Biden|inauguration]] on January 20, 2021.<ref>{{cite news|title=Who was at Biden's inauguration |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/interactive/2021/photos-attendees-biden-inauguration/?itid=hp-banner-low |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=January 21, 2021}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:Dan Quayle with Donald Rumsfeld.jpg|Quayle with [[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense Secretary]] [[Donald Rumsfeld]] in 2001
File:Dan Quayle (7835924970).jpg|Dan Quayle speaking at a "Politics on the Rocks" event in Scottsdale, Arizona, in 2012
File:Dan and Marilyn Quayle at 58th Inauguration 01-20-17.jpg|Dan Quayle and [[Marilyn Quayle]] at the [[Inauguration of Donald Trump|2017 Presidential Inauguration]]
File:National Veterans Day Observance 2019 (49051656176).jpg|Dan Quayle and [[Marilyn Quayle]] with [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Mike Pence]] in 2019
File:George W. Bush and Dan Quayle at Biden inauguration.png|Quayle (right) with George W. Bush (left) at the [[Inauguration of Joe Biden|2021 Presidential Inauguration]]
</gallery>

===Cerberus Capital Management===
In 1999, Quayle joined [[Cerberus Capital Management]], a multibillion-dollar [[Private equity|private-equity]] firm, where he serves as chair of the company's Global Investments division.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cerberuscapital.com/team/j-danforth-quayle/|title=J. Danforth Quayle - Cerberus Capital Management|access-date=July 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160706202441/http://www.cerberuscapital.com/team/j-danforth-quayle/|archive-date=July 6, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> As chair of the international advisory board of Cerberus Capital Management, he recruited former [[Prime Minister of Canada|Canadian prime minister]] [[Brian Mulroney]], who would have been installed as chair if Cerberus had acquired [[Air Canada]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Konrad |first=Yakabuski |title=The prime of Brian Mulroney |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/rob-magazine/the-prime-of-brian-mulroney/article266592/page2/ |access-date=March 10, 2011 |newspaper=The Globe and Mail |date=April 30, 2004 |archive-date=October 15, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015122206/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/rob-magazine/the-prime-of-brian-mulroney/article266592/page2/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In early 2014, Quayle traveled to Belfast, Northern Ireland, in an attempt to speed approval for a deal in which Cerberus acquired nearly £1.3 billion in Northern Ireland loans from the Republic of Ireland's [[National Asset Management Agency]]. The Irish government is investigating the deal, and the [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission|US Securities and Exchange Commission]], the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]], and the [[United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York]] are investigating Quayle's involvement as a potentially "very serious" misuse of the vice president's office.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Murtagh |first=Peter |title=Project Eagle: Inside the £1.24bn Nama deal in the North |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/project-eagle-inside-the-1-24bn-nama-deal-in-the-north-1.2794086 |access-date=September 19, 2016 |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |date=September 17, 2016 |archive-date=September 18, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918135217/http://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/project-eagle-inside-the-1-24bn-nama-deal-in-the-north-1.2794086 |url-status=live }}</ref> As of December 2018, Quayle served as chair of Global Investments at Cerberus.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://heavy.com/news/2018/12/dan-quayle-wife-kids-age-now/|title=Dan Quayle, George Bush's Vice President: 5 Fast Facts You Need to Know|first=Effie|last=Orfanides|date=December 5, 2018|access-date=December 12, 2018|archive-date=December 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215223707/https://heavy.com/news/2018/12/dan-quayle-wife-kids-age-now/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Personal life==
{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | headerimage= | video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?57532-1/standing-firm ''Booknotes'' interview with Quayle on ''Standing Firm'', July 24, 1994], [[C-SPAN]]}}
Quayle lives with his wife, [[Marilyn Quayle]], in [[Paradise Valley, Arizona]].<ref name="auto"/> They married in November 1972<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1992/01/10/guardian-of-the-quayle-image/01483c29-5f4e-4069-bbb3-fd5682da079a/|title=Guardian of the Quayle Image|date=January 10, 1992|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=March 18, 2019|archive-date=April 2, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402195635/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1992/01/10/guardian-of-the-quayle-image/01483c29-5f4e-4069-bbb3-fd5682da079a/|url-status=live}}</ref> and have three children: Tucker, Benjamin, and Corinne.<ref>{{cite news |author1=Donnie Radcliffe |title=At the Quayles', Tight Security for Trick-Or-Treaters |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1989/10/31/at-the-quayles-tight-security-for-trick-or-treaters/3a301158-d02a-4d78-8b75-f8cbb4be6e38 |access-date=January 29, 2019 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=October 31, 1989 |archive-date=January 4, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104072633/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1989/10/31/at-the-quayles-tight-security-for-trick-or-treaters/3a301158-d02a-4d78-8b75-f8cbb4be6e38/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Ben Quayle|Benjamin Quayle]] served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 2011 to 2013,<ref>{{cite news|title=Quayle forms new lobbying, consulting firm|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/phoenix/news/2015/10/07/quayle-forms-new-lobbying-consutling-firm.html|author=Mike Sunnucks|work=Phoenix Business Journal|year=2015|access-date=April 10, 2019|archive-date=September 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190907074414/https://www.bizjournals.com/phoenix/news/2015/10/07/quayle-forms-new-lobbying-consutling-firm.html|url-status=live}}</ref> representing Arizona's 3rd congressional district.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/david-schweikert_n_1838371 |title=David Schweikert Defeats Ben Quayle In Arizona Republican Primary |date=August 29, 2012 |access-date=April 10, 2019 |archive-date=August 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804163609/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/david-schweikert_n_1838371 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Indiana National Guard controversy ==
Since the [[1988 United States elections]], Quayle has been the subject of controversy regarding his service in the Indiana National Guard from 1969 to 1975. Many of Quayle's political opponents, media outlets, and [[Vietnam veteran|Vietnam veterans]] have speculated that Quayle joined the Indiana National Guard as a means to [[Draft evasion in the Vietnam War|avoid the draft]] or to avoid being deployed to [[South Vietnam|Vietnam]]. In August 1988, Quayle denied the accusations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1988-08-20 |title=Quayle Denies Joining Guard to Avoid Vietnam : Hasn't Offered to Quit Ticket, He Says as Angry Hometown Crowd Boos Reporters Quizzing Him |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-08-20-mn-574-story.html |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US |archive-date=March 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325015120/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-08-20-mn-574-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Quayle's draft controversy received renewed attention during the [[1992 United States elections]] after Democratic nominee [[Bill Clinton]] was accused of similar [[Draft evasion|draft dodging]] measures.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Quayle defends avoiding Vietnam |url=https://www.tampabay.com/archive/1992/09/21/quayle-defends-avoiding-vietnam/ |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=Tampa Bay Times |language=en |archive-date=March 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325015120/https://www.tampabay.com/archive/1992/09/21/quayle-defends-avoiding-vietnam/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In September 1992, Quayle acknowledged that joining the Indiana National Guard cut his risks of being deployed to Vietnam, although he defended his decision.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1992-09-21 |title=Quayle Admits Joining Guard Cut Risks : Draft: Vice president defends his actions during Vietnam in light of questions Bush camp has raised about Clinton's avoidance of military service. |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-09-21-mn-847-story.html |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US |archive-date=March 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325015123/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-09-21-mn-847-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In a 1992 interview with [[NBC]]'s [[Meet the Press]], Quayle was pressed on whether his main motivation was to avoid being sent to fight in Vietnam. Quayle stated that he had preferences for joining the [[Reserve forces|reserves]], and that he never asked for preferential treatment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Quayle defends avoiding Vietnam |url=https://www.tampabay.com/archive/1992/09/21/quayle-defends-avoiding-vietnam/ |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=Tampa Bay Times |language=en |archive-date=March 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325015120/https://www.tampabay.com/archive/1992/09/21/quayle-defends-avoiding-vietnam/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Quayle also noted that had his [[Unit (military)|unit]] been called, he would have deployed, stating:<blockquote>Of course you had much less chance to go to Vietnam, but my unit could have been called up to go to Vietnam. And had it been called up, I would have gone.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Quayle dismisses questions about his military record - UPI Archives |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/09/20/Quayle-dismisses-questions-about-his-military-record/8797716961600/ |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=UPI |language=en}}</ref></blockquote>In a resurfaced 1989 interview with David Hoffman, filmmaker and Vietnam veteran [[Oliver Stone]] commented on Quayle and made contrasts between him and then-[[Nebraska]] governor [[Bob Kerrey]], noting:<blockquote>I'm hopeful of people like Bob Kerrey, for example, [the] governor of Nebraska, would be a presidential candidate. He's about forty-two and lost a leg in Vietnam. [He's a] very bright man, compassionate, he's been there. I think he'd make a fine president. Against him would be a guy like Dan Quayle, who is also about the same age, early forties—a heartbeat away from the presidency—a man who has never really suffered pain—a man who went to the National Guard to avoid Vietnam, and yet he's one who always calls for [[Interventionism (politics)|military intervention]] in [[Central America]], with other people's bodies. You have that [[hypocrisy]] at work.<ref>{{Citation |title=Young Film Director Oliver Stone On Vietnam -- My Complete Interview | date=January 12, 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQTrTtqW-uk |access-date=2024-03-25 |language=en |archive-date=March 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325015120/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQTrTtqW-uk |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote>

==Electoral history==
{{Main|Electoral history of Dan Quayle}}

==Published material==
* ''Standing Firm: A Vice-Presidential Memoir'', [[HarperCollins]], May 1994. Hardcover. {{ISBN|0-06-017758-6}}; mass market paperback, May 1995; {{ISBN|0-06-109390-4}}; limited edition, 1994. {{ISBN|0-06-017601-6}}.
* ''The American Family: Discovering the Values That Make Us Strong'' (with Diane Medved), Harpercollins, April 1996. {{ISBN|0-06-017378-5}} (hardcover). {{ISBN|0-06-092810-7}} (paperback).
* ''Worth Fighting For'', W Publishing Group, July 1999. {{ISBN|0-8499-1606-2}}.

== See also ==
* {{Portal inline|Biography}}

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* [[Richard Fenno|Richard F. Fenno Jr.]], ''The Making of a Senator: Dan Quayle'', Congressional Quarterly Press, 1989. {{ISBN|0-87187-506-3}}. [https://archive.org/details/makingofsenatord00fenn online free to borrow]
* ''What a Waste It Is to Lose One's Mind: The Unauthorized Autobiography of Dan Quayle'', Quayle Quarterly (published by Rose Communications), April 1992, {{ISBN|0-9629162-2-6}}.
* [[Joe Queenan (author)|Joe Queenan]], ''Imperial Caddy: The Rise of Dan Quayle in America and the Decline and Fall of Practically Everything Else'', Hyperion Books; October 1992 (1st edition). {{ISBN|1-56282-939-4}}.

==External links==
{{Sister project links|n=No|b=No|v=No}}
{{CongLinks | congbio=Q000007 | votesmart= | fec= | congress= }}
* {{C-SPAN|333}}
* {{IMDb name|703034}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130816094904/http://newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/Dan_Quayle.php Campaign contributions made by Dan Quayle]
* "Reflections on Urban America" speech to the [[Commonwealth Club of California]] ("Murphy Brown speech"): [https://web.archive.org/web/20100729053033/http://www.mfc.org/pfn/95-12/quayle.html Transcript], [http://digitalcollections.hoover.org/objects/60435 Audio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928013909/https://digitalcollections.hoover.org/objects/60435 |date=September 28, 2019 }}
* [http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/Dan_Quayle/ List of Quayle quotations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618230052/http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/Dan_Quayle/ |date=June 18, 2009 }}
* [http://www.rinkworks.com/said/danquayle.shtml Another list of Quayle quotations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518115343/http://www.rinkworks.com/said/danquayle.shtml |date=May 18, 2019 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030127214354/http://www.quaylemuseum.org/ Vice Presidential Museum at the Dan Quayle Center]
* [http://www.depauw.edu/news/index.asp?id=14071 VP Quayle Receives DePauw's McNaughton Medal for Public Service; October 26, 1990] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100703103117/http://susanhacker@depauw.edu/news/index.asp?id=14071 |date=July 3, 2010 }}
* [http://www.ericjames.org/html/fam/fam44625.htm Genealogy of the family of J. Danforth Quayle] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304045838/http://www.ericjames.org/html/fam/fam44625.htm |date=March 4, 2016 }}
* [http://www.depauw.edu/news-media/latest-news/details/31578/ Ubben Lecture at DePauw University; March 31, 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402161823/http://www.depauw.edu/news-media/latest-news/details/31578/ |date=April 2, 2015 }}

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|us-hs}}
{{s-bef|before=[[J. Edward Roush|Edward Roush]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[List of United States representatives from Indiana|U.S. House of Representatives]] from [[Indiana's 4th congressional district]]|years=1977–1981}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Dan Coats]]}}
|-
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Richard Lugar|Dick Lugar]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] nominee for [[List of United States senators from Indiana|U.S. Senator]] from [[Indiana]] ([[Classes of United States senators|Class 3]])|years=[[United States Senate election in Indiana, 1980|1980]], [[United States Senate election in Indiana, 1986|1986]]}}
{{s-aft|after=Dan Coats}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[George H. W. Bush]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|nominee]] for Vice President of the United States|years=[[1988 United States presidential election|1988]], [[1992 United States presidential election|1992]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Jack Kemp]]}}
|-
{{s-par|us-sen}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Birch Bayh]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of United States senators from Indiana|United States Senator (Class 3) from Indiana]]|years=1981–1989|alongside=Richard Lugar}}
{{s-aft|after=Dan Coats}}
|-
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=George H. W. Bush}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Vice President of the United States]]|years=1989–1993}}
{{s-aft|after=Al Gore}}
|-
{{s-prec|usa}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Donald Trump]]|as=former president}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[United States order of precedence|Order of precedence of the United States]] ''former vice president''|years=}}
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{{s-end}}

{{Dan Quayle}}
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Vice presidency of Al Gore

2024-10-27T17:05:12Z

ARandomShyGuy: Fixing link.

{{Short description|US vice presidential tenure (1993-2001)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox administration
| image = Al Gore, Vice President of the United States, official portrait 1994.jpg
| term_start = January 20, 1993
| term_end = January 20, 2001
| vicepresident_link = Vice President of the United States
| cabinet = ''[[Presidency of Bill Clinton#Administration|See list]]''
| party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| election = [[1992 United States presidential election|1992]], [[1996 United States presidential election|1996]]
| seat = [[Number One Observatory Circle]]
| predecessor = [[Dan Quayle#Vice presidency (1989–1993)|Dan Quayle]]
| successor = [[Dick Cheney#Vice presidency (2001–2009)|Dick Cheney]]
| official_url = https://algore.com/
}}
{{Al Gore series}}
The '''vice presidency of Al Gore''' lasted from 1993 to 2001, during the [[Presidency of Bill Clinton|Bill Clinton administration]]. [[Al Gore]] was the 45th [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] of the United States, being twice elected alongside [[Bill Clinton]] in the [[1992 United States presidential election|1992]] and [[1996 United States presidential election|1996]] presidential elections. Nearing the end of his tenure, Gore ran for president as the [[2000 Democratic Party presidential primaries|Democratic nominee]] in the [[2000 United States presidential election]] in which he was defeated by [[George W. Bush]] following the controversial ''[[Bush v. Gore]]'' [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] decision and was succeeded by Bush's running mate [[Dick Cheney]]. This made Gore the first incumbent Vice President of the United States to run for the presidency since [[George H. W. Bush]] who was elected to the presidency in [[1988 United States presidential election|1988]] and the first incumbent vice president to lose a presidential election since [[Richard Nixon]] in [[1960 United States presidential election|1960]].

Gore is considered to have been one of the most powerful and influential vice presidents in American history.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://insiderpaper.com/top-10-best-vice-presidents-of-the-us/|title=Top 10 Best Vice Presidents of the US|date=October 9, 2020}}</ref>

==Campaign==
Although Gore had opted out of running for president (due to the healing process his son was undergoing after a car accident),<ref name=announcement91>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE0DF1139F931A1575BC0A967958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print|title= Gore Won't Run for President in 1992|access-date= July 2, 2008|last=Ifill |first=Gwen|date=August 22, 1991|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> he accepted the request of [[Bill Clinton]] to be his running mate in the [[1992 United States presidential election]] on July 10, 1992. Clinton's choice was perceived as unconventional (as rather than pick a running mate who would diversify the ticket, Clinton chose a fellow Southerner who was close in age) and was criticized by some.<ref name=selects>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE2DB133DF933A25754C0A964958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print |title= The 1992 Campaign: Democrats – Clinton Selects Senator Gore of Tennessee As Running Mate|access-date= July 2, 2008|last=Ifill |first=Gwen |date=July 10, 1992 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] }}</ref> Clinton stated that he chose Gore for his foreign policy experience, work with the environment, and commitment to his family.<ref name=selects/><ref name=clintonannounce>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE4DC103EF933A25754C0A964958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print|title=The 1992 Campaign – Their Own Words; Excerpts From Clinton's and Gore's Remarks on the Ticket|access-date= July 2, 2008|last=Ifill |first=Gwen |date=July 10, 1992 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] }}</ref> Known as the ''[[Baby Boomer]] Ticket''<ref name=babyboom>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE0D61E3FF930A25754C0A964958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print|title=The Campaign – 2 Baby Boomers on 1 Ticket: A First, but Will It Work?|access-date= July 2, 2008|last=Dowd|first=Maureen |date=July 13, 1992 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> and the ''[[Thirtysomething (TV series)#Oxford English Dictionary|Fortysomething]] Team,''<ref name=babyboom/> ''[[The New York Times]]'' noted that if elected, Clinton (who was 45) Gore (who was 44) would be the "youngest team to make it to the White House in the country's history."<ref name=selects/> Theirs was the first ticket since 1972 to try to capture the youth vote,<ref name=youth>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE6D8113DF933A05753C1A964958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print|title= The 1992 Campaign – The Youth Vote – Democrats Court Youngest Voters|access-date= July 2, 2008|last=Suro|first=Roberto|date=October 30, 1992 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] }}</ref> a ticket which Gore referred to as "a new generation of leadership."<ref name=selects/>

The ticket increased in popularity after the candidates traveled with their wives, Hillary and Tipper, on a "six-day, 1,000-mile bus ride, from New York to St. Louis."<ref name=bustour>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE7D8123FF93AA25754C0A964958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print|title=The 1992 Campaign: The Democrats – Clinton-Gore Caravan Refuels With Spirit From Adoring Crowds|access-date= July 2, 2008|last=Ifill|first=Gwen|date=July 19, 1992 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] }}</ref> Gore also successfully debated against the other vice presidential candidates, [[Dan Quayle]] (a longtime colleague from the House and the Senate) and [[James Stockdale]]. The result of the campaign was a win by the Clinton-Gore ticket (43%) over the Bush-Quayle ticket (38%).<ref name=biosen>{{cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Albert_Gore.htm|title=Albert A. Gore, Jr., 45th Vice President (1993–2001)|access-date= June 22, 2008|publisher=senate.gov}}</ref> Clinton and Gore were inaugurated on January 20, 1993 and were re-elected to a second term in the [[1996 United States presidential election|1996 election]].

==Economy and information technology==
[[Image:ClintonGore2.jpg|thumb| Gore with Clinton walking along a colonnade at the White House]]
{{main|Al Gore and information technology}}
Under the [[Clinton Administration]], the U.S. economy expanded, according to David Greenberg (professor of history and media studies at [[Rutgers University]]) who argued that "by the end of the Clinton presidency, the numbers were uniformly impressive. Besides the record-high surpluses and the record-low poverty rates, the economy could boast the longest economic expansion in history; the lowest unemployment since the early 1970s; and the lowest poverty rates for single mothers, black Americans, and the aged."<ref name="econ">{{cite magazine |url = http://www.slate.com/id/2183941/pagenum/all/#page_start |title = Memo to Obama Fans: Clinton's presidency was not a failure.|access-date = February 13, 2005 |magazine = [[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]}}</ref> In addition, one of Gore's major works as Vice President was the [[National Partnership for Reinventing Government|National Performance Review]],<ref>[http://ipo.noaa.gov/About/npr.html Announcement of National Performance Review]</ref> which pointed out waste, fraud, and other abuse in the federal government and stressed the need for cutting the size of the [[bureaucracy]] and the number of regulations. Gore stated that the National Performance Review later helped guide President Clinton when he downsized the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]].<ref>[http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/speeches/interego.html Speech by Vice President Gore: International Reinventing Government Conference]. January 14, 1999"</ref>

The economic success of this administration was due in part to Gore's continued role as an ''[[Atari Democrat]],'' promoting the development of [[information technology]], which led to the [[Dot-com bubble|dot-com boom]] (c. 1995-2001).<ref name=eeconomy>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KKk0jnq0W5YC&dq=dot-com+boom+Clinton+Gore&pg=PA126|title=E-economy: Rhetoric or Business Reality|access-date= July 2, 2008|last=Budd|first=Leslie|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-34861-4}}</ref> Clinton and Gore entered office planning to finance research that would "flood the economy with innovative goods and services, lifting the general level of prosperity and strengthening American industry."<ref name=hightech>{{cite news|first =William|last =Broad|title = Clinton to Promote High Technology, With Gore in Charge|date =November 10, 1992|newspaper =[[The New York Times]]|url =https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE5DD1130F933A25752C1A964958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print}}</ref> Their overall aim was to fund the development of, "robotics, smart roads, biotechnology, machine tools, magnetic-levitation trains, fiber-optic communications and national computer networks. Also earmarked [were] a raft of basic technologies like digital imaging and data storage."<ref name=hightech/> These initiatives met with skepticism from critics who claimed that their initiatives would "backfire, bloating Congressional pork and creating whole new categories of Federal waste."<ref name=hightech/>

During the election and while vice president, Gore popularized the term ''[[Information Superhighway]]'' (which became synonymous with the [[internet]]) and was involved in the creation of the [[National Information Infrastructure]].<ref name=hightech/>

The economic initiatives introduced by the Clinton-Gore administration linked to [[information technology]] were a primary focus for Gore during his time as vice president. Gary Stix commented on these initiatives a few months prior in his May 1993 article for ''[[Scientific American]]'', "Gigabit Gestalt: Clinton and Gore embrace an activist technology policy." Stix described them as a "distinct statement about where the new administration stands on the matter of technology ... gone is the ambivalence or outright hostility toward government involvement in little beyond basic science."<ref>{{Cite journal|last = Stix|first = Gary|title = Gigabit Gestalt: Clinton and Gore embrace an activist technology policy|journal = Scientific American|pages = 122–126|date = May 1993|doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican0593-122|url=http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePreview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=83F1AFDF-DFDF-429F-B420-10D25322587}}</ref> Campbell-Kelly and Aspray further note in ''Computer: A History of the Information Machine'':

<blockquote>In the early 1990s the Internet was big news. ... In the fall of 1990 there were just 313,000 computers on the Internet; by 1996, there were close to 10 million. The networking idea became politicized during the 1992 Clinton-Gore election campaign, where the rhetoric of the Information Superhighway|information highway captured the public imagination. On taking office in 1993, the new administration set in place a range of government initiatives for a ''National Information Infrastructure'' aimed at ensuring that all American citizens ultimately gain access to the new networks.<ref>Campbell-Kelly and Aspray (1996). ''[[Computer: A History of the Information Machine]]''. New York: BasicBooks, 283</ref></blockquote>

These initiatives were discussed in a number of venues. [[Howard Rheingold]] argued in ''The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier,'' that these initiatives played a critical role in the development of digital technology, stating that, "Two powerful forces drove the rapid emergence of the superhighway notion in 1994 ... the second driving force behind the superhighway idea continued to be Vice-President Gore."<ref name=virtualcomm>{{Cite journal|last = Rheingold|first = Howard|title = Afterword to the 1994 Edition|journal = The Virtual Community|pages = 395|year = 2000}}</ref> In addition, Clinton and Gore submitted the report, ''Science in the National Interest'' in 1994,<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Clinton|first1=William|last2=Gore|first2 = Al|title=Science in The National Interest|date=August 1994|url=http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/13/50/fe.pdf|access-date=January 16, 2008|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071201040602/http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/13/50/fe.pdf  |archive-date=December 1, 2007|display-authors=etal}}</ref> which further outlined their plans to develop science and technology in the United States. Gore also discussed these plans in speeches that he made at [[The Superhighway Summit]]<ref>{{cite news | first=Al| last=Gore| url=http://www.clintonfoundation.org/legacy/011194-remarks-by-the-vp-on-television.htm| title=Remarks as Delivered by Vice President Al Gore to The Superhighway Summit, Royce Hall, UCLA| work=clintonfoundation.org| date=January 11, 1994| access-date=June 1, 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070520183013/http://www.clintonfoundation.org/legacy/011194-remarks-by-the-vp-on-television.htm  |archive-date = May 20, 2007}}</ref> at [[UCLA]] and for the International Telecommunication Union.<ref>{{cite news| first=Al| last=Gore| url=http://clinton1.nara.gov/White_House/EOP/OVP/html/telunion.html| title=Remarks As Delivered by Vice President Al Gore at the International Telecommunications Union| work=clinton1.nara.gov| date=March 21, 1994| access-date=June 1, 2007| archive-date=September 27, 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927153924/http://clinton1.nara.gov/White_House/EOP/OVP/html/telunion.html| url-status=dead}}</ref>

On January 13, 1994 Gore "became the first U.S. vice president to hold a live interactive news conference on an international computer network".<ref>{{cite news | first=Al| last=Gore| url=http://www.clintonfoundation.org/legacy/011394-press-release-on-vp-online-conferencing.htm| title=The CompuServe Information Service: Transcript of Vice President Al Gore in Convention Center| work=clintonfoundation.org| date=January 13, 1994| access-date=June 1, 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070523234257/http://www.clintonfoundation.org/legacy/011394-press-release-on-vp-online-conferencing.htm  |archive-date = May 23, 2007}}</ref> Gore was also asked to write the foreword to the 1994 internet guide, [http://archives.obs-us.com/obs/english/books/editinc/top.htm ''The Internet Companion: A Beginner's Guide to Global Networking'' (2nd edition)] by Tracy LaQuey. In the foreword he stated the following:

<blockquote>Since I first became interested in high-speed networking almost seventeen years ago, there have been many major advances both in the technology and in public awareness. Articles on high-speed networks are commonplace in major newspapers and in news magazines. In contrast, when as a House member in the early 1980s, I called for creation of a national network of "information superhighways," the only people interested were the manufacturers of optical fiber. Back then, of course, high-speed meant 56,000 bits per second. Today we are building a national information infrastructure that will carry billions of bits of data per second, serve thousands of users simultaneously, and transmit not only electronic mail and data files but voice and video as well.<ref>{{cite news | first=Al| last=Gore| url=http://archives.obs-us.com/obs/english/books/editinc/foreword.htm#Top| title=Foreword by Vice President Al Gore to The Internet Companion| year=1994| access-date=June 7, 2007}}</ref></blockquote>

The Clinton-Gore administration launched the first official [[White House]] website on October 21, 1994.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://clinton1.nara.gov/White_House/html/White_House_Home.html|title=Welcome to the White House|access-date=June 6, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070606203244/http://clinton1.nara.gov/White_House/html/White_House_Home.html|archive-date=June 6, 2007| url-status=dead| df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="usgovinfo.about.com">{{cite news|url=http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa012201b.htm|title=The Clinton White House Web Site:Part 2: Preserving the Clinton White House Web site|access-date=June 6, 2007}}</ref> It would be followed by three more versions, resulting in the final edition launched in 2000.<ref name="usgovinfo.about.com"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://clinton5.nara.gov/index.html| title=Welcome to the White House|access-date=June 6, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070623055944/http://clinton5.nara.gov/index.html|archive-date=June 23, 2007|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The White House website was part of a general movement by this administration towards web based communication: "Clinton and Gore were responsible for pressing almost all federal agencies, the U.S. court system and the U.S. military onto the Internet, thus opening up America's government to more of America's citizens than ever before. On July 17, 1996. President Clinton issued Executive Order 13011 - Federal Information Technology, ordering the heads of all federal agencies to fully utilize information technology to make the information of the agency easily accessible to the public."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa012201a.htm|title=The Clinton White House Web Site:Part 1: Perhaps the most important Web site in American history|access-date=June 6, 2007}}</ref>

===Clipper Chip===
The [[Clipper Chip]], which "Clinton inherited from a multi-year National Security Agency effort,"<ref name=virtualcomm2>{{Cite journal|last = Rheingold|first = Howard|title = Afterword to the 1994 Edition|journal = The Virtual Community|pages = 398–399|year = 2000}}</ref> was a method of hardware encryption with a government [[Backdoor (computing)|backdoor]]. In 1994, Vice President Gore issued a memo on the topic of [[encryption]] which stated that under a new policy the White House would "provide better encryption to individuals and businesses while ensuring that the needs of law enforcement and national security are met. Encryption is a law and order issue since it can be used by criminals to thwart wiretaps and avoid detection and prosecution."<ref>[http://www.epic.org/crypto/clipper/gore_statement_feb_94.html Statement of the Vice President]</ref>

Another initiative proposed a software-based [[key escrow]] system, in which keys to all encrypted data and communications would reside with a [[trusted third party]]. Since the government was seen as possibly having a need to access encrypted data originating in other countries, the pressure to establish such a system was worldwide.<ref>[http://www.epic.org/crypto/key_escrow/wh_cke_796.html Commercial Policy]</ref>

These policies met with strong opposition from civil liberty groups<ref name=virtualcomm/> such as the [[American Civil Liberties Union]] and the [[Electronic Privacy Information Center]], scientific groups such as the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]],<ref>[http://www.epic.org/crypto/reports/nrc_release.html Press release]</ref> leading [[Cryptography|cryptographers]],<ref>[http://www.cdt.org/crypto/risks98/ The Risks of Key Recovery, Key Escrow, & Trusted Third Party Encryption] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614060854/http://www.cdt.org/crypto/risks98/ |date=June 14, 2007 }}</ref> and the [[European Commission]].<ref>[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D06E2DA173CF93AA35753C1A961958260 "Europeans Reject U.S. Plan On Electronic Cryptography"]</ref> All three Clipper Chip initiatives thus failed to gain widespread acceptance by consumers or support from the industry.<ref>[http://www.epic.org/crypto/clipper/ The Clipper Chip]</ref> The ability of a proposal such as the Clipper Chip to meet the stated goals, especially that of enabling better encryption to individuals, was disputed by a number of experts.<ref>[http://www.epic.org/crypto/clipper/crypto_experts_letter_1_94.html Crypto Experts Letter]</ref>

By 1996, the Clipper Chip was abandoned.<ref>[http://www.reason.com/news/show/27700.html Rendering Unto CESA]</ref>

===Additional projects===
[[Image:Phoc96v1.jpg|right|thumb|President [[Bill Clinton]] installing computer cables with Vice President Al Gore on [[NetDay]] at [[Ygnacio Valley High School]] in Concord, CA. March 9, 1996.]]
Gore had discussed his concerns with computer technology and levels of access in his 1994 article, "No More Information Have and Have Nots." He was particularly interested in implementing measures which would grant all children access to the [[Internet]], stating:

{{quote|We've got to get it right. We must make sure that all children have access. We have to make sure that the children of Anacostia have that access, not just Bethesda; Watts, not just Brentwood; Chicago's West Side, not just Evanston. That's not the case now. Twenty-two percent of white primary-school students have computers in their homes; less than 7% of African-American children do. We can't create a nation of information haves and have-nots. The on-ramps to the [[information superhighway]] must be accessible to all, and that will only happen if the telecommunications industry is accessible to all.<ref name=haveandhavenot>{{cite magazine|url=http://192.211.16.13/curricular/Tacoma/info1.htm |title=No More Information Have and Have-Nots|access-date=June 12, 2008 |last=Gore |first=Al|date=October 22, 1994|magazine=Billboard |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929123655/http://192.211.16.13/curricular/Tacoma/info1.htm|archive-date=September 29, 2007}}</ref>}}

Gore had a chance to fulfill this promise when he and President Clinton participated in [[John Gage]]'s [[NetDay]]'96 on March 9, 1996. Clinton and Gore spent the day at [[Ygnacio Valley High School]], as part of the drive to connect California public schools to the [[Internet]].<ref name=chronicle>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/1996/03/09/MN59762.DTL |title=Clinton, Gore in Concord Today for NetDay: 20,000 volunteers wire computers at California schools|access-date= June 12, 2008|last=Rubenstein |first=Steve |date=March 9, 1996 |newspaper= [[San Francisco Chronicle]]}}</ref> In a speech given at YVH, Clinton stated that he was excited to see that his challenge the previous September to "Californians to connect at least 20 percent of your schools to the [[Information Superhighway]] by the end of this school year" was met. Clinton also described this event as part of a time of "absolutely astonishing transformation; a moment of great possibility. All of you know that the information and technology explosion will offer to you and to the young people of the future more opportunities and challenges than any generation of Americans has ever seen."<ref name=Clintonspeech>{{cite web|url=http://www.clintonfoundation.org/legacy/030996-speech-by-president-at-netday-concord-ca.htm |title=Remarks by the President to the Concord Community on NetDay: Ygnacio Valley High School, Concord, California |access-date=June 12, 2008 |last=Clinton |first=Bill |publisher=Clinton Foundation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070512192539/http://www.clintonfoundation.org/legacy/030996-speech-by-president-at-netday-concord-ca.htm |archive-date=May 12, 2007 }}</ref> In a prepared statement, Gore added that NetDay was part of one of the major goals of the [[Clinton administration]], which was "to give every child in America access to high quality educational technology by the dawn of the new century." Gore also stated that the administration planned "to connect every classroom to the Internet by the year 2000."<ref name=Goreprepared>{{cite web|url=http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/New/NetDay/Video/statement.html |title=Statement by the Vice President about Netday |access-date= June 12, 2008|last=Gore |first= Al|year=1997 }}</ref> On April 28, 1998, Gore honored numerous volunteers who had been involved with NetDay and "who helped connect students to the Internet in 700 of the poorest schools in the country" via "an interactive online session with children across the country."<ref name=honor>{{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_puca/is_199804/ai_1702147294|title=Gore, Riley and Kennard Honor Netday Volunteers Announce Guide to Online Mentoring, Computer Donations|access-date= June 12, 2008|author= Press Release|date=April 28, 1998|work= US Education Department Press Releases}}</ref>

He also reinforced the impact of the [[Internet]] on the [[Natural environment|environment]], [[education]], and increased communication between people through his involvement with "the largest one-day online event" for that time, ''[[24 Hours in Cyberspace]].'' The event took place on February 8, 1996 and [[Second Lady]] [[Tipper Gore]] also participated, acting as one of the event's 150 photographers.<ref>[http://undertow.arch.gatech.edu/homepages/virtualopera/cyber24/SITE/HTM2/4_311.htm Picture This:Tipper Gore, Photojournalist] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213224634/http://undertow.arch.gatech.edu/homepages/virtualopera/cyber24/SITE/HTM2/4_311.htm |date=February 13, 2008 }}</ref> Gore contributed the introductory essay to the ''Earthwatch'' section of the website,<ref>[http://undertow.arch.gatech.edu/Homepages/virtualopera/cyber24/SITE/htm3/tocear.htm Earthwatch: 24 Hours in Cyberspace] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080212080732/http://undertow.arch.gatech.edu/homepages/virtualopera/cyber24/SITE/htm3/tocear.htm |date=February 12, 2008 }}</ref> arguing that:

{{quote|The Internet and other new information technologies cannot turn back the ecological clock, of course. But they can help environmental scientists push back the frontiers of knowledge and help ordinary citizens grasp the urgency of preserving our natural world ... But more than delivering information to scientists, equipping citizens with new tools to improve their world and making offices cheaper and more efficient, Cyberspace is achieving something even more enduring and profound: It's changing the very way we think. It is extending our reach, and that is transforming our grasp.<ref>[http://undertow.arch.gatech.edu/Homepages/virtualopera/cyber24/SITE/essay/gore.htm Vice President Al Gore's introduction to ''Earthwatch: 24 Hours In Cyberspace] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213224622/http://undertow.arch.gatech.edu/Homepages/virtualopera/cyber24/SITE/essay/gore.htm |date=February 13, 2008 }}</ref>}}

Gore was involved in a number of other projects related to digital technology. He expressed his concerns for online privacy through his 1998 "Electronic Bill of Rights" speech in which he stated: "We need an electronic bill of rights for this electronic age ... You should have the right to choose whether your personal information is disclosed."<ref>[http://www.techlawjournal.com/privacy/80731gorepr.htm Vice President Gore Announces New Steps Toward an Electronic Bill of Rights]</ref> He also began promoting a [[NASA]] [[satellite]] that would provide a constant view of [[Earth]], marking the first time such an image would have been made since [[The Blue Marble]] photo from the 1972 [[Apollo 17]] mission. The [[Triana (satellite)|"Triana" satellite]] would have been permanently mounted in the L1 [[Lagrangian Point]], 1.5 million km away.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1998/03/980317071006.htm |title=Earth-Viewing Satellite Would Focus On Educational, Scientific Benefits|access-date=February 25, 2007 |work=Science Daily}}</ref> Gore also became associated with [[Digital Earth]].<ref name="isde5.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.isde5.org/history.htm |title=Digital Earth History |work=The 5th International Symposium on Digital Earth |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080209225424/http://www.isde5.org/history.htm |archive-date=February 9, 2008 }}</ref>

==Environment==
{{main|Al Gore and the environment}}
Gore was also involved in a number of initiatives related to the environment. He launched the [[GLOBE program]] on ''[[Earth Day]]'''94, an education and science activity that, according to [[Forbes magazine]], "made extensive use of the Internet to increase student awareness of their environment".<ref name=getsweb>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.forbes.com/facesinthenews/2006/09/21/gore-google-yahoo-face-cx_cn_0920autofacescan06.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011202103/http://www.forbes.com/facesinthenews/2006/09/21/gore-google-yahoo-face-cx_cn_0920autofacescan06.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 11, 2007|title=Gore Really Does Get The We |access-date= July 2, 2008|last=Noon|first=Chris|date=September 21, 2006 |magazine= [[Forbes]]}}</ref> During the late 1990s, Gore strongly pushed for the passage of the [[Kyoto Protocol]], which called for reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.algore.com/speeches/speeches_kyoto_120897.html|title=Remarks By Al Gore, Climate Change Conference, Kyoto, Japan|access-date= July 2, 2008|last=Gore|first=Al|date=December 8, 1997|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001207090900/http://www.algore.com/speeches/speeches_kyoto_120897.html |archive-date=December 7, 2000}}</ref><ref name=environinitiative>{{cite web|url=http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/environment.html|title=Vice President Gore: Strong Environmental Leadership for the New Millenium|access-date=July 2, 2008|last=Gore|first=Al|year=1997|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528031451/http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/environment.html|archive-date=May 28, 2010|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Gore was opposed by the Senate, which passed unanimously (95-0) the [[Byrd–Hagel Resolution]] (S. Res. 98).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_lists/roll_call_vote_cfm.cfm?congress=105&session=1&vote=00205 |title= U.S. Senate Roll Call Votes 105th Congress — 1st Session:S.Res. 98|date=July 25, 1997 |access-date=January 31, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalcenter.org/KyotoSenate.html |title=Text of the Byrd–Hagel Resolution |date=July 25, 1997 |access-date=November 5, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061102063407/http://www.nationalcenter.org/KyotoSenate.html |archive-date=November 2, 2006 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref> In 1998, Gore began promoting a [[NASA]] [[satellite]] that would provide a constant view of [[Earth]], marking the first time such an image would have been made since [[The Blue Marble]] photo from the 1972 [[Apollo 17]] mission.<ref name=earthviewing>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1998/03/980317071006.htm|title=Earth-Viewing Satellite Would Focus On Educational, Scientific Benefits|access-date= July 2, 2008|date=March 17, 1998|website= Science Daily}}</ref> During this time, he also became associated with [[Digital Earth]].<ref name="isde5.org"/>

==Fundraising==
[[File:13a.PeaceOfficersMemorial.WDC.15May1998 (24850510852).jpg|thumb|Gore speaking at the 1998 [[Peace Officers Memorial Day|National Peace Officers' Memorial Service]]]]
{{main|1996 United States campaign finance controversy}}
In 1996, Gore was criticized for attending an event at the [[Buddhist]] [[Hsi Lai Temple]] in [[Hacienda Heights, California]]. In an interview on [[NBC]]'s ''[[Today (NBC program)|Today]]'' the following year, he stated that, "I did not know that it was a fund-raiser. I knew it was a political event, and I knew there were finance people that were going to be present, and so that alone should have told me, 'This is inappropriate and this is a mistake; don't do this.' And I take responsibility for that. It was a mistake."<ref name=goremistake>[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1997/01/24/gore.fundraiser/ "Gore Admits Temple Fund-Raiser Was A 'Mistake'"], ''CNN.com'', January 24, 1997</ref>

The temple was later implicated in a campaign donation [[Money laundering|laundering]] scheme. In that scheme, donations nominally from Buddhist [[nuns]] in lawful amounts had actually been donated by wealthy [[Monasticism|monastics]] and devotees.

[[Robert Conrad, Jr.]], then head of a Justice Department task force appointed by [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Janet Reno]] to investigate the fund-raising controversies, called on Reno in Spring 2000 to appoint an [[independent counsel]] to look into the fund-raising practices of Vice President Gore. Reno on September 3, 1997, ordered a review of Gore's fund-raising and associated statements. Based on the investigation, she judged that appointment of an independent counsel was unwarranted.<ref name=lehrer1>[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/politics/jan-june00/gore_6-23.html Fund-raising Investigation Discussion], NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, transcript, ''PBS'', June 23, 2000, Retrieved: April 14, 2006</ref>

Later in 1997, Gore also had to explain certain fund-raising calls he made to solicit funds for the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] for the 1996 election.<ref name=fundcnn>[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1997/03/02/gore/ "Fund-Raising Questions Focus On Gore"], ''CNN'' "AllPolitics," March 2, 1997, Retrieved: October 15, 2007</ref> In a news conference, Gore responded that, "all calls that I made were charged to the Democratic National Committee. I was advised there was nothing wrong with that. My counsel tells me there is no controlling legal authority that says that is any violation of any law."<ref name=nocontrol1>As quoted in [https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/white_house/march97/fund_3-6.html "The Money Trail"], NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, transcript, ''PBS'', March 6, 1997, Retrieved: October 15, 2007</ref> The phrase "no controlling legal authority" was severely criticized by some commentators, such as [[Charles Krauthammer]], who wrote that "Whatever other legacies Al Gore leaves behind between now and retirement, he forever bequeaths this newest weasel word to the lexicon of American political corruption."<ref name=charlesk>Charles Krauthammer, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/campfin/stories/op030797.htm "Gore's Meltdown"], ''Washington Post,'' March 7, 1997, Retrieved: October 15, 2007</ref> On the other hand, Robert L. Weinberg argued in ''The Nation'' in 2000 that Gore actually had the U.S. Constitution in his favor on this, although he did concede that Gore's "use of the phrase was judged by many commentators to have been a political mistake of the first order" and noted that it was used often in stump speeches by [[George W. Bush]] when Bush was campaigning against Gore in that year's presidential race.<ref name=weinberg>Robert L. Weinberg, [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20001016/weinberg "Controlling Authority"], ''The Nation,'' October 16, 2000, Retrieved: October 15, 2007</ref>

==Clinton Impeachment and impact on 2000 campaign==
Soon afterward, Gore contended with the [[Lewinsky scandal]], involving an affair between President Clinton and an intern, [[Monica Lewinsky]]. Gore initially defended Clinton, whom he believed to be innocent, stating, "He is the president of the country! He is my friend ... I want to ask you now, every single one of you, to join me in supporting him."<ref name=biosen/> After [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|Clinton was impeached]] Gore continued to defend him stating, "I've defined my job in exactly the same way for six years now ... to do everything I can to help him be the best president possible."<ref name=biosen/> However, by the beginning stages of the [[2000 United States presidential election|2000 presidential election]], Gore gradually distanced himself from Clinton. Clinton was not a part of [[Al Gore 2000 presidential campaign|Gore's campaign]], a move also signaled by the choice of [[Joe Lieberman]] as a running mate, as Lieberman had been highly critical of Clinton's conduct.<ref name=biosen/> Gore would go on to lose to Republican nominee [[George W. Bush]], the then-incumbent Governor of Texas following the controversial ''[[Bush v. Gore]]'' Supreme Court decision and was succeeded by Bush's running mate [[Dick Cheney]].

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/index.html Official VP website with initiatives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015121547/http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/index.html |date=October 15, 2007 }}
* [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Albert_Gore.htm Albert A. Gore, Jr., 45th Vice President (1993-2001)]
* [http://www.whartoncostarica07.com/bio-s-gore.html Biography of the Honorable Al Gore]

{{Al Gore}}
{{Bill Clinton}}
{{US Vice Presidents}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gore, Al}}
[[Category:1993 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:2001 disestablishments in the United States]]
[[Category:1990s in American politics]]
[[Category:2000s in American politics]]
[[Category:1990s in the United States]]
[[Category:2000s in the United States]]
[[Category:Presidency of Bill Clinton]]
[[Category:Al Gore|Vice presidency]]
[[Category:Vice presidencies]]

Dan Quayle

2024-10-27T17:02:52Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding infobox to Vice Presidency section.

{{Short description|Vice President of the United States from 1989 to 1993}}
{{Distinguish|Don Quayle}}{{pp-blp|small=yes}}
{{Redirect|Senator Quayle|the Virginia state senator|Fred Quayle}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Dan Quayle
| image = Dan Quayle crop.jpg
| caption = Official portrait, 1989
| order = 44th
| office = Vice President of the United States
| president = [[George H. W. Bush]]
| term_start = January 20, 1989
| term_end = January 20, 1993
| predecessor = George H. W. Bush
| successor = [[Al Gore]]
| jr/sr1 = United States Senator
| state1 = [[Indiana]]
| term_start1 = January 3, 1981
| term_end1 = January 3, 1989
| predecessor1 = [[Birch Bayh]]
| successor1 = [[Dan Coats]]
| state2 = Indiana
| district2 = {{ushr|IN|4|4th}}
| term_start2 = January 3, 1977
| term_end2 = January 3, 1981
| predecessor2 = [[J. Edward Roush|Edward Roush]]
| successor2 = Dan Coats
| birth_name = James Danforth Quayle
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1947|2|4}}
| birth_place = [[Indianapolis]], Indiana, U.S.
| party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Marilyn Quayle|Marilyn Tucker]]|1972}}
| children = 3, including [[Ben Quayle|Ben]]
| parents = [[James C. Quayle]] Martha Pulliam
| relatives = {{plainlist|
* [[Eugene C. Pulliam]] (grandfather)
* [[Eugene S. Pulliam]] (uncle)
* [[Myrta Pulliam]] (cousin)
}}
| education = [[DePauw University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) [[Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis|Indiana University, Indianapolis]] ([[Juris Doctor|JD]])
| signature = Dan Quayle Signature 2.svg
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
| allegiance = United States
| branch = [[United States Army]]
| serviceyears = 1969–1975
| rank = [[Sergeant]]
| unit = [[Indiana Army National Guard]]
| module = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=|title=Dan Quayle's voice|type=speech|description=Dan Quayle answers questions on his fitness to serve as [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] at the [[1992 United States presidential debates|1992 vice presidential debate]] Recorded October 13, 1992}}
}}
'''James Danforth Quayle''' ({{IPAc-en| ˈ|k|w|eɪ|l}}; born February 4, 1947) is an American retired politician who served as the 44th [[vice president of the United States]] from 1989 to 1993 under President [[George H. W. Bush]]. A member of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], Quayle represented [[Indiana]] in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] from 1977 to 1981 and in the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] from 1981 to 1989.

A native of [[Indianapolis]], Quayle spent most of his childhood in [[Paradise Valley, Arizona|Paradise Valley]], a suburb of [[Phoenix, Arizona]]. He married [[Marilyn Quayle|Marilyn Tucker]] in 1972 and obtained his [[Juris Doctor|J.D.]] degree from the [[Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law]] in 1974. He and Marilyn practiced law in [[Huntington, Indiana]], before his election to the [[United States House of Representatives]] in 1976. In [[1980 United States Senate election in Indiana|1980]], he was elected to the [[U.S. Senate]].

In [[1988 United States presidential election|1988]], incumbent vice president and [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] presidential nominee [[George H. W. Bush]] chose Quayle as his running mate. His vice presidential debate against [[Lloyd Bentsen]] was notable for Bentsen's "[[Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy]]" quip. The Bush–Quayle ticket defeated the Democratic ticket of [[Michael Dukakis]] and Bentsen, and Quayle succeeded Bush as vice president in January 1989. During his tenure, Quayle made official visits to 47 countries and was appointed chairman of the [[National Space Council]]. As vice president, he developed a reputation for making comments that some media outlets perceived to be gaffes.<ref name=":1">{{cite news|url=http://www.utsandiego.com/uniontrib/20040721/news_lz1e21deerlin.html|work=San Diego Union-Tribune|title=The value and vitality of V.P.s|author=Lionel Van Deerlin|author-link=Lionel Van Deerlin|date=July 21, 2004|access-date=April 12, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505041437/http://www.utsandiego.com/uniontrib/20040721/news_lz1e21deerlin.html|archive-date=May 5, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>Borowitz, Andy, ''[https://link.newyorker.com/view/5be9ee5d24c17c6adf0abc2chb9it.4oot/7aa93238 Complete Knowledge of Dan Quayle] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171536/https://link.newyorker.com/view/5be9ee5d24c17c6adf0abc2chb9it.4oot/7aa93238 |date=September 20, 2022 }}'', ''Profiles in Ignorance: How America’s Politicians Got Dumb and Dumber'', Avid Reader Press, Simon and Schuster, 2022</ref> He secured re-nomination for vice president in [[1992 United States presidential election|1992]], but was defeated by the Democratic ticket of [[Bill Clinton]] and [[Al Gore]].

In 1994, Quayle published his memoir, ''Standing Firm''. He declined to run for president in 1996 because of [[phlebitis]]. He sought the Republican presidential nomination in 2000 but withdrew his campaign early on and supported the eventual nominee, [[George W. Bush]]. He joined [[Cerberus Capital Management]], a private-equity firm, in 1999. Since leaving office, Quayle has remained active in the Republican Party, including making presidential endorsements in [[2000 United States presidential election|2000]], [[2012 United States presidential election|2012]], and [[2016 United States presidential election|2016]].

==Early life, education, and career==
[[File:Dan Quayle in 1965 Modulus.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Quayle in [[Huntington North High School]]'s 1965 yearbook]]

Quayle was born in [[Indianapolis]], [[Indiana]], to Martha Corinne (née Pulliam) and [[James C. Quayle|James Cline Quayle]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2014/02/dan-quayle-born-feb-4-1947-103039|title=Dan Quayle born, Feb. 4, 1947|work=Politico|access-date=September 19, 2018|archive-date=September 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919211554/https://www.politico.com/story/2014/02/dan-quayle-born-feb-4-1947-103039|url-status=live}}</ref> He has sometimes<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-08-21-mn-1148-story.html|author=Meyer, Richard E.|title=Campaign Becomes Confrontation With Past : Privilege, Wealth Shaped Quayle|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=August 21, 1998|access-date=December 10, 2016|archive-date=December 21, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221035017/http://articles.latimes.com/1988-08-21/news/mn-1148_1_dan-quayle|url-status=live}}</ref> been incorrectly referred to as ''James Danforth Quayle III''. In his memoir he points out that his birth name was simply James Danforth Quayle. The name Quayle originates from the [[Isle of Man]], where his great-grandfather was born.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wargs.com/political/quayle.html |title=Ancestry of Dan Quayle (b. 1947) |publisher=Wargs.com |access-date=January 4, 2012 |archive-date=August 28, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828135806/http://www.wargs.com/political/quayle.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

His maternal grandfather, [[Eugene C. Pulliam]], was a wealthy and influential publishing magnate who founded Central Newspapers, Inc., and owned more than a dozen major newspapers, such as ''[[The Arizona Republic]]'' and ''[[The Indianapolis Star]]''. James C. Quayle moved his family to [[Arizona]] in 1955 to run a branch of the family's publishing empire.

After spending much of his youth in Arizona,<ref name=bio>[http://www.vicepresidentdanquayle.com/biography.html Dan Quayle: Biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206235313/http://www.vicepresidentdanquayle.com/biography.html |date=December 6, 2018 }} Retrieved December 10, 2016.</ref> Quayle returned to his native Indiana and graduated from [[Huntington North High School]] in [[Huntington, Indiana|Huntington]] in 1965. He then matriculated at [[DePauw University]], where he received his [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] degree in [[political science]] in 1969,<ref>{{cite news |first=Jill |last=Lawrence |title=Quayle on a quest to get the last laugh |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/opinion/e193.htm |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |date=August 4, 1999 |access-date=August 6, 2015 |archive-date=March 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324040652/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/opinion/e193.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> was the captain of the university golf team and a member of the fraternity [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] (Psi Phi chapter).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.depauw.edu/arts-and-culture/speakers/ubben-lecture-series/archives/details/dan-quayle-69/|title=Past Ubben Lectures: Dan Quayle '69|website=DePauw University|access-date=June 1, 2024|archive-date=June 5, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240605091508/https://www.depauw.edu/arts-and-culture/speakers/ubben-lecture-series/archives/details/dan-quayle-69/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://dke.org/virtual-museum/|title=Virtual Museum: Letters from Leaders|website=Delta Kappa Epsilon|date=February 13, 2023 |access-date=June 1, 2024|archive-date=March 3, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303192403/https://dke.org/virtual-museum/|url-status=live}}</ref>

After graduation, Quayle joined the [[Indiana National Guard]] and served from 1969 to 1975, reaching the rank of [[Sergeant#United States|sergeant]]; his joining meant that he was not subject to the [[Conscription in the United States|draft]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=August 24, 1988|title=Quayle and Paula Parkinson|url=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/os-xpm-1988-08-24-0060270264-story.html|access-date=December 7, 2020|website=www.orlandosentinel.com| publisher=Orlando Sentinel}}</ref> In 1970, while serving in the Guard, Quayle enrolled at [[Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law]]. He was admitted under a program for students who could demonstrate "special factors" as his grades did not meet the regular admission standards. In 1974, Quayle earned a [[Juris Doctor]] (J.D.) degree.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lauter |first1=Davie |last2=Jehl |first2=Douglas |title='Special Factors' Helped Quayle Law School Admission |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-09-10-mn-1522-story.html |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=September 10, 1988 |access-date=November 27, 2021 |archive-date=November 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128021231/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-09-10-mn-1522-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/08/21/Father-says-Quayle-pretty-good-salesman/2261588139200/ |title=Father says Quayle 'pretty good salesman' |work=[[United Press International]] |date=August 21, 1988 |access-date=November 27, 2021 |archive-date=November 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127185037/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/08/21/Father-says-Quayle-pretty-good-salesman/2261588139200/ |url-status=live }}</ref> At Indiana University, he met his future wife, [[Marilyn Quayle|Marilyn]], who was taking night classes at the same law school at the time.<ref name="Time">Alessandra Stanley, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,956763,00.html "Marilyn Quayle: A New Second Lady"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825010541/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,956763,00.html |date=August 25, 2013 }}, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', January 23, 1989. Accessed September 28, 2014.</ref>

Quayle became an investigator for the Consumer Protection Division of the Office of the [[Indiana Attorney General]] in July 1971. Later that year, he became an administrative assistant to Governor [[Edgar Whitcomb]]. From 1973 to 1974, he was the Director of the Inheritance Tax Division of the Indiana Department of Revenue. After graduating from law school in 1974, Quayle worked as associate publisher of his family's newspaper, the ''[[Huntington Herald-Press]]''.

==Congressional tenure==
[[File:Dan Quayle 1977.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Quayle in 1977, his first term in the House of Representatives]]
In 1976, Quayle was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] from [[Indiana's 4th congressional district]], defeating eight-term [[incumbent]] [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] [[J. Edward Roush]] by a 55%-to-45% margin.<ref name="General Election of 1976">{{Cite web|title=Statistics of the Presidential and Congressional Election of November 2, 1976|url=http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electioninfo/1976election.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720124815/http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electionInfo/1976election.pdf|archive-date=July 20, 2011|access-date=December 22, 2019}}</ref> He was reelected in 1978, 64% to 34%.<ref name="General Election of 1978">{{Cite web|title=Statistics of the Congressional Election of November 7, 1978|url=http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electioninfo/1978election.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021081349/http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electionInfo/1978election.pdf|archive-date=October 21, 2011|access-date=December 22, 2019}}</ref>

In November 1978, Congressman [[Leo Ryan]] of California invited Quayle to accompany him on a delegation to investigate unsafe conditions at the [[Jonestown]] settlement in [[Guyana]], but Quayle was unable to participate. The decision likely saved Quayle's life, because Ryan and his entourage were subsequently murdered at the airstrip in Jonestown as the party tried to escape the massacre.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Quayle|first=Dan|title=Standing Firm: A Vice-Presidential Memoir|publisher=Harpercollins|year=1995|isbn=0-06-109390-4|page=176|author-link=Dan Quayle}}</ref>

In [[1980 United States Senate election in Indiana|1980]], at age 33, Quayle became the youngest person ever elected to the [[United States Senate|Senate]] from the state of Indiana, defeating three-term incumbent Democrat [[Birch Bayh]] with 54% of the vote. Making Indiana political history again, Quayle was reelected to the Senate in [[1986 United States Senate election in Indiana|1986]] with the largest margin ever achieved to that date by a candidate in a statewide Indiana race, taking 61% of the vote against his Democratic opponent, [[Jill Long Thompson|Jill Long]].

In 1986, Quayle was criticized for championing the cause of [[Daniel Anthony Manion]], a candidate for a federal appellate judgeship, who was in law school one year ahead of Quayle. The [[American Bar Association]] had evaluated Manion as "qualified/unqualified", its lower passing grade.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/05/25/us/reagan-judges-get-lower-bar-rating.html | work=[[The New York Times]] | title=Reagan Judges Get Lower Bar Rating | date=May 25, 1986 | access-date=July 3, 2016 | archive-date=August 19, 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819113350/http://www.nytimes.com/1986/05/25/us/reagan-judges-get-lower-bar-rating.html | url-status=live }}</ref> Manion was nominated for the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit|Seventh Circuit]] of the [[United States court of appeals|U.S. Court of Appeals]] by President [[Ronald Reagan]] on February 21, 1986, and confirmed by the Senate on June 26, 1986.<ref name="PostGazette">{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Qa9RAAAAIBAJ&dq=daniel%20manion&pg=6717%2C6531359|title=Senate reaffirms Daniel Manion as judge, 50–49|date=July 24, 1986|work=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette|access-date=June 15, 2012|archive-date=February 18, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218070104/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Qa9RAAAAIBAJ&dq=daniel%20manion&pg=6717%2C6531359|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Vice presidency (1989–1993)==
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox administration
| image = Dan Quayle crop.jpg
| term_start = January 20, 1989
| term_end = January 20, 1993
| vicepresident_link = Vice President of the United States
| cabinet = ''[[Presidency of George H. W. Bush#Administration|See list]]''
| party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| election = [[1988 United States presidential election|1988]]
| seat = [[Number One Observatory Circle]]
| predecessor = [[George_H._W._Bush#Vice_presidency_(1981–1989)|George H. W. Bush]]
| successor = [[Vice Presidency of Al Gore|Al Gore ]]
| official_url =
}}

===1988 campaign===
{{See also|George H. W. Bush 1988 presidential campaign|1988 Republican Party vice presidential candidate selection}}
On August 16, 1988, at the Republican convention in New Orleans, Louisiana, George H. W. Bush chose Quayle to be his running mate in the [[1988 United States presidential election]]. The choice immediately became controversial.<ref name="Quagmire" /> Outgoing President Reagan praised Quayle for his "energy and enthusiasm".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Roberts|first1=Steven|title=Reagan Praises Quayle, Citing 'Enthusiasm'|work=The New York Times |date=August 21, 1988|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/21/us/reagan-praises-quayle-citing-enthusiasm.html|access-date=December 9, 2016|archive-date=June 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614203437/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/21/us/reagan-praises-quayle-citing-enthusiasm.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Press coverage of the convention was dominated by questions about "the three Quayle problems".<ref name="NYTimesGarbled" /> The questions involved his military service, a golf holiday in Florida where he and several other politicians shared a house with lobbyist Paula Parkinson,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Maxa|first=Rudy|date=March 29, 1981|title=The Paula Parkinson Story|language=en-US|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1981/03/29/the-paula-parkinson-story/df932614-289d-4f44-a0fb-5416259c2446/|access-date=December 7, 2020|issn=0190-8286|archive-date=August 6, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806161143/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1981/03/29/the-paula-parkinson-story/df932614-289d-4f44-a0fb-5416259c2446/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> and whether he had enough experience to be vice president. Quayle seemed at times rattled and at other times uncertain or evasive as he responded to questions.<ref name="NYTimesGarbled" /> Delegates to the convention generally blamed television and newspapers for the focus on Quayle's problems, but Bush's staff said they thought Quayle had mishandled the questions about his military record, leaving questions dangling.<ref name="Quagmire">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,968278-1,00.html|title=The Republicans: The Quayle Quagmire|last=Shapiro|first=Walter|date=August 29, 1988|magazine=Time|page=32|access-date=September 1, 2008|archive-date=June 15, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615061345/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,968278-1,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="NYTimesGarbled">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/19/us/the-republicans-in-new-orleans-convention-message-is-garbled-by-quayle-static.html?pagewanted=all|title=The Republicans in New Orleans; Convention Message Is Garbled by Quayle Static|last=Oreskes|first=Michael|date=August 19, 1988|work=The New York Times|access-date=September 1, 2008|archive-date=June 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614203434/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/19/us/the-republicans-in-new-orleans-convention-message-is-garbled-by-quayle-static.html?pagewanted=all|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Ander Plattner et al., "Quayle Under Glass", ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'', August 29, 1988, p. 32.</ref> Although Bush was trailing by up to 15 points in public opinion polls taken before the convention, in August the Bush–Quayle ticket took the lead,<ref>[http://www.gallup.com/poll/110548/gallup-presidential-election-trialheat-trends-19362004.aspx#4 1988 Presidential Trial Heats ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630070844/http://www.gallup.com/poll/110548/gallup-presidential-election-trialheat-trends-19362004.aspx#4 |date=June 30, 2017 }} Gallup.</ref> which it did not relinquish for the rest of the campaign.

In the [[1988 United States presidential debates|October 1988 vice-presidential debate]], Quayle debated Democratic candidate [[Lloyd Bentsen]]. During the debate, Quayle's strategy was to criticize Dukakis as too liberal. When the debate turned to Quayle's relatively limited experience in public life, he compared the length of his congressional service (12 years) with that of President [[John F. Kennedy]] (14 years); Kennedy had less experience than his rivals during the 1960 presidential nomination. It was a factual comparison, although Quayle's advisers cautioned beforehand that it could be used against him. Bentsen's response—"I served with Jack Kennedy. I knew Jack Kennedy. Jack Kennedy was a friend of mine. [[Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy]]"—subsequently became a part of the political lexicon.<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/spc/debatingourdestiny/interviews/quayle.html Dan Quayle Interview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108035528/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/spc/debatingourdestiny/interviews/quayle.html |date=November 8, 2017 }} PBS. December 2, 1999. Retrieved December 10, 2016.</ref>

[[File:President Bush and Vice President and Mrs. Quayle Participate in a Hanukkah Celebration.jpg|thumb|George H. W. Bush, Dan Quayle, and Marilyn Quayle participate in a Hanukkah Celebration in 1989.]]
[[File:Quayle at USS John F. Kennedy, 1991 (1).JPEG|thumb|right|Quayle aboard the aircraft carrier [[USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)|USS ''John F. Kennedy'' (CV-67)]] during [[Gulf War|Operation Desert Shield]] in 1991]]
The Bush–Quayle ticket won the [[1988 United States presidential election|November election]] by a 53–46 percent margin, sweeping 40 states and capturing 426 [[United States Electoral College|electoral votes]]. He was [[Inauguration of George H. W. Bush|sworn in]] on January 20, 1989. Quayle cast no [[List of tie-breaking votes cast by vice presidents of the United States|tie-breaking votes]] as [[president of the Senate]], becoming only the second vice-president (after [[Charles W. Fairbanks]]) not to do so while serving a complete term.

===Tenure===
{{See also|Presidency of George H. W. Bush}}
During his vice presidency, Quayle made official trips to 47 countries.<ref name=bio/> Bush named Quayle head of the [[U.S. Council on Competitiveness|Council on Competitiveness]] and the first chairman of the [[National Space Council]]. As head of the NSC he called for greater efforts to protect Earth against the danger of potential [[asteroid]] impacts.<ref>[http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19900516&slug=1072013 "Quayle Backs Group's Effort To Head Off Asteroid Threat"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127142157/http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19900516&slug=1072013 |date=November 27, 2011 }}, ''[[The Seattle Times]]'', May 16, 1990.</ref>

[[File:Quayle desert storm.jpg|thumb|Quayle and Prince [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia]] at a meeting to discuss US military intervention during Operation Desert Shield in 1990]]
After a briefing by Lt. General [[Daniel O. Graham]], (USA Ret.), Max Hunter, and [[Jerry Pournelle]], Quayle sponsored the development of an experimental Single Stage to Orbit X-Program, which resulted in the building of the [[McDonnell Douglas DC-X]].
[[File:Dan Quayle speaking at the Race for the Cure 1990.jpg|thumb|right|Quayle speaking at Race for the Cure in Washington, D.C. in 1990]]
[[File:President Bush and Vice President Quayle pose together for their official portrait - NARA - 186393.jpg|thumb|right|Quayle with President [[George H. W. Bush]] in 1989]]

Quayle has since described the vice presidency as "an awkward office. You're president of the Senate. You're not even officially part of the executive branch—you're part of the legislative branch. You're paid by the Senate, not by the executive branch. And it's the president's agenda. It's not your agenda. You're going to disagree from time to time, but you salute and carry out the orders the best you can".<ref>[http://www.indianapolismonthly.com/news-opinion/dan-quayle-on-running-for-vice-president/ "Dan Quayle on Running for Vice President: 'It's Not the Easiest Job{{'"}}] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220101457/http://www.indianapolismonthly.com/news-opinion/dan-quayle-on-running-for-vice-president/ |date=December 20, 2016 }}. ''[[Indianapolis Monthly]]''. October 4, 2016. Retrieved December 10, 2016.</ref>

====''Murphy Brown''====
On May 19, 1992, Quayle gave a speech titled ''[[s:Reflections on Urban America|Reflections on Urban America]]'' to the [[Commonwealth Club of California]] on the subject of the [[1992 Los Angeles riots|Los Angeles riots]].<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/26/arts/television/murphy-brown-dan-quayle.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220103/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/26/arts/television/murphy-brown-dan-quayle.html |archive-date=2022-01-03 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=That Time 'Murphy Brown' and Dan Quayle Topped the Front Page|work=The New York Times|date=January 26, 2018|last1=Fortin|first1=Jacey}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In the speech he blamed the violence on a decay of moral values and family structure in American society.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> In an aside, he cited the single mother title character in the television program ''[[Murphy Brown]]'' as an example of how popular culture contributes to this "poverty of values", saying, "It doesn't help matters when [[prime time|prime-time]] TV has Murphy Brown—a character who supposedly epitomizes today's intelligent, highly paid, professional woman—mocking the importance of fathers, by bearing a child alone, and calling it just another 'lifestyle choice'."<ref>{{cite magazine | url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975627,00.html | title=Dan Quayle vs. Murphy Brown | magazine=Time | date=June 1, 1992 | access-date=June 24, 2010 | archive-date=August 25, 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825193119/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975627,00.html | url-status=dead }}</ref>

The "[[Murphy Brown#Murphy becomes a single mother|Murphy Brown speech]]" became one of the most memorable of the 1992 campaign. Long after the outcry had ended, the comment continued to have an effect on U.S. politics. [[Stephanie Coontz]], a professor of family history and the author of several books and essays about the history of [[marriage]], said that this brief remark by Quayle about Murphy Brown "kicked off more than a decade of outcries against the 'collapse of the family{{'"}}.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/04/30/AR2005043000108.html | newspaper=The Washington Post | title=For Better, For Worse | first=Stephanie | last=Coontz | author-link=Stephanie Coontz | date=May 1, 2005 | access-date=April 30, 2010 | archive-date=November 7, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107133949/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/04/30/AR2005043000108.html | url-status=live }}</ref> In 2002, [[Candice Bergen]], the actress who played Brown, said "I never have really said much about the whole episode, which was endless, but his speech was a perfectly intelligent speech about fathers not being dispensable and nobody agreed with that more than I did." Others interpreted it differently; singer [[Tanya Tucker]] was widely quoted as saying "Who the hell is Dan Quayle to come after single mothers?"<ref>{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |title=Candice Bergen agrees with Quayle |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/SHOWBIZ/News/07/11/showbuzz/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=July 11, 2002 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080328133715/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/SHOWBIZ/News/07/11/showbuzz/index.html#1|archive-date=March 28, 2008}}</ref>

====Perceived gaffes====
Throughout his time as vice president, Quayle was characterized by some media outlets and journalists as being unprepared for the position. Given his position, his comments were heavily scrutinized for factual and grammatical errors. Contributing to this perception of Quayle was his tendency to make public statements that were either impossible ("I have made good judgments in the past. I have made good judgments in the future"<ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=http://www.watertowndailytimes.com/ogd/quayle-hunting-turned-up-some-real-turkeys-20150318&|work=Watertown Daily Times|title=Quayle Hunting turned up some real turkeys|date=March 18, 2015|access-date=September 22, 2018}}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>), self-contradictory ("I believe we are on an irreversible trend toward more freedom and democracy, but that could change"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/2012/09/25/the-stunning-sudden-reversal-of-economic-freedom-in-america/#41f093853063|magazine=[[Forbes]]|title=The Stunning, Sudden Reversal of Economic Freedom In America|author=Howard Rich|date=September 25, 2012|access-date=September 22, 2018|archive-date=September 22, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922102305/https://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/2012/09/25/the-stunning-sudden-reversal-of-economic-freedom-in-america/#41f093853063|url-status=live}}</ref>), self-contradictory and confused ("[[The Holocaust]] was an obscene period in our nation's history. ... No, not our nation's, but in [[World War II]]. I mean, we all lived in this century. I didn't live in this century, but in this century's history"<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/lifestyle/features/10-things-politicians-definitely-wish-they-had-not-said--270345.html|work=Irish Examiner|title=10 things politicians definitely wish they had not said ...|author=Dan Kenny|date=May 30, 2014|access-date=September 22, 2018|archive-date=September 22, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922103220/https://www.irishexaminer.com/lifestyle/features/10-things-politicians-definitely-wish-they-had-not-said--270345.html|url-status=live}}</ref>), or just confused (such as the comments he made in a May 1989 address to the [[United Negro College Fund]] (UNCF). Commenting on the UNCF's slogan—which is "a mind is a terrible thing to waste"—Quayle said, "You take the UNCF model that what a waste it is to lose one's mind or not to have a mind is being very wasteful. How true that is").<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/25/magazine/the-education-of-dan-quayle.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm|work=[[The New York Times Magazine]]|title=The Education of Dan Quayle|last=Dowd|first=Maureen|author-link=Maureen Dowd|date=June 25, 1989|access-date=September 22, 2018|archive-date=June 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614195145/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/25/magazine/the-education-of-dan-quayle.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://archives.cjr.org/year/91/5/quayle.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040122163649/http://archives.cjr.org/year/91/5/quayle.asp|archive-date=January 22, 2004|work=Columbia Journalism Review|title=Dan Quayle: The Sequel|author=William Boot (Christopher Hanson)|date=September–October 1991}}</ref>

{{anchor|"Potatoe"|Potatoe}}On June 15, 1992, Quayle altered 12-year-old student William Figueroa's correct spelling of "potato" to "potatoe" at the Muñoz Rivera Elementary School [[spelling bee]] in [[Trenton, New Jersey]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.capitalcentury.com/1992.html|title=1992: Gaffe with an 'e' at the end|first=Paul|last=Mickle|publisher=Capitalcentury.com|access-date=July 1, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060715054720/http://capitalcentury.com/1992.html|archive-date=July 15, 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/29/nyregion/politics-how-do-you-spell-regret-one-man-s-take-on-it.html|title=How Do You Spell Regret? One Man's Take on It|first=Mark|last=Fass|work=The New York Times|access-date=March 20, 2009|date=August 29, 2004|archive-date=March 23, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323093130/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/29/nyregion/politics-how-do-you-spell-regret-one-man-s-take-on-it.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He was the subject of widespread ridicule for his error. According to ''The New York Times''<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/06/17/opinion/mr-quayle-s-e-for-effort.html|work=The New York Times|title=Mr. Quayle's 'e' for Effort|date=June 17, 1992|access-date=February 7, 2017|archive-date=February 18, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218063712/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/06/17/opinion/mr-quayle-s-e-for-effort.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and Quayle's memoirs, he was relying on cards provided by the school, which Quayle says included the misspelling. Quayle said he was uncomfortable with the version he gave, but did so because he decided to trust the school's incorrect written materials instead of his own judgment.

===1992 campaign===
{{Main|George H. W. Bush 1992 presidential campaign}}
In the [[1992 United States presidential election|1992 election]], Bush and Quayle were challenged in their bid for reelection by the Democratic ticket of [[List of Governors of Arkansas|Arkansas Governor]] [[Bill Clinton]] and [[Tennessee]] [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Al Gore]] and the independent ticket of Texas businessman [[Ross Perot]] and retired Vice Admiral [[James Stockdale]].

As Bush lagged in the polls in the weeks preceding the August [[1992 Republican National Convention]], some Republican strategists (led by [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[James Baker]]) viewed Quayle as a liability to the ticket and pushed for his replacement.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2004/07/15/MNGH97LG321.DTL | work=The San Francisco Chronicle | title=Rumor has it that Cheney's on way out / Theory appears far-fetched but is making the rounds | first=Elisabeth | last=Bumiller | date=July 15, 2004 | access-date=February 15, 2021 | archive-date=October 10, 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010203306/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2004%2F07%2F15%2FMNGH97LG321.DTL | url-status=live }}</ref> Quayle ultimately survived the challenge and secured renomination.<ref>''Time'', [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,976809-1,00.html "Quayle Vs. Gore"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015195716/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,976809-1,00.html |date=October 15, 2007 }}, October 19, 1992. Retrieved August 29, 2008.</ref>

During the 1992 presidential campaign, Quayle told the news media that he believed homosexuality was a choice, and "the wrong choice".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/09/14/us/1992-campaign-vice-president-quayle-contends-homosexuality-matter-choice-not.html|title=The 1992 Campaign: The Vice President; Quayle Contends Homosexuality Is a Matter of Choice, Not Biology|last=Witt|first=Karen De|date=September 14, 1992|work=The New York Times|access-date=December 17, 2017|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=January 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115235833/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/09/14/us/1992-campaign-vice-president-quayle-contends-homosexuality-matter-choice-not.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Quayle faced off against Gore and Stockdale in the vice presidential [[debate]] on October 13, 1992.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/14/us/the-1992-campaign-james-stockdale-reluctant-politician-tempers-professional-edge.html|title=The 1992 Campaign: James Stockdale; Reluctant Politician Tempers Professional Edge|first=David E.|last=Rosenbaum|work=The New York Times|date=October 14, 1992|access-date=September 19, 2018|archive-date=September 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919214604/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/14/us/the-1992-campaign-james-stockdale-reluctant-politician-tempers-professional-edge.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He attempted to avoid the one-sided outcome of his debate with Bentsen four years earlier by staying on the offensive.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/14/us/the-1992-campaign-the-debate-quayle-and-gore-exchange-sharp-attacks-in-debate.html|title=The 1992 Campaign: The Debate; Quayle and Gore Exchange Sharp Attacks in Debate|first=Robin|last=Toner|work=The New York Times|date=October 14, 1992|access-date=September 19, 2018|archive-date=September 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919220209/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/14/us/the-1992-campaign-the-debate-quayle-and-gore-exchange-sharp-attacks-in-debate.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Quayle criticized Gore's book ''[[Earth in the Balance]]'' with specific page references, though his claims were subsequently criticized by the liberal group [[Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting|FAIR]] for inaccuracy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fair.org/take-action/media-advisories/post-debate-fact-checking-is-medias-main-job/ |title=FAIR Media Advisory: Post-Debate Fact-Checking Is Media's Main Job |publisher=Fair.org |date=September 29, 2004 |access-date=April 22, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204143847/http://fair.org/take-action/media-advisories/post-debate-fact-checking-is-medias-main-job/ |archive-date=December 4, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In Quayle's closing argument, he sharply asked voters, "Do you really believe Bill Clinton will tell the truth?" and "Do you trust Bill Clinton to be your president?" Gore and Stockdale talked more about the policies and philosophies they espoused.<ref>{{cite web|title=Debate Transcript, Commission on Presidential Debates |url=http://www.debates.org/pages/trans92d.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091009182330/http://www.debates.org/pages/trans92d.html |archive-date=October 9, 2009 }}</ref> Republican loyalists were largely relieved and pleased with Quayle's performance, and his camp attempted to portray it as an upset triumph against a veteran debater, but post-debate polls were mixed on whether Gore or Quayle had won.<ref>''Columbia Journalism Review'', September/October 1993 "{{cite web |url=http://archives.cjr.org/year/93/5/books-rosensteil.asp |title=Leading the Polls |access-date=January 8, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002234724/http://archives.cjr.org/year/93/5/books-rosensteil.asp |archive-date=October 2, 2006 }}</ref> It ultimately proved to be a minor factor in the election, which Bush and Quayle lost, 168 electoral votes to 370.

==Post–vice presidency (1993–present)==
===Initial activities===
In 1993, Quayle became the trustee of the [[Hudson Institute]].<ref name="p2000.us"/> From 1993 to January 1999, he served on the board of Central Newspapers, Inc.,<ref name="p2000.us"/> and from 1995 until January 1999, he headed the Campaign America [[political action committee]].<ref name="p2000.us"/>

Quayle authored a 1994 memoir, ''Standing Firm'', which became a bestseller. Quayle's second book, ''The American Family: Discovering the Values That Make Us Strong'', was co-authored with Diane Medved and published in 1996.<ref name="p2000.us"/> He later published his third book ''Worth Fighting For'', in 1999.

Quayle moved to Arizona in 1996.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2010/04/01/DI2010040102937.html|title=Outlook: Dan Quayle on the tea party, Palin and Ross Perot|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=April 5, 2010|access-date=October 15, 2012|archive-date=February 8, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208125912/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2010/04/01/DI2010040102937.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He considered but decided against running for [[governor of Indiana]] in 1996, and decided against running for the [[1996 Republican Party presidential primaries|1996 Republican presidential nomination]], citing health problems related to [[phlebitis]].<ref name="broder">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/election/july-dec99/quayle_9-27.html |title=David Broder on PBS Newshour |date=September 27, 1999 |publisher=PBS |access-date=January 4, 2012 |archive-date=January 14, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114183200/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/election/july-dec99/quayle_9-27.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1997 and 1998, Quayle was a "distinguished visiting professor of international studies" at the [[Thunderbird School of Global Management]].<ref name="p2000.us"/>

===2000 presidential campaign===
{{Main|Dan Quayle 2000 presidential campaign}}
[[File:Quayle 2000 campaign logo.svg|thumb|Logo from Quayle's 2000 presidential campaign]]

During a January 1999 appearance on ''[[Larry King Live]]'', Quayle said he would run for president in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|date=January 22, 1999|title=Quayle Plans a Bid in 2000 For President|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/22/us/quayle-plans-a-bid-in-2000-for-president.html|access-date=September 16, 2018|website=The New York Times|agency=Reuters|archive-date=September 16, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916235719/https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/22/us/quayle-plans-a-bid-in-2000-for-president.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On January 28, 1999, he officially created an exploratory committee.<ref name="p2000.us">{{cite web |title=Dan Quayle |url=http://p2000.us/quay.html |website=p2000.us |access-date=May 29, 2021 |archive-date=June 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212532/http://p2000.us/quay.html |url-status=live }}</ref> On April 14, 1999, at a rally held at his alma mater Huntington North High School's gymnasium, Quayle officially launched his campaign for the [[2000 Republican Party presidential primaries|2000 Republican presidential nomination]].<ref name="p2000.us" /> In July 1999, he published his book ''Worth Fighting For''.<ref name="p2000.us"/>

During campaign appearances, Quayle criticized fellow candidate [[George W. Bush]]. Early on, he criticized Bush's use of the term "[[compassionate conservative]]".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Conolly |first1=Ceci |title=Dan Quayle plans presidential campaign |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/575357498 |website=Newspapers.com |publisher=The Spokesman-Review |agency=Associated Press |access-date=May 29, 2021 |language=en |url-access=subscription |date=January 22, 1999 |archive-date=January 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122212641/http://www.newspapers.com/image/575357498/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Quayle finished eighth in the August 1999 [[Iowa Straw Poll (1979–2011)|Ames Straw Poll]]. He withdrew from the race the next month and supported Bush.<ref name="broder"/>

===Subsequent activities===
Quayle, then working as an [[Investment banking|investment banker]] in Phoenix, was mentioned as a candidate for [[List of Governors of Arizona|governor of Arizona]] before the [[2002 Arizona gubernatorial election|2002 election]],<ref>{{cite news |title = Political Briefing; From Arizona, Talk Of a Bid by Quayle |author = B. Drummond Ayres Jr. |work = [[The New York Times]] |date= February 11, 2001 |url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F01E2D81031F932A25751C0A9679C8B63 |access-date = September 4, 2008}}</ref> but declined to run.

On January 31, 2011, Quayle wrote a letter to President [[Barack Obama]] urging him to commute [[Jonathan Pollard]]'s sentence.<ref>[http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/60792/dan-quayle-urges-pollard-release "Dan Quayle Urges Pollard Release"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112033604/http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/60792/dan-quayle-urges-pollard-release |date=November 12, 2013 }}, ''[[J. The Jewish News of Northern California]]'', February 10, 2011.</ref>

In December 2011, Quayle endorsed [[Mitt Romney]] for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination.<ref name="quayle">{{cite news |first=Mark |last=Halperin |author-link=Mark Halperin |url=http://thepage.time.com/2011/12/05/ap-quayle-to-endorse-romney/ |title=Quayle to Endorse Romney |work=The Page |publisher=Time Inc. |date=December 5, 2011 |access-date=April 1, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142237/http://thepage.time.com/2011/12/05/ap-quayle-to-endorse-romney/ |archive-date=April 2, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the [[2016 United States presidential election|2016 presidential election]], Quayle endorsed [[Jeb Bush presidential campaign, 2016|Jeb Bush]].<ref name="jebarizona">{{cite web|url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/azdc/2015/10/28/jeb-bush-arizona-supporters-dan-quayle-fife-symington/74756070/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20160318001513/http://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/azdc/2015/10/28/jeb-bush-arizona-supporters-dan-quayle-fife-symington/74756070/|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 18, 2016|title=Jeb Bush's Arizona supporters include Dan Quayle, Fife Symington|date=October 28, 2015|work=The Arizona Republic}}</ref> After Bush failed to win the nomination, Quayle endorsed [[Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign|Donald Trump]];<ref>{{Cite web|date=July 30, 2016|title=HUGE: Former VP Dan Quayle Endorses Trump, Says 'I Think He Can Win'!|url=https://en-volve.com/2016/07/30/huge-former-vp-dan-quayle-endorses-trump-says-i-think-he-can-win/|access-date=January 15, 2021|website=enVolve|language=en-US|archive-date=October 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024143735/https://en-volve.com/2016/07/30/huge-former-vp-dan-quayle-endorses-trump-says-i-think-he-can-win/|url-status=live}}</ref> he was later seen visiting with Trump at [[Trump Tower]] in [[Manhattan]] before Trump's inauguration.<ref name="trumptower">{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/dan-quayle-visits-trump-tower-offer-personal-congratulations/story |title=Dan Quayle Visits Trump Tower to Offer 'Personal Congratulations' |date=November 29, 2016 |work=ABC News }}{{Dead link|date=July 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

[[Quayle Vice Presidential Learning Center|The Dan Quayle Center and Museum]], in [[Huntington, Indiana]], features information on Quayle and all U.S. vice presidents.

Quayle is an Honorary Trustee Emeritus of the [[Hudson Institute]] and president of Quayle and Associates. He has also been a member of the board of directors of Heckmann Corporation, a water-sector company, since the company's inception and serves as chair of the company's Compensation and Nominating & Governance Committees. Quayle is a director of [[Aozora Bank]], based in Tokyo, Japan.<ref>{{cite web|title=Board of Directors website |url=http://heckmanncorp.com/boardofdirectors.htm |publisher=Heckmann corporation |access-date=March 10, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110316195646/http://heckmanncorp.com/boardofdirectors.htm |archive-date=March 16, 2011 }}</ref> He has also been on the boards of directors of other companies, including [[K2 Sports]], [[AmTran]] Inc., Central Newspapers Inc.,<ref>{{cite web |title = RightWeb.com profile for J. Danforth Quayle |url = http://rightweb.irc-online.org/profile/Quayle_J_Danforth_Dan |access-date = March 10, 2011 |archive-date = January 22, 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110122200759/http://www.rightweb.irc-online.org/profile/Quayle_J_Danforth_Dan |url-status = live }}</ref> BTC Inc.<ref>{{cite web |title = CampaignMoney.com donation page for Quayle for Congress, 2010 election cycle |url = http://www.campaignmoney.com/political/committees/quayle-for-congress.asp?cycle=10 |access-date = March 10, 2011 |archive-date = February 23, 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110223193959/http://www.campaignmoney.com/political/committees/quayle-for-congress.asp?cycle=10 |url-status = live }}</ref> and Carvana Co.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1690820/000119312517125104/d297157ds1a.htm#toc297157_16|title=S-1/A|website=www.sec.gov|access-date=April 20, 2017|archive-date=April 21, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421095233/https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1690820/000119312517125104/d297157ds1a.htm#toc297157_16|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to the book [[Peril (book)|''Peril'']], by [[Bob Woodward]] and [[Robert Costa (journalist)|Robert Costa]], Quayle played a central role in advising his fellow Hoosier and Vice President [[Mike Pence]] to [[2021 United States Electoral College vote count|certify]] the [[2020 United States presidential election]] as per the [[Standing Rules of the United States Senate|Senate rules]], rather than cooperate with a plan by then-president [[Donald Trump]] that sought to overturn the election.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Stanley-Becker|first=Isaac|date=September 14, 2021|title=Top general was so fearful Trump might spark war that he made secret calls to his Chinese counterpart, new book says|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/09/14/peril-woodward-costa-trump-milley-china/|newspaper=[[Washington Post]]|access-date=September 14, 2021|archive-date=September 15, 2021|archive-url=https://archive.today/20210915233648/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/09/14/peril-woodward-costa-trump-milley-china/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=September 16, 2021|first=Virginia|last=Chamlee|title=How Dan Quayle Helped Convince Mike Pence Not to Overturn Election, According to New Book: 'Forget It'|url=https://people.com/politics/new-book-details-how-dan-quayle-convinced-mike-pence-not-to-overturn-election/|access-date=2022-02-06|website=people.com|language=en|archive-date=February 6, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206222119/https://people.com/politics/new-book-details-how-dan-quayle-convinced-mike-pence-not-to-overturn-election/|url-status=live}}</ref> Quayle attended President [[Joe Biden]]'s [[Inauguration of Joe Biden|inauguration]] on January 20, 2021.<ref>{{cite news|title=Who was at Biden's inauguration |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/interactive/2021/photos-attendees-biden-inauguration/?itid=hp-banner-low |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=January 21, 2021}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:Dan Quayle with Donald Rumsfeld.jpg|Quayle with [[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense Secretary]] [[Donald Rumsfeld]] in 2001
File:Dan Quayle (7835924970).jpg|Dan Quayle speaking at a "Politics on the Rocks" event in Scottsdale, Arizona, in 2012
File:Dan and Marilyn Quayle at 58th Inauguration 01-20-17.jpg|Dan Quayle and [[Marilyn Quayle]] at the [[Inauguration of Donald Trump|2017 Presidential Inauguration]]
File:National Veterans Day Observance 2019 (49051656176).jpg|Dan Quayle and [[Marilyn Quayle]] with [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Mike Pence]] in 2019
File:George W. Bush and Dan Quayle at Biden inauguration.png|Quayle (right) with George W. Bush (left) at the [[Inauguration of Joe Biden|2021 Presidential Inauguration]]
</gallery>

===Cerberus Capital Management===
In 1999, Quayle joined [[Cerberus Capital Management]], a multibillion-dollar [[Private equity|private-equity]] firm, where he serves as chair of the company's Global Investments division.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cerberuscapital.com/team/j-danforth-quayle/|title=J. Danforth Quayle - Cerberus Capital Management|access-date=July 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160706202441/http://www.cerberuscapital.com/team/j-danforth-quayle/|archive-date=July 6, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> As chair of the international advisory board of Cerberus Capital Management, he recruited former [[Prime Minister of Canada|Canadian prime minister]] [[Brian Mulroney]], who would have been installed as chair if Cerberus had acquired [[Air Canada]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Konrad |first=Yakabuski |title=The prime of Brian Mulroney |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/rob-magazine/the-prime-of-brian-mulroney/article266592/page2/ |access-date=March 10, 2011 |newspaper=The Globe and Mail |date=April 30, 2004 |archive-date=October 15, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015122206/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/rob-magazine/the-prime-of-brian-mulroney/article266592/page2/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In early 2014, Quayle traveled to Belfast, Northern Ireland, in an attempt to speed approval for a deal in which Cerberus acquired nearly £1.3 billion in Northern Ireland loans from the Republic of Ireland's [[National Asset Management Agency]]. The Irish government is investigating the deal, and the [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission|US Securities and Exchange Commission]], the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]], and the [[United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York]] are investigating Quayle's involvement as a potentially "very serious" misuse of the vice president's office.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Murtagh |first=Peter |title=Project Eagle: Inside the £1.24bn Nama deal in the North |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/project-eagle-inside-the-1-24bn-nama-deal-in-the-north-1.2794086 |access-date=September 19, 2016 |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |date=September 17, 2016 |archive-date=September 18, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918135217/http://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/project-eagle-inside-the-1-24bn-nama-deal-in-the-north-1.2794086 |url-status=live }}</ref> As of December 2018, Quayle served as chair of Global Investments at Cerberus.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://heavy.com/news/2018/12/dan-quayle-wife-kids-age-now/|title=Dan Quayle, George Bush's Vice President: 5 Fast Facts You Need to Know|first=Effie|last=Orfanides|date=December 5, 2018|access-date=December 12, 2018|archive-date=December 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215223707/https://heavy.com/news/2018/12/dan-quayle-wife-kids-age-now/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Personal life==
{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | headerimage= | video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?57532-1/standing-firm ''Booknotes'' interview with Quayle on ''Standing Firm'', July 24, 1994], [[C-SPAN]]}}
Quayle lives with his wife, [[Marilyn Quayle]], in [[Paradise Valley, Arizona]].<ref name="auto"/> They married in November 1972<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1992/01/10/guardian-of-the-quayle-image/01483c29-5f4e-4069-bbb3-fd5682da079a/|title=Guardian of the Quayle Image|date=January 10, 1992|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=March 18, 2019|archive-date=April 2, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402195635/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1992/01/10/guardian-of-the-quayle-image/01483c29-5f4e-4069-bbb3-fd5682da079a/|url-status=live}}</ref> and have three children: Tucker, Benjamin, and Corinne.<ref>{{cite news |author1=Donnie Radcliffe |title=At the Quayles', Tight Security for Trick-Or-Treaters |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1989/10/31/at-the-quayles-tight-security-for-trick-or-treaters/3a301158-d02a-4d78-8b75-f8cbb4be6e38 |access-date=January 29, 2019 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=October 31, 1989 |archive-date=January 4, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104072633/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1989/10/31/at-the-quayles-tight-security-for-trick-or-treaters/3a301158-d02a-4d78-8b75-f8cbb4be6e38/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Ben Quayle|Benjamin Quayle]] served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 2011 to 2013,<ref>{{cite news|title=Quayle forms new lobbying, consulting firm|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/phoenix/news/2015/10/07/quayle-forms-new-lobbying-consutling-firm.html|author=Mike Sunnucks|work=Phoenix Business Journal|year=2015|access-date=April 10, 2019|archive-date=September 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190907074414/https://www.bizjournals.com/phoenix/news/2015/10/07/quayle-forms-new-lobbying-consutling-firm.html|url-status=live}}</ref> representing Arizona's 3rd congressional district.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/david-schweikert_n_1838371 |title=David Schweikert Defeats Ben Quayle In Arizona Republican Primary |date=August 29, 2012 |access-date=April 10, 2019 |archive-date=August 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804163609/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/david-schweikert_n_1838371 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Indiana National Guard controversy ==
Since the [[1988 United States elections]], Quayle has been the subject of controversy regarding his service in the Indiana National Guard from 1969 to 1975. Many of Quayle's political opponents, media outlets, and [[Vietnam veteran|Vietnam veterans]] have speculated that Quayle joined the Indiana National Guard as a means to [[Draft evasion in the Vietnam War|avoid the draft]] or to avoid being deployed to [[South Vietnam|Vietnam]]. In August 1988, Quayle denied the accusations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1988-08-20 |title=Quayle Denies Joining Guard to Avoid Vietnam : Hasn't Offered to Quit Ticket, He Says as Angry Hometown Crowd Boos Reporters Quizzing Him |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-08-20-mn-574-story.html |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US |archive-date=March 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325015120/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-08-20-mn-574-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Quayle's draft controversy received renewed attention during the [[1992 United States elections]] after Democratic nominee [[Bill Clinton]] was accused of similar [[Draft evasion|draft dodging]] measures.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Quayle defends avoiding Vietnam |url=https://www.tampabay.com/archive/1992/09/21/quayle-defends-avoiding-vietnam/ |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=Tampa Bay Times |language=en |archive-date=March 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325015120/https://www.tampabay.com/archive/1992/09/21/quayle-defends-avoiding-vietnam/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In September 1992, Quayle acknowledged that joining the Indiana National Guard cut his risks of being deployed to Vietnam, although he defended his decision.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1992-09-21 |title=Quayle Admits Joining Guard Cut Risks : Draft: Vice president defends his actions during Vietnam in light of questions Bush camp has raised about Clinton's avoidance of military service. |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-09-21-mn-847-story.html |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US |archive-date=March 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325015123/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-09-21-mn-847-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In a 1992 interview with [[NBC]]'s [[Meet the Press]], Quayle was pressed on whether his main motivation was to avoid being sent to fight in Vietnam. Quayle stated that he had preferences for joining the [[Reserve forces|reserves]], and that he never asked for preferential treatment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Quayle defends avoiding Vietnam |url=https://www.tampabay.com/archive/1992/09/21/quayle-defends-avoiding-vietnam/ |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=Tampa Bay Times |language=en |archive-date=March 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325015120/https://www.tampabay.com/archive/1992/09/21/quayle-defends-avoiding-vietnam/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Quayle also noted that had his [[Unit (military)|unit]] been called, he would have deployed, stating:<blockquote>Of course you had much less chance to go to Vietnam, but my unit could have been called up to go to Vietnam. And had it been called up, I would have gone.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Quayle dismisses questions about his military record - UPI Archives |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/09/20/Quayle-dismisses-questions-about-his-military-record/8797716961600/ |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=UPI |language=en}}</ref></blockquote>In a resurfaced 1989 interview with David Hoffman, filmmaker and Vietnam veteran [[Oliver Stone]] commented on Quayle and made contrasts between him and then-[[Nebraska]] governor [[Bob Kerrey]], noting:<blockquote>I'm hopeful of people like Bob Kerrey, for example, [the] governor of Nebraska, would be a presidential candidate. He's about forty-two and lost a leg in Vietnam. [He's a] very bright man, compassionate, he's been there. I think he'd make a fine president. Against him would be a guy like Dan Quayle, who is also about the same age, early forties—a heartbeat away from the presidency—a man who has never really suffered pain—a man who went to the National Guard to avoid Vietnam, and yet he's one who always calls for [[Interventionism (politics)|military intervention]] in [[Central America]], with other people's bodies. You have that [[hypocrisy]] at work.<ref>{{Citation |title=Young Film Director Oliver Stone On Vietnam -- My Complete Interview | date=January 12, 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQTrTtqW-uk |access-date=2024-03-25 |language=en |archive-date=March 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325015120/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQTrTtqW-uk |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote>

==Electoral history==
{{Main|Electoral history of Dan Quayle}}

==Published material==
* ''Standing Firm: A Vice-Presidential Memoir'', [[HarperCollins]], May 1994. Hardcover. {{ISBN|0-06-017758-6}}; mass market paperback, May 1995; {{ISBN|0-06-109390-4}}; limited edition, 1994. {{ISBN|0-06-017601-6}}.
* ''The American Family: Discovering the Values That Make Us Strong'' (with Diane Medved), Harpercollins, April 1996. {{ISBN|0-06-017378-5}} (hardcover). {{ISBN|0-06-092810-7}} (paperback).
* ''Worth Fighting For'', W Publishing Group, July 1999. {{ISBN|0-8499-1606-2}}.

== See also ==
* {{Portal inline|Biography}}

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* [[Richard Fenno|Richard F. Fenno Jr.]], ''The Making of a Senator: Dan Quayle'', Congressional Quarterly Press, 1989. {{ISBN|0-87187-506-3}}. [https://archive.org/details/makingofsenatord00fenn online free to borrow]
* ''What a Waste It Is to Lose One's Mind: The Unauthorized Autobiography of Dan Quayle'', Quayle Quarterly (published by Rose Communications), April 1992, {{ISBN|0-9629162-2-6}}.
* [[Joe Queenan (author)|Joe Queenan]], ''Imperial Caddy: The Rise of Dan Quayle in America and the Decline and Fall of Practically Everything Else'', Hyperion Books; October 1992 (1st edition). {{ISBN|1-56282-939-4}}.

==External links==
{{Sister project links|n=No|b=No|v=No}}
{{CongLinks | congbio=Q000007 | votesmart= | fec= | congress= }}
* {{C-SPAN|333}}
* {{IMDb name|703034}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130816094904/http://newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/Dan_Quayle.php Campaign contributions made by Dan Quayle]
* "Reflections on Urban America" speech to the [[Commonwealth Club of California]] ("Murphy Brown speech"): [https://web.archive.org/web/20100729053033/http://www.mfc.org/pfn/95-12/quayle.html Transcript], [http://digitalcollections.hoover.org/objects/60435 Audio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928013909/https://digitalcollections.hoover.org/objects/60435 |date=September 28, 2019 }}
* [http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/Dan_Quayle/ List of Quayle quotations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618230052/http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/Dan_Quayle/ |date=June 18, 2009 }}
* [http://www.rinkworks.com/said/danquayle.shtml Another list of Quayle quotations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518115343/http://www.rinkworks.com/said/danquayle.shtml |date=May 18, 2019 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030127214354/http://www.quaylemuseum.org/ Vice Presidential Museum at the Dan Quayle Center]
* [http://www.depauw.edu/news/index.asp?id=14071 VP Quayle Receives DePauw's McNaughton Medal for Public Service; October 26, 1990] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100703103117/http://susanhacker@depauw.edu/news/index.asp?id=14071 |date=July 3, 2010 }}
* [http://www.ericjames.org/html/fam/fam44625.htm Genealogy of the family of J. Danforth Quayle] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304045838/http://www.ericjames.org/html/fam/fam44625.htm |date=March 4, 2016 }}
* [http://www.depauw.edu/news-media/latest-news/details/31578/ Ubben Lecture at DePauw University; March 31, 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402161823/http://www.depauw.edu/news-media/latest-news/details/31578/ |date=April 2, 2015 }}

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|us-hs}}
{{s-bef|before=[[J. Edward Roush|Edward Roush]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[List of United States representatives from Indiana|U.S. House of Representatives]] from [[Indiana's 4th congressional district]]|years=1977–1981}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Dan Coats]]}}
|-
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Richard Lugar|Dick Lugar]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] nominee for [[List of United States senators from Indiana|U.S. Senator]] from [[Indiana]] ([[Classes of United States senators|Class 3]])|years=[[United States Senate election in Indiana, 1980|1980]], [[United States Senate election in Indiana, 1986|1986]]}}
{{s-aft|after=Dan Coats}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[George H. W. Bush]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|nominee]] for Vice President of the United States|years=[[1988 United States presidential election|1988]], [[1992 United States presidential election|1992]]}}
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{{s-par|us-sen}}
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{{s-ttl|title=[[List of United States senators from Indiana|United States Senator (Class 3) from Indiana]]|years=1981–1989|alongside=Richard Lugar}}
{{s-aft|after=Dan Coats}}
|-
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=George H. W. Bush}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Vice President of the United States]]|years=1989–1993}}
{{s-aft|after=Al Gore}}
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{{Dan Quayle}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Quayle, Dan}}
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James A. Garfield

2024-10-17T21:29:36Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding infobox to Presidency section.

{{Short description|President of the United States in 1881}}
{{Redirect|James Garfield}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Use American English|date=October 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = James A. Garfield
| image = James Abram Garfield, photo portrait seated (cropped)(2).jpg
| caption = Garfield in 1881
| alt = Garfield wears a double breasted suit and has a full beard and receding hairline
| order = 20th
| office = President of the United States
| vicepresident = Chester A. Arthur
| term = March 4, 1881{{snd}}September 19, 1881
| predecessor = [[Rutherford B. Hayes]]
| successor = [[Chester A. Arthur]]
| state1 = [[Ohio]]
| district1 = {{Ushr|OH|19|19th}}
| term_start1 = March 4, 1863
| term_end1 = November 8, 1880
| predecessor1 = [[Albert G. Riddle]]
| successor1 = [[Ezra B. Taylor]]
| state_senate2 = Ohio
| district2 = [[Ohio's 26th senatorial district|26th]]
| term_start2 = January 2, 1860
| term_end2 = August 21, 1861
| predecessor2 = [[George P. Ashmun]]
| successor2 = Lucius V. Bierce
| birth_name = James Abram Garfield
| birth_date = {{birth date|1831|11|19}}
| birth_place = [[Moreland Hills, Ohio]], U.S.
| death_date = {{death date and age|1881|09|19|1831|11|19}}
| death_place = [[Elberon, New Jersey]], U.S.
| death_cause = Massive infection including [[sepsis]] and [[pneumonia]], after [[Assassination of James A. Garfield|being shot]]
| resting_place = [[James A. Garfield Memorial]]
| party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Lucretia Garfield|Lucretia Rudolph]]|November 11, 1858}}
| children = 7, including [[Harry Augustus Garfield|Hal]], [[James Rudolph Garfield|James]], {{awrap|and [[Abram Garfield|Abram]]}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Politician|lawyer|amateur mathematician}}
| education = {{plainlist|
* [[Hiram College]]
* [[Williams College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])
}}
| signature = James Abram Garfield Signature.svg
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
| allegiance = [[Union (American Civil War)|United States]]
| branch = [[Union Army]]
| serviceyears = 1861–1863
| rank = [[Major general (United States)|Major general]]
| commands = {{Indented plainlist|
* [[42nd Ohio Infantry|42nd Ohio Volunteer Infantry]]
* 20th Brigade, 6th Division, [[Army of the Ohio]]
}}
| battles = {{tree list}}
* [[American Civil War]]
** [[Battle of Middle Creek]]
** [[Battle of Shiloh]]
** [[Siege of Corinth]]
** [[Tullahoma Campaign]]
** [[Battle of Chickamauga]]
{{tree list/end}}
| footnotes = {{collapsible list
| title = U.S. House committee chairmanships
| titlestyle = background:lavender;text-align:left;
| bullets = on
| 1871–1875 = [[United States House Committee on Appropriations|Appropriations]]
| 1869–1871 = [[United States House Committee on Financial Services|Financial Services]]
| 1867–1869 = [[United States House Committee on Armed Services|Military Affairs]]
}}
}}

'''James Abram Garfield''' (November 19, 1831 – September 19, 1881) was the 20th [[president of the United States]], serving from March 1881 until [[Assassination of James A. Garfield|his assassination]] in September that year. A preacher, lawyer, and [[American Civil War|Civil War]] general, Garfield served nine terms in the [[United States House of Representatives]] and is the only sitting member of the House to be elected president. Before his candidacy for the presidency, he had been elected to the [[U.S. Senate]] by the [[Ohio General Assembly]]{{Emdash}}a position he declined when he became [[President-elect of the United States|president-elect]].

Garfield was born into poverty in a log cabin and grew up in [[Northeast Ohio|northeastern Ohio]]. After graduating from [[Williams College]], he studied law and became an attorney. He was a preacher in the [[Stone–Campbell Movement]] and president of the [[Western Reserve Eclectic Institute]], affiliated with the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)|Disciples]].<ref>{{cite thesis |first=Jerry Bryant |last=Rushford |title=Political Disciple: The Relationship Between James A. Garfield and the Disciples of Christ |type=PhD |publisher=University of California, Santa Barbara |series=''Churches of Christ Heritage Collection''. Item 7 |date=August 1977 |url=https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/heritage_center/7/ |access-date=December 17, 2022 }}</ref>{{efn|Divisions in the Stone-Campbell Movement were not recognized until the 20th Century. The names Christian Church, Church of Christ, and Disciples of Christ were used interchangeably until then.{{sfn|McAlister|Tucker|1975|p=252}} }} Garfield was elected as a [[History of the Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] member of the [[Ohio State Senate]] in 1859, serving until 1861. He opposed [[Confederate States of America|Confederate secession]], was a [[Major general (United States)|major general]] in the [[Union Army]] during the American Civil War, and fought in the battles of [[Battle of Middle Creek|Middle Creek]], [[Battle of Shiloh|Shiloh]], and [[Battle of Chickamauga|Chickamauga]]. He was elected to Congress in 1862 to represent [[Ohio's 19th congressional district|Ohio's 19th district]]. Throughout his congressional service, he firmly supported the [[gold standard]] and gained a reputation as a skilled orator. He initially agreed with [[Radical Republican]] views on [[Reconstruction era|Reconstruction]] but later favored a [[Moderate Republicans (Reconstruction era)|Moderate Republican]]–aligned approach to civil rights enforcement for [[freedmen]]. Garfield's aptitude for mathematics extended to [[Garfield's proof of the Pythagorean theorem|his own proof]] of the [[Pythagorean theorem]], which he published in 1876.

At the [[1880 Republican National Convention]], delegates chose Garfield, who had not sought the White House, as a compromise presidential nominee on the 36th ballot. In the [[1880 United States presidential election|1880 presidential election]], he conducted a low-key [[front porch campaign]] and narrowly defeated the Democratic nominee, [[Winfield Scott Hancock]]. Garfield's accomplishments as president included his assertion of presidential authority against [[senatorial courtesy]] in executive appointments, a purge of corruption in the [[United States Post Office Department|Post Office]], and his appointment of a Supreme Court justice. He advocated for [[agricultural technology]], an educated electorate, and [[Civil rights movement (1865–1896)|civil rights for African Americans]]. He also proposed substantial [[Civil service reform in the United States|civil service reforms]], which were passed by Congress in 1883 as the [[Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act]] and signed into law by his successor, [[Chester A. Arthur]].

Garfield was a member of the intraparty "[[Half-Breeds (politics)|Half-Breed]]" faction who used the powers of the presidency to defy the powerful "[[Stalwarts (politics)|Stalwart]]" Senator [[Roscoe Conkling]] from New York. He did this by appointing [[Blaine faction]] leader [[William H. Robertson]] to the lucrative post of [[Collector of the Port of New York]]. The ensuing political battle resulted in Robertson's confirmation and the resignations of Conkling and [[Thomas C. Platt]] from the Senate.

On July 2, 1881, [[Charles J. Guiteau]], a disappointed and delusional [[Spoils system|office seeker]], shot Garfield at the [[Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station]] in Washington. The wound was not immediately fatal, but an [[Iatrogenesis|infection caused by his doctors' unsanitary methods]] in treating the wound killed Garfield on September 19. Due to his brief tenure in office, historians tend to [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|rank Garfield]] as a below-average president, though he has earned praise for anti-corruption and pro-civil rights stances.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Total Scores/Overall Rankings {{!}} C-SPAN Survey on Presidents 2021 {{!}} C-SPAN.org |url=https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2021/?page=overall |access-date=February 16, 2024 |website=www.c-span.org}}</ref>

==Childhood and early life==
[[File:MorelandHillsGarfieldCabin.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A log cabin with a statue and a tree in front|Replica of the [[log cabin]] in [[Moreland Hills, Ohio]], where Garfield was born]]
James Abram Garfield was born the youngest of five children on November 19, 1831, in a log cabin in [[Orange Township, Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Orange Township]], now [[Moreland Hills, Ohio]].{{efn|Orange Township had been in the [[Western Reserve]] until 1800.}} Garfield's ancestor Edward Garfield migrated from [[Hillmorton]], [[Warwickshire]], England, to Massachusetts around 1630. James's father Abram was born in [[Worcester, New York]], and came to Ohio to woo his childhood sweetheart, Mehitabel Ballou, only to find her married. He instead wed her sister Eliza, who was born in New Hampshire. James was named after an earlier son of Eliza and Abram who had died in infancy.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=4–6}}

In early 1833, Abram and Eliza Garfield joined a Stone-Campbell church, a decision that influenced their youngest son's life.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=6–7}} Abram died later that year, and James was raised in poverty in a household led by his strong-willed mother.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=8–10}} He was her favorite child and the two remained close for the rest of his life.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=4}} Eliza remarried in 1842, but soon left her second husband, Warren (or Alfred) Belden, and a scandalous divorce was awarded in 1850. James took his mother's side in the matter and noted Belden's 1880 death with satisfaction in his diary.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=10–11}} Garfield also enjoyed his mother's stories about his ancestry, especially those about his [[Welsh people|Welsh]] great-great-grandfathers and an ancestor who served as a knight of [[Caerphilly Castle]].{{sfn|Brown|1881|p=23}}

Poor and fatherless, Garfield was mocked by his peers and became sensitive to slights throughout his life; he sought escape through voracious reading.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=10–11}} He left home at age 16 in 1847 and was rejected for work on the only ship in port in [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]]. Garfield instead found work on a canal boat, managing the mules that pulled it.{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=30–33}} [[Horatio Alger]] later used this labor to good effect when he wrote Garfield's campaign biography in 1880.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=10}}

After six weeks, illness forced Garfield to return home, and during his recuperation, his mother and a local school official secured his promise to forgo canal work for a year of school. In 1848, he began at [[Geauga Seminary]], in nearby [[Chester Township, Geauga County, Ohio]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=14–17}} Garfield later said of his childhood, "I lament that I was born to poverty, and in this chaos of childhood, seventeen years passed before I caught any inspiration{{spaces}}... a precious 17 years when a boy with a father and some wealth might have become fixed in manly ways."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=13}}

==Education, marriage and early career==
[[File:Garfield-at-16.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=An unsmiling young man with curly hair wearing a three piece suit|Garfield at age 16]]

Garfield attended Geauga Seminary from 1848 to 1850 and learned academic subjects for which he had not previously had time. He excelled as a student and was especially interested in languages and elocution. He began to appreciate the power a speaker had over an audience, writing that the speaker's platform "creates some excitement. I love agitation and investigation and glory in defending unpopular truth against popular error."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=6}} Geauga was coeducational, and Garfield was attracted to one of his classmates, [[Lucretia Garfield|Lucretia Rudolph]], whom he later married.{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=71–73}} To support himself at Geauga, he worked as a carpenter's assistant and teacher.{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=47–49}} The need to go from town to town to find work as a teacher aggravated Garfield, and he developed a dislike of what he called "place-seeking", which became, he said, "the law of my life."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=16}} In later years, he astounded his friends by disregarding positions that could have been his with little politicking.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=16}} Garfield had attended church more to please his mother than to worship God, but in his late teens he underwent a religious awakening. He attended many [[camp meeting]]s, which led to his being [[Born again (Christianity)|born again]] on March 4, 1850, when he was baptized into Christ by being submerged in the icy waters of the [[Chagrin River]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=17}}

After he left Geauga, Garfield worked for a year at various jobs, including teaching jobs.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=21}} Finding that some New Englanders worked their way through college, Garfield determined to do the same and sought a school that could prepare him for the entrance examinations. From 1851 to 1854, he attended the [[Western Reserve Eclectic Institute]] (later named [[Hiram College]]) in [[Hiram, Ohio]], a school founded by and still affiliated with the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]]. While there, he was most interested in the study of Greek and Latin but was inclined to learn about and discuss any new thing he encountered.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=27–28}} Securing a position on entry as [[janitor]], he obtained a teaching position while he was still a student there.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=22–23}} [[Lucretia Rudolph]] also enrolled at the Institute and Garfield wooed her while teaching her Greek.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=29}} He developed a regular preaching circuit at neighboring churches and, in some cases, earned one [[gold dollar]] per service. By 1854, Garfield had learned all the Institute could teach him and was a full-time teacher.{{sfnm|Brown|1881|1p=56|Peskin|1978|2p=30}} Garfield then enrolled at [[Williams College]] in [[Williamstown, Massachusetts]], as a [[Junior (education year)|third-year student]]; he received credit for two years' study at the Institute after passing a cursory examination. Garfield was also impressed with the college president, [[Mark Hopkins (educator)|Mark Hopkins]], who had responded warmly to Garfield's letter inquiring about admission. He said of Hopkins, "The ideal college is Mark Hopkins on one end of a log with a student on the other."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=34}} Hopkins later said of Garfield in his student days, "There was a large general capacity applicable to any subject. There was no pretense of genius, or alternation of spasmodic effort, but a satisfactory accomplishment in all directions."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=8}} After his first term, Garfield was hired to teach penmanship to the students of nearby [[Pownal, Vermont]], a post [[Chester A. Arthur]] previously held.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=8}}
[[File:Lucretia Garfield - Brady-Handy.jpg|thumb|right|upright=.75|[[Lucretia Garfield]] in the 1870s]]
Garfield graduated [[Phi Beta Kappa]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbk.org/presidents |title=Phi Beta Kappa Presidents |publisher=PBK |access-date=April 3, 2020 |archive-date=November 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201118101012/https://www.pbk.org/presidents |url-status=live }}</ref> from Williams in August 1856, was named [[salutatorian]], and spoke at the [[Graduation|commencement]]. His biographer Ira Rutkow writes that Garfield's years at Williams gave him the opportunity to know and respect those of different social backgrounds, and that, despite his origin as an unsophisticated Westerner, socially conscious New Englanders liked and respected him. "In short," Rutkow writes, "Garfield had an extensive and positive first experience with the world outside the Western Reserve of Ohio."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=8}}

Upon his return to Ohio, the degree from a prestigious Eastern college made Garfield a man of distinction. He returned to Hiram to teach at the Institute and in 1857 was made its principal, though he did not see education as a field that would realize his full potential. The [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]] atmosphere at Williams had enlightened him politically, after which he began to consider politics as a career.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=11}} He campaigned for Republican presidential candidate [[John C. Frémont]] in 1856.<ref>{{cite web|last=Doenecke|first=Justus|url=https://millercenter.org/president/garfield/life-before-the-presidency|title=James Garfield: Life Before the Presidency|date=October 4, 2016|publisher=UVA Miller Center|access-date=December 18, 2021|archive-date=December 18, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218194947/https://millercenter.org/president/garfield/life-before-the-presidency|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1858, he married Lucretia, and they had seven children, five of whom survived infancy.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=44}} Soon after the wedding, he registered to [[read law]] at the office of attorney [[Albert Gallatin Riddle]] in Cleveland, though he did his studying in Hiram.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Manuscript Division, Library of Congress Collection Summary Title: James A. Garfield Papers Span Dates: 1775–1889 Bulk Dates: (bulk 1850–1881) ID No.: MSS291956|url=http://memory.loc.gov/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2008/ms008147.pdf|journal=Library of Congress|access-date=December 31, 2019|archive-date=September 25, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925165541/http://memory.loc.gov/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2008/ms008147.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=74–75}} He was admitted to the bar in 1861.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=82}}

Local [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] leaders invited Garfield to enter politics upon the death of Cyrus Prentiss, the presumptive nominee for the local state senate seat. He was nominated at the party convention on the sixth ballot and was elected, serving from 1860 to 1861.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=60–61}} Garfield's major effort in the state senate was an unsuccessful bill providing for Ohio's first [[geological survey]] to measure its mineral resources.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=73}}

==Civil War==
[[File:General James Garfield - Brady-Handy.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Seated portrait in army uniform. Garfield has a full beard and mustache|Garfield as a brigadier general during the Civil War]]
After [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s election as president, several Southern states announced their [[Secession in the United States|secession]] from the Union to form a new government, the [[Confederate States of America]]. Garfield read military texts while anxiously awaiting the war effort, which he regarded as a holy crusade against the [[Slave Power]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp = 86–87}} In April 1861, the rebels [[Battle of Fort Sumter|bombarded Fort Sumter]], one of the South's last federal outposts, beginning the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. Although he had no military training, Garfield knew his place was in the Union Army.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=86–87}}

At Governor [[William Dennison Jr.|William Dennison's]] request, Garfield deferred his military ambitions to remain in the legislature, where he helped appropriate the funds to raise and equip Ohio's volunteer regiments.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=87–89}} When the legislature adjourned Garfield spent the spring and early summer on a speaking tour of northeastern Ohio, encouraging enlistment in the new regiments.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=87–89}} Following a trip to Illinois to purchase muskets, Garfield returned to Ohio and, in August 1861, received a commission as a [[Colonel (United States)|colonel]] in the [[42nd Ohio Infantry]] regiment.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=90–93}} The 42nd Ohio existed only on paper, so Garfield's first task was to fill its ranks. He did so quickly, recruiting many of his neighbors and former students.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=90–93}} The regiment traveled to [[Camp Chase]], outside [[Columbus, Ohio]], to complete training.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=90–93}} In December, Garfield was ordered to bring the 42nd to Kentucky, where they joined the [[Army of the Ohio]] under [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadier General]] [[Don Carlos Buell]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=98–101}}

===Buell's command===
Buell quickly assigned Garfield the task of driving Confederate forces out of eastern Kentucky, giving him the 18th Brigade for the campaign, which, besides his own 42nd, included the [[40th Ohio Infantry]], two Kentucky infantry regiments and two cavalry units.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=101–103}} They departed [[Catlettsburg, Kentucky]], in mid-December, advancing through the valley of the [[Big Sandy River (Ohio River)|Big Sandy River]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=101–103}} The march was uneventful until Union forces reached [[Paintsville, Kentucky]], on January 6, 1862, where Garfield's cavalry engaged the rebels at Jenny's Creek.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=106–112}} Confederate troops under Brigadier General [[Humphrey Marshall (general)|Humphrey Marshall]] held the town in numbers roughly equal to Garfield's own, but Garfield positioned his troops so as to deceive Marshall into believing the rebels were outnumbered.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=106–112}} Marshall ordered his troops to withdraw to the forks of Middle Creek, on the road to Virginia, and Garfield ordered his troops to take up the pursuit.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=112–115}} They attacked the rebel positions on January 9, 1862, in the [[Battle of Middle Creek]], the only pitched battle Garfield commanded personally.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=76–78}} At the fighting's end, the Confederates withdrew from the field and Garfield sent his troops to [[Prestonsburg, Kentucky|Prestonsburg]] to reprovision.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=116–120}}

[[File:Middle Creek Battlefield.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Middle Creek battlefield. Garfield commanded from the distant hill in the center of the photo.]]
In recognition of his success, Garfield was promoted to brigadier general.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=128}} After Marshall's retreat, Garfield's command was the sole remaining Union force in eastern Kentucky and he announced that any men who had fought for the Confederacy would be granted amnesty if they returned to their homes, lived peaceably, and remained loyal to the Union.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=122–127}} The proclamation was surprisingly lenient, as Garfield now believed the war was a crusade for eradication of slavery.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=122–127}} Following a brief skirmish at [[Pound Gap]], the last rebel units in the area were outflanked and retreated to Virginia.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=81–82}}

Garfield's promotion gave him command of the 20th Brigade of the Army of the Ohio, which received orders to join [[Major general (United States)|Major General]] [[Ulysses S. Grant]]'s forces as they advanced on [[Corinth, Mississippi]], in early 1862.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=131–133}} Before the 20th Brigade arrived, however, Confederate forces under General [[Albert Sidney Johnston]] surprised Grant's men in their camps, driving them back.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=134–135}} Garfield's troops received word of the battle and advanced quickly, joining the rest of the army on the second day to drive the Confederates back across the field and into retreat.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=135–137}} The action, later known as the [[Battle of Shiloh]], was the bloodiest of the war to date; Garfield was exposed to fire for much of the day, but emerged uninjured.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=135–137}} Major General [[Henry W. Halleck]], Grant's superior, took charge of the combined armies and advanced ponderously toward Corinth; when they arrived, the Confederates had fled.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=138–139}}

That summer, Garfield suffered from [[jaundice]] and significant weight loss.{{efn|Biographer Allan Peskin speculated that he may have had [[infectious hepatitis]] instead.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=632–633}}}}{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=146–147}} He was forced to return home, where his wife nursed him back to health.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=146–147}} While he was home, Garfield's friends worked to gain him the Republican nomination for Congress, but he refused to campaign with the delegates.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=147–148}} He returned to military duty that autumn and went to Washington to await his next assignment.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=149–151}} During this period of idleness, a rumor of an extramarital affair caused friction in the Garfields' marriage until Lucretia eventually chose to overlook it.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=160–161}} Garfield repeatedly received tentative assignments that were quickly withdrawn, to his frustration.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=161–162}} In the meantime, he served on the [[court-martial of Fitz John Porter]] for his tardiness at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=162–165}} He was convinced of Porter's guilt and voted with his fellow generals to convict Porter.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=162–165}} The trial lasted almost two months, from November 1862 to January 1863, and, by its end, Garfield had procured an assignment as chief of staff to Major General [[William S. Rosecrans]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=166}}

===Chief of staff for Rosecrans===
[[File:GenWmSRosecrans.jpg|thumb|upright|General [[William S. Rosecrans]]]]
Generals' chiefs of staff were usually more junior officers, but Garfield's influence with Rosecrans was greater than usual, with duties extending beyond communication of orders to actual management of his [[Army of the Cumberland]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=176}} Rosecrans had a voracious appetite for conversation, especially when unable to sleep; in Garfield, he found "the first well read person in the Army" and the ideal candidate for discussions that ran deep into the night.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=169}} They discussed everything, especially religion, and the two became close despite Garfield's being 12 years his junior. Rosecrans, who had converted from [[Methodism]] to [[Roman Catholicism]], softened Garfield's view of his faith.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=170}}

Garfield recommended that Rosecrans replace wing commanders [[Alexander McCook]] and [[Thomas Leonidas Crittenden|Thomas Crittenden]], as he believed they were ineffective, but Rosecrans ignored the suggestion.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=177}} With Rosecrans, Garfield devised the [[Tullahoma Campaign]] to pursue and trap Confederate General [[Braxton Bragg]] in [[Tullahoma]]. After initial Union success, Bragg retreated toward [[Chattanooga]], where Rosecrans stalled and requested more troops and supplies.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=180–182}} Garfield argued for an immediate advance, in line with demands from Halleck and Lincoln.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=180–182}} After a council of war and lengthy deliberations, Rosecrans agreed to attack.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=183–189}}

At the ensuing [[Battle of Chickamauga]] on September 19 and 20, 1863, confusion among the wing commanders over Rosecrans's orders created a gap in the lines, resulting in a rout of the right flank. Rosecrans concluded that the battle was lost and fell back on Chattanooga to establish a defensive line.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=205–208}} Garfield, however, thought part of the army had held and, with Rosecrans's approval, headed across [[Missionary Ridge]] to survey the scene. Garfield's hunch was correct.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=205–208}} Consequently, his ride became legendary and Rosecrans's error reignited criticism about the latter's leadership.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=205–208}} While Rosecrans's army had avoided disaster, they were stranded in Chattanooga, surrounded by Bragg's army. Garfield sent a telegram to Secretary of War [[Edwin M. Stanton]] alerting Washington to the need for reinforcements to avoid annihilation. Lincoln and Halleck responded to the request for reinforcements by sending 20,000 troops to Garfield by rail within nine days.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=210}} In the meantime, Grant was promoted to command of the western armies and quickly replaced Rosecrans with [[George H. Thomas]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=213}} Garfield was ordered to report to Washington, where he was promoted to major general.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=219–220}} According to historian [[Jean Edward Smith]], Grant and Garfield had a "guarded relationship" since Grant promoted Thomas, rather than Garfield, to command of the Army of the Cumberland after Rosecrans's dismissal.{{sfn|Smith|2001|pp=550–551}}

==Congressional career==

===Election in 1862; Civil War years===
[[File:Mathew Brady, Portrait of Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase, officer of the United States government (1860–1865).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Salmon P. Chase]] was Garfield's ally until Andrew Johnson's impeachment trial.]]

While he served in the Army in early 1862, friends of Garfield approached him about running for Congress from Ohio's newly redrawn and heavily Republican [[Ohio's 19th congressional district|19th district]]. He worried that he and other state-appointed generals would receive obscure assignments, and running for Congress would allow him to resume his political career. That the new Congress would not hold its first regular session until December 1863 allowed him to continue his war service for a time.{{efn|Until the ratification of the Twentieth Amendment in 1933, Congress convened annually in December.}} Home on medical leave, he refused to campaign for the nomination, leaving that to political managers who secured it at the local convention in September 1862 on the eighth ballot. In the October general election, he defeated D.B. Woods by a two-to-one margin for a seat in the [[38th United States Congress|38th Congress]].{{sfnm|Rutkow|2006|1p=17|Peskin|1978|2p=148}}

Days before his Congressional term began, Garfield lost his eldest daughter, three-year-old Eliza, and became anxious and conflicted, saying his "desolation of heart" might require his return to "the wild life of the army."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=219}} He also assumed that the war would end before his joining the House, but it had not, and he felt strongly that he belonged in the field, rather than in Congress. He also thought he could expect a favorable command, so he decided to see President Lincoln. During their meeting, Lincoln recommended he take his House seat, as there was an excess of generals and a shortage of administration congressmen, especially those with knowledge of military affairs. Garfield accepted this recommendation and resigned his military commission to do so.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=219}}

Garfield met and befriended Treasury Secretary [[Salmon P. Chase]], who saw Garfield as a younger version of himself. The two agreed politically and both were part of the [[Radical Republican|Radical]] wing of the Republican Party.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=18}} Once he took his seat in December 1863, Garfield was frustrated at Lincoln's reluctance to press the South hard. Many radicals, led in the House by Pennsylvania's [[Thaddeus Stevens]], wanted rebel-owned lands confiscated, but Lincoln threatened to veto any bill that proposed to do so on a widespread basis. In debate on the House floor, Garfield supported such legislation and, discussing England's [[Glorious Revolution]], hinted that Lincoln might be thrown out of office for resisting it.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=139–142}} Garfield had supported Lincoln's [[Emancipation Proclamation]] and marveled at the "strange phenomenon in the world's history, when a second-rate Illinois lawyer is the instrument to utter words which shall form an epoch memorable in all future ages."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|pp=25–26}}

Garfield not only favored the [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolition of slavery]], but also believed the leaders of the rebellion had forfeited their constitutional rights. He supported the confiscation of Southern plantations and even exile or execution of rebellion leaders as a means to ensure a permanent end to slavery.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=233}} Garfield felt Congress had an obligation "to determine what legislation is necessary to secure equal justice to all loyal persons, without regard to color."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=234}} He was more supportive of Lincoln when he took action against slavery.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=152}}

Garfield showed leadership early in his congressional career; he was initially the only Republican vote to terminate the use of bounties in military recruiting. Some financially able recruits had used the bounty system to buy their way out of service (called commutation), which Garfield considered reprehensible.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=224}} He gave a speech pointing out the flaws in the existing conscription law: 300,000 recruits had been called upon to enlist, but barely 10,000 had done so, with the remainder claiming exemption, providing money, or recruiting a substitute. Lincoln appeared before the Military Affairs committee on which Garfield served, demanding a more effective bill; even if it cost him reelection, Lincoln was confident he could win the war before his term expired.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=145–147}} After many false starts, Garfield, with Lincoln's support, procured the passage of a conscription bill that excluded commutation.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=232}}

Under Chase's influence, Garfield became a staunch proponent of a dollar backed by a [[gold standard]], and strongly opposed the "[[Greenback (money)|greenback]]". He also accepted the necessity of [[Specie Payment Resumption Act|suspension of payment in gold or silver]] during the Civil War with strong reluctance.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=156}} He voted with the Radical Republicans in passing the [[Wade–Davis Bill]], designed to give Congress more authority over [[Reconstruction Era of the United States|Reconstruction]], but Lincoln defeated it with a [[pocket veto]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=241}}

Garfield did not consider Lincoln very worthy of reelection, but there seemed to be no viable alternative. "He will probably be the man, though I think we could do better", he said.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|pp=25–26}} Garfield attended [[1864 National Union National Convention|the party convention]] and promoted Rosecrans as Lincoln's running mate, but delegates chose Military Governor of Tennessee [[Andrew Johnson]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=240}} Lincoln was reelected, as was Garfield.{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=134–137}} By then, Chase had left the Cabinet and been appointed [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]], and his relations with Garfield became more distant.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=153}}

Garfield took up the practice of law in 1865 to improve his personal finances. His efforts took him to Wall Street where, the day after Lincoln's assassination, a riotous crowd drew him into an impromptu speech to calm their passions: "Fellow citizens! Clouds and darkness are round about Him! His pavilion is dark waters and thick clouds of the skies! Justice and judgment are the establishment of His throne! Mercy and truth shall go before His face! Fellow citizens! God reigns, and the Government at Washington still lives!"{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=250}} The speech, with no mention or praise of Lincoln, was, according to Garfield biographer Robert G. Caldwell, "quite as significant for what it did not contain as for what it did."{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=154–155}} In the following years, Garfield had more praise for Lincoln; a year after Lincoln's death, Garfield said, "Greatest among all these developments were the character and fame of Abraham Lincoln," and in 1878 he called Lincoln "one of the few great rulers whose wisdom increased with his power".{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=155–156}}

When in Washington, Garfield attended Vermont Avenue Christian Church, which later became [[National City Christian Church]], a building constructed and funded by the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)|Disciples]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rushford |first=Jerry B. |title=The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ |date=2004 |publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans]] |isbn=978-0-8028-3898-8 |editor-last=Foster |editor-first=Douglas A. |editor-link=Douglas A. Foster |location=Grand Rapids, MI |language=en-us |chapter=James Abram Garfield (1831–1881) |editor-last2=Blowers |editor-first2=Paul M. |editor-last3=Dunnavant |editor-first3=Anthony L. |editor-last4=Williams |editor-first4=D. Newell}}</ref>

===Reconstruction===
In 1864, the U.S. Senate passed the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]], which abolished slavery throughout the Union. The bill failed to pass the House by a two-thirds majority until January 31, 1865, when it was then sent to the states for ratification. The Amendment opened other issues concerning [[African American]] civil rights. Garfield asked, "[What] is freedom? Is it the bare privilege of not being chained?...If this is all, then freedom is a bitter mockery, a cruel delusion."{{sfn|Foner|2014|p=66}}{{efn|On June 13, 1868, the House passed the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|14th Amendment]] that gave [[African Americans]] U.S. citizenship.{{sfn|Foner|2014|pp=253-254}}}}

Garfield supported [[black suffrage]] as firmly as he supported abolition.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=47–48}} President Johnson sought the rapid restoration of the Southern states during the months between his accession and the meeting of Congress in December 1865; Garfield hesitantly supported this policy as an experiment. Johnson, an old friend, sought Garfield's backing and their conversations led Garfield to assume Johnson's differences with Congress were not large. When Congress assembled in December (to Johnson's chagrin, without the elected representatives of the Southern states, who were excluded), Garfield urged conciliation on his colleagues, although he feared that Johnson, a former Democrat, might join other Democrats to gain political control. Garfield foresaw conflict even before February 1866, when Johnson vetoed a bill to extend the life of the [[Freedmen's Bureau]], charged with aiding the former slaves. By April, Garfield had concluded that Johnson was either "crazy or drunk with opium."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=279}}
[[File:Garfield Monument1.JPG|thumb|upright=.75|alt=A black statue of Garfield atop an elaborate pillar. The United States Capitol rotunda is visible in the background.|[[James A. Garfield Monument|Garfield Monument]], by the Capitol, where he served almost twenty years]]

The conflict between Congress and President Johnson was the major issue of the 1866 campaign, with Johnson taking to the campaign trail in a [[Swing Around the Circle]] and Garfield facing opposition within the Republican party in his home district. With the South still disenfranchised and Northern public opinion behind the Republicans, they gained a two-thirds majority in both houses of Congress. Garfield, having overcome his challengers at the district nominating convention, won reelection easily.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=170–172}}

Garfield opposed the [[Efforts to impeach Andrew Johnson|proposed impeachment of Johnson]] initially when Congress convened in December 1866, but supported legislation to limit Johnson's powers, such as the [[Tenure of Office Act (1867)|Tenure of Office Act]], which restricted Johnson's ability to remove presidential appointees.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=278}} Distracted by committee duties, Garfield spoke about these bills rarely, but was a loyal Republican vote against Johnson.{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=173–174|Peskin|1978|2pp=287–289}}

On January 7, 1867, Garfield voted in support of the resolution that launched [[first impeachment inquiry against Andrew Johnson|the first impeachment inquiry against Johnson]] (run by the [[House Committee on the Judiciary]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=To Pass a Resolution to Impeach the President. (P. 320-2, ... – House Vote #418 – Jan 7, 1867 |url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/39-2/h418 |website=GovTrack.us |access-date=March 23, 2022 |language=en}}</ref> On December 7, 1867, he voted against the unsuccessful resolution to impeach Johnson that the House Committee on the Judiciary had sent the full House.<ref>{{cite web |title=To Pass the Impeachment of President Resolution. – House Vote #119 – Dec 7, 1867 |url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/40-2/h119 |website=GovTrack.us |language=en}}</ref> On January 27, 1868, he voted to pass the resolution that authorized the [[Second impeachment inquiry against Andrew Johnson|second impeachment inquiry against Johnson]] (run by the [[House Select Committee on Reconstruction]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=Journal of the United States House of Representatives (40th Congress, second session) pages 259–262 |url=https://voteview.com/source_images/house_journal/66/0#page/259/mode/2up |website=voteview.com |publisher=United States House of Representatives |access-date=March 16, 2022 |date=1868}}</ref> Due to a court case, he was absent on February 24, 1868, [[Impeachment of Andrew Johnson|when the House impeached Johnson]], but gave a speech aligning himself with Thaddeus Stevens and others who sought Johnson's removal shortly thereafter.{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=173–174|Peskin|1978|2pp=287–289}} Garfield was present on March 2 and 3, 1868, when the House voted on specific articles of impeachment, and voted in support of all 11 articles.<ref>{{cite web |title=Journal of the United States House of Representatives (40th Congress, Second Session) pages 440–450 and 463–467 |url=https://voteview.com/source_images/house_journal/66/0#page/439/mode/2up |website=voteview.com |access-date=March 17, 2022}}</ref> During the March 2 debate on the articles, Garfield argued that what he characterized as Johnson's attempts to render [[Ulysses S. Grant]], [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], and [[William H. Emory]] personal tools of his demonstrated Johnson's intent to disregard the law and override the Constitution, suggesting that Johnson's trial perhaps could be expedited to last only a day in order to hasten his removal.<ref>{{cite web |title=Congressional. |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/118145556 |publisher=Detroit Free Press |via=Newspapers.com |access-date=July 26, 2022 |language=en |url-access=subscription |date=March 3, 1868}}</ref> When Johnson was acquitted in [[Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson|his trial before the Senate]], Garfield was shocked and blamed the outcome on the trial's presiding officer, Chief Justice Chase, his onetime mentor.{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=173–174|Peskin|1978|2pp=287–289}}

By the time Grant succeeded Johnson in 1869, Garfield had moved away from the remaining radicals (Stevens, their leader, had died in 1868). By this time, many in the Republican Party wanted to remove the "Negro question" from national affairs.{{sfn|Foner|2014|p=449}} Garfield hailed the ratification of the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|15th Amendment]] in 1870 as a triumph and favored Georgia's readmission to the Union as a matter of right, not politics. An influential Republican, Garfield said, "[The] Fifteen Amendment confers on the African race the care of its own destiny. It places their fortunes in their own hands."{{sfn|Foner|2014|p=449}} In 1871, Congress took up the [[Ku Klux Klan Act]], which was designed to combat attacks on African Americans' suffrage rights. Garfield opposed the act, saying, "I have never been more perplexed by a piece of legislation." He was torn between his indignation at the Klan, whom he called "terrorists", and his concern for the power given the president to enforce the act through suspension of [[habeas corpus]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=332–334}}

===Tariffs and finance===
[[File:US-$1-LT-1862-Fr-16c.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|The greenback despised by Garfield]]
Throughout his political career, Garfield favored the gold standard and decried attempts to increase the money supply through the issuance of paper money not backed by gold, and later, through the [[free silver|free and unlimited coinage of silver]].{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=205–218}} In 1865, he was put on the [[United States House Committee on Ways and Means|House Ways and Means Committee]], a long-awaited opportunity to focus on financial and economic issues. He reprised his opposition to the greenback, saying, "Any party which commits itself to paper money will go down amid the general disaster, covered with the curses of a ruined people."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=261}} In 1868 Garfield gave a two-hour speech on currency in the House, which was widely applauded as his best oratory to that point; in it, he advocated a gradual resumption of specie payments, that is, the government paying out silver and gold, rather than paper money that could not be redeemed.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=268}}

Tariffs had been raised to high levels during the Civil War. Afterward, Garfield, who made a close study of financial affairs, advocated moving toward free trade, though the standard Republican position was a protective tariff that would allow American industries to grow. This break with his party likely cost him his place on the Ways and Means Committee in 1867, and though Republicans held the majority in the House until 1875, Garfield remained off that committee. Garfield came to chair the powerful [[House Appropriations Committee]], but it was Ways and Means, with its influence over fiscal policy, that he really wanted to lead.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|pp=31–32}} One reason he was denied a place on Ways and Means was the opposition of the influential Republican editor [[Horace Greeley]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=265, 327}}
[[File:Ulysses S Grant by Brady c1870-restored.jpg|thumb|right|150px|upright=0.8|alt=Photographic portrait of Grant|'''President U.S. Grant''' [[Mathew Brady]] ''1870'']]
Starting in January 1870, Garfield, then chairman of the [[House Banking Committee]], led an investigation into the [[Black Friday (1869)|Black Friday]] Gold Panic scandal.{{sfn|Calhoun|2017|p=146}} In 1869, during Grant's first term in office, two New York conspirators, [[Jay Gould]] and [[James Fisk (financier)|James Fisk]], launched a scheme to corner the gold market. The conspiracy was broken on Friday, September 24, 1869, when Grant and Treasury Secretary [[George Boutwell]] released gold into the market, causing widespread financial panic. During the investigation, rumors spread that Grant's family might have been involved. In order not to force Grant's wife to testify, Garfield had a private meeting with Grant at the White House. When Garfield showed Grant testimony about him and his family, Grant thanked Garfield but refused to read it or give a response.{{sfn|Calhoun|2017|pp=125, 146}} Grant personally resented Garfield for investigating Black Friday and his wife Julia concerning possible involvement in the scandal.{{sfn|Smith|2001|pp=550-551}}

Garfield's investigation and final majority report, released on September 12, 1870, were thorough but found no indictable offenses and exonerated Grant and Julia of wrongdoing.{{sfnm|Calhoun|2017|1p=146|Smith|2001|2pp=550-551}} Garfield thought the scandal was enabled by the greenbacks that financed the speculation.{{sfnm|McFeely|1981|1p=328|Peskin|1978|2p=311|Calhoun|2017|3p=146|Smith|2001|4pp=550-551}} Garfield was not at all enthused about President Grant's reelection in 1872—until Greeley, who emerged as the candidate of the Democrats and [[Liberal Republican Party (United States)|Liberal Republicans]], became the only serious alternative. Garfield said, "I would say Grant was not fit to be nominated and Greeley is not fit to be elected."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=350–351}} Both Grant and Garfield were overwhelmingly reelected.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=350–351}}

===Crédit Mobilier scandal; salary grab===
The [[Crédit Mobilier of America scandal]] involved corruption in the financing of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]], part of the [[transcontinental railroad]] which was completed in 1869. Union Pacific officers and directors secretly purchased control of the [[Crédit Mobilier of America]] company, then contracted with it to undertake construction of the railroad. The railroad paid the company's grossly inflated invoices with federal funds appropriated to subsidize the project, and the company was allowed to purchase Union Pacific securities at [[par value]], well below the market rate. Crédit Mobilier showed large profits and stock gains, and distributed substantial dividends. The high expenses meant Congress was called upon to appropriate more funds. One of the railroad officials who controlled Crédit Mobilier was also a congressman, [[Oakes Ames]] of [[Massachusetts]]. He offered some of his colleagues the opportunity to buy Crédit Mobilier stock at par value, well below what it sold for on the market, and the railroad got its additional appropriations.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=219}}

[[File:Keppler Credit Mobilier Hari-Kari.png|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Editorial cartoon: [[Uncle Sam]] directs U.S. Senators and Representatives implicated in the Crédit Mobilier scheme to commit [[Hara-Kiri]].]]

The story broke in July 1872, in the middle of the presidential campaign. Among those named were Vice President [[Schuyler Colfax]], Massachusetts Senator [[Henry Wilson]] (the Republican candidate for vice president), Speaker [[James G. Blaine]] of Maine, and Garfield. Greeley had little luck taking advantage of the scandal. When Congress reconvened after the election, Blaine, seeking to clear his name, demanded a House investigation. Evidence before the special committee exonerated Blaine. Garfield had said in September 1872 that Ames had offered him stock but he had repeatedly refused it. Testifying before the committee in January, Ames said he had offered Garfield ten shares of stock at par value, but that Garfield had never taken them or paid for them, though a year passed, from 1867 to 1868, before Garfield had finally refused. Appearing before the committee on January 14, 1873, Garfield confirmed much of this. Ames testified several weeks later that Garfield agreed to take the stock on credit, and that it was paid for by the company's huge dividends.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=224–226}} The two men differed over $300 that Garfield received and later paid back, with Garfield deeming it a loan and Ames a dividend.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=354–359}}

Garfield's biographers have been unwilling to exonerate him in the scandal. Allan Peskin writes, "Did Garfield lie? Not exactly. Did he tell the truth? Not completely. Was he corrupted? Not really. Even Garfield's enemies never claimed that his involvement in the affair influenced his behavior."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=362}} Rutkow writes, "Garfield's real offense was that he knowingly denied to the House investigating committee that he had agreed to accept the stock and that he had also received a dividend of $329."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=34}} Caldwell suggests Garfield "told the truth [before the committee, but] certainly failed to tell the whole truth, clearly evading an answer to certain vital questions and thus giving the impression of worse faults than those of which he was guilty."{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=230}} That Crédit Mobilier was a corrupt organization had been a badly kept secret, even mentioned on the floor of Congress, and editor Sam Bowles wrote at the time that Garfield, in his positions on committees dealing with finance, "had no more right to be ignorant in a matter of such grave importance as this, than the sentinel has to snore on his post."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=362}}

Another issue that caused Garfield trouble in his 1874 reelection bid was the so-called "[[Salary Grab Act|Salary Grab]]" of 1873, which increased the compensation for members of Congress by 50%, retroactive to 1871. As chairman of the Appropriations Committee, Garfield was responsible for shepherding the appropriations bill through the House; during the debate in February 1873, Massachusetts Representative [[Benjamin Butler (politician)|Benjamin Butler]] offered the increase as an amendment, and despite Garfield's opposition, it passed the House and eventually became law. The law was very popular in the House, as almost half the members were [[lame duck (politics)|lame ducks]], but the public was outraged, and many of Garfield's constituents blamed him, though he personally refused to accept the increase. In a bad year for Republicans, who lost control of the House for the first time since the Civil War, Garfield had his closest congressional election, winning with only 57% of the vote.{{efn|Garfield typically won two or three times his Democratic opponents' votes.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=148, 244, 277, 292}}}}{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=233–236|Rutkow|2006|2pp=34–35}}

===Floor leader; Hayes administration===

The Democratic takeover of the House of Representatives in 1875 meant the loss of Garfield's chairmanship of the Appropriations Committee, though the Democrats did put him on the Ways and Means Committee. With many of his leadership rivals defeated in the 1874 Democratic landslide, and Blaine elected to the Senate, Garfield was seen as the Republican [[floor leader]], and the likely Speaker, should the party regain control of the chamber.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|pp=37–39}}

Garfield thought the [[Public Land Survey System#Railroad land grants|land grants]] given to expanding railroads was an unjust practice. He also opposed monopolistic practices by corporations, as well as the power sought by workers' unions.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=331}} He supported the proposed establishment of the [[United States civil service]] as a means of ridding officials of the annoyance of aggressive office seekers. He especially wished to eliminate the practice of forcing government workers, in exchange for their positions, to [[Kickback (bribery)|kick back]] a percentage of their wages as political contributions.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=335–338}}

As the [[1876 United States presidential election|1876 presidential election]] approached, Garfield was loyal to the candidacy of Senator Blaine, and fought for the former Speaker's nomination at the [[1876 Republican National Convention]] in Cincinnati. When it became clear, after six ballots, that Blaine could not prevail, the convention nominated Ohio Governor [[Rutherford B. Hayes]]. Although Garfield had supported Blaine, he had kept good relations with Hayes, and wholeheartedly supported the governor.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=398–400}} Garfield had hoped to retire from politics after his term expired to devote himself full-time to the practice of law, but to help his party, he sought re-election, and won it easily that October. Any celebration was short-lived, as Garfield's youngest son, Neddie, fell ill with [[whooping cough]] shortly after the congressional election, and soon died.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=401–405}}

[[File:Electoral Commission (United States).jpg|thumb|200px|upright=1.25|Garfield (second from right in the row of commissioners just below the gallery) served on the [[Electoral Commission (United States)|Electoral Commission]] that decided the disputed 1876 presidential election. Painting by [[Cornelia Adele Strong Fassett]].]]
When Hayes appeared to have lost the presidential election the following month to Democrat [[Samuel Tilden]], the Republicans launched efforts to reverse the results in South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida, where they held the governorship. If Hayes won all three states, he would take the election by a single electoral vote. Grant asked Garfield to serve as a "neutral observer" of the recount in Louisiana. The observers soon recommended to the state electoral commissions that Hayes be declared the winner—Garfield recommended the entire vote of [[West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana|West Feliciana Parish]], which had given Tilden a sizable majority, be thrown out. The Republican governors of the three states certified that Hayes had won their states, to the outrage of Democrats, who had the state legislatures submit rival returns, and threatened to prevent the counting of the electoral vote—under the Constitution, Congress is the final arbiter of the election. Congress then established an [[Electoral Commission (United States)|Electoral Commission]], consisting of eight Republicans and seven Democrats, to determine the winner. Despite his objection to the Commission, Garfield was appointed to it. He felt Congress should count the vote and proclaim Hayes victorious. Hayes emerged the victor by a party line vote of 8–7.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://elections.harpweek.com/Controversy.asp|publisher=Harpers Weekly|title=Hayes vs. Tilden: The Electoral College Controversy of 1876–1877|access-date=December 21, 2021|website=HarpWeek|archive-date=December 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211221170539/https://elections.harpweek.com/Controversy.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> In exchange for recognizing Hayes as president, Southern Democrats secured the removal of federal troops from the South, ending Reconstruction.{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=251–261|Rutkow|2006|2p=40}}

Although an Ohio Senate seat would be vacated by the resignation of [[John Sherman]] to become Treasury Secretary, Hayes needed Garfield's expertise to protect him from the agenda of a hostile Congress, and asked him not to seek it. Garfield agreed. As Hayes's key legislator in the House, he gained considerable prestige and respect for his role there.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=41}} When Congress debated the [[Bland–Allison Act]], to have the government purchase large quantities of silver and strike it into legal tender [[Morgan dollar|dollar coins]], Garfield opposed it as a deviation from the gold standard; it was enacted over Hayes's veto in February 1878.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=261}}

In 1876, Garfield purchased the property in [[Mentor, Ohio|Mentor]] that reporters later dubbed [[James A. Garfield National Historic Site|Lawnfield]], where he conducted the first successful [[front porch campaign]] for the presidency.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=498}} Hayes suggested that Garfield run for governor in 1879, seeing that as a road likely to take Garfield to the White House. Garfield preferred to seek election as a U.S. senator. Rivals were spoken of for the seat, such as Secretary Sherman, but he had presidential ambitions (for which he sought Garfield's support), and other candidates fell by the wayside. The General Assembly elected Garfield to the Senate in January 1880, though his term was not scheduled to commence until March 4, 1881.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=442–447}}

===Legal career and other activities===
In 1865, Garfield became a partner in the law firm of a fellow Disciple of Christ, [[Jeremiah Black]]. They had much in common, except politics: Black was an avid Democrat, having served in the cabinet of President [[James Buchanan]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=270}} The next year, Black was retained by some pro-Confederate northern civilians who had been found guilty of treason in a military court and sentenced to death. Black saw an opportunity to strike a blow against military courts and the Republicans.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=271}} He had heard Garfield's military speeches, and learned of not only his oratory skills but also his resistance to expansive powers of military commissions. Black assigned the case to Garfield one week before arguments were to be made before the U. S. Supreme Court. When Black warned him of the political peril, Garfield responded, "It don't make any difference. I believe in English liberty and English law."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=272}} In this landmark case, ''[[Ex parte Milligan]],'' Garfield successfully argued that civilians could not be tried before military tribunals, despite a declaration of martial law, as long as civil courts were still operating. In his first court appearance, Garfield's oral argument lasted over two hours, and though his wealthy clients refused to pay him, he had established himself as a preeminent lawyer.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=271}}

During Grant's first term, Garfield was discontented with public service and in 1872 again pursued opportunities in the law. But he declined a partnership offer from a Cleveland law firm when told his prospective partner was of "intemperate and licentious" reputation.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=347}} In 1873, after Chase's death, Garfield appealed to Grant to appoint Justice [[Noah H. Swayne]] Chief Justice, but Grant appointed [[Morrison R. Waite]].{{sfn|McFeely|1981|pp=387–389, 392}}
[[File:Garfield Pythagoras.svg|thumb|upright=.75|right|Garfield's proof of the Pythagorean theorem features a right triangle within a trapezoid.]]
In 1871, Garfield traveled to [[Montana Territory]] to negotiate the removal of the [[Bitterroot Salish]] tribe to the [[Flathead Indian Reservation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Holmes |first1=Oliver W. |title=Peregrinations of a Politician: James A. Garfield's Diary of a Trip to Montana in 1872 |journal=Montana The Magazine of Western History |date=Autumn 1956 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=34–45 |jstor=4516109 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4516109 |access-date=February 25, 2021 |archive-date=March 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318144706/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4516109 |url-status=live }}</ref> Having been told that the people would happily move, Garfield expected an easy task. Instead, he found the Salish determined to stay in their [[Bitterroot Valley]] homeland. His attempts to coerce [[Chief Charlo]] to sign the agreement nearly brought about a military clash. In the end, he convinced two subchiefs to sign and move to the reservation with a few of the Salish people. Garfield never convinced Charlo to sign, although the official treaty document voted on by Congress bore his forged mark.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bigart |first1=Robert |title='Charlot loves his people': The Defeat of Bitterroot Salish Aspirations for an Independent Bitterroot Valley Community |journal=Montana The Magazine of Western History |date=Spring 2010 |volume=60 |issue=1 |page=27 |jstor=25701716 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25701716 |access-date=February 25, 2021 |archive-date=March 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318144711/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25701716 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1876, Garfield developed a [[Garfield's proof of the Pythagorean theorem|trapezoid proof]] of the [[Pythagorean theorem]], which was published in the ''[[New England Journal of Education]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=G. |first=J. A. |date=1876 |title=PONS ASINORUM |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44764657 |journal=New England Journal of Education |volume=3 |issue=14 |pages=161 |jstor=44764657 |issn=2578-4145}}</ref> Mathematics historian [[William Dunham (mathematician)|William Dunham]] wrote that Garfield's trapezoid work was "really a very clever proof."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dunham |first1=William |author-link1=William Dunham (mathematician)|title=The Mathematical Universe: An Alphabetical Journey Through the Great Proofs, Problems, and Personalities |url=https://archive.org/details/mathematicaluniv0000dunh |url-access=registration |publisher=Wiley & Sons |page=[https://archive.org/details/mathematicaluniv0000dunh/page/99 99] |year=1994 |bibcode=1994muaa.book.....D |isbn=9780471536567 }}</ref> According to the ''Journal'', Garfield arrived at the proof "in mathematical amusements and discussions with other members of congress."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.maa.org/press/periodicals/convergence/mathematical-treasure-james-a-garfields-proof-of-the-pythagorean-theorem|title=Mathematical Treasure: Garfield's Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem|publisher=Mathematical Assoc. of America|last=Kolpas|first=Sid J.|access-date=December 22, 2021|archive-date=December 6, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206052548/https://www.maa.org/press/periodicals/convergence/mathematical-treasure-james-a-garfields-proof-of-the-pythagorean-theorem|url-status=live}}</ref>

After his conversion experience in 1850, religious inquiry was a high priority for Garfield. He read widely and moved beyond the confines of his early experience as a member of the Disciples of Christ. His new, broader perspective was rooted in his devotion to freedom of inquiry and his study of history. The intensity of Garfield's religious thought was also influenced by his experience in combat and his interaction with voters.<ref>William C. Ringerberg, "The Religious Thought and Practice of James A. Garfield" ''Old Northwest'' (1982) 8#4 pp 365–382.</ref><ref>Allan Peskin, "James A. Garfield, Historian" ''The Historian'' 43#4 (1981), pp. 483–492 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24446440 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308155753/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24446440 |date=March 8, 2021 }}.</ref>

==Presidential election of 1880==
{{Main|1880 United States presidential election}}

===Republican nomination===
{{Main|1880 Republican National Convention}}
[[File:The Appomattox of the third termers - unconditional surrender.jpg|thumb|200px|upright=1.25|alt=A cartoon. Grant, on the right, is semi-kneeling while others kneel behind him. Garfield stands upright and receives a sword from Grant. Behind him are cheering throngs, and two men raise a flag in the background.|Following Grant's defeat for the nomination [[Puck (magazine)|''Puck'' magazine]] satirized [[Robert E. Lee]]'s surrender to him at Appomattox by depicting Grant giving up his sword to Garfield.]]

Having just been elected to the Senate with John Sherman's support, Garfield was committed to Sherman for the 1880 Republican presidential nomination.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=454–455}} Before the convention began, however, a few Republicans, including [[Wharton Barker]] of Philadelphia, thought Garfield the best choice for the nomination.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=454–455}} Garfield denied any interest in the position, but the attention was enough to make Sherman suspicious of his lieutenant's ambitions.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=456–457}} Besides Sherman, the early favorites for the nomination were Blaine, former President Grant; several other candidates attracted delegates as well.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=17–19}}

The Republican Party at the time was split into two factions: the "Stalwarts", who supported the existing federal government patronage system, and the "Half-Breeds", who wanted civil service reform.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.vox.com/2016/7/20/12233454/christie-trump-purge-federal-employees |title=Donald Trump and Chris Christie are reportedly planning to purge the civil service |date=July 20, 2016 |website=[[Vox (website)|Vox]] |first=Dylan |last=Matthews |author-link=Dylan Matthews |access-date=September 8, 2019 |archive-date=March 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322175810/https://www.vox.com/2016/7/20/12233454/christie-trump-purge-federal-employees |url-status=live }}</ref> As the convention began, [[New York City|New York]] Senator [[Roscoe Conkling]], floor leader for the Stalwarts, who supported former President Ulysses S. Grant, proposed that the delegates pledge to back the eventual nominee in the general election.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=81–83}} When three West Virginia delegates declined to be so bound, Conkling sought to expel them from the convention. Garfield rose to defend the men, giving a passionate speech in defense of their right to reserve judgment.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=81–83}} The crowd turned against Conkling, and he withdrew the motion.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=81–83}} The performance delighted Garfield's boosters, who were then convinced he was the only one who could attract a majority of the delegates' votes.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=464–465}}

After speeches in favor of the other front-runners, Garfield rose to place Sherman's name in nomination; his speech was well-received, but the delegates mustered little excitement for Sherman as the next president.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=466–469}} The first ballot showed Grant leading with 304 votes to Blaine's 284, and Sherman's 93 votes placed him in a distant third. Subsequent ballots demonstrated a deadlock between Grant and Blaine, with neither having the 379 votes needed for nomination.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=96–101}} [[Jeremiah McLain Rusk]], a member of the Wisconsin delegation, and [[Benjamin Harrison]], an Indiana delegate, sought to break the deadlock by shifting a few of the anti-Grant votes to a [[dark horse]] candidate—Garfield.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=472–475}} Garfield gained 50 votes on the 35th ballot, and a stampede began. Garfield protested to the Ohio delegation that he did not seek the nomination and would not betray Sherman, but they overruled his objections and cast their ballots for him.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=475–477}} In the next round of voting, nearly all the Sherman and Blaine delegates shifted their support to Garfield, giving him 399 votes, and the Republican nomination. Most of the Grant forces backed the former president to the end, creating a disgruntled Stalwart minority in the party.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=110–114}} To obtain that faction's support for the ticket, Chester A. Arthur, a former [[Collector of the Port of New York|New York customs collector]] and member of Conkling's [[political machine]], was chosen as the vice presidential nominee.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=480–481}}

===Campaign against Hancock===
[[File:1880RepublicanPoster.png|thumb|200px|Garfield–Arthur election poster]]
[[File:ElectoralCollege1880.svg|right|thumb|200px|1880 electoral vote results]]
Even with a Stalwart on the ticket, animosity between the Republican factions carried over from the convention, so Garfield traveled to New York to meet with party leaders.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=488–491}} After convincing the Stalwart crowd to put aside their differences and unite for the coming campaign, Garfield returned to Ohio, leaving the active campaigning to others, as was traditional at the time.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=498–500}} Meanwhile, the Democrats settled on their nominee, Major General [[Winfield Scott Hancock]] of Pennsylvania, a career military officer.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=488–491}} Hancock and the Democrats expected to carry the [[Solid South]], while much of the North was considered safe territory for Garfield and the Republicans; most of the campaign focused on a few [[Swing state|close states]], including New York and Indiana.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=501–502}}

Practical differences between the candidates were few, but Republicans began the campaign with the familiar theme of [[waving the bloody shirt]]. They reminded Northern voters the Democratic Party was responsible for secession and four years of civil war, and Democrats would reverse the gains of that war, dishonor Union veterans, and pay Confederate veterans pensions out of the federal treasury.{{sfn|Clancy|1958|pp=175–180}} Fifteen years had passed since the end of the war, and with Union generals at the head of both tickets, the bloody shirt was of diminishing value in exciting the voters.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=493–494}} With a few months to go before the election, the Republicans switched tactics to emphasize the [[tariff]]. Seizing on the Democratic platform's call for a "tariff for revenue only", Republicans told Northern workers a Hancock presidency would weaken the tariff protection that kept them in good jobs.{{sfn|Clancy|1958|pp=232–233}} Hancock made the situation worse when, attempting to strike a moderate stance, he said, "The tariff question is a local question."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=493–494}} The Republican ploy proved effective in uniting the North behind Garfield.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=511–513}} Ultimately, of the more than 9.2{{spaces}}million popular votes cast, fewer than 2,000 separated the two candidates.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/scores.html#1880 |title=Electoral College Box Scores 1789–1996 |publisher=U.S. National Archives |access-date=January 10, 2018 |archive-date=February 4, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204033536/http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/scores.html#1880 |url-status=live }}</ref> But in the [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]], Garfield had an easy victory over Hancock, 214 to 155.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=510–511}} The election made Garfield the only sitting member of the House ever to be elected to the presidency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/1851-1900/The-election-of-President-James-Garfield-of-Ohio/|publisher=[[United States House of Representatives]]|title=The election of President James Garfield of Ohio|access-date=June 23, 2015|archive-date=May 4, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504200455/https://history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/1851-1900/The-election-of-President-James-Garfield-of-Ohio/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Presidency (1881)==
{{Infobox administration
| image = James Abram Garfield, photo portrait seated (cropped)(2).jpg
| name = Presidency of James A. Garfield
| term_start = March 4, 1881
| term_end = September 19, 1881
| president_link = President of the United States
| cabinet = ''[[#Cabinet and inauguration|See list]]''
| party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| seat = [[White House]]
| predecessor = [[Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes|Rutherford B. Hayes]]
| successor = [[Presidency of Chester A. Arthur|Chester A. Arthur]]
| seal = PresidentHayesInvitationCOA.png
| seal_caption = Presidential coat of arms (1877–1913)
}}

{{Infobox U.S. Cabinet
|align=right
|Name=Garfield
|President=James A. Garfield
|President date=1881
|Vice President=[[Chester A. Arthur]]
|Vice President date=1881
|State=[[James G. Blaine]]
|State date=1881
|Treasury=[[William Windom]]
|Treasury date=1881
|War=[[Robert Todd Lincoln]]
|War date=1881
|Justice=[[Wayne MacVeagh]]
|Justice date=1881
|Post=[[Thomas Lemuel James]]
|Post date=1881
|Navy=[[William H. Hunt]]
|Navy date=1881
|Interior=[[Samuel J. Kirkwood]]
|Interior date=1881
}}

===Cabinet and inauguration===
[[File:President Garfield in reviewing stand, viewing inauguration ceremonies, March 4, 1881 LCCN00650941.tif|thumb|200px|President Garfield in reviewing stand, viewing inauguration ceremonies, on March 4, 1881]]
[[File:GARFIELD, James A-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg|thumb|200px|Line engraving of Garfield, produced around 1902 by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing as part of a presentation album of the first 26 presidents]]
Before his inauguration, Garfield was occupied with assembling a cabinet that might engender peace between the party's Conkling and Blaine factions. Blaine's delegates had provided much of the support for Garfield's nomination, so the Maine senator received the place of honor as Secretary of State.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=519–521}} Blaine was not only the president's closest advisor, but he was also obsessed with knowing all that took place in the White House, and allegedly posted spies there in his absence.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=554–555}} Garfield nominated [[William Windom]] of Minnesota as Secretary of the Treasury, [[William H. Hunt]] of Louisiana as Secretary of the Navy, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] as Secretary of War, and [[Samuel J. Kirkwood]] of Iowa as Secretary of the Interior. New York was represented by [[Thomas Lemuel James]] as Postmaster General. Garfield appointed Pennsylvania's [[Wayne MacVeagh]], an adversary of Blaine's, as [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]].{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=33–36}} Blaine tried to sabotage the appointment by convincing Garfield to name an opponent of MacVeagh, [[William E. Chandler]], as [[United States Solicitor General|Solicitor General]] under MacVeagh. Only Chandler's rejection by the Senate forestalled MacVeagh's resignation over the matter.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=555–561}}

Because Garfield was distracted by cabinet maneuvering, his inaugural address was a "compendium of platitudes" and fell below expectations.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=330}}{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=272}} At one high point, however, Garfield emphasized the civil rights of [[African-Americans]], saying "Freedom can never yield its fullness of blessings so long as the law or its administration places the smallest obstacle in the pathway of any virtuous citizen."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=538–540}} After discussing the gold standard, the need for education, and an unexpected denunciation of [[Mormon polygamy]], the speech ended. The crowd applauded, but the speech, according to Peskin, "however sincerely intended, betrayed its hasty composition by the flatness of its tone and the conventionality of its subject matter."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=539}}

Garfield's appointment of James infuriated Conkling, a factional opponent of the Postmaster General, who demanded a compensatory appointment for his faction, such as the position of Secretary of the Treasury. The resulting squabble occupied much of Garfield's brief presidency. The feud with Conkling reached a climax when the president, at Blaine's instigation, nominated Conkling's enemy, Judge [[William H. Robertson]], to be Collector of the Port of New York. This was one of the prize patronage positions below cabinet level and was then held by [[Edwin Atkins Merritt|Edwin A. Merritt]]. Conkling raised the time-honored principle of [[senatorial courtesy]] in an attempt to defeat the nomination, to no avail. Garfield, who believed the practice was corrupt, would not back down and threatened to withdraw all nominations unless Robertson was confirmed, intending to "settle the question whether the president is registering clerk of the Senate or the Executive of the United States."{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|p=38}} Ultimately, Conkling and his New York colleague, Senator [[Thomas C. Platt]], resigned their Senate seats to seek vindication but found only further humiliation when the New York legislature elected others in their places. Robertson was confirmed as Collector and Garfield's victory was clear. To Blaine's chagrin, the victorious Garfield returned to his goal of balancing the interests of party factions and nominated a number of Conkling's Stalwart friends to offices.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=273}}

With his cabinet complete, Garfield had to contend with myriad office seekers. He exclaimed, "My God! What is there in this place that a man should ever get into it." Garfield's family happily settled into the White House, but he found presidential duties exasperating.{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=272}}

===Refinance of national debt===
Garfield ordered the Secretary of the Treasury [[William Windom]] to refund (''refinance'') the national debt by calling in outstanding U.S. bonds paying 6% interest. Holders would have the option of accepting cash or new bonds at 3%, closer to the interest rates of the time. Taxpayers were saved an estimated $10 million. By comparison, federal expenditures in 1881 were below $261 million (~${{Format price|{{Inflation|index=US-GDP|value=261000000|start_year=1881}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}).{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=273}}<ref>[[#The Magazine of American History|The Magazine of American History (1891)]], p. 261</ref>

===Supreme Court nomination===
In 1880, President Hayes had nominated [[Stanley Matthews (judge)|Stanley Matthews]] to the Supreme Court but the Senate declined to act on the nomination. In March 1881, Garfield re-nominated Matthews to the Court and the Senate confirmed Matthews by a vote of 24–23.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.the-american-interest.com/2016/02/15/the-court-controversy-not-unprecedented/|title=The Court Controversy: Not Unprecedented|date=February 15, 2016|access-date=March 19, 2019|archive-date=December 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201193923/https://www.the-american-interest.com/2016/02/15/the-court-controversy-not-unprecedented/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to ''The New York Times'', "opposition to Matthews's Supreme Court appointment{{spaces}}... stemmed from his prosecution in 1859 of a newspaper editor who had assisted two runaway slaves." Because Matthews was "a professed abolitionist at the time, the matter was later framed as political expediency triumphing over moral principle."<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news|url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/harp/0611.html|title=On this day: June 11, 1881|newspaper=New York Times|access-date=December 26, 2021|archive-date=August 2, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802003536/https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/harp/0611.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Matthews served on the Court until his death in 1889.<ref name="nytimes.com"/>

===Reforms===
{{Main|Star Route scandal}}
[[File:Left Puck.jpg|thumb|200px|alt=A cartoon. Garfield, in night clothes and slippers, is on the doorstep looking at an ugly crying baby in a basket on the ground.|An 1881 ''[[Puck (magazine)|Puck]]'' cartoon shows Garfield finding a baby at his front door with a tag marked "Civil Service Reform, compliments of [[Rutherford B. Hayes|R.B. Hayes]]". Hayes, his predecessor in the presidency, is seen in the background dressed like a woman and holding a bag marked "R.B. Hayes' Savings, [[Fremont, Ohio]]".]]
Grant and Hayes had both advocated civil service reform, and by 1881 such reform associations had organized with renewed energy across the nation. Garfield sympathized with them, believing the [[spoils system]] damaged the presidency and often eclipsed more important concerns.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=39–41}} Some reformers became disappointed when Garfield promoted limited tenure only to minor office seekers and gave appointments to his old friends.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=39–41}}

Corruption in the post office also cried out for reform. In April 1880, there had been a congressional investigation of corruption in the [[United States Post Office Department|Post Office Department]], where profiteering rings allegedly stole millions of dollars, securing bogus mail contracts on [[star routes]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=578}} After obtaining contracts with the lowest bid, costs to run the mail routes would be escalated and profits would be divided among ring members. Shortly after taking office, Garfield received word of postal corruption by an alleged star route ringleader, Assistant Postmaster General [[Thomas J. Brady]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=580}} Garfield demanded Brady's resignation and ordered prosecutions that ended in trials for conspiracy. When told that his party, including his campaign manager, [[Stephen W. Dorsey]], was involved, Garfield directed that the corruption in the Post Office be rooted out "to the bone", regardless of where it might lead.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=578}} Brady resigned and was indicted for conspiracy, though jury trials in 1882 and 1883 found Brady not guilty.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=94–95}}

===Civil rights and education===
[[File:Jgarfield.jpeg|thumb|200px|alt=Formal seated portrait in oils|Official White House portrait of James Garfield, 1881]]
Garfield believed the key to improving the state of African American civil rights was government supported education.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|p=48}} During Reconstruction, [[freedman|freedmen]] had gained citizenship and suffrage, which enabled them to participate in government, but Garfield believed their rights were being eroded by Southern white resistance and illiteracy, and he was concerned that blacks would become America's permanent "[[peasantry]]".{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=48–49}} He proposed a "universal" education system funded by the federal government. In February 1866, as a congressman from Ohio, Garfield and Ohio School Commissioner Emerson Edward White had drafted a bill for the National Department of Education. They believed that through the use of statistics they could push the US Congress to establish a federal agency for school reform.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Steudeman|first=Michael J.|date=May 2018|title=From Civic Imperative to Bird's-Eye View: Renegotiating the Idioms of Education Governance during the Reconstruction Era|journal=History of Education Quarterly|language=en|volume=58|issue=2|pages=199–228|doi=10.1017/heq.2018.3|issn=0018-2680|doi-access=free}}</ref> But by the time of Garfield's presidency, Congress and the northern white public had lost interest in African-American rights, and Congress did not pass federal funding for universal education during his term.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=48–49}} Garfield also worked to appoint several African Americans to prominent positions: [[Frederick Douglass]], recorder of deeds in Washington; [[Robert B. Elliott|Robert Elliot]], special agent to the Treasury; [[John M. Langston]], [[Haiti]]an minister; and [[Blanche Bruce|Blanche K. Bruce]], register to the Treasury. Garfield believed Southern support for the Republican Party could be gained by "commercial and industrial" interests rather than race issues and began to reverse Hayes's policy of conciliating Southern Democrats.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=49–50}} He appointed [[William H. Hunt]], a Republican from Louisiana, as Secretary of the Navy.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=49–50}} To break the hold of the resurgent Democratic Party in the Solid South, Garfield took patronage advice from Virginia Senator [[William Mahone]] of the biracial independent [[Readjuster Party]], hoping to add the independents' strength to the Republicans' there.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=50–53}}

===Foreign policy and naval reform===
{{Further|History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897}}
[[Image:James G. Blaine - Brady-Handy.jpg|thumb |upright|left|[[James G. Blaine]], Garfield's Secretary of State]]
Garfield had little foreign policy experience, so he leaned heavily on Blaine.<ref>David M. Pletcher, ''The Awkward Years: American Foreign Relations under Garfield and Arthur'' (U of Missouri Press, 1962).</ref> They agreed on the need to promote freer trade, especially within the [[Western Hemisphere]].{{sfn|Crapol|2000|pp=62–64}} Garfield and Blaine believed increasing trade with [[Latin America]] would be the best way to keep the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] from dominating the region.{{sfn|Crapol|2000|pp=62–64}} And by encouraging exports, they believed they could increase American prosperity.{{sfn|Crapol|2000|pp=62–64}} Garfield authorized Blaine to call for a Pan-American conference in 1882 to mediate disputes among the Latin American nations and to serve as a forum for talks on increasing trade.{{sfnm|Crapol|2000|1pp=65–66|Doenecke|1981|2pp=55–57}}

At the same time, they hoped to negotiate a peace in the [[War of the Pacific]] then being fought by [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], and [[Peru]].{{sfnm|Crapol|2000|1pp=65–66|Doenecke|1981|2pp=55–57}} Blaine favored a resolution that would result in Peru yielding no territory, but Chile by 1881 had occupied the Peruvian capital of [[Lima]], and rejected any settlement that restored the previous ''status quo''.{{sfnm|Crapol|2000|1p=70|Doenecke|1981|2pp=57–58}}

Garfield sought to expand American influence in other areas, calling for renegotiation of the [[Clayton–Bulwer Treaty]] to allow the United States to construct [[Panama Canal|a canal through Panama]] without British involvement and attempting to reduce British influence in the strategically located [[Kingdom of Hawaii]].{{sfnm|Crapol|2000|1pp=74–80|Peskin|1978|2pp=576–577}} Garfield's and Blaine's plans for the United States' involvement in the world stretched even beyond the Western Hemisphere, as he sought commercial treaties with [[Joseon Dynasty|Korea]] and [[Merina Kingdom|Madagascar]].{{sfnm|Crapol|2000|1p=81|Doenecke|1981|2pp=71–73}} Garfield also considered enhancing U.S. military strength abroad, asking Navy Secretary Hunt to investigate the navy's condition with an eye toward expansion and modernization.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=145–147}} In the end, these ambitious plans came to nothing after Garfield was assassinated. Nine countries had accepted invitations to the Pan-American conference, but the invitations were withdrawn in April 1882 after Blaine resigned from the cabinet and Arthur, Garfield's successor, cancelled the conference.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=130–131}}{{efn|In October 1883, the War of the Pacific was settled without American involvement, with the [[Treaty of Ancón]].}} Naval reform continued under Arthur, on a more modest scale than Garfield and Hunt had envisioned, ultimately ending in the construction of the [[Squadron of Evolution]].{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=148–149}}

==Assassination==

===Guiteau and shooting===
{{Main|Assassination of James A. Garfield}}
[[Charles J. Guiteau]] had followed various professions in his life, but in 1880 had determined to gain federal office by supporting what he expected would be the winning Republican ticket.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=114}} He composed a speech, "Garfield vs. Hancock", and got it printed by the Republican National Committee. One means of persuading the voters in that era was through orators expounding on the candidate's merits, but with the Republicans seeking more famous men, Guiteau received few opportunities to speak.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=151–152}} On one occasion, according to Kenneth D. Ackerman, Guiteau was unable to finish his speech due to nerves. Guiteau, who considered himself a [[Stalwart (politics)|Stalwart]], deemed his contribution to Garfield's victory sufficient to justify his appointment to the position of consul in Paris, despite the fact that he spoke no French, nor any foreign language.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=189–190, 237}} One medical expert has since described Guiteau as possibly a narcissistic schizophrenic;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/10/this-is-the-brain-that-shot-president-james-garfield/454212/|title=This Is the Brain that Shot President James Garfield|first=Brian|last=Resick|work=[[The Atlantic]]|date=October 4, 2015|access-date=August 16, 2017|archive-date=February 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227093241/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/10/this-is-the-brain-that-shot-president-james-garfield/454212/|url-status=live}}</ref> neuroscientist [[Kent Kiehl]] assessed him as a clinical psychopath.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kiehl|first1=Kent|title=The Psychopath Whisperer: The Science of Those Without Conscience|date=2021|publisher=Crown Publishers|page=76|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oemMDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA76|isbn=978-0-7704-3586-8|access-date=November 25, 2017|archive-date=February 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213011832/https://books.google.com/books?id=oemMDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA76|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Garfield assassination engraving cropped.jpg|thumb|200px|Garfield, shot by [[Charles J. Guiteau]], collapses as Secretary of State Blaine gestures for help. Engraving from ''[[Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper]]''.]]

One of Garfield's more wearying duties was seeing office-seekers, and he saw Guiteau at least once. White House officials suggested to Guiteau that he approach Blaine, as the consulship was within the Department of State.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=237–238}} Blaine also saw the public regularly, and Guiteau became a regular at these sessions. Blaine, who had no intention of giving Guiteau a position he was unqualified for and had not earned, simply said the deadlock in the Senate over Robertson's nomination made it impossible to consider the Paris consulship, which required Senate confirmation.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=278–279}} Once the New York senators had resigned, and Robertson had been confirmed as Collector, Guiteau pressed his claim, and Blaine told him he would not receive the position.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=299}}

Guiteau came to believe he had lost the position because he was a Stalwart. He decided the only way to end the Republican Party's internecine warfare was for Garfield to die—though he had nothing personal against the president. Arthur's succession would restore peace, he felt, and lead to rewards for fellow Stalwarts, including Guiteau.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=305–308}}

The [[assassination of Abraham Lincoln]] was deemed a fluke due to the Civil War, and Garfield, like most people, saw no reason the president should be guarded; his movements and plans were often printed in the newspapers. Guiteau knew Garfield would leave Washington for a cooler climate on July 2, 1881, and made plans to kill him before then. He purchased a gun he thought would look good in a museum, and followed Garfield several times, but each time his plans were frustrated, or he lost his nerve.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=313–316}} His opportunities dwindled to one—Garfield's departure by train for New Jersey on the morning of July 2.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=328–330}}

Guiteau concealed himself by the ladies' waiting room at the [[Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station|Sixth Street Station]] of the [[Baltimore and Potomac Railroad]], from where Garfield was scheduled to depart. Most of Garfield's cabinet planned to accompany him at least part of the way. Blaine, who was to remain in Washington, came to the station to see him off. The two men were deep in conversation and did not notice Guiteau before he took out his revolver and shot Garfield twice, once in the back and once in the arm. Guiteau attempted to leave the station but was quickly captured.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=596}} As Blaine recognized him, Guiteau was led away, and said, "I did it. I will go to jail for it. I am a Stalwart and Arthur will be President."{{efn|The words vary in some sources}}{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=335}} News of his motivation to benefit the Stalwarts reached many with the news of the shooting, causing rage against that faction.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=335–340}}

===Treatment and death===
[[File:B&PStation1908.jpg|thumb|right|alt=An ornate Victorian Gothic style building with a square tower|[[Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station]] in Washington D.C., where Garfield was shot July 2, 1881]]
Garfield was struck by two shots: one glanced off his arm while the other pierced his back, shattering a rib and embedding itself in his abdomen. "My God, what is this?" he exclaimed.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=333–334}} Among those at the station was [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], who was deeply upset, thinking back to when his father Abraham Lincoln was assassinated 16 years earlier. Garfield was taken on a mattress upstairs to a private office, where several doctors examined him. At his request, Garfield was taken back to the White House, and his wife, then in New Jersey, was sent for.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=335–336}} Blaine sent word to Vice President Arthur in New York City, who received threats against his life because of his animosity toward Garfield and Guiteau's statements.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|pp=88–89}}

Although [[Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]]'s pioneering work in antisepsis was known to American doctors, few of them had confidence in it, and none of his advocates were among Garfield's treating physicians.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|pp=106–107}} The physician who took charge at the depot and then at the White House was [[Doctor Willard Bliss]].{{efn|"Doctor" was his given name.}} A noted physician and surgeon, Bliss was an old friend of Garfield, and about a dozen doctors, led by Bliss, were soon probing the wound with unsterilized fingers and instruments. Garfield was given [[morphine]] for the pain, and asked Bliss to frankly tell him his chances, which Bliss put at one in a hundred. "Well, Doctor, we'll take that chance."{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=346}}

Over the next few days, Garfield made some improvement, as the nation viewed the news from the capital and prayed. Although he never stood again, he was able to sit up and write several times, and his recovery was viewed so positively that a steamer was fitted out as a seagoing hospital to aid with his convalescence. He was nourished on oatmeal [[porridge]] (which he detested) and milk from a cow on the White House lawn. When told that Indian chief [[Sitting Bull]], a prisoner of the army, was starving, Garfield said, "Let him starve..." initially, but a few moments later said, "No, send him my oatmeal."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=601–602}}

[[Projectional radiography|X-ray imaging]], which could have assisted physicians in precisely locating the bullet in Garfield's body, would not be invented for another 14 years. [[Alexander Graham Bell]] tried to locate the bullet with a primitive metal detector, but was unsuccessful, though the device had been effective when tested on others. But Bliss limited its use on Garfield, ensuring he remained in charge. Because Bliss insisted the bullet rested someplace it did not, the detector could not locate it. Bell shortly returned after adjusting his device, which emitted an unusual tone in the area where Bliss believed the bullet was lodged. Bliss took this as confirmation that the bullet was where he declared it to be. Bliss recorded the test as a success, saying it was: <blockquote>now unanimously agreed that the location of the ball has been ascertained with reasonable certainty, and that it lies, as heretofore stated, in the front wall of the abdomen, immediately over the groin, about five inches [{{convert|5|in|mm|disp=out}}] below and to the right of the navel.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Millard |first1=Candice |title=Destiny of the Republic |date=2011 |publisher=Doubleday |isbn=978-0-385-52626-5 |pages=201–202, 213}}</ref></blockquote>

One means of keeping Garfield comfortable in Washington's summer heat was one of the first successful [[air conditioning]] units: air propelled by fans over ice and then dried reduced the temperature in the sickroom by {{convert|20|F-change|C-change|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=601–602}} Engineers from the navy, and other scientists, worked together to develop it, though there were problems to solve, such as excessive noise and increased humidity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Millard |first1=Candice |title=Destiny of the Republic |date=2011 |publisher=Doubleday |isbn=978-0-385-52626-5 |page=178}}</ref>

On July 23, Garfield took a turn for the worse when his temperature increased to {{convert|104|F}}; doctors, concerned by an [[abscess]] at the wound, inserted a drainage tube. This initially helped, and the bedridden Garfield held a brief cabinet meeting on July 29; members were under orders from Bliss to discuss nothing that might excite Garfield.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=603}} Doctors probed the abscess, hoping to find the bullet; they likely made the infections worse. Garfield performed only one official act in August, signing an extradition paper. By the end of the month, he was much feebler than he had been, and his weight had decreased from {{convert|210|lb}} to {{convert|130|lb}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/gar.htm|title=The Death Of President Garfield, 1881|website=www.eyewitnesstohistory.com|access-date=August 3, 2019|archive-date=September 30, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180930045040/http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/gar.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=374–375}}

Garfield had long been anxious to escape hot, unhealthy Washington, and in early September the doctors agreed to move him to [[Elberon, New Jersey|Elberon]], part of [[Long Branch, New Jersey]], where his wife had recovered earlier in the summer. He left the White House for the last time on September 5, traveling in a specially cushioned railway car; a spur line to the [[Charles G. Francklyn|Francklyn Cottage]], a seaside mansion given over to his use, was built in a night by volunteers. After arriving in Elberon the next day, Garfield was moved from the train car to a bedroom where he could see the ocean as officials and reporters maintained what became (after an initial rally) a death watch. Garfield's personal secretary, [[Joe Stanley Brown]], wrote forty years later, "to this day I cannot hear the sound of the low slow roll of the Atlantic on the shore, the sound which filled my ears as I walked from my cottage to his bedside, without recalling again that ghastly tragedy."{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=374–376}}

[[File:Chester A. Arthur by Abraham Bogardus.jpg|thumb|upright|Vice-president [[Chester A. Arthur]] assumed the presidency after Garfield's death.]]
On September 18, Garfield asked Colonel A.F. Rockwell, a friend, if he would have a place in history. Rockwell assured him he would and told Garfield he had much work still before him. But his response was, "No, my work is done."{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=355}} The following day, Garfield, then suffering also from pneumonia and hypertension, marveled that he could not pick up a glass despite feeling well and went to sleep without discomfort. He awoke that evening around 10:15 p.m. complaining of great pain in his chest to his chief of staff General [[David G. Swaim|David Swaim]], who was watching him, as he placed his hand over his heart.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Life and Work of James A. Garfield|last=Ridpath|first=John Clark|year=1881|page=638}}</ref> The president then requested a drink of water from Swaim. After finishing his glass, Garfield said, "Oh Swaim, this terrible pain—press your hand on it." As Swaim put his hand on Garfield's chest, Garfield's hands went up reflexively. Clutching his heart, he exclaimed, "Oh, Swaim, can't you stop this? Oh, oh, Swaim!" Those were Garfield's last words.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GGxDAAAQBAJ|title=Murdering the President: Alexander Graham Bell and the Race to Save James Garfield|last=Rosen|first=Fred|date=September 2016|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-1-61234-865-0|page=173|access-date=September 17, 2020|archive-date=January 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126031423/https://books.google.com/books?id=9GGxDAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Swaim ordered another attendant to send for Bliss, who found Garfield unconscious. Despite efforts to revive him, Garfield never awoke, and he was pronounced dead at about 10:30 p.m.{{sfnm|Ackerman|2003|1pp=376–377|Rutkow|2006|2p=127}}<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/dirty-painful-death-president-james-garfield |title=The dirty, painful death of President James A. Garfield |date=September 16, 2016 |work=PBS |first=Howard |last=Markel |author-link=Howard Markel |access-date=July 1, 2022 }}</ref> Learning from a reporter of Garfield's death the following day, Chester A. Arthur took the presidential oath of office administered by New York Supreme Court Justice [[John R. Brady]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=608}}

According to some historians and medical experts, Garfield might have survived his wounds had the doctors attending him had at their disposal today's medical research, knowledge, techniques, and equipment.{{sfn|Schaffer|2006}}<ref>{{cite news |last1=Healy |first1=Donna |title=Famous assassinations: Who could doctors save today? |url=https://billingsgazette.com/lifestyles/famous-assassinations-who-could-doctors-save-today/article_978d85a3-6f92-5b79-84dc-a3389e7d2b44.html |access-date=December 25, 2018 |work=[[Billings Gazette]] |date=February 29, 2008 |quote=Today's outcome: Doctors would have been able to treat his injuries and infection and been able to offer nourishment intravenously or through tube feedings. 'This was a no-brainer. It would have been an unreasonable death by today's standard,' [Dr. Terry] Housinger said. |archive-date=February 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213011631/https://billingsgazette.com/lifestyles/famous-assassinations-who-could-doctors-save-today/article_978d85a3-6f92-5b79-84dc-a3389e7d2b44.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Charies |first1=Eric J. |last2=Hanks |first2=John B. |title=The assassination of President James Garfield: Could he have survived? |url=http://bulletin.facs.org/2018/01/the-assassination-of-president-james-garfield-could-he-have-survived/ |access-date=December 25, 2018 |work=Bulletin of the [[American College of Surgeons]] |date=January 6, 2018 |quote=Viewed through the lens of modern trauma care, President Garfield's wounds would be regarded as distinctly survivable. |archive-date=December 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225225103/http://bulletin.facs.org/2018/01/the-assassination-of-president-james-garfield-could-he-have-survived/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Standard medical practice at the time dictated that priority be given to locating the path of the bullet. Several of his doctors inserted their [[Asepsis|unsterilized]] fingers into the wound to probe for the bullet, a common practice in the 1880s.{{sfn|Schaffer|2006}} Historians agree that massive infection was a significant factor in Garfield's demise.{{sfn|Schaffer|2006}} Biographer Peskin said medical malpractice did not contribute to Garfield's death; the inevitable infection and blood poisoning that would ensue from a deep bullet wound resulted in damage to multiple organs and spinal fragmentation.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=607}} Rutkow, a professor of surgery at the [[University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey]], has argued that starvation also played a role. Rutkow suggests "Garfield had such a nonlethal wound. In today's world, he would have gone home in a matter of two or three days."{{sfn|Schaffer|2006}} The conventional narrative regarding Garfield's post-shooting medical condition was challenged by Theodore Pappas and Shahrzad Joharifard in a 2013 article in ''[[The American Journal of Surgery]]''. They argued that Garfield died from a late rupture of a splenic artery [[pseudoaneurysm]], which developed secondary to the path of the bullet adjacent to the splenic artery. They also argued that his sepsis was actually caused by post-traumatic acute acalculous [[cholecystitis]]. Based on the [[autopsy]] report, the authors speculate that his gallbladder subsequently ruptured, leading to the development of a large bile-containing abscess adjacent to the gallbladder. Pappas and Joharifard say this caused the septic decline in Garfield's condition that was visible starting from July 23, 1881. Pappas and Joharifard also state that they don't believe that Garfield's doctors could have saved him even if they had been aware of his cholecystitis, since the first successful [[cholecystectomy]] ([[surgical]] removal of the gallbladder) was performed a year after Garfield's death.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Did James A. Garfield die of cholecystitis? Revisiting the autopsy of the 20th president of the United States |date=July 8, 2013 |first1=Theodore N. |last1=Pappas |first2=Shahrzad |last2=Joharifard |journal=[[The American Journal of Surgery]] |volume=206 |issue=4 |pages=613–618 |doi=10.1016/j.amjsurg.2013.02.007 |pmid=23827513 |issn = 0002-9610 }}</ref>

Guiteau was indicted on October 14, 1881, for the murder of the president. During his trial, Guiteau declared that he was not responsible for Garfield's death, admitting to the shooting but not the killing. In his defense, Guiteau wrote: "General Garfield died from malpractice. According to his own physicians, he was not fatally shot. The doctors who mistreated him ought to bear the odium of his death, and not his assailant. They ought to be indicted for murdering James A. Garfield, and not me."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Millard |first1=Candice |title=Destiny of the Republic |date=2011 |publisher=Doubleday |isbn=978-0-385-52626-5 |page=239}}</ref> After a chaotic trial in which Guiteau often interrupted and argued, and in which his counsel used the [[insanity defense]], the jury found him guilty on January 25, 1882, and he was sentenced to death by hanging. Guiteau may have had [[neurosyphilis]], a disease that causes physiological mental impairment.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Paulson | first1 = G.
| title = Death of a President and his Assassin—Errors in their Diagnosis and Autopsies
| doi = 10.1080/096470490953455
| journal = Journal of the History of the Neurosciences
| volume = 15
| issue = 2
| pages = 77–91
| year = 2006
| pmid = 16608737
| s2cid = 21899497
}}</ref> He was executed on June 30, 1882.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=444–446}}

==Funeral, memorials and commemorations==
[[File:Garfield-casket.jpg|thumb|200px|Garfield's casket [[lying in state]] at the [[United States Capitol rotunda|Capitol Rotunda]]]]
Garfield's funeral train left Long Branch on the same special track that had brought him there, traveling over tracks blanketed with flowers and past houses adorned with flags. His body was transported to the Capitol and then continued on to Cleveland for burial.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=608–609}} Shocked by his death, [[United States Marine Band|Marine Band]] leader [[John Philip Sousa]] composed the march "[[In Memoriam: President Garfield's Funeral March|In Memoriam]]", which was played when Garfield's body was received in [[Washington, D.C.]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bierley|first=Paul E|url=https://archive.org/details/worksofjohnphili00bier/page/62/mode/2up?q=The+works+of+John+Philip+Sousa|title=The Works of John Philip Sousa|publisher=Integrity Press|year=1984|isbn=978-0-918048-04-2|location=[[Columbus, Ohio]]|pages=63–64|lccn=84080665|ol=2876313M|author-link=Paul E. Bierley|access-date=June 29, 2021|url-access=registration}}</ref> More than 70,000 citizens, some waiting over three hours, passed by Garfield's coffin as his body [[lying in state|lay in state]] from September 21 to 23, 1881,<ref>[[#History, Arts, & Archives United States House of Representatives|History, Arts, & Archives United States House of Representatives]]</ref> at the [[United States Capitol rotunda]]; on September 25, in Cleveland, Garfield's casket was paraded down [[Euclid Avenue (Cleveland)|Euclid Avenue]] from Wilson Avenue to [[Public Square, Cleveland|Public Square]], with those in attendance including former presidents Grant and Hayes, and Generals [[William Tecumseh Sherman|William Sherman]], [[Philip Sheridan|Sheridan]] and Hancock.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Campen|first=Richard N.|date=April 5, 1964|title=Story of a Sad Station|page=Sunday Magazine, 29|work=[[The Plain Dealer]]}}</ref> More than 150,000—a number equal to the city's population—likewise paid their respects, and Sousa's march was again played.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=608–609}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.marineband.marines.mil/Audio-Resources/The-Complete-Marches-of-John-Philip-Sousa/In-Memoriam-President-Garfields-Funeral-March/ |title=In Memoriam (President Garfield's Funeral March) |website=United States Marine Band |first=Paul E. |last=Bierley |access-date=July 5, 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184416/https://www.marineband.marines.mil/Audio-Resources/The-Complete-Marches-of-John-Philip-Sousa/In-Memoriam-President-Garfields-Funeral-March/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Garfield's body was temporarily interred in the [[Levi Scofield|Schofield]] family vault in Cleveland's [[Lake View Cemetery]] until his permanent memorial was built.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=608–609}}<ref>{{Citation|title=The Life and Death of James A. Garfield: One of Ohio's Greatest Sons| date=September 29, 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zmg1qKX7LYo| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211114/zmg1qKX7LYo| archive-date=November 14, 2021 | url-status=live|language=en|access-date=March 6, 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Memorials to Garfield were erected across the country. On April 10, 1882, seven months after Garfield's death, the U.S. Post Office Department issued a postage stamp in his honor.{{sfn|Smithsonian 2006}} In 1884, sculptor [[Frank Happersberger]] completed a monument on the grounds of the [[Conservatory of Flowers|San Francisco Conservatory of Flowers]].{{sfn|Radford|Radford|2002|p=23}} In 1887, the [[James A. Garfield Monument]] was dedicated in Washington.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=441}} [[James Garfield Memorial, Philadelphia|Another monument]], in Philadelphia's [[Fairmount Park]], was erected in 1896.{{sfn|Bach|1992|p=207}} In [[Victoria, Australia]], [[Garfield, Victoria|Cannibal Creek]] was renamed Garfield in his honor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cardinia.vic.gov.au/files/Strategic_planning/SP_GarfieldTownshipStrategy_2002-08-19.pdf |title=Garfield Township Strategy |publisher=Cardinia Shire Council |date=August 19, 2002 |page=36 |access-date=January 24, 2012 |quote=Originally Cannibal Creek Siding was built in 1877 to serve the booming timber industry when the railway line was laid from Dandenong to Bunyip. The district was latter [sic] renamed Garfield after an American President. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401082257/http://www.cardinia.vic.gov.au/files/Strategic_planning/SP_GarfieldTownshipStrategy_2002-08-19.pdf |archive-date=April 1, 2012 }}</ref>
[[File:The Garfield Obsequies at Cleveland, Schofield vault, temporary resting place of the remains, from Robert N. Dennis collection of stereoscopic views.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Stereoscopy|Stereoscopic images]] of the [[Levi Scofield|Schofield]] family vault where Garfield's remains were kept until completion of his permanent memorial<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Garfield Obsequies at Cleveland, Schofield vault, temporary resting place of the remains.|url=https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e0-9a52-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99|access-date=August 18, 2021|website=NYPL Digital Collections|language=en|archive-date=December 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214010359/https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e0-9a52-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
On May 19, 1890, Garfield's body was permanently interred, with great solemnity and fanfare, in a [[James A. Garfield Memorial|mausoleum]] in Lake View Cemetery. Attending the dedication ceremonies were former President Hayes, President Benjamin Harrison, and future president [[William McKinley]].{{sfn|Memorial 1890|pp=46–49}} Garfield's Treasury Secretary, William Windom, also attended.{{sfn|Memorial 1890|pp=46–49}} Harrison said Garfield was always a "student and instructor" and that his life works and death would "continue to be instructive and inspiring incidents in American history".{{sfn|Memorial 1890|p=51}} Three panels on the monument display Garfield as a teacher, Union major general, and [[orator]]; another shows him taking the presidential oath, and a fifth shows his body lying in state at the Capitol rotunda in Washington, D.C.{{sfn|Memorial 1890|pp=34–35}}

Garfield's murder by a deranged office-seeker awakened public awareness of the need for civil service reform legislation. Senator [[George H. Pendleton]], a Democrat from Ohio, launched a reform effort that resulted in the [[Pendleton Act]] in January 1883.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=100–102}} This act reversed the "spoils system" where office seekers paid up or gave political service to obtain or keep federally appointed positions.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=100–102}} Under the act, appointments were awarded on merit and competitive examination.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=102–103}} To ensure the reform was implemented, Congress and Arthur established and funded the [[United States Civil Service Commission|Civil Service Commission]]. The Pendleton Act, however, covered only 10% of federal government workers.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=102–103}} For Arthur, previously known for having been a "veteran spoilsman", civil service reform became his most noteworthy achievement.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=610}}

A [[Statue of James A. Garfield (U.S. Capitol)|marble statue of Garfield]] by [[Charles Niehaus]] was added to the [[National Statuary Hall Collection]] in the [[United States Capitol|Capitol]] in [[Washington D.C.]], a gift from the State of [[Ohio]] in 1886.<ref>Architect of the Capitol Under the Direction of the Joint Committee on the Library, Compilation of Works of Art and Other Objects in the United States Capitol, United States Government Printing Office, Washington 1965, p. 210</ref>

Garfield is honored with a life-size bronze sculpture inside the [[Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument (Cleveland)|Cuyahoga County Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument]] in Cleveland, Ohio.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pacini|first=Lauren R.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1107321740|title=Honoring their memory : Levi T. Scofield, Cleveland's monumental architect and sculptor|date=2019|isbn=978-0-578-48036-7|location=Cleveland [Ohio]|oclc=1107321740|access-date=March 6, 2021|archive-date=February 21, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221025734/https://www.worldcat.org/title/honoring-their-memory-levi-t-scofield-clevelands-monumental-architect-and-sculptor/oclc/1107321740|url-status=live}}</ref>

On March 2, 2019, the [[National Park Service]] erected exhibit panels in Washington to mark the site of his assassination.<ref>{{cite tweet |user=GarfieldNPS |number=1101815971944321024 |date=March 2, 2019 |title=One year ago today, @SmithsonianMag ran an article lamenting that site of Garfield assassination was unmarked. We have rectified that! Exhibit panels are now at up in Washington, DC near site of the shooting.{{spaces}}... [thread]}}</ref>

<gallery class="center" widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Garf 07-04-2008 02;10;53PM.JPG|alt=A large three-story house of wood and stone|[[James A. Garfield National Historic Site|Lawnfield, Garfield National Historic Site]], location of the "[[front porch campaign]]"
File:James A. Garfield Monument 01 (cropped).jpg|[[James A. Garfield Memorial|Garfield Memorial]] at [[Lake View Cemetery (Cleveland)|Lake View Cemetery]] in Cleveland, Ohio
File:James A. Garfield Monument (general view) - Washington, DC.jpg|[[James A. Garfield Monument]] in Washington, D.C.
File:James Garfield2 1882 Issue-5c.jpg|First Garfield postage stamp, 1882
</gallery>

==Legacy and historical view==
For a few years after his assassination, Garfield's life story was seen as an exemplar of the American success story—that even the poorest boy might someday become President of the United States. Peskin wrote: "In mourning Garfield, Americans were not only honoring a president; they were paying tribute to a man whose life story embodied their own most cherished aspirations."{{sfn|Peskin|2000}} As the rivalry between Stalwarts and [[Half-Breeds (politics)|Half-Breeds]] faded from the scene in the late 1880s and after, so too did memories of Garfield. In the 1890s, Americans became disillusioned with politicians, and looked elsewhere for inspiration, focusing on industrialists, labor leaders, scientists, and others as their heroes. Increasingly, Garfield's short time as president was forgotten.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=136}}

{{external media| float = right| video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?159447-1/dark-horse-president-james-garfield ''Booknotes'' interview with Kenneth Ackerman on ''Dark Horse: The Surprise Election and Political Murder of President James A. Garfield'', July 27, 2003], [[C-SPAN]]}}
The 20th century saw no revival for Garfield. [[Thomas Wolfe]] deemed the presidents of the [[Gilded Age]], including Garfield, "lost Americans" whose "gravely vacant and bewhiskered faces mixed, melted, swam together".{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=399}} The politicians of the Gilded Age faded from the public eye, their luster eclipsed by those who had influenced America outside of political office during that time; the [[Robber baron (industrialist)|robber barons]], the inventors, those who had sought social reform, and others who had lived as America rapidly changed. Current events and more recent figures occupied America's attention. According to Ackerman, "the busy Twentieth Century has made Garfield's era seem remote and irrelevant, its leaders ridiculed for their very obscurity."{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=399}}

Garfield's biographers, and those who have studied his presidency, tend to think well of him, and that his presidency saw a promising start before its untimely end. Historian [[Justus D. Doenecke]], while deeming Garfield a bit of an enigma, chronicles his achievements: "by winning a victory over the Stalwarts, he enhanced both the power and prestige of his office. As a man, he was intelligent, sensitive, and alert, and his knowledge of how government worked was unmatched."{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|p=182}} Doenecke criticizes Garfield's dismissal of Merritt in Robertson's favor, and wonders if the president was truly in command of the situation even after the latter's confirmation.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|p=183}} In 1931, Caldwell wrote: "If Garfield lives in history, it will be partly on account of the charm of his personality—but also because in life and in death, he struck the first shrewd blows against a dangerous system of boss rule which seemed for a time about to engulf the politics of the nation. Perhaps if he had lived he could have done no more."{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=363}} Rutkow writes that "James Abram Garfield's presidency is reduced to a tantalizing 'what if.{{Single double}}{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=136}}

In 2002, historian Bernard A. Weisberger said, "[Garfield] was, to some extent, a perfect moderate. He read widely (and unobtrusively) without its visibly affecting his Christianity, his Republicanism, or his general laissez-faire orthodoxy. He was not so much a scholar in politics as a politic scholar."{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=271}} Peskin believes Garfield deserves more credit for his political career than he has received: "True, his accomplishments were neither bold nor heroic, but his was not an age that called for heroism. His stormy presidency was brief, and in some respects, unfortunate, but he did leave the office stronger than he found it. As a public man he had a hand in almost every issue of national importance for almost two decades, while as a party leader he, along with Blaine, forged the Republican Party into the instrument that would lead the United States into the twentieth century."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=611}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|24em}}

==Works cited==
{{refbegin}}

===Books===
* {{cite book|last=Ackerman|first= Kenneth D. |title=Dark Horse: The Surprise Election and Political Murder of James A. Garfield|publisher= Avalon Publishing|location=New York, New York|year= 2003|isbn=978-0-7867-1396-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Bach |first=Penny Balkin |title=Public Art in Philadelphia |publisher=Temple University Press| location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania | year=1992| isbn=978-0-87722-822-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Emma Elizabeth |author-link=Emma Elizabeth Brown |title=The Life and Public Services of James A. Garfield / Twentieth President of the United States |publisher=D. Lothrop Company |location=Boston, Massachusetts |year=1881 |url=https://archive.org/details/lifepublicservic00lcbrow |oclc=3037198 }}
* {{cite book |last=Caldwell |first=Robert Granville |year=1965 |orig-year=1931 |title=James A. Garfield: Party Chieftain |publisher=Dodd, Mead & Co |location=New York, New York |oclc=833793627 }}
* {{cite book |last=Calhoun |first=Charles W. |title=The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant |author-link=Charles W. Calhoun |publisher=University Press of Kansas |location=Lawrence |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-7006-2484-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWXdswEACAAJ }} scholarly review and response by Calhoun at {{doi|10.14296/RiH/2014/2270}}
* {{cite book |last=Clancy |first=Herbert J. |year=1958 |title=The Presidential Election of 1880 |url=https://archive.org/details/presidentialelec0000clan |url-access=registration |publisher=Loyola University Press |location=Chicago, Illinois |isbn=978-1-258-19190-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Crapol |first=Edward P. |year=2000 |title=James G. Blaine: Architect of Empire |publisher=Scholarly Resources |location=Wilmington, Delaware |series=Biographies in American Foreign Policy |volume=4 |isbn=978-0-8420-2604-8 }}
* {{cite book |last=Doenecke |first=Justus D. |author-link=Justus Drew Doenecke |title=The Presidencies of James A. Garfield & Chester A. Arthur |year=1981 |publisher=The Regents Press of Kansas |location=Lawrence, Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-0208-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/presidenciesofja00doen }}
* {{cite book |last=Foner |first=Eric |author-link=Eric Foner |title=Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution 1863–1877 Updated Version |publisher=Harper Perennial |location=New York |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-06-235451-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FhvA0S_op38C }}
* {{cite book |author=Garfield National Memorial Association |title=The Man and the Mausoleum |publisher=Cleveland Print and Publishing Company |location=Cleveland, Ohio |year=1890 |url=https://archive.org/details/manandmausoleum00assogoog |ref={{sfnRef|Memorial 1890}} |oclc=1656783 }}
* {{cite book |last1=McAlister |first1=Lester G. |last2=Tucker |first2=William E. |title=Journey in Faith: A History of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) |location=St. Louis, Missouri |publisher=Chalice Press |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-8272-1703-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/journeyinfaithhi00tuck }}
* {{cite book |last=McFeely |first=William S. |author-link=William S. McFeely |title=Grant: A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/grantbiography00mcfe |url-access=registration |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company, Inc |location=New York, New York |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-393-32394-8 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Peskin |first=Allan |title=Garfield: A Biography |publisher=Kent State University Press |location=Kent, Ohio |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-87338-210-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/garfieldbiograph0000pesk }}
* Pletcher, David M. ''The Awkward Years: American Foreign Relations under Garfield and Arthur'' (U of Missouri Press, 1962). [https://archive.org/details/awkwardyearsamer0000plet online]
* {{cite book |last1=Radford |first1=Warren |last2=Radford |first2=Georgia |title=Outdoor Sculpture in San Francisco: a Heritage of Public Art |location=Gualala, California |publisher=Helsham Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-9717607-1-4 }}
* {{Cite book |first=Ira |last=Rutkow |title=James A. Garfield |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]] |year=2006 |location=New York, New York |oclc=255885600 |isbn=978-0-8050-6950-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Jean Edward |author-link=Jean Edward Smith |title=Grant |url=https://archive.org/details/grant00smit |url-access=registration |publisher=Simon & Schuster Paperback |location=New York, New York |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-684-84927-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Weisberger|first=Bernard A.|title=The Presidents A Reference History James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur|publisher=Charles Scribners's Sons|editor=Henry F. Graff|date=2002}}

===Periodicals===
* {{Cite news |first=Amanda |last=Schaffer |title=A President Felled by an Assassin and 1880s Medical Care |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/25/health/25garf.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |location=New York, New York |date=July 25, 2006 |access-date=February 22, 2017 |archive-date=March 1, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301170020/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/25/health/25garf.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book|title=The Magazine of American History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AdA2AQAAMAAJ|volume=25|year=1891|publisher=A.S. Barnes & Company|location=The University of California|format=digital|ref=The Magazine of American History}}

===Online===
* {{cite web|last=Peskin|first=Allan|title=Garfield, James Abram|url=http://www.anb.org/articles/05/05-00264.html|work=American National Biography Online|date=February 2000|access-date=March 6, 2015|archive-date=February 5, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205020914/http://www.anb.org/articles/05/05-00264.html|url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}
* {{cite web |title=5 cent Garfield |date=May 16, 2006 |publisher=Smithsonian National Postal Museum |url=http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&tid=2032596 |ref={{sfnRef|Smithsonian 2006}} |access-date=September 6, 2014 |archive-date=September 7, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140907004654/http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&tid=2032596 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=Garfield, James Abram 1831–1881|url=https://history.house.gov/People/Listing/G/GARFIELD,-James-Abram-(G000063)/|ref=History, Arts, & Archives United States House of Representatives|website=history.house.gov|publisher=History, Arts, & Archives United States House of Representatives|accessdate=November 12, 2022}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|first=Corydon E.|last=Fuller|title=Reminiscences of James A. Garfield|publisher=Hansebooks|isbn=978-3-34807-944-0|year=2022|orig-date=1887}}
* Goodyear, C. W. (2023). ''[[President Garfield: From Radical to Unifier]]''. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster.
* Graff Henry F., ed. ''The Presidents: A Reference History'' (3rd ed. 2002) [https://www.presidentprofiles.com/ online]
* {{cite journal
|title=The Surgical Treatment of President Garfield
|first1=William A.
|last1=Hammond
|author-link1=William A. Hammond
|first2=John
|last2=Ashhurst, Jr.
|first3=J. Marion
|last3=Sims
|author-link3=J. Marion Sims
|first4=John T.
|last4=Hodgen
|journal=[[The North American Review]]
|volume=133
|number=301
|date=Dec 1881
|pages=578–610
|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25101018
|jstor=25101018}}
* Houdek, John Thomas. "James A. Garfield and Rutherford B. Hayes: A Study in State and National Politics" (PhD dissertation, Michigan State University; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1970. 7111871).
* Menke, Richard. "Media in America, 1881: Garfield, Guiteau, Bell, Whitman." ''Critical Inquiry'' 31.3 (2005): 638–664.
* {{cite book |last=Millard |first=Candice | author-link=Candice Millard |title= Destiny of the Republic: A Tale of Madness, Medicine and the Murder of a President |publisher=Anchor Books |location=New York, New York |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7679-2971-4 }}
* North, Ira Lutts. "A rhetorical criticism of the speaking of James Abram Garfield, 1876-1880" (PhD dissertation, Louisiana State University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1953. DP69446).
* Rushford, Jerry Bryant. "Political Disciple: The Relationship Between James A. Garfield And The Disciples Of Christ" (PhD dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1977. 7807029).
* Skidmore, Max J. "James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur." in ''Maligned Presidents: The Late 19th Century'' (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2014) pp. 63–79.
* Sutton, Thomas C. "James A. Garfield." in ''The Presidents and the Constitution'' (Volume One. New York University Press, 2020) pp. 266–275.
* Uhler, Kevin A. "The demise of patronage: Garfield, the midterm election, and the passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Act" (PhD. Diss. The Florida State University, 2011) [https://fsu.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fsu:183530/datastream/PDF/view online].
* Vermilya, Daniel J. ''James Garfield and the Civil War: For Ohio and the Union'' (Arcadia Publishing, 2015).

==External links==
{{Sister project links|wikt=no|commons=James A. Garfield|q=James A. Garfield|s=Author:James Abram Garfield|v=no|n=no|b=no|d=Q34597|mw=no|m=no|species=no}}
* [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=G000063 Garfield, James Abram, (1831–1881) Congressional Biography]
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/garfield/index.html James Garfield: A Resource Guide] from the Library of Congress
* {{DBCS}}
* [http://millercenter.org/president/garfield Brief essays on James A. Garfield and his administration from the [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]]
* [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151093-1/life-portrait-james-garfield "Life Portrait of James Garfield"], from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', July 26, 1999
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=James Abram Garfield |sopt=t}}
* {{Librivox author |id=11291}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160930170240/http://www.deltau.org/aboutus/notablealumni Notable alumni] of [[Delta Upsilon]] fraternity, including Garfield
* [http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Presidents/Garfield-James-A James A. Garfield Personal Manuscripts]
* [https://archivesspace.williams.edu/repositories/4/resources/275 James A. Garfield Collection] at Williams College Chapin Library
* [https://archivesspace.williams.edu/repositories/2/resources/54 James A. Garfield Collection] at Williams College Archives and Special Collections
* [https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/catalog/nlm:nlmuid-2933066R-root Official medical bulletins relating to the health of U.S. President James Garfield] from the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Contains medical bulletins issued by attending physicians D. Hayes Agnes, J.K. Barnes, D. W. Bliss, Frank H. Hamilton, Robert Reyburn, and J.J. Woodward between July 6 – September 19, 1881.

{{James A. Garfield}}
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Lithopolis, Ohio

2024-10-17T20:38:26Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding Mayor name to infobox, this was originally here but was removed due to being unsourced so I have provided a link to the official Lithopolis website confirming Eric Sandine is the current mayor.

{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Lithopolis, Ohio
| settlement_type = [[Village (United States)|Village]]
| nickname =
| motto = 
| image_skyline = Lithopolis, Ohio.jpg
| imagesize = 300px
| image_caption = Columbus Street downtown
| image_flag =
| image_seal =
| image_map = OHMap-doton-Lithopolis.png
| mapsize = 200px
| map_caption = Location of Lithopolis, Ohio
| image_map1 = Map of Fairfield County Ohio Highlighting Lithopolis Village.png
| mapsize1 = 200px
| map_caption1 = Location of Lithopolis in Fairfield County


| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
| subdivision_name = United States
| subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Ohio]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Ohio|Counties]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Fairfield County, Ohio|Fairfield]], [[Franklin County, Ohio|Franklin]]


| government_footnotes =
| government_type = Mayor-council
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = Eric Sandine<ref>https://www.lithopolis.org/the-village/village-council/</ref>
| leader_title1 =
| leader_name1 =
| established_title =
| established_date =
| unit_pref = Imperial
| area_footnotes = <ref name="TigerWebMapServer">{{cite web|title=ArcGIS REST Services Directory|url=https://tigerweb.geo.census.gov/arcgis/rest/services/TIGERweb/Places_CouSub_ConCity_SubMCD/MapServer|publisher=United States Census Bureau|accessdate=September 20, 2022}}</ref>
| area_magnitude =
| area_total_km2 = 5.88
| area_land_km2 = 5.87
| area_water_km2 = 0.01
| area_total_sq_mi = 2.27
| area_land_sq_mi = 2.27
| area_water_sq_mi = 0.01

| population_as_of = [[2020 United States Census|2020]]
| population_footnotes =
| population_total = 2134
| population_density_km2 = 363.57
| population_density_sq_mi = 941.75

| timezone = [[North American Eastern Time Zone|Eastern (EST)]]
| utc_offset = -5
| timezone_DST = EDT
| utc_offset_DST = -4
| elevation_footnotes = <ref name=gnis/>
| elevation_ft = 807
| coordinates = {{coord|39|48|40|N|82|48|55|W|region:US_type:city|display=inline,title}}
| postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
| postal_code = 43136
| area_code = [[Area code 614|614]]
| blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
| blank_info = 39-44086<ref name="GR2">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=January 31, 2008|title=U.S. Census website}}</ref>
| blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
| blank1_info = 2398453<ref name=gnis>{{GNIS|2398453}}</ref>
| website = {{URL|http://www.lithopolis.org/}}
| footnotes =
| name =
}}
'''Lithopolis''' is a [[village (United States)#Ohio|village]] in [[Fairfield County, Ohio|Fairfield]] and [[Franklin County, Ohio|Franklin]] counties in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Ohio]]. The population was 2,134 at the [[2020 United States Census|2020 census]].

==History==
[[File:Lithopolis Mayors Office 1.jpg|thumb|left|Village of Lithopolis Administrative Building]]
Lithopolis was originally called Centerville, and under the latter name was laid out in 1815.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/stream/historyoffairfie00mill#page/132/mode/2up | title=History of Fairfield County, Ohio, and representative citizens | publisher=Chicago, Richmond-Arnold Pub. Co | author=Miller, Charles Christian | year=1912 | pages=133}}</ref> The city presently is named for valuable deposits of stone near the original town site, the name Lithopolis translating to "stone city" in Greek.<ref>{{cite book|last=Overman|first=William Daniel|title=Ohio Town Names|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015015361465;view=1up;seq=92|year=1958|publisher=Atlantic Press|location=Akron, OH|page=76}}</ref> A post office called Lithopolis has been in operation since 1827.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.postalhistory.com/postoffices.asp?task=display&state=OH&county=Fairfield | title=Fairfield County | publisher=Jim Forte Postal History | accessdate=December 17, 2015}}</ref>

==Geography==

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the village has a total area of {{convert|2.02|sqmi|sqkm|2}}, all land.<ref name="Gazetteer files">{{cite web|title=US Gazetteer files 2010 |url=https://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |accessdate=January 6, 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702145235/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt |archivedate=July 2, 2012 }}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{US Census population
|align=left
|1870= 394
|1880= 404
|1890= 369
|1900= 358
|1910= 331
|1920= 283
|1930= 298
|1940= 288
|1950= 350
|1960= 411
|1970= 705
|1980= 652
|1990= 563
|2000= 600
|2010= 1106
|2020= 2134
|footnote=U.S. Decennial Census<ref name="DecennialCensus">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html|title=Census of Population and Housing|publisher=Census.gov|accessdate=June 4, 2015}}</ref> 2020<ref name="2020 Census">{{cite web|title=2020 Census Data|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile?g=1600000US3944086|website=data.census.gov}}</ref>
}}

===2010 census===
As of the [[census]]<ref name ="wwwcensusgov">{{cite web|title=U.S. Census website|url=https://www.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=January 6, 2013}}</ref> of 2010, there were 1,106 people, 443 households, and 302 families living in the village. The [[population density]] was {{convert|547.5|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|1}}. There were 502 housing units at an average density of {{convert|248.5|/sqmi|/km2|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 94.3% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 3.4% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.7% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], and 1.5% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] people of any race were 2.3% of the population.

There were 443 households, of which 35.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.0% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 31.8% were non-families. 26.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.03.

The median age in the village was 38.2 years. 25.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26% were from 25 to 44; 28.9% were from 45 to 64; and 12.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48.3% male and 51.7% female.

===2000 census===
As of the [[census]]<ref name="GR2" /> of 2000, there were 600 people, 248 households, and 166 families living in the village. The [[population density]] was 579.2/km2; (1,494.9/sq mi;). There were 260 housing units at an average density of 251.0/km2; (647.8/sq mi;). The racial makeup of the village was 98.83% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.17% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.33% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.67% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] people of any race were 0.33% of the population.

There were 248 households, out of which 31.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.0% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.7% were non-families. 27.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 2.96.

In the village, the population was spread out, with 24.5% under the age of 18, 7.8% from 18 to 24, 27.7% from 25 to 44, 24.0% from 45 to 64, and 16.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 96.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.3 males.
[[File:Wagnalls Memorial Library.jpg|thumb|[[Wagnalls Memorial Library]] was donated to the city by [[Mabel Wagnalls]].]]
The median income for a household in the village was $40,208, and the median income for a family was $49,500. Males had a median income of $35,714 versus $27,250 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the village was $19,442. About 3.1% of families and 5.6% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 4.5% of those under the age of 18 and 6.1% of those 65 and older.

==Notable residents==
* [[Adam Willis Wagnalls]], co-founder of [[Funk & Wagnalls Company]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.lithopolis.org/ Village website]
{{Violet Township, Ohio}}{{Fairfield County, Ohio}}
{{Franklin County, Ohio}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Villages in Fairfield County, Ohio]]
[[Category:Villages in Ohio]]
[[Category:Villages in Franklin County, Ohio]]

Governor de Launay

2024-10-15T19:47:49Z

ARandomShyGuy: ←Redirected page to Bernard-René Jourdan de Launay

#REDIRECT [[Bernard-René Jourdan de Launay]]

{{Rcat shell|
{{R from name with title}}
{{R from short name}}
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:de Launay, Governor}}

Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign

2024-10-13T20:16:13Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding list of Mondale endorsements, mostly taken from the List of 1984 Democratic Primaries endorsements but adding more that weren't included. Sorry if the endorsements section is placed in the wrong section of the article. I was unsure of where to place it.

{{Short description|American political campaign}}
{{Infobox U.S. federal election campaign
| committee = Walter Mondale for President 1984
| logo = {{Switcher
|[[File:Mondale Ferraro.svg|250px]]
|General election logo|default=1
|[[File:MondalePrimaryLogo.png|250px]]
|Primary campaign logo}}
| logo_alt =
| campaign = [[1984 Democratic Party presidential primaries|1984 Democratic primaries]] [[1984 United States presidential election|1984 U.S. presidential election]]
| candidate = '''[[Walter Mondale]]''' 42nd [[Vice President of the United States]] ''(1977–1981)'' '''[[Geraldine Ferraro]]''' [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Representative]] for [[New York's 9th congressional district|New York's 9th district]] ''(1979–1985)''
| affiliation = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]
| status = Announced: February 21, 1983 Presumptive nominee: June 6, 1984 Official nominee: July 19, 1984 Lost election: November 6, 1984
| key_people = [[James A. Johnson (businessman)|James A. Johnson]] (campaign chairman)<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/07/22/weekinreview/expanding-mondale-s-tight-circle-of-advisers.html |title=EXPANDING MONDALE'S TIGHT CIRCLE OF ADVISERS|date=July 22, 1984 |newspaper=[[New York Times]]|access-date=February 22, 2022}}</ref> [[Bob Beckel]] (campaign manager) Paul Tully (deputy campaign manager) [[Bert Lance]] (general chairman; resigned on August 3, 1984)<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/03/us/lance-quits-post-in-mondale-drive-over-old-charges.html |title=LANCE QUITS POST IN MONDALE DRIVE OVER 'OLD CHARGES|date=August 3, 1984 |newspaper=New York Times |access-date=February 22, 2022}}</ref>
 [[Maxine Isaacs]] (press secretary) [[Tom Donilon]] (convention director) [[Peter D. Hart]] (pollster) [[John R. Reilly]] (senior advisor & VP Vetter) Michael S. Berman (senior advisor & liaison with the Democratic National Committee) [[Richard Moe]] (senior advisor) [[Marty Kaplan]] (speechwriter) [[Roy Spence]] (television adviser) [[Pat Caddell]] (debate prep)<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/10/04/us/reagan-and-mondale-polish-debate-strategy.html |title=REAGAN AND MONDALE POLISH DEBATE STRATEGY|date=October 4, 1984 |newspaper=New York Times |access-date=February 22, 2022}}</ref>
| receipts =
| receipts_footnote =
| fec_date =
| slogan = America Needs a Change For New Leadership America Needs New Leadership Where's the beef?
| themesong =
| chant =
| successor = [[Michael Dukakis presidential campaign, 1988|Michael Dukakis]]
| website =
}}

The '''Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign''' began on February 21, 1983, when [[Walter Mondale]], a former [[Minnesota]] senator and [[vice president of the United States]], announced that he was running for president in a speech at the [[Minnesota State Capitol]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://archive.mpr.org/stories/1983/02/21/walter-mondale-announces-candidacy-president |title=Walter Mondale announces candidacy for president |date=1983-02-21 |work=Minnesota Public Radio |access-date=2018-01-14}}</ref> Mondale won the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]'s presidential nomination after convincing [[Frank Lautenberg]], a previously unpledged party delegate, to support him. Lautenberg's vote gave Mondale the 1,967 delegate votes needed to become the Democratic Party's nominee.<ref name=nyt>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/06/07/us/democratic-leaders-put-mondale-on-top-in-a-day-of-decision.html |title=Democratic Leaders Put Mondale on Top in a Day of Decision |last=Rosenbaum |first=David E. |date=1984-06-07 |newspaper=New York Times |access-date=2018-01-14 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Mondale picked [[Geraldine Ferraro]], a U.S. representative from New York, as his [[running mate]]. Mondale lost [[1984 United States presidential election|the general election]], held on November 6, 1984, to incumbent Republican President [[Ronald Reagan]] in a [[landslide victory|landslide]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/11/07/politics/07REAG.html |title=Reagan Wins By a Landslide, Sweeping at Least 48 States; G.O.P. Gains Strength in House |last=Raines |first=Howell |date=1984-11-07 |newspaper=New York Times |access-date=2018-01-14 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Had Mondale been elected, he would have been the first U.S. president from Minnesota and the first non-incumbent vice president since [[Richard Nixon]] to take office as president. Ferraro would also have been the country's first female vice president, and the first person from New York since [[Nelson Rockefeller]] to become vice president, whereas her husband, [[John Zaccaro]], would also have been the country's first [[Second ladies and gentlemen of the United States|second gentleman]].

==Background==
{{Main|Walter Mondale}}
A former [[United States Senator]] from [[Minnesota]], Mondale considered running for the Democratic nomination in [[1976 United States presidential election|the 1976 presidential election]], but he dropped out of the race on November 21, 1974, after having built a campaign for two years. When he dropped out, he said that he felt he lacked "the overwhelming desire to be President" and wanted to avoid "sleeping in [[Holiday Inns]]." In 1976, [[Jimmy Carter]] won the presidential election, with Mondale as his running mate. Mondale served as vice president under Carter from 1977 to 1981.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Walter_Mondale.htm |title=U.S. Senate: Walter F. Mondale, 42nd Vice President (1977-1981) |website=www.senate.gov |access-date=2018-01-15}}</ref> In January 1981, shortly before Mondale left office as vice president, [[CBS News]] reported that he had decided to run for president in 1984.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1981/01/14/Vice-President-Walter-Mondale-has-decided-to-run-for/3685348296400/ |title=Vice President Walter Mondale has decided to run for |date=1981-01-14 |work=UPI |access-date=2018-01-15 |language=en}}</ref>

==Gaining the nomination==
===Democratic presidential primaries===
{{Main|1984 Democratic Party presidential primaries}}
[[File:Walter Mondale speaking, RIT NandE Vol15Num7 1983 Sep29 Complete.jpg|thumb|right|Mondale at a presidential forum in September 1983]]
Mondale's opponents in the race for the Democratic nomination in 1984 included [[Reubin Askew]], [[Jesse Jackson]], [[George McGovern]], and [[Gary Hart]].<ref name=eb>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1984 |title=United States presidential election of 1984 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2018-01-14}}</ref> In early polls, Mondale had a comfortable lead over his primary rivals, and he was considered the front-runner for the nomination by odds makers.<ref name=eb/><ref name=slate>{{Cite news |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/politics/2007/09/remember_1984.html |title=Remember 1984 |last=Greenfield |first=Jeff |date=2007-09-07 |work=Slate |access-date=2018-01-14 |language=en-US |issn=1091-2339}}</ref> [[John Glenn]] was considered Mondale's closest rival early in the race, but Glenn's campaign collapsed early on, as did most of the other Democratic candidates' campaigns.<ref name=eb /> In 1983, Mondale was endorsed by almost all [[AFL–CIO]] leaders, as well as by the [[National Organization for Women]], who had not endorsed a candidate since they were founded 17 years earlier.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1983/12/11/mondale-wins-endorsement-of-now-black-alabama-democrats/f2f7d5c7-95b4-4399-8e0c-5b320117858a/ |title=Mondale Wins Endorsement of NOW, Black Alabama Democrats |last=Peterson |first=Bill |date=1983-12-11 |work=Washington Post |access-date=2018-01-15 |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/10/09/weekinreview/labor-gives-mondale-all-that-it-s-got.html |title=Labor Gives Mondale All That It's Got |last=King |first=Seth S. |date=1983-10-09 |newspaper=New York Times |access-date=2018-01-15 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

After Mondale trounced Hart in the February 20, 1984 [[Iowa caucus]]es, getting 48% of the vote to Hart's 16%, many in the media thought that the primaries were effectively over.<ref name=slate /> Mondale's fate soon began to turn, however, after Hart won the [[New Hampshire primary]], which cost Mondale his front-runner status. In an attempt to regain it, he effectively deployed the phrase "[[Where's the beef?]]" to cast doubt on Hart's claim that he offered "new ideas."<ref name=eb /> During the course of all the primaries, Mondale got about 6.8 million votes, Hart 6.5 million, and Jackson 3.3 million.<ref name=slate />

Mondale clinched the nomination in June 1984 by receiving significantly more votes from [[superdelegates]] than Hart did. Lautenberg then stated, "I believe it is time for Gary Hart to come home to the Democratic party and behind the nomination of Walter Mondale." Nevertheless, Hart refused to concede and instead announced his intention to challenge the results at the party's upcoming convention.<ref name=nyt />

===Democratic National Convention===
{{Further|1984 Democratic National Convention}}
Shortly before the 1984 Democratic National Convention, Mondale chose [[Bert Lance]] to be his campaign's general chairman, and unsuccessfully attempted to remove [[Charles Manatt]] from his position as party chairman. Mondale and his campaign stopped their effort to oust Manatt in response to protests from party leaders. On Mondale's decisions, one anonymous Democratic Party aide told ''[[the New York Times]]'': "It's a disaster. People are gulping hard. No one knows why he did it."<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/07/16/us/mondale-s-changes-at-the-last-minute.html |title=Mondale's Changes at the Last Minute |last=Raines |first=Howell |date=1984-07-16 |newspaper=New York Times |access-date=2018-01-15 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> His choice of Lance proved controversial because Lance had previously left his job in the [[Carter administration]] amid charges of bank fraud (of which he was later exonerated).<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/07/22/weekinreview/expanding-mondale-s-tight-circle-of-advisers.html |title=Expanding Mondale's Tight Circle of Advisers |last=Weinraub |first=Bernard |date=1984-07-22 |newspaper=New York Times |access-date=2018-01-15 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

[[File:Candidates Walter Mondale and Geraldine Ferraro campaigning at Ft. Lauderdale, 4-27-84..jpg|thumb|right|Mondale and Ferraro campaigning in 1984]]

Mondale picked three-term Congresswoman [[Geraldine Ferraro]] to be his running mate on July 12, 1984, making her the first woman nominated for vice president by a major U.S. political party.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ferraro-named-vice-presidential-candidate |title=Ferraro named vice presidential candidate |work=HISTORY.com |access-date=2018-01-14}}</ref> The pick was intended to energize Mondale's campaign, which it did at first. This effect proved short-lived, however, as it was soon overshadowed by a scandal involving Ferraro's and her husband's finances.<ref name=eb/>

Shortly before the general election, Mondale defended his choice of Ferraro as his running mate against Reagan, who had recently said that her nomination was not a major breaking point. Mondale replied that he chose Ferraro "because she's the best," adding that "She is far better prepared for her position than Mr. Reagan was when he was elected president of the United States."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1984/11/01/Walter-Mondale-drew-his-biggest-crowd-of-the-campaign/3124468133200/ |title=Walter Mondale drew his biggest crowd of the campaign |date=1984-11-01 |website=UPI |language=en |access-date=2018-01-15}}</ref>

Mondale officially accepted the Democratic Party's nomination at the 1984 Democratic National Convention. He delivered his acceptance speech on the night of July 19, 1984, climaxing that year's convention.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/07/20/us/shaping-mondale-acceptance-speech-took-weeks-of-debate-writer-says.html |title=SHAPING MONDALE ACCEPTANCE SPEECH TOOK WEEKS OF DEBATE, WRITER SAYS |last=Weinraub |first=Bernard |date=1984-07-20 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2018-09-27 |language=en}}</ref> During the speech, Mondale controversially vowed to raise taxes but claimed that Reagan would also do so: "He won't tell you. I just did."

Many observers were surprised by Mondale's decision to call for raising taxes on millions of voters openly during a presidential election, with Reagan campaign consultant [[Stuart Spencer (political consultant)|Stuart Spencer]] telling [[CBS]], "I've never heard a politician say he is going to raise taxes to 30 million, 40 million, 50 million people in a campaign."<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1984/07/20/Walter-Mondales-warning-that-taxes-must-be-increased-to/2905459144000/ |title=Walter Mondale's warning that taxes must be increased to |date=1984-07-20 |work=UPI |access-date=2018-09-27 |language=en}}</ref> Some of Mondale's fellow Democrats also distanced themselves from his tax plan.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1984/1003/100313.html |title=WALTER MONDALE & THE ISSUES |date=1984-10-03 |work=Christian Science Monitor |access-date=2018-09-27 |issn=0882-7729}}</ref>

==Campaign==
[[File:President Ronald Reagan and Democratic candidate Walter Mondale during the second debate in Kansas City, Missouri.jpg|thumb|right|Reagan and Mondale during the second presidential debate (October 21, 1984)]]
During the general election, over a dozen political professionals doubted whether Mondale was appealing enough as a person to win the election and questioned his decision to spend considerable time campaigning in states that he had almost no chance of winning. Some of these professionals also told ''the New York Times'' that they were "amazed" at the sloppy preparation the campaign put into organizing events.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/09/16/us/mondale-strategists-view-debates-as-key-to-galvanizing-campaign.html |title=Mondale Strategists View Debates as Key to Galvanizing Campaign |date=1984-09-16 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2018-01-18 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In October 1984, shortly before the election, Mondale attempted to focus on trying to win [[California]]. That effort included spending over $3 million on television advertising there and flying Mondale in for a rally shortly thereafter. That was part of his strategy to try to win at least one big [[Sun Belt]] state.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/10/28/us/mondale-pressing-campaign-effort-to-win-california.html |title=Mondale Pressing Campaign Effort to Win California |last=Raines |first=Howell |date=1984-10-28 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2018-01-18 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

In the general election, Mondale was endorsed by ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]'', the ''[[Detroit Free Press]]'', and the ''[[Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]'', among other newspapers.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1984-10-29|title=Reagan Is Endorsed by Several Papers; Mondale by Others|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|agency=Associated Press|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/10/29/us/reagan-is-endorsed-by-several-papers-mondale-by-others.html|access-date=2018-01-15|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1984-10-19|title=The Atlanta Constitution endorsed Democratic presidential candidate Walter Mondale|language=en|work=UPI|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1984/10/19/The-Atlanta-Constitution-endorsed-Democratic-presidential-candidate-Walter-Mondale/2930467006400/|access-date=2018-01-15}}</ref>

==Endorsements==
{{hidden begin|titlestyle=background:#cff|title=List of Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign endorsements|contentstyle=border:solid 1px silver; padding:8px; background:white;}}
;Presidents
*[[Jimmy Carter]], 39th [[President of the United States|president of the United States]] (1977–1981) – ''under whom Mondale served as vice president'', [[Governor of Georgia]] (1971–1975), [[Georgia State Senate|Georgia State Senator]] from District 14 (1963–1967)<ref name="New York Times">{{cite news |title=Carter Backs Mondale For Presidency in 1984|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/05/11/us/carter-backs-mondale-for-presidency-in-1984.html|date=11 May 1982}}</ref>

; U.S. Senate
*[[Daniel Inouye]], U.S. Senator from Hawaii (1963–2012)<ref name="uncommitted and mondale">{{Cite news |date=March 14, 1984 |title=Isle Caucus Avoids Choice |page=A1 |work=[[Honolulu Star-Bulletin]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/honolulu-star-bulletin/143800885/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321064912/https://www.newspapers.com/article/honolulu-star-bulletin/143800885/ |archive-date=March 21, 2024 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref><ref name="uncommitted and mondale2" />
*[[Patrick Leahy]], U.S. Senator from Vermont (1975–2023)<ref name="vermont">{{Cite news |date=March 7, 1984 |last=Lynn |first=Frank |title=Hart Scores Again In Vermont Vote |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/03/07/us/hart-scores-again-in-vermont-vote.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217205758/https://www.nytimes.com/1984/03/07/us/hart-scores-again-in-vermont-vote.html |archive-date=February 17, 2024}}</ref>
*[[George McGovern]], U.S Senator from South Dakota (1963-1981), [[George McGovern 1972 presidential campaign|1972 Democratic Nominee]] for President<ref>{{cite news |title=MCGOVERN, ENDORSING MONDALE, URGES 'STIRRING VISION' FOR NATION|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/06/14/us/mcgovern-endorsing-mondale-urges-stirring-vision-for-nation.html|date=14 June 1984}}</ref>

; U.S. House of Representatives
*[[Glenn M. Anderson]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California (1969–1993) ''(previously endorsed Alan Cranston)''<ref name="cranston drop 2" />
*[[Jim Bates (politician)|Jim Bates]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from [[California's 44th congressional district]] (1983–1991)<ref name="cranston drop 2" />
*[[Anthony Beilenson]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California (1977–1997)<ref name="cranston drop 2" />
*[[Douglas H. Bosco]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from [[California's 1st congressional district]] (1983–1991)<ref name="cranston drop 2" />
*[[Sala Burton]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from [[California's 5th congressional district]] (1983–1987) ''(previously endorsed Alan Cranston)''<ref name="cranston drop 2" />
*[[Barbara Boxer]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from [[California's 6th congressional district]] (1983–1993)<ref name="cranston drop 2" />
*[[Tony Coelho]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from [[California's 15th congressional district]] (1979–1989)<ref name="cranston drop 2" />
*[[Mervyn Dymally]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from [[California's 31st congressional district]] (1981–1993)<ref name="cranston drop 2" />
*[[Don Edwards]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California (1963–1995) ''(previously endorsed Alan Cranston)''<ref name="cranston drop 2">{{Cite news |date=March 10, 1984 |title=Roberti Endorses |page=13 |work=[[Napa Valley Register]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-napa-valley-register/140956246/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214213037/https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-napa-valley-register/140956246/ |archive-date=February 14, 2024 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref>
*[[Tom Harkin]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from [[Iowa's 5th congressional district]] (1975–1985)<ref name="mondale team">{{Cite news |date=January 29, 1984 |title=Mondale says he's offering voters a 'real Democrat' |page=24A |work=[[The Gazette (Cedar Rapids, Iowa)|The Gazette]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-gazette/140870962/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213173843/https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-gazette/140870962/ |archive-date=February 13, 2024 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref>
*[[Cecil Heftel]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from [[Hawaii's 1st congressional district]] (1977–1986)<ref name="uncommitted and mondale2">{{Cite news |date=March 14, 1984 |title=Isles' delegates mostly 'uncommitted' |page=A1 |work=[[Honolulu Star-Advertiser]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-honolulu-advertiser/143800996/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321065640/https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-honolulu-advertiser/143800996/ |archive-date=March 21, 2024 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref>
*[[Richard H. Lehman]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California (1983–1995)<ref name="cranston drop 2" />
*[[Matthew G. Martínez]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California (1982–2001) ''(previously endorsed Alan Cranston)''<ref name="cranston drop 2" />
*[[Bob Matsui]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California (1979–2005)<ref name="cranston drop 2" />
*[[George Miller (California politician)|George Miller]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California (1975–2015)<ref name="cranston drop 2" />
*[[Leon Panetta]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California (1977–1993)<ref name="cranston drop 2" />
*[[Pete Stark]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California (1973–2013)<ref name="cranston drop 2" />
*[[Esteban Torres]], member of the U.S. House of Representatives from [[California's 34th congressional district]] (1983–1999) ''(previously endorsed Alan Cranston)''<ref name="cranston drop 2" />

; Governors
*[[Toney Anaya]], 26th [[Governor of New Mexico]] (1983–1987)<ref name="gov" />
*[[Cecil Andrus]], 26th and 28th [[List of governors of Idaho|Governor of Idaho]] (1971–1977; 1987–1995)<ref>{{Cite news |date=June 10, 1984 |title=Andrus urges female Demo running mate |page=3 |work=[[South Idaho Press]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/south-idaho-press/141631060/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220005209/https://www.newspapers.com/article/south-idaho-press/141631060/ |archive-date=February 20, 2024 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref>
*[[Edgar Herschler]], 28th [[List of governors of Wyoming|Governor of Wyoming]] (1975–1987)<ref name="herschler">{{Cite news |date=March 10, 1984 |title=Hart, Mondale showdown today in state |page=A1 |work=[[Casper Star-Tribune]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/casper-star-tribune/140955442/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214212033/https://www.newspapers.com/article/casper-star-tribune/140955442/ |archive-date=February 14, 2024 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref>
*[[Jay Rockefeller]], 29th [[List of governors of West Virginia|Governor of West Virginia]] (1977–1985)<ref name="gov">{{Cite news |date=June 3, 1984 |title=Primaries |page=6A |work=[[Star-Gazette]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/star-gazette/141632909/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220005613/https://www.newspapers.com/article/star-gazette/141632909/ |archive-date=February 20, 2024 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref>
*[[Bob Graham]], 38th [[List of governors of Florida|Governor of Florida]] (1979–1987) ''(previously endorsed Reubin Askew)''<ref>{{cite news |title=Florida Governor Endorses Mondale|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/06/14/us/mcgovern-endorsing-mondale-urges-stirring-vision-for-nation.html|date=14 June 1982}}</ref>

; Statewide officials
*[[Madeleine Kunin]], 75th [[List of lieutenant governors of Vermont|Lieutenant Governor of Vermont]] (1979–1983)<ref name="vermont" />
*[[Tom Miller (politician)|Tom Miller]], 31st and 33rd [[Attorney General of Iowa]] (1979–1991; 1995–2023)<ref name="mondale team" />

; State legislative leaders
*[[Donald Avenson]], [[List of speakers of the Iowa House of Representatives|Speaker]] of the [[Iowa House of Representatives]] (1983–1990)<ref name="mondale team" />
*[[Lowell Junkins]], Majority Leader of the [[Iowa Senate]]<ref name="mondale team" />
*[[David Roberti]], [[President pro tempore]] of the [[California State Senate]] (1981–1991) ''(previously endorsed Alan Cranston)''<ref name="cranston drop">{{Cite news |date=March 10, 1984 |title=Roberti Endorses |page=13 |work=[[Napa Valley Register]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-napa-valley-register/140955950/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214212613/https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-napa-valley-register/140955950/ |archive-date=February 14, 2024 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref>

; State legislators
*[[Julian Bond]], member of the [[Georgia State Senate]] from the 39th district (1975–1987)<ref name="spell doom">{{Cite news |date=January 29, 1984 |last=Raines |first=Howell |title=Southern Primaries Could Spell Trouble for Glenn |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/01/29/us/southern-primaries-could-spell-trouble-for-glenn.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214221545/https://www.nytimes.com/1984/01/29/us/southern-primaries-could-spell-trouble-for-glenn.html |archive-date=February 14, 2024}}</ref>

; Party officials
*Edward Campbell, former chair of the [[Iowa Democratic Party]]<ref name="mondale team" />
*Betty Strong, chair of the [[Woodbury County, Iowa|Woodbury County]] Democratic Party<ref name="chairs">{{Cite news |date=February 5, 1984 |title=Many voters still undecided, 'soft' |page=5A |work=[[The Des Moines Register]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-des-moines-register/140872713/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213180452/https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-des-moines-register/140872713/ |archive-date=February 13, 2024 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref>
*[[John B. Anderson]], former [[House Republican Conference|Chair of the House Republican Conference]] (1969-1979), member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Illinois (1961–1981), 1980 Independent candidate for President<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1984/08/28/anderson-to-endorse-mondale/5920dd0c-930b-492e-a68b-985f1e708170/ |title=Anderson To Endorse Mondale |last=Broder |first=David |date=August 28, 1984 |work=Washington Post}}</ref>

; Organizations
*[[National Organization for Women]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1983/12/11/mondale-wins-endorsement-of-now-black-alabama-democrats/f2f7d5c7-95b4-4399-8e0c-5b320117858a/ |title=Mondale Wins Endorsement of NOW, Black Alabama Democrats |last=Peterson |first=Bill |date=1983-12-11 |work=Washington Post |access-date=2018-01-15 |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref>
{{hidden end}}

==Results==
Soon after the election, Democrats offered multiple different theories for why Mondale lost in a landslide: Jesse Jackson argued that the Democrats had pandered too much to white men, and Mondale himself said in February 1985 that he lost because of his inability to appear compelling on television. [[William Raspberry]] disagreed with Mondale's self-assessment and argued, "What cost Mondale was the perception that Reagan, while perhaps on the wrong side of a number of specific issues, generally stood for what most Americans stood for, while Mondale, though often on the right side of the specifics, didn't really stand for anything at all."<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1985/02/20/the-real-reason-mondale-lost/df7dac28-2869-4782-aa5b-6d363d73885e/ |title=The Real Reason Mondale Lost |last=Raspberry |first=William |date=1985-02-20 |work=Washington Post |access-date=2018-01-15 |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref>

Writing in ''[[the Washington Post]]'' in March 1985, [[Mark Shields]] argued, "The single, biggest mistake made by candidate Mondale and his campaign was the failure to endorse and to embrace the Fair Tax plan of Sen. [[Bill Bradley]] (D–N.J.) and Rep. [[Dick Gephardt]] (D–Mo.)."<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1985/03/15/mondales-mistake/4390cdb4-7cac-41ac-b0ca-acba44876984/ |title=Mondale's Mistake |last=Shields |first=Mark |date=1985-03-15 |work=Washington Post |access-date=2018-01-15 |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.4president.org/speeches/1984/mondale1984announcement.htm Walter Mondale announcement speech]
*[http://www.4president.org/speeches/1984/mondale1984acceptance.htm Walter Mondale acceptance speech]

{{1984 United States presidential election}}
{{Democratic presidential campaigns}}
{{Unsuccessful major party pres candidates}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Walter Mondale presidential campaign, 1984}}
[[Category:Walter Mondale|1984 presidential campaign]]
[[Category:1984 Democratic Party (United States) presidential campaigns|Mondale, Walter]]
[[Category:1984 in women's history]]

Pat Buchanan 1996 presidential campaign

2024-10-13T19:30:20Z

ARandomShyGuy: Putting Buchanan's name in quotations to match other campaign articles, adding Buchanan's profile information to infobox, and adding Buchanan's slogan taken from the List of U.S presidential campaign slogans article.

{{Short description|American political campaign}}
{{Infobox U.S. federal election campaign|candidate='''[[Pat Buchanan]]''' [[White House Communications Director]] (1985-1987)|affiliation=[[Republican Party (U.S.)|Republican]]|logo=Pat Buchanan presidential campaign, 1996.png|announced=February 1995|suspended=August 1996|slogan=Go Pat Go}}

In 1996, [[Pat Buchanan]], an American author and political commentator, sought the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] (GOP) nomination for the [[1996 United States presidential election]]. He lost the nomination to [[Bob Dole]], who lost the general election.

Buchanan had ran for the nomination in 1992, but lost to [[George H. W. Bush|George H.W. Bush]]. After the 1996 election, Buchanan associated with the [[Reform Party of the United States of America|Reform Party]], and successfully became that party's nomination for the [[2000 United States presidential election|2000 presidential election]], but he again lost the general election.

== Background ==
Pat Buchanan was an aide to presidents [[Richard Nixon]], [[Gerald Ford]], and [[Ronald Reagan]]. Meanwhile, he became an author and political commentator on TV and radio. He was a "harsh critic" of President [[George H. W. Bush|George H.W. Bush]] during his term, and in 1992, Buchanan ran for the [[1992 Republican Party presidential primaries|Republican nomination]] in the [[1992 Croatian presidential election|1992 presidential election]], against him. Bush ultimately won the nomination. Buchanan received 23% of the primary vote.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Pat Buchanan {{!}} Biography & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Patrick-J-Buchanan |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Campaign ==
[[File:Pat Buchanan, 1986.jpg|thumb|266x266px|Buchanan in 1986]]
Pat Buchanan announced his campaign in February 1995.<ref>{{Cite web |last=TIME |date=1995-02-15 |title=1996 . . . BUCHANAN'S BACK |url=https://time.com/archive/6922873/1996-buchanans-back/ |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=TIME |language=en}}</ref> The [[The Christian Science Monitor|''Christian Science Monitor'']] wrote that he "has highlighted an ideological schism within the GOP at a time when the party would rather be closing ranks to defeat [[Bill Clinton|President Clinton]]."<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title=PAT BUCHANAN |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1996/0118/18101.html |access-date=2024-10-06 |work=Christian Science Monitor |issn=0882-7729}}</ref> He used "blunt, memorable" [[Populism|populist]] and [[Nativism (politics)|nativist]] language and divided the right wing, especially because of his opposition to [[free trade]] economic policies like [[North American Free Trade Agreement|NAFTA]] which many conservatives supported.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Pat Buchanan: Former presidential candidate |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/politico50/2016/pat-buchanan/ |url-status=live |access-date=October 6, 2024 |website=Politico}}</ref> ''[[Britannica]]'' writes: "Buchanan criticized U.S. attempts to broker peace in the world and what he saw as the undue [[Israel lobby in the United States|influence of Israel]] on U.S. foreign policy. He advocated [for] a temporary moratorium on immigration. He decried the feminist and homosexual rights movements and was adamantly opposed to abortion. He denounced as futile Republican attempts to win elections by moving toward the middle of the political spectrum."<ref name=":0" /> He also wanted the U.S. stop giving foreign countries aid and take American soldiers [[Bosnian War|out of Bosnia]], saying American troops should be sent to the [[Mexico–United States border|U.S.-Mexico border]] instead.<ref name=":1" />

After being compared ideologically to [[Ku Klux Klan]] member [[David Duke]], Buchanan disavowed him and removed a campaign adviser who had ties to him.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=September 8, 2022 |title=The Man Who Won the Republican Party Before Trump Did |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/08/opinion/pat-buchanan-donald-trump.html |url-status=live |access-date=October 6, 2024 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> Buchanan won the [[1996 New Hampshire Republican presidential primary|New Hampshire primary]], receiving 27% of the vote, compared to Kansas Senator [[Bob Dole]] at 26% and former Tennessee Governor [[Lamar Alexander]] at 23%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Buchanan Takes New Hampshire Primary in Upset {{!}} News {{!}} The Harvard Crimson |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1996/2/21/buchanan-takes-new-hampshire-primary-in/ |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=www.thecrimson.com}}</ref> Buchanan had difficulty later on. He continued his campaign until August 1996, and did not endorse Bob Dole, who won the nomination. (Bob Dole lost the general election.) He encouraged his supporters to not leave the Republican Party.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=August 12, 1996 |title=Declaring a Triumph of Ideas, Buchanan Calls for a G.O.P. Truce |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/08/12/us/declaring-a-triumph-of-ideas-buchanan-calls-for-a-gop-truce.html |url-status=live |access-date=October 6, 2024 |website=The New York Times}}</ref>

== Aftermath ==
In October 1999, Buchanan left the Republican Party and became associated with the [[Reform Party of the United States of America|Reform Party]]. He successfully became their nomination for the [[2000 United States presidential election|2000 presidential election]], but lost the general election.<ref name=":0" /> Some commentators believe Buchanan's policies may have inspired those of [[Donald Trump]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

== References ==

[[Category:1996 United States presidential campaigns]]
[[Category:1996 United States Republican presidential primaries]]
[[Category:Pat Buchanan]]

President Sheinbaum

2024-10-03T01:18:50Z

ARandomShyGuy: ←Redirected page to Claudia Sheinbaum

#REDIRECT [[Claudia Sheinbaum]]

{{Rcat shell|
{{R from name with title}}
{{R from short name}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Sheinbaum, President}}

Senator Atchison

2024-10-03T01:13:54Z

ARandomShyGuy: ←Redirected page to David Rice Atchison

#REDIRECT [[David Rice Atchison]]

{{Rcat shell|
{{R from name with title}}
{{R from short name}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Atchison, Senator}}

JD Vance couch controversy

2024-09-30T01:47:15Z

ARandomShyGuy: All mentions of the word "couch" have been removed from the JD Vance article and it seems to be scrubbed clean of mentioning the hoax, therefore I'm redirecting to a section of the Hillbilly Elegy article that summarizes the hoax.

#REDIRECT [[Hillbilly_Elegy#Renewed_attention]]

{{R with possibilities}}

Perot Choate

2024-09-28T16:54:28Z

ARandomShyGuy: ←Redirected page to Ross Perot 1996 presidential campaign

#REDIRECT [[Ross Perot 1996 presidential campaign]]

William Henry Harrison

2024-09-27T13:03:45Z

ARandomShyGuy: /* Presidency (1841) */ Fixing error that caused short description to override page.

{{Short description|President of the United States in 1841}}
{{Redirect|William H. Harrison|other people|William Harrison (disambiguation){{!}}William Harrison|and|William Henry Harrison (disambiguation)}}
{{pp|small=yes|Vandalism }}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = William Henry Harrison
| image = William Henry Harrison.jpg
| caption = Harrison by [[Albert Gallatin Hoit]], {{circa|1840}}
| order = 9th
| office = President of the United States
| vicepresident = John Tyler
| term_start = March 4, 1841
| term_end = April 4, 1841
| predecessor = [[Martin Van Buren]]
| successor = [[John Tyler]]
| office1 = [[List of ambassadors of the United States to Colombia|United States Minister to Gran Colombia]]
| president1 = {{ubl|[[John Quincy Adams]]|[[Andrew Jackson]]}}
| term_start1 = February 5, 1829
| term_end1 = September 26, 1829
| predecessor1 = [[Beaufort Taylor Watts]]
| successor1 = [[Thomas Patrick Moore]]
| jr/sr2 = United States Senator
| state2 = [[Ohio]]
| term_start2 = March 4, 1825
| term_end2 = May 20, 1828
| predecessor2 = [[Ethan Allen Brown]]
| successor2 = [[Jacob Burnet]]
| state_senate3 = Ohio
| district3 = [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]]
| term_start3 = December 5, 1819
| term_end3 = December 2, 1821
| predecessor3 = Ephraim Brown
| successor3 = Ephraim Brown
| state4 = Ohio
| district4 = {{ushr|OH|1|1st}}
| term_start4 = October 8, 1816
| term_end4 = March 3, 1819
| predecessor4 = [[John McLean]]
| successor4 = [[Thomas R. Ross]]
| office5 = 1st [[Governor of Indiana|Governor of the Indiana Territory]]
| appointer5 = [[John Adams]]
| term_start5 = January 10, 1801
| term_end5 = December 28, 1812
| predecessor5 = Office established
| successor5 = [[Thomas Posey]]
| office6 = {{br entries|Delegate to the|[[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]|from the [[Northwest Territory]]'s|[[Northwest Territory's at-large congressional district|at-large]] district}}
| term_start6 = March 4, 1799
| term_end6 = May 14, 1800
| predecessor6 = Constituency established
| successor6 = [[William McMillan (congressman)|William McMillan]]
| office7 = 2nd [[Ohio Secretary of State|Secretary of the Northwest Territory]]
| governor7 = [[Arthur St. Clair]]
| term_start7 = June 28, 1798
| term_end7 = October 1, 1799
| predecessor7 = [[Winthrop Sargent]]
| successor7 = [[Charles Willing Byrd]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1773|2|9}}
| birth_place = [[Charles City County, Virginia]], [[British America]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1841|4|4|1773|2|9}}
| death_place = [[Washington, D.C.]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[Typhoid fever|Enteric fever]]
| restingplace = [[William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial|Harrison Tomb State Memorial]]
| party = {{ubl|[[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]] (before 1828)|[[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] (from 1836)}}
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Anna Harrison|Anna Symmes]]|November 22, 1795}}
| children = 10, including [[John Scott Harrison|John]], 2 with Dilsia, including [[Marie Harrison]]
| relatives = [[Harrison family of Virginia]]
| father = [[Benjamin Harrison V]]
| education = {{ubl|[[Hampden–Sydney College]]|[[University of Pennsylvania]]}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Soldier|politician}}
| awards = {{ubl|[[Congressional Gold Medal]]|[[Thanks of Congress]]}}
| signature = William Henry Harrison Signature-full.svg
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
| branch = {{flatlist|*[[United States Army]]
**[[Indiana Territory]] militia}}
| serviceyears = {{ubl|1791–1798|1811|1812–1814}}
| rank = [[Major general (United States)|Major general]]
| unit = [[Legion of the United States]]
| commands = [[Army of the Northwest (United States)|Army of the Northwest]]
| battles = {{tree list}}
*[[Northwest Indian War]]
**[[Siege of Fort Recovery]]
**[[Battle of Fallen Timbers]]
*[[Tecumseh's War]]
**[[Battle of Tippecanoe]]
*[[War of 1812]]
**[[Siege of Fort Wayne]]
**[[Battle of the Thames]]
{{Tree list/end}}
}}

'''William Henry Harrison''' (February 9, 1773{{spnd}}April 4, 1841) was an American military officer and politician who served as the ninth [[president of the United States]] from March 4 to April 4, 1841, the shortest presidency in U.S. history. He was also the first U.S. president to die in office, causing a brief [[constitutional crisis]] since [[United States presidential line of succession|presidential succession]] was not then fully defined in the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]]. Harrison was the last president born as a British subject in the [[Thirteen Colonies]] and was the grandfather of [[Benjamin Harrison]], the 23rd U.S. president.

Harrison was born into the [[Harrison family of Virginia]] in 1773 as a son of [[Benjamin Harrison V]], a [[Founding Fathers of the United States|U.S. Founding Father]]. In 1794, Harrison participated in the [[Battle of Fallen Timbers]], an American military victory that ended the [[Northwest Indian War]]. In 1811, he led a military force against [[Tecumseh's confederacy]] at the [[Battle of Tippecanoe]], where he earned the nickname "'''Old Tippecanoe'''". He was promoted to major general in the Army during the [[War of 1812]], and led American infantry and cavalry to victory at the [[Battle of the Thames]] in [[Upper Canada]].

Harrison's political career began in 1798, with an appointment as secretary of the [[Northwest Territory]]. In 1799, he was elected as the territory's non-voting delegate in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]. He became governor of the newly established [[Indiana Territory]] in 1801 and negotiated multiple treaties with American Indian tribes, with the nation acquiring millions of acres. After the War of 1812, he moved to Ohio where, [[1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections|in 1816]], he was elected to represent the state's {{ushr|OH|1|c}} in the House. [[1824 and 1825 United States Senate elections|In 1824]], he was elected to the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]], though his Senate term was cut short by his appointment as [[minister plenipotentiary]] to [[Gran Colombia]] in 1828.

Harrison returned to private life in Ohio until he was nominated as one of several [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] nominees in the [[1836 United States presidential election|1836 U.S. presidential election]], in which he lost to [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] vice president [[Martin Van Buren]]. In the [[1840 United States presidential election|1840 presidential election]], the party nominated him again, with [[John Tyler]] as his running mate, under the campaign slogan "[[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too]]", and Harrison defeated Van Buren. Just three weeks after his inauguration, Harrison fell ill and died days later. After resolution of an ambiguity in the constitution regarding succession to the powers and duties of the office, Tyler became president. Harrison is remembered for his Indian treaties, and also his inventive election campaign tactics. He is often omitted in [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|historical presidential rankings]] because of his brief tenure.

==Early life and education==
William Henry Harrison was the seventh and youngest child of [[Benjamin Harrison V]] and Elizabeth (Bassett) Harrison. Born on February 9, 1773, at [[Berkeley Plantation]], the home of the [[Harrison family of Virginia]] on the [[James River]] in [[Charles City County, Virginia|Charles City County]],{{sfn|Dowdey|1957|pp=291–315}} he became the last [[President of the United States|United States president]] not born as an American citizen.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://touringohio.com/profiles/harrison.html|title=William Henry Harrison|publisher=Touring Ohio, Heart of America|access-date=November 18, 2021}}</ref> The Harrisons were a prominent political family of English descent whose ancestors had been in [[Virginia]] since the 1630s.<ref name= "Smith">{{cite book|editor-last1=Smith|editor-first1=Howard|editor-last2=Riley|editor-first2=Edward M.|title=Benjamin Harrison and the American Revolution|publisher=Virginia Independence Bicentennial Commission|series=Virginia in the Revolution|year=1978|location=Williamsburg, VA|pages=59–65|oclc=4781472}}</ref> His father was a Virginia [[Planter class|planter]], who served as a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] (1774–1777) and who signed the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]].<ref name= "Smith"/> His father also served in the Virginia legislature and as the fifth governor of Virginia (1781–1784) in the years during and after the [[American Revolutionary War]].<ref name= "Smith"/> Harrison's older brother [[Carter Bassett Harrison]] represented Virginia in the House of Representatives (1793–1799).<ref>{{cite web|title=Carter Bassett Harrison|work=Biographical Directory of the United States Congress|publisher=U.S. Congress|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000266|access-date=September 14, 2016}}</ref> William Henry often referred to himself as a "child of the revolution", as indeed he was, having grown up in a home just {{convert|30|mi|abbr=on}} from where Washington won the war against the British in the [[Battle of Yorktown]].<ref name="Freehling">{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Life Before the Presidency| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/life-before-the-presidency| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 8, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref>

Harrison was tutored at home until age 14 when he attended [[Hampden–Sydney College]], a [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] college in [[Hampden Sydney, Virginia]].<ref name= "Smith"/><ref name=Perrysburg>{{cite web|url=https://www.historicperrysburg.org/wh-harrison|title=W. H. Harrison biography|publisher=Perrysburg, Ohio|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> He studied there for three years, receiving a classical education that included Latin, Greek, French, logic, and debate.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=18}}{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=45}} His Episcopalian father removed him from the college, possibly for religious reasons, and after brief stays at an academy in [[Southampton County, Virginia]], and with his elder brother [[Benjamin Harrison VI|Benjamin]] in Richmond, he went to [[Philadelphia]] in 1790.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=14}}

His father died in the spring of 1791, and he was placed in the care of [[Robert Morris (financier)|Robert Morris]], a close family friend in Philadelphia.<ref name= "Rabin">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thedp.com/article/2017/01/william-henry-harrison-history|title=A Penn graduate in the Oval Office|last=Rabin|first=Alex|date=January 25, 2017|work=[[The Daily Pennsylvanian]]|access-date=April 3, 2019}}</ref> He studied medicine at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]. During his time at Penn, he studied with Doctor [[Benjamin Rush]], a [[Founding Father of the United States]] and a Penn professor of chemistry and medicine and [[William Shippen Sr.]]<ref name= "Rabin"/> His older brother inherited their father's money, so he lacked the funds for his further medical schooling, which he had also discovered he didn't prefer.<ref name="Freehling"/> He therefore withdrew from Penn, though school archives record him as a "non-graduate alumnus of Penn's medical school class of 1793".<ref name= "Rabin"/> With the influence of his father's friend, Governor [[Henry Lee III]], he embarked upon a military career.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=16}}

===Early military career===
On August 16, 1791, within 24 hours of meeting Lee, Harrison, age 18, was commissioned as an [[Ensign (rank)#United States|ensign]] in the Army and assigned to the [[First American Regiment]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} He was initially assigned to [[Fort Washington (Ohio)|Fort Washington]], [[Cincinnati]] in the [[Northwest Territory]] where the army was engaged in the ongoing [[Northwest Indian War]].{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=14, 16, 22}} Biographer [[William W. Freehling]] says that young Harrison, in his first military act, rounded up about eighty thrill-seekers and troublemakers off Philadelphia's streets, talked them into signing enlistment papers, and marched them to Fort Washington.<ref name="Freehling"/>

Harrison was promoted to [[first lieutenant (United States)|lieutenant]] after Major General [[Anthony Wayne|"Mad Anthony" Wayne]] took command of the western army in 1792, following a disastrous defeat under [[Arthur St. Clair]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} In 1793, he became Wayne's [[aide-de-camp]] and acquired the skills to command an army on the frontier;<ref name=Perrysburg/> he participated in Wayne's decisive victory at the [[Battle of Fallen Timbers]] on August 20, 1794, which ended the Northwest Indian War.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=23–26}} He received the following commendation from Wayne for his role in the battle: "I must add the name of my faithful and gallant Aide-de-camp ... Lieutenant Harrison, who ... rendered the most essential service by communicating my orders in every direction ... conduct and bravery exciting the troops to press for victory."<ref name="Freehling"/> Harrison was a signatory of the [[Treaty of Greenville]] (1795), as witness to Wayne, the principal negotiator for the U.S.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Under the terms of the treaty, a coalition of Indians ceded a portion of their lands to the federal government, opening two-thirds of [[Ohio]] to settlement.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nelson |first=Paul David |year=1985 |title=Anthony Wayne, Soldier of the Early Republic |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0253307511 |url=https://archive.org/details/anthonywaynesold00nels/page/282 |page=[https://archive.org/details/anthonywaynesold00nels/page/282 282] }}</ref>{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=21, 28–30}}

At his mother's death in 1793, Harrison inherited a portion of his family's Virginia estate, including approximately {{convert|3000|acre|km2}} of land and several slaves. He was serving in the Army at the time and sold the land to his brother.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=39}} Harrison was promoted to [[Captain (United States O-3)|captain]] in May 1797 and resigned from the Army on June 1, 1798.{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=67–69}}

===Marriage and family===
Harrison met [[Anna Harrison|Anna Tuthill Symmes]] of [[North Bend, Ohio]] in 1795 when he was 22. She was a daughter of Anna Tuthill and Judge [[John Cleves Symmes]], who served as a colonel in the Revolutionary War and as a representative to the [[Congress of the Confederation]].{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=46}} Harrison asked the judge for permission to marry Anna but was refused, so the couple waited until Symmes left on business. They then eloped and were married on November 25, 1795, at the North Bend home of Stephen Wood, treasurer of the Northwest Territory.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=38–39}} They honeymooned at [[Fort Washington (Cincinnati, Ohio)|Fort Washington]], since Harrison was still on military duty.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=40}} Judge Symmes confronted him two weeks later at a farewell dinner for General Wayne, sternly demanding to know how he intended to support a family. Harrison responded, "by my sword, and my own right arm, sir".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/greatpresidentia00dole |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/greatpresidentia00dole/page/222 222] |title=Great Presidential Wit: – I Wish I was in this Book |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7432-0392-0 |last1=Dole |first1=Bob |author-link=Bob Dole|year=2001 }}</ref> The match was advantageous for Harrison, as he eventually exploited his father-in-law's connections with land speculators, which facilitated his departure from the army.<ref name="Freehling"/> Judge Symmes' doubts about him persisted, as he wrote to a friend, "He can neither bleed, plead, nor preach, and if he could plow I should be satisfied."<ref name="Freehling"/> Matters eventually became cordial with the father-in-law, who later sold the Harrisons {{convert|160|acres|ha}} of land in North Bend, which enabled Harrison to build a home and start a farm.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=40}}

Anna was frequently in poor health during the marriage, primarily because of her many pregnancies, yet she outlived William by 23 years, dying on February 25, 1864, at 88.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=18}}{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=56}}

The Harrisons had ten children:

*Elizabeth Bassett (1796–1846)
*John Cleves Symmes (1798–1830), who married the only surviving daughter of [[Zebulon Pike]]
*Lucy Singleton (1800–1826)
*William Henry Jr. (1802–1838)
*[[John Scott Harrison|John Scott]] (1804–1878), father of future U.S. president [[Benjamin Harrison]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bioguide.congress.gov/search/bio/H000272|title=John Scott Harrison|publisher=U. S. Congress|access-date=January 26, 2022}}</ref>
*Benjamin (1806–1840)
*Mary Symmes (1809–1842)
*Carter Bassett (1811–1839)
*Anna Tuthill (1813–1865)
*James Findlay (1814–1817)<ref>{{Cite web|title=William Henry Harrison: Fast Facts| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=September 26, 2016}}</ref>

Professor Kenneth R. Janken, in his biography of [[Walter Francis White]], claims that Harrison had six children by an enslaved African-American woman named [[Dilsia (slave)|Dilsia]] and gave four of them to a brother before running for president to avoid scandal. The assertion is based on the White family's oral history.<ref>{{cite book|first=Kenneth Robert|last=Janken|title=White: The Biography of Walter White: Mr. NAACP|location=New York|publisher=The New York Press|year=2003|page=3|isbn=978-1-5658-4773-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Phillips |first1=Amber |title=Warren Harding and 5 other presidents who have faced 'love child' questions |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/08/13/warren-harding-and-the-5-other-presidents-who-have-faced-love-child-questions/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post|Washington Post]] |date=August 13, 2015}}</ref> In her 2012 biography of Harrison, author [[Gail Collins]] describes this as an unlikely story, although White believed it to be true.{{sfn|Collins|2012|p=103}}

==Political career==
Harrison began his political career when he temporarily resigned from the military on June 1, 1798, and campaigned among his friends and family for a post in the Northwest Territorial government.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} His close friend [[Timothy Pickering]] was serving as Secretary of State, and along with Judge Symmes' influence, he was recommended to replace [[Winthrop Sargent]], the outgoing territorial secretary.<ref name="Freehling"/> President [[John Adams]] appointed Harrison to the position in July 1798.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} The work of recording the activities of the territory was tedious, and he soon became bored, and sought a position in the U. S. Congress.{{sfn|Greene|2007|p=44}}

===U.S. Congress===
[[File:W.H. Harrison ca. 1800.jpg|thumb|left|An engraved portrait print of Harrison at age 27, as a delegate member of the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] from the [[Northwest Territory]] by [[Charles Balthazar Julien Févret de Saint-Mémin]], {{Circa|1800}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/2007676954/|title=William Henry Harrison, 9th Pres. of United States|last=de Saint-Mémin|first= Charles Balthazar Julien Fevret|publisher=Library of Congress|access-date=August 5, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/presidents/bio9.htm|title=Biographical Sketch–William Henry Harrison|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=August 5, 2016}}</ref>]]
Harrison had many friends in the eastern aristocracy and quickly gained a reputation among them as a frontier leader. He ran a successful horse-breeding enterprise that won him acclaim throughout the Northwest Territory.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Congress had legislated a territorial policy that led to high land costs, a primary concern for settlers in the Territory; Harrison became their champion to lower those prices. The Northwest Territory's population reached a sufficient number to have a congressional delegate in October 1799, and Harrison ran for election.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} He campaigned to encourage further migration to the territory, which eventually led to statehood.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.in.gov/history/files/interritory.pdf|title=Indiana Territory|publisher=The Indiana Historian|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref>

Harrison defeated Arthur St. Clair Jr. by one vote to become the Northwest Territory's first congressional delegate in 1798 at age 26, and served in the [[Sixth United States Congress]] from March 4, 1799, to May 14, 1800.<ref name="wh">{{cite web|title=William Henry Harrison Biography |work=About The White House: Presidents |publisher=The White House |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/williamhenryharrison/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122233458/http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/williamhenryharrison/ |archive-date=January 22, 2009|access-date=November 6, 2021}}</ref><ref name="cb">{{cite web|title=William Henry Harrison (1773–1841) Biography|publisher=United States Congress|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=h000279|access-date=February 4, 2009}}</ref> He had no authority to vote on legislative bills, but he was permitted to serve on a committee, to submit legislation, and to engage in debate.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=45–48}} He became chairman of the Committee on Public Lands and promoted the Land Act of 1800, which made it easier to buy Northwest Territory land in smaller tracts at a lower cost.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} Freeholders were permitted to buy smaller lots with a down payment of only five percent, and this became an important factor in the Territory's rapid population growth.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=161}}

Harrison was also instrumental in arranging the division of the Territory into two sections.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} The eastern section continued to be known as the Northwest Territory and included present-day [[Ohio]] and eastern [[Michigan]]; the western section was named the [[Indiana Territory]] and included present-day [[Indiana]], [[Illinois]], [[Wisconsin]], a portion of western [[Michigan]], and an eastern portion of [[Minnesota]]. The two new territories were formally established by law in 1800.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=47–48}}

On May 13, 1800, President [[John Adams]] appointed Harrison as the governor of the Indiana Territory, based on his ties to the west and his apparent neutral political stances.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=50–51}} He served in this capacity for twelve years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.in.gov/history/about-indiana-history-and-trivia/governors-portraits/list-of-governors/indiana-territorial-governor-william-henry-harrison-1773-1841|title=Indiana Territorial Governor|date=December 15, 2020|publisher=Indiana Historical Bureau|access-date=November 28, 2021}}</ref> His governorship was confirmed by the Senate and he resigned from Congress to become the first Indiana territorial governor in 1801.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}}{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=50–53}}

===Indiana territorial governor===
{{see also|History of slavery in Indiana|Indiana Territory}}
Harrison began his duties on January 10, 1801, at [[Vincennes, Indiana|Vincennes]], the capital of the Indiana Territory.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=53}} Presidents [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]] were members of the Democratic-Republican Party, and they reappointed him as governor in 1803, 1806, and 1809.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} In 1804, Harrison was assigned to administer the civilian government of the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Louisiana]]. He conducted the district's affairs for five weeks until the Louisiana Territory was formally established on July 4, 1805, and Brigadier General [[James Wilkinson]] assumed the duties of governor.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=21}}

In 1805, Harrison built a plantation-style home near Vincennes that he named [[Grouseland]], in tribute to the birds on the property.{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=46}} The 26-room home was one of the first brick structures in the territory;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/66000018_text|title=Grouseland|publisher=National Register of Historic Places|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> and it served as a center of social and political life in the territory during his tenure as governor.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://visitvincennes.org/attractions/grouseland-president-william-henry-harrison-mansion/|title=Grouseland|publisher=Historic Vincennes|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> Harrison founded a university at Vincennes in 1801, which was incorporated as [[Vincennes University]] on November 29, 1806.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vinu.edu/web/guest/about-us |title=History – Vincennes University |publisher=Vincennes University|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816120836/http://www.vinu.edu/web/guest/about-us |archive-date=August 16, 2016 }}</ref> The territorial capital was eventually moved to [[Corydon, Indiana|Corydon]] in 1813, and Harrison built a second home at nearby [[Harrison Spring|Harrison Valley]].<ref>{{cite web|url =https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/r/25b93/N/Corydon_HD_Harrison_CO_Nom.pdf|title =National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form: Corydon Historic District|access-date=November 30, 2021|last=Griffin|first=Frederick Porter| date=1972}}</ref>

Harrison's primary responsibility was to obtain title to Indian lands that would allow future settlement and increase the territory's population, a requirement for statehood. He was also eager to expand the territory for personal reasons, as his political fortunes were tied to Indiana's eventual statehood.<ref name="Freehling"/> While benefiting from land speculation on his own behalf, and acquiring two milling operations, he was credited as a good administrator, with significant improvements in roads and other infrastructure.<ref name="Freehling"/>

When Harrison was reappointed as the Indiana territorial governor on February 8, 1803, he was given expanded authority to negotiate and conclude treaties with the Indians.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} The 1804 [[Treaty of St. Louis (1804)|Treaty of St. Louis]] with [[Quashquame]] required the [[Sauk people|Sauk]] and [[Meskwaki]] tribes to cede much of western Illinois and parts of [[Missouri]]. Many of the Sauk resented the loss of lands, especially their leader [[Black Hawk (Sauk leader)|Black Hawk]].{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=87–89}} Harrison thought that the [[Treaty of Grouseland]] (1805) appeased some of the Indians, but tensions remained high along the frontier.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=104–106}} The [[Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809)]] raised new tensions when Harrison purchased more than {{convert|2.5|e6acre|km2|abbr=unit}} from the Potawatomi, Delaware, Miami, and Eel River tribes. Some Indians disputed the authority of the tribes joining in the treaty.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/blogs/national-museum-american-indian/2017/09/29/treaty-fort-wayne-1809/|title=Treaty of Fort Wayne, 1809|publisher=Smithsonian Magazine|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> Harrison was also able to conduct matters unquestioned by the government, as the administration changed hands from Jefferson to Madison.<ref name="Freehling"/>

He pursued the treaty process aggressively, offering large subsidies to the tribes and their leaders, so as to gain political favor with Jefferson before his departure.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/william-henry-harrison-shady-treaty-maker-and-indian-land-taker|title=William Henry Harrison: Shady Treaty Maker (quoting Owens)|publisher=Indian Country Today|last=Landry|first=Alysa|date=September 13, 2018 |access-date=November 14, 2021}}</ref> Biographer Freehling asserts that the Indians perceived the ownership of land was as common to all, just as the air that is breathed. In 1805, Harrison succeeded in acquiring for the nation as many as 51,000,000 acres from the Indians, after plying five of their chiefs with alcohol, for no more than a dollar per 20,000 acres {{USDCY|1|1805}}, and comprising two-thirds of Illinois and sizable chunks of Wisconsin and Missouri.<ref name="Freehling"/>

In addition to resulting tensions with the Indians, Harrison's pro-slavery position made him unpopular with the Indiana Territory's [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionists]], as he tried in vain to encourage slavery in the territory. In 1803, he had lobbied Congress to temporarily suspend for ten years Article VI of the [[Northwest Ordinance]] prohibiting slavery in the Indiana Territory.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=68–69}} Though Harrison asserted that the suspension was necessary to promote settlement and make the territory economically viable and ready for statehood, the proposal failed.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=69–72}} Lacking the suspension of Article VI, in 1807 the territorial legislature, with Harrison's support, enacted laws that authorized indentured servitude and gave masters authority to determine the length of service.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lib.niu.edu/1998/iht519802.html|title=Freedom's Early Ring|publisher=Illinois Periodicals Online|access-date=December 1, 2021}}</ref>

President Jefferson, primary author of the Northwest Ordinance, made a secret compact with [[James Lemen]] to defeat the nascent pro-slavery movement supported by Harrison.<ref name="Peck">{{cite book|last=Peck|first=J. M.|publisher=Univ. of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1915|title=The Jefferson-Lemen Compact|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNASAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA32 |access-date=March 28, 2010}}</ref> He donated $100 to encourage Lemen with abolition and other good works, and later (in 1808) another $20 {{USDCY|20|1808}} to help fund the church known as Bethel Baptist Church.<ref name="Peck"/> In [[Indiana]], the planting of the anti-slavery church led to citizens signing a petition and organizing politically to defeat Harrison's efforts to legalize slavery in the territory.<ref name="Peck"/>

The Indiana Territory held elections to the legislature's upper and lower houses for the first time in 1809. Harrison found himself at odds with the legislature after the abolitionists came to power, and the eastern portion of the Indiana Territory grew to include a large anti-slavery population.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=21}} The Territory's general assembly convened in 1810, and its anti-slavery faction immediately repealed the indenturing laws previously enacted.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.capitolandwashington.com/blog/2021/02/25/a-brief-history-of-race-and-politics-in-indiana|title= A Brief History of Race and Politics in Indiana|date= February 25, 2021|publisher=Capitol & Washington|access-date=December 1, 2021}}</ref> After 1809, the Indiana legislature assumed more authority and the territory advanced toward statehood.

==Army general==

===Tecumseh and Tippecanoe===
{{main|Tecumseh's War|Battle of Tippecanoe}}
Indian resistance to American expansion came to a head, with the leadership of Shawnee brothers [[Tecumseh]] and [[Tenskwatawa]] ("The Prophet"), in a conflict that became known as [[Tecumseh's War]].{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=158–160}} Tenskwatawa convinced the tribes that they would be protected by the [[Great Spirit]] and that no harm could befall them if they rose up against the settlers. He encouraged resistance by telling the tribes to pay white traders only half of what they owed and to give up all the white man's ways, including their clothing, muskets, and especially whiskey.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=158–160}} Harrison received word of the resistance through spies he had placed within the tribes, and asked Madison to fund military preparations. Madison dragged his feet, and Harrison attempted to negotiate, sending a letter to Tecumseh saying, "Our Blue Coats (U.S. Army soldiers) are more numerous than you can count, and our hunting shirts (volunteer militiamen) are like the leaves of the forests or the grains of sand on the Wabash."<ref name="Freehling"/>

[[File:Tecumseh02.jpg|thumb|upright|1915 depiction of [[Tecumseh]], believed to be copying an 1808 sketch]]

In August 1810, Tecumseh led 400 warriors down the [[Wabash River]] to meet with Harrison in Vincennes. They were dressed in war paint, and their sudden appearance at first frightened the soldiers at Vincennes.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=164}} The leaders of the group were escorted to Grouseland, where they met Harrison. Tecumseh berated the condescending Harrison repeatedly, and insisted that the Fort Wayne Treaty was illegitimate, arguing that one tribe could not sell land without the approval of the other tribes. He asked Harrison to nullify it and warned that Americans should not attempt to settle the lands sold in the treaty.<ref name="Freehling"/> Tecumseh informed Harrison that he had threatened to kill the chiefs who signed the treaty if they carried out its terms and that his confederation of tribes was growing rapidly.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}} Harrison said that the individual tribes were the owners of the land and could sell it as they wished. He rejected Tecumseh's claim that all the Indians formed one nation and said that each tribe could have separate relations with the United States if they chose to do so. Harrison argued that the Great Spirit would have made all the tribes speak one language if they were to be one nation.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}}

Tecumseh launched an "impassioned rebuttal", in the words of one historian, but Harrison was unable to understand his language.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}} Tecumseh then began shouting at Harrison and called him a liar.<ref name="Freehling"/> A Shawnee friendly to Harrison cocked his pistol from the sidelines to alert Harrison that Tecumseh's speech was leading to trouble, and some witnesses reported that Tecumseh was encouraging the warriors to kill Harrison. Many of them began to pull their weapons, representing a substantial threat to Harrison and the town, which held a population of only 1,000. Harrison drew his sword, and Tecumseh's warriors backed down when the officers presented their firearms in his defense.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}} Chief [[Winamac]] was friendly to Harrison, and he countered Tecumseh's arguments, telling the warriors that they should return home in peace since they had come in peace. Before leaving, Tecumseh informed Harrison that he would seek an alliance with the British if the Fort Wayne Treaty was not nullified.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=166}} After the meeting, Tecumseh journeyed to meet with many of the tribes in the region, hoping to create a [[Tecumseh's Confederacy|confederation]] to battle the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Tecumseh|title=Tecumseh|publisher=Ohio History Central|access-date=November 21, 2021}}</ref>

Harrison was concerned that Tecumseh's actions would endanger the statehood of Indiana, as well as his political future, leaving it "the haunt of a few wretched savages".<ref name="Freehling"/> Tecumseh was traveling in 1811, leaving Tenskwatawa in charge of Indian forces. Harrison saw a window of opportunity in Tecumseh's absence, and advised Secretary of War [[William Eustis]] to present a show of force to the Indian confederation.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=167}} Despite being 13 years removed from military action, Harrison convinced Madison and Eustis to allow him to assume command.<ref name="Freehling"/> He led an army north with 950 men to intimidate the Shawnee into making peace, but the tribes launched a surprise attack early on November 7 in the [[Battle of Tippecanoe]].{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=168}} Harrison countered and defeated the tribal forces at [[Prophetstown State Park|Prophetstown]] next to the Wabash and [[Tippecanoe River]]s; the battle became famous and he was hailed as a national hero. Although his troops had suffered 62 dead and 126 wounded during the battle and the Shawnee just 150 casualties, the Shawnee prophet's vision of spiritual protection had been shattered. Tenskwatawa and his forces fled to Canada, and their campaign to unite the tribes of the region to reject assimilation failed.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=169}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Pirtle|first=Alfred|publisher=John P. Morton & Co.|year=1900|location=Louisville|title=The Battle of Tippecanoe| page=158 |isbn=978-0-7222-6509-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvA7AAAAMAAJ&q=Pirtle,+Alfred.+(1900).+The+Battle+of+Tippecanoe&pg=PR1}}</ref>

When reporting to Secretary Eustis, Harrison had informed him of the battle near the Tippecanoe River and that he had anticipated an attack. A first dispatch had not been clear which side had won the conflict, and the secretary interpreted it as a defeat until the follow-up dispatch clarified the situation.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=219–220}} When no second attack came, the Shawnee defeat had become more certain. Eustis demanded to know why Harrison had not taken adequate precautions in fortifying his camp against the initial attack, and Harrison said that he had considered the position strong enough. The dispute was the catalyst of a disagreement between Harrison and the Department of War, which continued into the War of 1812.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Indiana|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryindiana00dillgoog|last=Dillon|first=John Brown|publisher=Bingham & Doughty|year=1859|isbn=978-0-253-20305-2|pages=466–471}}</ref> Freehling says that Harrison's rusty skills resulted in his troops setting campfires the night before the battle, exposing their position to a surprise attack and casualties.<ref name="Freehling"/>

The press did not cover the battle at first, until one Ohio paper misinterpreted Harrison's first dispatch to mean that he was defeated.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=220}} By December, however, most major American papers carried stories on the battle victory, and public outrage grew over the Shawnee.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=220–222}} Americans blamed the British for inciting the tribes to violence and supplying them with firearms, and Congress passed resolutions condemning the British for interfering in American domestic affairs. Congress declared war on June 18, 1812, and Harrison left Vincennes to seek a military appointment.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}}

===War of 1812===
[[File:Rembrandt Peale - William Henry Harrison - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|This portrait of Harrison originally showed him in civilian clothes as a congressional delegate in 1800; the uniform was added after service in the War of 1812.|329x329px]]
The outbreak of war with the British in 1812 led to continued conflict with Indians in the Northwest. Harrison briefly served as a major general in the [[Kentucky]] militia until the government commissioned him on September 17 to command the [[Army of the Northwest (United States)|Army of the Northwest]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} He received federal military pay for his service, and he also collected a territorial governor's salary from September until December 28, when he formally resigned as governor and continued his military service. Authors Gugin and St. Clair claim the resignation was forced upon him.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} Harrison was succeeded by John Gibson as acting governor of the territory.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}}

The Americans suffered a defeat in the [[siege of Detroit]]. General [[James Winchester (general)|James Winchester]] offered Harrison the rank of brigadier general, but Harrison wanted sole command of the army. President [[James Madison]] removed Winchester from command in September, and Harrison became commander of the fresh recruits.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} He received orders to retake Detroit and boost morale, but he initially held back, unwilling to press the war northward.<ref name="Freehling"/> The British and their Indian allies greatly outnumbered Harrison's troops, so Harrison constructed a defensive position during the winter along the [[Maumee River]] in northwest Ohio. He named it [[Fort Meigs]] in honor of Ohio governor [[Return J. Meigs Jr.]] He then received reinforcements in 1813, took the offensive, and led the army north to battle. He won victories in the Indiana Territory as well as Ohio and recaptured Detroit before invading Upper [[Canada]] ([[Ontario]]). His army defeated the British, and Tecumseh was killed, on October 5, 1813, at the [[Battle of the Thames]]. It was considered to be one of the great American victories in the war, second only to the [[Battle of New Orleans]], and secured a national reputation for Harrison.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=257–70}}<ref name="Freehling"/>

In 1814, Secretary of War [[John Armstrong Jr.|John Armstrong]] divided the command of the army, assigning Harrison to an outlying post and giving control of the front to one of Harrison's subordinates.{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=232–244}} Armstrong and Harrison had disagreed over the lack of coordination and effectiveness in the invasion of Canada, and Harrison resigned from the army in May.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=290–91}}{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=24}} After the war ended, Congress investigated Harrison's resignation and determined that Armstrong had mistreated him during his military campaign and that his resignation was justified. Congress awarded Harrison a gold medal for his services during the war.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Presidential Series – William H. Harrison|url=https://www.nationalguard.mil/Resources/Image-Gallery/Historical-Paintings/Presidential-Series/William-H-Harrison/|access-date=June 18, 2020|publisher=National Guard}}</ref>

Harrison and [[Michigan Territory]]'s Governor [[Lewis Cass]] were responsible for negotiating the [[Treaty of Greenville (1814)|peace treaty]] with the Indians.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Treaty_with_the_Wyandots,_Delawares,_Shawnees,_Senecas,_and_Miamis_(1814)|title=Treaty with the Wyandots, Delawares, Shawnees, Senecas, and Miamis (1814)|publisher=Ohio History Central|access-date=December 1, 2021}}</ref> President Madison appointed Harrison in June 1815 to help in negotiating a second treaty with the Indians that became known as the [[Treaty of Springwells]], in which the tribes ceded a large tract of land in the west, providing additional land for American purchase and settlement.<ref name="cb"/>

==Postwar life==
===Ohio politician and diplomat===
[[File:WmHHarrison-poster.jpg|thumb|right|upright=.95|Poster lauding Harrison's accomplishments]]

Harrison resigned from the army in 1814, shortly before the conclusion of the War of 1812, and returned to his family and farm in [[North Bend, Ohio]].<ref name="Freehling"/> Freehling claims that his expenses then well exceeded his means and he fell into debt, that Harrison chose "celebrity over duty", as he sought the adulation found at parties in New York, Washington, and Philadelphia, and that he became an office seeker.<ref name="Freehling"/> He was elected in 1816 to complete [[John McLean]]'s term in the House of Representatives, representing [[Ohio's 1st congressional district]] until 1819. He attempted to secure the post as Secretary of War under President Monroe in 1817 but lost out to [[John C. Calhoun]]. He was also passed over for a diplomatic post to Russia.<ref name="Freehling"/> He was elected to the [[Ohio Senate]] in 1819 and served until 1821, having lost the election for Ohio governor in 1820.<ref name="cb" /> He ran in the [[1822 United States House of Representatives elections in Ohio|1822 election]] for the United States House of Representatives, but lost to [[James W. Gazlay]].<ref name="Freehling"/><ref>{{cite web |title=A New Nation Votes |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/pg15bf880 |website=Tufts Digital Collections and Archives |access-date=March 5, 2022 |date=January 11, 2012}}</ref> He was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1824, and was an Ohio presidential elector in 1820 for [[James Monroe]]{{sfn|Taylor|Taylor|1899|p=102}} and for [[Henry Clay]] in 1824.{{sfn|Taylor|Taylor|1899|p=145}}

Harrison was appointed in 1828 as [[minister plenipotentiary]] to [[Gran Colombia]], so he resigned from Congress and served in his new post until March 8, 1829.{{sfn|Bolívar|1951|p=732}} He arrived in [[Bogotá]] on December 22, 1828, and found the condition of Colombia saddening. He reported to the Secretary of State that the country was on the edge of anarchy, and that [[Simón Bolívar]] was about to become a military dictator.{{sfn|Bolívar|1951|p=732}} He wrote a letter of polite rebuke to Bolívar, stating that "the strongest of all governments is that which is most free" and calling on Bolívar to encourage the development of democracy. In response, Bolívar wrote that the United States "seem destined by Providence to plague America with torments in the name of freedom", a sentiment that achieved fame in Latin America.{{sfn|Bolívar|1951|p=732}}

Freehling indicates Harrison's missteps in Colombia were "bad and frequent", that he failed to properly maintain a position of neutrality in Colombian affairs, by publicly opposing Bolivar, and that Colombia sought his removal. [[Andrew Jackson]] took office in March 1829, and recalled Harrison in order to make his own appointment to the position.<ref name="Freehling"/> Biographer James Hall claims that Harrison found in Colombia a military despotism and that "his liberal opinions, his stern republican integrity, and the plain simplicity of his dress and manners, contrasted too strongly with the arbitrary opinions and ostentatious behaviour of the public officers, to allow him to be long a favourite with those who had usurped the power of that government. They feared that the people would perceive the difference between a real and a pretended patriot, and commenced a series of persecutions against our minister, which rendered his situation extremely irksome."{{sfn|Hall|1836|p=301}} A very similar sentiment of the situation is related by biographer Samuel Burr.

Harrison, after leaving his post but while still in the country, wrote his roughly ten-page letter to Bolivar, which is reproduced in full in the Hall and Burr biographies. It left the former struck by Harrison's "deeply imbued principles of liberty". Burr describes the letter as "replete with wisdom, goodness, and patriotism…and the purest of principles".{{sfn|Hall|1836|p=301}}{{sfn|Burr|1840|p=256}}

===Private citizen===
Harrison returned to the United States and his North Bend farm, living in relative privacy after nearly four decades of government service. He had accumulated no substantial wealth during his lifetime, and he lived on his savings, a small pension, and the income produced by his farm. Burr references M. Chavalier, who encountered Harrison in Cincinnati at this time, and described Harrison as "poor, with a numerous family, abandoned by the Federal government, yet vigorous with independent thinking".{{sfn|Burr|1840|p=Appendix}}

In May 1817, Harrison served as one of the founding [[vestry]] members of the [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal]] congregation, [[Christ Church Cathedral (Cincinnati)|Christ Church]] in downtown [[Cincinnati]] (now [[Christ Church Cathedral (Cincinnati)|Christ Church Cathedral]]).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Morris |first=J. W. |title=Christ Church Cincinnati, 1817–1967 |publisher=Cincinnati Lithographing Ohio Press |year=1969}}</ref> Harrison went on to serve as a vestry member through 1819, and then again in 1824.<ref name=":0" />

Local supporters had come to Harrison's relief, by appointing him [[Clerk of Courts]] for [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]], where he worked from 1836 until 1840.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the Clerk of Courts Office|publisher=Hamilton County Clerk of Courts|url=http://www.courtclerk.org/history_clerk_of_courts.asp|access-date=December 6, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614052246/http://www.courtclerk.org/history_clerk_of_courts.asp|archive-date=June 14, 2007}}</ref> Chevalier remarked, "His friends back east talk of making him President, while here we make him clerk of an inferior court."{{sfn|Burr|1840|p=Appendix}} He also cultivated corn and established a distillery to produce whiskey, but closed it after he became disturbed by the effects of alcohol on its consumers. In an address to the [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]] Agricultural Board in 1831, he said that he had sinned in making whiskey and hoped that others would learn from his mistake and stop the production of liquors.{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=257–258}}

About this time, he met abolitionist and [[Underground Railroad]] conductor [[George DeBaptiste]] who lived in nearby [[Madison, Indiana|Madison]], and the two became friends. Harrison wrote at the time, "we might look forward to a day when a North American sun would not look down upon a slave."<ref>{{cite book|title=A Patriot's History of the United States|first1=Larry|last1=Schweikart|first2=Michael|last2=Allen|publisher=Easton Press|location=Norwalk, Conn.|year=2004|page=233|isbn=1-59523-001-7}}</ref> DeBaptiste became his valet, and later White House steward.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tobin|first=Jacqueline L.|title=From Midnight to Dawn: The Last Tracks of the Underground Railroad|publisher=Anchor|location=Detroit|year=2008|pages=200–209|isbn=978-1-4001-0354-6}}</ref>

Burr closes his account of Harrison by describing an event, denied by some of his friends—a reception given the general at Philadelphia, in 1836. According to Burr, "Thousands and tens of thousands crowded Chesnut street wharf upon his arrival, and greeted him with continual cheering as he landed. He stepped into the [[barouche]] but the crowd pressed forward so impetuously, that the horses became frightened and reared frequently. A rush was made to unharness the animals when the General spoke to several of them and endeavored to prevent it; but the team was soon unmanageable, and it became necessary to take them off. A rope was brought, and attached to the carriage, by which the people drew it to the Marshall House. This act was the spontaneous burst of ten thousand grateful hearts. Pennsylvanians fought under the hero, and they loved him. We speak particularly on this point, because we were eyewitnesses of all that passed."{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=264–265}}

===1836 presidential campaign===
{{main|1836 United States presidential election}}

Harrison was the western Whig candidate for president in 1836, one of four regional Whig party candidates. The others were [[Daniel Webster]], [[Hugh Lawson White|Hugh L. White]], and [[Willie P. Mangum]]. More than one Whig candidate emerged in an effort to defeat the incumbent Vice President [[Martin Van Buren]], who was the popular Jackson-chosen Democrat.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections">{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Campaigns and Elections|url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/campaigns-and-elections| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=January 20, 2022| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> The Democrats charged that, by running several candidates, the Whigs sought to prevent a Van Buren victory in the electoral college, and force the election into the House.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1836|title=U.S. Presidential Election of 1836|publisher=Britannica|access-date=January 20, 2022}}</ref> In any case the plan, if there was one, failed. In the end, Harrison came in second, and carried nine of the twenty-six states in the Union.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/><ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="shp">{{cite web|title=How Close Were The Presidential Elections?|last=Shepperd|first=Michael|publisher=Michigan State University|url=https://www.msu.edu/~sheppa28/elections.html#1836|access-date=February 11, 2009}}</ref>

Harrison ran in all the non-slave states except Massachusetts, and in the slave states of Delaware, Maryland, and Kentucky. White ran in the remaining slave states except for South Carolina. [[Daniel Webster]] ran in Massachusetts, and Mangum in South Carolina.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ershkowitz|first=Herbert B.|title=American Presidential Campaigns and Elections|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=2020|isbn=978-1-3154-9713-6}}</ref> Van Buren won the election with 170 electoral votes.<ref name="Britannica"/> A swing of just over 4,000 votes in Pennsylvania would have given that state's 30 electoral votes to Harrison and the election would have been decided in the House of Representatives.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?fips=42&year=1836&f=0&off=0&elect=0 |title=USA Election Polls-Pennsylvania 1836 |publisher=Pennsylvania Election Results Home |access-date=January 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081117062058/http://www.uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?fips=42&year=1836&f=0&off=0&elect=0 |archive-date=November 17, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="shp"/>

===1840 presidential campaign===
{{main|William Henry Harrison 1840 presidential campaign}}
[[File:ElectoralCollege1840.svg|thumb|upright=0.85|right|1840 Electoral Vote Map]]
Harrison faced incumbent Van Buren as the sole Whig candidate in the 1840 election. The Whigs saw in Harrison a born southerner and war hero, who would contrast well with the aloof, uncaring, and aristocratic Van Buren.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/> He was chosen over more controversial members of the party, such as Clay and Webster; his campaign highlighted his military record and focused on the weak U.S. economy caused by the [[Panic of 1837]].{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=39}}

The Whigs blamed Van Buren for the economic problems and nicknamed him "Van Ruin".{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=39}} The Democrats, in turn, ridiculed the elder Harrison by calling him "Granny Harrison, the petticoat general", because he resigned from the army before the War of 1812 ended. They noted for the voters what Harrison's name would be when spelled backwards: "No Sirrah". They cast him as a provincial, out-of-touch old man who would rather "[[log cabin campaign|sit in his log cabin drinking hard cider]]" than attend to the administration of the country. This strategy backfired when Harrison and running mate [[John Tyler]] adopted the log cabin and hard cider as campaign symbols. Their campaign used the symbols on banners and posters and created bottles of hard cider shaped like log cabins, all to connect the candidates to the "common man".{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|pp=39–40}} Freehling relates that, "One bitter pro-Van Buren paper lamented after his defeat, 'We have been sung down, lied down and drunk down.' In one sentence, this described the new American political process."<ref name= "WHH - American Franchise">{{cite web|url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/the-american-franchise|first=William|last=Freehling|title=William Harrison: The American Franchise|publisher=University of Virginia Miller Center|location=Charlottesville, Virginia|date=October 4, 2016|access-date=January 22, 2022}}</ref>

Harrison came from a wealthy, slaveholding Virginia family, yet his campaign promoted him as a humble frontiersman in the style popularized by [[Andrew Jackson]], while presenting Van Buren as a wealthy elitist.{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|pp=39–40}} A memorable example was the [[Gold Spoon Oration]] that Pennsylvania's Whig representative [[Charles Ogle (politician)|Charles Ogle]] delivered in the House, ridiculing Van Buren's elegant White House lifestyle and lavish spending.<ref name=Bradley-70-71>{{cite book|author=Bradley, Elizabeth L.|title=Knickerbocker: The Myth behind New York|url=https://archive.org/details/knickerbockermyt0000brad |url-access=registration|location=New Brunswick, NJ|publisher=Rivergate|pages=[https://archive.org/details/knickerbockermyt0000brad/page/70 70]–71|isbn=978-0-8135-4516-5|year=2009|access-date=November 9, 2021}}</ref> The Whigs invented a chant in which people would spit tobacco juice as they chanted "wirt-wirt", and this also exhibited the difference between candidates from the time of the election:<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/>

{{poemquote|
Old Tip he wore a homespun coat, he had no ruffled shirt: wirt-wirt,
But Matt he has the golden plate, and he's a little squirt: wirt-wirt!}}

The Whigs boasted of Harrison's military record and his reputation as the hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe. The campaign slogan "[[Tippecanoe and Tyler too|Tippecanoe and Tyler, Too]]" became one of the most famous in American politics.{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=41}} While Van Buren campaigned from the White House, Harrison was on the campaign trail, entertaining with his impressions of Indian war whoops, and took people's minds off the nation's economic troubles. In June 1840, a Harrison rally at the site of the Tippecanoe battle drew 60,000 people.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/> The Village of North Bend, Ohio, as well as the alumni of [[Ohio State University]] claim that the state's use of the nickname "Buckeyes" began with Harrison's campaign message.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northbendohio.org/Buckeyes.html|title=Buckeyes?|publisher=Village of North Bend}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.osu.edu/alumni/news/ohio-state-alumni-magazine/issues/september-october-2016/tippecanoe-and-buckeyes-too|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528074916/https://www.osu.edu/alumni/news/ohio-state-alumni-magazine/issues/september-october-2016/tippecanoe-and-buckeyes-too/|archive-date=2022-05-28|url-status=dead|title=Tippecanoe and Buckeyes Too|date=August 29, 2016|publisher=Ohio State Univ. Alumni Assoc.|access-date=January 21, 2022}}</ref>
Voter turnout shot to a spectacular 80%, 20 points higher than the previous election.<ref name= "WHH - American Franchise"/> Harrison won a landslide victory in the Electoral College, 234 electoral votes to Van Buren's 60. The popular vote margin was much closer, at fewer than 150,000 votes, though he carried nineteen of the twenty-six states.{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=41}}{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=25}}

==Presidency (1841)==
===Inauguration===
{{Infobox administration
| image = William Henry Harrison.jpg
| name = Presidency of William Henry Harrison
| term_start = March 4, 1841
| term_end = April 4, 1841
| president_link = President of the United States
| cabinet = ''[[#The_press_of_patronage|See list]]''
| party = [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]]
| seat = [[White House]]
| predecessor = [[Presidency of Martin Van Buren|Martin Van Buren]]
| successor = [[Presidency of John Tyler|John Tyler]]
| seal = 1840s US presidential seal.png
| seal_caption = Seal of the president (1840–1850)
}}
When Harrison came to Washington, he wanted to show that he was still the steadfast hero of Tippecanoe and that he was a better educated and more thoughtful man than the backwoods caricature portrayed in the campaign. He [[Inauguration of William Henry Harrison|took the oath of office]] on Thursday, March 4, 1841, a cold and wet day.<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration">{{cite web |title= American Treasures–Harrison's Inauguration|date=August 2007|url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr22a.html#obj14|publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=September 21, 2009}}</ref> He braved the chilly weather and chose not to wear an overcoat or a hat, rode on horseback to the grand ceremony, and then delivered the longest inaugural address in American history<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> at 8,445 words. It took him nearly two hours to read, although his friend and fellow Whig [[Daniel Webster]] had edited it for length.<ref name = iap/> Freehling opines that speeches like this were actually common at the time, and that its irony was rich, as Harrison, "a lifelong office seeker, elected by deeply partisan politics, criticized both".<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs"/>

The inaugural address was a detailed statement of the Whig agenda, a repudiation of Jackson's and Van Buren's policies, and the first and only formal articulation by Harrison of his approach to the presidency.<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs">{{cite web|url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/domestic-affairs|last=Freehling|first=William|title=William Harrison: Domestic Affairs|publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia|location=Charlottesville, Virginia|access-date=January 22, 2022|date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> The address began with Harrison's sincere regard for the trust being placed in him:

{{blockquote|However strong may be my present purpose to realize the expectations of a magnanimous and confiding people, I too well understand the dangerous temptations to which I shall be exposed from the magnitude of the power which it has been the pleasure of the people to commit to my hands not to place my chief confidence upon the aid of that Almighty Power which has hitherto protected me and enabled me to bring to favorable issues other important but still greatly inferior trusts heretofore confided to me by my country.<ref name="WHH - Inaugural">{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Harrison: March 4, 1841 Inaugural Address|url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/campaigns-and-elections| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=January 20, 2022| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref>}} Harrison promised to re-establish the [[Second Bank of the United States|Bank of the United States]] and extend its capacity for credit by issuing paper currency in [[Henry Clay]]'s [[American System (economic plan)|American system]].<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> He intended to rely on the judgment of Congress in legislative matters, using his veto power only if an act were unconstitutional, and to reverse Jackson's [[spoils system]] of executive patronage.<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs"/> He promised to use patronage to create a qualified staff, not to enhance his own standing in government, and under no circumstance would he run for a second term. He condemned the financial excesses of the prior administration and pledged not to interfere with congressional financial policy. All in all, Harrison committed to a weak presidency, deferring to "the First Branch", the Congress, in keeping with Whig principles.<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs"/><ref name = iap>{{cite web|title=William Henry Harrison Inaugural Address|work=Inaugural Addresses of the Presidents of the United States|publisher=Bartleby|url=http://www.bartleby.com/124/pres26.html|access-date=February 11, 2009}}</ref>

He addressed the nation's already hotly debated issue of slavery. As a slaveholder himself, he agreed with the right of states to control the matter:
{{blockquote|The lines, too, separating powers to be exercised by the citizens of one state from those of another seem to be so distinctly drawn as to leave no room for misunderstanding…The attempt of those of one state to control the domestic institutions of another can only result in feelings of distrust and jealousy, the certain harbingers of disunion, violence, and civil war, and the ultimate destruction of our free institutions.<ref name="WHH - Inaugural"/>}}

As he was about to conclude his remarks, Harrison incorporated his reliance upon the country's freedom of religion while taking pains to present himself as part of the religious mainstream rather than a dissenter or member of a minority faith:
{{blockquote|I deem the present occasion sufficiently important and solemn to justify me in expressing to my fellow-citizens a profound reverence for the Christian religion and a thorough conviction that sound morals, religious liberty, and a just sense of religious responsibility are essentially connected with all true and lasting happiness; and to that good Being who has blessed us by the gifts of civil and religious freedom, who watched over and prospered the labors of our fathers and has hitherto preserved to us institutions far exceeding in excellence those of any other people, let us unite in fervently commending every interest of our beloved country in all future time.<ref name="WHH - Inaugural"/>}}

Harrison's lengthy speech offered vague clues about what his presidency would offer to the people of the United States. He declared he would only serve for one term in office and not abuse his veto power. Harrison was against devising financial schemes for the nation, rather he left that wholly to Congress. He was against agitating the [[Southern United States]] on the slavery question. He did not discuss the tariff and distribution. He said little of the national bank, except he mentioned he was open to paper money, rather than metallic currency. Harrison's concept of the presidency was very limited. This followed closely with Harrison's Whig political ideology.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=140}}

Following the speech, he rode through the streets in the inaugural parade,<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> stood in a three-hour receiving line at the White House, and attended three inaugural balls that evening,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inaugural.senate.gov/days-events/days-event/inaugural-ball |title=Inaugural Ball |publisher=Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies |date=June 10, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225184825/http://www.inaugural.senate.gov/days-events/days-event/inaugural-ball |archive-date=February 25, 2016 }}</ref> including one at Carusi's Saloon entitled the "Tippecanoe" ball with 1,000 guests who had paid $10 per person (equal to $312 in 2021).<ref>{{cite web |title=Current Value of $10 from 1841 |url=https://www.officialdata.org/us/inflation/1841?amount=10 |publisher=CPI Inflation Calculator |access-date=April 7, 2019}}</ref>

===The press of patronage===
Clay was a leader of the Whigs and a powerful legislator, as well as a frustrated presidential candidate in his own right, and he expected to have substantial influence in the Harrison administration. He ignored his own platform plank of overturning the "spoils" system and attempted to influence Harrison's actions before and during his brief presidency, especially in putting forth his own preferences for Cabinet offices and other presidential appointments. Harrison rebuffed his aggression, saying, "Mr. Clay, you forget that ''I'' am the President."<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HXFIAAAAYAAJ&q=%22%20%22Mr.%20Clay,%20you%20forget%20%22|page=379|journal=Magazine of American History|volume=VIII|issue=6|date=June 1882|title=The annexation of Texas}}</ref> The dispute escalated when Harrison named as Secretary of State [[Daniel Webster]], Clay's arch-rival for control of the Whig Party. Harrison also appeared to give Webster's supporters some highly coveted patronage positions. His sole concession to Clay was to name his protégé [[John J. Crittenden]] to the post of Attorney General. Despite this, the contretemps continued until the president's death.{{sfn|Remini|1997|pp=511–515}}

{{Infobox U.S. Cabinet
| align = right
| Name = Harrison
| President = William Henry Harrison
| President date = 1841
| Vice President = [[John Tyler]]
| Vice President date = 1841
| State = [[Daniel Webster]]
| State date = 1841
| War = [[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]]
| War date = 1841
| Treasury = [[Thomas Ewing]]
| Treasury date = 1841
| Justice = [[John J. Crittenden]]
| Justice date = 1841
| Post = [[Francis Granger]]
| Post date = 1841
| Navy = [[George Edmund Badger]]
| Navy date = 1841
}}

Clay was not the only one who hoped to benefit from Harrison's election. Hordes of office applicants came to the White House, which was then open to any who wanted a meeting with the president. Most of Harrison's business during his month-long presidency involved extensive social obligations and receiving visitors at the White House. He was advised to have an administration in place before the inauguration but declined, wanting to focus on the festivities. As such, job seekers awaited him at all hours and filled the Executive Mansion, with no process for organizing and vetting them.<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/>

Harrison wrote in a letter dated March 10, "I am so much harassed by the multitude that calls upon me that I can give no proper attention to any business of my own."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?175070|title=Letter from Harrison to R. Buchanan, Esq., March 10, 1841|publisher=Shapell Manuscript Foundation|access-date=November 9, 2021|archive-date=June 18, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618235507/http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?175070|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[United States Marshals Service|U.S. Marshal]] of the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] Alexander Hunter recalled an incident in which Harrison was besieged by office seekers who were preventing him from getting to a cabinet meeting; when his pleas for their consideration were ignored, Harrison finally "accepted their petitions, which filled his arms and pockets".<ref name="Whitcomb">{{cite book |last=Whitcomb |first=John & Claire|title=Real Life at the White House: 200 Years of Daily Life at America's Most Famous Residence|publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2002|page=81|isbn=978-0-415-93951-5}}</ref> Another anecdote of the time recounted that the halls were so full one afternoon that in order to get from one room to the next, Harrison had to be helped out a window, walked the length of the White House exterior, and then helped in through another window.<ref name="Whitcomb"/>

Harrison took seriously his pledge to reform executive appointments, visiting each of the six cabinet departments to observe its operations and issuing through Webster an order that [[electioneering]] by employees would be considered grounds for dismissal.<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> He resisted pressure from other Whigs over partisan patronage. A group arrived in his office on March 16 to demand the removal of all Democrats from any appointed office, and Harrison proclaimed, "So help me God, I will resign my office before I can be guilty of such an iniquity!"<ref>{{cite book |last=Woollen |first=William Wesley|title=Biographical and historical sketches of early Indiana|publisher=Ayer Publishing |year=1975|location=New York|page=51|isbn=978-0-405-06896-6}}</ref> His own cabinet attempted to countermand his appointment of [[John Chambers (politician)|John Chambers]] as Governor of the Iowa Territory in favor of Webster's friend [[James Wilson II (New Hampshire politician)|James Wilson]]. Webster attempted to press this decision at a March 25 cabinet meeting, and Harrison asked him to read aloud a handwritten note, which said simply "William Henry Harrison, President of the United States". Harrison then stood and declared: "William Henry Harrison, President of the United States, tells you, gentlemen, that, by God, John Chambers shall be governor of Iowa!"{{sfn|Remini|1997|pp=520–521}}

Harrison's only other official decision of consequence was whether to call Congress into a special session. He and Clay had disagreed over the necessity of such a session, and Harrison's cabinet proved evenly divided, so the president initially vetoed the idea. Clay pressed him on the special session on March 13, but Harrison rebuffed him and told him not to visit the White House again, to address him only in writing.<ref>{{cite web|title=American History Series: The Brief Presidency of William Henry Harrison|publisher=Voice of America News|url=http://www.voanews.com/specialenglish/2009-01-28-voa3.cfm|access-date=June 21, 2009}}</ref> A few days later, however, Treasury Secretary [[Thomas Ewing]] reported to Harrison that federal funds were in such trouble that the government could not continue to operate until Congress's regularly scheduled session in December; Harrison thus relented, and proclaimed the special session on March 17, in the interests of "the condition of the revenue and finance of the country". The session would have begun on May 31 as scheduled if Harrison had lived.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brinkley|first1=Alan|last2=Dyer|first2=Davis|year=2004|title=The American Presidency|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-618-38273-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3djEYV3R7oIC&pg=PA120 |access-date=June 21, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-45b-convening-extra-session-the-congress|title=Pres. W.H. Harrison, Proclamation 45B–Convening an Extra Session of the Congress|publisher=American Presidency Project|access-date=November 9, 2021}}</ref>

==Death and funeral==
[[File:Death of Harrison, April 4 A.D. 1841 LCCN91794698.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|An illustration depicting the death of Harrison, April 4, 1841]]
Harrison had been physically worn down by many persistent office seekers and a demanding social schedule.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=140}} On Wednesday, March 24, 1841, Harrison took his daily morning walk to local markets, without a coat or hat. Despite being caught in a sudden rainstorm, he did not change his wet clothes upon return to the White House.<ref name = Shafer>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/10/06/william-henry-harrison-pneumonia-death-trump-coronavirus|title=In 1841 pneumonia killed the president|newspaper=Washington Post|date=October 6, 2020|access-date=December 13, 2021|last=Shafer|first=Ronald G.}}</ref> On Friday, March 26, Harrison became ill with cold-like symptoms and sent for his doctor, Thomas Miller, though he told the doctor he felt better after having taken medication for "fatigue and mental anxiety".<ref name = Shafer/> The next day, Saturday, the doctor was called again, and arrived to find Harrison in bed with a "severe chill", after taking another early morning walk. Miller applied [[mustard plaster]] to his stomach and gave him a mild [[laxative]], and he felt better that afternoon.<ref name = Shafer/> At 4:00 a.m. Sunday, March 28, Harrison developed severe pain in the side and the doctor initiated [[bloodletting]]; the procedure was terminated when there was a drop in his pulse rate. Miller also applied heated cups to the president's skin to enhance blood flow.<ref name = Shafer/> The doctor then gave him castor oil and medicines to induce vomiting, and diagnosed him with pneumonia in the right lung.<ref name = Shafer/> A team of doctors was called in Monday, March 29, and they confirmed right lower lobe [[pneumonia]].<ref name=WHHDOTP>{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Death of the President| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/death-of-the-president| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Harrison was then administered [[laudanum]], [[opium]], and [[camphor]], along with wine and brandy.{{sfn|Collins|2012|p=123}}

No official announcements were made concerning Harrison's illness, which fueled public speculation and concern the longer he remained out of public view.<ref name=WHHDOTP/> Washington society had noticed his uncharacteristic absence from church on Sunday.<ref name=Whitcomb /> Conflicting and unconfirmed newspaper reports were based on leaks by people with contacts in the White House.<ref name = Shafer/> A Washington paper reported on Thursday, April 1, that Harrison's health was decidedly better. In fact, Harrison's condition had seriously weakened, and Cabinet members and family were summoned to the White House—his wife Anna had remained in Ohio due to her own illness.<ref name = Shafer/> According to papers in Washington on Friday, Harrison had rallied, despite a ''Baltimore Sun'' report that his condition was of a "more dangerous character".<ref name = Shafer/> A reporter for the ''New York Commercial'' indicated that "the country's people were deeply distressed and many of them in tears."<ref name = Shafer/>

In the evening of Saturday, April 3, Harrison developed severe diarrhea and became delirious, and at 8:30 p.m. he uttered his last words, to his attending doctor, assumed to be for Vice President [[John Tyler]]:<ref name = Shafer/> "Sir, I wish you to understand the true principles of the government. I wish them carried out. I ask nothing more."<ref>{{Cite web| title=William Henry Harrison: Key Events| url=https://millercenter.org/president/william-harrison/key-events| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=October 7, 2016}}</ref> Harrison died at 12:30 a.m. on April 4, 1841, Palm Sunday, nine days after becoming ill and exactly one month after taking the oath of office;<ref name = Shafer/> he was the first president to die in office.<ref name=WHHDOTP/> Harrison's wife Anna was still in Ohio packing for the trip to Washington when she learned of her loss.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/first-families/anna-tuthill-symmes-harrison|title=Anna T. S. Harrison|publisher=The White House|access-date=December 13, 2021}}</ref> Anna never moved into the White House. Harrison's daughter-in-law, Jane Irwin Harrison, widow of Harrison's son, had served as hostess of the White House in Anna's place while Harrison was president.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

The prevailing theory at the time was that his illness had been caused by the bad weather at his inauguration three weeks earlier.{{sfn|Cleaves|1939|p=152}} Jane McHugh and Philip A. Mackowiak did an analysis in ''Clinical Infectious Diseases'' (2014), examining Miller's notes and records showing that the White House water supply was downstream of public sewage, and they concluded that he likely died of [[septic shock]] due to "enteric fever" ([[typhoid fever|typhoid]] or [[paratyphoid fever]]).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/01/science/what-really-killed-william-henry-harrison.html|title=What Really Killed William Henry Harrison?|newspaper=The New York Times|first1=Jane|last1=McHugh|first2=Philip A.|last2=Mackowiak|date=March 31, 2014|access-date=August 27, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Death in the White House: President William Henry Harrison's Atypical Pneumonia|first1=Jane|last1=McHugh|first2=Philip A.|last2=Mackowiak|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|pmid=24962997|date=June 23, 2014|doi=10.1093/cid/ciu470|volume=59|issue=7|pages=990–995|doi-access=free |issn=1058-4838 }}</ref>

A 30-day period of mourning commenced following the president's death. The White House hosted various public ceremonies, modeled after European royal funeral practices. An invitation-only funeral service was also held on April 7 in the [[East Room]] of the White House, after which Harrison's coffin was brought to [[Congressional Cemetery]] in Washington, D.C., where it was placed in the [[Public Vault at the Congressional Cemetery|Public Vault]].<ref>{{cite web| title=William Henry Harrison Funeral: April 7, 1841| url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/william-henry-harrison-funeral| publisher=White House Historical Association| location=Washington, D.C.| access-date=March 9, 2019}}</ref> [[Solomon Northup]] gave an account of the procession in ''[[Twelve Years a Slave]]'':

{{blockquote|The next day there was a great pageant in Washington. The roar of cannon and the tolling of bells filled the air, while many houses were shrouded with crape, and the streets were black with people. As the day advanced, the procession made its appearance, coming slowly through the Avenue, carriage after carriage, in long succession, while thousands upon thousands followed on foot—all moving to the sound of melancholy music. They were bearing the dead body of Harrison to the grave…. I remember distinctly how the window glass would break and rattle to the ground, after each report of the cannon they were firing in the burial ground.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/northup/northup.html|title=Twelve Years a Slave: Narrative of Solomon Northup|publisher=Library, UNC-Chapel Hill|year=1997|access-date=November 10, 2021}}</ref>}}

That June, Harrison's body was transported by train and river barge to [[North Bend, Ohio]], and he was buried on July 7 at the summit of Mt. Nebo, which is now the [[William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial]].<ref>{{cite web| title=William Henry Harrison Memorial| url=https://www.ohiohistory.org/visit/museum-and-site-locator/william-henry-harrison-tomb| publisher= Ohio History Connection| location=Columbus Ohio| access-date=March 9, 2019}}</ref>

===Tyler's accession to office===
On April 5, [[Fletcher Webster]], the son of Secretary of State [[Daniel Webster]], notified Tyler that Harrison had died in office. Tyler had been visiting family in [[Williamsburg, Virginia|Williamsburg]] and returned to Washington on the morning of April 6.<ref name="ReferenceA">[[#Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession|Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession]]</ref> That same day, Tyler was [[Oath of office of the president of the United States|sworn into office]] in front of Harrison's cabinet, officially beginning [[Presidency of John Tyler|his presidency]]. On April 9, Tyler gave a brief inaugural address. In his address to the nation, Tyler did not give any personal consolation to Harrison's widow Anna or family members. Tyler did compliment Harrison by saying Harrison had been elected for a "great work" of purging the federal government of corruption.<ref name="John Tyler 1841">[[#John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States|John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States]]</ref>{{efn|Full Text: "FELLOW-CITIZENS: Before my arrival at the seat of Government the painful communication was made to you by the officers presiding over the several Departments of the deeply regretted death of William Henry Harrison, late President of the United States. Upon him you had conferred your suffrages for the first office in your gift, and had selected him as your chosen instrument to correct and reform all such errors and abuses as had manifested themselves from time to time in the practical operation of the Government. While standing at the threshold of this great work he has by the dispensation of an all-wise Providence been removed from amongst us, and by the provisions of the Constitution the efforts to be directed to the accomplishing of this vitally important task have devolved upon myself." John Tyler (April 9, 1841)<ref name="John Tyler 1841">[[#John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States|John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States]]</ref>}} Tyler and his family moved into the White House one week after Harrison's funeral, before Harrison's 30-day time of mourning was over. The White House state rooms were still hung with black mourning [[Crêpe (textile)|crapes]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/>{{sfn|McCormick|2002|pp=141–142}}<ref name="ReferenceB">[[#The White House, Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison|The White House, Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison]]</ref>

===Impact of Harrison's death===
[[File:William Henry Harrison Memorial.jpg|thumb|The William Henry Harrison Memorial in North Bend, Ohio]]
Harrison's death called attention to an ambiguity in [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 6: Vacancy and disability|Article II, Section 1, Clause 6]] of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] regarding [[United States presidential line of succession|succession to the presidency]]. The Constitution clearly provided for the vice president to take over the "Powers and Duties of the said Office" in the event of a president's removal, death, resignation, or inability, but it was unclear whether the vice president formally became president of the United States, or simply temporarily assumed the powers and duties of that office, in a case of succession.<ref>{{cite web| last=Feerick| first=John| title=Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession| work=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution| url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession| publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]]| access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref>

Harrison's cabinet insisted that Tyler was "Vice President acting as President". Tyler was resolute in his claim to the title of President and in his determination to exercise the full powers of the presidency.<ref name=ConstitutionDailyNCC>{{cite web|author=|title=A controversial President who established presidential succession|url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/john-tyler-americas-most-unusual-president|date=March 29, 2017|work=Constitution Daily|publisher=National Constitution Center|access-date=March 11, 2019}}</ref> The cabinet consulted with Chief Justice [[Roger Taney]] and decided that, if Tyler took the presidential oath of office, he would assume the office of president. Tyler obliged and was sworn into office on April 6, 1841. Congress convened, and on May 31, 1841, after a short period of debate in both houses, passed a joint resolution, which confirmed Tyler as president for the remainder of Harrison's term.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rankin |first=Robert S. |title=Presidential Succession in the United States |journal=The Journal of Politics |date=Feb 1946 |volume=8 |issue=1 |jstor=2125607 |pages=44–56 |doi=10.2307/2125607|s2cid=153441210 }}</ref> The precedent that Congress set in 1841 was followed on seven occasions when an incumbent president died, and it was written into the Constitution in 1967 through Section One of the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-fifth Amendment]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2005.00269.x |last=Abbott |first=Philip |title=Accidental Presidents: Death, Assassination, Resignation, and Democratic Succession |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |date=Dec 2005 |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=627–645 |jstor=27552721}}</ref>

==Legacy==
===Historical reputation===
[[File:Tecumseh in Lafayette IN.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Harrison (on left) at [[Tippecanoe County Courthouse]], Lafayette, Indiana]]
Among Harrison's most enduring legacies is the series of treaties that he negotiated and signed with Indian leaders during his tenure as the Indiana territorial governor.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=18}} As part of the treaty negotiations, the tribes ceded large tracts of land in the west which provided additional acreage for purchase and settlement by the nation.<ref name="cb"/>{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=47}}

Harrison's long-term impact on American politics includes his campaigning methods, which laid the foundation for modern presidential campaign tactics.{{sfn|Greene|2007|p=100}} Harrison died nearly penniless, and Congress voted his wife Anna a presidential widow's pension of $25,000,<ref name="Damon 1974-06">{{cite journal|last=Damon |first=Allan L. |title=Presidential Expenses |journal=American Heritage |date=June 1974 |volume=25 |issue=4 |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1974/4/1974_4_64.shtml |access-date=February 10, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107145645/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1974/4/1974_4_64.shtml |archive-date=January 7, 2009 }}</ref> one year of Harrison's salary (equivalent to about ${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|25000|1841|r=-3}}}} in {{inflation-year|US}}).{{inflation-fn|US}} She also received the right to mail letters free of charge.<ref>{{cite web|title=First Lady Biography: Anna Harrison|year=2009|publisher=National First Ladies Library|url=http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=9|access-date=February 11, 2009|archive-date=October 9, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009221313/http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=9|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Freehling refers to Harrison as "the most dominant figure in the evolution of the Northwest territories into the Upper Midwest today".<ref>{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Impact and Legacy| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/impact-and-legacy| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Harrison, age 68 at the time of his [[Inauguration of William Henry Harrison|inauguration]], was the oldest person to assume the U.S. presidency, a distinction he held until 1981, when [[Ronald Reagan]] was [[First inauguration of Ronald Reagan|inaugurated]] at age 69.<ref>{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Life In Brief| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/life-in-brief| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 8, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref>

Harrison's son [[John Scott Harrison]] represented Ohio in the House of Representatives between 1853 and 1857.<ref name="bioguide.congress">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Harrison, John Scott, (1804–1878)|dictionary=Biographical Directory of the United States Congress|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000272|access-date=June 18, 2008}}</ref> Harrison's grandson Benjamin Harrison of Indiana served as the 23rd president from 1889 to 1893, making William and Benjamin Harrison the only grandparent-grandchild pair of presidents.{{sfn|Calhoun|2005|pp=43–49}}

===Honors and tributes===
{{main|List of memorials to William Henry Harrison}} Several monuments and memorial statues have been erected in tribute to Harrison. There are public statues of him in downtown [[Indianapolis]],{{sfn|Greiff|2005|pp=12, 164}} [[Cincinnati]]'s [[Piatt Park]],<ref>{{Cite journal|date=July 1896|title=The Harrison Monument, Cincinnati|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Mc7AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA422|journal=The Monumental News|volume=8|issue=7}}</ref> the [[Tippecanoe County Courthouse]],{{sfn|Greiff|2005|p=243}} [[Harrison County, Indiana]],{{sfn|Greiff|2005|p=131}} and [[Owen County, Indiana]].{{sfn|Greiff|2005|p=206}} Numerous counties and towns also bear his name.

The village of [[North Bend, Ohio]], honors Harrison every year with a [[parade]] to celebrate his birthday.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northbendohio.org/HarrisonBirthday08.html|title=William Henry Harrison Birthday Tribute|publisher=Village of North Bend, Ohio|access-date=November 10, 2021}}</ref> The [[Gen. William Henry Harrison Headquarters]] in [[Franklinton (Columbus, Ohio)|Franklinton, Ohio]], commemorates Harrison. The house was his military headquarters from 1813 to 1814.<ref name="nrhpdoc">{{cite book|url=https://catalog.archives.gov/id/71988611|title=National Register of Historic Places Registration Form|series=File Unit: National Register of Historic Places and National Historic Landmarks Program Records: Ohio, 1964 – 2013|publisher=[[National Park Service]]|access-date=May 17, 2020|archive-date=February 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225030545/https://catalog.archives.gov/id/71988611|url-status=dead}}</ref> On February 19, 2009, the [[United States Mint|U.S. Mint]] released the ninth coin in the [[Presidential $1 Coin Program]], bearing Harrison's likeness.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/$1coin/index.cfm?action=WHHarrison|title=The United States Mint Coins and Medals Program|publisher=U.S. Mint|access-date=July 28, 2016|archive-date=August 8, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808050850/http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/$1coin/index.cfm?action=WHHarrison|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usmint.gov/about_the_mint/index.cfm?action=productionFigures&presYear=2009&reportSelected#starthere&CFID=122577291&CFTOKEN=56436795|title=Circulating Coins Production Figures|publisher=U.S. Mint|access-date=July 28, 2016}}</ref>

{| style="margin:auto"
| [[File:Cincinnati-harrison-statue, cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Equestrian statue of William Henry Harrison|Equestrian statue of Harrison in Cincinnati, by [[Louis Rebisso]] ]]
| [[File:William Henry Harrison Presidential $1 Coin obverse.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|2009 [[presidential dollar coin]] ]]
| [[File:William Henry Harrison. Indiana statehood stamp, 1950 issue.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|1950 postal issue of Harrison commemorating Indiana's statehood]]
|}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==See also==
*[[Curse of Tippecanoe]]
*[[List of presidents of the United States]]
*[[List of presidents of the United States by previous experience]]
*[[List of presidents of the United States who died in office]]
*[[Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps]]
*[[Second Party System]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book|last=Bolívar|first=Simón|author-link=Simón Bolívar|editor=Bierck, Harold A. Jr.|title=Selected Writings of Bolívar|volume=II|publisher=Colonial Press|location=New York|year=1951|isbn=978-1-60635-115-4}} compiled by Lecuna, Vicente, translated by Bertrand, Lewis
*{{cite book|last=Burr|first=Samuel Jones|title=The Life and Times of William Henry Harrison|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimeswil02burrgoog |publisher=R. W. Pomeroy|location=New York|year=1840|access-date=September 14, 2016}}
*{{cite book|last=Calhoun|first=Charles William|title=Benjamin Harrison: The 23rd President 1889–1893|series=The American Presidents|volume=23|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8050-6952-5}}
*{{cite book|last1=Carnes|first1=Mark C.|last2=Mieczkowski|first2=Yanek|title=The Routledge Historical Atlas of Presidential Campaigns|series=Routledge Atlases of American History|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=2001|isbn=978-0-415-92139-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/routledgehistori0000miec|access-date=November 10, 2021}}
*{{cite book|last=Cleaves|first=Freeman|title=Old Tippecanoe: William Henry Harrison and His Time|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|location=New York|year=1939|isbn= 978-0-9457-0701-1}}
*{{cite book|first=Gail|last=Collins|title=William Henry Harrison: The 9th President, 1841|publisher=Henry Holt and Co.|year=2012|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8050-9118-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Dowdey|first=Clifford|title=The Great Plantation|publisher=Rinehart & Co.|location=New York|year=1957|oclc=679792228}}
*{{cite book|last=Greene|first=Meg|title=William H. Harrison|publisher=Twenty-First Century Books|location=Breckenridge, CO|year=2007|url=https://archive.org/details/williamhharrison0000gree|access-date=November 21, 2021|isbn=978-0-8225-1511-1}}; for children
*{{cite book|last=Greiff|first=Glory-June|title=Remembrance, Faith and Fancy: Outdoor Public Sculpture in Indiana|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press|year=2005|location=Indianapolis|isbn=978-0-87195-180-9}}
*{{cite book|editor-last1=Gugin|editor-first1=Linda C.|editor-last2=St. Clair|editor-first2=James E.|title=The Governors of Indiana|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press and the Indiana Historical Bureau|year=2006|location=Indianapolis|isbn=978-0-87195-196-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780871951960|access-date=November 10, 2021}}
*{{cite book|last=Hall|first=James|author-link=James Hall (writer)|title=A Memoir of the Public Services of William Henry Harrison, of Ohio|url=https://archive.org/details/amemoirpublicse00hallgoog |publisher=Key & Biddle|location=Philadelphia|year=1836|lccn=11019326|access-date=November 16, 2021}}
*{{cite web|last=Hopkins|first=Callie|title=John Tyler and the Presidential Succession|url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/john-tyler-and-presidential-succession|website=whitehousehistory.org|accessdate=August 16, 2022|ref=Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession}}
*{{cite book|last=Langguth|first=A. J.|author-link=A. J. Langguth|title=Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4165-3278-1|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/union1812america0000lang/page/n9/mode/2uplast=Langguth|access-date=November 20, 2021}}
*{{cite book|last1=Madison|first1=James H.|last2=Sandweiss|first2=Lee Ann|title=Hoosiers and the American Story|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press|year=2014|location=Indianapolis|url= https://indianahistory.org/education/educator-resources/curriculum/hoosiers-and-the-american-story|isbn=978-0-87195-363-6}}
*{{cite book |last=McCormick |first=Richard P. |chapter=William Henry Harrison and John Tyler |editor-last=Graff |editor-first=Henry |title=The Presidents: A Reference History |edition=7th |year=2002 |pages=139–151 |publisher=Macmillan Library Reference USA |isbn=978-0-684-80551-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Owens|first=Robert M.|title=Mr. Jefferson's Hammer: William Henry Harrison and the Origins of American Indian Policy|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman, OK|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8061-3842-8}}; also see [https://bestpresidentialbios.com/2013/12/12/review-of-mr-jeffersons-hammer-william-henry-harrison-by-robert-owens/ online book review]
*{{cite book |last=Remini |first=Robert V. |date=1997 |title=Daniel Webster: The Man and His Time |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=0-393-04552-8 |author-link=Robert V. Remini |url=https://archive.org/details/danielwebsterman00remi|access-date=November 10, 2021}}
*{{cite book|title=Ohio statesmen and annals of progress: from the year 1788 to the year 1900 ...|first1=William Alexander|last1=Taylor|first2=Aubrey Clarence|last2=Taylor|year=1899|publisher=Westbote Co.|location=Columbus|volume=1|lccn=01011959}}
*{{cite web|title=Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/first-families/anna-tuthill-symmes-harrison/|website=whitehouse.gov|accessdate=August 16, 2022|ref=The White House, Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison}}
*{{cite web|last=Tyler|first=John|title=Address Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-upon-assuming-the-office-president-the-united-states|date=April 9, 1841|ref=John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States|accessdate=August 8, 2022}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|first1=John D.|last1=Barnhart|first2=Dorothy L.|last2=Riker|title=Indiana to 1816, the colonial period|location=Indianapolis|publisher=Indiana Historical Bureau|year=1971|oclc=154955}}
*{{cite book|last=Booraem|first=Hendrik|title=A Child of the Revolution: William Henry Harrison and His World, 1773–1798|publisher=Kent State University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-1-6127-7643-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Borneman|first=Walter R.|author-link=Walter R. Borneman|title=1812: The War That Forged a Nation|publisher=HarperCollins (Harper Perennial)|location=New York|year=2005|isbn=978-0-06-053113-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Cheathem|first=Mark R.|title=The Coming of Democracy: Presidential Campaigning in the Age of Jackson|year=2018|isbn=9781421425986}}
*{{cite book|last=Ellis|first=Richard J.|title=Old Tip vs. the Sly Fox: The 1840 Election and the Making of a Partisan Nation|publisher=U of Kansas Press|year=2020|isbn=978-0-7006-2945-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Graff|first=Henry F.|title=The Presidents: A Reference History|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons.|location=New York|year=2002|oclc=1036830795}}
*{{cite book|last=Jortner|first=Adam|year=2012|title=The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-1997-6529-4}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VRwR4fz9IW4C|title=William Henry Harrison: Young Tippecanoe|isbn=978-1-8828-5903-0|last1=Peckham|first1=Howard Henry|publisher=Patria Press|location=Carmel, IN|year=2000|access-date=November 10, 2021}}
*{{cite book|last=Peterson|first=Norma Lois|title=The Presidencies of William Henry Harrison and John Tyler|publisher=U of Kansas Press|year=1989}}
*{{cite book|author=Pirtle, Alfred|publisher=John P. Morton & Co./ Library Reprints|year=1900|location=Louisville|title=The Battle of Tippecanoe|page=158|isbn=978-0-7222-6509-3}} as read to the [[Filson Club]].
*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Shade|first=William G.|title=Tippecanoe and Tyler Too: William Henry Harrison and the rise of popular politics|editor-first=Joel H.|editor-last=Silbey|encyclopedia=A Companion to the Antebellum Presidents 1837–1861|year=2013|pages=155–72}}
*{{cite book|last=Skaggs|first=David Curtis|title=William Henry Harrison and the Conquest of the Ohio Country: Frontier Fighting in the War of 1812|publisher=Johns Hopkins Univ. Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4214-0546-9}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|en-William Henry Harrison-article.ogg|date=March 28, 2019}}
*{{CongBio|H000279|ref=none}}
*[https://www.loc.gov/collections/william-henry-harrison-papers/about-this-collection/ William Henry Harrison Papers – Library of Congress]
*{{cite EB9 |wstitle = William Henry Harrison |volume= XI |last= |first= |author-link= | page=495 |short=1}}
*{{Ohio History Central|190|William H. Harrison}}
*[http://www.indianahistorylibrary.worldcat.org/title/guide-to-the-papers-of-william-henry-harrison-1800-1815/oclc/42377574&referer=brief_results Papers of William Henry Harrison, 1800–1815], Collection Guide, Indiana Historical Society
*[http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?william-henry-harrison-death Announcement of William Henry Harrison Impending Death] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140610203827/http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?william-henry-harrison-death |date=June 10, 2014 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090203215740/http://millercenter.org/index.php/academic/americanpresident/harrison Essays on Harrison, each member of his cabinet and First Lady]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090206031441/http://www.american-presidents.com/william-henry-harrison William Henry Harrison Biography and Fact File]
*[http://williamhenryharrison.org/ Biography by Appleton's and Stanley L. Klos]
*[http://www.c-span.org/video/?123123-1/life-portrait-william-henry-harrison "Life Portrait of William Henry Harrison"], from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', May 10, 1999
*In 1841 [[Anthony Heinrich|Anthony Philip Heinrich]] wrote [https://imslp.org/wiki/The_President's_Funeral_March_(Heinrich%2C_Anthony_Philip) The President's Funeral March] dedicated to President Harrison.

{{William Henry Harrison}}
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{{s-ref|The Whig Party ran regional candidates in 1836. Harrison ran in the Northern states, [[Hugh Lawson White|Hugh White]] ran in the Southern states, and [[Daniel Webster]] ran in [[Massachusetts]].}}
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William Henry Harrison

2024-09-26T19:21:33Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding infobox to Presidency section.

{{Short description|President of the United States in 1841}}
{{Redirect|William H. Harrison|other people|William Harrison (disambiguation){{!}}William Harrison|and|William Henry Harrison (disambiguation)}}
{{pp|small=yes|Vandalism }}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = William Henry Harrison
| image = William Henry Harrison.jpg
| caption = Harrison by [[Albert Gallatin Hoit]], {{circa|1840}}
| order = 9th
| office = President of the United States
| vicepresident = John Tyler
| term_start = March 4, 1841
| term_end = April 4, 1841
| predecessor = [[Martin Van Buren]]
| successor = [[John Tyler]]
| office1 = [[List of ambassadors of the United States to Colombia|United States Minister to Gran Colombia]]
| president1 = {{ubl|[[John Quincy Adams]]|[[Andrew Jackson]]}}
| term_start1 = February 5, 1829
| term_end1 = September 26, 1829
| predecessor1 = [[Beaufort Taylor Watts]]
| successor1 = [[Thomas Patrick Moore]]
| jr/sr2 = United States Senator
| state2 = [[Ohio]]
| term_start2 = March 4, 1825
| term_end2 = May 20, 1828
| predecessor2 = [[Ethan Allen Brown]]
| successor2 = [[Jacob Burnet]]
| state_senate3 = Ohio
| district3 = [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]]
| term_start3 = December 5, 1819
| term_end3 = December 2, 1821
| predecessor3 = Ephraim Brown
| successor3 = Ephraim Brown
| state4 = Ohio
| district4 = {{ushr|OH|1|1st}}
| term_start4 = October 8, 1816
| term_end4 = March 3, 1819
| predecessor4 = [[John McLean]]
| successor4 = [[Thomas R. Ross]]
| office5 = 1st [[Governor of Indiana|Governor of the Indiana Territory]]
| appointer5 = [[John Adams]]
| term_start5 = January 10, 1801
| term_end5 = December 28, 1812
| predecessor5 = Office established
| successor5 = [[Thomas Posey]]
| office6 = {{br entries|Delegate to the|[[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]|from the [[Northwest Territory]]'s|[[Northwest Territory's at-large congressional district|at-large]] district}}
| term_start6 = March 4, 1799
| term_end6 = May 14, 1800
| predecessor6 = Constituency established
| successor6 = [[William McMillan (congressman)|William McMillan]]
| office7 = 2nd [[Ohio Secretary of State|Secretary of the Northwest Territory]]
| governor7 = [[Arthur St. Clair]]
| term_start7 = June 28, 1798
| term_end7 = October 1, 1799
| predecessor7 = [[Winthrop Sargent]]
| successor7 = [[Charles Willing Byrd]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1773|2|9}}
| birth_place = [[Charles City County, Virginia]], [[British America]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1841|4|4|1773|2|9}}
| death_place = [[Washington, D.C.]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[Typhoid fever|Enteric fever]]
| restingplace = [[William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial|Harrison Tomb State Memorial]]
| party = {{ubl|[[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]] (before 1828)|[[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] (from 1836)}}
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Anna Harrison|Anna Symmes]]|November 22, 1795}}
| children = 10, including [[John Scott Harrison|John]], 2 with Dilsia, including [[Marie Harrison]]
| relatives = [[Harrison family of Virginia]]
| father = [[Benjamin Harrison V]]
| education = {{ubl|[[Hampden–Sydney College]]|[[University of Pennsylvania]]}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Soldier|politician}}
| awards = {{ubl|[[Congressional Gold Medal]]|[[Thanks of Congress]]}}
| signature = William Henry Harrison Signature-full.svg
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
| branch = {{flatlist|*[[United States Army]]
**[[Indiana Territory]] militia}}
| serviceyears = {{ubl|1791–1798|1811|1812–1814}}
| rank = [[Major general (United States)|Major general]]
| unit = [[Legion of the United States]]
| commands = [[Army of the Northwest (United States)|Army of the Northwest]]
| battles = {{tree list}}
*[[Northwest Indian War]]
**[[Siege of Fort Recovery]]
**[[Battle of Fallen Timbers]]
*[[Tecumseh's War]]
**[[Battle of Tippecanoe]]
*[[War of 1812]]
**[[Siege of Fort Wayne]]
**[[Battle of the Thames]]
{{Tree list/end}}
}}

'''William Henry Harrison''' (February 9, 1773{{spnd}}April 4, 1841) was an American military officer and politician who served as the ninth [[president of the United States]] from March 4 to April 4, 1841, the shortest presidency in U.S. history. He was also the first U.S. president to die in office, causing a brief [[constitutional crisis]] since [[United States presidential line of succession|presidential succession]] was not then fully defined in the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]]. Harrison was the last president born as a British subject in the [[Thirteen Colonies]] and was the grandfather of [[Benjamin Harrison]], the 23rd U.S. president.

Harrison was born into the [[Harrison family of Virginia]] in 1773 as a son of [[Benjamin Harrison V]], a [[Founding Fathers of the United States|U.S. Founding Father]]. In 1794, Harrison participated in the [[Battle of Fallen Timbers]], an American military victory that ended the [[Northwest Indian War]]. In 1811, he led a military force against [[Tecumseh's confederacy]] at the [[Battle of Tippecanoe]], where he earned the nickname "'''Old Tippecanoe'''". He was promoted to major general in the Army during the [[War of 1812]], and led American infantry and cavalry to victory at the [[Battle of the Thames]] in [[Upper Canada]].

Harrison's political career began in 1798, with an appointment as secretary of the [[Northwest Territory]]. In 1799, he was elected as the territory's non-voting delegate in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]. He became governor of the newly established [[Indiana Territory]] in 1801 and negotiated multiple treaties with American Indian tribes, with the nation acquiring millions of acres. After the War of 1812, he moved to Ohio where, [[1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections|in 1816]], he was elected to represent the state's {{ushr|OH|1|c}} in the House. [[1824 and 1825 United States Senate elections|In 1824]], he was elected to the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]], though his Senate term was cut short by his appointment as [[minister plenipotentiary]] to [[Gran Colombia]] in 1828.

Harrison returned to private life in Ohio until he was nominated as one of several [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] nominees in the [[1836 United States presidential election|1836 U.S. presidential election]], in which he lost to [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] vice president [[Martin Van Buren]]. In the [[1840 United States presidential election|1840 presidential election]], the party nominated him again, with [[John Tyler]] as his running mate, under the campaign slogan "[[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too]]", and Harrison defeated Van Buren. Just three weeks after his inauguration, Harrison fell ill and died days later. After resolution of an ambiguity in the constitution regarding succession to the powers and duties of the office, Tyler became president. Harrison is remembered for his Indian treaties, and also his inventive election campaign tactics. He is often omitted in [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|historical presidential rankings]] because of his brief tenure.

==Early life and education==
William Henry Harrison was the seventh and youngest child of [[Benjamin Harrison V]] and Elizabeth (Bassett) Harrison. Born on February 9, 1773, at [[Berkeley Plantation]], the home of the [[Harrison family of Virginia]] on the [[James River]] in [[Charles City County, Virginia|Charles City County]],{{sfn|Dowdey|1957|pp=291–315}} he became the last [[President of the United States|United States president]] not born as an American citizen.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://touringohio.com/profiles/harrison.html|title=William Henry Harrison|publisher=Touring Ohio, Heart of America|access-date=November 18, 2021}}</ref> The Harrisons were a prominent political family of English descent whose ancestors had been in [[Virginia]] since the 1630s.<ref name= "Smith">{{cite book|editor-last1=Smith|editor-first1=Howard|editor-last2=Riley|editor-first2=Edward M.|title=Benjamin Harrison and the American Revolution|publisher=Virginia Independence Bicentennial Commission|series=Virginia in the Revolution|year=1978|location=Williamsburg, VA|pages=59–65|oclc=4781472}}</ref> His father was a Virginia [[Planter class|planter]], who served as a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] (1774–1777) and who signed the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]].<ref name= "Smith"/> His father also served in the Virginia legislature and as the fifth governor of Virginia (1781–1784) in the years during and after the [[American Revolutionary War]].<ref name= "Smith"/> Harrison's older brother [[Carter Bassett Harrison]] represented Virginia in the House of Representatives (1793–1799).<ref>{{cite web|title=Carter Bassett Harrison|work=Biographical Directory of the United States Congress|publisher=U.S. Congress|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000266|access-date=September 14, 2016}}</ref> William Henry often referred to himself as a "child of the revolution", as indeed he was, having grown up in a home just {{convert|30|mi|abbr=on}} from where Washington won the war against the British in the [[Battle of Yorktown]].<ref name="Freehling">{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Life Before the Presidency| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/life-before-the-presidency| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 8, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref>

Harrison was tutored at home until age 14 when he attended [[Hampden–Sydney College]], a [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] college in [[Hampden Sydney, Virginia]].<ref name= "Smith"/><ref name=Perrysburg>{{cite web|url=https://www.historicperrysburg.org/wh-harrison|title=W. H. Harrison biography|publisher=Perrysburg, Ohio|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> He studied there for three years, receiving a classical education that included Latin, Greek, French, logic, and debate.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=18}}{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=45}} His Episcopalian father removed him from the college, possibly for religious reasons, and after brief stays at an academy in [[Southampton County, Virginia]], and with his elder brother [[Benjamin Harrison VI|Benjamin]] in Richmond, he went to [[Philadelphia]] in 1790.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=14}}

His father died in the spring of 1791, and he was placed in the care of [[Robert Morris (financier)|Robert Morris]], a close family friend in Philadelphia.<ref name= "Rabin">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thedp.com/article/2017/01/william-henry-harrison-history|title=A Penn graduate in the Oval Office|last=Rabin|first=Alex|date=January 25, 2017|work=[[The Daily Pennsylvanian]]|access-date=April 3, 2019}}</ref> He studied medicine at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]. During his time at Penn, he studied with Doctor [[Benjamin Rush]], a [[Founding Father of the United States]] and a Penn professor of chemistry and medicine and [[William Shippen Sr.]]<ref name= "Rabin"/> His older brother inherited their father's money, so he lacked the funds for his further medical schooling, which he had also discovered he didn't prefer.<ref name="Freehling"/> He therefore withdrew from Penn, though school archives record him as a "non-graduate alumnus of Penn's medical school class of 1793".<ref name= "Rabin"/> With the influence of his father's friend, Governor [[Henry Lee III]], he embarked upon a military career.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=16}}

===Early military career===
On August 16, 1791, within 24 hours of meeting Lee, Harrison, age 18, was commissioned as an [[Ensign (rank)#United States|ensign]] in the Army and assigned to the [[First American Regiment]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} He was initially assigned to [[Fort Washington (Ohio)|Fort Washington]], [[Cincinnati]] in the [[Northwest Territory]] where the army was engaged in the ongoing [[Northwest Indian War]].{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=14, 16, 22}} Biographer [[William W. Freehling]] says that young Harrison, in his first military act, rounded up about eighty thrill-seekers and troublemakers off Philadelphia's streets, talked them into signing enlistment papers, and marched them to Fort Washington.<ref name="Freehling"/>

Harrison was promoted to [[first lieutenant (United States)|lieutenant]] after Major General [[Anthony Wayne|"Mad Anthony" Wayne]] took command of the western army in 1792, following a disastrous defeat under [[Arthur St. Clair]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} In 1793, he became Wayne's [[aide-de-camp]] and acquired the skills to command an army on the frontier;<ref name=Perrysburg/> he participated in Wayne's decisive victory at the [[Battle of Fallen Timbers]] on August 20, 1794, which ended the Northwest Indian War.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=23–26}} He received the following commendation from Wayne for his role in the battle: "I must add the name of my faithful and gallant Aide-de-camp ... Lieutenant Harrison, who ... rendered the most essential service by communicating my orders in every direction ... conduct and bravery exciting the troops to press for victory."<ref name="Freehling"/> Harrison was a signatory of the [[Treaty of Greenville]] (1795), as witness to Wayne, the principal negotiator for the U.S.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Under the terms of the treaty, a coalition of Indians ceded a portion of their lands to the federal government, opening two-thirds of [[Ohio]] to settlement.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nelson |first=Paul David |year=1985 |title=Anthony Wayne, Soldier of the Early Republic |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0253307511 |url=https://archive.org/details/anthonywaynesold00nels/page/282 |page=[https://archive.org/details/anthonywaynesold00nels/page/282 282] }}</ref>{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=21, 28–30}}

At his mother's death in 1793, Harrison inherited a portion of his family's Virginia estate, including approximately {{convert|3000|acre|km2}} of land and several slaves. He was serving in the Army at the time and sold the land to his brother.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=39}} Harrison was promoted to [[Captain (United States O-3)|captain]] in May 1797 and resigned from the Army on June 1, 1798.{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=67–69}}

===Marriage and family===
Harrison met [[Anna Harrison|Anna Tuthill Symmes]] of [[North Bend, Ohio]] in 1795 when he was 22. She was a daughter of Anna Tuthill and Judge [[John Cleves Symmes]], who served as a colonel in the Revolutionary War and as a representative to the [[Congress of the Confederation]].{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=46}} Harrison asked the judge for permission to marry Anna but was refused, so the couple waited until Symmes left on business. They then eloped and were married on November 25, 1795, at the North Bend home of Stephen Wood, treasurer of the Northwest Territory.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=38–39}} They honeymooned at [[Fort Washington (Cincinnati, Ohio)|Fort Washington]], since Harrison was still on military duty.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=40}} Judge Symmes confronted him two weeks later at a farewell dinner for General Wayne, sternly demanding to know how he intended to support a family. Harrison responded, "by my sword, and my own right arm, sir".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/greatpresidentia00dole |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/greatpresidentia00dole/page/222 222] |title=Great Presidential Wit: – I Wish I was in this Book |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7432-0392-0 |last1=Dole |first1=Bob |author-link=Bob Dole|year=2001 }}</ref> The match was advantageous for Harrison, as he eventually exploited his father-in-law's connections with land speculators, which facilitated his departure from the army.<ref name="Freehling"/> Judge Symmes' doubts about him persisted, as he wrote to a friend, "He can neither bleed, plead, nor preach, and if he could plow I should be satisfied."<ref name="Freehling"/> Matters eventually became cordial with the father-in-law, who later sold the Harrisons {{convert|160|acres|ha}} of land in North Bend, which enabled Harrison to build a home and start a farm.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=40}}

Anna was frequently in poor health during the marriage, primarily because of her many pregnancies, yet she outlived William by 23 years, dying on February 25, 1864, at 88.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=18}}{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=56}}

The Harrisons had ten children:

*Elizabeth Bassett (1796–1846)
*John Cleves Symmes (1798–1830), who married the only surviving daughter of [[Zebulon Pike]]
*Lucy Singleton (1800–1826)
*William Henry Jr. (1802–1838)
*[[John Scott Harrison|John Scott]] (1804–1878), father of future U.S. president [[Benjamin Harrison]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bioguide.congress.gov/search/bio/H000272|title=John Scott Harrison|publisher=U. S. Congress|access-date=January 26, 2022}}</ref>
*Benjamin (1806–1840)
*Mary Symmes (1809–1842)
*Carter Bassett (1811–1839)
*Anna Tuthill (1813–1865)
*James Findlay (1814–1817)<ref>{{Cite web|title=William Henry Harrison: Fast Facts| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=September 26, 2016}}</ref>

Professor Kenneth R. Janken, in his biography of [[Walter Francis White]], claims that Harrison had six children by an enslaved African-American woman named [[Dilsia (slave)|Dilsia]] and gave four of them to a brother before running for president to avoid scandal. The assertion is based on the White family's oral history.<ref>{{cite book|first=Kenneth Robert|last=Janken|title=White: The Biography of Walter White: Mr. NAACP|location=New York|publisher=The New York Press|year=2003|page=3|isbn=978-1-5658-4773-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Phillips |first1=Amber |title=Warren Harding and 5 other presidents who have faced 'love child' questions |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/08/13/warren-harding-and-the-5-other-presidents-who-have-faced-love-child-questions/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post|Washington Post]] |date=August 13, 2015}}</ref> In her 2012 biography of Harrison, author [[Gail Collins]] describes this as an unlikely story, although White believed it to be true.{{sfn|Collins|2012|p=103}}

==Political career==
Harrison began his political career when he temporarily resigned from the military on June 1, 1798, and campaigned among his friends and family for a post in the Northwest Territorial government.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} His close friend [[Timothy Pickering]] was serving as Secretary of State, and along with Judge Symmes' influence, he was recommended to replace [[Winthrop Sargent]], the outgoing territorial secretary.<ref name="Freehling"/> President [[John Adams]] appointed Harrison to the position in July 1798.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} The work of recording the activities of the territory was tedious, and he soon became bored, and sought a position in the U. S. Congress.{{sfn|Greene|2007|p=44}}

===U.S. Congress===
[[File:W.H. Harrison ca. 1800.jpg|thumb|left|An engraved portrait print of Harrison at age 27, as a delegate member of the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] from the [[Northwest Territory]] by [[Charles Balthazar Julien Févret de Saint-Mémin]], {{Circa|1800}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/2007676954/|title=William Henry Harrison, 9th Pres. of United States|last=de Saint-Mémin|first= Charles Balthazar Julien Fevret|publisher=Library of Congress|access-date=August 5, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/presidents/bio9.htm|title=Biographical Sketch–William Henry Harrison|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=August 5, 2016}}</ref>]]
Harrison had many friends in the eastern aristocracy and quickly gained a reputation among them as a frontier leader. He ran a successful horse-breeding enterprise that won him acclaim throughout the Northwest Territory.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Congress had legislated a territorial policy that led to high land costs, a primary concern for settlers in the Territory; Harrison became their champion to lower those prices. The Northwest Territory's population reached a sufficient number to have a congressional delegate in October 1799, and Harrison ran for election.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} He campaigned to encourage further migration to the territory, which eventually led to statehood.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.in.gov/history/files/interritory.pdf|title=Indiana Territory|publisher=The Indiana Historian|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref>

Harrison defeated Arthur St. Clair Jr. by one vote to become the Northwest Territory's first congressional delegate in 1798 at age 26, and served in the [[Sixth United States Congress]] from March 4, 1799, to May 14, 1800.<ref name="wh">{{cite web|title=William Henry Harrison Biography |work=About The White House: Presidents |publisher=The White House |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/williamhenryharrison/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122233458/http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/williamhenryharrison/ |archive-date=January 22, 2009|access-date=November 6, 2021}}</ref><ref name="cb">{{cite web|title=William Henry Harrison (1773–1841) Biography|publisher=United States Congress|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=h000279|access-date=February 4, 2009}}</ref> He had no authority to vote on legislative bills, but he was permitted to serve on a committee, to submit legislation, and to engage in debate.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=45–48}} He became chairman of the Committee on Public Lands and promoted the Land Act of 1800, which made it easier to buy Northwest Territory land in smaller tracts at a lower cost.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} Freeholders were permitted to buy smaller lots with a down payment of only five percent, and this became an important factor in the Territory's rapid population growth.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=161}}

Harrison was also instrumental in arranging the division of the Territory into two sections.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} The eastern section continued to be known as the Northwest Territory and included present-day [[Ohio]] and eastern [[Michigan]]; the western section was named the [[Indiana Territory]] and included present-day [[Indiana]], [[Illinois]], [[Wisconsin]], a portion of western [[Michigan]], and an eastern portion of [[Minnesota]]. The two new territories were formally established by law in 1800.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=47–48}}

On May 13, 1800, President [[John Adams]] appointed Harrison as the governor of the Indiana Territory, based on his ties to the west and his apparent neutral political stances.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=50–51}} He served in this capacity for twelve years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.in.gov/history/about-indiana-history-and-trivia/governors-portraits/list-of-governors/indiana-territorial-governor-william-henry-harrison-1773-1841|title=Indiana Territorial Governor|date=December 15, 2020|publisher=Indiana Historical Bureau|access-date=November 28, 2021}}</ref> His governorship was confirmed by the Senate and he resigned from Congress to become the first Indiana territorial governor in 1801.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}}{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=50–53}}

===Indiana territorial governor===
{{see also|History of slavery in Indiana|Indiana Territory}}
Harrison began his duties on January 10, 1801, at [[Vincennes, Indiana|Vincennes]], the capital of the Indiana Territory.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=53}} Presidents [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]] were members of the Democratic-Republican Party, and they reappointed him as governor in 1803, 1806, and 1809.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} In 1804, Harrison was assigned to administer the civilian government of the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Louisiana]]. He conducted the district's affairs for five weeks until the Louisiana Territory was formally established on July 4, 1805, and Brigadier General [[James Wilkinson]] assumed the duties of governor.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=21}}

In 1805, Harrison built a plantation-style home near Vincennes that he named [[Grouseland]], in tribute to the birds on the property.{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=46}} The 26-room home was one of the first brick structures in the territory;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/66000018_text|title=Grouseland|publisher=National Register of Historic Places|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> and it served as a center of social and political life in the territory during his tenure as governor.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://visitvincennes.org/attractions/grouseland-president-william-henry-harrison-mansion/|title=Grouseland|publisher=Historic Vincennes|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> Harrison founded a university at Vincennes in 1801, which was incorporated as [[Vincennes University]] on November 29, 1806.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vinu.edu/web/guest/about-us |title=History – Vincennes University |publisher=Vincennes University|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816120836/http://www.vinu.edu/web/guest/about-us |archive-date=August 16, 2016 }}</ref> The territorial capital was eventually moved to [[Corydon, Indiana|Corydon]] in 1813, and Harrison built a second home at nearby [[Harrison Spring|Harrison Valley]].<ref>{{cite web|url =https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/r/25b93/N/Corydon_HD_Harrison_CO_Nom.pdf|title =National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form: Corydon Historic District|access-date=November 30, 2021|last=Griffin|first=Frederick Porter| date=1972}}</ref>

Harrison's primary responsibility was to obtain title to Indian lands that would allow future settlement and increase the territory's population, a requirement for statehood. He was also eager to expand the territory for personal reasons, as his political fortunes were tied to Indiana's eventual statehood.<ref name="Freehling"/> While benefiting from land speculation on his own behalf, and acquiring two milling operations, he was credited as a good administrator, with significant improvements in roads and other infrastructure.<ref name="Freehling"/>

When Harrison was reappointed as the Indiana territorial governor on February 8, 1803, he was given expanded authority to negotiate and conclude treaties with the Indians.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} The 1804 [[Treaty of St. Louis (1804)|Treaty of St. Louis]] with [[Quashquame]] required the [[Sauk people|Sauk]] and [[Meskwaki]] tribes to cede much of western Illinois and parts of [[Missouri]]. Many of the Sauk resented the loss of lands, especially their leader [[Black Hawk (Sauk leader)|Black Hawk]].{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=87–89}} Harrison thought that the [[Treaty of Grouseland]] (1805) appeased some of the Indians, but tensions remained high along the frontier.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=104–106}} The [[Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809)]] raised new tensions when Harrison purchased more than {{convert|2.5|e6acre|km2|abbr=unit}} from the Potawatomi, Delaware, Miami, and Eel River tribes. Some Indians disputed the authority of the tribes joining in the treaty.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/blogs/national-museum-american-indian/2017/09/29/treaty-fort-wayne-1809/|title=Treaty of Fort Wayne, 1809|publisher=Smithsonian Magazine|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> Harrison was also able to conduct matters unquestioned by the government, as the administration changed hands from Jefferson to Madison.<ref name="Freehling"/>

He pursued the treaty process aggressively, offering large subsidies to the tribes and their leaders, so as to gain political favor with Jefferson before his departure.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/william-henry-harrison-shady-treaty-maker-and-indian-land-taker|title=William Henry Harrison: Shady Treaty Maker (quoting Owens)|publisher=Indian Country Today|last=Landry|first=Alysa|date=September 13, 2018 |access-date=November 14, 2021}}</ref> Biographer Freehling asserts that the Indians perceived the ownership of land was as common to all, just as the air that is breathed. In 1805, Harrison succeeded in acquiring for the nation as many as 51,000,000 acres from the Indians, after plying five of their chiefs with alcohol, for no more than a dollar per 20,000 acres {{USDCY|1|1805}}, and comprising two-thirds of Illinois and sizable chunks of Wisconsin and Missouri.<ref name="Freehling"/>

In addition to resulting tensions with the Indians, Harrison's pro-slavery position made him unpopular with the Indiana Territory's [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionists]], as he tried in vain to encourage slavery in the territory. In 1803, he had lobbied Congress to temporarily suspend for ten years Article VI of the [[Northwest Ordinance]] prohibiting slavery in the Indiana Territory.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=68–69}} Though Harrison asserted that the suspension was necessary to promote settlement and make the territory economically viable and ready for statehood, the proposal failed.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=69–72}} Lacking the suspension of Article VI, in 1807 the territorial legislature, with Harrison's support, enacted laws that authorized indentured servitude and gave masters authority to determine the length of service.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lib.niu.edu/1998/iht519802.html|title=Freedom's Early Ring|publisher=Illinois Periodicals Online|access-date=December 1, 2021}}</ref>

President Jefferson, primary author of the Northwest Ordinance, made a secret compact with [[James Lemen]] to defeat the nascent pro-slavery movement supported by Harrison.<ref name="Peck">{{cite book|last=Peck|first=J. M.|publisher=Univ. of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1915|title=The Jefferson-Lemen Compact|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNASAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA32 |access-date=March 28, 2010}}</ref> He donated $100 to encourage Lemen with abolition and other good works, and later (in 1808) another $20 {{USDCY|20|1808}} to help fund the church known as Bethel Baptist Church.<ref name="Peck"/> In [[Indiana]], the planting of the anti-slavery church led to citizens signing a petition and organizing politically to defeat Harrison's efforts to legalize slavery in the territory.<ref name="Peck"/>

The Indiana Territory held elections to the legislature's upper and lower houses for the first time in 1809. Harrison found himself at odds with the legislature after the abolitionists came to power, and the eastern portion of the Indiana Territory grew to include a large anti-slavery population.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=21}} The Territory's general assembly convened in 1810, and its anti-slavery faction immediately repealed the indenturing laws previously enacted.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.capitolandwashington.com/blog/2021/02/25/a-brief-history-of-race-and-politics-in-indiana|title= A Brief History of Race and Politics in Indiana|date= February 25, 2021|publisher=Capitol & Washington|access-date=December 1, 2021}}</ref> After 1809, the Indiana legislature assumed more authority and the territory advanced toward statehood.

==Army general==

===Tecumseh and Tippecanoe===
{{main|Tecumseh's War|Battle of Tippecanoe}}
Indian resistance to American expansion came to a head, with the leadership of Shawnee brothers [[Tecumseh]] and [[Tenskwatawa]] ("The Prophet"), in a conflict that became known as [[Tecumseh's War]].{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=158–160}} Tenskwatawa convinced the tribes that they would be protected by the [[Great Spirit]] and that no harm could befall them if they rose up against the settlers. He encouraged resistance by telling the tribes to pay white traders only half of what they owed and to give up all the white man's ways, including their clothing, muskets, and especially whiskey.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=158–160}} Harrison received word of the resistance through spies he had placed within the tribes, and asked Madison to fund military preparations. Madison dragged his feet, and Harrison attempted to negotiate, sending a letter to Tecumseh saying, "Our Blue Coats (U.S. Army soldiers) are more numerous than you can count, and our hunting shirts (volunteer militiamen) are like the leaves of the forests or the grains of sand on the Wabash."<ref name="Freehling"/>

[[File:Tecumseh02.jpg|thumb|upright|1915 depiction of [[Tecumseh]], believed to be copying an 1808 sketch]]

In August 1810, Tecumseh led 400 warriors down the [[Wabash River]] to meet with Harrison in Vincennes. They were dressed in war paint, and their sudden appearance at first frightened the soldiers at Vincennes.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=164}} The leaders of the group were escorted to Grouseland, where they met Harrison. Tecumseh berated the condescending Harrison repeatedly, and insisted that the Fort Wayne Treaty was illegitimate, arguing that one tribe could not sell land without the approval of the other tribes. He asked Harrison to nullify it and warned that Americans should not attempt to settle the lands sold in the treaty.<ref name="Freehling"/> Tecumseh informed Harrison that he had threatened to kill the chiefs who signed the treaty if they carried out its terms and that his confederation of tribes was growing rapidly.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}} Harrison said that the individual tribes were the owners of the land and could sell it as they wished. He rejected Tecumseh's claim that all the Indians formed one nation and said that each tribe could have separate relations with the United States if they chose to do so. Harrison argued that the Great Spirit would have made all the tribes speak one language if they were to be one nation.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}}

Tecumseh launched an "impassioned rebuttal", in the words of one historian, but Harrison was unable to understand his language.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}} Tecumseh then began shouting at Harrison and called him a liar.<ref name="Freehling"/> A Shawnee friendly to Harrison cocked his pistol from the sidelines to alert Harrison that Tecumseh's speech was leading to trouble, and some witnesses reported that Tecumseh was encouraging the warriors to kill Harrison. Many of them began to pull their weapons, representing a substantial threat to Harrison and the town, which held a population of only 1,000. Harrison drew his sword, and Tecumseh's warriors backed down when the officers presented their firearms in his defense.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}} Chief [[Winamac]] was friendly to Harrison, and he countered Tecumseh's arguments, telling the warriors that they should return home in peace since they had come in peace. Before leaving, Tecumseh informed Harrison that he would seek an alliance with the British if the Fort Wayne Treaty was not nullified.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=166}} After the meeting, Tecumseh journeyed to meet with many of the tribes in the region, hoping to create a [[Tecumseh's Confederacy|confederation]] to battle the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Tecumseh|title=Tecumseh|publisher=Ohio History Central|access-date=November 21, 2021}}</ref>

Harrison was concerned that Tecumseh's actions would endanger the statehood of Indiana, as well as his political future, leaving it "the haunt of a few wretched savages".<ref name="Freehling"/> Tecumseh was traveling in 1811, leaving Tenskwatawa in charge of Indian forces. Harrison saw a window of opportunity in Tecumseh's absence, and advised Secretary of War [[William Eustis]] to present a show of force to the Indian confederation.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=167}} Despite being 13 years removed from military action, Harrison convinced Madison and Eustis to allow him to assume command.<ref name="Freehling"/> He led an army north with 950 men to intimidate the Shawnee into making peace, but the tribes launched a surprise attack early on November 7 in the [[Battle of Tippecanoe]].{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=168}} Harrison countered and defeated the tribal forces at [[Prophetstown State Park|Prophetstown]] next to the Wabash and [[Tippecanoe River]]s; the battle became famous and he was hailed as a national hero. Although his troops had suffered 62 dead and 126 wounded during the battle and the Shawnee just 150 casualties, the Shawnee prophet's vision of spiritual protection had been shattered. Tenskwatawa and his forces fled to Canada, and their campaign to unite the tribes of the region to reject assimilation failed.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=169}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Pirtle|first=Alfred|publisher=John P. Morton & Co.|year=1900|location=Louisville|title=The Battle of Tippecanoe| page=158 |isbn=978-0-7222-6509-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvA7AAAAMAAJ&q=Pirtle,+Alfred.+(1900).+The+Battle+of+Tippecanoe&pg=PR1}}</ref>

When reporting to Secretary Eustis, Harrison had informed him of the battle near the Tippecanoe River and that he had anticipated an attack. A first dispatch had not been clear which side had won the conflict, and the secretary interpreted it as a defeat until the follow-up dispatch clarified the situation.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=219–220}} When no second attack came, the Shawnee defeat had become more certain. Eustis demanded to know why Harrison had not taken adequate precautions in fortifying his camp against the initial attack, and Harrison said that he had considered the position strong enough. The dispute was the catalyst of a disagreement between Harrison and the Department of War, which continued into the War of 1812.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Indiana|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryindiana00dillgoog|last=Dillon|first=John Brown|publisher=Bingham & Doughty|year=1859|isbn=978-0-253-20305-2|pages=466–471}}</ref> Freehling says that Harrison's rusty skills resulted in his troops setting campfires the night before the battle, exposing their position to a surprise attack and casualties.<ref name="Freehling"/>

The press did not cover the battle at first, until one Ohio paper misinterpreted Harrison's first dispatch to mean that he was defeated.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=220}} By December, however, most major American papers carried stories on the battle victory, and public outrage grew over the Shawnee.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=220–222}} Americans blamed the British for inciting the tribes to violence and supplying them with firearms, and Congress passed resolutions condemning the British for interfering in American domestic affairs. Congress declared war on June 18, 1812, and Harrison left Vincennes to seek a military appointment.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}}

===War of 1812===
[[File:Rembrandt Peale - William Henry Harrison - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|This portrait of Harrison originally showed him in civilian clothes as a congressional delegate in 1800; the uniform was added after service in the War of 1812.|329x329px]]
The outbreak of war with the British in 1812 led to continued conflict with Indians in the Northwest. Harrison briefly served as a major general in the [[Kentucky]] militia until the government commissioned him on September 17 to command the [[Army of the Northwest (United States)|Army of the Northwest]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} He received federal military pay for his service, and he also collected a territorial governor's salary from September until December 28, when he formally resigned as governor and continued his military service. Authors Gugin and St. Clair claim the resignation was forced upon him.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} Harrison was succeeded by John Gibson as acting governor of the territory.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}}

The Americans suffered a defeat in the [[siege of Detroit]]. General [[James Winchester (general)|James Winchester]] offered Harrison the rank of brigadier general, but Harrison wanted sole command of the army. President [[James Madison]] removed Winchester from command in September, and Harrison became commander of the fresh recruits.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} He received orders to retake Detroit and boost morale, but he initially held back, unwilling to press the war northward.<ref name="Freehling"/> The British and their Indian allies greatly outnumbered Harrison's troops, so Harrison constructed a defensive position during the winter along the [[Maumee River]] in northwest Ohio. He named it [[Fort Meigs]] in honor of Ohio governor [[Return J. Meigs Jr.]] He then received reinforcements in 1813, took the offensive, and led the army north to battle. He won victories in the Indiana Territory as well as Ohio and recaptured Detroit before invading Upper [[Canada]] ([[Ontario]]). His army defeated the British, and Tecumseh was killed, on October 5, 1813, at the [[Battle of the Thames]]. It was considered to be one of the great American victories in the war, second only to the [[Battle of New Orleans]], and secured a national reputation for Harrison.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=257–70}}<ref name="Freehling"/>

In 1814, Secretary of War [[John Armstrong Jr.|John Armstrong]] divided the command of the army, assigning Harrison to an outlying post and giving control of the front to one of Harrison's subordinates.{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=232–244}} Armstrong and Harrison had disagreed over the lack of coordination and effectiveness in the invasion of Canada, and Harrison resigned from the army in May.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=290–91}}{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=24}} After the war ended, Congress investigated Harrison's resignation and determined that Armstrong had mistreated him during his military campaign and that his resignation was justified. Congress awarded Harrison a gold medal for his services during the war.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Presidential Series – William H. Harrison|url=https://www.nationalguard.mil/Resources/Image-Gallery/Historical-Paintings/Presidential-Series/William-H-Harrison/|access-date=June 18, 2020|publisher=National Guard}}</ref>

Harrison and [[Michigan Territory]]'s Governor [[Lewis Cass]] were responsible for negotiating the [[Treaty of Greenville (1814)|peace treaty]] with the Indians.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Treaty_with_the_Wyandots,_Delawares,_Shawnees,_Senecas,_and_Miamis_(1814)|title=Treaty with the Wyandots, Delawares, Shawnees, Senecas, and Miamis (1814)|publisher=Ohio History Central|access-date=December 1, 2021}}</ref> President Madison appointed Harrison in June 1815 to help in negotiating a second treaty with the Indians that became known as the [[Treaty of Springwells]], in which the tribes ceded a large tract of land in the west, providing additional land for American purchase and settlement.<ref name="cb"/>

==Postwar life==
===Ohio politician and diplomat===
[[File:WmHHarrison-poster.jpg|thumb|right|upright=.95|Poster lauding Harrison's accomplishments]]

Harrison resigned from the army in 1814, shortly before the conclusion of the War of 1812, and returned to his family and farm in [[North Bend, Ohio]].<ref name="Freehling"/> Freehling claims that his expenses then well exceeded his means and he fell into debt, that Harrison chose "celebrity over duty", as he sought the adulation found at parties in New York, Washington, and Philadelphia, and that he became an office seeker.<ref name="Freehling"/> He was elected in 1816 to complete [[John McLean]]'s term in the House of Representatives, representing [[Ohio's 1st congressional district]] until 1819. He attempted to secure the post as Secretary of War under President Monroe in 1817 but lost out to [[John C. Calhoun]]. He was also passed over for a diplomatic post to Russia.<ref name="Freehling"/> He was elected to the [[Ohio Senate]] in 1819 and served until 1821, having lost the election for Ohio governor in 1820.<ref name="cb" /> He ran in the [[1822 United States House of Representatives elections in Ohio|1822 election]] for the United States House of Representatives, but lost to [[James W. Gazlay]].<ref name="Freehling"/><ref>{{cite web |title=A New Nation Votes |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/pg15bf880 |website=Tufts Digital Collections and Archives |access-date=March 5, 2022 |date=January 11, 2012}}</ref> He was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1824, and was an Ohio presidential elector in 1820 for [[James Monroe]]{{sfn|Taylor|Taylor|1899|p=102}} and for [[Henry Clay]] in 1824.{{sfn|Taylor|Taylor|1899|p=145}}

Harrison was appointed in 1828 as [[minister plenipotentiary]] to [[Gran Colombia]], so he resigned from Congress and served in his new post until March 8, 1829.{{sfn|Bolívar|1951|p=732}} He arrived in [[Bogotá]] on December 22, 1828, and found the condition of Colombia saddening. He reported to the Secretary of State that the country was on the edge of anarchy, and that [[Simón Bolívar]] was about to become a military dictator.{{sfn|Bolívar|1951|p=732}} He wrote a letter of polite rebuke to Bolívar, stating that "the strongest of all governments is that which is most free" and calling on Bolívar to encourage the development of democracy. In response, Bolívar wrote that the United States "seem destined by Providence to plague America with torments in the name of freedom", a sentiment that achieved fame in Latin America.{{sfn|Bolívar|1951|p=732}}

Freehling indicates Harrison's missteps in Colombia were "bad and frequent", that he failed to properly maintain a position of neutrality in Colombian affairs, by publicly opposing Bolivar, and that Colombia sought his removal. [[Andrew Jackson]] took office in March 1829, and recalled Harrison in order to make his own appointment to the position.<ref name="Freehling"/> Biographer James Hall claims that Harrison found in Colombia a military despotism and that "his liberal opinions, his stern republican integrity, and the plain simplicity of his dress and manners, contrasted too strongly with the arbitrary opinions and ostentatious behaviour of the public officers, to allow him to be long a favourite with those who had usurped the power of that government. They feared that the people would perceive the difference between a real and a pretended patriot, and commenced a series of persecutions against our minister, which rendered his situation extremely irksome."{{sfn|Hall|1836|p=301}} A very similar sentiment of the situation is related by biographer Samuel Burr.

Harrison, after leaving his post but while still in the country, wrote his roughly ten-page letter to Bolivar, which is reproduced in full in the Hall and Burr biographies. It left the former struck by Harrison's "deeply imbued principles of liberty". Burr describes the letter as "replete with wisdom, goodness, and patriotism…and the purest of principles".{{sfn|Hall|1836|p=301}}{{sfn|Burr|1840|p=256}}

===Private citizen===
Harrison returned to the United States and his North Bend farm, living in relative privacy after nearly four decades of government service. He had accumulated no substantial wealth during his lifetime, and he lived on his savings, a small pension, and the income produced by his farm. Burr references M. Chavalier, who encountered Harrison in Cincinnati at this time, and described Harrison as "poor, with a numerous family, abandoned by the Federal government, yet vigorous with independent thinking".{{sfn|Burr|1840|p=Appendix}}

In May 1817, Harrison served as one of the founding [[vestry]] members of the [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal]] congregation, [[Christ Church Cathedral (Cincinnati)|Christ Church]] in downtown [[Cincinnati]] (now [[Christ Church Cathedral (Cincinnati)|Christ Church Cathedral]]).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Morris |first=J. W. |title=Christ Church Cincinnati, 1817–1967 |publisher=Cincinnati Lithographing Ohio Press |year=1969}}</ref> Harrison went on to serve as a vestry member through 1819, and then again in 1824.<ref name=":0" />

Local supporters had come to Harrison's relief, by appointing him [[Clerk of Courts]] for [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]], where he worked from 1836 until 1840.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the Clerk of Courts Office|publisher=Hamilton County Clerk of Courts|url=http://www.courtclerk.org/history_clerk_of_courts.asp|access-date=December 6, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614052246/http://www.courtclerk.org/history_clerk_of_courts.asp|archive-date=June 14, 2007}}</ref> Chevalier remarked, "His friends back east talk of making him President, while here we make him clerk of an inferior court."{{sfn|Burr|1840|p=Appendix}} He also cultivated corn and established a distillery to produce whiskey, but closed it after he became disturbed by the effects of alcohol on its consumers. In an address to the [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]] Agricultural Board in 1831, he said that he had sinned in making whiskey and hoped that others would learn from his mistake and stop the production of liquors.{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=257–258}}

About this time, he met abolitionist and [[Underground Railroad]] conductor [[George DeBaptiste]] who lived in nearby [[Madison, Indiana|Madison]], and the two became friends. Harrison wrote at the time, "we might look forward to a day when a North American sun would not look down upon a slave."<ref>{{cite book|title=A Patriot's History of the United States|first1=Larry|last1=Schweikart|first2=Michael|last2=Allen|publisher=Easton Press|location=Norwalk, Conn.|year=2004|page=233|isbn=1-59523-001-7}}</ref> DeBaptiste became his valet, and later White House steward.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tobin|first=Jacqueline L.|title=From Midnight to Dawn: The Last Tracks of the Underground Railroad|publisher=Anchor|location=Detroit|year=2008|pages=200–209|isbn=978-1-4001-0354-6}}</ref>

Burr closes his account of Harrison by describing an event, denied by some of his friends—a reception given the general at Philadelphia, in 1836. According to Burr, "Thousands and tens of thousands crowded Chesnut street wharf upon his arrival, and greeted him with continual cheering as he landed. He stepped into the [[barouche]] but the crowd pressed forward so impetuously, that the horses became frightened and reared frequently. A rush was made to unharness the animals when the General spoke to several of them and endeavored to prevent it; but the team was soon unmanageable, and it became necessary to take them off. A rope was brought, and attached to the carriage, by which the people drew it to the Marshall House. This act was the spontaneous burst of ten thousand grateful hearts. Pennsylvanians fought under the hero, and they loved him. We speak particularly on this point, because we were eyewitnesses of all that passed."{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=264–265}}

===1836 presidential campaign===
{{main|1836 United States presidential election}}

Harrison was the western Whig candidate for president in 1836, one of four regional Whig party candidates. The others were [[Daniel Webster]], [[Hugh Lawson White|Hugh L. White]], and [[Willie P. Mangum]]. More than one Whig candidate emerged in an effort to defeat the incumbent Vice President [[Martin Van Buren]], who was the popular Jackson-chosen Democrat.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections">{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Campaigns and Elections|url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/campaigns-and-elections| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=January 20, 2022| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> The Democrats charged that, by running several candidates, the Whigs sought to prevent a Van Buren victory in the electoral college, and force the election into the House.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1836|title=U.S. Presidential Election of 1836|publisher=Britannica|access-date=January 20, 2022}}</ref> In any case the plan, if there was one, failed. In the end, Harrison came in second, and carried nine of the twenty-six states in the Union.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/><ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="shp">{{cite web|title=How Close Were The Presidential Elections?|last=Shepperd|first=Michael|publisher=Michigan State University|url=https://www.msu.edu/~sheppa28/elections.html#1836|access-date=February 11, 2009}}</ref>

Harrison ran in all the non-slave states except Massachusetts, and in the slave states of Delaware, Maryland, and Kentucky. White ran in the remaining slave states except for South Carolina. [[Daniel Webster]] ran in Massachusetts, and Mangum in South Carolina.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ershkowitz|first=Herbert B.|title=American Presidential Campaigns and Elections|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=2020|isbn=978-1-3154-9713-6}}</ref> Van Buren won the election with 170 electoral votes.<ref name="Britannica"/> A swing of just over 4,000 votes in Pennsylvania would have given that state's 30 electoral votes to Harrison and the election would have been decided in the House of Representatives.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?fips=42&year=1836&f=0&off=0&elect=0 |title=USA Election Polls-Pennsylvania 1836 |publisher=Pennsylvania Election Results Home |access-date=January 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081117062058/http://www.uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?fips=42&year=1836&f=0&off=0&elect=0 |archive-date=November 17, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="shp"/>

===1840 presidential campaign===
{{main|William Henry Harrison 1840 presidential campaign}}
[[File:ElectoralCollege1840.svg|thumb|upright=0.85|right|1840 Electoral Vote Map]]
Harrison faced incumbent Van Buren as the sole Whig candidate in the 1840 election. The Whigs saw in Harrison a born southerner and war hero, who would contrast well with the aloof, uncaring, and aristocratic Van Buren.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/> He was chosen over more controversial members of the party, such as Clay and Webster; his campaign highlighted his military record and focused on the weak U.S. economy caused by the [[Panic of 1837]].{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=39}}

The Whigs blamed Van Buren for the economic problems and nicknamed him "Van Ruin".{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=39}} The Democrats, in turn, ridiculed the elder Harrison by calling him "Granny Harrison, the petticoat general", because he resigned from the army before the War of 1812 ended. They noted for the voters what Harrison's name would be when spelled backwards: "No Sirrah". They cast him as a provincial, out-of-touch old man who would rather "[[log cabin campaign|sit in his log cabin drinking hard cider]]" than attend to the administration of the country. This strategy backfired when Harrison and running mate [[John Tyler]] adopted the log cabin and hard cider as campaign symbols. Their campaign used the symbols on banners and posters and created bottles of hard cider shaped like log cabins, all to connect the candidates to the "common man".{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|pp=39–40}} Freehling relates that, "One bitter pro-Van Buren paper lamented after his defeat, 'We have been sung down, lied down and drunk down.' In one sentence, this described the new American political process."<ref name= "WHH - American Franchise">{{cite web|url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/the-american-franchise|first=William|last=Freehling|title=William Harrison: The American Franchise|publisher=University of Virginia Miller Center|location=Charlottesville, Virginia|date=October 4, 2016|access-date=January 22, 2022}}</ref>

Harrison came from a wealthy, slaveholding Virginia family, yet his campaign promoted him as a humble frontiersman in the style popularized by [[Andrew Jackson]], while presenting Van Buren as a wealthy elitist.{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|pp=39–40}} A memorable example was the [[Gold Spoon Oration]] that Pennsylvania's Whig representative [[Charles Ogle (politician)|Charles Ogle]] delivered in the House, ridiculing Van Buren's elegant White House lifestyle and lavish spending.<ref name=Bradley-70-71>{{cite book|author=Bradley, Elizabeth L.|title=Knickerbocker: The Myth behind New York|url=https://archive.org/details/knickerbockermyt0000brad |url-access=registration|location=New Brunswick, NJ|publisher=Rivergate|pages=[https://archive.org/details/knickerbockermyt0000brad/page/70 70]–71|isbn=978-0-8135-4516-5|year=2009|access-date=November 9, 2021}}</ref> The Whigs invented a chant in which people would spit tobacco juice as they chanted "wirt-wirt", and this also exhibited the difference between candidates from the time of the election:<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/>

{{poemquote|
Old Tip he wore a homespun coat, he had no ruffled shirt: wirt-wirt,
But Matt he has the golden plate, and he's a little squirt: wirt-wirt!}}

The Whigs boasted of Harrison's military record and his reputation as the hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe. The campaign slogan "[[Tippecanoe and Tyler too|Tippecanoe and Tyler, Too]]" became one of the most famous in American politics.{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=41}} While Van Buren campaigned from the White House, Harrison was on the campaign trail, entertaining with his impressions of Indian war whoops, and took people's minds off the nation's economic troubles. In June 1840, a Harrison rally at the site of the Tippecanoe battle drew 60,000 people.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/> The Village of North Bend, Ohio, as well as the alumni of [[Ohio State University]] claim that the state's use of the nickname "Buckeyes" began with Harrison's campaign message.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northbendohio.org/Buckeyes.html|title=Buckeyes?|publisher=Village of North Bend}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.osu.edu/alumni/news/ohio-state-alumni-magazine/issues/september-october-2016/tippecanoe-and-buckeyes-too|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528074916/https://www.osu.edu/alumni/news/ohio-state-alumni-magazine/issues/september-october-2016/tippecanoe-and-buckeyes-too/|archive-date=2022-05-28|url-status=dead|title=Tippecanoe and Buckeyes Too|date=August 29, 2016|publisher=Ohio State Univ. Alumni Assoc.|access-date=January 21, 2022}}</ref>
Voter turnout shot to a spectacular 80%, 20 points higher than the previous election.<ref name= "WHH - American Franchise"/> Harrison won a landslide victory in the Electoral College, 234 electoral votes to Van Buren's 60. The popular vote margin was much closer, at fewer than 150,000 votes, though he carried nineteen of the twenty-six states.{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=41}}{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=25}}

==Presidency (1841)==
===Inauguration===
{{Short description|U.S. presidential administration from 1841 to 1841}}
{{Infobox administration
| image = William Henry Harrison.jpg
| name = Presidency of William Henry Harrison
| term_start = March 4, 1841
| term_end = April 4, 1841
| president_link = President of the United States
| cabinet = ''[[#The_press_of_patronage|See list]]''
| party = [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]]
| seat = [[White House]]
| predecessor = [[Presidency of Martin Van Buren|Martin Van Buren]]
| successor = [[Presidency of John Tyler|John Tyler]]
| seal = 1840s US presidential seal.png
| seal_caption = Seal of the president (1840–1850)
}}
When Harrison came to Washington, he wanted to show that he was still the steadfast hero of Tippecanoe and that he was a better educated and more thoughtful man than the backwoods caricature portrayed in the campaign. He [[Inauguration of William Henry Harrison|took the oath of office]] on Thursday, March 4, 1841, a cold and wet day.<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration">{{cite web |title= American Treasures–Harrison's Inauguration|date=August 2007|url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr22a.html#obj14|publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=September 21, 2009}}</ref> He braved the chilly weather and chose not to wear an overcoat or a hat, rode on horseback to the grand ceremony, and then delivered the longest inaugural address in American history<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> at 8,445 words. It took him nearly two hours to read, although his friend and fellow Whig [[Daniel Webster]] had edited it for length.<ref name = iap/> Freehling opines that speeches like this were actually common at the time, and that its irony was rich, as Harrison, "a lifelong office seeker, elected by deeply partisan politics, criticized both".<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs"/>

The inaugural address was a detailed statement of the Whig agenda, a repudiation of Jackson's and Van Buren's policies, and the first and only formal articulation by Harrison of his approach to the presidency.<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs">{{cite web|url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/domestic-affairs|last=Freehling|first=William|title=William Harrison: Domestic Affairs|publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia|location=Charlottesville, Virginia|access-date=January 22, 2022|date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> The address began with Harrison's sincere regard for the trust being placed in him:

{{blockquote|However strong may be my present purpose to realize the expectations of a magnanimous and confiding people, I too well understand the dangerous temptations to which I shall be exposed from the magnitude of the power which it has been the pleasure of the people to commit to my hands not to place my chief confidence upon the aid of that Almighty Power which has hitherto protected me and enabled me to bring to favorable issues other important but still greatly inferior trusts heretofore confided to me by my country.<ref name="WHH - Inaugural">{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Harrison: March 4, 1841 Inaugural Address|url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/campaigns-and-elections| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=January 20, 2022| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref>}} Harrison promised to re-establish the [[Second Bank of the United States|Bank of the United States]] and extend its capacity for credit by issuing paper currency in [[Henry Clay]]'s [[American System (economic plan)|American system]].<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> He intended to rely on the judgment of Congress in legislative matters, using his veto power only if an act were unconstitutional, and to reverse Jackson's [[spoils system]] of executive patronage.<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs"/> He promised to use patronage to create a qualified staff, not to enhance his own standing in government, and under no circumstance would he run for a second term. He condemned the financial excesses of the prior administration and pledged not to interfere with congressional financial policy. All in all, Harrison committed to a weak presidency, deferring to "the First Branch", the Congress, in keeping with Whig principles.<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs"/><ref name = iap>{{cite web|title=William Henry Harrison Inaugural Address|work=Inaugural Addresses of the Presidents of the United States|publisher=Bartleby|url=http://www.bartleby.com/124/pres26.html|access-date=February 11, 2009}}</ref>

He addressed the nation's already hotly debated issue of slavery. As a slaveholder himself, he agreed with the right of states to control the matter:
{{blockquote|The lines, too, separating powers to be exercised by the citizens of one state from those of another seem to be so distinctly drawn as to leave no room for misunderstanding…The attempt of those of one state to control the domestic institutions of another can only result in feelings of distrust and jealousy, the certain harbingers of disunion, violence, and civil war, and the ultimate destruction of our free institutions.<ref name="WHH - Inaugural"/>}}

As he was about to conclude his remarks, Harrison incorporated his reliance upon the country's freedom of religion while taking pains to present himself as part of the religious mainstream rather than a dissenter or member of a minority faith:
{{blockquote|I deem the present occasion sufficiently important and solemn to justify me in expressing to my fellow-citizens a profound reverence for the Christian religion and a thorough conviction that sound morals, religious liberty, and a just sense of religious responsibility are essentially connected with all true and lasting happiness; and to that good Being who has blessed us by the gifts of civil and religious freedom, who watched over and prospered the labors of our fathers and has hitherto preserved to us institutions far exceeding in excellence those of any other people, let us unite in fervently commending every interest of our beloved country in all future time.<ref name="WHH - Inaugural"/>}}

Harrison's lengthy speech offered vague clues about what his presidency would offer to the people of the United States. He declared he would only serve for one term in office and not abuse his veto power. Harrison was against devising financial schemes for the nation, rather he left that wholly to Congress. He was against agitating the [[Southern United States]] on the slavery question. He did not discuss the tariff and distribution. He said little of the national bank, except he mentioned he was open to paper money, rather than metallic currency. Harrison's concept of the presidency was very limited. This followed closely with Harrison's Whig political ideology.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=140}}

Following the speech, he rode through the streets in the inaugural parade,<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> stood in a three-hour receiving line at the White House, and attended three inaugural balls that evening,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inaugural.senate.gov/days-events/days-event/inaugural-ball |title=Inaugural Ball |publisher=Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies |date=June 10, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225184825/http://www.inaugural.senate.gov/days-events/days-event/inaugural-ball |archive-date=February 25, 2016 }}</ref> including one at Carusi's Saloon entitled the "Tippecanoe" ball with 1,000 guests who had paid $10 per person (equal to $312 in 2021).<ref>{{cite web |title=Current Value of $10 from 1841 |url=https://www.officialdata.org/us/inflation/1841?amount=10 |publisher=CPI Inflation Calculator |access-date=April 7, 2019}}</ref>

===The press of patronage===
Clay was a leader of the Whigs and a powerful legislator, as well as a frustrated presidential candidate in his own right, and he expected to have substantial influence in the Harrison administration. He ignored his own platform plank of overturning the "spoils" system and attempted to influence Harrison's actions before and during his brief presidency, especially in putting forth his own preferences for Cabinet offices and other presidential appointments. Harrison rebuffed his aggression, saying, "Mr. Clay, you forget that ''I'' am the President."<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HXFIAAAAYAAJ&q=%22%20%22Mr.%20Clay,%20you%20forget%20%22|page=379|journal=Magazine of American History|volume=VIII|issue=6|date=June 1882|title=The annexation of Texas}}</ref> The dispute escalated when Harrison named as Secretary of State [[Daniel Webster]], Clay's arch-rival for control of the Whig Party. Harrison also appeared to give Webster's supporters some highly coveted patronage positions. His sole concession to Clay was to name his protégé [[John J. Crittenden]] to the post of Attorney General. Despite this, the contretemps continued until the president's death.{{sfn|Remini|1997|pp=511–515}}

{{Infobox U.S. Cabinet
| align = right
| Name = Harrison
| President = William Henry Harrison
| President date = 1841
| Vice President = [[John Tyler]]
| Vice President date = 1841
| State = [[Daniel Webster]]
| State date = 1841
| War = [[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]]
| War date = 1841
| Treasury = [[Thomas Ewing]]
| Treasury date = 1841
| Justice = [[John J. Crittenden]]
| Justice date = 1841
| Post = [[Francis Granger]]
| Post date = 1841
| Navy = [[George Edmund Badger]]
| Navy date = 1841
}}

Clay was not the only one who hoped to benefit from Harrison's election. Hordes of office applicants came to the White House, which was then open to any who wanted a meeting with the president. Most of Harrison's business during his month-long presidency involved extensive social obligations and receiving visitors at the White House. He was advised to have an administration in place before the inauguration but declined, wanting to focus on the festivities. As such, job seekers awaited him at all hours and filled the Executive Mansion, with no process for organizing and vetting them.<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/>

Harrison wrote in a letter dated March 10, "I am so much harassed by the multitude that calls upon me that I can give no proper attention to any business of my own."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?175070|title=Letter from Harrison to R. Buchanan, Esq., March 10, 1841|publisher=Shapell Manuscript Foundation|access-date=November 9, 2021|archive-date=June 18, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618235507/http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?175070|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[United States Marshals Service|U.S. Marshal]] of the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] Alexander Hunter recalled an incident in which Harrison was besieged by office seekers who were preventing him from getting to a cabinet meeting; when his pleas for their consideration were ignored, Harrison finally "accepted their petitions, which filled his arms and pockets".<ref name="Whitcomb">{{cite book |last=Whitcomb |first=John & Claire|title=Real Life at the White House: 200 Years of Daily Life at America's Most Famous Residence|publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2002|page=81|isbn=978-0-415-93951-5}}</ref> Another anecdote of the time recounted that the halls were so full one afternoon that in order to get from one room to the next, Harrison had to be helped out a window, walked the length of the White House exterior, and then helped in through another window.<ref name="Whitcomb"/>

Harrison took seriously his pledge to reform executive appointments, visiting each of the six cabinet departments to observe its operations and issuing through Webster an order that [[electioneering]] by employees would be considered grounds for dismissal.<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> He resisted pressure from other Whigs over partisan patronage. A group arrived in his office on March 16 to demand the removal of all Democrats from any appointed office, and Harrison proclaimed, "So help me God, I will resign my office before I can be guilty of such an iniquity!"<ref>{{cite book |last=Woollen |first=William Wesley|title=Biographical and historical sketches of early Indiana|publisher=Ayer Publishing |year=1975|location=New York|page=51|isbn=978-0-405-06896-6}}</ref> His own cabinet attempted to countermand his appointment of [[John Chambers (politician)|John Chambers]] as Governor of the Iowa Territory in favor of Webster's friend [[James Wilson II (New Hampshire politician)|James Wilson]]. Webster attempted to press this decision at a March 25 cabinet meeting, and Harrison asked him to read aloud a handwritten note, which said simply "William Henry Harrison, President of the United States". Harrison then stood and declared: "William Henry Harrison, President of the United States, tells you, gentlemen, that, by God, John Chambers shall be governor of Iowa!"{{sfn|Remini|1997|pp=520–521}}

Harrison's only other official decision of consequence was whether to call Congress into a special session. He and Clay had disagreed over the necessity of such a session, and Harrison's cabinet proved evenly divided, so the president initially vetoed the idea. Clay pressed him on the special session on March 13, but Harrison rebuffed him and told him not to visit the White House again, to address him only in writing.<ref>{{cite web|title=American History Series: The Brief Presidency of William Henry Harrison|publisher=Voice of America News|url=http://www.voanews.com/specialenglish/2009-01-28-voa3.cfm|access-date=June 21, 2009}}</ref> A few days later, however, Treasury Secretary [[Thomas Ewing]] reported to Harrison that federal funds were in such trouble that the government could not continue to operate until Congress's regularly scheduled session in December; Harrison thus relented, and proclaimed the special session on March 17, in the interests of "the condition of the revenue and finance of the country". The session would have begun on May 31 as scheduled if Harrison had lived.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brinkley|first1=Alan|last2=Dyer|first2=Davis|year=2004|title=The American Presidency|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-618-38273-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3djEYV3R7oIC&pg=PA120 |access-date=June 21, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-45b-convening-extra-session-the-congress|title=Pres. W.H. Harrison, Proclamation 45B–Convening an Extra Session of the Congress|publisher=American Presidency Project|access-date=November 9, 2021}}</ref>

==Death and funeral==
[[File:Death of Harrison, April 4 A.D. 1841 LCCN91794698.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|An illustration depicting the death of Harrison, April 4, 1841]]
Harrison had been physically worn down by many persistent office seekers and a demanding social schedule.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=140}} On Wednesday, March 24, 1841, Harrison took his daily morning walk to local markets, without a coat or hat. Despite being caught in a sudden rainstorm, he did not change his wet clothes upon return to the White House.<ref name = Shafer>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/10/06/william-henry-harrison-pneumonia-death-trump-coronavirus|title=In 1841 pneumonia killed the president|newspaper=Washington Post|date=October 6, 2020|access-date=December 13, 2021|last=Shafer|first=Ronald G.}}</ref> On Friday, March 26, Harrison became ill with cold-like symptoms and sent for his doctor, Thomas Miller, though he told the doctor he felt better after having taken medication for "fatigue and mental anxiety".<ref name = Shafer/> The next day, Saturday, the doctor was called again, and arrived to find Harrison in bed with a "severe chill", after taking another early morning walk. Miller applied [[mustard plaster]] to his stomach and gave him a mild [[laxative]], and he felt better that afternoon.<ref name = Shafer/> At 4:00 a.m. Sunday, March 28, Harrison developed severe pain in the side and the doctor initiated [[bloodletting]]; the procedure was terminated when there was a drop in his pulse rate. Miller also applied heated cups to the president's skin to enhance blood flow.<ref name = Shafer/> The doctor then gave him castor oil and medicines to induce vomiting, and diagnosed him with pneumonia in the right lung.<ref name = Shafer/> A team of doctors was called in Monday, March 29, and they confirmed right lower lobe [[pneumonia]].<ref name=WHHDOTP>{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Death of the President| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/death-of-the-president| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Harrison was then administered [[laudanum]], [[opium]], and [[camphor]], along with wine and brandy.{{sfn|Collins|2012|p=123}}

No official announcements were made concerning Harrison's illness, which fueled public speculation and concern the longer he remained out of public view.<ref name=WHHDOTP/> Washington society had noticed his uncharacteristic absence from church on Sunday.<ref name=Whitcomb /> Conflicting and unconfirmed newspaper reports were based on leaks by people with contacts in the White House.<ref name = Shafer/> A Washington paper reported on Thursday, April 1, that Harrison's health was decidedly better. In fact, Harrison's condition had seriously weakened, and Cabinet members and family were summoned to the White House—his wife Anna had remained in Ohio due to her own illness.<ref name = Shafer/> According to papers in Washington on Friday, Harrison had rallied, despite a ''Baltimore Sun'' report that his condition was of a "more dangerous character".<ref name = Shafer/> A reporter for the ''New York Commercial'' indicated that "the country's people were deeply distressed and many of them in tears."<ref name = Shafer/>

In the evening of Saturday, April 3, Harrison developed severe diarrhea and became delirious, and at 8:30 p.m. he uttered his last words, to his attending doctor, assumed to be for Vice President [[John Tyler]]:<ref name = Shafer/> "Sir, I wish you to understand the true principles of the government. I wish them carried out. I ask nothing more."<ref>{{Cite web| title=William Henry Harrison: Key Events| url=https://millercenter.org/president/william-harrison/key-events| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=October 7, 2016}}</ref> Harrison died at 12:30 a.m. on April 4, 1841, Palm Sunday, nine days after becoming ill and exactly one month after taking the oath of office;<ref name = Shafer/> he was the first president to die in office.<ref name=WHHDOTP/> Harrison's wife Anna was still in Ohio packing for the trip to Washington when she learned of her loss.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/first-families/anna-tuthill-symmes-harrison|title=Anna T. S. Harrison|publisher=The White House|access-date=December 13, 2021}}</ref> Anna never moved into the White House. Harrison's daughter-in-law, Jane Irwin Harrison, widow of Harrison's son, had served as hostess of the White House in Anna's place while Harrison was president.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

The prevailing theory at the time was that his illness had been caused by the bad weather at his inauguration three weeks earlier.{{sfn|Cleaves|1939|p=152}} Jane McHugh and Philip A. Mackowiak did an analysis in ''Clinical Infectious Diseases'' (2014), examining Miller's notes and records showing that the White House water supply was downstream of public sewage, and they concluded that he likely died of [[septic shock]] due to "enteric fever" ([[typhoid fever|typhoid]] or [[paratyphoid fever]]).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/01/science/what-really-killed-william-henry-harrison.html|title=What Really Killed William Henry Harrison?|newspaper=The New York Times|first1=Jane|last1=McHugh|first2=Philip A.|last2=Mackowiak|date=March 31, 2014|access-date=August 27, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Death in the White House: President William Henry Harrison's Atypical Pneumonia|first1=Jane|last1=McHugh|first2=Philip A.|last2=Mackowiak|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|pmid=24962997|date=June 23, 2014|doi=10.1093/cid/ciu470|volume=59|issue=7|pages=990–995|doi-access=free |issn=1058-4838 }}</ref>

A 30-day period of mourning commenced following the president's death. The White House hosted various public ceremonies, modeled after European royal funeral practices. An invitation-only funeral service was also held on April 7 in the [[East Room]] of the White House, after which Harrison's coffin was brought to [[Congressional Cemetery]] in Washington, D.C., where it was placed in the [[Public Vault at the Congressional Cemetery|Public Vault]].<ref>{{cite web| title=William Henry Harrison Funeral: April 7, 1841| url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/william-henry-harrison-funeral| publisher=White House Historical Association| location=Washington, D.C.| access-date=March 9, 2019}}</ref> [[Solomon Northup]] gave an account of the procession in ''[[Twelve Years a Slave]]'':

{{blockquote|The next day there was a great pageant in Washington. The roar of cannon and the tolling of bells filled the air, while many houses were shrouded with crape, and the streets were black with people. As the day advanced, the procession made its appearance, coming slowly through the Avenue, carriage after carriage, in long succession, while thousands upon thousands followed on foot—all moving to the sound of melancholy music. They were bearing the dead body of Harrison to the grave…. I remember distinctly how the window glass would break and rattle to the ground, after each report of the cannon they were firing in the burial ground.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/northup/northup.html|title=Twelve Years a Slave: Narrative of Solomon Northup|publisher=Library, UNC-Chapel Hill|year=1997|access-date=November 10, 2021}}</ref>}}

That June, Harrison's body was transported by train and river barge to [[North Bend, Ohio]], and he was buried on July 7 at the summit of Mt. Nebo, which is now the [[William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial]].<ref>{{cite web| title=William Henry Harrison Memorial| url=https://www.ohiohistory.org/visit/museum-and-site-locator/william-henry-harrison-tomb| publisher= Ohio History Connection| location=Columbus Ohio| access-date=March 9, 2019}}</ref>

===Tyler's accession to office===
On April 5, [[Fletcher Webster]], the son of Secretary of State [[Daniel Webster]], notified Tyler that Harrison had died in office. Tyler had been visiting family in [[Williamsburg, Virginia|Williamsburg]] and returned to Washington on the morning of April 6.<ref name="ReferenceA">[[#Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession|Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession]]</ref> That same day, Tyler was [[Oath of office of the president of the United States|sworn into office]] in front of Harrison's cabinet, officially beginning [[Presidency of John Tyler|his presidency]]. On April 9, Tyler gave a brief inaugural address. In his address to the nation, Tyler did not give any personal consolation to Harrison's widow Anna or family members. Tyler did compliment Harrison by saying Harrison had been elected for a "great work" of purging the federal government of corruption.<ref name="John Tyler 1841">[[#John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States|John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States]]</ref>{{efn|Full Text: "FELLOW-CITIZENS: Before my arrival at the seat of Government the painful communication was made to you by the officers presiding over the several Departments of the deeply regretted death of William Henry Harrison, late President of the United States. Upon him you had conferred your suffrages for the first office in your gift, and had selected him as your chosen instrument to correct and reform all such errors and abuses as had manifested themselves from time to time in the practical operation of the Government. While standing at the threshold of this great work he has by the dispensation of an all-wise Providence been removed from amongst us, and by the provisions of the Constitution the efforts to be directed to the accomplishing of this vitally important task have devolved upon myself." John Tyler (April 9, 1841)<ref name="John Tyler 1841">[[#John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States|John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States]]</ref>}} Tyler and his family moved into the White House one week after Harrison's funeral, before Harrison's 30-day time of mourning was over. The White House state rooms were still hung with black mourning [[Crêpe (textile)|crapes]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/>{{sfn|McCormick|2002|pp=141–142}}<ref name="ReferenceB">[[#The White House, Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison|The White House, Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison]]</ref>

===Impact of Harrison's death===
[[File:William Henry Harrison Memorial.jpg|thumb|The William Henry Harrison Memorial in North Bend, Ohio]]
Harrison's death called attention to an ambiguity in [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 6: Vacancy and disability|Article II, Section 1, Clause 6]] of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] regarding [[United States presidential line of succession|succession to the presidency]]. The Constitution clearly provided for the vice president to take over the "Powers and Duties of the said Office" in the event of a president's removal, death, resignation, or inability, but it was unclear whether the vice president formally became president of the United States, or simply temporarily assumed the powers and duties of that office, in a case of succession.<ref>{{cite web| last=Feerick| first=John| title=Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession| work=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution| url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession| publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]]| access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref>

Harrison's cabinet insisted that Tyler was "Vice President acting as President". Tyler was resolute in his claim to the title of President and in his determination to exercise the full powers of the presidency.<ref name=ConstitutionDailyNCC>{{cite web|author=|title=A controversial President who established presidential succession|url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/john-tyler-americas-most-unusual-president|date=March 29, 2017|work=Constitution Daily|publisher=National Constitution Center|access-date=March 11, 2019}}</ref> The cabinet consulted with Chief Justice [[Roger Taney]] and decided that, if Tyler took the presidential oath of office, he would assume the office of president. Tyler obliged and was sworn into office on April 6, 1841. Congress convened, and on May 31, 1841, after a short period of debate in both houses, passed a joint resolution, which confirmed Tyler as president for the remainder of Harrison's term.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rankin |first=Robert S. |title=Presidential Succession in the United States |journal=The Journal of Politics |date=Feb 1946 |volume=8 |issue=1 |jstor=2125607 |pages=44–56 |doi=10.2307/2125607|s2cid=153441210 }}</ref> The precedent that Congress set in 1841 was followed on seven occasions when an incumbent president died, and it was written into the Constitution in 1967 through Section One of the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-fifth Amendment]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2005.00269.x |last=Abbott |first=Philip |title=Accidental Presidents: Death, Assassination, Resignation, and Democratic Succession |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |date=Dec 2005 |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=627–645 |jstor=27552721}}</ref>

==Legacy==
===Historical reputation===
[[File:Tecumseh in Lafayette IN.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Harrison (on left) at [[Tippecanoe County Courthouse]], Lafayette, Indiana]]
Among Harrison's most enduring legacies is the series of treaties that he negotiated and signed with Indian leaders during his tenure as the Indiana territorial governor.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=18}} As part of the treaty negotiations, the tribes ceded large tracts of land in the west which provided additional acreage for purchase and settlement by the nation.<ref name="cb"/>{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=47}}

Harrison's long-term impact on American politics includes his campaigning methods, which laid the foundation for modern presidential campaign tactics.{{sfn|Greene|2007|p=100}} Harrison died nearly penniless, and Congress voted his wife Anna a presidential widow's pension of $25,000,<ref name="Damon 1974-06">{{cite journal|last=Damon |first=Allan L. |title=Presidential Expenses |journal=American Heritage |date=June 1974 |volume=25 |issue=4 |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1974/4/1974_4_64.shtml |access-date=February 10, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107145645/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1974/4/1974_4_64.shtml |archive-date=January 7, 2009 }}</ref> one year of Harrison's salary (equivalent to about ${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|25000|1841|r=-3}}}} in {{inflation-year|US}}).{{inflation-fn|US}} She also received the right to mail letters free of charge.<ref>{{cite web|title=First Lady Biography: Anna Harrison|year=2009|publisher=National First Ladies Library|url=http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=9|access-date=February 11, 2009|archive-date=October 9, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009221313/http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=9|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Freehling refers to Harrison as "the most dominant figure in the evolution of the Northwest territories into the Upper Midwest today".<ref>{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Impact and Legacy| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/impact-and-legacy| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Harrison, age 68 at the time of his [[Inauguration of William Henry Harrison|inauguration]], was the oldest person to assume the U.S. presidency, a distinction he held until 1981, when [[Ronald Reagan]] was [[First inauguration of Ronald Reagan|inaugurated]] at age 69.<ref>{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Life In Brief| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/life-in-brief| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 8, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref>

Harrison's son [[John Scott Harrison]] represented Ohio in the House of Representatives between 1853 and 1857.<ref name="bioguide.congress">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Harrison, John Scott, (1804–1878)|dictionary=Biographical Directory of the United States Congress|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000272|access-date=June 18, 2008}}</ref> Harrison's grandson Benjamin Harrison of Indiana served as the 23rd president from 1889 to 1893, making William and Benjamin Harrison the only grandparent-grandchild pair of presidents.{{sfn|Calhoun|2005|pp=43–49}}

===Honors and tributes===
{{main|List of memorials to William Henry Harrison}} Several monuments and memorial statues have been erected in tribute to Harrison. There are public statues of him in downtown [[Indianapolis]],{{sfn|Greiff|2005|pp=12, 164}} [[Cincinnati]]'s [[Piatt Park]],<ref>{{Cite journal|date=July 1896|title=The Harrison Monument, Cincinnati|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Mc7AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA422|journal=The Monumental News|volume=8|issue=7}}</ref> the [[Tippecanoe County Courthouse]],{{sfn|Greiff|2005|p=243}} [[Harrison County, Indiana]],{{sfn|Greiff|2005|p=131}} and [[Owen County, Indiana]].{{sfn|Greiff|2005|p=206}} Numerous counties and towns also bear his name.

The village of [[North Bend, Ohio]], honors Harrison every year with a [[parade]] to celebrate his birthday.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northbendohio.org/HarrisonBirthday08.html|title=William Henry Harrison Birthday Tribute|publisher=Village of North Bend, Ohio|access-date=November 10, 2021}}</ref> The [[Gen. William Henry Harrison Headquarters]] in [[Franklinton (Columbus, Ohio)|Franklinton, Ohio]], commemorates Harrison. The house was his military headquarters from 1813 to 1814.<ref name="nrhpdoc">{{cite book|url=https://catalog.archives.gov/id/71988611|title=National Register of Historic Places Registration Form|series=File Unit: National Register of Historic Places and National Historic Landmarks Program Records: Ohio, 1964 – 2013|publisher=[[National Park Service]]|access-date=May 17, 2020|archive-date=February 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225030545/https://catalog.archives.gov/id/71988611|url-status=dead}}</ref> On February 19, 2009, the [[United States Mint|U.S. Mint]] released the ninth coin in the [[Presidential $1 Coin Program]], bearing Harrison's likeness.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/$1coin/index.cfm?action=WHHarrison|title=The United States Mint Coins and Medals Program|publisher=U.S. Mint|access-date=July 28, 2016|archive-date=August 8, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808050850/http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/$1coin/index.cfm?action=WHHarrison|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usmint.gov/about_the_mint/index.cfm?action=productionFigures&presYear=2009&reportSelected#starthere&CFID=122577291&CFTOKEN=56436795|title=Circulating Coins Production Figures|publisher=U.S. Mint|access-date=July 28, 2016}}</ref>

{| style="margin:auto"
| [[File:Cincinnati-harrison-statue, cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Equestrian statue of William Henry Harrison|Equestrian statue of Harrison in Cincinnati, by [[Louis Rebisso]] ]]
| [[File:William Henry Harrison Presidential $1 Coin obverse.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|2009 [[presidential dollar coin]] ]]
| [[File:William Henry Harrison. Indiana statehood stamp, 1950 issue.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|1950 postal issue of Harrison commemorating Indiana's statehood]]
|}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==See also==
*[[Curse of Tippecanoe]]
*[[List of presidents of the United States]]
*[[List of presidents of the United States by previous experience]]
*[[List of presidents of the United States who died in office]]
*[[Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps]]
*[[Second Party System]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book|last=Bolívar|first=Simón|author-link=Simón Bolívar|editor=Bierck, Harold A. Jr.|title=Selected Writings of Bolívar|volume=II|publisher=Colonial Press|location=New York|year=1951|isbn=978-1-60635-115-4}} compiled by Lecuna, Vicente, translated by Bertrand, Lewis
*{{cite book|last=Burr|first=Samuel Jones|title=The Life and Times of William Henry Harrison|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimeswil02burrgoog |publisher=R. W. Pomeroy|location=New York|year=1840|access-date=September 14, 2016}}
*{{cite book|last=Calhoun|first=Charles William|title=Benjamin Harrison: The 23rd President 1889–1893|series=The American Presidents|volume=23|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8050-6952-5}}
*{{cite book|last1=Carnes|first1=Mark C.|last2=Mieczkowski|first2=Yanek|title=The Routledge Historical Atlas of Presidential Campaigns|series=Routledge Atlases of American History|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=2001|isbn=978-0-415-92139-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/routledgehistori0000miec|access-date=November 10, 2021}}
*{{cite book|last=Cleaves|first=Freeman|title=Old Tippecanoe: William Henry Harrison and His Time|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|location=New York|year=1939|isbn= 978-0-9457-0701-1}}
*{{cite book|first=Gail|last=Collins|title=William Henry Harrison: The 9th President, 1841|publisher=Henry Holt and Co.|year=2012|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8050-9118-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Dowdey|first=Clifford|title=The Great Plantation|publisher=Rinehart & Co.|location=New York|year=1957|oclc=679792228}}
*{{cite book|last=Greene|first=Meg|title=William H. Harrison|publisher=Twenty-First Century Books|location=Breckenridge, CO|year=2007|url=https://archive.org/details/williamhharrison0000gree|access-date=November 21, 2021|isbn=978-0-8225-1511-1}}; for children
*{{cite book|last=Greiff|first=Glory-June|title=Remembrance, Faith and Fancy: Outdoor Public Sculpture in Indiana|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press|year=2005|location=Indianapolis|isbn=978-0-87195-180-9}}
*{{cite book|editor-last1=Gugin|editor-first1=Linda C.|editor-last2=St. Clair|editor-first2=James E.|title=The Governors of Indiana|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press and the Indiana Historical Bureau|year=2006|location=Indianapolis|isbn=978-0-87195-196-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780871951960|access-date=November 10, 2021}}
*{{cite book|last=Hall|first=James|author-link=James Hall (writer)|title=A Memoir of the Public Services of William Henry Harrison, of Ohio|url=https://archive.org/details/amemoirpublicse00hallgoog |publisher=Key & Biddle|location=Philadelphia|year=1836|lccn=11019326|access-date=November 16, 2021}}
*{{cite web|last=Hopkins|first=Callie|title=John Tyler and the Presidential Succession|url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/john-tyler-and-presidential-succession|website=whitehousehistory.org|accessdate=August 16, 2022|ref=Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession}}
*{{cite book|last=Langguth|first=A. J.|author-link=A. J. Langguth|title=Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4165-3278-1|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/union1812america0000lang/page/n9/mode/2uplast=Langguth|access-date=November 20, 2021}}
*{{cite book|last1=Madison|first1=James H.|last2=Sandweiss|first2=Lee Ann|title=Hoosiers and the American Story|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press|year=2014|location=Indianapolis|url= https://indianahistory.org/education/educator-resources/curriculum/hoosiers-and-the-american-story|isbn=978-0-87195-363-6}}
*{{cite book |last=McCormick |first=Richard P. |chapter=William Henry Harrison and John Tyler |editor-last=Graff |editor-first=Henry |title=The Presidents: A Reference History |edition=7th |year=2002 |pages=139–151 |publisher=Macmillan Library Reference USA |isbn=978-0-684-80551-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Owens|first=Robert M.|title=Mr. Jefferson's Hammer: William Henry Harrison and the Origins of American Indian Policy|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman, OK|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8061-3842-8}}; also see [https://bestpresidentialbios.com/2013/12/12/review-of-mr-jeffersons-hammer-william-henry-harrison-by-robert-owens/ online book review]
*{{cite book |last=Remini |first=Robert V. |date=1997 |title=Daniel Webster: The Man and His Time |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=0-393-04552-8 |author-link=Robert V. Remini |url=https://archive.org/details/danielwebsterman00remi|access-date=November 10, 2021}}
*{{cite book|title=Ohio statesmen and annals of progress: from the year 1788 to the year 1900 ...|first1=William Alexander|last1=Taylor|first2=Aubrey Clarence|last2=Taylor|year=1899|publisher=Westbote Co.|location=Columbus|volume=1|lccn=01011959}}
*{{cite web|title=Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/first-families/anna-tuthill-symmes-harrison/|website=whitehouse.gov|accessdate=August 16, 2022|ref=The White House, Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison}}
*{{cite web|last=Tyler|first=John|title=Address Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-upon-assuming-the-office-president-the-united-states|date=April 9, 1841|ref=John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States|accessdate=August 8, 2022}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|first1=John D.|last1=Barnhart|first2=Dorothy L.|last2=Riker|title=Indiana to 1816, the colonial period|location=Indianapolis|publisher=Indiana Historical Bureau|year=1971|oclc=154955}}
*{{cite book|last=Booraem|first=Hendrik|title=A Child of the Revolution: William Henry Harrison and His World, 1773–1798|publisher=Kent State University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-1-6127-7643-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Borneman|first=Walter R.|author-link=Walter R. Borneman|title=1812: The War That Forged a Nation|publisher=HarperCollins (Harper Perennial)|location=New York|year=2005|isbn=978-0-06-053113-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Cheathem|first=Mark R.|title=The Coming of Democracy: Presidential Campaigning in the Age of Jackson|year=2018|isbn=9781421425986}}
*{{cite book|last=Ellis|first=Richard J.|title=Old Tip vs. the Sly Fox: The 1840 Election and the Making of a Partisan Nation|publisher=U of Kansas Press|year=2020|isbn=978-0-7006-2945-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Graff|first=Henry F.|title=The Presidents: A Reference History|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons.|location=New York|year=2002|oclc=1036830795}}
*{{cite book|last=Jortner|first=Adam|year=2012|title=The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-1997-6529-4}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VRwR4fz9IW4C|title=William Henry Harrison: Young Tippecanoe|isbn=978-1-8828-5903-0|last1=Peckham|first1=Howard Henry|publisher=Patria Press|location=Carmel, IN|year=2000|access-date=November 10, 2021}}
*{{cite book|last=Peterson|first=Norma Lois|title=The Presidencies of William Henry Harrison and John Tyler|publisher=U of Kansas Press|year=1989}}
*{{cite book|author=Pirtle, Alfred|publisher=John P. Morton & Co./ Library Reprints|year=1900|location=Louisville|title=The Battle of Tippecanoe|page=158|isbn=978-0-7222-6509-3}} as read to the [[Filson Club]].
*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Shade|first=William G.|title=Tippecanoe and Tyler Too: William Henry Harrison and the rise of popular politics|editor-first=Joel H.|editor-last=Silbey|encyclopedia=A Companion to the Antebellum Presidents 1837–1861|year=2013|pages=155–72}}
*{{cite book|last=Skaggs|first=David Curtis|title=William Henry Harrison and the Conquest of the Ohio Country: Frontier Fighting in the War of 1812|publisher=Johns Hopkins Univ. Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4214-0546-9}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|en-William Henry Harrison-article.ogg|date=March 28, 2019}}
*{{CongBio|H000279|ref=none}}
*[https://www.loc.gov/collections/william-henry-harrison-papers/about-this-collection/ William Henry Harrison Papers – Library of Congress]
*{{cite EB9 |wstitle = William Henry Harrison |volume= XI |last= |first= |author-link= | page=495 |short=1}}
*{{Ohio History Central|190|William H. Harrison}}
*[http://www.indianahistorylibrary.worldcat.org/title/guide-to-the-papers-of-william-henry-harrison-1800-1815/oclc/42377574&referer=brief_results Papers of William Henry Harrison, 1800–1815], Collection Guide, Indiana Historical Society
*[http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?william-henry-harrison-death Announcement of William Henry Harrison Impending Death] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140610203827/http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?william-henry-harrison-death |date=June 10, 2014 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090203215740/http://millercenter.org/index.php/academic/americanpresident/harrison Essays on Harrison, each member of his cabinet and First Lady]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090206031441/http://www.american-presidents.com/william-henry-harrison William Henry Harrison Biography and Fact File]
*[http://williamhenryharrison.org/ Biography by Appleton's and Stanley L. Klos]
*[http://www.c-span.org/video/?123123-1/life-portrait-william-henry-harrison "Life Portrait of William Henry Harrison"], from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', May 10, 1999
*In 1841 [[Anthony Heinrich|Anthony Philip Heinrich]] wrote [https://imslp.org/wiki/The_President's_Funeral_March_(Heinrich%2C_Anthony_Philip) The President's Funeral March] dedicated to President Harrison.

{{William Henry Harrison}}
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{{s-aft|after=[[John Gibson (American soldier)|John Gibson]] {{small|Acting}}}}

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{{s-ttl|title=Governor of the [[District of Louisiana]]|years=1804–1805}}
{{s-aft|after=[[James Wilkinson]]|as=Governor of the [[Louisiana Territory]]}}

{{s-bef|before=[[Martin Van Buren]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[President of the United States]]|years=1841}}
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{{s-ttl|title=Delegate to the [[List of United States representatives from Ohio|U.S. House of Representatives]] from the [[Northwest Territory's at-large congressional district]]|years=1799–1800}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[John McLean]]}}
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{{s-par|us-oh-sen}}
{{s-bef|before=[[George Torrence]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[Ohio Senate]] from [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]]|years=1819–1821|alongside=[[Ephraim Brown]]}}
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{{s-par|us-sen}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Ethan Allen Brown]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of United States senators from Ohio|U.S. Senator (Class 3) from Ohio]]|years=1825–1828|alongside=[[Benjamin Ruggles]]}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[Andrew Jackson]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Chair of the [[United States Senate Committee on Armed Services|Senate Military Affairs Committee]]|years=1825–1828}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Thomas Hart Benton (senator)|Thomas Hart Benton]]}}

{{s-dip}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Beaufort Watts]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[United States Ambassador to Colombia|United States Minister to Gran Colombia]]|years=1829}}
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{{s-ppo}}
{{s-new|party}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] nominee for President of the United States| years=[[1836 United States presidential election|1836]]¹, [[1840 United States presidential election|1840]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Henry Clay]]}}
{{s-ref|The Whig Party ran regional candidates in 1836. Harrison ran in the Northern states, [[Hugh Lawson White|Hugh White]] ran in the Southern states, and [[Daniel Webster]] ran in [[Massachusetts]].}}
}}
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Template:1788-89 United States presidential election imagemap

2024-09-22T20:31:18Z

ARandomShyGuy: Sorry. Vermont was not a state yet. Removing broken link.

<imagemap>
Image:ElectoralCollege1789.svg|350px|center|

poly 395 70 406 108 413 114 415 99 418 94 427 91 439 82 445 74 457 61 453 55 447 47 441 45 432 16 422 13 418 19 410 15 401 30 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Massachusetts]]
poly 325 342 301 326 283 328 277 322 257 323 238 331 237 337 244 342 253 352 259 358 266 366 273 369 277 380 281 384 287 387 297 384 316 362 324 340 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in South Carolina]]
poly 114 343 239 332 235 337 245 342 252 353 262 360 271 369 278 381 287 390 283 420 272 420 272 429 222 429 214 422 92 433 92 423 101 407 100 398 97 390 97 378 101 365 104 357 107 352 109 348 113 346 113 346 113 342 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Georgia]]
poly 261 171 270 221 347 205 355 201 361 194 353 186 352 177 356 166 349 155 350 155 349 153 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania]]
poly 356 203 366 218 354 201 362 193 354 181 357 166 372 171 369 181 374 183 377 191 375 198 368 218 351 207 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in New Jersey]]
poly 360 275 351 269 349 247 328 239 329 228 309 215 289 226 288 220 271 222 266 201 263 224 255 229 247 242 239 256 250 274 232 296 306 285 150 307 123 307 129 297 133 291 139 293 145 284 147 278 156 274 161 274 170 272 181 269 188 260 196 252 200 245 209 243 212 248 217 249 224 250 231 248 235 252 249 274 234 294 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Virginia]]
poly 355 233 369 229 359 222 352 202 348 207 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Delaware]]
poly 360 264 364 231 354 232 347 204 270 219 276 219 287 225 312 215 327 228 329 238 347 246 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Maryland]]
poly 376 169 402 155 399 141 373 146 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Connecticut]]
poly 430 141 429 134 411 120 372 131 374 147 403 139 415 149 432 148 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Massachusetts]]
poly 390 66 389 86 385 92 385 129 412 119 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in New Hampshire]]

</imagemap>
<noinclude>
[[Category:United States presidential election imagemaps]]
</noinclude>

1788–89 United States presidential election

2024-09-22T13:42:07Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding map to infobox.

{{short description|1st quadrennial U.S. presidential election}}
{{more citations needed|date=April 2017}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox election
| election_name = 1788–89 United States presidential election
| country = United States
| flag_year = 1777
| type = presidential
| ongoing = no
| previous_election =
| next_election = 1792 United States presidential election
| next_year = 1792
| votes_for_election = 69 members of the [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]]
| needed_votes = 35 electoral
| turnout = 11.6%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.electproject.org/national-1789-present|title=National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789-Present|work=United States Election Project|publisher=[[CQ Press]]}}</ref>
| election_date = {{start and end dates|1788|12|15|1789|1|7}}
| image_size = x200px
| image1 = Gilbert Stuart Williamstown Portrait of George Washington.jpg
| nominee1 = '''[[George Washington]]'''
| party1 = Independent (United States)
| home_state1 = [[Virginia]]
| running_mate1 = {{tooltip|None|John Adams was voted Vice President in the electoral college by finishing with the second most votes. Each elector voted for two names.}}
| electoral_vote1 = '''69'''
| states_carried1 = '''10'''
| popular_vote1 = '''28,009'''{{efn|This number is a combination of the best-performing Federalist and Anti-Federalist votes}}{{efn|The returns from several states are incomplete}}
| percentage1 = '''100%'''
| map = {{1788-89 United States presidential election imagemap}}
| map_size = 350px
| map_caption = Presidential election results map. Green denotes states won by Washington. Black denotes states that did not appoint any electors. Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes cast by each state.{{NoteTag|New York had ratified the Constitution but its [[New York State Legislature|legislature]] failed to appoint presidential electors on time, while North Carolina and Rhode Island had not yet ratified. Vermont governed itself as a [[Vermont Republic|republic]].}}
| title = President
| before_election = ''Office established''
| after_election = [[George Washington]]
| after_party = Independent (United States)
}}
The '''1788–89 United States presidential election''' was the first quadrennial [[United States presidential election|presidential election]]. It was held from Monday, December 15, 1788, to Wednesday, January 7, 1789, under the new [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]] ratified that same year. [[George Washington]] was unanimously elected for the first of his two terms as [[President of the United States|president]] and [[John Adams]] became the first [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]]. This was the only U.S. presidential election that spanned two calendar years without a [[contingent election]] and the first national presidential election in American history.

Under the [[Articles of Confederation]], which were ratified in 1781, the United States had no [[head of state]]. The executive function of government remained with the legislative similar to countries that use a [[parliamentary system]]. Federal power, strictly limited, was reserved to the [[Congress of the Confederation]] whose "President of the United States in Congress Assembled" was also chair of the [[Committee of the States]] which aimed to fulfill a function similar to that of the modern [[Cabinet of the United States|Cabinet]].

The [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]] created the offices of [[President of the United States|President]] and [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]], fully separating these offices from Congress. The Constitution established an [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]], based on each state's congressional representation, in which each elector would cast two votes for two candidates, a procedure modified in 1804 by the ratification of the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twelfth Amendment]]. States had varying methods for choosing presidential electors.<ref>See "Alternative methods for choosing electors" under [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]].</ref> In five states, the state legislature chose electors. The other six chose electors through some form involving a popular vote, though in only two states did the choice depend directly on a statewide vote.

The enormously popular Washington was distinguished as the former Commander of the [[Continental Army]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. After he agreed to come out of retirement, he was elected with ease unanimously; Washington did not select a running mate as that concept was not yet developed.

No formal [[political party|political parties]] existed, though an informally organized consistent difference of opinion had already manifested between Federalists and Anti-Federalists. Thus, the contest for the vice-presidency was open. [[Thomas Jefferson]] predicted that a popular Northern leader such as Governor [[John Hancock]] of [[Massachusetts]] or [[John Adams]], a former minister to [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] who had represented Massachusetts in Congress, would be elected vice president. [[Anti-Federalism|Anti-Federalist]] leaders such as [[Patrick Henry]], who did not run, and [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]], who had opposed ratification of the Constitution, also represented potential choices.

All 69 electors present cast one vote for Washington, making his election unanimous. Adams won 34 electoral votes and the vice presidency. The remaining 35 electoral votes were split among 10 candidates, including [[John Jay]], who finished third with nine electoral votes. Three states were ineligible to participate in the election: [[New York State Legislature|New York's legislature]] did not choose electors on time, and [[North Carolina]] and [[Rhode Island]] had not ratified the constitution yet. Washington was [[Presidency of George Washington|inaugurated]] in New York City on April 30, 1789, 57 days after the [[1st United States Congress|First Congress]] convened.

==Candidates==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2024}}
Though no organized political parties yet existed, political opinion loosely divided between those who had more stridently and enthusiastically endorsed ratification of the Constitution, called [[Federalism in the United States#Federalism in the early Republic|Federalists]] or Cosmopolitans, and [[Anti-Federalism|Anti-Federalists]] or Localists who had only more reluctantly, skeptically, or conditionally supported, or who had outright opposed ratification. Both factions supported Washington for president. Limited, primitive political campaigning occurred in states and localities where swaying public opinion might matter. For example, in [[Maryland]], a state with a statewide popular vote, unofficial parties campaigned locally, advertising.

===Federalist candidates===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="140">
File:JohnAdams.png |{{Center|Former [[List of ambassadors of the United States to the Netherlands|Minister to the Netherlands]] '''[[John Adams]]''' from [[Massachusetts]]}}
File:John Jay (Gilbert Stuart portrait).jpg|{{Center|[[List of secretaries of state of the United States|Secretary of Foreign Affairs]] '''[[John Jay]]''' from [[New York (state)|New York]]}}
File:John Rutledge, by James Herring after John Trumbull.jpg|{{Center|Former [[Governor of South Carolina|Governor]] '''[[John Rutledge]]''' of [[South Carolina]]}}
File:JohnHancockSmall.jpg|{{Center|[[Governor of Massachusetts|Governor]] '''[[John Hancock]]''' of [[Massachusetts]]}}
File:Samuel Huntington - Charles Willson Peale.jpg|{{Center|[[Governor of Connecticut|Governor]]''' [[Samuel Huntington (Connecticut politician)|Samuel Huntington]]''' of [[Connecticut]]}}
File:General Benjamin Lincoln-restored.jpg|{{Center|[[Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts|Lieutenant Governor]] '''[[Benjamin Lincoln]]''' of [[Massachusetts]]}}
</gallery>

===Anti-Federalist candidates===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="140">
File:George Clinton by Ezra Ames.jpg|{{Center|[[Governor of New York|Governor]] '''[[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]]''' of [[New York (state)|New York]]}}
</gallery>

==General election==
No nomination process existed at the time of planning, and thus, the framers of the Constitution presumed that Washington would be elected unopposed. For example, [[Alexander Hamilton]] spoke for national opinion when in a letter to Washington attempting to persuade him to leave retirement on his farm in [[Mount Vernon, Virginia|Mount Vernon]] to serve as the first president, he wrote that "...the point of light in which you stand at home and abroad will make an infinite difference in the respectability in which the government will begin its operations in the alternative of your being or not being the head of state."

Another uncertainty was the choice for the [[Vice President of the United States|vice presidency]], which contained no definite job description beyond being the president's designated successor and presiding over the Senate. The Constitution stipulated that the position would be awarded to the runner-up in the presidential election. Because Washington was from Virginia, then the largest state, many assumed that electors would choose a vice president from a northern state. In an August 1788 letter, U.S. Minister to France [[Thomas Jefferson]] wrote that he considered John Adams and John Hancock, both from Massachusetts, to be the top contenders. Jefferson suggested John Jay, [[John Rutledge]], and Virginian James Madison as other possible candidates.<ref>Meacham 2012.</ref> Adams received 34 electoral votes, one short of a majority – because the Constitution did not require an outright majority in the Electoral College prior to ratification of the Twelfth Amendment to elect a runner-up as vice president, Adams was elected to that post.

[[Congress of the Confederation|Congress]] announced the procedure for the election on September 13, 1788, stipulating that all electors must be chosen on the first Wednesday in January (January 7, 1789), and that the electors must assemble to cast their votes for president and vice president on the first Wednesday in February (February 4).<ref>{{cite book| last=Maier|first=Pauline | author-link=Pauline Maier| title=Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788|date=2010|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York, New York| url=https://archive.org/details/ratificationpeop0000maie/page/429/mode/2up |isbn=978-0-684-86854-7}}, pp. 429-430.</ref> However, the states differed in their interpretations of this procedure and of the relevant portions of the new Constitution. New Hampshire and Massachusetts held a popular vote for their presidential electors alongside the elections for their congressional representatives, on December 15 and December 18, respectively. In these two states, the legislatures ultimately chose the electors based on the voting results on the appointed day, January 7. In Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, the electors were chosen directly by the popular vote on January 7. In Connecticut, Georgia, and South Carolina, the electors were appointed by the legislature alone on January 7, while in New Jersey the governor and council selected them on that day. The legislature in New York was unable to agree on a method for choosing the electors before January 7, and so the state could not appoint any electors.<ref>Stephens, Frank Fletcher. ''[https://archive.org/details/peri00steptransitionalrich/page/66/mode/2up The transitional period, 1788-1789, in the government of the United States]'', [[University of Missouri Press]], 1909, pp. 67-74.</ref>

[[Voter turnout]] comprised a low single-digit percentage of the adult population. Though all states allowed some rudimentary form of [[Voting rights in the United States|popular vote]], only six ratifying states allowed any form of popular vote specifically for presidential electors. In most states only white men, and in many only those who owned property, could vote. Free black men could vote in four Northern states, and women could vote in New Jersey until 1804. In some states, there was a nominal religious test for voting. For example, in Massachusetts and Connecticut, the Congregational Church was [[Separation of church and state in the United States#Patrick Henry, Massachusetts, and Connecticut|established]], supported by taxes. Voting was hampered by poor communications and infrastructure and the labor demands imposed by farming. Two months passed after the election before the votes were counted and Washington was notified that he had been elected president. Washington spent eight days traveling from Virginia to New York for the inauguration.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Accepting the Presidency |url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/accepting-the-presidency/ |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=George Washington's Mount Vernon |language=en}}</ref> Congress took twenty-eight days to assemble.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Saturday Session in the First Congress {{!}} US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives |url=https://history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/1700s/A-Saturday-session-in-the-First-Congress/ |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=history.house.gov |language=en}}</ref>

As the electors were selected, politics intruded, and the process was not free of rumors and intrigue. For example, Hamilton aimed to ensure that Adams did not inadvertently tie Washington in the electoral vote.<ref>Chernow, 272–273.</ref> Also, Federalists spread rumors that Anti-Federalists plotted to elect [[Richard Henry Lee]] or [[Patrick Henry]] president, with [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] as vice president. However, Clinton received only three electoral votes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_George_Clinton.htm|title=VP George Clinton|website=www.senate.gov|access-date=2016-04-15}}</ref>

==Results==
===Popular vote===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:right
|-
! rowspan=2 |
! colspan=2 | Popular vote{{sup|(a), (b), (c)}}
|-
! Count
! Percentage
|-
| align=left | '''[[Federalism in the United States|Federalist]] electors'''
| 24,471
| 87.4%
|-
| align=left | '''[[Anti-Federalism|Anti-Federalist]] electors'''
| 3,538
| 12.6%
|-
| '''Total'''
| 28,009
| 100.0%
|}
'''Source:''' ''United States Presidential Elections, 1788-1860: The Official Results'' by Michael J. Dubin<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dubin |first=Michael J. |title=United States Presidential Elections, 1788-1860: The Official Results by County and State |publisher=McFarland & Company |year=2002 |isbn=9780786410170 |location=Jefferson |pages=1–3}}</ref>

{{sup|(a)}} ''Only six of the 11 states eligible to cast electoral votes chose electors by any form of popular vote.'' 
{{sup|(b)}} ''Less than 1.8% of the population voted: the 1790 census would count a total population of 3.0 million with a free population of 2.4 million and 600,000 slaves in those states casting electoral votes.'' 
{{sup|(c)}} ''Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements.''

===Electoral vote===
[[File:United States Electoral College 1788-89 (1).svg]]

[[File:United States Electoral College VP 1788-89.svg]]{{start U.S. presidential election box|pv_footnote={{sup|(a), (b), (c)}}|ev_footnote={{sup|(d), (e), (f)}}}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[George Washington]]|party=[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|state=[[Virginia]]|pv=28,009|pv_pct=100.0%|ev=69}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[John Adams]]|party=[[Federalism in the United States|Federalist]]|state=[[Massachusetts]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=34}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[John Jay]]|party=[[Federalism in the United States|Federalist]]|state=[[New York (state)|New York]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=9}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[Robert H. Harrison]]|party=[[Federalism in the United States|Federalist]]|state=[[Maryland]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=6}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[John Rutledge]]|party=[[Federalism in the United States|Federalist]]|state=[[South Carolina]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=6}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[John Hancock]]|party=[[Federalism in the United States|Federalist]]|state=[[Massachusetts]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=4}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]]|party=[[Anti-Federalism|Anti-Federalist]]|state=[[New York (state)|New York]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=3}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]]|party=[[Federalism in the United States|Federalist]]|state=[[Connecticut]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=2}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[John Milton (Georgia politician)|John Milton]]|party=[[Federalism in the United States|Federalist]]|state=[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=2}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[James Armstrong (Georgia politician)|James Armstrong]]{{sup|(g)}}|party=[[Federalism in the United States|Federalist]]|state=[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]{{sup|(g)}}|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=1}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[Benjamin Lincoln]]|party=[[Federalism in the United States|Federalist]]|state=[[Massachusetts]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=1}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[Edward Telfair]]|party=[[Federalism in the United States|Federalist]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Charles J. |title=Edward Telfair |url=https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/edward-telfair-1735-1807/ |website=New Georgia Encyclopedia |access-date=November 24, 2022}}</ref>|state=[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=1}}
{{end U.S. presidential election box|pv=28,009|ev=138|to_win=35}}

'''Source:''' {{National Archives EV source| year=1789| as of=July 30, 2005}}
'''Source (popular vote):''' ''A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?utf8=%E2%9C%93&f%5Belection_type_sim%5D%5B%5D=General&f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&range%5Bdate_sim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1820&range%5Bdate_sim%5D%5Bend%5D=1820&q=1789&search_field=all_fields&commit=search|title=A New Nation Votes}}</ref>

{{sup|(a)}} ''Only 6 of the 10 states casting electoral votes chose electors by any form of the popular vote.'' 
{{sup|(b)}} ''Less than 1.8% of the population voted: the 1790 census would count a total population of 3.0 million with a free population of 2.4 million and 600,000 slaves in those states casting electoral votes.'' 
{{sup|(c)}} ''Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements.'' 
{{sup|(d)}} ''As the New York legislature failed to appoint its allotted eight electors in time, there were no voting electors from New York.'' 
{{sup|(e)}} ''Two electors from Maryland did not vote.'' 
{{sup|(f)}} ''One elector from Virginia did not vote and another elector from Virginia was not chosen because an election district failed to submit returns.'' 
{{sup|(g)}} ''The identity of this candidate comes from ''The Documentary History of the First Federal Elections'' (Gordon DenBoer (ed.), [[University of Wisconsin Press]], 1984, p. 441). Several respected sources, including the [[Biographical Directory of the United States Congress]] and the [[Political Graveyard]], show this individual to be James Armstrong of Pennsylvania. However, primary sources, such as the [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwsj.html Senate Journal], list only Armstrong's name, not his state. Skeptics observe that Armstrong received his single vote from a Georgia elector. They find this improbable because Armstrong of Pennsylvania was not nationally famous—his public service to that date consisted of being a medical officer during the American Revolution and, at most, a single year as a Pennsylvania judge.''

{{bar box
|title=Popular vote
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=600px
|barwidth=410px
|bars=
{{bar percent|'''Washington'''|{{party color|Independent (US)}}|100}}
{{bar percent|Others|#777777|0.0}}
}}
{{bar box
|title=Electoral vote
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=600px
|barwidth=410px
|bars=
{{bar percent|'''Washington'''|{{party color|Independent (US)}}|100}}
{{bar percent|Adams|{{party color|Federalist Party}}|46.6}}
{{bar percent|Jay|{{party color|Federalist Party}}|12.3}}
{{bar percent|Harrison|{{party color|Federalist Party}}|8.2}}
{{bar percent|Rutledge|{{party color|Federalist Party}}|8.2}}
{{bar percent|Others|{{party color|Other}}|19.2}}
{{bar percent|Not cast|{{party color|Other}}|5.5}}
}}

===Results by state===
====Popular vote====
Elections in this period were vastly different from modern day presidential elections. The actual presidential candidates were rarely mentioned on tickets and voters were voting for particular electors who were pledged to a particular candidate. There was sometimes confusion as to who the particular elector was actually pledged to. Results are reported as the highest result for an elector for any given faction. For example, if three federalist electors received 100, 50, and 25 votes, federalist electors would be recorded as having 100 votes. Confusion surrounding the way results are reported may lead to discrepancies between the sum of all state results and national results.

In Maryland, the state was effectively split into two districts: the western shore and the eastern shore. Five electors were chosen from the western shore and three from the eastern shore. All electors, however, were elected at-large by all Maryland voters.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stephens |first=Frank Fletcher |title=The Transitional Period, 1788-1789, in the Government of the United States |publisher=E.W. Stephens |year=2007 |pages=69–70}}</ref>

In Delaware, no candidate received the majority of votes, throwing the election to the legislature, who chose the five best-performing elector candidates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A New Nation Votes |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/f1881n287 |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref>

Virginian electors [[John Pride]] and [[Patrick Henry]] had previously voted against [[Virginia Ratifying Convention|ratification of the Constitution]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pulliam |first=David Loyd |title=The Constitutional Conventions of Virginia from the Foundation of the Commonwealth to the Present Time |publisher=J. T. West |year=1901 |pages=37–38}}</ref> John Roane was one of three Clinton Electors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Campaigns - VA US President Race - Jan 07, 1789 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=180432 |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.ourcampaigns.com}}</ref>

The vote totals of Virginia and Delaware appear to be incomplete. In several states candidates of unknown affiliation received votes.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|-
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | George Washington ''Federalist electors''
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | George Washington ''Anti-Federalist electors''
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | Margin
! Not cast
! Citation
|-
! align="center" | State
! style="text-align:center; font-size: 60%" | Electoral votes
! align="center" | #
! align="center" | %
! style="text-align:center; font-size: 60%" | Electoral votes
! align="center" | #
! align="center" | %
! style="text-align:center; font-size: 60%" | Electoral votes
! align="center" | #
! align="center" | %
!
!
|-
! style"text-align:left" | [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Connecticut|Connecticut]]
! 7
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| 7
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| -
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! style"text-align:left" | [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Delaware|Delaware]]
! 3
| 522
| 100.00
| 3
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No ballots''
| -
| 522
| 100.00
| -
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=A New Nation Votes|url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&f%5Bstate_name_sim%5D%5B%5D=Delaware&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1788&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bend%5D=1789&search_field=dummy_range|access-date=2020-12-31|website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref>
|-
! style"text-align:left" | [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Georgia|Georgia]]
! 5
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| 5
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| -
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! style"text-align:left" | [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland]]
! 6 (8)
| 7,665
| 77.09
| 6
| 2,278
| 22.91
| -
| 5,387
| 54.18
| 2
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=A New Nation Votes|url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&f%5Bstate_name_sim%5D%5B%5D=Maryland&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1788&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bend%5D=1789&search_field=dummy_range|access-date=2020-12-31|website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref>
|-
! style"text-align:left" | [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Massachusetts|Massachusetts]]
! 10
| 4,477
| 97.14
| 10
| 132
| 2.86
| -
| 4345
| 94.28
| -
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=A New Nation Votes|url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&f%5Bstate_name_sim%5D%5B%5D=Massachusetts&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1788&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bend%5D=1789&search_field=dummy_range|access-date=2020-12-31|website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref>
|-
! style"text-align:left" | [[1788–89 United States presidential election in New Hampshire|New Hampshire]]
! 5
| 1,759
| 100.00
| 5
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No ballots''
| -
| 1,759
| 100.00
| -
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=A New Nation Votes|url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&f%5Bstate_name_sim%5D%5B%5D=New+Hampshire&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1788&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bend%5D=1789&search_field=dummy_range|access-date=2020-12-31|website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref>
|-
! style"text-align:left" | [[1788–89 United States presidential election in New Jersey|New Jersey]]
! 6
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| 6
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| -
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! style"text-align:left" | New York
! 0 (''8'')
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" | ''Legislature did not choose electors on time''
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! style"text-align:left" | North Carolina
! 0 (''7'')
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" | ''Had not yet ratified Constitution''
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! style"text-align:left" | [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]]
! 10
| 6,711
| 90.90
| 10
| 672
| 9.10
| -
| 6,039
| 81.80
| -
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=A New Nation Votes|url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&f%5Bstate_name_sim%5D%5B%5D=Pennsylvania&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1788&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bend%5D=1789&search_field=dummy_range|access-date=2020-12-31|website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref>
|-
! style"text-align:left" | Rhode Island
! 0 (''3'')
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" | ''Had not yet ratified Constitution''
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! style"text-align:left" | [[1788–89 United States presidential election in South Carolina|South Carolina]]
! 7
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| 7
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| -
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! style"text-align:left" | [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Virginia|Virginia]]
! 10 (12)
| 3,337
| 87.98
| 7
| 456
| 12.02
| 3
| 2,881
| 75.96
| 2
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=A New Nation Votes|url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&f%5Bstate_name_sim%5D%5B%5D=Virginia&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1788&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bend%5D=1789&search_field=dummy_range|access-date=2020-12-31|website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref>
|-
! TOTALS:
! 69 (''91'')
! 24,471
! 87.37
! 69
! 3,538
! 12.63
! 0
! 19,459
! 64.78
! 4
!
|-
! TO WIN:
! 35 (''46'')
! colspan="12" |
|}

====Electoral vote====
Sixty-nine electors voted out of a possible 91: Two electors from Maryland and two from Virginia did not vote, the [[New York State Legislature]] was deadlocked and the state's 8 electors were not appointed (see below), and North Carolina and Rhode Island with 7 and 3 electoral votes respectively had not yet ratified the Constitution. As per the terms of the unamended constitution, each elector was permitted two votes for president, with a majority of "the whole number of electors appointed" necessary to elect a president. Of the 69 participating electors, each cast one vote for Washington, who was elected president. Of the remaining candidates, only Adams, Jay, and Hancock received votes from more than one state; with 34 votes, Adams finished second behind only Washington, and by virtue of which fact was elected vice president.

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|-
! State
! style="font-size: 60%"| Electors
! style="font-size: 60%"| Electoral votes
! {{abbrlink|GW|George Washington}}
! {{abbrlink|JAd|John Adams}}
! {{abbrlink|JJ|John Jay}}
! {{abbrlink|RH|Robert H. Harrison}}
! {{abbrlink|JR|John Rutledge}}
! {{abbrlink|JH|John Hancock}}
! {{abbrlink|GC|George Clinton (vice president)}}
! {{abbrlink|SH|Samuel Huntington (statesman)}}
! {{abbrlink|JM|John Milton (Georgia politician)}}
! {{abbrlink|JAr|James Armstrong (Georgia politician)}}
! {{abbrlink|BL|Benjamin Lincoln}}
! {{abbrlink|ET|Edward Telfair}}
! Blank
|-
! [[1788-89 United States presidential election in Connecticut|Connecticut]]
! 7
! 14
| 7
| 5
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| 2
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|-
! [[1788-89 United States presidential election in Delaware|Delaware]]
! 3
! 6
| 3
| —
| 3
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|-
! [[1788-89 United States presidential election in Georgia|Georgia]]
! 5
! 10
| 5
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| 2
| 1
| 1
| 1
| —
|-
! [[1788-89 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland]]
! 8
! 16
| 6
| —
| —
| 6
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| 4
|-
! [[1788-89 United States presidential election in Massachusetts|Massachusetts]]
! 10
! 20
| 10
| 10
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|-
! [[1788-89 United States presidential election in New Hampshire|New Hampshire]]
! 5
! 10
| 5
| 5
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|-
! [[1788-89 United States presidential election in New Jersey|New Jersey]]
! 6
! 12
| 6
| 1
| 5
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|-
! New York
! 8
! 16
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| 16
|-
! [[1788-89 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]]
! 10
! 20
| 10
| 8
| —
| —
| —
| 2
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|-
! [[1788-89 United States presidential election in South Carolina|South Carolina]]
! 7
! 14
| 7
| —
| —
| —
| 6
| 1
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|-
! [[1788-89 United States presidential election in Virginia|Virginia]]
! 12
! 24
| 10
| 5
| 1
| —
| —
| 1
| 3
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| 4
|-
! TOTAL
! 81
! 162
! 69
! 34
! 9
! 6
! 6
! 4
! 3
! 2
! 2
! 1
! 1
! 1
! 24
|-
! TO WIN
! 37
! 37
! colspan=13|
|}
'''Source:''' {{cite web |title=The Electoral College Count for the Presidential Election of 1789 |url=https://washingtonpapers.org/resources/articles/the-electoral-count-for-the-presidential-election-of-1789/ |website=Washington Papers |publisher=University of Virginia |access-date=28 October 2022}}

====Failure of New York to appoint electors====
Control of the bicameral New York State Legislature was divided following ratification of the federal constitution, and lawmakers could not reach an agreement to appoint electors for the forthcoming presidential contest. Federalists, backed by the great landed families and the [[New York City|city]] commercial interests, were the largest faction in the Senate, the smaller of the two chambers for which roughly a quarter of the state's free white male population was eligible to vote; but in the House of Representatives, with its larger membership and electorate, Anti-federalists representing the middling interests held the majority. The fight to [[History of the United States Constitution#Ratification of the Constitution|ratify the United States Constitution]] was still fresh in the memories of the legislators, and the Anti-Federalists were resentful for having been forced by events to accept the constitution without amendments. Bills to govern the selection of electors were proposed in each house and rejected by the other, leading to an impasse. The deadlock still stood on January 7, 1789, the last day for electors to be chosen by the states, and New York thus failed to appoint the eight electors allocated to it by the constitution.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Documentary History of the First Federal Elections, 1788-1790|author=Merrill Jensen, Gordon DenBoer|date=1976|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|pages=196–197}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ratcliffe |first1=Donald |title=The Right to Vote and the Rise of Democracy, 1787-1828 |journal=Journal of the Early Republic |date=2013 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=225–229|doi=10.1353/jer.2013.0033 |s2cid=145135025 }}</ref>

=== Maps ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200">
File:1788–89 United States presidential election by county.svg|Map of presidential election results by county, shaded according to the vote share of the highest result for an elector of any given faction
File:1788-89 United States presidential election by electoral district.svg|Map of presidential election results by electoral district, shaded according to the vote share of the highest result for an elector of any given faction. Data for several Virginian electoral districts could not be found
</gallery>

==Electoral college selection==
The Constitution, in [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Section 1, Clause 2|Article II, Section 1]], provided that the state legislatures should decide the manner in which their Electors were chosen. State legislatures chose different methods:<ref>{{cite web|title=The Electoral Count for the Presidential Election of 1789 |work=The Papers of George Washington |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914141726/http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/documents/presidential/electoral.html|archive-date=September 14, 2013|url=http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/documents/presidential/electoral.html |access-date=May 4, 2005}}</ref>

{{start electoral college selection}}
{{electoral college selection row|method=electors appointed by state legislature |states=[[Connecticut]] [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] [[New Jersey]] [[New York (state)|New York]]{{sup|(a)}} [[South Carolina]]}}
{{electoral college selection row|method=<ul><li>two electors appointed by state legislature</li><li>each remaining elector chosen by state legislature from the two most popular candidates in each U.S. House district</li></ul>|states=[[Massachusetts]]}}
{{electoral college selection row|method=each elector chosen by voters statewide; however, if no candidate wins majority, state legislature appoints electors from top ten candidates|states=[[New Hampshire]]}}
{{electoral college selection row|method=state divided into electoral districts, with one elector chosen per district by the voters of that district|states=[[Virginia]]{{sup|(b)}} [[Delaware]]}}
{{electoral college selection row|method=electors chosen at large by voters|states=[[Maryland]] [[Pennsylvania]]}}
{{electoral college selection row|method=state had not yet ratified the Constitution|states=[[North Carolina]] [[Rhode Island]]}}
{{end electoral college selection}}

{{sup|(a)}} ''New York's legislature did not choose electors on time.'' 
{{sup|(b)}} ''One electoral district failed to choose an elector.''

==See also==
* [[1788–89 United States House of Representatives elections]]
* [[1788–89 United States Senate elections]]
* [[History of the United States (1789–1849)]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}
{{NoteFoot}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Bowling, Kenneth R., and Donald R. Kennon. "A New Matrix for National Politics." Inventing Congress: Origins and Establishment of the First Federal Congress. Athens, O.: United States Capitol Historical Society by Ohio U, 1999. 110–37. Print.
* Chernow, Ron (2004). "Alexander Hamilton". London, UK: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|978-1101200858}}.
* Collier, Christopher. "Voting and American Democracy." The American People as Christian White Men of Property:Suffrage and Elections in Colonial and Early National America. N.p.: U of Connecticut, n.d, 1999.
* {{cite book |title=The Documentary History of the First Federal Elections, 1788–1790 |editor-last=DenBoer |editor-first=Gordon |year=1990 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |isbn=978-0-299-06690-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/documentaryhisto0002unse_n1m7 }}
* Dinkin, Robert J. Voting in Revolutionary America: A Study of Elections in the Original Thirteen States, 1776–1789. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982.
* {{cite book|title=Founding the American Presidency |last=Ellis |first=Richard J. |year=1999 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-8476-9499-0 }}
* {{cite book|title=[[John Adams (book)|John Adams]] |last=McCullough |first=David |author-link=David McCullough |year=1990 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=978-1-4165-7588-7}}
* {{cite book |title=Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power |last=Meacham |first=Jon |author-link=Jon Meacham |year=2012 |publisher=[[Random House]] |isbn=978-1-4000-6766-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/thomasjeffersona00meac }}
* Novotny, Patrick. ''The Parties in American Politics, 1789–2016''.
* Paullin, Charles O. "The First Elections Under The Constitution." The Iowa Journal of History and Politics 2 (1904): 3-33. Web. February 20, 2017.
* Shade, William G., and Ballard C. Campbell. "The Election of 1788-89." American Presidential Campaigns and Elections. Ed. Craig R. Coenen. Vol. 1. Armonk, NY: Sharpe Reference, 2003. 65–77. Print.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/elections/election1789.html Presidential Election of 1789: A Resource Guide] from the Library of Congress
* [http://elections.lib.tufts.edu/ A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns, 1787–1825]
* {{cite web|title=A Historical Analysis of the Electoral College |work=The Green Papers |url=http://www.thegreenpapers.com/Hx/ElectoralCollege.html |access-date=February 17, 2005}}
* [http://www.countingthevotes.com/1789/ Election of 1789 in Counting the Votes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160525194027/http://www.countingthevotes.com/1789/ |date=May 25, 2016 }}

{{George Washington}}
{{John Adams}}
{{USPresidentialElections}}{{Authority control}}
{{1788 United States elections}}
{{State results of the 1788–89 U.S. presidential election}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:1788-89 United States presidential election}}
[[Category:George Washington]]
[[Category:John Adams]]
[[Category:1788–1789 United States presidential election]]
[[Category:Non-partisan elections]]
[[Category:Presidency of George Washington]]
[[Category:Uncontested elections|Presidential election 1788]]

Template:1788-89 United States presidential election imagemap

2024-09-22T13:40:49Z

ARandomShyGuy: Deepest apologies. I was forgetful and forgot to change the links.

<imagemap>
Image:ElectoralCollege1789.svg|350px|center|

poly 395 70 406 108 413 114 415 99 418 94 427 91 439 82 445 74 457 61 453 55 447 47 441 45 432 16 422 13 418 19 410 15 401 30 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Massachusetts]]
poly 325 342 301 326 283 328 277 322 257 323 238 331 237 337 244 342 253 352 259 358 266 366 273 369 277 380 281 384 287 387 297 384 316 362 324 340 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in South Carolina]]
poly 114 343 239 332 235 337 245 342 252 353 262 360 271 369 278 381 287 390 283 420 272 420 272 429 222 429 214 422 92 433 92 423 101 407 100 398 97 390 97 378 101 365 104 357 107 352 109 348 113 346 113 346 113 342 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Georgia]]
poly 261 171 270 221 347 205 355 201 361 194 353 186 352 177 356 166 349 155 350 155 349 153 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania]]
poly 356 203 366 218 354 201 362 193 354 181 357 166 372 171 369 181 374 183 377 191 375 198 368 218 351 207 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in New Jersey]]
poly 360 275 351 269 349 247 328 239 329 228 309 215 289 226 288 220 271 222 266 201 263 224 255 229 247 242 239 256 250 274 232 296 306 285 150 307 123 307 129 297 133 291 139 293 145 284 147 278 156 274 161 274 170 272 181 269 188 260 196 252 200 245 209 243 212 248 217 249 224 250 231 248 235 252 249 274 234 294 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Virginia]]
poly 355 233 369 229 359 222 352 202 348 207 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Delaware]]
poly 360 264 364 231 354 232 347 204 270 219 276 219 287 225 312 215 327 228 329 238 347 246 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Maryland]]
poly 376 169 402 155 399 141 373 146 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Connecticut]]
poly 430 141 429 134 411 120 372 131 374 147 403 139 415 149 432 148 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Massachusetts]]
poly 386 75 390 89 385 94 385 126 372 127 360 83 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in Vermont]]
poly 390 66 389 86 385 92 385 129 412 119 [[1788–89 United States presidential election in New Hampshire]]

</imagemap>
<noinclude>
[[Category:United States presidential election imagemaps]]
</noinclude>

Template:1788-89 United States presidential election imagemap

2024-09-22T13:36:02Z

ARandomShyGuy: Creating map.

<imagemap>
Image:ElectoralCollege1789.svg|350px|center|

poly 395 70 406 108 413 114 415 99 418 94 427 91 439 82 445 74 457 61 453 55 447 47 441 45 432 16 422 13 418 19 410 15 401 30 [[1800 United States presidential election in Massachusetts]]
poly 325 342 301 326 283 328 277 322 257 323 238 331 237 337 244 342 253 352 259 358 266 366 273 369 277 380 281 384 287 387 297 384 316 362 324 340 [[1800 United States presidential election in South Carolina]]
poly 114 343 239 332 235 337 245 342 252 353 262 360 271 369 278 381 287 390 283 420 272 420 272 429 222 429 214 422 92 433 92 423 101 407 100 398 97 390 97 378 101 365 104 357 107 352 109 348 113 346 113 346 113 342 [[1800 United States presidential election in Georgia]]
poly 261 171 270 221 347 205 355 201 361 194 353 186 352 177 356 166 349 155 350 155 349 153 [[1800 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania]]
poly 356 203 366 218 354 201 362 193 354 181 357 166 372 171 369 181 374 183 377 191 375 198 368 218 351 207 [[1800 United States presidential election in New Jersey]]
poly 360 275 351 269 349 247 328 239 329 228 309 215 289 226 288 220 271 222 266 201 263 224 255 229 247 242 239 256 250 274 232 296 306 285 150 307 123 307 129 297 133 291 139 293 145 284 147 278 156 274 161 274 170 272 181 269 188 260 196 252 200 245 209 243 212 248 217 249 224 250 231 248 235 252 249 274 234 294 [[1800 United States presidential election in Virginia]]
poly 355 233 369 229 359 222 352 202 348 207 [[1800 United States presidential election in Delaware]]
poly 360 264 364 231 354 232 347 204 270 219 276 219 287 225 312 215 327 228 329 238 347 246 [[1800 United States presidential election in Maryland]]
poly 376 169 402 155 399 141 373 146 [[1800 United States presidential election in Connecticut]]
poly 430 141 429 134 411 120 372 131 374 147 403 139 415 149 432 148 [[1800 United States presidential election in Massachusetts]]
poly 386 75 390 89 385 94 385 126 372 127 360 83 [[1800 United States presidential election in Vermont]]
poly 390 66 389 86 385 92 385 129 412 119 [[1800 United States presidential election in New Hampshire]]

</imagemap>
<noinclude>
[[Category:United States presidential election imagemaps]]
</noinclude>

HV4H

2024-09-22T04:39:50Z

ARandomShyGuy: Abbreviated name.

#REDIRECT [[Haley Voters for Harris]]

1792 United States presidential election

2024-09-22T04:08:27Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding map to infobox.

{{short description|2nd quadrennial U.S. presidential election}}
{{use mdy dates|date=November 2013}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox election
| election_name = 1792 United States presidential election
| country = United States
| flag_year = 1777
| type = presidential
| ongoing = no
| previous_election = 1788–89 United States presidential election
| previous_year = {{nowrap|1788–89}}
| next_election = 1796 United States presidential election
| next_year = 1796
| votes_for_election = 132 members of the [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]]
| turnout = 6.3%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.electproject.org/national-1789-present|title=National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789-Present|work=United States Election Project|publisher=[[CQ Press]]}}</ref> {{decrease}} 5.3 [[percentage point|pp]]
| needed_votes = 67 electoral
| election_date = November 2 – December 5, 1792
| image1 = Gilbert Stuart Williamstown Portrait of George Washington.jpg
| image1_size = x200px
| nominee1 = '''[[George Washington]]'''
| party1 = Independent (United States)
| home_state1 = [[Virginia]]
| running_mate1 = {{tooltip|None|John Adams was voted Vice President in the electoral college by finishing with the second most votes. Each elector voted for two names.}}
| electoral_vote1 = '''132'''
| states_carried1 = '''15'''
| popular_vote1 = '''11,176'''{{efn|This number is a combination of the best-performing Federalist and Democratic-Republican votes}}{{efn|The returns from several states are incomplete}}{{efn|name=pa}}
| percentage1 = '''100.0%'''
| map = {{1792 United States presidential election imagemap}}
| map_size = 350px
| map_caption = Presidential election results map. Green denotes states won by Washington. Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes cast by each state.
| title = President
| before_election = [[George Washington]]
| before_party = Independent (United States)
| after_election = [[George Washington]]
| after_party = Independent (United States)
}}
The '''1792 United States presidential election''' was the second quadrennial [[United States presidential election|presidential election]]. It was held from Friday, November 2, to Wednesday, December 5, 1792. Incumbent [[President of the United States|President]] [[George Washington]] was elected to a second term by a unanimous vote in the [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral college]], while [[John Adams]] was re-elected as [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]]. Washington was essentially unopposed, but Adams faced a competitive re-election against [[Governor of New York|Governor]] [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] of [[New York (state)|New York]].

Electoral rules of the time required each presidential elector to cast two votes without distinguishing which was for president and which for [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]]. The recipient of the most votes would then become president, and the runner-up vice president. The [[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Democratic-Republican Party]], which had organized in opposition to the policies of Secretary of the Treasury [[Alexander Hamilton]], supported Clinton for the position of vice president. Adams, meanwhile, was backed by the [[Federalist Party]] in his bid for another term. Neither party had fully organized, and partisan divisions had not yet solidified.

Washington received 132 electoral votes, one from each elector. Adams won 77 electoral votes, enough to win re-election. Clinton finished in third place with 50 electoral votes, taking his home state of New York as well as three [[Southern United States|Southern]] states. Two other candidates won the five remaining electoral votes. This election was the first in which each of the original 13 states appointed electors, as did the newly added states of Kentucky and Vermont.

==Candidates==
In 1792, presidential elections were still conducted according to the original method established under the U.S. Constitution. Under this system, each elector cast two votes: the candidate who received the greatest number of votes (so long as they won a [[majority]]) became president, while the runner-up became vice president. The [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twelfth Amendment]] would eventually replace this system, requiring electors to cast one vote for president and one vote for vice president, but this change did not take effect until [[1804 United States presidential election|1804]]. Because of this, it is difficult to use modern-day terminology to describe the relationship among the candidates in this election.

Washington is generally held by historians to have run unopposed. Indeed, the incumbent president enjoyed bipartisan support and received one vote from every elector. The choice for vice president was more divisive. The [[Federalist Party]] threw its support behind the incumbent vice president, John Adams of Massachusetts, while the [[Democratic-Republican Party]] backed the candidacy of [[Governor of New York|New York Governor]] George Clinton. Because few doubted that Washington would receive the greatest number of votes, Adams and Clinton were effectively competing for the vice presidency; under the letter of the law, however, they were technically candidates for president competing against Washington.

===Federalist nomination===
* [[George Washington]], [[President of the United States]] (1789–1797)
* [[John Adams]], [[Vice President of the United States]] (1789–1797)

<gallery mode="packed" heights="160">
File:Jadams.jpeg|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] '''[[John Adams]]''' from [[Massachusetts]]
File:Gilbert Stuart Williamstown Portrait of George Washington.jpg|[[President of the United States|President]] '''[[George Washington]]''' from [[Virginia]]
</gallery>

===Democratic-Republican nomination===
* [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]], Governor of [[New York (state)|New York]] (1777–1795, 1801–1804)
* [[George Washington]], [[President of the United States]] (1789–1797)

Born out of the Anti-Federalist faction that had opposed the Constitution in 1788, the Democratic-Republican Party was the main opposition to the agenda of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton. They had no chance of unseating Washington, but hoped to win the vice presidency by defeating the incumbent, Adams. Many Democratic-Republicans would have preferred to nominate Thomas Jefferson, their ideological leader and Washington's Secretary of State. However, this would have cost them the state of Virginia, as electors were not permitted to vote for two candidates from their home state and Washington was also a Virginian. Clinton, the Governor of New York and a former [[Anti-Federalism|anti-Federalist]] leader, became the party's nominee after he won the backing of Jefferson and [[James Madison]]. Clinton was from an electorally important swing state, and he convinced party leaders that he would be a stronger candidate than another New Yorker, Senator [[Aaron Burr]].<ref name="sharp1">{{cite book|last1=Sharp|first1=James Roger|title=American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis|url=https://archive.org/details/americanpolitics0000shar|url-access=registration|date=1993|publisher=Yale University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/americanpolitics0000shar/page/57 57-58]|isbn=9780300055306 }}</ref> A group of Democratic-Republican leaders met in [[Philadelphia]] in October 1792 and selected Clinton as the party's vice presidential candidate.<ref name="patrick1">{{cite book|last1=Patrick|first1=John J.|last2=Pious|first2=Richard M.|last3=Ritchie|first3=Donald A.|title=The Oxford Guide to the United States Government|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordguidetouni00john|url-access=registration|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordguidetouni00john/page/93 93]|isbn=978-0-19-514273-0 }}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="160">
File:George Clinton by Ezra Ames.jpg|[[Governor of New York|Governor]] '''[[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]]''' of [[New York (state)|New York]]
File:Gilbert Stuart Williamstown Portrait of George Washington.jpg|[[President of the United States|President]] '''[[George Washington]]''' from [[Virginia]]
</gallery>

==Campaign==
By 1792, a party division had emerged between [[United States Federalist Party|Federalists]] led by [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury Secretary]] [[Alexander Hamilton]], who desired a stronger federal government with a leading role in the economy, and the [[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Democratic-Republicans]] led by [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] Thomas Jefferson and Representative James Madison of Virginia, who favored states' rights and opposed [[Hamiltonian economic program|Hamilton's economic program]]. Madison was at first a Federalist until he opposed the establishment of Hamilton's [[First Bank of the United States]] in 1791. He formed the Democratic-Republican Party along with [[Anti-Federalist]] Thomas Jefferson in 1792.

The elections of 1792 were the first ones in the United States to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis. In most states, the congressional elections were recognized in some sense as a "struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest," to use the words of Jefferson strategist [[John Beckley]]. In New York, the race for governor was fought along these lines. The candidates were [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[John Jay]], a Hamiltonian, and incumbent George Clinton, the party's vice presidential nominee.

Although Washington had been considering retiring, both sides encouraged him to remain in office to bridge factional differences. Washington was supported by practically all sides throughout his presidency and gained more popularity with the passage of the [[US Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]]. However, the Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists contested the vice-presidency, with incumbent John Adams as the Federalist nominee and George Clinton as the Democratic-Republican nominee. Federalists attacked Clinton for his past association with the anti-Federalists.<ref name="sharp1"/> Adams easily secured re-election.

==Results==
Washington was re-elected unanimously, receiving one vote from each of the 132 participating electors. Adams received votes from 77 electors and Clinton 50; the four electors from Kentucky voted for Thomas Jefferson, and one South Carolina elector voted for Aaron Burr. The distribution of the electoral vote between the four runners-up showed a high degree of party discipline, with only two electors voting contrary to the majority in their state. Adams received the support of New England, South Carolina, and the Mid-Atlantic states (excepting New York), while Clinton carried New York and most of the South. Adams as the second-place finisher was elected vice president, serving until his election to the presidency in 1797; each of his three rivals would go on to serve as vice president in turn, Jefferson from 1797 to 1801 (when he alike succeeded to the presidency), Burr from 1801 to 1805, and Clinton from 1805 until his death in 1812.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Phil |title=1792 President of the United States, Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/cc08hf97m |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=November 15, 2022}}</ref>

Nine of the 15 states eligible to choose representatives to the electoral college did so by a vote of the state legislature; the remaining six employed some form of popular vote. Of these, complete returns from Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Pennsylvania survive; surviving returns from Virginia are incomplete, and popular vote records from Kentucky are not known to exist. Of the states with complete returns, only Pennsylvania saw real partisan competition; a Federalist electoral slate pledged to Washington and Adams was selected, although one elector voted for Washington and Clinton. At the time, party organizations were still in their infancy, and the partisan allegiance of the candidates was not always evident: it is therefore difficult to say whether the Pennsylvania vote for Clinton was an instance of a faithless elector, or an elector voting as pledged.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?commit=Limit&f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&per_page=100&search_field=dummy_range&utf8=✓ |website=A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825 |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=November 15, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rosin |first1=Michael L. |title=A History of Elector Discretion |journal=Northern Illinois University Law Review |date=2020 |volume=41 |issue=1 |page=142}}</ref>

===Electoral vote===
{{start U.S. presidential election box|pv_footnote=(a)|ev_footnote=(b)}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[George Washington]] (incumbent)|party=[[Independent politician|Independent]]|state=[[Virginia]]|pv=11,176|pv_pct=100.0%|ev=132}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[John Adams]]|party=[[Federalist Party|Federalist]]|state=[[Massachusetts]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=77}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]]|party=[[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]]|state=[[New York (state)|New York]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=50}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[Thomas Jefferson]]|party=[[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]]|state=[[Virginia]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=4}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[Aaron Burr]]|party=[[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]]|state=[[New York (state)|New York]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=1}}
{{end U.S. presidential election box|pv=11,176|ev=264|to_win=67}}

(a) ''Only 6 of the 15 states chose electors by any form of popular vote, while pre-Twelfth Amendment electoral vote rules obscure the intentions of the voters, and those states that did choose electors by popular vote restricted the vote via property requirements.'' 
(b) ''Two electors from [[Maryland]] and one elector from [[Vermont]] did not cast votes.''

===Popular vote===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:right
! rowspan=2 | Slate
! colspan=2 | Popular Vote(a), (b), (c), (d)
|-
! Count
! Percentage
|-
| align=left | '''[[Federalist Party|Federalist]]'''
| 6,818
| 87.6%
|-
| align=left | '''[[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]]'''
| 962
| 12.4%
|-
| '''Total'''
| 7,780
| 100.0%
|}

'''Source (Popular Vote):''' ''A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825''<ref>[http://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog?commit=Limit&f%5Belection_type_sim%5D%5B%5D=General&f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&page=2&q=1820&range%5Bdate_sim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1820&range%5Bdate_sim%5D%5Bend%5D=1820&search_field=all_fields&utf8=%E2%9C%93 elections.lib.tufts.edu]</ref>

(a) ''Only 6 of the 15 states chose electors by any form of popular vote.'' 
(b) ''Pre-Twelfth Amendment electoral vote rules obscure the intentions of the voters'' 
(c) ''Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements.'' 
(d) ''Returns for several states are incomplete.''

=== Popular vote by state ===
Elections in this period were vastly different from modern day presidential elections. The actual presidential candidates were rarely mentioned on tickets and voters were voting for particular electors who were pledged to a particular candidate. There was sometimes confusion as to who the particular elector was actually pledged to. Results are reported as the highest result for an elector for any given faction. For example, if three Federalist electors received 100, 50, and 25 votes, Federalist electors would be recorded as having 100 votes. Confusion surrounding the way results are reported may lead to discrepancies between the sum of all state results and national results.

In Massachusetts, the best performing elector candidate for the Eastern District, [[Thomas Rice (Massachusetts politician, born 1768)|Thomas Rice]], was not selected by the [[Massachusetts General Court]] to be an elector.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A New Nation Votes |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/x059c858n |access-date=2024-07-12 |website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref> Rice was a Federalist<ref>{{Cite web |title=RICE, Thomas 1768 – 1854 |url=https://bioguide.congress.gov/search/bio/R000204 |website=Biographical Directory of the United States Congress}}</ref> and his returns have been included into the state total below instead of the second best performing elector candidate.

The totals for Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and Virginia appear to be incomplete. In several states candidates of unknown affiliation received votes.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|-
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | George Washington Federalist
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | George Washington Democratic-Republican
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | Margin
! Not cast
! Citation
|-
! align="center" | State
! style="text-align:center; font-size: 60%" | Electoral votes
! align="center" | #
! align="center" | %
! style="text-align:center; font-size: 60%" | Electoral votes
! align="center" | #
! align="center" | %
! style="text-align:center; font-size: 60%" | Electoral votes
! align="center" | #
! align="center" | %
!
!
|-
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Connecticut|Connecticut]]
! 9
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| 9
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| -
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Delaware|Delaware]]
! 3
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| 3
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| -
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! Georgia
! 4
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| 4
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| -
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! Kentucky
! 4
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No data''
| -
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No data''
| 4
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
|
|-
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland]]
! 8 (10)
| 898
| 100.00
| 8
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No data''
| -
| 898
| 100.00
| 2
|<ref name=Dubin>{{Cite book |last=Dubin |first=Michael J. |title=United States Presidential Elections, 1788-1860: The Official Results by County and State |publisher=McFarland & Company |year=2002 |isbn=9780786410170 |location=Jefferson}}</ref>{{rp|4}}
|-
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Massachusetts|Massachusetts]]
! 16
| 4,138
| 100.00
| 16
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No ballots''
| -
| 4,138
| 100.00
| -
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=A New Nation Votes |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?utf8=%E2%9C%93&f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&f%5Bstate_name_sim%5D%5B%5D=Massachusetts&search_field=dummy_range&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1792&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bend%5D=1792&commit=Apply |access-date=2024-07-12 |website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref>
|-
! New Hampshire
! 6
| 1,782
| 100.00
| 6
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No ballots''
| -
| 1,782
| 100.00
| -
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=A New Nation Votes |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/x920fz28g |access-date=2024-07-12 |website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref>
|-
! [[1792 United States presidential election in New Jersey|New Jersey]]
! 7
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| 7
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| -
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! [[1792 United States presidential election in New York|New York]]
! 12
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| -
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| 12
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! [[1792 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina]]
! 12
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| -
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| 12
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]]
! 15
| colspan="6" align="center" |'''''The two best performing electors were supported by both groups'''''{{efn|name=pa|The two best performing electors in Pennsylvania, [[Joseph Hiester]] and [[William Henry (gunsmith)|William Henry]], were supported by both groups. They received 3,396 and 3,371 votes respectively. It is not known which one voted for Clinton. The total for Washington only includes the 3,396 number as to not represent Pennsylvanian voters twice in popular vote figures.}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=A New Nation Votes |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/5425k9909 |access-date=2024-07-12 |website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref>
|-
! Rhode Island
! 4
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| 4
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| -
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! [[1792 United States presidential election in South Carolina|South Carolina]]
! 8
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| 7
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| 1
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
| -
|-
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Vermont|Vermont]]
! 3 (4)
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| 3
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No popular vote''
| -
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| 1
| -
|-
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Virginia|Virginia]]
! 21
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''No data''
| -
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 962
| 21
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | -
| -
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=A New Nation Votes |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&f%5Bstate_name_sim%5D%5B%5D=Virginia&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1792&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bend%5D=1792&search_field=dummy_range |access-date=2024-07-12 |website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref>
|-
! TOTALS:
! 135
! 6,818
! 96.16
! 77
! 962
! 3.84
! 50
! 26,385
! 92.32
! 3
!
|-
! TO WIN:
! 68
! colspan="12" |
|}

===Electoral votes by state===
The states chose 135 electors, out of whom 132 cast ballots. (Two electors from Maryland and one from Vermont were absent and did not vote.) As per the terms of the unamended constitution, each elector was permitted two votes for president, with a majority of "the whole number of electors appointed" necessary to elect a president. Each of the participating electors cast one vote for Washington, who was elected president. The electors were split on their second choice: Adams received 77 votes to Clinton's 50, enough to secure a second-place finish behind Washington and the vice presidency.

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|-
! State
! style="font-size: 60%"| Electors
! style="font-size: 60%"| Electoral votes
! {{abbrlink|GW|George Washington}}
! {{abbrlink|JA|John Adams}}
! {{abbrlink|GC|George Clinton (vice president)}}
! {{abbrlink|TJ|Thomas Jefferson}}
! {{abbrlink|AB|Aaron Burr}}
! Blank
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Connecticut|Connecticut]]
! 9
! 18
| 9
| 9
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Delaware|Delaware]]
! 3
! 6
| 3
| 3
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Georgia|Georgia]]
! 4
! 8
| 4
| —
| 4
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Kentucky|Kentucky]]
! 4
! 8
| 4
| —
| —
| 4
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland]]
! 10
! 20
| 8
| 8
| —
| —
| —
| 4
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Massachusetts|Massachusetts]]
! 16
! 32
| 16
| 16
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in New Hampshire|New Hampshire]]
! 6
! 12
| 6
| 6
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in New Jersey|New Jersey]]
! 7
! 14
| 7
| 7
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in New York|New York]]
! 12
! 24
| 12
| —
| 12
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina]]
! 12
! 24
| 12
| —
| 12
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]]
! 15
! 30
| 15
| 14
| 1
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Rhode Island|Rhode Island]]
! 4
! 8
| 4
| 4
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in South Carolina|South Carolina]]
! 8
! 16
| 8
| 7
| —
| —
| 1
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Vermont|Vermont]]
! 4
! 8
| 3
| 3
| —
| —
| —
| 2
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1792 United States presidential election in Virginia|Virginia]]
! 21
! 42
| 21
| —
| 21
| —
| —
| —
|-
! TOTAL
! 135
! 270
! 132
! 77
! 50
! 4
! 1
! 6
|-
! TO WIN
! 67
! 67
!colspan=6|
|}
'''Source:''' ''A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Phil |title=1792 President of the United States, Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/cc08hf97m |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=November 15, 2022}}</ref>

{{bar box
|title=Popular vote
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=600px
|barwidth=410px
|bars=
{{bar percent|'''Washington'''|{{party color|Independent (US)}}|100.0}}
{{bar percent|Others|#777777|0.0}}
}}
{{bar box
|title=Electoral vote
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=600px
|barwidth=410px
|bars=
{{bar percent|'''Washington'''|{{party color|Independent (US)}}|97.8}}
{{bar percent|Adams|{{party color|Federalist Party}}|57.0}}
{{bar percent|Clinton|{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}|37.0}}
{{bar percent|Jefferson|{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}|3.0}}
{{bar percent|Burr|{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}|0.7}}
{{bar percent|Not cast|{{party color|Other}}|2.2}}
}}

=== Maps ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200">
File:1792 United States presidential election by county.svg|Map of presidential election results by county, shaded according to the vote share of the highest result for an elector of any given party
File:1792 United States presidential election by electoral district.svg|Map of presidential election results by electoral district, shaded according to the vote share of the highest result for an elector of any given party. Electoral boundaries for Kentucky, North Carolina, and data for Massachusetts could not be found
</gallery>
==Electoral college selection==
The Constitution, in [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Section 1, Clause 2|Article II, Section 1]], provided that the state legislatures should decide the manner in which their Electors were chosen. Different state legislatures chose different methods:<ref>{{cite web|title=The Electoral Count for the Presidential Election of 1789 |work=The Papers of George Washington |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914141726/http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/documents/presidential/electoral.html|archive-date=14 September 2013|url=http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/documents/presidential/electoral.html |access-date=May 4, 2005}}</ref>

{{start electoral college selection}}
{{electoral college selection row|method=state is divided into electoral districts, with one elector chosen per district by the voters of that district|states=[[Kentucky]] [[Virginia]]}}
{{electoral college selection row|method=each elector chosen by voters statewide|states=[[Maryland]] [[Pennsylvania]]}}
{{electoral college selection row|method={{bulleted list|two congressional districts chose five electors each; the remaining two districts chose three electors|each elector chosen by majority vote of voters in congressional district|if an insufficient number of electors are chosen by majority vote from a congressional district, remaining electors would be appointed by the state legislature}}|states=[[Massachusetts]]}}
{{electoral college selection row|method={{bulleted list|each elector chosen by majority vote of voters statewide|if an insufficient number of electors are chosen by majority vote, runoff is held between the top 2''n'' vote-getters, where ''n'' is the number of vacancies remaining}}|states=[[New Hampshire]]}}
{{electoral college selection row|method=each elector appointed by the state legislature|states=[[Connecticut]] [[Delaware]] [[Georgia (US State)|Georgia]] [[New Jersey]] [[New York (state)|New York]] [[North Carolina]] [[Rhode Island]] [[South Carolina]] [[Vermont]]}}
{{end electoral college selection}}

==See also==
* [[First Party System]]
* [[History of the United States (1789–1849)]]
* [[Presidency of George Washington]]
* [[1792–93 United States House of Representatives elections]]
* [[1792–93 United States Senate elections]]
* [[List of 1792 United States presidential electors]]
* [[List of George Washington articles]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite web |last=Berg-Andersson |first=Richard | date=September 17, 2000 |title=A Historical Analysis of the Electoral College |work=The Green Papers |url=http://www.thegreenpapers.com/Hx/ElectoralCollege.html |access-date=March 20, 2005}}
* {{cite book |first=Stanley |last=Elkins |author2=McKitrick, Eric |author-link1= Stanley Elkins |author-link2=Eric McKitrick |title=The Age of Federalism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070512222830/http://dca.tufts.edu/features/aas/index.html A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns, 1787-1825]

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/elections/election1792.html Presidential Election of 1792: A Resource Guide] from the Library of Congress
* [http://www.countingthevotes.com/1792/ Election of 1792 in Counting the Votes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926092920/http://www.countingthevotes.com/1792/ |date=September 26, 2019 }}

{{George Washington}}
{{John Adams}}
{{USPresidentialElections}}
{{State Results of the 1792 U.S. presidential election}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1792 United States presidential election| ]]
[[Category:Presidency of George Washington]]
[[Category:George Washington]]
[[Category:John Adams]]
[[Category:Uncontested elections]]

Template:1792 United States presidential election imagemap

2024-09-22T04:06:30Z

ARandomShyGuy: Creating map.

<imagemap>
Image:ElectoralCollege1792.svg|350px|center|

poly 395 70 406 108 413 114 415 99 418 94 427 91 439 82 445 74 457 61 453 55 447 47 441 45 432 16 422 13 418 19 410 15 401 30 [[1792 United States presidential election in Massachusetts]]
poly 325 342 301 326 283 328 277 322 257 323 238 331 237 337 244 342 253 352 259 358 266 366 273 369 277 380 281 384 287 387 297 384 316 362 324 340 [[1792 United States presidential election in South Carolina]]
poly 114 343 239 332 235 337 245 342 252 353 262 360 271 369 278 381 287 390 283 420 272 420 272 429 222 429 214 422 92 433 92 423 101 407 100 398 97 390 97 378 101 365 104 357 107 352 109 348 113 346 113 346 113 342 [[1792 United States presidential election in Georgia]]
poly 361 275 370 290 374 298 366 306 358 318 341 326 335 339 322 342 301 324 286 329 275 322 256 322 237 332 215 334 263 292[[1792 United States presidential election in North Carolina]]
poly 261 171 270 221 347 205 355 201 361 194 353 186 352 177 356 166 349 155 350 155 349 153 [[1792 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania]]
poly 360 83 366 98 369 114 373 125 374 154 376 171 401 165 374 182 374 172 355 165 345 153 273 168 284 149 281 137 314 131 323 121 319 111 337 88 354 85 361 88 376 171 [[1792 United States presidential election in New York]]
poly 400 142 403 156 413 150 406 139 [[1792 United States presidential election in Rhode Island]]
poly 356 203 366 218 354 201 362 193 354 181 357 166 372 171 369 181 374 183 377 191 375 198 368 218 351 207 [[1792 United States presidential election in New Jersey]]
poly 360 275 351 269 349 247 328 239 329 228 309 215 289 226 288 220 271 222 266 201 263 224 255 229 247 242 239 256 250 274 232 296 306 285 [[1792 United States presidential election in Virginia]]
poly 355 233 369 229 359 222 352 202 348 207 [[1792 United States presidential election in Delaware]]
poly 150 307 123 307 129 297 133 291 139 293 145 284 147 278 156 274 161 274 170 272 181 269 188 260 196 252 200 245 209 243 212 248 217 249 224 250 231 248 235 252 249 274 234 294 [[1792 United States presidential election in Kentucky]]
poly 360 264 364 231 354 232 347 204 270 219 276 219 287 225 312 215 327 228 329 238 347 246 [[1792 United States presidential election in Maryland]]
poly 376 169 402 155 399 141 373 146 [[1792 United States presidential election in Connecticut]]
poly 430 141 429 134 411 120 372 131 374 147 403 139 415 149 432 148 [[1792 United States presidential election in Massachusetts]]
poly 386 75 390 89 385 94 385 126 372 127 360 83 [[1792 United States presidential election in Vermont]]
poly 390 66 389 86 385 92 385 129 412 119 [[1792 United States presidential election in New Hampshire]]

</imagemap>
<noinclude>
[[Category:United States presidential election imagemaps]]
</noinclude>

1796 United States presidential election

2024-09-22T03:58:04Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding map to infobox.

{{short description|3rd quadrennial U.S. presidential election}}
{{use mdy dates|date=August 2016}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox election
| election_name = 1796 United States presidential election
| country = United States
| flag_year = 1795
| type = presidential
| ongoing = no
| previous_election = 1792 United States presidential election
| previous_year = 1792
| next_election = 1800 United States presidential election
| next_year = 1800
| votes_for_election = 138 members of the [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]]{{efn|One Maryland elector pledged to Adams cast his two votes for Adams and Jefferson, bringing the total between them to 139 votes.}}
| needed_votes = 70 electoral
| election_date = November 4 – December 7, 1796
| turnout = 20.1%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.electproject.org/national-1789-present|title=National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789-Present|work=United States Election Project|publisher=[[CQ Press]]}}</ref> {{increase}} 13.8 [[percentage point|pp]]
| image1 = [[File:Official Presidential portrait of John Adams (by John Trumbull, circa 1792)-crop.jpg|x200px]]
| nominee1 = '''[[John Adams]]'''
| party1 = Federalist Party
| running_mate1 = [[Thomas Pinckney]]
| home_state1 = [[Massachusetts]]
| electoral_vote1 = '''71'''
| states_carried1 = '''9'''
| popular_vote1 = '''35,174'''
| percentage1 = '''53.3%'''
| image2 = [[File: Official Presidential portrait of Thomas Jefferson (by Rembrandt Peale, 1800)(cropped).jpg |x200px]]
| nominee2 = '''[[Thomas Jefferson]]''' (elected Vice President)
| party2 = Democratic-Republican Party
| running_mate2 = [[Aaron Burr]]
| home_state2 = [[Virginia]]
| electoral_vote2 = 68
| states_carried2 = 7
| popular_vote2 = 30,860
| percentage2 = 46.7%
| map = {{1796 United States presidential election imagemap}}
| map_size = 350px
| map_caption = Presidential election results map. Green denotes states won by Jefferson and Light Orange denotes states won by Adams. Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes cast by each state.
| title = President
| before_election = [[George Washington]]
| before_party = Independent (United States)
| after_election = [[John Adams]]
| after_party = Federalist Party (United States)
}}
The '''1796 United States presidential election''' was the third quadrennial [[United States presidential election|presidential election]] of the [[United States]]. It was held from Friday, November 4 to Wednesday, December 7, 1796. It was the first contested American presidential election, the first presidential election in which political parties played a dominant role, and the only presidential election in which a president and vice president were elected from opposing tickets. Incumbent vice president [[John Adams]] of the [[Federalist Party]] defeated former secretary of state [[Thomas Jefferson]] of the [[Democratic-Republican Party]].

With incumbent president [[George Washington]] having refused a third term in office, the 1796 election became the first U.S. presidential election in which political parties competed for the presidency. The Federalists coalesced behind Adams and the Democratic-Republicans supported Jefferson, but each party ran multiple candidates. Under the electoral rules in place prior to the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twelfth Amendment]], the members of the [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]] each cast two votes, with no distinction made between electoral votes for president and electoral votes for vice president. The individual with the votes of a majority of electors became president, and the runner-up became vice president. If there was a tie for first place or no person won a majority, the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] would hold a [[contingent election]]. Also, if there were a tie for second place, the vice presidency, the [[United States Senate|Senate]] would hold a contingent election to break the tie.

The campaign was a bitter one, with Federalists attempting to identify the Democratic-Republicans with the violence of the [[French Revolution]]<ref>[http://www.historycentral.com/elections/1796.html Presidential Election of 1796], retrieved on November 5, 2009.</ref> and the Democratic-Republicans accusing the Federalists of favoring monarchism and aristocracy. Republicans sought to associate Adams with the policies developed by fellow Federalist [[Alexander Hamilton]] during the [[presidency of George Washington|Washington administration]], which they declaimed were too much in favor of [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and a centralized national government. In foreign policy, Republicans denounced the Federalists over the [[Jay Treaty]], which had established a temporary peace with Great Britain. Federalists attacked Jefferson's moral character, alleging he was an atheist and that he had been a coward during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. Adams supporters also accused Jefferson of being too pro-[[French First Republic|France]]; the accusation was underscored when the French ambassador embarrassed the Republicans by publicly backing Jefferson and attacking the Federalists right before the election.<ref name="millercenter.org">{{Cite web | url=http://millercenter.org/president/biography/adams-campaigns-and-elections | title=John Adams: Campaigns and Elections—Miller Center | website=millercenter.org|access-date=April 15, 2016}}</ref> Despite the hostility between their respective camps, neither Adams nor Jefferson actively campaigned for the presidency.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://blog.constitutioncenter.org/2012/10/inside-americas-first-dirty-presidential-campaign-1796-style/ | title=Inside America's first dirty presidential campaign, 1796 style | website=Constitution Daily | language=en-US | access-date=April 15, 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214075236/http://blog.constitutioncenter.org/2012/10/inside-americas-first-dirty-presidential-campaign-1796-style/ | archive-date=February 14, 2017 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="millercenter.org"/>

Adams was elected president with 71 electoral votes, one more than was needed for a majority. He won by sweeping the electoral votes of [[New England]] and winning votes from several other swing states, especially the states of the [[Mid-Atlantic (United States)|Mid-Atlantic]] region. Jefferson received 68 electoral votes and was elected vice president. Former governor [[Thomas Pinckney]] of South Carolina, a Federalist, finished with 59 electoral votes, while Senator [[Aaron Burr]], a Democratic-Republican from New York, won 30 electoral votes. The remaining 48 electoral votes were dispersed among nine other candidates. Several electors cast one vote for a Federalist candidate and one for a Democratic-Republican. The election marked the formation of the [[First Party System]], and established a rivalry between Federalist New England and the Democratic-Republican South, with the middle states holding the balance of power (New York and Maryland were the crucial swing states, and between them only voted for a loser once between 1789 and 1820).<ref>Jeffrey L. Pasley, ''The First Presidential Contest: 1796 and the Founding of American Democracy'' (2013)</ref>

==Candidates==
[[File:Gilbert Stuart Williamstown Portrait of George Washington.jpg|thumb|207x207px|[[George Washington]], the incumbent president in 1796, whose second term expired on March 4, 1797]]
With Washington retiring after two terms, both parties sought the presidency for the first time. Before the ratification of the [[12th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution|12th Amendment]] in 1804, each elector was to vote for two persons but was not able to indicate which vote was for president and which for vice president. Instead, the recipient of the most electoral votes would become president and the runner-up vice president. As a result, both parties ran multiple candidates for president, in hopes of keeping one of their opponents from being the runner-up. These candidates were the equivalent of modern-day running mates, but under the law, they were all candidates for president. Thus, both Adams and Jefferson were technically opposed by several members of their own parties. The plan was for one of the electors to cast a vote for the main party nominee (Adams or Jefferson) and a candidate besides the primary running mate, thus ensuring that the main nominee would have one more vote than his running mate.

===Federalist candidates===
The Federalists' nominee was John Adams of Massachusetts, the incumbent vice president and a leading voice during the Revolutionary period. Most Federalist leaders viewed Adams, who had twice been elected vice president, as Washington's natural heir. Adams's main running mate was [[Thomas Pinckney]], a former governor of South Carolina who had negotiated the [[Pinckney's Treaty|Treaty of San Lorenzo]] with [[Spain]]. Pinckney agreed to run after the first choice of many party leaders, former governor [[Patrick Henry]] of Virginia, declined. [[Alexander Hamilton]], who competed with Adams for leadership of the party, worked behind the scenes to elect Pinckney over Adams by convincing Jefferson electors from South Carolina to cast their second votes for Pinckney. Hamilton did prefer Adams to Jefferson, and urged Federalist electors to cast their votes for Adams and Pinckney.<ref name="sharp1"/>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="140">
File:Official Presidential portrait of John Adams (by John Trumbull, circa 1792).jpg|'''[[John Adams]]''', [[Vice President of the United States]]
File:Thomas Pinckney.jpg|'''[[Thomas Pinckney]]''', former [[Governor of South Carolina]]
File:OliverEllsworth.jpg|'''[[Oliver Ellsworth]]''', [[U.S. Chief Justice]], from [[Connecticut]]
File:John Jay (Gilbert Stuart portrait).jpg|'''[[John Jay]]''', [[Governor of New York]]
File:JamesIredell.jpg|'''[[James Iredell]]''', Associate Justice of the [[U.S. Supreme Court]], from [[North Carolina]]
File:NC-Congress-SamuelJohnston.JPG|'''[[Samuel Johnston]]''', former [[List of United States senators from North Carolina|U.S. senator from North Carolina]]
File:CharlesCPinckney crop.jpg|'''[[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]]''', [[List of ambassadors of the United States to France|U.S. Minister to France]] from South Carolina
</gallery>

===Democratic-Republican candidates===
The Democratic-Republicans united behind former secretary of state [[Thomas Jefferson]], who had co-founded the party with [[James Madison]] and others in opposition to Hamilton's policies. Congressional Democratic-Republicans sought to also unite behind one vice-presidential nominee. With Jefferson's popularity strongest in the South, many party leaders wanted a Northern candidate as Jefferson's running mate. Popular choices included Senator [[Pierce Butler (American politician)|Pierce Butler]] of South Carolina and three New Yorkers: Senator [[Aaron Burr]], Chancellor [[Robert R. Livingston (chancellor)|Robert R. Livingston]], and former governor [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]]. A group of Democratic-Republican leaders met in June 1796 and agreed to support Jefferson for president and Burr for vice president.<ref name="sharp1">{{cite book|last1=Sharp|first1=James Roger|title=American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis|url=https://archive.org/details/americanpolitics0000shar|url-access=registration|date=1993|publisher=Yale University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/americanpolitics0000shar/page/146 146–148]|isbn=9780300055306 }}</ref><ref name="patrick1">{{cite book|last1=Patrick|first1=John J.|last2=Pious|first2=Richard M.|last3=Ritchie|first3=Donald A.|title=The Oxford Guide to the United States Government|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordguidetouni00john|url-access=registration|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordguidetouni00john/page/93 93]|isbn=978-0-19-514273-0 }}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="140">
File:ThomasJeffersonStateRoomPortrait.jpg|'''[[Thomas Jefferson]]''', former [[United States Secretary of State|secretary of state]]
File:Burr (cropped 3x4).jpg|'''[[Aaron Burr]]''', [[List of United States senators from New York|U.S. senator from New York]]
File:Samuel Adams by John Singleton Copley.jpg|'''[[Samuel Adams]]''', [[Governor of Massachusetts]]
File:George Clinton by Ezra Ames (full portrait).jpg|'''[[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]]''', former [[governor of New York]]
</gallery>

==Results==
[[Tennessee]] was admitted into the United States after the 1792 election, increasing the [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]] to 138 electors.

Under the system in place before the 1804 ratification of the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twelfth Amendment]], electors were to cast votes for two persons for president; the runner-up in the presidential race was elected vice president. If no candidate won votes from a majority of the Electoral College, the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] would hold a [[contingent election]] to select the winner. Each party intended to manipulate the results by having some of their electors cast one vote for the intended presidential candidate and one vote for someone besides the intended vice-presidential candidate, leaving their vice-presidential candidate a few votes shy of their presidential candidate. But all electoral votes were cast on the same day, and communications between states were extremely slow at that time, making it very difficult to coordinate which electors were to manipulate their vote for vice president. Additionally, there were rumors that Hamilton had coerced southern electors pledged to Jefferson to give their second vote to Pinckney in hope of electing him president instead of Adams.

Campaigning centered in the [[swing state]]s of New York and [[Pennsylvania]].<ref name="wald1">{{cite book|last1=Waldstreicher|first1=David|title=A Companion to John Adams and John Quincy Adams|date=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|pages=150–151}}</ref> Adams and Jefferson won a combined 139 electoral votes from the 138 members of the Electoral College. The Federalists swept every state north of the [[Mason–Dixon line]] except Pennsylvania, though one Pennsylvania elector voted for Adams. The Democratic-Republicans won the votes of most [[Southern United States|Southern]] electors, but the electors of [[Maryland]] and [[Delaware]] gave a majority of their votes to Federalist candidates, while North Carolina and Virginia each gave Adams one electoral vote.

Nationwide, most electors voted for Adams and a second Federalist or for Jefferson and a second Democratic-Republican, but there were several exceptions to this. One elector in Maryland voted for both Adams and Jefferson, and two electors cast votes for Washington, who had not campaigned and was not formally affiliated with either party. Pinckney won the second votes from most of the electors who voted for Adams, but 21 electors from [[New England]] and Maryland cast their second votes for other candidates, including Chief Justice [[Oliver Ellsworth]]. Those who voted for Jefferson were significantly less united in their second choice, though Burr won a plurality of the Jefferson electors. All eight electors in Pinckney's home state of South Carolina, as well as at least one Pennsylvania elector, cast their ballots for Jefferson and Pinckney. In North Carolina, Jefferson won 11 votes, but the remaining 13 were spread among six different candidates from both parties. In Virginia, most electors voted for Jefferson and Governor [[Samuel Adams]] of Massachusetts.<ref name="annv">{{cite web|title=1796 President of the United States, Electoral College|url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/tufts:us.potus.1796|website=A New Nation Votes|publisher=American Antiquarian Society|access-date=14 January 2018|archive-date=January 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128161923/https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/tufts:us.potus.1796|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The result was that Adams received 71 electoral votes, one more than required to be elected president. If any two of the three Adams electors in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina had voted with the rest of their states, it would have flipped the election. Jefferson received 68 votes, nine more than Pinckney, and was elected vice president. Burr finished in a distant fourth place with 30 votes. Nine other candidates received the remaining 48 electoral votes. If Pinckney had won the second votes of all of the New England electors who voted for Adams, he would have been elected president over Adams and Jefferson.

{{start U.S. presidential election box|pv_footnote=(a), (b), (c)|ev_footnote=}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row | name=[[John Adams]] | party=[[United States Federalist Party|Federalist]] | state=[[Massachusetts]] | pv=35,174|pv_pct=53.3% | ev=71}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row | name=[[Thomas Jefferson]] | party=[[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Democratic-Republican]] | state=[[Virginia]] | pv=30,860|pv_pct=46.7% | ev=68}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row | name=[[Thomas Pinckney]] | party=[[United States Federalist Party|Federalist]] | state=[[South Carolina]] | pv=—|pv_pct=— | ev=59}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row | name=[[Aaron Burr]] | party=[[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Democratic-Republican]] | state=[[New York (state)|New York]] | pv=—|pv_pct=— | ev=30}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row | name=[[Samuel Adams]] | party=[[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Democratic-Republican]] | state=[[Massachusetts]] | pv=—|pv_pct=— | ev=15}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row | name=[[Oliver Ellsworth]] | party=[[United States Federalist Party|Federalist]] | state=[[Connecticut]] | pv=—|pv_pct=— | ev=11}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row | name=[[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] | party=[[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Democratic-Republican]] | state=[[New York (state)|New York]] | pv=—|pv_pct=— | ev=7}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row | name=[[John Jay]] | party=[[United States Federalist Party|Federalist]] | state=[[New York (state)|New York]] | pv=—|pv_pct=— | ev=5}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row | name=[[James Iredell]] | party=[[United States Federalist Party|Federalist]] | state=[[North Carolina]] | pv=—|pv_pct=— | ev=3}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row | name=[[George Washington]] | party=[[Independent (politician)|Independent]] | state=[[Virginia]] | pv=—|pv_pct=— | ev=2}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row | name=[[John Henry (senator)|John Henry]] | party=[[United States Federalist Party|Federalist]]<ref name="mdarchives1">{{cite web|title=MARYLAND'S ELECTORAL VOTE FOR U.S. PRESIDENT, 1789-2016|url=http://msa.maryland.gov/msa/mdmanual/41electp/html/elecpres.html|website=Maryland Manual On-line|publisher=Maryland State Archives|access-date=16 January 2018}}</ref> | state=[[Maryland]] | pv=—|pv_pct=— | ev=2}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row | name=[[Samuel Johnston]] | party=[[United States Federalist Party|Federalist]] | state=[[North Carolina]] | pv=—|pv_pct=— | ev=2}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row | name=[[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]] | party=[[United States Federalist Party|Federalist]] | state=[[South Carolina]] | pv=—|pv_pct=— | ev=1}}
{{end U.S. presidential election box | pv=66,034 | ev=276|to_win=70}}

'''Source (Popular Vote):''' {{Cite book |last=Dubin |first=Michael J. |title=United States Presidential Elections, 1788-1860: The Official Results by County and State |publisher=McFarland & Company |year=2002 |isbn=9780786410170 |location=Jefferson |pages=6–8}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dubin |first=Michael J. |title=United States Presidential Elections, 1788-1860: The Official Results by County and State |publisher=McFarland & Company |year=2002 |isbn=9780786410170 |location=Jefferson |pages=6–8}}</ref> '''Source (Popular Vote):''' A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog?commit=Limit&f%5Belection_type_sim%5D%5B%5D=General&f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&page=2&q=1820&range%5Bdate_sim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1820&range%5Bdate_sim%5D%5Bend%5D=1820&search_field=all_fields&utf8=%E2%9C%93|title=A New Nation Votes|website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref> '''Source (Electoral Vote):''' {{National Archives EV source| year=1796| as of=July 30, 2005}}

(a) ''Votes for Federalist electors have been assigned to John Adams and votes for Democratic-Republican electors have been assigned to Thomas Jefferson.'' (b) ''Only 9 of the 16 states used any form of popular vote.'' (c) ''Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements.''

{{bar box
|title=Popular vote
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=600px
|barwidth=410px
|bars=
{{bar percent|'''Adams'''|{{party color|Federalist Party}}|53.4}}
{{bar percent|Jefferson|{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}|46.6}}
}}
{{bar box
|title=Electoral vote
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=600px
|barwidth=410px
|bars=
{{bar percent|'''J. Adams'''|{{party color|Federalist Party}}|51.4}}
{{bar percent|Jefferson|{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}|49.3}}
{{bar percent|Pinckney|{{party color|Federalist Party}}|42.8}}
{{bar percent|Burr|{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}|21.7}}
{{bar percent|S. Adams|{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}|10.9}}
{{bar percent|Ellsworth|{{party color|Federalist Party}}|8.0}}
{{bar percent|Clinton|{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}|5.1}}
{{bar percent|Others|{{party color|Other}}|10.9}}
}}

===Electoral votes by state===
As per the terms of the unamended constitution, each elector was permitted two votes for president, with a majority of "the whole number of electors appointed" necessary to elect a president. Of the 138 participating electors, 70 voted for Adams and some other candidate and 67 voted for Jefferson and some other candidate; one elector from Maryland voted for both Adams and Jefferson, bringing their respective totals to 71 and 68. With both parties' electors divided on their choice of a vice president, Jefferson finished second in the electoral vote ahead of Adams' intended running mate, Thomas Pinckney of South Carolina, making him vice president-elect.

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|-
! State
!style="font-size: 60%"| Electors
!style="font-size: 60%"| Electoral votes
! {{abbrlink|JA|John Adams}}
! {{abbrlink|TJ|Thomas Jefferson}}
! {{abbrlink|TP|Thomas Pinckney}}
! {{abbrlink|AB|Aaron Burr}}
! {{abbrlink|SA|Samuel Adams}}
! {{abbrlink|OE|Oliver Ellsworth}}
! {{abbrlink|GC|George Clinton (vice president)}}
! {{abbrlink|JJ|John Jay}}
! {{abbrlink|JI|James Iredell}}
! {{abbrlink|JH|John Henry (senator)}}
! {{abbrlink|SJ|Samuel Johnston}}
! {{abbrlink|GW|George Washington}}
! {{abbrlink|CP|Charles Cotesworth Pinckney}}
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Connecticut|Connecticut]]{{efn|name=legislature|Electors chosen by the state legislature}}
! 9
! 18
| 9
| —
| 4
| —
| —
| —
| —
| 5
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Delaware|Delaware]]{{efn|name=legislature}}
! 3
! 6
| 3
| —
| 3
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Georgia|Georgia]]
! 4
! 8
| —
| 4
| —
| —
| —
| —
| 4
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Kentucky|Kentucky]]
! 4
! 8
| —
| 4
| —
| 4
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland]]
! 10
! 20
| 7
| 4
| 4
| 3
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| 2
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Massachusetts|Massachusetts]]
! 16
! 32
| 16
| —
| 13
| —
| —
| 1
| —
| —
| —
| —
| 2
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in New Hampshire|New Hampshire]]
! 6
! 12
| 6
| —
| —
| —
| —
| 6
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in New Jersey|New Jersey]]{{efn|name=legislature}}
! 7
! 14
| 7
| —
| 7
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in New York|New York]]{{efn|name=legislature}}
! 12
! 24
| 12
| —
| 12
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina]]
! 12
! 24
| 1
| 11
| 1
| 6
| —
| —
| —
| —
| 3
| —
| —
| 1
| 1
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]]
! 15
! 30
| 1
| 14
| 2
| 13
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Rhode Island|Rhode Island]]{{efn|name=legislature}}
! 4
! 8
| 4
| —
| —
| —
| —
| 4
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Independent (US)}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in South Carolina|South Carolina]]{{efn|name=legislature}}
! 8
! 16
| —
| 8
| 8
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Tennessee|Tennessee]]
! 3
! 6
| —
| 3
| —
| 3
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Vermont|Vermont]]{{efn|name=legislature}}
! 4
! 8
| 4
| —
| 4
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Virginia|Virginia]]
! 21
! 42
| 1
| 20
| 1
| 1
| 15
| —
| 3
| —
| —
| —
| —
| 1
| —
|-
! TOTAL
! 138
! 276
! 71
! 68
! 59
! 30
! 15
! 11
! 7
! 5
! 3
! 2
! 2
! 2
! 1
|-
! TO WIN
! 70
! 70
! colspan=14 |
|}
'''Source:''' ''A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Phil |title=1796 President of the United States, Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/1j92g900m |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 21, 2022}}</ref>

===Popular vote by state===
Compiling reliable popular vote statistics for elections of the [[First Party System]] poses a challenge to historians. Election procedures of the late 18th century differed greatly from those of later campaigns: rather than vote for a presidential candidate, voters chose from candidates running to represent their state in the [[United States Electoral College|electoral college]]. Candidates for elector did not always advertise a party preference or even for whom they intended to vote; in some districts, candidates from the same party were in direct competition, while in others, inconsistent support for all candidates of a party led states to split their electoral votes. These conditions make it difficult or impossible to determine voter intent in some cases. Moreover, some states' returns have not survived to the present day, meaning that national popular vote totals in this article are necessarily incomplete.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&per_page=100&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1796&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bend%5D=1796&search_field=dummy_range |website=A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825 |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 21, 2022}}</ref>

The table below calculates each state's popular vote by comparing the vote for the most popular Adams elector to that for the most popular Jefferson elector.

In Massachusetts, the best performing elector candidates for the First Western and Second Middle Districts, [[Simon Larned]] and [[James Winthrop]] respectively, were not selected by the [[Massachusetts General Court]] to be electors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A New Nation Votes |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/wm117q33g |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A New Nation Votes |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/x059c8741 |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref> Larned was a Democratic-Republican<ref>{{Cite web |title=LARNED, Simon 1753 – 1817 |url=https://bioguide.congress.gov/search/bio/L000097 |website=Biographical Directory of the United States Congress}}</ref> and Winthrop was a former Anti-Federalist.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anti-Federalist Papers: Letters of Agrippa, I-XI |url=https://www.constitution.org/1-Constitution/afp/agrippa.htm |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=www.constitution.org}}</ref>

The totals for Massachusetts and Virginia appear to be incomplete. In several states candidates of unknown affiliation received votes.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|-
!colspan=2|
!colspan=3| John Adams Federalist
!colspan=3| Thomas Jefferson Democratic-Republican
!colspan=2| Margin
! State total
|-
! State
!style="font-size: 60%"| Electoral votes
! #
! %
!style="font-size: 60%"| Electoral votes
! #
! %
!style="font-size: 60%"| Electoral votes
! #
! %
! #
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Connecticut|Connecticut]]{{efn|name=legislature}}
! 9
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| 9
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Delaware|Delaware]]{{efn|name=legislature}}
! 3
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| 3
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Georgia|Georgia]]
! 4
| 2,644
| 29.9
| —
| 6,200
| 70.1
| 4
| -3556
| -40.2
| 8,844
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Kentucky|Kentucky]]
! 4
|colspan=2 align=center| ''no data''
| —
|colspan=2 align=center| ''no data''
| 4
|colspan=2| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland]]
! 10{{efn|name=maryland|Ten electors were chosen from Maryland in 1796, with two votes apiece. Six voted for John Adams and some other Federalist; three voted for Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr; the final elector voted for Adams ''and'' Jefferson, both. This brings the sum of Adams' and Jefferson's electoral votes from Maryland to eleven, one greater than the number of electors chosen from that state.}}
| 7,029
| 52.0
| 7
| 6,490
| 48.0
| 4
| 539
| 7.0
| 13,519
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Massachusetts|Massachusetts]]
! 16
| 7,848
| 82.4
| 16
| 1,671
| 17.6
| —
| 6,177
| 64.8
| 9,519
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in New Hampshire|New Hampshire]]
! 6
| 3,719
| 84.5
| 6
| 681
| 15.5
| —
| 3,038
| 69
| 4,400
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in New Jersey|New Jersey]]{{efn|name=legislature}}
! 7
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| 7
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in New York|New York]]{{efn|name=legislature}}
! 12
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| 12
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina]]
! 12
|colspan=2 align=center| ''no data''
| 1
|colspan=2 align=center| ''no data''
| 11
|colspan=2| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]]
! 15
| 12,217
| 49.8
| 1
| 12,306
| 50.2
| 14
| -89
| -0.4
| 24,523
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Rhode Island|Rhode Island]]{{efn|name=legislature}}
! 4
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| 4
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Independent (US)}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in South Carolina|South Carolina]]{{efn|name=legislature}}
! 8
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| 8
|colspan=2| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Tennessee|Tennessee]]
! 3
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| 3
|colspan=2| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Vermont|Vermont]]{{efn|name=legislature}}
! 4
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| 4
|colspan=2| ''no popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1796 United States presidential election in Virginia|Virginia]]
! 21
| 1,717
| 32.8
| 1
| 3,512
| 67.2
| 20
| -1,795
| -34.4
| 5,229
|-
! TOTALS
! 138
! 35,174
! 53.3
! 71
! 30,860
! 46.7
! 68
! 4,314
! 6.6
! 66,034
|-
! TO WIN
! 70
!colspan=9|
|}
'''Sources:''' ''A New Nation Votes'';<ref>{{Cite web |title=A New Nation Votes |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1796&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bend%5D=1796 |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref> Dubin, p. 6-8.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dubin |first1=Michael J. |title=United States Presidential Elections, 1788-1860: The Official Results by County and State |date=2002 |publisher=McFarland |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |isbn=0-7864-1017-5 |page=xii}}</ref>

=== Maps ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200">
File:1796 Presidential County Results.svg|Map of presidential election results by county, shaded according to the vote share of the highest result for an elector of any given party
File:1796 United States presidential election by electoral district.svg|Map of presidential election results by electoral district, shaded according to the vote share of the highest result for an elector of any given party. Electoral boundaries and data for Kentucky, Massachusetts, and North Carolina could not be found
</gallery>

=== Close states ===

States where the margin of victory was under 1% (15 electoral votes):
# '''Pennsylvania, 0.4% (89 votes)'''

States where the margin of victory was under 5% (11 electoral votes):
# '''Maryland, 4.0% (539 votes)'''

==Consequences==
The following four years were the only time that the president and vice president were from different parties. [[John Quincy Adams]] and [[John C. Calhoun]] were later elected president and vice-president as political opponents, but they were both Democratic-Republicans, and while [[Andrew Johnson]], [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s second vice-president, was a Democrat, Lincoln ran on a combined [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union Party]] ticket in 1864, not as a strict Republican.

On January 6, 1797, Representative [[William Loughton Smith|William L. Smith]] of South Carolina presented a resolution on the floor of the House of Representatives for an amendment to the Constitution by which the presidential electors would designate which candidate would be president and which vice president.<ref>{{cite book | author=United States Congress | others=4th Congress, 2nd Session | title=Annals of Congress | url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llac&fileName=006/llac006.db&recNum=154 | access-date=June 26, 2006 | year=1797 | page=1824}}</ref> No action was taken on his proposal, setting the stage for the deadlocked [[1800 United States presidential election|election of 1800]].

This is also the first of only two elections so far in the life of the Republic which elected a presidential term of only 1,460 days rather than 1,461 days (the second was in 1896). This is because of the [[Gregorian calendar]] rule that years ending in “00” but not divisible by 400, are not [[leap year]]s.<ref>{{citation |date=2020 |title=Astronomical almanac online glossary |publisher=US Naval Observatory |url=https://asa.hmnao.com/SecM/Glossary.html#_Y |access-date=28 January 2022 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223151156/http://asa.hmnao.com/SecM/Glossary.html#_Y |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Foreign influence==
The French foreign minister, [[Charles Delacroix]], wrote that France "must raise up the [American] people and at the same time conceal the lever by which we do so… I propose… to send orders and instructions to our minister plenipotentiary at Philadelphia to use all means in his power to bring about a successful revolution, and [George] Washington's replacement."<ref>Mallock, Daniel. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dzCCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT140 Agony and Eloquence: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and a World of Revolution]'', p. 140 ([[Simon and Schuster]], 2016).</ref> The French minister (ambassador) to the United States, [[Pierre Adet]], openly supported the [[Democratic-Republican Party]] and its presidential nominee, [[Thomas Jefferson]], while attacking the [[Federalist Party]] and its presidential nominee, [[John Adams]].<ref name=Dawson>Dawson, Matthew. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kniI6MQ1gkIC&pg=PA38 Partisanship and the Birth of America's Second Party, 1796–1800: Stop the Wheels of Government]'', pp. 38–39 ([[Greenwood Publishing Group]], 2000).</ref>

The foreign intrigue France perpetrated was unsuccessful, as Adams won the election with an electoral vote count of 71–68. A significant factor in thwarting the French efforts was [[George Washington's Farewell Address]], which condemned foreign meddling in America.<ref name=Dawson />

==Electoral college selection==
{{main|List of 1796 United States presidential electors}}
The Constitution, in [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Section 1, Clause 2|Article II, Section 1]], provided that the state legislatures should decide the manner in which their Electors were chosen. Different state legislatures chose different methods:<ref>{{cite web | title=The Electoral Count for the Presidential Election of 1789 | work=The Papers of George Washington | url=http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/documents/presidential/electoral.html | access-date=May 4, 2005 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914141726/http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/documents/presidential/electoral.html | archive-date=September 14, 2013 | df=mdy-all }}</ref>

{{start electoral college selection}}
{{electoral college selection row | method=Each Elector appointed by the state legislature | states=[[Connecticut]] [[Delaware]] [[New Jersey]] [[New York (state)|New York]] [[Rhode Island]] [[South Carolina]] [[Vermont]]}}
{{electoral college selection row | method=State is divided into electoral districts, with one Elector chosen per district by the voters of that district | states=[[Kentucky]] [[Maryland]] [[North Carolina]] [[Virginia]]}}
{{electoral college selection row | method=Each Elector chosen by voters statewide | states=[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] [[Pennsylvania]]}}
{{electoral college selection row | method={{unordered list|Two Electors appointed by the state legislature|Each remaining Elector chosen by the state legislature from list of top two vote-getters in each congressional district}} | states=[[Massachusetts]]}}
{{electoral college selection row | method=Each Elector chosen by voters statewide; however, if no candidate wins majority, the state legislature appoints Elector from top two candidates | states=[[New Hampshire]]}}
{{electoral college selection row | method=Divided the state into three electoral districts and named three persons from each county in each district to elect an elector for each of the three districts<ref>{{cite web |title=Tennessee 1796 Presidential Election, Note. 4 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/kh04dr012 |website=A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825 |access-date=15 February 2023}}</ref> | states=[[Tennessee]]}}
{{end electoral college selection}}

==See also==
*[[Inauguration of John Adams]]
*[[Bibliography of Thomas Jefferson]]
*[[History of the United States (1789–1849)]]
*[[First Party System]]
*[[1796–97 United States House of Representatives elections]]
*[[1796–97 United States Senate elections]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
; Web references
* {{cite web | title=A Historical Analysis of the Electoral College | work=The Green Papers | url=http://www.thegreenpapers.com/Hx/ElectoralCollege.html | access-date=March 20, 2005}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080725105911/http://dca.tufts.edu/features/aas/ A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825]

==Primary sources==
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. ed. ''The Making of the American Party System 1789 to 1809'' (1965), short excerpts from primary sources
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. ''Circular Letters of Congressmen to Their Constituents 1789-1829'' (1978), 3 vol; political reports sent by Congressmen to local newspapers

==Further reading==
* ''Encyclopedia of the New American Nation, 1754–1829'' ed. by [[Paul Finkelman]] (2005), 1600 pp.
* {{cite book | year=1988 | title=The North Carolina Electoral Vote: The People and the Process Behind the Vote | publisher=North Carolina Secretary of State | location=[[Raleigh, North Carolina]]}}
* [[Lance Banning|Banning, Lance]]. ''The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology'' (1978)
* Chambers, William Nisbet, ed. ''The First Party System'' (1972)
* Chambers, William Nisbet. ''Political Parties in a New Nation: The American Experience, 1776–1809'' (1963)
* Charles, Joseph. ''The Origins of the American Party System'' (1956), reprints articles in ''William and Mary Quarterly''
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. ''Jeffersonian Republicans: The Formation of Party Organization: 1789–1801'' (1957)
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., "John Beckley: An Early American Party Manager," ''William and Mary Quarterly'', 13 (Jan. 1956), 40–52, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1923388 in JSTOR]
* Dawson, Matthew Q. ''Partisanship and the Birth of America's Second Party, 1796-1800: Stop the Wheels of Government.'' [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=22900345 Greenwood, (2000) online version]
* [[Alexander DeConde|DeConde, Alexander]]. "Washington's Farewell, the French Alliance, and the Election of 1796," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 43, No. 4 (Mar. 1957), pp. 641–658 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1902277 in JSTOR]
* Dinkin, Robert J. ''Campaigning in America: A History of Election Practices.'' [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14291969 (Greenwood 1989) online version]
* [[Stanley Elkins|Elkins, Stanley]] and [[Eric McKitrick]]. ''The Age of Federalism'' [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59152800 (1995) online version], the standard highly detailed political history of 1790s
* Freeman, Joanne. "The Presidential Election of 1796," in Richard Alan Ryerson, ed. ''John Adams and the Founding of the Republic'' (2001).
* [[John Chester Miller|Miller, John C.]] ''The Federalist Era: 1789-1801'' (1960).
* Pasley, Jeffrey L. ''The First Presidential Contest: 1796 and the Founding of American Democracy.'' Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2013.
* [[Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.|Schlesinger, Arthur Meier]], ed. ''History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–1984 (Vol 1)'' (1986), essay and primary sources on 1796
* [[Gordon S. Wood|Wood, Gordon S.]] ''Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815'' (2009)

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/elections/election1796.html Presidential Election of 1796: A Resource Guide] from the Library of Congress
* [http://www.countingthevotes.com/1796/ Election of 1796 in Counting the Votes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113204547/http://www.countingthevotes.com/1796/ |date=January 13, 2015 }}

{{John Adams}}
{{Thomas Jefferson}}
{{Samuel Adams}}
{{USPresidentialElections}}
{{1796 United States presidential election}}
{{South Carolina elections}}
{{State results of the 1796 U.S. presidential election}}
{{Federalist Party}}
{{Democratic-Republican Party}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1796 United States presidential election| ]]
[[Category:Presidency of John Adams]]
[[Category:John Adams]]
[[Category:Thomas Jefferson]]
[[Category:Samuel Adams]]
[[Category:Aaron Burr]]
[[Category:John Jay]]
[[Category:George Washington]]

Template:1796 United States presidential election imagemap

2024-09-22T03:54:08Z

ARandomShyGuy: Creating map.

<imagemap>
Image:ElectoralCollege1796.svg|350px|center|

poly 395 70 406 108 413 114 415 99 418 94 427 91 439 82 445 74 457 61 453 55 447 47 441 45 432 16 422 13 418 19 410 15 401 30 [[1796 United States presidential election in Massachusetts]]
poly 325 342 301 326 283 328 277 322 257 323 238 331 237 337 244 342 253 352 259 358 266 366 273 369 277 380 281 384 287 387 297 384 316 362 324 340 [[1796 United States presidential election in South Carolina]]
poly 122 311 114 343 215 334 265 292 145 305 123 308 125 313 124 315 [[1796 United States presidential election in Tennessee]]
poly 114 343 239 332 235 337 245 342 252 353 262 360 271 369 278 381 287 390 283 420 272 420 272 429 222 429 214 422 92 433 92 423 101 407 100 398 97 390 97 378 101 365 104 357 107 352 109 348 113 346 113 346 113 342 [[1796 United States presidential election in Georgia]]
poly 361 275 370 290 374 298 366 306 358 318 341 326 335 339 322 342 301 324 286 329 275 322 256 322 237 332 215 334 263 292[[1796 United States presidential election in North Carolina]]
poly 261 171 270 221 347 205 355 201 361 194 353 186 352 177 356 166 349 155 350 155 349 153 [[1796 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania]]
poly 360 83 366 98 369 114 373 125 374 154 376 171 401 165 374 182 374 172 355 165 345 153 273 168 284 149 281 137 314 131 323 121 319 111 337 88 354 85 361 88 376 171 [[1796 United States presidential election in New York]]
poly 400 142 403 156 413 150 406 139 [[1796 United States presidential election in Rhode Island]]
poly 356 203 366 218 354 201 362 193 354 181 357 166 372 171 369 181 374 183 377 191 375 198 368 218 351 207 [[1796 United States presidential election in New Jersey]]
poly 360 275 351 269 349 247 328 239 329 228 309 215 289 226 288 220 271 222 266 201 263 224 255 229 247 242 239 256 250 274 232 296 306 285 [[1796 United States presidential election in Virginia]]
poly 355 233 369 229 359 222 352 202 348 207 [[1796 United States presidential election in Delaware]]
poly 150 307 123 307 129 297 133 291 139 293 145 284 147 278 156 274 161 274 170 272 181 269 188 260 196 252 200 245 209 243 212 248 217 249 224 250 231 248 235 252 249 274 234 294 [[1796 United States presidential election in Kentucky]]
poly 360 264 364 231 354 232 347 204 270 219 276 219 287 225 312 215 327 228 329 238 347 246 [[1796 United States presidential election in Maryland]]
poly 376 169 402 155 399 141 373 146 [[1796 United States presidential election in Connecticut]]
poly 430 141 429 134 411 120 372 131 374 147 403 139 415 149 432 148 [[1796 United States presidential election in Massachusetts]]
poly 386 75 390 89 385 94 385 126 372 127 360 83 [[1796 United States presidential election in Vermont]]
poly 390 66 389 86 385 92 385 129 412 119 [[1796 United States presidential election in New Hampshire]]

</imagemap>
<noinclude>
[[Category:United States presidential election imagemaps]]
</noinclude>

1800 United States presidential election

2024-09-22T02:37:46Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding map with links to infobox. Apologies for the info icon obscuring the text. Despite my best efforts I could not move it. However everything else in the map seems to work fine.

{{Short description|4th quadrennial U.S. presidential election}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2018}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox election
| election_name = 1800 United States presidential election
| country = United States
| flag_year = 1795
| type = presidential
| ongoing = no
| previous_election = 1796 United States presidential election
| previous_year = 1796
| next_election = 1804 United States presidential election
| next_year = 1804
| votes_for_election = 138 members of the [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]]
| needed_votes = 70 electoral
| election_date = {{ubl|October 31 – December 3, 1800}}
| turnout = 32.3%<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.electproject.org/national-1789-present |title=National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789-Present |website=United States Election Project |publisher=[[CQ Press]]}}</ref> {{increase}} 12.2 [[percentage point|pp]]
| image1 = [[File:Thomas Jefferson by Rembrandt Peale, 1800.jpg|x200px]]
| nominee1 = '''[[Thomas Jefferson]]'''
| party1 = Democratic-Republican Party
| running_mate1 = '''[[Aaron Burr]]'''
| home_state1 = [[Virginia]]
| electoral_vote1 = '''73'''{{efn|name=two|Each elector had two votes before the ratification of the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution]]. Jefferson and Burr both received 73 votes, resulting in a tie. The [[United States House of Representatives]] subsequently elected Jefferson as president.}}
| states_carried1 = '''9'''
| popular_vote1 = '''45,511'''{{efn|name=popular vote|Of the 16 states that took part in the 1800 election, six (Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Tennessee, and Virginia) used some kind of popular vote. Most returns from North Carolina exist, partial returns from Kentucky exist, and all returns from Tennessee have been lost}}
| percentage1 = '''60.6%'''
| image2 = [[File:Gilbert Stuart, John Adams, c. 1800-1815, NGA 42933.jpg|x200px]]
| nominee2 = [[John Adams]]
| party2 = Federalist Party
| running_mate2 = [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney|Charles C. Pinckney]]
| home_state2 = [[Massachusetts]]
| electoral_vote2 = 65
| states_carried2 = 7
| popular_vote2 = 29,621{{efn|name=popular vote}}
| percentage2 = 39.4%
| map_size = 250px
| map = {{1800 United States presidential election imagemap}}
| map_caption = Presidential election results map. Green denotes states won by Jefferson and Light Orange denotes states won by Adams. Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes cast by each state.
| title = President
| before_election = [[John Adams]]
| before_party = Federalist Party (United States)
| after_election = [[Thomas Jefferson]]
| after_party = [[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]]
| module = {{Infobox election
| child = yes
| election_name = 1801 contingent U.S. presidential election
| type = presidential
| ongoing = no
| election_date= February 17, 1801 (36th ballot)
| votes_for_election= 16 state delegations of the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]
| needed_votes= 9 state
| image1 = [[File:Thomas Jefferson by Rembrandt Peale, 1800.jpg|x200px]]
| candidate1 = '''[[Thomas Jefferson]]'''
| party1 = Democratic-Republican Party
| states_carried1 = '''10'''
| percentage1 = '''62.5%'''
| image2 = [[File:Vanderlyn Burr.jpg|x200px]]
| candidate2 = [[Aaron Burr]]
| party2 = Democratic-Republican Party
| states_carried2 = 4
| percentage2 = 25.0%
| map_image = USAContingent1801.svg
| map_caption = 1801 Contingent Election Results. Green denotes states voting for Jefferson and blue denotes states voting for Burr. States in grey cast blank ballots.
}}
| image2_size = x200px
}}

The '''1800 United States presidential election''' was the fourth quadrennial [[United States presidential election|presidential election]]. It was held from October 31 to December 3, 1800. In what is sometimes called the "'''Revolution of 1800'''",<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/inauguration/lesson_jefferson.html |title=Thomas Jefferson: The Revolution of 1800 |publisher=PBS |access-date=April 23, 2012 |archive-date=October 30, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030004257/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/inauguration/lesson_jefferson.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> the [[Democratic-Republican Party]] candidate, [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Thomas Jefferson]], defeated the [[Federalist Party]] candidate and incumbent, [[President of the United States|President]] [[John Adams]]. The election was a [[political realignment]] that ushered in a generation of Democratic-Republican leadership. This was the first presidential election in American history to be a rematch. It was also the first election in American history where an incumbent president did not win re-election.

Adams had narrowly defeated Jefferson in the [[1796 United States presidential election|1796 election]]. Under the rules of the electoral system in place before the 1804 ratification of the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], each member of the [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]] cast two votes, with no distinction made between electoral votes for president and electoral votes for vice president. As Jefferson received the second-most votes in 1796, he was elected vice president. In 1800, unlike in 1796, both parties formally nominated tickets. The Democratic-Republicans nominated a ticket consisting of Jefferson and [[Aaron Burr]], while the Federalists nominated a ticket consisting of Adams and [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney|Charles C. Pinckney]]. Each party formed a plan by which one of their respective electors would vote for a third candidate or abstain so that its preferred presidential candidate (Adams for the Federalists and Jefferson for the Democratic-Republicans) would win one more vote than the party's other nominee.{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}}

The chief political issues revolved around the fallout from the [[French Revolution]] and the [[Quasi-War]]. The Federalists favored a strong central government and close relations with [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]. The Democratic-Republicans favored decentralization to the state governments, and the party attacked the taxes the Federalists imposed. The Democratic-Republicans also denounced the [[Alien and Sedition Acts]], which the Federalists had passed to make it harder for immigrants to become citizens and to restrict statements critical of the federal government. The Democratic-Republicans were well organized at the state and local levels, while the Federalists were disorganized and suffered a bitter split between their two major leaders, Adams and [[Alexander Hamilton]]. According to historian [[John E. Ferling|John Ferling]], the jockeying for electoral votes, regional divisions, and the propaganda smear campaigns created by both parties made the election recognizably modern.<ref name="Ferling 2004" />

At the end of a long and bitter campaign, Jefferson and Burr each won 73 electoral votes, Adams won 65, and Pinckney won 64. The Federalists swept [[New England]], the Democratic-Republicans dominated the [[Southern United States|South]], and the parties split the [[Mid-Atlantic states]] of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.

The Democratic-Republicans' assumption that one or more electors in Rhode Island, Vermont, New Jersey, Georgia, Kentucky, or Tennessee would vote for Jefferson and not Burr<ref>{{cite book |last1=Larson |first1=Edward |title=A Magnificent Catastrophe |date=2007 |publisher=Free Press |isbn=0-7432-9316-9 |page=242}}</ref> resulted in a tie, known as the [[Burr dilemma]]. It necessitated a [[contingent election]] in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. Under the terms laid out in the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]], the outgoing House of Representatives chose between Jefferson and Burr. Burr was accused of campaigning for the presidency himself in the contingent election despite being a member of Jefferson's party. Each state delegation cast one vote, and a victory in the contingent election required one candidate to win a majority of the state delegations. Neither Burr nor Jefferson was able to win on the first 35 ballots of the contingent election, as most Federalist representatives backed Burr and all Democratic-Republican representatives backed Jefferson. Hamilton favored Jefferson over Burr, and he convinced several Federalists to switch their support to Jefferson, giving Jefferson a victory on the 36th ballot. Jefferson became the second consecutive incumbent vice president to be elected president. This is one of two presidential elections (along with the [[1824 United States presidential election|1824 election]]) that have been decided in the House.

== Candidates ==
Both parties used [[congressional nominating caucus]]es to formally nominate tickets for the first time. The Federalists nominated a ticket consisting of incumbent President [[John Adams]] of [[Massachusetts]] and [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]] of [[South Carolina]]. Pinckney had fought in the [[American Revolutionary War]] and later served as the [[United States Ambassador to France|minister]] to [[France]]. The Democratic-Republicans nominated a ticket consisting of Vice President [[Thomas Jefferson]] of [[Virginia]] and former Senator [[Aaron Burr]] of [[New York (state)|New York]]. Jefferson had been the runner-up in the previous election and had co-founded the party with [[James Madison]] and others, while Burr was popular in the electorally important state of New York.<ref name="deskins1">{{Cite book |last1=Deskins |first1=Donald Richard |title=Presidential Elections, 1789–2008: County, State, and National Mapping of Election Data |last2=Walton |first2=Hanes |last3=Puckett |first3=Sherman |date=2010 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |pages=33–34}}</ref>

=== Federalist candidates ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160">
File:Gilbert Stuart, John Adams, c. 1800-1815, NGA 42933.jpg|[[President of the United States|President]] {{nowrap|'''[[John Adams]]'''}} {{nowrap|from [[Massachusetts]]}}
File:CharlesCPinckney crop.jpg|Former {{nowrap|[[List of ambassadors of the United States to France|Minister to France]]}} {{nowrap|'''[[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney|Charles C. Pinckney]]'''}} {{nowrap|from [[South Carolina]]}}
</gallery>

=== Democratic-Republican candidates ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160">
File:Thomas Jefferson by Rembrandt Peale, 1800.jpg|{{nowrap|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]}} {{nowrap|'''[[Thomas Jefferson]]'''}} {{nowrap|from [[Virginia]]}}
File:Vanderlyn Burr.jpg|Former {{nowrap|[[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]]}} {{nowrap|'''[[Aaron Burr]]'''}} {{nowrap|from [[New York (state)|New York]]}}
</gallery>

== General election ==
=== Campaign ===
While the 1800 election was a re-match of the [[1796 United States presidential election|1796 election]], it ushered in a new type of American politics, a two-party republic and [[acrimonious]] campaigning behind the scenes and through the press. On top of this, the election pitted the "larger than life" Adams and Jefferson, who were formerly close allies turned political enemies.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Lepore |first=Jill |date=September 9, 2007 |title=Party Time for a Young America |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2007/09/17/party-time |magazine=The New Yorker |language=en-US}}</ref>

The campaign was bitter and characterized by slander and personal attacks on both sides. Federalists spread rumors that the Democratic-Republicans were radical atheists<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lily|first=Rothman|title=Everything you need to ace American history in one big fat notebook|publisher=Workman Publishing Co., Inc|year=2016|isbn=978-0-7611-6083-0}}</ref> who would ruin the country (based on the Democratic-Republican support for the [[French Revolution]]). In 1798, [[George Washington]] had complained "that you could as soon [[Washing the Ethiopian White|scrub the blackamoor white]], as to change the principles of a professed Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the Government of this Country".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/documents/documents_p2.cfm?doc=341 |title=Gilder Lehrman Document Number: GLC 581 |last=Mintz |first=S. |year=2003 |website=Digital History |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061006223940/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/documents/documents_p2.cfm?doc=341 |archive-date=October 6, 2006 |access-date=September 20, 2006 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Meanwhile, the Democratic-Republicans accused Federalists of subverting republican principles with the [[Alien and Sedition Acts]], some of which were later declared unconstitutional after their expiration by the Supreme Court, and relying for their support on foreign immigrants{{clarify|date=April 2023}}; they also accused Federalists of favoring Britain and the other coalition countries in [[French Revolutionary Wars|their war with France]] in order to promote aristocratic, anti-democratic values.<ref>Buel (1972)</ref>

Adams was attacked by both the opposition Democratic-Republicans and a group of so-called "High Federalists" aligned with [[Alexander Hamilton]]. The Democratic-Republicans felt that the Adams foreign policy was too favorable toward Britain; feared that the new army called up for the [[Quasi-War]] would oppress the people; opposed new taxes to pay for war; and attacked the Alien and Sedition Acts as violations of [[states' rights]] and the Constitution. "High Federalists" considered Adams too moderate and would have preferred the leadership of Alexander Hamilton instead.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Sisson, Dan |author2=Hartmann, Thom |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/886106713 |title=The American revolution of 1800 : how Jefferson rescued democracy from tyranny and faction and what this means today |date=September 15, 2014 |isbn=978-1-60994-986-0 |publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers |edition=40th anniversary |location=San Francisco |oclc=886106713}}</ref>

Hamilton had apparently grown impatient with Adams and wanted a new president who was more receptive to his goals. During Washington's presidency, Hamilton had been able to influence the federal response to the [[Whiskey Rebellion]] (which threatened the government's power to tax citizens). When Washington announced that he would not seek a third term, the Federalists and Adams regarded himself as next-in-line.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Taylor |first1=C. James |title=John Adams: Campaigns and elections |url=https://millercenter.org/president/adams/campaigns-and-elections |website=Miller Center |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=University of Virginia |access-date=26 June 2022 }}</ref>

Hamilton appears to have hoped in 1796 that his influence within an Adams administration would be as great as or greater than in Washington's. By 1800, Hamilton had come to realize that Adams was too independent and thought the Federalist vice presidential candidate, [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]] of South Carolina, more suited to serving Hamilton's interests. In his third sabotage attempt toward Adams,<ref>McCullough (2001)</ref> Hamilton quietly schemed to elect Pinckney to the presidency. Given Pinckney's lack of political experience, he would have been expected to be open to Hamilton's influence. However, Hamilton's plan backfired and hurt the Federalist party, particularly after one of his letters, a scathing criticism of Adams that was fifty-four pages long,<ref name="Chernow 2004">Chernow (2004)</ref> fell into the hands of a Democratic-Republican and soon after became public. It embarrassed Adams and damaged Hamilton's efforts on behalf of Pinckney,<ref name="Ferling 2004">Ferling (2004)</ref> not to mention speeding Hamilton's own political decline.<ref name="Chernow 2004" />

The contemporarily unorthodox public campaigning methods employed in 1800 were first employed by Jefferson's running mate and campaign manager, Aaron Burr, who is credited by some historians with inventing the modern electioneering process.<ref name="Lehrman Institute">{{Cite web|url=https://lehrmaninstitute.org/history/1800.html|title=The Election of 1800 – American History – Thomas Jefferson, John Adams|website=lehrmaninstitute.org}}</ref> Yet, throughout this entire process, the candidates themselves were conspicuously missing from the campaigning, at least publicly, due to fears that they may otherwise be tagged as "demagogues". Even a visit John Adams made to Washington was made into a public point of contention.<ref>Lepore (2018)</ref>

==== Selection method changes ====
Partisans on both sides sought any advantage they could find. In several states, this included changing the process of selecting electors to ensure the desired result. In Georgia, Democratic-Republican legislators replaced the popular vote with selection by the state legislature.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aldrich |first=John H |title=Establishing Congress: The Removal to Washington, D.C., and the Election of 1800 |publisher=Ohio University Press |year=2005 |editor-last=Bowling |editor-first=Kenneth R. |location=Athens |pages=31 |chapter=The Election of 1800: The Consequences of the First Change in Party Control |editor-last2=Kennon |editor-first2=Donald R.}}</ref> In Virginia, the Democratic-Republican-controlled legislature switched from electoral districts to a [[general ticket]], a winner-take-all system. Federalist legislators also switched methods, switching from districts and general tickets to legislature votes in Massachusetts and New Hampshire, respectively.{{sfn|Ferling|2004|p=156–157}}

In Pennsylvania, the [[Pennsylvania General Assembly|General Assembly]] was split, with the Democratic-Republican-dominated House wishing to retain the general ticket and the Federalist-controlled Senate wishing to return to the district system, hoping to win at least some electoral votes. Eventually, this deadlock was broken by a last-minute compromise between the chambers that gave the Democratic-Republican eight electors and the Federalists seven.{{sfn|Ferling|2004|p=157; 162}}

In New York, the rejection to change the selection method backfired on the Federalists. In March 1800, two months before the assembly elections, the Democratic-Republicans attempted to pass a bill that would switch from a legislature vote to electoral districts, hoping they would secure at least a third of the state's seats. The Federalists defeated the measure, believing that they would win control of both chambers and award all of the state's electoral votes to the Federalist nominees. However, in the April state elections, Aaron Burr's effective mobilization of the vote in New York City led to a reversal of the Federalist majority in the state legislature, providing crucial support for the Democratic-Republican ticket.{{sfn|Ferling|2004|p=130; 157}}

In response to the Federalist defeat, Hamilton attempted to get Governor [[John Jay]] to call a special session of the outgoing Federalist-dominated New York legislature. Hamilton's plan was for the outgoing assembly to pass legislation that would establish the popular election of electors through electoral districts, a strategy almost certain to secure nine or ten of the twelve elector slots for the Federalists. Jay refused to participate in such an underhanded scheme.{{sfn|Ferling|2004|p=131}}

The Federalist legislature in Connecticut did not change the method of voting but instead passed a "stand up" election law, mandating that all votes be cast publicly and orally, an intimidating procedure that ordinarily favored those in power.{{sfn|Ferling|2004|p=157}}

=== Voting ===
[[File:1800 United States presidential election by county.svg|thumb|upright=1.9|Results by county explicitly indicating the percentage of the winning candidate in each county. Shades of green are for Jefferson (Democratic-Republican) and shades of orange are for Adams (Federalist). Areas where voting records are missing or did not occur are in dark gray. Territories are in light gray.]]
Because each state could choose its own day to elect its electors in 1800, before Election Day on December 3, when electors "meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves" in accordance with the Constitution,{{sfn|Ferling|2004|p=2; 162}} the voting lasted from October<ref>{{Cite web |title=Founders Online: The Election of 1800, October 1800–February 1801 (Editorial No ... |url=http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-17-02-0265 |access-date=2024-08-03 |website=founders.archives.gov |language=en}}</ref> to December. As election day neared, the election was too close to call. The last state to vote, South Carolina, chose its electors on December 2, and would become key to determining the election. The state elections in mid-October had produced an assembly that was about evenly divided between committed Federalists and Republicans, with 16 unaffiliated representatives who were all strongly pro-Jefferson. Many of the elected Jeffersonians were also supporters of Pinckney, the revered native son of the state. If South Carolina's electors gave their votes to Jefferson and Pinckney, then Pinckney would place an electoral vote behind Jefferson, becoming the vice president.{{sfn|Ferling|2004|p=159-162; 167}}

However, Pinckney stayed loyal to the instructions of his party's caucus and was adamant that any elector who voted for him must also vote for Adams. With uncommitted legislators not willing to desert Jefferson and Pinckney unwilling to abandon Adams, the uncommitted legislators eventually reluctantly agreed to support Burr.{{sfn|Ferling|2004|p=167}}

Under the [[United States Constitution]] as it then stood, each elector cast two votes, and the candidate with a majority of the votes was elected president, with the vice presidency going to the runner-up. The Federalists therefore arranged for one of their Rhode Island electors to vote for [[John Jay]] instead of Charles Pinckney to prevent the election from resulting in a tie.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-12 |title=United States presidential election of 1800 {{!}} Candidates, Significance, & Results {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1800 |access-date=2024-07-28 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> A letter to Jefferson from Peter Freneau assured him that a member of the Republican delegation from South Carolina would vote for [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] instead of Aaron Burr and a report from Georgia indicated that two of its electors would deny Burr their votes. However, this information proved faulty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Founders Online: To Thomas Jefferson from Peter Freneau, 2 December 1800 |url=http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-32-02-0179 |access-date=2024-07-28 |website=founders.archives.gov |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharp |first=James Roger |title=The Deadlocked Election of 1800: Jefferson, Burr, and the Union in the Balance |publisher=University Press of Kansas |year=2010 |isbn=9780700617425 |pages=126}}</ref> Thus, all of the Democratic-Republican electors cast their votes for both Jefferson and Burr, 73 in all for each of them. According to a provision of the United States Constitution, a tie in a case of this type had to be resolved by the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], with each state casting one vote. Although the [[United States House of Representatives elections, 1800|congressional election of 1800]] turned over majority control of the House of Representatives to the Democratic-Republicans by 68 seats to 38,<ref name="House_div">{{Cite web |url=http://history.house.gov/Institution/Party-Divisions/Party-Divisions/ |title=Party Divisions of the House of Representatives* 1789–Present |publisher=Office of the Historian, House of United States House of Representatives |access-date=February 1, 2015}}</ref> the presidential election had to be decided by the outgoing House that had been elected in the [[United States House of Representatives elections, 1798|congressional election of 1798]] (at that time, the new presidential and congressional terms all started on March 4 of the year after a national election). In the outgoing House, the Federalists retained a majority of 60 seats to 46.<ref name="House_div" /><ref name="Ferling 2004" />

=== Disputes ===
==== Defective certificate ====
When the electoral ballots were opened and counted on February 11, 1801, the certificate of election from Georgia was different than the others. Georgia had sent the original oral ballot. In 2004, David Fontana and [[Bruce Ackerman]] asserted that Georgia's certificate did not take the constitutionally mandated form of a "List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each".<ref name="Jefferson counts">{{Cite web|last1=Fontana|first1=Bruce|last2= Ackerman|first2= David|date=2004-03-01|title=How Jefferson Counted Himself In|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2004/03/how-jefferson-counted-himself-in/302888/|access-date=2022-12-16|website=The Atlantic|language=en}}</ref> They claimed that Vice President Jefferson, who was counting the votes in his role as President of the Senate, immediately counted the votes from Georgia as votes for Jefferson and Burr, though they observed that "no objections were raised".<ref name="Jefferson counts" /><ref>{{Cite journal |date=2004 |title=Table of Contents - Issue 2 |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/valr90&id=5&div=&collection= |journal=Virginia Law Review |volume=90 |pages=[v]}}</ref> If the Georgia ballots had been rejected based on these supposed irregularities, Jefferson and Burr would have been left with 69 votes each, or one short of the 70 votes required for a majority, meaning a contingent election would have been required between the top five finishers (Jefferson, Burr, incumbent president John Adams, Charles C. Pinckney, and John Jay) in the House of Representatives. With these votes, the total number of votes for Jefferson and Burr was 73, which gave them a majority of the total, but they were tied.<ref name="Jefferson counts" />

[[Holly Brewer]] argued that Jefferson's counting of the Georgia ballot did not support this theory, and that Ackerman and Fontana were incorrect, because the ballot did in fact comply with constitutional requirements, since it contained a list of all four electoral college votes for both Jefferson and Burr respectively (and only them); the constitutionally required certification language was contained on the outside of the envelope; and the ballot was not understood to be irregular under the election practices of the day.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |last=Brewer |first=Holly |date=2021-01-05 |title=No, Thomas Jefferson Didn't Rig the 1800 Vote Count |url=http://washingtonmonthly.com/2021/01/05/no-thomas-jefferson-didnt-rig-the-1800-vote-count/ |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=Washington Monthly |language=en-US}}</ref> Brewer's arguments helped to influence [[Mike Pence|Vice President Pence]]'s decision to reject the [[2021 United States Electoral College vote count#Pressure on Vice President Pence to obstruct the certification of electoral votes|theory that he had such powers]], via Judge [[J. Michael Luttig]].<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1663692801047949314|user=earlymodjustice|title=What was amazing was finding out months later that judge Luttig had relied on my work when he advised Pence|access-date=June 15, 2023}}</ref><ref name="auto1"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Brewer |first=Holly |date=2021-01-05 |title=More on this Jefferson nonsense |url=https://timothynoah.substack.com/p/more-on-this-jefferson-nonsense |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=Backbencher}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Noah |first=Timothy |date=2022-11-07 |title=Backbencher Saves the Republic |url=https://timothynoah.substack.com/p/backbencher-saves-the-republic |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=Backbencher}}</ref>

== Results ==
Jefferson and Burr carried every state that had supported the Democratic-Republicans in 1796, made gains in Maryland, and picked up Burr's home state of New York. In the six states choosing electors by some form of popular vote, they won a landslide over Adams and Pinckney, polling 15,846 more votes than the Federalist ticket. Adams made gains in Pennsylvania and North Carolina, but these votes were not enough to offset the Democratic-Republican gains elsewhere. Of the 155 counties and independent cities making returns, Jefferson and Burr won in 115 (74.19%), whereas the Adams ticket carried 40 (25.81%). This was the last time that Vermont voted for the Federalists, and the last time a Federalist won electoral votes from Pennsylvania.

[[File:ElectoralCollege1800-Large.png|thumb|400px]]
{{start U.S. presidential election box|pv_footnote=(a), (b), (c)|ev_footnote=}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[Thomas Jefferson]]|party=[[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]]|state=[[Virginia]]|pv=45,511|pv_pct=60.6%|ev=73}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[Aaron Burr]]|party=[[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]]|state=[[New York (state)|New York]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=73}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[John Adams]] (incumbent)|party=[[Federalist Party|Federalist]]|state=[[Massachusetts]]|pv=29,621|pv_pct=39.4%|ev=65}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]]|party=[[Federalist Party|Federalist]]| state=[[South Carolina]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=64}}
{{U.S. presidential election box row|name=[[John Jay]]|party=[[Federalist Party|Federalist]]|state=[[New York (state)|New York]]|pv=—|pv_pct=—|ev=1}}
{{U.S. presidential election box other|footnote=(d)|pv=10|pv_pct=<0.1%}}
{{end U.S. presidential election box|pv=75,142|ev=276|to_win=70}}

'''Source (Popular Vote):''' ''A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog?commit=Limit&f%5Belection_type_sim%5D%5B%5D=General&f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&page=2&q=1820&range%5Bdate_sim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1820&range%5Bdate_sim%5D%5Bend%5D=1820&search_field=all_fields&utf8=%E2%9C%93|title=A New Nation Votes|website=elections.lib.tufts.edu}}</ref> '''Source (Electoral Vote):''' {{National Archives EV source|year=1800|as of=July 30, 2005}}

(a) ''Votes for Federalist electors have been assigned to John Adams and votes for Democratic-Republican electors have been assigned to Thomas Jefferson.'' (b) ''Only 6 of the 16 states chose electors by any form of popular vote.'' (c) ''Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements.'' (d) ''Eight votes were cast for electors pledged to both Adams and Jefferson; 2 votes were cast for electors of unknown affiliation.''
{{bar box
|title=Popular vote
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=600px
|barwidth=410px
|bars=
{{bar percent|'''Jefferson'''|{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}|60.57}}
{{bar percent|Adams|{{party color|Federalist Party}}|39.42}}
{{bar percent|Other|{{party color|Independent (US)}}|0.01}}
}}
{{bar box
|title=Electoral vote
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=600px
|barwidth=410px
|bars=
{{bar percent|'''Jefferson'''|{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}|52.9}}
{{bar percent|Burr|{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party (United States)}}|52.9}}
{{bar percent|Adams|{{party color|Federalist Party}}|47.1}}
{{bar percent|Pinckney|{{party color|Federalist Party}}|46.4}}
{{bar percent|Jay|{{party color|Federalist Party}}|0.7}}
}}

=== Electoral College vote by state ===
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|-
! State
!style="font-size: 60%"| Electoral votes
! {{abbrlink|TJ|Thomas Jefferson}}
! {{abbrlink|AB|Aaron Burr}}
! {{abbrlink|JA|John Adams}}
! {{abbrlink|CP|Charles Cotesworth Pinckney}}
! {{abbrlink|JJ|John Jay}}
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Connecticut|Connecticut]]
! 9
| —
| —
| 9
| 9
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Delaware|Delaware]]
! 3
| —
| —
| 3
| 3
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Georgia|Georgia]]
! 4
| 4
| 4
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Kentucky|Kentucky]]
! 4
| 4
| 4
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Independent (US)}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland]]
! 10
| 5
| 5
| 5
| 5
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Massachusetts|Massachusetts]]
! 16
| —
| —
| 16
| 16
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in New Hampshire|New Hampshire]]
! 6
| —
| —
| 6
| 6
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in New Jersey|New Jersey]]
! 7
| —
| —
| 7
| 7
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in New York|New York]]
! 12
| 12
| 12
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina]]
! 12
| 8
| 8
| 4
| 4
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]]
! 15
| 8
| 8
| 7
| 7
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Rhode Island|Rhode Island]]
! 4
| —
| —
| 4
| 3
| 1
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in South Carolina|South Carolina]]
! 8
| 8
| 8
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Tennessee|Tennessee]]
! 3
| 3
| 3
| —
| —
| —
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Vermont|Vermont]]
! 4
| —
| —
| 4
| 4
| —
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Virginia|Virginia]]
! 21
| 21
| 21
| —
| —
| —
|-
! TOTAL
! 138
! 73
! 73
! 65
! 64
! 1
|-
! TO WIN
! 70
!colspan=5|
|}
'''Source: '''{{Cite web |url=https://www.archives.gov/legislative/features/1800-election/1800-election.html |title=Tally of Electoral Votes for the 1800 Presidential Election, February 11, 1801 |date=August 15, 2016 |website=The Center for Legislative Archives |publisher=National Archives |language=en |access-date=February 15, 2018}}

== Results by state ==
Of the 16 states that took part in the 1800 election, six (Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Tennessee, and Virginia) used some kind of popular vote. In Rhode Island and Virginia, voters elected their state's entire Electoral College delegation at large; Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, and Tennessee all used some variation of single-member districts. In the rest, electors were chosen by the state legislature. Not until the 1836 presidential election would all states have direct popular selection of electors (except South Carolina, which had its state legislature vote for electors until 1868). Popular vote records for several states are incomplete, and the returns from Kentucky and Tennessee appear to have been lost; states did not print or issue electoral ballots, and most were issued by newspapers that supported a particular party or candidate. Newspapers are also the main source of voting records in the early 19th century, and frontier states such as Tennessee had few in operation, without any known surviving examples. Below are the surviving popular vote figures as published in ''A New Nation Votes.''

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|-
!colspan=2|
!colspan=3| Jefferson/Burr Democratic-Republican
!colspan=3| Adams/Pinckney Federalist
!colspan=3| Other
!colspan=2| Margin
! State total
!Citation
|-
! State
!style="font-size: 60%"| Electoral votes
! #
! %
!style="font-size: 60%"| Electoral votes
! #
! %
!style="font-size: 60%"| Electoral votes
! #
! %
!style="font-size: 60%"| Electoral votes
! #
! %
! #
!
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Connecticut|Connecticut]]
! 9
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| 9
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Connecticut 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/h702q692v |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Delaware|Delaware]]
! 3
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| 3
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Delaware 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/br86b4045 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Georgia|Georgia]]
! 4
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| 4
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Kentucky|Kentucky]]{{efn|name=kentucky2|The complete returns for Kentucky appear to have been lost. Partial returns from the 2nd district of Kentucky show 75 votes for Charles Scott, a Democratic-Republican, and 44 votes for Judge Caleb Wallace,<ref name="Kentucky" /> also a Democratic-Republican<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitsitt |first=William Heth |url=http://archive.org/details/cu31924018775852 |title=Life and times of Judge Caleb Wallace : some time a justice of the Court of Appeals of the State of Kentucky |date=1888 |publisher=Louisville : J.P. Morton & Co. |others=Cornell University Library |pages=115}}</ref>}}
! 4
| 119+
| 100
| 4
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| —
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| —
| 119+
| 100
| 119+
| <ref name="Kentucky">{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Kentucky 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&f%5Bstate_name_sim%5D%5B%5D=Kentucky&per_page=100&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1800&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bend%5D=1800&search_field=dummy_range |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland]]{{efn|name=maryland|Eight votes were cast in Maryland for electors pledged to both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson; two votes were cast for electors of unknown affiliation.}}
! 10
| 10,638
| 51.35
| 5
| 10,068
| 48.60
| 5
| 10
| 0.05
| —
| 560
| 2.70
| 20,716
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Maryland 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&f%5Bstate_name_sim%5D%5B%5D=Maryland&per_page=100&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1800&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bend%5D=1800&search_field=dummy_range |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Massachusetts|Massachusetts]]
! 16
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| 16
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| —
| —
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Massachusetts 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&f%5Bstate_name_sim%5D%5B%5D=Massachusetts&per_page=100&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1800&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bend%5D=1800&search_field=dummy_range |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in New Hampshire|New Hampshire]]
! 6
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| 6
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| —
| —
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=New Hampshire 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/5138jg387 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in New Jersey|New Jersey]]
! 7
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| 7
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| —
| —
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=New Jersey 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/nc580m78n |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in New York|New York]]
! 12
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| 12
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| —
| —
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=New York 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/js956f90n |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina]]{{efn|name=nc|Results from the Edenton district appear to have been lost. The Jefferson/Burr elector in the district ran unopposed}}
! 12
| 11,593
| 51.26
| 8
| 11,025
| 48.75
| 4
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| —
| 568
| 2.52
| 22,618
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=North Carolina 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/?f%5Boffice_id_ssim%5D%5B%5D=ON056&f%5Bstate_name_sim%5D%5B%5D=North+Carolina&per_page=100&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bbegin%5D=1800&range%5Bpub_date_facet_isim%5D%5Bend%5D=1800&search_field=dummy_range |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]]
! 15
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| 8
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| 7
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| —
| —
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Pennsylvania 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/g158bh30q |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Rhode Island|Rhode Island]]
! 4
| 2,159
| 47.85
| —
| 2,353
| 52.15
| 4
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| —
| -194
| -4.30
| 4,512
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Rhode Island 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/v979v481s |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in South Carolina|South Carolina]]
! 8
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| 8
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| —
| —
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=South Carolina 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/gf06g397b |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Tennessee|Tennessee]]{{efn|name=tennessee|The returns appear to have been lost.}}
! 3
|align=center colspan=2| ''No data''
| 3
|align=center colspan=2| ''No data''
| —
|align=center colspan=2| ''No data''
| —
|align=center colspan=2| ''No data''
|align=center| ''No data''
| <ref name="auto">{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Tennessee 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/rn3011984 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Vermont|Vermont]]
! 4
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| 4
|align=center colspan=2| ''No popular vote''
| —
|colspan=2| —
| —
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Vermont 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/xk81jm79q |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Virginia|Virginia]]
! 21
| 21,002
| 77.28
| 21
| 6,175
| 22.72
| —
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| —
| 14,827
| 54.56
| 27,177
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Virginia 1800 Electoral College |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/m039k589j |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|-
! TOTALS
! 138
! 45,511
! 60.57
! 73
! 29,621
! 39.42
! 65
! 10
! 0.01
! 0
! 15,880
! 21.14
! 75,142
!
|-
! TO WIN
! 70
!colspan=14|
|}

=== District results ===
[[File:1800 United States presidential election by electoral districts.svg|thumb|Results by elector districts explicitly indicating the percentage of the winning candidate in each district. District boundaries or results for Tennessee could not be found]]
Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, and Tennessee chose each of their electors from specially-drawn single-member districts, the results from which are as follows.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|-
!
!colspan=2| Thomas Jefferson Democratic-Republican
!colspan=2| John Adams Federalist
!colspan=2| Other
!colspan=2| Margin
! District total
! Citation
|-
! District
! #
! %
! #
! %
! #
! %
! #
! %
! #
!
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Kentucky|Kentucky-1]]{{efn|name=kentucky1|Matthew Walton, the losing candidate, was also a Democratic-Republican<ref>{{Cite web |last=Abbi |first=Carla |title=Matthew Walton, 1759-1819 |url=https://explorekyhistory.ky.gov/items/show/665 |access-date=2024-04-05 |website=ExploreKYHistory |language=en}}</ref>}}
| ''No data''
| 100
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| ''No data''
| 100
|align=center| ''No data''
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Kentucky 1800 Electoral College, District 1 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/6969z178m |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Kentucky|Kentucky-2]]{{efn|name=kentucky2}}
| 119+
| 100
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| 119+
| 100
| 119+
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Kentucky 1800 Electoral College, District 2 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/0c483k212 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Kentucky|Kentucky-3]]{{efn|name=kentucky3/4|The Jefferson/Burr elector in this district ran unopposed}}
| ''No data''
| 100
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| ''No data''
| 100
|align=center| ''No data''
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Kentucky 1800 Electoral College, District 3 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/gh93h041p |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Kentucky|Kentucky-4]]{{efn|name=kentucky3/4}}
| ''No data''
| 100
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| ''No data''
| 100
|align=center| ''No data''
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Kentucky 1800 Electoral College, District 4 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/fj236321k |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland-1]]{{efn|name=maryland1|Two Jefferson electors ran in this district}}
| 68
| 5.75
| 1,114
| 94.25
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| -1,046
| -88.50
| 1,182
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Maryland 1800 Electoral College, District 1 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/b2773w355 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland-2]]{{efn|name=maryland2|Eight votes were cast for electors pledged to both Jefferson and Adams; one vote was cast for an elector of unknown affiliation.}}
| 789
| 31.98
| 1,669
| 67.65
| 9
| 0.37
| -880
| -35.67
| 2,467
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Maryland 1800 Electoral College, District 2 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/gq67js82h |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland-3]]
| 1,724
| 45.27
| 2,084
| 54.73
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| -360
| -9.46
| 3,808
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Maryland 1800 Electoral College, District 3 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/bn9998265 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland-4]]
| 1,351
| 50.17
| 1,342
| 49.83
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| 9
| 0.34
| 2,693
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Maryland 1800 Electoral College, District 4 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/bz60cx460 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland-5]]
| 2,379
| 75.45
| 774
| 24.55
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| 1,605
| 50.90
| 3,153
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Maryland 1800 Electoral College, District 5 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/kd17ct26g |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland-6]]
| 1,640
| 87.00
| 245
| 13.00
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| 1,395
| 74.00
| 1,885
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Maryland 1800 Electoral College, District 6 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/xd07gv408 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland-7]]
| 1,031
| 58.15
| 742
| 41.85
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| 289
| 16.32
| 1,773
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Maryland 1800 Electoral College, District 7 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/zw12z5574 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland-8]]
| 1,022
| 67.55
| 491
| 32.45
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| 531
| 35.10
| 1,513
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Maryland 1800 Electoral College, District 8 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/b8515n72k |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland-9]]
| 629
| 44.61
| 781
| 55.39
| align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| -152
| -10.78
| 1,410
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Maryland 1800 Electoral College, District 9 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/p5547s01b |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland-10]]{{efn|name=maryland10|One vote was cast for an elector of unknown affiliation.}}
| 5
| 0.60
| 826
| 99.28
| 1
| 0.12
| -822
| -98.8
| 832
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=Maryland 1800 Electoral College, District 10 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/1544bq54q |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina-Edenton]]{{efn|name=nc}}
|align=center colspan=1| ''No data''
| 100
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
|align=center colspan=1| ''No data''
| 100
|align=center colspan=1| ''No data''
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=North Carolina 1800 Electoral College, Edenton District |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/k0698748f |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina-Edgecombe]]
| 1,035
| 44.02
| 1,316
| 55.98
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| -281
| -11.96
| 2,351
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=North Carolina 1800 Electoral College, Edgecombe District |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/2j62s4898 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina-Fayetteville]]
| 299
| 12.32
| 2,128
| 87.68
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| -1,829
| -75.36
| 2,427
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=North Carolina 1800 Electoral College, Fayetteville District |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/jm214p18d |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina-Hilsborough]]
| 1,344
| 63.61
| 769
| 36.39
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| 575
| 27.22
| 2,113
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=North Carolina 1800 Electoral College, Hilsborough District |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/ht24wj452 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina-Morgan]]
| 1,374
| 73.95
| 484
| 26.05
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| 890
| 47.90
| 1,858
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=North Carolina 1800 Electoral College, Morgan District |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/9w032425j |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina-New Bern]]
| 1,134
| 54.89
| 932
| 45.11
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| 202
| 9.78
| 2,066
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=North Carolina 1800 Electoral College, New Bern District |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/js956f951 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina-Northampton]]
| 715
| 50.49
| 701
| 49.51
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| 14
| 0.98
| 1,416
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=North Carolina 1800 Electoral College, Northampton District |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/6m311q614 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina-Raleigh]]
| 1,319
| 63.87
| 746
| 36.13
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| 573
| 27.74
| 2,065
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=North Carolina 1800 Electoral College, Raleigh District |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/x920fx97p |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina-Rockingham]]
| 1,322
| 53.63
| 1,143
| 46.37
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| 179
| 7.26
| 2,465
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=North Carolina 1800 Electoral College, Rockingham District |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/nz8060284 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina-Salisbury]]
| 1,010
| 43.11
| 1,333
| 56.89
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| -323
| -13.78
| 2,343
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=North Carolina 1800 Electoral College, Salisbury District |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/bc386k398 |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina-Warren]]
| 1,340
| 79.86
| 338
| 20.14
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| 1,002
| 59.72
| 1,678
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=North Carolina 1800 Electoral College, Warren District |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/t148fh16n |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Federalist}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina|North Carolina-Wilmington]]
| 701
| 38.18
| 1,135
| 61.82
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
| -434
| -23.64
| 1,836
| <ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lampi |first1=Philip |title=North Carolina 1800 Electoral College, Wilmington District |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/v405s944q |website=A New Nation Votes |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=July 14, 2021}}</ref>
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Tennessee|Tennessee-Hamilton]]{{efn|An elector candidate of unknown affiliation ran in this district}}
|align=center colspan=2| ''No data''
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
|align=center colspan=2| ''No data''
|align=center colspan=2| ''No data''
|align=center colspan=1| ''No data''
| <ref name="auto" />
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Tennessee|Tennessee-Mero]]{{efn|The Jefferson elector in this district ran unopposed}}
|align=center colspan=1| ''No data''
|100
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
|align=center colspan=1| ''No data''
|100
|align=center colspan=1| ''No data''
| <ref name="auto" />
|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}}
! [[1800 United States presidential election in Tennessee|Tennessee-Washington]]
|align=center colspan=2| ''No data''
|align=center colspan=2| ''No data''
|align=center colspan=2| ''No candidate''
|align=center colspan=2| ''No data''
|align=center colspan=1| ''No data''
| <ref name="auto" />
|}

===States that flipped from Federalist to Democratic-Republican===
*[[Maryland]]
*[[New York (state)|New York]]

=== Close states and districts ===
States and districts where the margin of victory was under 1%:
# '''Maryland's 4th electoral district, 0.34% (9 votes)'''
# '''North Carolina's Northampton electoral district, 0.98% (14 votes)'''

States and districts where the margin of victory was under 5%:
# '''Rhode Island, 4.06% (194 votes)'''

States and districts where the margin of victory was under 10%:
# '''North Carolina's Rockingham electoral district, 7.26% (179 votes)'''
# '''Maryland's 3rd electoral district, 9.46% (360 votes)'''
# '''North Carolina's New Bern electoral district, 9.78% (202 votes)'''

== 1801 contingent election ==
[[File:Vanderlyn Burr.jpg|thumb|Aaron Burr tied Jefferson in the Electoral College vote.]]
In February 1801, the members of the House of Representatives balloted as states to determine whether Jefferson or Burr would become president. There were sixteen states, each with one vote; an absolute majority of nine was required for victory. It was the outgoing House of Representatives, controlled by the Federalist Party, that was charged with electing the new president. Jefferson was the great enemy of the Federalists, and a faction of Federalist representatives tried to block him and elect Burr. Most Federalists voted for Burr, giving Burr six of the eight states controlled by Federalists. The seven delegations controlled by Democratic-Republicans all voted for Jefferson, and Georgia's sole Federalist representative also voted for him, giving him eight states. The Vermont delegation was evenly split and cast a blank ballot. The remaining state, Maryland, had five Federalist representatives to three Democratic-Republicans; one of its Federalist representatives voted for Jefferson, forcing that state delegation also to cast a blank ballot.{{sfn|Ferling|2004|pp=175-196}}

Publicly, Burr remained quiet between mid-December 1800 and mid-February 1801, when the electoral votes were counted. Behind the scenes, he faced mounting pressure from within the party to step aside if he and Jefferson should tie in electoral votes. However, there was confusion as to whether or not Burr could simply concede the presidency to Jefferson and become vice-president, or whether he would have been forced to withdraw entirely and allow one of the Federalist candidates to become vice-president, as the Constitution was unclear on the matter. Regardless, he refused to disavow the presidency, writing in December 1800 to Representative [[Samuel Smith (Maryland politician)|Samuel Smith]] (R-MD) that he would not "engage to resign" if chosen president, adding that the question was "unnecessary, unreasonable and impertinent". Rumors circulated that Representative [[James A. Bayard (elder)|James A. Bayard]] (F-DE) had—purportedly in Burr's name—approached Smith and [[Edward Livingston]] (R-NY) with offers of political appointments if they voted for Burr.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Bergen |first=Jennifer |date=Spring 2003 |title=Aaron Burr and the Electoral Tie of 1801:Strict Constitutional Construction |url=http://www.cplpej.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Van-Bergen-Jennifer.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=The Cardozo Public Law, Policy & Ethics Journal |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=91–130 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722011357/http://www.cplpej.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Van-Bergen-Jennifer.pdf |archive-date=July 22, 2018 |access-date=July 21, 2018}}</ref>

True or not, House Democratic-Republicans, who from the start of the 1800 campaign viewed Jefferson as their candidate for president and Burr for vice president, faced two abhorrent possible outcomes when the House met to vote: the Federalists could engineer a victory for Burr; or the Federalists could refuse to break the deadlock, leaving Federalist Secretary of State [[John Marshall]] as Acting President.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Colvin |first1=Nathan L. |last2=Foley |first2=Edward B. |year=2010 |title=The Twelfth Amendment: A Constitutional Ticking Time Bomb |url=https://repository.law.miami.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1204&context=umlr |journal=University of Miami Law Review |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=475–534 |access-date=July 21, 2018}}</ref> Neither came to pass, however,<ref name="Roberts 2008">Roberts (2008)</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2023}} chiefly{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}} due to Hamilton's energetic opposition to Burr. Hamilton embarked on a frenzied letter-writing campaign to get Federalist Representatives to switch votes.<ref name="Roberts 2008"/>{{page needed|date=August 2023}} He urged the Federalists to support Jefferson because he was "by far not so dangerous a man" as Burr; in short, he would much rather have someone with wrong principles than someone devoid of any.<ref name="Chernow 2004" />

From February 11 to 17, the House cast a total of 35 ballots; each time eight state delegations voted for Jefferson, one short of the necessary majority of nine.

On February 17, on the 36th ballot, Bayard changed his vote from Burr to no selection,<ref name="Ferling 2004" /> joined by his allies in Maryland and Vermont.<ref>Noel Campbell and Marcus Witcher, "Political entrepreneurship: Jefferson, Bayard, and the election of 1800." ''Journal of Entrepreneurship and Public Policy'' 4.3 (2015): 298-312.</ref> This changed the Maryland and Vermont votes from no selection to Jefferson, giving him the votes of 10 states and the presidency. The four representatives present from South Carolina, all Federalists, also changed their 3–1 selection of Burr to four abstentions.

Due to the experiences of this and the previous election, sentiment for a new way of selecting the president and vice president rose significantly, resulting in the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twelfth Amendment]].

=== Results ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ style="background-color:#f2f2f2; margin-bottom:-1px; border:1px solid #aaa; padding: .2em .4em" | 1801 [[Contingent election|Contingent]] United States presidential election
|-
! colspan=4 style="font-size:92%" | February 11–17, 1801{{snd}}1st through 35th ballots
|-
! colspan=2 | Candidate
! Votes
! %
|-
| style="width: 0.25em; background:{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}" |
| style="width: 30em" | [[Thomas Jefferson]]
| style="width: 3.75em; text-align:right" | 8
| style="width: 4em; text-align:right" | 50.00
|-
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} |
| [[Aaron Burr]]
| style="text-align:right" | 6
| style="text-align:right" | 37.5
|-
| style="background:#f5f5f5" |
| ''Divided''
| style="text-align:right" | 2
| style="text-align:right" | 12.5
|-
! colspan=2 style="text-align:right" | Total votes:
| style="text-align:right; background:#f5f5f5" | '''16'''
| style="text-align:right; background:#f5f5f5" | '''100'''
|-
! colspan=2 style="text-align:right" | Votes necessary:
| style="text-align:right; background:#f5f5f5" | '''9'''
| style="text-align:right; background:#f5f5f5" | '''>50'''
|-
! colspan=4 style="font-size:92%" | February 17, 1801{{snd}}36th ballot
|-
! colspan="2" |Candidate
! Votes
! %
|-
| style="background:{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}" |
| '''[[Thomas Jefferson]]'''
| style="text-align:right" | '''10'''
| style="text-align:right" | '''62.5'''
|-
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} |
| [[Aaron Burr]]
| style="text-align:right" | 4
| style="text-align:right" | 25.0
|-
| {{party shading/Hold}} |
| ''[[Abstention|Blank]]''
| style="text-align:right" | 2
| style="text-align:right" | 12.5
|-
! colspan=2 style="text-align:right" | Total votes:
| style="text-align:right; background:#f5f5f5" | '''16'''
| style="text-align:right; background:#f5f5f5" | '''100'''
|-
! colspan=2 style="text-align:right" | Votes necessary:
| style="text-align:right; background:#f5f5f5" | '''9'''
| style="text-align:right; background:#f5f5f5" | '''>50'''
|-
| colspan=4 style="background:#f5f5f5" |
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan=4 | State delegation votes for: {{resize|90%|Jefferson {{small|{{border|{{0}}{{0}}{{0}}|color=#008000}}}}}}{{pad|2em}}{{resize|90%|Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}{{0}}{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}}}{{pad|2em}}{{resize|90%|''[[Abstention|Blank]]'' {{small|{{border|{{0}}{{0}}{{0}}|color=#333333}}}}}}
|-
! Delegation
! 1st ballot
! 2nd–35th ballots(a)
! 36th ballot
|-
| style="width: 9em" | '''[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]](b)'''
| style="width: 9em" | Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| style="width: 9em" | Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| style="width: 10em" | Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
|-
| '''[[Kentucky]]'''
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}2{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}2{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}2{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
|-
| '''[[New Jersey]]'''
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}3{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}2{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}3{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}2{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}3{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}2{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
|-
| '''[[New York (state)|New York]]'''
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}6{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}6{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}6{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
|-
| '''[[North Carolina]]'''
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}9{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}6{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}6{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
|-
| '''[[Pennsylvania]]'''
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}9{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}9{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}9{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|border=#aacc99}}}}
|-
| '''[[Tennessee]]'''
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
|-
| '''[[Virginia]]'''
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}16{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}3{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}14{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}5{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}14{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}5{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
|-
| '''[[Maryland]]'''
| ''Divided'' {{small|{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} {{small|{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| ''Divided'' {{small|{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} {{small|{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}} {{small|{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#333333}}}}
|-
| '''[[Vermont]]'''
| ''Divided'' {{small|{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} {{small|{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| ''Divided'' {{small|{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} {{small|{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}}
| Jefferson '''{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#008000}}''' {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}} {{small|{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#333333}}}}
|-
| '''[[Delaware]]'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
| ''Blank'' {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}} {{small|{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#333333}}}}
|-
| '''[[South Carolina]](c)'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}5{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}1{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}3{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
| ''Blank'' {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}}} {{small|{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#333333}}}}
|-
| '''[[Connecticut]]'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}7{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}7{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}7{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
|-
| '''[[Massachusetts]]'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}3{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}11{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}3{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}11{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}3{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}11{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
|-
| '''[[New Hampshire]]'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}4{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
|-
| '''[[Rhode Island]]'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}2{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}2{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
| Burr {{small|{{border|{{0}}0{{0}}|color=#008000}}}} '''{{border|{{0}}2{{0}}|color=#aacc99}}'''
|-
|}
'''Sources:''' <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llac&fileName=010/llac010.db&recNum=509 |title=10 ''Annals of Cong.'' 1024–1033 (1801) |website=A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=August 28, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Guide to U.S. Elections |publisher=[[CQ Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-60426-536-1 |editor-last=Kalb |editor-first=Deborah |location=Washington, DC |pages=275 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045242/1801-02-13/ed-1/seq-3/ |title=Election of a President |date=February 13, 1801 |work=The national intelligencer and Washington advertiser |access-date=August 28, 2019 |location=Washington, D.C. |via=Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045242/1801-02-18/ed-1/seq-3/ |title=On Tuesday |date=February 18, 1801 |work=The national intelligencer and Washington advertiser |access-date=August 28, 2019 |location=Washington, D.C. |via=Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress}}</ref>
|}

'''(a)''' The votes of the representatives is typical and may have fluctuated from ballot to ballot, but the result for each state did not change. 
'''(b)''' Even though Georgia had two representatives apportioned, one seat was vacant due to the death of [[James Jones (Georgia politician)|James Jones]]. 
'''(c)''' Even though South Carolina had six representatives apportioned, [[Thomas Sumter]] was absent due to illness, and [[Abraham Nott]] departed for South Carolina between the first and final ballots.

== Electoral College selection ==
The Constitution, in [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Section 1, Clause 2|Article II, Section 1]], provided that the state legislatures should decide the manner in which their electors were chosen. Different state legislatures chose different methods:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/documents/presidential/electoral.html |title=The Electoral Count for the Presidential Election of 1789 |website=The Papers of George Washington |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914141726/http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/documents/presidential/electoral.html |archive-date=September 14, 2013 |access-date=May 4, 2005 |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

{{start electoral college selection}}
{{electoral college selection row|method=State is divided into electoral districts, with one Elector chosen per district by the voters of that district|states={{plainlist|
*[[Maryland]]
*[[North Carolina]]}}
{{electoral college selection row|method=<nowiki/>
State is divided into two electoral districts and half the electors are chosen from each district.
|states=[[Kentucky]]}}
{{electoral college selection row|method=Each Elector chosen by voters statewide|states={{plainlist|
*[[Rhode Island]]
*[[Virginia]]}}}}}}
{{electoral college selection row | method=Divided the state into three electoral districts and named three persons from each county in each district to elect an elector for each of the three districts (same as in 1796)<ref>{{cite web |title=Tennessee 1796 Presidential Election, Note. 4 |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/kh04dr012 |website=A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825 |access-date=15 February 2023}}</ref> | states=[[Tennessee]]}}
{{electoral college selection row|method=Each Elector appointed by state legislature|states=''(all other states)''}}
{{end electoral college selection}}

== In popular culture ==
In the 2015 [[Musical theatre|musical]] ''[[Hamilton (musical)|Hamilton]]'' by [[Lin Manuel Miranda]], the contest between Jefferson and Burr is recounted in "The Election of 1800."<ref>{{Cite web | title=The Election of 1800| work=Hamilton: Original Broadway Cast Recording| url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WrfPvuNUBg8| access-date = 19 June 2022}}</ref> The song focuses on [[Alexander Hamilton]]'s role in deciding the outcome of the 1801 contingent election. The musical simplifies the complicated multiple elections somewhat, portraying Adams's unpopularity as making the real choice between Jefferson and Burr. Historians wrote that Adams did not lose that badly in the original election, with the musical inflating the size of Jefferson's victory. It implies Hamilton's support for Jefferson over Burr was the catalyst for the [[Burr–Hamilton duel]]; in fact, while that helped sour relations between Burr and Hamilton, the duel was ultimately provoked by Hamilton's statements about Burr in the [[1804 New York gubernatorial election]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=McCarthy |first1=Bill |title=PolitiFact: Fact-checking 'Hamilton' the musical |url=https://www.tampabay.com/life-culture/2020/07/03/politifact-fact-checking-hamilton-the-musical/ |access-date=July 14, 2021 |work=Tampa Bay Times |date=July 3, 2020}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|United States|Politics}}
* [[First inauguration of Thomas Jefferson]]
* [[Bibliography of Thomas Jefferson]]
* [[1800–01 United States House of Representatives elections]]
* [[1800–01 United States Senate elections]]
* [[History of the United States (1789–1849)]]
* [[Stephen Simpson (writer)|Stephen Simpson]] (editor of the ''Aurora'', a Philadelphia newspaper Jefferson credited for his victory in 1800)
* [[Burr dilemma]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
=== Primary references ===
* {{Citation |title=Annals of the Congress of the United States |url=http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwac.html |pages=10:1028–1033 |year=1834–1856 |place=[[Washington, D.C.]] |publisher=Gales and Seaton}}
* {{Cite web |url=http://www.thegreenpapers.com/Hx/ElectoralCollege.html |title=A Historical Analysis of the Electoral College |website=The Green Papers |access-date=March 20, 2005}}

=== Inline references ===
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Main|Bibliography of Thomas Jefferson}}
* {{Citation |title=Federalists Reconsidered |year=1999 |editor-last=Ben-Atar |editor-first=Doron |publisher=University of Virginia Press |isbn=978-0-8139-1863-1 |editor2-last=Oberg |editor2-first=Barbara B. |editor-link1=Doron Ben-Atar}}
* {{Citation |last=Beard |first=Charles A. |title=The Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy |year=1915 |isbn=978-1-146-80267-3 |author-link=Charles A. Beard}}
* {{Citation |last1=Bowling |first1=Kenneth R. |title=Establishing Congress: The Removal to Washington, D.C., and the Election of 1800 |year=2005 |publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=978-0-8214-1619-8 |last2=Kennon |first2=Donald R.}}
* {{Citation |last=Buel |first=Richard |title=Securing the Revolution: Ideology in American Politics, 1789–1815 |year=1972}}
* {{Citation |last=Chambers |first=William Nisbet |title=Political Parties in a New Nation: The American Experience, 1776–1809 |year=1963}}
* {{Citation |last=Chernow |first=Ron |title=Alexander Hamilton |year=2005 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-303475-9 |author-link=Ron Chernow}}
* {{Citation |last=Cunningham | first=Noble E. Jr. |title=The Making of the American Party System 1789 to 1809 |year=1965 }}
* Der Linden, Frank Van. (2000) ''The Turning Point: Jefferson's Battle for the Presidency.'' (Washington D.C.: Robert B. Luce).
* {{Citation |last=Dunn |first=Susan |title=Jefferson's second revolution: The Election Crisis of 1800 and the Triumph of Republicanism |url=https://archive.org/details/jeffersonssecond00dunn |year=2004 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-618-13164-8}}
* {{Citation |last1=Elkins |first1=Stanley |title=The Age of Federalism |year=1995 |last2=McKitrick |first2=Eric |author-link=Stanley Elkins |author-link2=Eric McKitrick}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ferling |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/adamsvsjefferson00ferl |title=Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-516771-9 |location=New York, NY |author-link=John Ferling |url-access=registration}}
* {{Citation |last=Fischer |first=David Hackett |title=The Revolution of American Conservatism: The Federalist Party in the Era of Jeffersonian Democracy |year=1965 |author-link=David Hackett Fischer}}
* {{Citation |last=Freeman |first=Joanne B. |title=Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic |year=2001}}
* {{Citation |last=Freeman |first=Joanne B. |title=The election of 1800: a study in the logic of political change |url=https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/ylj/vol108/iss8/3 |journal=Yale Law Journal |volume=108 |issue=8 |pages=1959–1994 |year=1999 |doi=10.2307/797378 |jstor=797378}}
* {{Citation |last=Goodman |first=Paul |title=The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development |pages=56–89 |year=1967 |editor-last=Chambers |editor-first=William Nisbet |chapter=The First American Party System |editor2-last=Burnham |editor2-first=Walter Dean}}
* {{Citation |last=Hofstadter |first=Richard |title=The Idea of a Party System |year=1970 |author-link=Richard Hofstadter}}
* {{Citation |last1=Horn |first1=James P. P. |title=The Revolution of 1800: Democracy, Race, and the New Republic |year=2002 |last2=Lewis |first2=Jan Ellen |last3=Onuf |first3=Peter S.}}
* Lepore, Jill (2018). ''These truths: a history of the United States'' (1st ed.). New York (N. Y.): W.W. Norton & Company. {{ISBN|978-0-393-63524-9}}
* {{Citation |last=McCullough |first=David |title=John Adams |year=2001 |author-link=David McCullough |title-link=John Adams (book)}}
* {{Citation |last=Miller |first=John C. |title=Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox |year=1959}}
* {{Citation |title=Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early American Republic |year=2004 |editor-last=Pasley |editor-first=Jeffrey L. |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-5558-4 |display-editors=etal}}
* {{Citation |last=Roberts |first=Cokie |title=Ladies of Liberty |year=2008}}
* {{Citation |last=Schachner |first=Nathan |title=Aaron Burr: A Biography |year=1961}}
* {{Citation |title=History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–1984 |volume=1 |year=1986 |editor-last=Schlesinger |editor-first=Arthur Meier |editor-link=Arthur M. Schlesinger}}, essay and primary sources on 1800.
* Sharp, James Roger. ''The Deadlocked Election of 1800: Jefferson, Burr, and the Union in the Balance'' (University Press of Kansas; 2010) 239 pages;
* {{Citation |last=Wills |first=Garry |title="Negro President": Jefferson and the Slave Power |url=https://archive.org/details/negropresidentje00will/page/47 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/negropresidentje00will/page/47 47–89] |year=2003 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Co. |isbn=0-618-34398-9 |author-link=Garry Wills}} ... also listed (in at least [http://www.powells.com/biblio/1-9780618485376-1 one source]) as from Mariner Books (Boston) in 2004
* Weisberger, Bernard A. (2000) "America Afire: Jefferson, Adams, and the Revolutionary Election of 1800" (New York: William Morrow).

=== Primary sources ===
* Sloan, Herbert. " 'In a Choice of Evils...Jefferson is in Every View Less Dangerous than Burr': Alexander Hamilton to Harrison Gray Otis on the Deadlocked Presidential Election of 1800." OAH Magazine of History 18.5 (2004): 53-57 [https://academic.oup.com/maghis/article-abstract/18/5/53/1010306 excerpt]

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [https://votearchive.com/us-pres-elect-1800/ 1800 U.S. Presidential Election at VoteArchive.com] Extant popular vote data and county-by-county maps for four states
* [https://votearchive.com/us-pres-elect-1800-md/ Vote Archive: County-level results for Maryland]
* [https://votearchive.com/us-pres-elect-1800-nc/ Vote Archive: County-level results for North Carolina]
* [https://votearchive.com/us-pres-elect-1800-ri/ Vote Archive: County-level results for Rhode Island]
* [https://votearchive.com/us-pres-elect-1800-va/ Vote Archive: County-level results for Virginia]
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/elections/election1800.html Presidential Election of 1800: A Resource Guide] from the Library of Congress
* [http://edsitement.neh.gov/lesson-plan/first-american-party-system-documentary-timeline-important-events-1787-1800 Documentary Timeline 1787–1800] Lesson plans from NEH
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110202214223/http://elections.lib.tufts.edu/aas_portal/index.xq A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825]
* [http://uselectionatlas.org/USPRESIDENT/GENERAL/pe1800.html Overview at Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections]
* [https://www.c-span.org/video/?161310-1/america-afire ''Booknotes'' interview with Bernard Weisberger on ''America Afire: Jefferson, Adams, and the First Contested Election'', February 25, 2001.]
* [https://www.c-span.org/video/?183137-1/adams-vs-jefferson-election-1800 ''Booknotes'' interview with John Ferling on ''Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800'', October 3, 2004.]
* [http://www.countingthevotes.com/1800/ Election of 1800 in Counting the Votes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930080302/http://www.countingthevotes.com/1800/ |date=September 30, 2019 }}

{{1800 United States elections}}
{{Thomas Jefferson}}
{{John Adams}}
{{1800 United States presidential election}}
{{State Results of the 1800 U.S. presidential election}}
{{USPresidentialElections}}
{{Federalist Party}}
{{Democratic-Republican Party}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1800 United States presidential election| ]]
[[Category:Presidency of Thomas Jefferson]]
[[Category:Thomas Jefferson]]
[[Category:John Adams]]
[[Category:Aaron Burr]]
[[Category:Contingent elections in the United States]]
[[Category:Constitutional crises]]
[[Category:Presidency of John Adams]]

Template:1800 United States presidential election imagemap

2024-09-22T02:01:30Z

ARandomShyGuy: Creating map.

<imagemap>
Image:ElectoralCollege1800.svg|205px|center|

poly 395 70 406 108 413 114 415 99 418 94 427 91 439 82 445 74 457 61 453 55 447 47 441 45 432 16 422 13 418 19 410 15 401 30 [[1800 United States presidential election in Massachusetts]]
poly 325 342 301 326 283 328 277 322 257 323 238 331 237 337 244 342 253 352 259 358 266 366 273 369 277 380 281 384 287 387 297 384 316 362 324 340 [[1800 United States presidential election in South Carolina]]
poly 122 311 114 343 215 334 265 292 145 305 123 308 125 313 124 315 [[1800 United States presidential election in Tennessee]]
poly 114 343 239 332 235 337 245 342 252 353 262 360 271 369 278 381 287 390 283 420 272 420 272 429 222 429 214 422 92 433 92 423 101 407 100 398 97 390 97 378 101 365 104 357 107 352 109 348 113 346 113 346 113 342 [[1800 United States presidential election in Georgia]]
poly 361 275 370 290 374 298 366 306 358 318 341 326 335 339 322 342 301 324 286 329 275 322 256 322 237 332 215 334 263 292[[1800 United States presidential election in North Carolina]]
poly 261 171 270 221 347 205 355 201 361 194 353 186 352 177 356 166 349 155 350 155 349 153 [[1800 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania]]
poly 360 83 366 98 369 114 373 125 374 154 376 171 401 165 374 182 374 172 355 165 345 153 273 168 284 149 281 137 314 131 323 121 319 111 337 88 354 85 361 88 376 171 [[1800 United States presidential election in New York]]
poly 400 142 403 156 413 150 406 139 [[1800 United States presidential election in Rhode Island]]
poly 356 203 366 218 354 201 362 193 354 181 357 166 372 171 369 181 374 183 377 191 375 198 368 218 351 207 [[1800 United States presidential election in New Jersey]]
poly 360 275 351 269 349 247 328 239 329 228 309 215 289 226 288 220 271 222 266 201 263 224 255 229 247 242 239 256 250 274 232 296 306 285 [[1800 United States presidential election in Virginia]]
poly 355 233 369 229 359 222 352 202 348 207 [[1800 United States presidential election in Delaware]]
poly 150 307 123 307 129 297 133 291 139 293 145 284 147 278 156 274 161 274 170 272 181 269 188 260 196 252 200 245 209 243 212 248 217 249 224 250 231 248 235 252 249 274 234 294 [[1800 United States presidential election in Kentucky]]
poly 360 264 364 231 354 232 347 204 270 219 276 219 287 225 312 215 327 228 329 238 347 246 [[1800 United States presidential election in Maryland]]
poly 376 169 402 155 399 141 373 146 [[1800 United States presidential election in Connecticut]]
poly 430 141 429 134 411 120 372 131 374 147 403 139 415 149 432 148 [[1800 United States presidential election in Massachusetts]]
poly 386 75 390 89 385 94 385 126 372 127 360 83 [[1800 United States presidential election in Vermont]]
poly 390 66 389 86 385 92 385 129 412 119 [[1800 United States presidential election in New Hampshire]]

</imagemap>
<noinclude>
[[Category:United States presidential election imagemaps]]
</noinclude>

BlackPAC

2024-09-20T21:17:25Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding PAC logo to infobox.

{{short description|American political action committee focused on black voters}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = BlackPAC
| native_name =
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| image = BlackPACLogo.png
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| formation = 2016
| founder = Adrianne Shropshire
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| fields = [[Politics]]
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| sec_gen = 
| leader_title = Executive director
| leader_name = Adrianne Shropshire
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'''BlackPAC''' is a left-leaning [[political action committee]] focused on mobilizing and engaging with [[African American]] voters.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://publicintegrity.org/federal-politics/a-super-pac-has-raised-millions-to-mobilize-black-voters-does-it-matter-that-its-funders-are-white/ |title=A super PAC has raised millions to mobilize black voters. Does it matter that its funders are white? |last=Beachum |first=Lateshia |date=2018-03-12 |website=Center for Public Integrity |language=en-us |access-date=2019-08-09}}</ref> It was founded in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://blackpac.com/about/ |title=ABOUT |website=BlackPAC |access-date=2019-08-09}}</ref> It has worked to turn out black voters in prominent elections in the [[United States]], including the [[2017 United States Senate special election in Alabama]] and the [[2017 Virginia gubernatorial election]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/05/what-black-voters-want/559775/ |title=Can Democrats Keep Winning Enough Black Voters? |last=II |first=Vann R. Newkirk |date=2018-05-08 |access-date=2019-08-09 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/14/us/blacks-alabama-doug-jones-.html |title=Democrats Draw Vivid Lesson From Alabama: Mobilize Black Voters |last=Eligon |first=John |date=2017-12-14 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2019-08-09 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://apnews.com/6e4f876d1c5f44e3b7f9295d91c304b0 |title=BlackPAC to spend $1 million in Virginia ahead of election |date=2017-09-22 |work=The Associated Press |access-date=2019-08-09}}</ref> BlackPAC works with non-partisan [[VoteRiders]] to spread state-specific information on voter ID requirements.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Partner Organizations • VoteRiders |url=https://www.voteriders.org/partners/ |access-date=2022-09-10 |website=VoteRiders |language=en-US}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|https://blackpac.com/}}
{{Poli-org-stub}}

[[Category:Political organizations established in 2016]]
[[Category:United States political action committees]]
[[Category:2016 establishments in the United States]]

43 Alumni for America

2024-09-20T21:11:43Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding super PAC logo to infobox.

{{short description|American political action committee}}
{{Use MDY dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox organization
| full_name = 43 Alumni for America
| image = 43AlunmiforAmerica.png
| website = {{Official|https://43alumniforamerica.com/}}
}}
'''43 Alumni for America''' is a [[Super PAC]] created by administration and campaign officials of the 43rd US president [[George W. Bush]] with a mission to mobilize [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] voters for the 2020 US [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] presidential candidate, [[Joe Biden]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Duster |first=Chandelis |date=July 2, 2020 |title=Ex-George W. Bush officials launch new group supporting Joe Biden |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/07/01/politics/george-w-bush-43-alumni-super-pac-joe-biden/index.html |access-date=September 7, 2020 |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref>

The advertising includes positive portrayals of Biden in swing states such as [[Pennsylvania]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Michigan]], [[Florida]], and [[Ohio]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=43 Alumni for Joe Biden |url=https://www.influencewatch.org/political-party/43-alumni-for-joe-biden/ |access-date=September 7, 2020 |website=InfluenceWatch}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Axelrod |first=Tal |date=2020-07-01 |title=Alumni of George W. Bush administration launch pro-Biden super PAC |language=en |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]|url=https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/505425-alumni-of-george-w-bush-administration-form-super-pac-to-back-biden |access-date=2020-09-08}}</ref> The PAC has over 360 members, including former cabinet members and senior officials.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ross |first=Jamie |date=July 1, 2020 |title=Hundreds of Ex-George W. Bush Staffers to Back Biden Over 'Dangerous' Trump |work=[[The Daily Beast]] |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/43-alumni-for-biden-group-sees-hundreds-of-ex-george-w-bush-staffers-back-biden-over-trump |access-date=September 7, 2020}}</ref>

The group releases videos from former officials in support of [[Joe Biden]]. The group had been in contact with the [[Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign]] but has no direct affiliation with former president [[George W. Bush]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jaffe |first=Alexandra |date=July 2, 2020 |title=Hundreds of Republican officials launch fundraiser backing Biden |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/north-america/hundreds-of-republican-officials-launch-fundraiser-backing-biden-20200702-p558f2.html |access-date=September 7, 2020}}</ref>

Because it was formed a day after the June 30 deadline that would have required disclosure of its donors in mid-July, the group would not have to make the disclosure until mid-October, less than three weeks before [[2020 United States presidential election|the election]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wise |first=Alana |date=July 1, 2020 |title=Hundreds Of Former Bush Officials Unite To Endorse Joe Biden |work=[[NPR]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2020/07/01/886346437/hundreds-of-former-bush-officials-unite-to-endorse-joe-biden |access-date=September 7, 2020}}</ref> They raised $96,234 (~${{Format price|{{Inflation|index=US-GDP|value=96234|start_year=2020}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}) during the 2020 election cycle.<ref>{{Cite web|last=A 501tax-exempt|first=OpenSecrets|last2=NW|first2=charitable organization 1300 L. St|last3=Washington|first3=Suite 200|last4=info|first4=DC 20005 telephone 857-0044|title=43 Alumni for America PAC Profile|url=https://www.opensecrets.org/political-action-committees-pacs/43-alumni-for-america/C00747592/summary/2020|access-date=2021-07-06|website=OpenSecrets|language=en}}</ref>

After Biden was elected, its name changed into '''43 Alumni for America''' (43A4A).

==See also==
* [[Never Trump movement]]
* [[The Lincoln Project]]
* [[List of former Trump administration officials who endorsed Joe Biden]]
* [[List of Republicans who opposed the Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign]]
* [[List of Republicans who opposed the Donald Trump 2020 presidential campaign]]
* [[REPAIR]]
* [[Republican Voters Against Trump]]
* [[Right Side PAC]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Never Trump movement}}
[[Category:2020 United States presidential election]]
[[Category:Centrist political advocacy groups in the United States]]
[[Category:George W. Bush administration personnel|*]]
[[Category:Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign]]
[[Category:United States political action committees]]
[[Category:Never Trump movement]]
[[Category:Crossover voting]]

George Wallace

2024-09-19T21:41:00Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding campaign logos to sections.

{{Short description|American politician (1919–1998)}}
{{About|the governor of Alabama|other people named George Wallace}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = George Wallace
| image = George Wallace (D-AL) (cropped).jpg
| caption = Official portrait, 1962
| alt = Official Portrait, 1962
| order = 45th
| office = Governor of Alabama
| lieutenant = [[Bill Baxley]]
| term_start = January 17, 1983
| term_end = January 19, 1987
| predecessor = [[Fob James]]
| successor = [[H. Guy Hunt]]
| lieutenant1 = [[Jere Beasley]]
| term_start1 = January 18, 1971
| term_end1 = January 15, 1979{{efn|name="Term interruption"|[[Jere Beasley]] served as Acting Governor from June 5 to July 7, 1972, while Wallace recovered from an assassination attempt.}}
| predecessor1 = [[Albert Brewer]]
| successor1 = Fob James
| lieutenant2 = [[James Allen (Alabama politician)|James Allen]]
| term_start2 = January 14, 1963
| term_end2 = January 16, 1967
| predecessor2 = [[John M. Patterson|John Patterson]]
| successor2 = [[Lurleen Wallace]]
| office3 = First Gentleman of [[Alabama]]
| governor3 = Lurleen Wallace
| term_label3 = In role
| term_start3 = January 16, 1967
| term_end3 = May 7, 1968
| predecessor3 = Lurleen Wallace (as First Lady)
| successor3 = [[Martha Farmer Brewer]] (as First Lady)
| office4 = Member of the [[Alabama House of Representatives]] from [[Barbour County, Alabama|Barbour County]]
| term_start4 = January 3, 1946
| term_end4 = January 3, 1955
| predecessor4 =
| successor4 =
| birth_name = George Corley Wallace Jr.
| birth_date = {{birth date|1919|8|25}}
| birth_place = [[Clio, Alabama]], U.S.
| death_date = {{nowrap|{{death date and age|1998|9|13|1919|8|25}}}}
| death_place = [[Montgomery, Alabama]], U.S.
| resting_place = [[Greenwood Cemetery (Montgomery, Alabama)|Greenwood Cemetery]]
| party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] (until 1995)
| otherparty = [[American Independent Party|American Independent]] (1968) [[Independent voter|None]] (1995–1998)<ref name="Gadsden Times" />
| spouse = {{ubl|{{marriage|[[Lurleen Wallace|Lurleen Burns]]|May 22, 1943|May 7, 1968|end=died}}|{{marriage|[[Cornelia Wallace|Cornelia Ellis Snively]]|January 4, 1971|January 4, 1978|end=divorced}}|{{marriage|Lisa Taylor|September 9, 1981|February 2, 1987|end=divorced}}}}
| children = 4
| education = [[University of Alabama]] ([[Bachelor of Laws|LLB]])
| signature = George Wallace Signature.svg
| allegiance = 
| branch = [[United States Army]]
| serviceyears = 1942–1945
| rank = [[Staff sergeant (U.S. Army)|Staff sergeant]]
| unit = [[United States Army Air Forces]]
| battles = [[World War II]]
| module = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=|title=George Wallace's voice|type=speech|description=Wallace speaks on the death of [[Bear Bryant|Paul "Bear" Bryant]] Recorded January 26, 1983}}
}}

'''George Corley Wallace Jr.''' (August 25, 1919 – September 13, 1998) was an American politician and judge who served as the 45th [[governor of Alabama]] for four terms. He is remembered for his staunch [[segregationist]] and [[populist]] views.<ref name="Britannica2">{{Cite journal |date=August 25, 2012 |title=George C. Wallace |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/634760/George-C-Wallace |journal=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=August 25, 2012}}</ref><ref name="newfield197107192">{{Cite news |last=Newfield, Jack |date=July 19, 1971 |title=A Populist Manifesto: The Making of a New Majority |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A-MCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA39 |access-date=January 6, 2015 |work=New York |pages=39–46}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Lesher |first=Stephan |url=https://archive.org/details/georgewallaceame00step |title=George Wallace: American Populist |publisher=Addison Wesley |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-201-62210-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/georgewallaceame00step/page/409 409] |url-access=registration}}</ref> During Wallace's tenure as governor of Alabama, he promoted "industrial development, low taxes, and [[trade school]]s."<ref name="Eskew">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=George C. Wallace (1963–1967, 1971–1979, 1983–1987) |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Alabama]] |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1676 |last=Eskew |first=Glenn T. |date=September 8, 2008}}</ref> Wallace unsuccessfully sought the United States presidency as a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] candidate three times, and once as an [[American Independent Party]] candidate, carrying five states in the 1968 election. Wallace opposed [[Desegregation in the United States|desegregation]] and supported the policies of "[[Jim Crow laws#Origins|Jim Crow]]" during the [[Civil Rights Movement]], declaring in his [[George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address|1963 inaugural address]] that he stood for "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever."<ref name="segsymbol" />

Born in [[Clio, Alabama]], Wallace attended the [[University of Alabama School of Law]], and served in [[United States Army Air Force]] during [[World War II]]. After the war, he won election to the [[Alabama House of Representatives]], and served as a state judge. Wallace first sought the Democratic nomination in the [[1958 Alabama gubernatorial election]]. Initially a moderate on racial issues, Wallace adopted a hard-line [[Racial segregation in the United States|segregationist]] stance after losing the 1958 nomination. Wallace ran for governor again in [[1962 Alabama gubernatorial election|1962]], and won the race. Seeking to stop the racial integration of the [[University of Alabama]], Wallace earned national notoriety by [[Stand in the Schoolhouse Door|standing in front of the entrance]] of the University of Alabama, blocking the path of black students.<ref name="segsymbol">{{Cite web |date=September 14, 1998 |title=George Wallace, Segregation Symbol, Dies at 79 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/09/14/us/george-wallace-segregation-symbol-dies-at-79.html |newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref> Wallace left office when his first term expired in 1967 due to term limits. His wife, [[Lurleen Wallace|Lurleen]], won the next election and succeeded him, with him as the de facto governor.<ref name="Eskew" /> Lurleen died of cancer in May 1968, ending Wallace's period of influence; her doctor had informed him of the cancer's diagnosis in 1961, but Wallace had not told his wife.

Wallace challenged sitting president [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in the [[1964 Democratic Party presidential primaries|1964 Democratic presidential primaries]], but Johnson prevailed in the race. In the [[1968 United States presidential election|1968 presidential election]], Wallace ran a [[George Wallace 1968 presidential campaign|third-party campaign]] in an attempt to force a [[contingent election]] in the [[United States House of Representatives]], thereby enhancing the political clout of segregationist Southern leaders. Wallace won five Southern states but failed to force a contingent election. {{as of|2023|alt=As of the [[2020 United States presidential election|2020 election]],}} he remains the most recent third-party candidate to receive pledged electoral college votes from any state.

Wallace won election to the governorship again in [[1970 Alabama gubernatorial election|1970]], and ran in the [[1972 Democratic Party presidential primaries|1972 Democratic presidential primaries]], having moderated his stance on segregation. His campaign effectively ended when he was shot in [[Maryland]] by [[Arthur Bremer]], and Wallace remained paralyzed below the waist for the rest of his life. Wallace won [[1974 Alabama gubernatorial election|re-election]] as governor in 1974, and he once again unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination in the [[1976 Democratic Party presidential primaries|1976 Democratic presidential primaries]]. In the late 1970s, Wallace announced that he became a [[born-again Christian]], and moderated his views on race, renouncing his past support for segregation. Wallace left office in 1979, but re-entered politics and won [[1982 Alabama gubernatorial election|election]] to a fourth, and final, term as governor in 1982. Wallace is the third<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 29, 2017 |title=The Top 50 Longest Serving Governors in US History (Updated) |url=https://smartpolitics.lib.umn.edu/2017/05/29/the-top-50-longest-serving-governors-in-us-history-updated/}}</ref> [[List of longest-serving governors of U.S. states|longest-serving governor in U.S. history]], having served 5,848 days in office.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ostermeier |first=Eric |date=May 29, 2017 |title=The Top 50 Longest Serving Governors in US History (Updated) |url=https://smartpolitics.lib.umn.edu/2017/05/29/the-top-50-longest-serving-governors-in-us-history-updated/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301175243/https://smartpolitics.lib.umn.edu/2017/05/29/the-top-50-longest-serving-governors-in-us-history-updated/ |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |access-date=April 2, 2021 |website=Smart Politics |publisher=[[University of Minnesota]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Early life==
[[File:Clio, Alabama.JPG|thumb|right|Wallace was born in [[Clio, Alabama]] (seen here in 2011).]]
George Corley Wallace Jr. was born in [[Clio, Alabama]], to George Corley Wallace Sr. and Mozelle Smith. Since his parents disliked the designation "Junior", he was called "George C.", to distinguish him from his father, George Corley Sr., and paternal grandfather, the physician George Oscar Wallace, who was called "Doc Wallace". He had two younger brothers, Gerald and Jack, and a younger sister named Marianne.<ref>Carter (1995), pp. 19–21.</ref> During [[World War I]], Wallace's father left college to pursue a life of farming when [[food prices]] were high. When his father died in 1937, his mother had to sell their farmland to pay existing [[Mortgage loan|mortgages]].<ref>Carter (1995), p. 41.</ref> Wallace was raised as a [[Methodist]].<ref>Carter (1995), p. 137.</ref>

From age ten, Wallace was fascinated with politics. In 1935, he won a contest to serve as a page in the [[Alabama Senate]], and confidently predicted that he would one day be governor.<ref>Carter (1995), pp. 30–31.</ref> Wallace became a regionally successful boxer in high school, then went directly to law school in 1937 at the [[University of Alabama School of Law]] in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Alabama Governor George Wallace, gubernatorial history |url=http://www.archives.state.al.us/govs_list/g_wallac.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322022657/http://www.archives.state.al.us/govs_list/g_wallac.html |archive-date=March 22, 2016 |access-date=January 8, 2011 |publisher=Archives.state.al.us}}</ref> He was a member of the [[Delta Chi]] fraternity. It was at the University of Alabama that he crossed paths with future political adversary [[Frank Minis Johnson|Frank Minis Johnson Jr.]], who would go on to become a prominent liberal federal judge.<ref>Bass, Jack. ''Taming the Storm: The Life and Times of Frank M. Jonson Jr., and the South's Fight over Civil Rights'' (Doubleday, New York, 1993).</ref> Wallace also knew [[Chauncey Sparks]], who became a conservative governor. These men had an effect on his personal politics reflecting the ideologies of both leaders later during his time in office.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}} He received a [[Bachelor of Laws]] degree in 1942.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 20, 1998 |title=A life marked by hate, violence George Wallace gave comfort to racists |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1998-09-20-1998263111-story.html |website=Baltimore Sun}}</ref>

Early in 1943, Wallace was accepted for pilot training by the [[United States Army Air Forces]] (USAAF).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frederick |first=Jeff |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-i1HBMC6qsEC&pg=PA12 |title=Stand up for Alabama: Governor George Wallace |date=2007 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn=978-0817315740 |page=13}}</ref> Soon afterwards Wallace contracted life-threatening [[spinal meningitis]], but prompt medical attention with [[sulfa drugs]] saved his life. Left with partial hearing loss and permanent nerve damage, he was instead trained as a [[flight engineer]]. During 1945, as a member of a [[B-29]] crew with [[468th Bombardment Group]], stationed in the [[Mariana Islands]] as part of the [[Twentieth Air Force]], Wallace took part in [[air raids on Japan]] and reached the rank of [[staff sergeant]].<ref>Lesher (1994) pp. 47–61.</ref> In mid-1945, Wallace received an early discharge on medical grounds, due to "severe anxiety", and a 10% disability pension for "psychoneurosis".<ref name="Frederick, 2007, p. 12">Frederick, ''Stand Up for Alabama: Governor George Wallace'', 2007, p. 12.</ref> (The Twentieth Air Force was commanded by General [[Curtis LeMay]], who was his running mate in the [[1968 United States presidential election|1968 presidential race]].)

== Racial attitude ==
While some may argue that Wallace did not espouse racist views, most sources support the conclusion that he was motivated by racist ideology.

For instance, one source on Wallace's career as a judge reports: "every black attorney who argued a case in Wallace's ... courtroom was struck by his fairness .... But no one who knew Wallace well ever took seriously his earnest profession – uttered a thousand times after 1963 – that he was a segregationist, not a racist."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carter |first=Dan T. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924 |title=The politics of rage : George Wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of American politics |date=1995 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0684809168 |location=New York |pages=236 |oclc=32739924}}</ref>

A reporter covering state politics in 1961 observed that, while other Alabama politicians conversed primarily about women and Alabama football, for Wallace "it was race – race, race, race – and every time that I was closeted alone with him, that's all we talked about."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carter |first=Dan T. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924 |title=The politics of rage : George Wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of American politics |date=1995 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0684809168 |location=New York |pages=237 |oclc=32739924}}</ref>

Wallace's preoccupation with race was based on his belief that black Americans comprised a separate and inferior race. In a 1963 letter to a social studies teacher, Wallace stated they were inclined to criminality – especially "atrocious acts ... such as rape, assault and murder" – because of a high incidence of venereal disease. Desegregation, he wrote, would lead to "intermarriage ... and eventually our race will be deteriated (sic) to that of the mongrel complexity."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carter |first=Dan T. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924 |title=The politics of rage : George Wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of American politics |date=1995 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0684809168 |location=New York |pages=237–238 |oclc=32739924}}</ref>

==Early career==
In 1938, at age 19, Wallace contributed to his grandfather's successful campaign for probate judge. Late in 1945, he was appointed as one of the assistant attorneys general of Alabama, and, in May 1946, he won his first election as a member to the [[Alabama House of Representatives]]. At the time, he was considered a moderate on racial issues. As a delegate to the [[1948 Democratic National Convention]], he did not join the [[Dixiecrat]] walkout at the convention, despite his opposition to [[U.S. President]] [[Harry S. Truman]]'s proposed [[civil rights]] program. Wallace considered it an infringement on [[states' rights]]. The Dixiecrats carried Alabama in the 1948 general election, having rallied behind Governor [[Strom Thurmond]] of South Carolina. In his 1963 inaugural speech as governor, Wallace excused his failure to walk out of the 1948 convention on political grounds.

In 1952, he became the Circuit Judge of the [[Courts of Alabama|Third Judicial Circuit]] in Alabama. Here he became known as "the fighting little judge", a nod to his past boxing association.<ref name="Woods On Fire">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0240534/ |title=George Wallace: Settin' the Woods on Fire |date=2000 |type=Documentary |publisher=American Experience |place=Boston, USA |people=Mccabe, Daniel (writer, director, producer), Paul Stekler (writer, director, producer), Steve Fayer (writer)}}</ref> He gained a reputation for fairness regardless of the race of the plaintiff. It was common practice at the time for judges in the area to refer to black lawyers by their first names, while their white colleagues were addressed formally as "Mister"; black lawyer [[J. L. Chestnut]] later said that "Judge George Wallace was the most liberal judge that I had ever practiced law in front of. He was the first judge in Alabama to call me 'Mister' in a courtroom."<ref name="Woods On Fire" />

On the other hand, Wallace issued injunctions to prevent the removal of segregation signs in rail terminals, becoming the first Southern judge to do so.<ref name="htFradyA8">{{cite news|title=Former governor shaped politics of Alabama, nation|first=John|last=Anderson|newspaper= The Huntsville Times|location=[[Huntsville, Alabama]]|date=September 14, 1998|page=A8}} referencing {{Cite book |last=Frady |first=Marshall |url=https://archive.org/details/wallace00frad |title=Wallace |publisher=World Pub. Co. |year=1968 |isbn=978-0679771289 |location=New York |oclc=588644 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Similarly, during efforts by civil rights organizations to expand voter registration of blacks, Wallace blocked federal efforts to review Barbour County voting lists. He was cited for criminal contempt of court in 1959.<ref name="htFradyA8" />

As judge, Wallace granted probation to some blacks, which may have cost him the 1958 gubernatorial election.<ref name="htWallaceA8">{{Cite news |last=Anderson |first=John |date=September 14, 1998 |title=Former governor shaped politics of Alabama, nation |work=The Huntsville Times |location=[[Huntsville, Alabama]] |page=A8}}</ref>

=== 1958 gubernatorial campaign ===
In 1958, Wallace ran in the Democratic [[Primary election|primary]] for governor. Since the 1901 constitution's effective [[Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era|disfranchisement]] of Black Alabamians, the Democratic Party had been virtually the only party in Alabama. For all intents and purposes, the Democratic primary, which was a political crossroads for Wallace, was the only real contest at the state level. State Representative [[George C. Hawkins]] of [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] ran, but Wallace's main opponent was [[Attorney General of Alabama]] [[John M. Patterson]], who ran with the support of the [[Ku Klux Klan]], an organization Wallace had spoken out against. Despite being endorsed by the [[NAACP]], Wallace lost the nomination by over 34,400 votes.<ref name="Woods On Fire" />

After the election, aide Seymore Trammell recalled Wallace saying, "Seymore, you know why I lost that governor's race? ... I was outniggered by John Patterson. And I'll tell you here and now, I will never be outniggered again."<ref group="note">Carter (1996, p. 2) notes that Wallace later denied a similar quotation that appeared in a 1968 biography by [[Marshall Frady]]: {{"'}}Well boys,' he said tightly as he snuffed out his cigar, 'no other son-of-a-bitch will ever out-nigger me again.{{'"}} {{Cite journal |last=Riechers |first=Maggie |date=March–April 2000 |title=Racism to Redemption: The Path of George Wallace |url=https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2000/marchapril/feature/racism-redemption |url-status=dead |journal=Humanities |volume=21 |issue=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210064143/https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2000/marchapril/feature/racism-redemption |archive-date=December 10, 2017 |access-date=May 25, 2006}} The exact wording is a matter of historical dispute. Some sources quote Wallace as using the word "outsegged". In an extended note in "The Politics of Rage" (1995), p. 96 & 96fn, Carter notes the denial, but says two witnesses confirm the use of the racist language on Election Night, in addition to Seymore Trammell's recollection of Wallace using similar phrasing the next day in his presence.</ref> In the wake of his defeat, Wallace adopted a hard-line [[segregationist]] stance and used this stance to court the white vote in the next gubernatorial election in 1962. When a supporter asked why he started using racist messages, Wallace replied, "You know, I tried to talk about good roads and good schools and all these things that have been part of my career, and nobody listened. And then I began talking about niggers, and they stomped the floor."<ref name="Woods On Fire quotes" />

==Governor of Alabama==

===Segregation===
[[File:Wallacenasa.gif|thumb|right|From left to right: Governor Wallace, [[NASA]] administrator [[James E. Webb]] and scientist [[Wernher von Braun]] at the [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] in 1965]]
[[File:Wallace at University of Alabama edit2.jpg|thumb|Wallace standing against desegregation while being confronted by U.S. Deputy Attorney General [[Nicholas Katzenbach]] at the [[University of Alabama]] in 1963]]
In the 1962 Democratic primary, Wallace finished first, ahead of State Senator [[Ryan DeGraffenried Sr.]], and taking 35 percent of the vote. In the runoff, Wallace won the nomination with 55 percent of the vote. As no Republican filed to run, this all but assured Wallace of becoming the next governor. He won a crushing victory in the [[1962 Alabama gubernatorial election|November general election]], taking 96 percent of the vote. As noted above, Democratic dominance had been achieved by disenfranchising most blacks and many poor whites in the state for decades, which lasted until years after federal civil rights legislation was passed in 1964 and 1965.{{how|date=May 2020}}

Wallace took the oath of office on January 14, 1963, standing on the gold star marking the spot where, nearly 102 years earlier, [[Jefferson Davis]] was sworn in as provisional president of the [[Confederate States of America]]. In his [[George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address|inaugural speech]], Wallace said:<ref name="Woods On Fire quotes">{{Cite web |year=2000 |title=George Wallace: Settin' the Woods on Fire: Wallace Quotes |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wallace/sfeature/quotes.html |access-date=September 5, 2006 |website=The American Experience |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]]}}</ref><ref name="Klarman">{{Cite journal |last=Klarman |first=Michael J. |date=March–April 2004 |title=''Brown v. Board'': 50 Years Later |url=http://www.neh.gov/news/humanities/2004-03/brown.html |url-status=dead |journal=Humanities: The Magazine of the National Endowment for the Humanities |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201071709/https://www.neh.gov/news/humanities/2004-03/brown.html |archive-date=February 1, 2017 |access-date=September 6, 2006}}</ref>

{{blockquote|In the name of the greatest people that have ever trod this Earth, I draw the line in the dust and toss the gauntlet before the feet of tyranny, and I say segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever.}}

This sentence had been written by Wallace's new speechwriter, [[Ku Klux Klan]] leader [[Asa Earl Carter]].

In 1963, President [[John F. Kennedy]]'s [[Presidency of John F. Kennedy|administration]] ordered the U.S. Army's 2nd Infantry Division from Fort Benning, Georgia to be prepared to enforce the [[racial integration]] of the [[University of Alabama]] in Tuscaloosa. In a vain attempt to halt the enrollment of black students [[Vivian Malone]] and [[James Hood]], Governor Wallace stood in front of [[Foster Auditorium]] at the [[University of Alabama]] on June 11, 1963. This became known as the "[[Stand in the Schoolhouse Door]]".<ref>{{Cite book |last=E. Culpepper Clark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sHIsXlrTmHQC&pg=PA195 |title=The Schoolhouse Door: Segregation's Last Stand at the University of Alabama |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0195096583 |page=195}}</ref>

In September 1963, Wallace attempted to stop four black students from enrolling in four separate elementary schools in [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]]. After intervention by a federal court in [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], the four children were allowed to enter on September 9, becoming the first to integrate a primary or secondary school in Alabama.<ref name="Hereford">{{Cite news |last=Webb |first=Debbie |date=June 11, 2003 |title=Wallace in the Schoolhouse Door: Marking the 40th Anniversary of Alabama's Civil Rights Standoff |url=https://www.npr.org/2003/06/11/1294680/wallace-in-the-schoolhouse-door |access-date=August 17, 2012 |work=NPR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A brief history of race and schools |url=http://www.al.com/specialreport/huntsvilletimes/index.ssf?separateagain/sa4.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423030934/http://www.al.com/specialreport/huntsvilletimes/index.ssf?separateagain%2Fsa4.html |archive-date=April 23, 2008 |website=al.com |agency=The Huntsville Times}}</ref>

Wallace desperately wanted to preserve segregation. In his own words: "The President [John F. Kennedy] wants us to surrender this state to [[Martin Luther King]] and his group of pro-Communists who have instituted these demonstrations."<ref>Alabama Governor George Wallace, public statement of May 8, 1963, in ''[[The New York Times]]''. (May 9, 1963).</ref>

Wallace predicted, during a [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]] speech on September 17, 1964, that the office-holding supporters of a civil rights bill would politically "[[:wikt:bite the dust|bite the dust]]" by 1966 and 1968.<ref>{{Cite news |date=September 18, 1964 |title=Restore U.S. Sanity: Wallace |url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1964/09/18/page/8/article/restore-u-s-sanity-wallace |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803011949/http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1964/09/18/page/8/article/restore-u-s-sanity-wallace/ |archive-date=August 3, 2017 |access-date=May 5, 2017 |publisher=Chicago Tribune}}</ref>

{{external media
| float = right
| video1 = [https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip_151-pr7mp4wh8k "Interview with George Wallace"] conducted in 1986 for the [[Eyes on the Prize]] documentary in which he discusses integration of the University of Alabama, the Birmingham movement, and the Selma voting rights campaign.}}

The ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' characterized him not so much as a segregationist but more as a "populist" who pandered to the white majority of Alabama voters.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite journal |date=August 25, 2012 |title=George C. Wallace |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/634760/George-C-Wallace |journal=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=August 25, 2012}}</ref> It notes that his failed attempt at presidential politics created lessons that later influenced the populist candidacies of [[Jimmy Carter]] and [[Ronald Reagan]].<ref name="Britannica" /> [[Jack Newfield]] wrote in 1971 that Wallace "recently has been sounding like [[William Jennings Bryan]] as he attacked concentrated wealth in his speeches".<ref name="newfield19710719">{{Cite news |last=Newfield, Jack |date=July 19, 1971 |title=A Populist Manifesto: The Making of a New Majority |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A-MCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA39 |access-date=January 6, 2015 |work=New York |pages=39–46}}</ref>

===Economics and education===
{{More citations needed section|date=October 2010}}
The principal achievement of Wallace's first term was an innovation in Alabama industrial development that several other states later copied: he was the first Southern governor to travel to corporate headquarters in northern states to offer tax abatements and other incentives to companies willing to locate plants in Alabama.

He also initiated a [[community college]] system that has now spread throughout the state,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Katsinas |first=Stephen G. |year=1994 |title=George C. Wallace and the Founding of Alabama's Public Two-Year Colleges |journal=The Journal of Higher Education |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=447–472 |doi=10.2307/2943855 |jstor=2943855}}</ref> preparing many students to complete four-year degrees at [[Auburn University]], [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]], or the [[University of Alabama]]. [[Wallace Community College]] ([[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]]), is named for his father. [[Wallace Community College Selma]] ([[Selma, Alabama|Selma]]), and [[Wallace State Community College]] ([[Hanceville, Alabama|Hanceville]]) are named for him. [[Lurleen B. Wallace Community College]] in [[Andalusia, Alabama|Andalusia]] is named for Wallace's first wife, [[Lurleen Burns Wallace]].

The [[University of South Alabama]], a new state university in Mobile, was chartered in 1963 during Wallace's first year in office as governor.

==1964 Democratic presidential primaries==
{{Main|1964 Democratic Party presidential primaries}}
[[File:George Wallace standing at the podium addressing an audience at the Democratic National Convention in Atlantic City, New Jersey, August 1964.jpg|thumb|Wallace addressing an audience at the [[1964 Democratic National Convention]] in [[Atlantic City]], [[New Jersey]]]]
On November 15–20, 1963, in [[Dallas]], Wallace announced his intention to oppose the incumbent president, John F. Kennedy, for the 1964 Democratic presidential nomination. Days later, also in Dallas, Kennedy was [[Assassination of John F. Kennedy|assassinated]], and Vice President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] succeeded him as president.

Building upon his notoriety after the University of Alabama controversy, Wallace entered the [[1964 Democratic Party presidential primaries|Democratic primaries in 1964]] on the advice of a public relations expert from Wisconsin.<ref>Carter (1995), p. 205.</ref> Wallace campaigned strongly by expressing his opposition to integration and a tough approach on crime. In Democratic [[United States presidential primary|primaries]] in Wisconsin, Indiana, and Maryland, Wallace garnered at least a third of the vote running against three Johnson-designated surrogates.<ref>Carter (1995), pp. 198–225.</ref>

Wallace was known for stirring crowds with his oratory. ''[[The Huntsville Times]]'' interviewed Bill Jones, Wallace's first press secretary, who recounted "a particularly fiery speech in Cincinnati, Ohio in 1964 that scared even Wallace, [where he] angrily shouted to a crowd of 1,000 people that 'little Pinkos' were 'running around outside' protesting his visit, and continued, after thunderous applause, saying, 'When you and I start marching and demonstrating and carrying signs, we will close every highway in the country.' The audience leaped to its feet and headed for the exit", Jones said, "It shook Wallace. He quickly moved to calm them down."<ref name="htWallaceA8" />

At graduation exercises in the spring of 1964 at [[Bob Jones University]] in [[Greenville, South Carolina]], Wallace received an honorary doctorate.<ref>Archie Vernon Huff, ''Greenville: the history of the city and county in the South Carolina Piedmont'', Columbia: U South Carolina P, 1995, p. 404.</ref> At the commencement, [[Bob Jones Jr.]], read the following citation as a tribute to Wallace:<ref>Sword of the Lord (June 26, 1964) 2.</ref>

{{blockquote|Men who have fought for truth and righteousness have always been slandered, maligned, and misrepresented. The American press in its attacks upon Governor Wallace has demonstrated that it is no longer free, American, or honest. But you, Mr. Governor, have demonstrated not only by the overwhelming victories in the recent elections in your own state of Alabama, but also in the showing which you have made in states long dominated by cheap demagogues and selfish radicals that there is still in America love for freedom, hard common sense, and at least some hope for the preservation of our constitutional liberties.}}

==1964 unpledged elector slate==
In 1964, Alabama Republicans stood to benefit from the unintended consequences of two developments: (1) Governor Wallace vacating the race for the Democratic presidential nomination against President Johnson, and (2) the designation of unpledged Democratic electors in Alabama, in effect removing President Johnson from the general election ballot. Prior to the [[1964 Republican National Convention]] in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], Wallace and his aides Bill Jones and Seymore Trammell met in the [[Jefferson Davis Hotel]] in Montgomery with Alabama Republican leader [[James D. Martin]], who had narrowly lost the U.S. Senate election in 1962 to [[J. Lister Hill]]. Wallace and his aides sought to determine if [[Barry M. Goldwater]], the forthcoming Republican presidential nominee who as a senator from [[Arizona]] had voted against the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] on libertarian and constitutional grounds, would advocate repeal of the law, particularly the public accommodations and equal employment sections. Bill Jones indicated that Wallace agreed with Goldwater's anti-communist stance but opposed the Republican's proposal to make [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] a voluntary program. Jones stressed that Wallace had sacrificed his own presidential aspirations that year to allow a direct Republican challenge to President Johnson. It was later disclosed that Wallace proposed at the meeting with Martin to switch parties if he could be named as Goldwater's running-mate, a designation later given to [[U.S. Representative]] [[William E. Miller]] of [[New York (state)|New York]]. Goldwater reportedly rejected the overture because he considered Wallace to be a racist.<ref>''[[Montgomery Advertiser]]'', September 23, 1966; Bill Jones, ''The Wallace Story'', pp. 324, 327, 340.</ref>

The unpledged electors in Alabama included the future U.S. senator, [[James Allen (U.S. Senator)|James Allen]], then the [[Lieutenant Governor of Alabama|lieutenant governor]], and the subsequent Governor [[Albert Brewer]], then the state House Speaker. National Democrats balked over Johnson's exclusion from the ballot, but most supported the unpledged slate, which competed directly with the Republican electors. As ''[[The Tuscaloosa News]]'' explained, loyalist electors would have offered a clearer choice to voters than did the unpledged slate.<ref>''[[The Tuscaloosa News]]'', reprinted in ''[[The Birmingham News]]'', September 5, 1964.</ref>

The 1964 Republican electors were the first since [[Reconstruction era in the United States|Reconstruction]] to prevail in Alabama. The Goldwater-Miller slate received 479,085 votes (69.5 percent) to the unpledged electors' 209,848 (30.5 percent). The Republican tide also brought to victory five Republican members of the [[United States House of Representatives]], including [[William Louis Dickinson]], who held the Montgomery-based district seat until 1993, and James D. Martin, the [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] oil products dealer who defeated then State Senator George C. Hawkins for the U.S. House seat formerly held by [[Carl Elliott]]. Hardly yet sworn into the U.S. House, Martin already had his eyes on Wallace's own position as governor.<ref>''[[Congressional Quarterly]]'' report, Volume 23, Issues 40–53, p. 2443.</ref>

==First Gentleman of Alabama==
[[Term limit]]s in the [[Constitution of Alabama|Alabama Constitution]] prevented Wallace from seeking a second term in 1966. Therefore, Wallace offered his wife, [[Lurleen Wallace]], as a [[Power behind the throne|surrogate candidate]] for governor. In the Democratic primary, she defeated two former governors, [[Jim Folsom]] and [[John Malcolm Patterson|John M. Patterson]], [[Attorney General of Alabama|Attorney General]] [[Richmond Flowers Sr.]], and former U.S. Representative [[Carl Elliott]].<ref>Billy Hathorn, "A Dozen Years in the Political Wilderness: The Alabama Republican Party, 1966–1978", ''Gulf Coast Historical Review'', Vol. 9, No. 2 (Spring 1994), p. 22.</ref> Largely through the work of Wallace's supporters, the Alabama restriction on gubernatorial succession was later modified to allow two consecutive terms.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Alabama Constitution of 1901, Amendment 282, Section 116 |url=http://alisondb.legislature.state.al.us/alison/codeofalabama/constitution/1901/CA-246125.htm |access-date=December 30, 2016 |publisher=Alabama State Legislature}}</ref>

Wallace defended his wife's proxy candidacy. He felt somewhat vindicated when Republicans in [[Idaho]] denied renomination in 1966 to [[governor of Idaho|Governor]] [[Robert E. Smylie]], author of the article entitled "Why I Feel Sorry for Lurleen Wallace". In his memoirs, Wallace recounts his wife's ability to "charm crowds" and cast-off invective: "I was immensely proud of her, and it didn't hurt a bit to take a back seat to her in vote-getting ability." Wallace rebuffed critics{{who|date=May 2020}} who claimed that he had "dragooned" his wife into the race. "She loved every minute of being governor the same way ... that [[Margaret Chase Smith|Mrs. (Margaret) Smith]] loves being senator."<ref>"A Dozen Years in the Political Wilderness", p. 22.</ref>

During the 1966 campaign, George Wallace signed state legislation to nullify desegregation guidelines between Alabama cities and counties and the former [[United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare]]. Wallace claimed that the law would thwart the national government from intervening in schools. Critics denounced Wallace's "political trickery" and expressed alarm at the potential forfeiture of federal funds. Republican gubernatorial candidate [[James D. Martin]] accused the Democrats of "playing politics with your children" and "neglecting academic excellence".<ref>''The Huntsville Times'', September 3, 4, 1966; ''Montgomery Advertiser'', September 1, 6, 1966.</ref>

Martin also opposed the desegregation guidelines and had sponsored a U.S. House amendment to forbid the placement of students and teachers on the basis of racial quotas. He predicted that Wallace's legislation would propel the issuance of a court order compelling immediate and total desegregation in all public schools. He also compared the new Alabama law to "another two-and-a-half-minute stand in the schoolhouse door".<ref>''Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report'', October 7, 1966, p. 2350.</ref>

Lurleen Wallace defeated Martin in the [[1966 Alabama gubernatorial election|general election on November 8, 1966]]. She was inaugurated in January 1967, but on May 7, 1968, she died in office of cancer at the age of 41, amid her husband's ongoing second presidential campaign.<ref name="Carter">Carter (1995), pp. 310–312, 317–320.</ref> On her death, she was succeeded by Lieutenant Governor [[Albert Brewer]], who had run without Republican opposition amid the Wallace–Martin races. George Wallace's influence in state government thus subsided until his next bid for election in his own right in 1970. He was "first gentleman" for less than a year and a half.

==1968 third-party presidential run==
{{Main|George Wallace 1968 presidential campaign}}
{{Further|Southern strategy}}
[[File:George C Wallace.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Wallace announcing his Presidential run in 1968]]
Planning for Wallace's 1968 presidential campaign began with a strategy session on the evening of the March 1967 inauguration of Lurleen Wallace. The meeting featured prominent white supremacists and anti-Semites, including: Asa Carter; William Simmons of the [[Citizens' Councils|White Citizens' Council]]; Dallas County Sheriff [[Jim Clark (sheriff)|Jim Clark]]; former Mississippi governor [[Ross Barnett]]; [[Leander Perez]], a fervent Louisiana segregationist and anti-Semite; Kent Courtney, a John Bircher; and "a representative sent by [[Willis Carto]], head of the [[Liberty Lobby]] and publisher of the anti-Semitic magazine ''[[American Mercury]].''"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carter |first=Dan T. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924 |title=The politics of rage : George Wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of American politics |date=1995 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0684809168 |location=New York |pages=295–298 |oclc=32739924}}</ref> [[File:ElectoralCollege1968.svg|thumb|Results of the 1968 presidential election (Wallace won the states in orange).]]
Wallace ran for president in the [[1968 United States presidential election|1968 election]] as the [[American Independent Party]] candidate, with [[Curtis LeMay]] as his candidate for vice president. Wallace hoped to force the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] to decide the election with one vote per state if he could obtain sufficient [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral votes]] to make him a power broker. Wallace hoped that Southern states could use their clout to end [[Federal government of the United States|federal]] efforts at [[Desegregation in the United States|desegregation]]. His platform contained generous increases for beneficiaries of [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] and [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]]. Wallace's foreign policy positions set him apart from the other candidates in the field. "If the [[Vietnam War]] was not winnable within 90 days of his taking office, Wallace pledged an immediate withdrawal of U.S. troops ... Wallace described foreign aid as money 'poured down a rat hole' and demanded that European and Asian allies pay more for their defense."<ref name="Kauffman">[[Bill Kauffman|Kauffman, Bill]] (May 19, 2008) [http://www.theamericanconservative.com/articles/when-the-left-was-right/ When the Left Was Right], ''[[The American Conservative]]''</ref>

[[Richard Nixon]] feared that Wallace might split the conservative vote and allow the Democratic nominee, Vice President [[Hubert H. Humphrey]], to prevail. He mostly attracted the [[Southern Democrats]] who were dissatisfied with the [[1964 Civil Rights Act]] and the [[1965 Voting Rights Act]] that were signed earlier in the decade by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. However, some Democrats feared Wallace's appeal to [[organized labor|organized]] blue-collar workers would damage Humphrey in Northern states such as Ohio, New Jersey and Michigan. Wallace ran a "[[Law and order (politics)|law and order]]" campaign similar to Nixon's, further worrying Republicans.{{sfn|Brands|2010|p=165}}

In Wallace's 1998 obituary, ''The Huntsville Times'' political editor John Anderson summarized the impact from the 1968 campaign: "His startling appeal to millions of alienated white voters was not lost on Richard Nixon and other Republican strategists. First Nixon, then [[Ronald Reagan]], and finally [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] successfully adopted toned-down versions of Wallace's anti-busing, anti-federal government platform to pry low- and middle-income whites from the Democratic [[New Deal]] coalition."<ref name="htWallaceA8" /> Dan Carter, a professor of history at [[Emory University]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], added: "George Wallace laid the foundation for the dominance of the Republican Party in American society through the manipulation of racial and social issues in the 1960s and 1970s. He was the master teacher, and Richard Nixon and the Republican leadership that followed were his students."<ref name="htCarter">Carter, Dan, professor of history at Emory University, quoted in {{Cite news |last=Anderson |first=John |date=September 14, 1998 |title=Former governor shaped politics of Alabama, nation |work=The Huntsville Times |location=[[Huntsville, Alabama]] |page=A1, A8}}</ref>

Wallace considered [[Happy Chandler]], the former [[baseball commissioner]], two-term former [[governor of Kentucky]] and former [[List of United States Senators from Kentucky|Senator from Kentucky]], as his running mate in his 1968 campaign as a third-party candidate; as one of Wallace's aides put it, "We have all the nuts in the country; we could get some decent people–-you working one side of the street and he working the other side." Wallace invited Chandler, but when the press published the prospect, Wallace's supporters objected; Chandler had supported the hiring of [[Jackie Robinson]] by the [[Brooklyn Dodgers]].

Wallace retracted the invitation, and (after considering [[Kentucky Fried Chicken]] founder [[Colonel Sanders|Colonel Harland Sanders]])<ref name=Kauffman/> chose former [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] General [[Curtis LeMay]] of [[California]]. LeMay was considered instrumental in the establishment in 1947 of the [[United States Air Force]] and an expert in military affairs. His four-star military rank, experience at [[Strategic Air Command]] and presence advising President Kennedy during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] were considered foreign-policy assets to the Wallace campaign. By 1968, LeMay had retired and was serving as chairman of the board of an electronics company, but the company threatened to dismiss him if he took a leave of absence to run for vice president. To keep LeMay on the ticket, Wallace backer and Texas oil tycoon [[H. L. Hunt]] set up a million-dollar fund to reimburse LeMay for any income lost in the campaign.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Lesher |first=Stephan |url=https://archive.org/details/georgewallaceame00step |title=George Wallace: American Populist |publisher=Addison Wesley |year=1994 |isbn=978-0201622102 |page=[https://archive.org/details/georgewallaceame00step/page/409 409] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Campaign aides tried to persuade LeMay to avoid questions relating to nuclear weapons, but when asked if he thought their use was necessary to win the Vietnam War, he first said that America could win in Vietnam without them. However, he alarmed the audience by further commenting, "we [Americans] have a phobia about nuclear weapons. I think there may be times when it would be most efficient to use nuclear weapons." The "politically tone-deaf" LeMay became a drag on Wallace's candidacy for the remainder of the campaign.<ref>LeMay and Chandler in {{Cite book |last=Perlstein |first=Rick |author-link=Rick Perlstein |title=Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America |title-link=Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2008 |isbn=978-0743243025 |page=348}}</ref>

In 1968, Wallace pledged that "If some anarchist lies down in front of my automobile, it will be the last automobile he will ever lie down in front of" and asserted that the only [[Four-letter word|four letter words]] that [[hippies]] did not know were "w-o-r-k" and "s-o-a-p." Responding to criticism of the former comment, Wallace later elaborated that he meant such a protester would be punished under the law, not run over. This type of rhetoric became famous. He accused Humphrey and Nixon of wanting to radically desegregate the South. Wallace said, "There's not a dime's worth of difference between the Republicans and Democrats", a campaign slogan that he had first perfected when Lurleen Wallace defeated James D. Martin.

Major [[News media|media outlets]] observed the support Wallace received from extremist groups such as [[Citizens' Councils|White Citizens' Council]]s. It has been noted that members of such groups had permeated the Wallace campaign by 1968 and, while Wallace did not openly seek their support, he also never refused it.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Diamond |first=Sara |url=https://archive.org/details/roadstodominionr00diamrich/page/142 |title=Roads to Dominion: Right-Wing Movements and Political Power in the United States |publisher=Guilford Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0898628647 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/roadstodominionr00diamrich/page/142 142–146]}}</ref> Indeed, at least one case has been documented of the pro-Nazi<ref>Trento, Joseph and Spear, Joseph, "How Nazi Nut Power Has Invaded Capitol Hill", ''True'' (November 1969): 39.</ref> and white supremacist<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pearson |first=Drew |author-link=Drew Pearson (journalist) |last2=Anderson |first2=Jack |author-link2=Jack Anderson (columnist) |year=1966 |title=Drew Pearson and Jack Anderson on The Washington Merry-Go-Round |url=http://dspace.wrlc.org/doc/bitstream/2041/52940/b19f19-1026zdisplay.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718093952/http://dspace.wrlc.org/doc/bitstream/2041/52940/b19f19-1026zdisplay.pdf |archive-date=July 18, 2011 |access-date=August 8, 2010}}</ref> [[Liberty Lobby]] distributing a pro-Wallace pamphlet entitled "Stand up for America" despite the campaign's denial of such a connection.<ref>Carter (1995), pp. 296–297.</ref> Unlike [[Strom Thurmond]] in [[1948 United States presidential election|1948]], Wallace generally avoided race-related discussions. He mostly criticized hippies and "pointy-headed intellectuals". He denied he was racist, saying once, "I've never made a racist speech in my life."{{sfn|Brands|2010|p=165}}

While Wallace carried five Southern states, won almost ten million popular votes and 46 electoral votes, Nixon received 301 electoral votes, more than required to win the election. Wallace remains the last non-Democratic, non-Republican candidate to win any pledged electoral votes. Wallace also received the vote of one [[North Carolina]] elector who had been pledged to Nixon.

Many found Wallace an entertaining campaigner.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} To "[[hippie]]s" who called him a fascist, he replied, "I was killing fascists when you punks were in diapers." Another notable quip: "They're building a bridge over the [[Potomac River|Potomac]] for all the white liberals fleeing to [[Virginia (U.S. state)|Virginia]]."

Wallace decried the [[United States Supreme Court]]'s binding opinion in ''[[Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education]]'', which ordered immediate desegregation of Southern schools – he said the new [[Warren Burger|Burger]] court was "no better than the [[Earl Warren|Warren]] court" and called the justices "limousine hypocrites".<ref>Woodward, Bob; Scott Armstrong (1979). ''The Brethren''. Simon & Schuster. {{ISBN|0671241109}}. p. 56.</ref>

==Second term as governor==
[[File:George Wallace official portrait.jpg|thumb|190 px|Official portrait, {{Circa|1970}}]]
In [[1970 Alabama gubernatorial election|1970]], Wallace sought the Democratic nomination against incumbent governor [[Albert Brewer]], who was the first gubernatorial candidate since Reconstruction to seek African American voter support.<ref name="William">{{Cite book |last=William |first=Warren |title=Alabama: The History of a Deep South State |publisher=[[University of Alabama Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0585263670 |location=Tuscaloosa |page=576 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Although in the 1966 gubernatorial election then state Attorney General Richmond Flowers championed civil rights for all and, with the support of most of Alabama's black voters, finished second in the Democratic primary. Brewer unveiled a progressive platform and worked to build an alliance between blacks and the white working class. Of Wallace's out-of-state trips, Brewer said, "Alabama needs a full-time governor!"<ref name="flowers">{{Cite web |title=Steve Flowers Inside the Statehouse |url=http://www.steveflowers.us/columns/101205.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928125855/http://www.steveflowers.us/columns/101205.htm |archive-date=September 28, 2007 |access-date=October 25, 2006}} Flowers, Steve, "Steve Flowers Inside the Statehouse", October 12, 2005.</ref>

In the primary, Brewer received the most votes but failed to win a majority, which triggered a runoff election.<ref name="Carter IRS">{{Cite book |last=Carter |first=Dan T. |url=https://archive.org/details/grandexpectation00patt/page/46 |title=From George Wallace to Newt Gingrich: Race in the Conservative Counterrevolution, 1963–1994 |publisher=Louisiana State University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0195076806 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/grandexpectation00patt/page/46 46–48]}}</ref>

In what later U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]] called "one of the most racist campaigns in modern southern political history",<ref name="Carter IRS" /> Wallace aired television advertising with slogans such as "Do you want the black bloc electing your governor?" and circulated an ad showing a white girl surrounded by seven black boys, with the slogan "Wake Up Alabama! Blacks vow to take over Alabama."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Swint |first=Di Kerwin C. |title=Mudslingers: The Top 25 Negative Political Campaigns of All Time Countdown from No. 25 to No. 1 |publisher=[[Praeger Publishers|Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0275985103 |page=228}}</ref>
Wallace slurred Brewer, whom he called "[[Sissy]] Britches",<ref>{{Cite news |date=May 4, 1970 |title=Season Openers - Printout |url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,943783,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120914095204/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,943783,00.html |archive-date=September 14, 2012 |access-date=January 8, 2011 |publisher=Time}}</ref> and his family.<ref name="Rogers, 576">Rogers, 576.</ref> In the runoff, Wallace narrowly won the Democratic nomination<ref name="Rogers, 576" /> and won the general election in a landslide.

Though Wallace had promised not to run for president a third time,<ref name=flowers/><ref name="Carter IRS" /> the day after the election, he flew to Wisconsin to campaign for the upcoming [[1972 United States presidential election]].<ref name=flowers/> Wallace, whose presidential ambitions would have been destroyed by a defeat for governor, has been said to have run "one of the nastiest campaigns in state history", using racist rhetoric while proposing few new ideas.<ref name="William" />

== 1972 Democratic presidential primaries and attempted assassination ==
[[File:United States Democratic presidential primaries, 1972 by state.svg|thumb|Green states went to George Wallace in the 1972 Democratic primaries.]][[File:Wallace 1972 campaign logo.svg|thumb| George Wallace 1972 presidential campaign logo]]

On January 13, 1972, Wallace [[1972 Democratic Party presidential primaries|declared himself a Democratic candidate]]. The field included Senator [[George McGovern]], 1968 nominee and former U.S. vice president [[Hubert Humphrey]], and nine other Democratic opponents.

Wallace announced that he no longer supported segregation and had always been a "moderate" on racial matters.<ref name="Woods On Fire" /> This position has been compared to that of Nixon, who in 1969 had instituted the first [[Affirmative Action|affirmative action]] program, the [[Philadelphia Plan]] that established goals and timetables. However, Wallace (similarly to Nixon){{sfn|Parmet|pp=595–597, 603}} expressed continued opposition to [[Desegregation busing in the United States|desegregation busing]].<ref>Carter (1996), pp. 17–32.</ref>
For the next four months, Wallace's campaign proceeded well. In [[Florida]]'s primary, Wallace carried every county to win 42% of the vote.

=== Attempted assassination ===
[[File:George Wallace assassination attempt.jpg|thumb|left|Wallace lies wounded on the ground immediately after the assassination attempt, as his wife, Cornelia, embraces him.]]

On May 15, 1972, Wallace was shot four times by [[Arthur Bremer]] while campaigning at the [[Laurel Shopping Center]] in [[Laurel, Maryland]], at a time when he was receiving high ratings in national opinion polls.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Greider, William |date=May 16, 1972 |title=Wallace Is Shot, Legs Paralyzed; Suspect Seized at Laurel Rally |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/daily/sept98/wallace051672.htm |access-date=August 20, 2013 |work=Washington Post}}</ref> Bremer was seen at a Wallace rally in [[Wheaton, Maryland]], earlier that day and two days earlier at a rally in [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]]. Wallace was hit in the abdomen and chest, and one of the bullets lodged in Wallace's [[spinal cord|spinal column]], leaving him [[paralysis|paralyzed]] from the waist down for the rest of his life. A five-hour operation was needed that evening, and Wallace had to receive several units of blood to survive. Three others who were wounded in the shooting also survived. The shooting and Wallace's subsequent injuries put an effective end to his bid for the Democratic presidential nomination.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Times |first=Walter Rugaber Special to The New York |date=May 17, 1972 |title=Wallace Off the Critical List; Sweeps Primary in Michigan and Wins Handily in Maryland |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/05/17/archives/wallace-off-the-critical-list-sweeps-primary-in-michigan-and-wins.html |access-date=August 22, 2020 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The assassination attempt was caught on film.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 26, 2017 |title=1972 George Wallace Assassination Attempt |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e-q7R_WaKTQ |access-date=November 25, 2021 |website=YouTube}}</ref>

Bremer's diary, ''[[An Assassin's Diary]]'', published after his arrest, shows he was motivated in the assassination attempt by a desire for fame, not by political ideology.{{efn|After the diary was read as evidence in court (including a passage where Bremer wonders whether Wallace's death will bring enough media coverage), [[William V. Shannon]] commented, "He... wanted to have his face flashed on millions of television screens and his name printed on the front pages of every newspaper."<ref name="bigart">{{Cite news |last=Bigart |first=Homer |author-link=Homer Bigart |date=August 4, 1972 |title=Bremer Diary Details Effort to Kill Nixon |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/08/04/archives/bremer-diary-details-effort-to-kill-nixon-jurors-hear-bremers-diary.html |access-date=April 3, 2024 |work=[[New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Shannon |first=William V. |author-link=William V. Shannon |date=August 8, 1972 |title=To Save America's Lost Children |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/08/08/archives/to-save-americas-lost-children.html |access-date=April 3, 2024 |work=[[New York Times]]}}</ref> Psychologist James W. Clarke notes, "Bremer had never been interested in politics... any prominent political leader would do since it was not ideology which motivated" him.<ref>{{registration required|date=April 2024}} {{Cite journal |last=Clarke |first=James W. |date=1981 |title=Emotional Deprivation and Political Deviance: Some Observations on Governor Wallace's Would-Be Assassin, Arthur H. Bremer |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3791286 |journal=[[Political Psychology]] |volume=3 |issue=1/2 |pages=84–115 |doi=10.2307/3791286 |jstor=3791286 |access-date=April 3, 2024}}</ref>}} He had considered President Nixon an earlier target.<ref name="bigart" /> He was convicted at trial. On August 4, 1972, Bremer was sentenced to 63 years in prison,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bigart |first=Homer |author-link=Homer Bigart |date=August 5, 1972 |title=Bremer Guilty in Shooting Of Wallace, Gets 63 Years |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/08/05/archives/bremer-guilty-in-shooting-of-wallace-gets-63-years-bremer-found.html |access-date=April 3, 2024 |work=[[New York Times]]}}</ref> later reduced to 53 years.<ref>{{Cite news |date=September 29, 1972 |title=BREMER TERM CUT BY 10 YEARS TO 53 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/09/29/archives/bremer-term-cut-by-10-years-to-53.html |access-date=April 3, 2024 |work=[[New York Times]]}}</ref> Bremer served 35 years and was released on parole on November 9, 2007.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lyons |first=Patrick J. |date=November 9, 2007 |title=Arthur Bremer, Who Shot Wallace, Is Freed |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/11/09/arthur-bremer-who-shot-wallace-is-freed/ |access-date=April 3, 2024 |work=[[New York Times]]}}</ref>

[[CBS News]] correspondent David Dick won an [[Emmy Award]] for his coverage of the attempt on Wallace's life.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cheryl Truman, "David Dick, former CBS newsman from Ky., dies at age 80: CBS veteran embraced rural life", July 17, 2010 |url=http://www.kentucky.com/2010/07/17/1351911/david-dick-former-cbs-newsman.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715134936/http://www.kentucky.com/2010/07/17/1351911/david-dick-former-cbs-newsman.html |archive-date=July 15, 2014 |access-date=June 3, 2014 |website=[[Lexington Herald-Leader]]}}</ref>

=== Rest of the campaign ===
[[File:Wallace1972brochure.gif|thumb|right|A campaign brochure]]
Following the assassination attempt, Wallace was visited at the hospital by Democratic Representative and presidential primary rival [[Shirley Chisholm]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 4, 2005 |title=Shirley Chisholm |url=http://www.blogofdeath.com/archives/001272.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103105339/http://www.blogofdeath.com/archives/001272.html |archive-date=January 3, 2011 |access-date=January 8, 2011 |publisher=The Blog of Death}}</ref> a representative from [[Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn]]. At the time, she was the nation's only African-American female member of Congress. Despite their ideological differences and the opposition of Chisholm's constituents, Chisholm felt visiting Wallace was the humane thing to do. Other people to visit Wallace in hospital were President Nixon, Vice President [[Spiro Agnew]], and presidential primary rivals Hubert Humphrey, George McGovern, and [[Ted Kennedy]]. He also received telegrams from former President Lyndon Johnson, California governor [[Ronald Reagan]] and [[Pope Paul VI]].

After the shooting, Wallace won primaries in Maryland and Michigan, but his near assassination effectively ended his campaign. From his wheelchair, Wallace spoke on July 11, 1972, at the Democratic National Convention in [[Miami Beach, Florida]].

Since Wallace was out of Alabama for more than 20 days while he was recovering in Holy Cross Hospital in [[Silver Spring, Maryland|Silver Spring]], Maryland, the [[Constitution of Alabama|state constitution]] required Lieutenant Governor [[Jere Beasley]] to serve as [[acting governor]] from June 5 until Wallace's return to [[Alabama]] on July 7. Wallace resumed his gubernatorial duties and easily won the 1974 primary and general election, when he defeated Republican State Senator Elvin McCary, a real estate developer from [[Anniston, Alabama|Anniston]], who received less than 15% of the ballots cast.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 8, 2010 |title=Election Results Archive - Governor |url=https://www.sos.alabama.gov/sites/default/files/election-data/2017-06/eagovernor1946-2010.xls |access-date=June 19, 2022 |website=[[Alabama Secretary of State]]}}</ref>

In 1992, when asked to comment on the 20th anniversary of his attempted assassination, Wallace replied, "I've had 20 years of pain."<ref name="htObitOwnWords">{{Cite news |last=Wallace |first=George |date=September 14, 1998 |title=Wallace in his own words |work=The Huntsville Times |location=[[Huntsville, Alabama]] |page=A9}}</ref>

==1976 Democratic presidential primaries==
[[File:Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries_results,_1976.svg|thumb|States in green went to Wallace in the 1976 Democratic primaries.]][[File:George Wallace presidential campaign, 1976.png|thumb|George Wallace 1976 presidential campaign logo]]
[[File:Alabama highway safety conference.png|thumb|left|Wallace (right, seated) hosting a highway safety conference in 1975]]
In November 1975, Wallace announced his fourth bid for the presidency, again participating in the [[1976 Democratic Party presidential primaries|Democratic presidential primaries]]. Wallace's campaign was plagued by voter concern about his health<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 13, 1975 |title=Wallace enters race |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=hOghAAAAIBAJ&pg=3192%2C1568719 |access-date=December 12, 2017 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=The Cavalier Daily |page=1 |location=Charlottesville, Virginia}}</ref> as well as the media use of images that portrayed him as nearly helpless.<ref>{{Cite news |date=March 13, 1976 |title=Wallace presses the health issue |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/03/13/archives/wallace-presses-the-health-issue-in-illinois-he-attributes-florida.html |access-date=November 6, 2022 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> His supporters complained that such coverage was motivated by bias, citing the discretion used in coverage of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s paralysis, before television became commercially available. In the Southern primaries and caucuses, Wallace carried only Mississippi, South Carolina and his home state of Alabama. If the popular vote in all primaries and caucuses were combined, Wallace would have placed third behind former Georgia governor [[Jimmy Carter]] and California governor [[Jerry Brown]]. After the primaries were completed, and he had lost several Southern primaries to Carter, Wallace left the race in June 1976. He eventually endorsed Carter, who defeated Republican incumbent [[Gerald Ford]].

==Final term as governor==
[[File:Governor George Wallace (205360242).jpg|thumb|upright|Wallace in 1982 at the Elmore Airshow in [[Elmore, Alabama]]]]
In the late 1970s, Wallace announced that he was a [[Born again|born-again Christian]] and apologized to black civil rights leaders for his past actions as a segregationist. He said that while he had once sought power and glory, he realized he needed to seek love and forgiveness.<ref group="note">According to Carter (1995, pp. 236–37), "But no one who knew Wallace well ever took seriously his earnest profession – uttered a thousand times after 1963 – that he [had been] a segregationist, not a racist. ... Wallace, like most white southerners of his generation, [had] genuinely believed blacks to be a separate, inferior race."</ref> In 1979, Wallace said of his stand in the schoolhouse door: "I was wrong. Those days are over, and they ought to be over."<ref name="over">Edwards, George C., ''Government in America: people, politics, and policy''(2009), Pearson Education, 80.</ref> He publicly asked for forgiveness from black Americans.<ref name="over" /><ref name="Elliott">{{Cite news |last=Elliott |first=Debbie |date=September 14, 1998 |title=Remembering George Wallace |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1024881 |access-date=February 4, 2015 |publisher=[[National Public Radio]]}}</ref>

In the 1982 Alabama gubernatorial Democratic primary, Wallace's main opponents were Lieutenant Governor [[George McMillan (politician)|George McMillan]] and Alabama House Speaker [[Joe McCorquodale]]. In the primary, McCorquodale was eliminated, and the vote went to a runoff, with Wallace holding a slight edge over McMillan. Wallace won the Democratic nomination by a margin of 51 to 49 percent. In the [[1982 Alabama gubernatorial election|general election]], his opponent was Montgomery Republican Mayor [[Emory Folmar]]. Polling experts at first thought the 1982 election was the best chance since Reconstruction for a Republican to be elected as governor of Alabama.{{citation needed|date=September 2011}} Ultimately, though, it was Wallace, not Folmar, who claimed victory.

During Wallace's final term as governor (1983–1987) he appointed a record number of black Americans to state positions,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Foner |first=Eric |url=https://archive.org/details/readerscompanion00fone |title=The Reader's Companion to American History |last2=John Arthur Garraty |last3=Society of American Historians |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=1991 |isbn=978-0395513729 |page=[https://archive.org/details/readerscompanion00fone/page/n1154 1127] |url-access=registration}}</ref> including, for the first time, two as members in the cabinet.

On April 2, 1986, Wallace announced at a press conference in Montgomery that he would not run for a fifth term as Governor of Alabama, and would retire from public life after leaving the governor's mansion in January 1987.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Daniel |first=Clifton |url=https://archive.org/details/20thcenturydayby00shar_0 |title=20th Century, Day by Day |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |year=1999 |isbn=978-0789446404 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/20thcenturydayby00shar_0/page/n1284 1279] |ref=TwentiethCentury |url-access=registration}}</ref> Wallace achieved four gubernatorial terms across three decades, totaling 16 years in office.

==Marriages and children==
Wallace married [[Lurleen Wallace|Lurleen Brigham Burns]] on May 22, 1943.<ref name="Frederick, 2007, p. 12" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lesher |first=Stephan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzJ7-p31HRwC&pg=PA49 |title=George Wallace: American Populist |publisher=Hachette Books |year=1994 |isbn=978-0201407983 |page=49}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=April 24, 1969 |title=City Has Been Home of Four Governors |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1817&dat=19690424&id=ciceAAAAIBAJ&pg=7288,6033471 |work=The Tuscaloosa News |page=14E}}</ref> The couple had four children together: Bobbi Jo (1944) Parsons, Peggy Sue (1950) Kennedy, [[George Wallace Jr.|George III]], known as George Junior (1951), and Janie Lee (1961), who was named after [[Robert E. Lee]]. Lurleen Wallace was the first woman to be elected governor of Alabama, which she did as a stand-in for her husband, who was [[term limit|barred]] from serving another term. In 1961, in keeping with the practice of many at the time to shield patients from discussion of cancer, which was greatly feared, Wallace had withheld information from her that a uterine biopsy had found possibly precancerous cells.<ref>Carter (1995), pp. 277–278.</ref> After Lurleen's death in 1968, the couple's younger children, aged 18, 16, and 6, were sent to live with family members and friends for care (their eldest daughter had already married and left home).<ref name="Carter" />

Their son, commonly called [[George Wallace Jr.]], is a Democrat-turned-Republican formerly active in Alabama politics. He was twice elected state treasurer as a Democrat, and twice elected to the [[Alabama Public Service Commission]]. He lost a race in 2006 for the Republican nomination for lieutenant governor. In 2010, Wallace Jr. failed by a wide margin to win the Republican nod to regain his former position as state treasurer.{{citation needed|date = March 2021}}

On January 4, 1971, Wallace wed the former [[Cornelia Wallace|Cornelia Ellis Snively]] (1939–2009), a niece of former Alabama governor [[Jim Folsom]], known as "Big Jim". "C'nelia" had been a performer and was nicknamed "the [[Jacqueline Kennedy|Jackie Kennedy]] of the rednecks." The couple had a bitter divorce in 1978. A few months after that divorce, Cornelia told [[Parade (magazine)|''Parade'']] magazine, "I don't believe George needs a family. He just needs an audience. The family as audience wasn't enough for his ego."<ref name="htWallaceA8" /> Snively died at the age of 69 on January 8, 2009.<ref>[http://www.wztv.com/template/inews_wire/wires.regional.al/31633b7d-www.fox17.com.shtml Former Alabama first lady Cornelia Wallace dies]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, WZTV FOX17/Nashville</ref>

On September 9, 1981, Wallace married Lisa Taylor, a [[country music]] singer; they divorced on February 2, 1987, weeks after Wallace had left office for the fourth and final time.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stephan Lesher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzJ7-p31HRwC&pg=PA498 |title=George Wallace: American Populist |publisher=Da Capo Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0201407983 |pages=498–99}}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=December 29, 2023 |title=WALLACE DIVORCE REPORTED |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1987/02/03/wallace-divorce-reported/882b9d87-5509-481b-81bd-096a6732b773/ |access-date=March 9, 2024 |work=Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref>

Peggy was 12 years old when her father ran successfully for governor. She has shared that she was not treated nicely out in public due to her father's segregationist views. Some people would not shake her hand because of her last name. She would go to school wanting to befriend the black students, but she assumed that they would not like her because of what her father had done.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blake |first=John |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1098920753 |title=Children of the movement |date=2007 |publisher=Chicago Review Press |others=Hoopla digital |isbn=978-1-56976-594-4 |location=[United States] |oclc=1098920753}}</ref>

==Final years and death==
In a 1995 interview, Wallace said that he planned to vote for Republican [[Bob Dole]] in the [[1996 United States presidential election|1996 presidential election]], commenting, <blockquote>He's a good man. [[Elizabeth Dole|His wife]] is a [[born-again Christian]] woman and I believe he is, too.</blockquote>He also revealed that he had voted for [[George H. W. Bush]], another Republican, in [[1992 United States presidential election|1992]]. His son, George Wallace Jr., officially switched from Democrat to Republican that same year. Wallace himself declined to identify as either a Republican or a Democrat. But he added, "The state is slowly going Republican because of [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] being so [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberal]]."<ref name="Gadsden Times">{{Cite news |date=September 16, 1995 |title=Wallace backs Bob Dole for president |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1891&dat=19950916&id=acIfAAAAIBAJ&pg=2447,1516586 |access-date=September 27, 2017 |work=The Gadsden Times}}</ref>

In his later years, Wallace grew deaf and developed [[Parkinson's disease]].<ref name="Gadsden Times" />

At a restaurant a few blocks from the State Capitol, Wallace became something of a fixture. In constant pain, he was surrounded by an entourage of old friends and visiting well-wishers and continued this ritual until a few weeks before his death. Wallace died of [[septic shock]] from a bacterial infection in Jackson Hospital in Montgomery on September 13, 1998.<ref name="indy">{{Cite news |last=Cornwell |first=Rupert |author-link=Rupert Cornwell |date=September 15, 1998 |title=Obituary: George Wallace |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-george-wallace-1198238.html |access-date=August 23, 2019 |work=The Independent}}</ref> He had respiratory problems in addition to complications from his gunshot spinal injury. His grave is located at [[Greenwood Cemetery (Montgomery, Alabama)|Greenwood Cemetery]], in Montgomery.

==Legacy==
{{external media| float = right| video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?54899-1/george-wallace-american-populist ''Booknotes'' interview with Stephen Lesher on ''George Wallace: American Populist'', February 27, 1994], [[C-SPAN]]| video2 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?164890-4/influence-governor-george-wallace ''Washington Journal'' interview with Dan T. Carter on the influence of George Wallace, June 23, 2001], [[C-SPAN]]}}

Wallace was also an unusual candidate who refused to condemn [[political violence]]. Ziblatt and Levitsky describe Wallace as an autocratic figure who exhibited a casual disregard for the constitution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Levitsky |first=Steven |title=How Democracies Die |last2=Ziblatt |first2=Daniel |date=2019 |publisher=Broadway Books |isbn=978-1-5247-6293-3 |location=New York |chapter=Chapter 3}}</ref> Wallace was the subject of a documentary, ''George Wallace: Settin' the Woods on Fire'' (2000), shown by [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] on ''The [[American Experience]]''.<ref name="Woods On Fire" /><ref name="Woods On Fire website">{{Cite web |year=1999 |title=George Wallace: Settin' the Woods on Fire (web site) |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wallace/ |access-date=May 25, 2006 |website=The American Experience |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]]}} Web site for the PBS documentary, including a complete transcript, references to other Wallace information, and tools for teachers.</ref>

With four failed runs for president, Wallace was unsuccessful in national politics.<ref>"Victorious Loser", ''Newsweek'', May 13, 1964, p. 13.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Irving Louis Horowitz |url=https://archive.org/details/winnersloserssoc0000horo |title=Winners and Losers: Social and Political Polarities in America |publisher=Duke University Press |year=1984 |page=[https://archive.org/details/winnersloserssoc0000horo/page/164 164] |url-access=registration}}</ref> His impact on American politics was significant with his biographers calling him "the most influential loser" in 20th century American politics.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Carter |first=Dan T. |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofragege0000cart |title=The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=1995 |isbn=978-0807125977 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicsofragege0000cart/page/468 468] |ref=Carter1995 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Lesher |first=Stephan |url=https://archive.org/details/georgewallaceame00step |title=George Wallace: American Populist |publisher=Addison-Wesley |year=1994 |isbn=978-0201622102 |location=Reading, Mass. |page=xi |ref=Lesher |url-access=registration}}</ref> In a YouTube documentary, [[Pat Buchanan]] stated that Wallace influenced "Nixon and Agnew, the Reagan movement, the Buchanan movement, the Perot movement."<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 23, 2014 |title=George Wallace Documentary - Part 2 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bMva835Hd9I |access-date=July 29, 2022 |publisher=YouTube}}</ref>

The TNT cable network produced a movie, ''[[George Wallace (film)|George Wallace]]'' (1997), directed by [[John Frankenheimer]] and starring [[Gary Sinise]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=James |first=Caryn |author-link=Caryn James |date=August 23, 1997 |title=Going Beyond Just Facts To Show a Hollow Soul |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/23/arts/going-beyond-just-facts-to-show-a-hollow-soul.html |access-date=April 1, 2024 |work=[[New York Times]]}}</ref> Sinise received an [[Emmy Award]] for his performance<ref>{{Cite web |title=1998 - 50th Emmy Awards {{!}} Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Special - 1998 |url=https://www.emmys.com/awards/nominees-winners/1998/outstanding-lead-actor-in-a-miniseries-or-a-movie |access-date=April 1, 2024 |website=emmys.com}}</ref> during [[50th Primetime Emmy Awards|a ceremony]] held the day Wallace died.<ref>{{Cite news |date=September 14, 1998 |title=Actor Finds Wallace Life 'Hopeful' |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/actor-finds-wallace-life-hopeful/ |access-date=April 1, 2024 |publisher=[[CBS News]]}}</ref> Sinise reprised this role in the 2002 film ''[[Path to War]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |last=James |first=Caryn |author-link=Caryn James |date=May 17, 2002 |title=Many Advise, Mr. President, but You Decide |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/17/movies/tv-weekend-many-advise-mr-president-but-you-decide.html |access-date=April 1, 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> In the 2014 film ''[[Selma (film)|Selma]]'', which was set during the Civil Rights Movement, which then-Governor Wallace publicly opposed, Wallace was portrayed by actor [[Tim Roth]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Scott |first=A.O. |author-link=A. O. Scott |date=December 24, 2014 |title=A 50-Mile March, Nearly 50 Years Later |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/25/arts/in-selma-king-is-just-one-of-the-heroes.html |access-date=April 1, 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Over 50 songs have been released about or making reference to George Wallace.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brummer |first=Justin |title=Governor George C. Wallace Songs |url=https://rateyourmusic.com/list/JBrummer/governor-george-c-wallace-songs/ |access-date=August 9, 2019 |website=RYM}}</ref> The [[George Wallace Tunnel]] on [[Interstate 10]], constructed in 1973, was named for him. Three community colleges in Alabama are named for Wallace: [[Wallace Community College]], [[Wallace Community College Selma]], and [[Wallace State Community College]]. [[Lurleen B. Wallace Community College]] is named for his wife. In 2020, amidst a change in public opinion, many Alabama universities were pushed to rename campus buildings that were originally named after Wallace. This included, but was not limited to, the [[University of Montevallo]] and [[Auburn University]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nail |first=Tim |title=Petition calls for University to rename Wallace Hall |url=https://www.theplainsman.com/article/2020/06/petition-calls-for-university-to-rename-wallace-hall |access-date=October 13, 2020 |website=The Auburn Plainsman}}</ref> The University of Montevallo has been unsuccessful in renaming the George C. Wallace Speech and Hearing Center because the building was named via Act 110 by the [[Alabama Legislature]] in 1975.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Balasky |first=Bri |date=September 30, 2020 |title=Board of Trustees votes to rename Bibb Graves and Comer |url=https://www.thealabamian.com/board-of-trustees-votes-to-rename-bibb-graves-and-comer/ |access-date=October 13, 2020 |website=The Alabamian}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Alabama|Biography}}
* [[Democratic backsliding in the United States]]
* [[Electoral history of George Wallace]]
* [[Southern Democrats]]

==Footnotes==
{{Notelist}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{Cite book |last=Brands |first=H.W. |author-link=H.W. Brands |url=https://archive.org/details/americandreamsun00bran |title=American Dreams: The United States Since 1945 |date=2010 |publisher=Penguin Press |isbn=978-1594202629 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Parmet |first=Herbert S. |url=https://archive.org/details/richardnixonhisa00parm_0 |title=Richard Nixon and His America |publisher=Little, Brown & Co |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-316-69232-8 |location=Boston |ref={{sfnRef|Parmet}}}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |last=Frady |first=Marshall |url=https://archive.org/details/wallace00frad/mode/2up |title=Wallace |publisher=World Publishing Co. |year=1968 |isbn=9780307561053 |location=New York |oclc=1200799828 |ref=none}} (1996 Random House ed.).
* {{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Peggy Wallace |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ENzTvgEACAAJ |title=The Broken Road: George Wallace and a Daughter's Journey to Reconciliation |last2=H. Mark Kennedy |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2019 |isbn=978-1635573657 |location=New York |oclc=1076505149 |ref=none}}

==External links==
{{External links|section|date=June 2019}}
{{Sister project links|d=Q313776|s=Author:George Corley Wallace|c=Category:George Wallace|q=George Wallace|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|species=no}}
* [http://www.archives.state.al.us/govs_list/schooldoor.html Governor Wallace's Schoolhouse Door speech] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020806081029/http://www.archives.state.al.us/govs_list/schooldoor.html |date=August 6, 2002 }} archived at The University of Alabama
* [http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1676 George Wallace article] at the ''Encyclopedia of Alabama''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100913220518/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/7624706/George-Wallace.html George Wallace] – ''Daily Telegraph'' obituary
* [http://docsouth.unc.edu/sohp/A-0024/menu.html Oral History Interview with George Wallace] from [http://docsouth.unc.edu/sohp/ Oral Histories of the American South]
* Caught on Tape: The White House Reaction to the Shooting of Alabama Governor and Democratic Presidential Candidate George Wallace from History's News Network: http://hnn.us/articles/45104.html
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wallace/ ''George Wallace: Settin' the Woods on Fire'']—[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] ''[[American Experience]]'' documentary, including complete transcript, teacher tools and links
* [http://digital.archives.alabama.gov/cdm/singleitem/collection/voices/id/2952/rec/5 1963 gubernatorial inauguration address]
* [http://www.legacy.com/DecaturDaily/DeathNotices.asp?Page=Lifestory&PersonID=122382790 Cornelia Wallace's Obituary] on ''[[Decatur Daily]]''
* [http://politicalgraveyard.com/bio/wallace.html Political Graveyard]
* {{C-SPAN|56987}}
** [http://www.c-span.org/video/?301279-1/george-wallace-presidential-contender "George Wallace, Presidential Contender"] from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[The Contenders]]''
* [http://purl.lib.ua.edu/82843 Speech by George Wallace given on March 16, 1970.] Audio recording from [http://purl.lib.ua.edu/18388 The University of Alabama's Emphasis Symposium on Contemporary Issues]
* [http://dmr.bsu.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/HistFilmVid&CISOPTR=9&CISOBOX=1&REC=7 Footage of campaign speech given by George Wallace] on May 1, 1964, at Ball State Teachers College in Muncie, Indiana
* [http://www.ep.tc/georgewallace/ Alabama Needs "The Little Judge" – 1960/1961 Pro-Segregation Comic Book commissioned directly by George Wallace during his campaign for Governor of Alabama.]
* {{IMDb name|0908650}}
* {{NYTtopic|people/w/george_c_wallace}}
* Meeting [[Elvis Presley]] with his family backstage before Elvis's concert at the Garrett Coliseum in Montgomery, AL on March 6, 1974. http://www.elvis-collectors.com/candid-central/wallace74.html
* [https://arcweb.archives.gov/arc/action/ExternalIdSearch?id=279204 Testimony from Hosea Williams, John Lewis, and Amelia Boynton et al. v. Honorable George C. Wallace, Governor of Alabama et al.]{{Dead link|date=February 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} from the [[National Archives and Records Administration]]

{{s-start}}
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{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Governors of Alabama|Governor of Alabama]]|years=1963–1967}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[Albert Brewer]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Governors of Alabama|Governor of Alabama]]|years=1971–1979}}
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{{s-aft|after=[[Martha Farmer Brewer]]|as=First Lady of Alabama}}
{{s-end}}

{{George Wallace}}
{{Governors of Alabama}}
{{AIPPresidentialNominees}}
{{Historical right-wing third party presidential tickets (U.S.)}}
{{United States presidential election, 1964}}
{{United States presidential election, 1968}}
{{United States presidential election, 1972}}
{{United States presidential election, 1976}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wallace, George}}
[[Category:George Wallace| ]]
[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:1998 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American lawyers]]
[[Category:20th-century Alabama politicians]]
[[Category:Alabama lawyers]]
[[Category:Alabama state court judges]]
[[Category:American anti-communists]]
[[Category:American Independent Party presidential nominees]]
[[Category:American male boxers]]
[[Category:American politicians with disabilities]]
[[Category:American segregationists]]
[[Category:American shooting survivors]]
[[Category:American United Methodists]]
[[Category:Former white supremacists]]
[[Category:Candidates in the 1964 United States presidential election]]
[[Category:Candidates in the 1968 United States presidential election]]
[[Category:Candidates in the 1972 United States presidential election]]
[[Category:Candidates in the 1976 United States presidential election]]
[[Category:Neurological disease deaths in Alabama]]
[[Category:Deaths from Parkinson's disease in the United States]]
[[Category:Deaths from sepsis in the United States]]
[[Category:Democratic Party governors of Alabama]]
[[Category:First ladies and gentlemen of Alabama]]
[[Category:Infectious disease deaths in Alabama]]
[[Category:Democratic Party members of the Alabama House of Representatives]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Alabama]]
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[[Category:Politicians with paraplegia]]
[[Category:Right-wing populists in the United States]]
[[Category:School segregation in the United States]]
[[Category:United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:United States Army Air Forces non-commissioned officers]]
[[Category:University of Alabama School of Law alumni]]
[[Category:Wallace family of Alabama]]
[[Category:Wheelchair users]]
[[Category:20th-century American judges]]
[[Category:American lawyers with disabilities]]
[[Category:Delta Chi members]]

Battleground Texas

2024-09-18T01:31:22Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding PAC logo to infobox.

{{Short description|American Political Action Committee}}
{{Infobox organization
| image = BattlegroundTexasLogo.png
| formation = 2013
| type = [[Political Action Committee|PAC]]
| status =
| purpose =
| headquarters = [[Austin, Texas]]<ref name=Current/>
| leader_title = Board Chair
| leader_name = Jenn Brown
| leader_title2 = Senior Adviser
| leader_name2 = [[Jeremy Bird]]
| leader_name3 =
| leader_title3 =
| leader_title4 =
| leader_name4 =
| key_people =
| affiliations = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]
| budget =
| name = Battleground Texas
| former name =
| image_border =
| size =
| abbreviation = BGTX
| location =
| region_served =
| membership =
| num_staff =
| num_volunteers =
| website = {{URL|https://www.battlegroundtexas.com/}}
}}

'''Battleground Texas''' is a state and federal [[Political Action Committee]] (PAC)<ref name=Waco>{{cite news|last=Whitaker|first=Bill|title=Democrats try to stake claim in Texas: Q&A with Alex Steele of Battleground Texas|url=http://www.wacotrib.com/opinion/interviews/democrats-try-to-stake-claim-in-texas-q-a-with/article_9a57fc1c-f292-554f-9e93-efeac8acfa9e.html|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=Waco Tribune-Herald|date=28 July 2013}}</ref> founded with the goal of making [[Texas]] a [[swing state]]. It was established by veteran political strategist [[Jeremy Bird]].

==Establishment and background==
Battleground Texas was founded by former [[Barack Obama presidential campaign, 2012|Obama campaign operative]] [[Jeremy Bird]], the national field director of the 2012 Obama campaign. In establishing Battleground Texas, Bird stated, "This program will make Texas a [[battleground state]] by treating it as one."<ref name=CNN>{{cite news|last=Wallace|first=Gregory|title=Could Texas be a battleground state?|url=http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2013/02/26/could-texas-be-a-battleground-state/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130301062337/http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2013/02/26/could-texas-be-a-battleground-state/|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 1, 2013|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=CNN|date=26 February 2013}}</ref> Texas has not elected a Democratic governor since [[Ann Richards]]'s [[Texas gubernatorial election, 1990|1990 election victory]], and has not voted for a Democratic presidential candidate since [[Jimmy Carter]]'s [[1976 United States presidential election|1976 election]].

Democrats have long hoped to make Texas competitive, and the state has a [[Demographics of Texas|large population]] of [[Hispanic-Americans]], [[African-Americans]], and other [[Democratic Party (United States)#Composition|Democratic-leaning constituencies]]. The [[2010 United States Census|2010 census]] found that only 45 percent of Texans are [[White American|non-Hispanic whites]], a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]-leaning constituency.<ref name="Politico">{{cite news|last=Burns|first=Alexander|title=Democrats launch plan to turn Texas blue|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2013/01/democrats-launch-plan-to-turn-texas-blue-86651.html|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=Politico|date=24 January 2013}}</ref> By 2020, Hispanics are expected to outnumber whites in Texas.<ref name="NJ">{{cite news|last=Izadi|first=Elahe|title=How Democrats Are Aiming to Make Texas a Swing State|url=http://www.nationaljournal.com/daily/how-democrats-are-aiming-to-make-texas-a-swing-state-20130908|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=National Journal|date=8 September 2013}}</ref> [[Asian-Americans]] are also growing in population in the state.<ref name="NJ"/>

However, Hispanics in Texas have not turned out to vote in the same numbers as other demographic groups.<ref name="NJ"/> Although Democrats have noticed the problem for at least fifteen years, they never succeeded in boosting Democratic turnout.<ref name=BW>{{cite news|last=Tackett|first=Michael|title=Texas, Election Battleground: Democrats Aim to Mobilize the Hispanic Vote|url=http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-04-11/texas-election-battleground-democrats-aim-to-mobilize-the-hispanic-vote|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130414050735/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-04-11/texas-election-battleground-democrats-aim-to-mobilize-the-hispanic-vote|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 14, 2013|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=Bloomberg Business Week|date=11 April 2013}}</ref> Many voter registration groups, such as the nonpartisan [[Rock the Vote]], largely avoided Texas due to Texas's relatively demanding [[voter registration]] laws,<ref name=draper/> which consists of filling out a form and submitting it postage-free to the county voter registrar<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sos.state.tx.us/elections/pamphlets/largepamp.shtml|title=Texas Voting |access-date= 9 October 2015}}</ref> and verifying your identity at the polls with a free Texas Election Identification Certificate (EIC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dps.texas.gov/DriverLicense/electionID.htm|title=Election Identification Certificate (EIC)|access-date=9 October 2015}}</ref> Jenn Brown, board chair of Battleground Texas, has described Texas as a "non-voting state";<ref name="DMN">{{cite news|last=Brown|first=Jenn|title=Texas is not innately conservative|url=http://www.dallasnews.com/opinion/sunday-commentary/20130802-texas-is-not-innately-conservative.ece|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=Dallas Morning News|date=4 August 2013}}</ref> in [[Texas gubernatorial election, 2010|2010]], [[Governor of Texas|Governor]] [[Rick Perry]] was voted for by only 18 percent of voting age Texan citizens in his successful [[Texas gubernatorial election, 2010|re-election campaign]].<ref name="Current">{{cite news|last=Wright|first=Jeffrey|title=The Hunt for Blue November: Why Battleground Texas Needs White Women|url=http://sacurrent.com/news/the-hunt-for-blue-november-why-battleground-texas-needs-white-women-1.1524660|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=[[San Antonio Current]]|date=24 July 2013}}</ref>

==Goals==
The group sees its goal of winning elections in Texas as requiring a long-term commitment, with the need to identify and mobilize Democratic-leaning voters. However, with Texas's 38 [[electoral votes]] and 36 seats in the [[United States House of Representatives]], the backers of Battleground Texas view a long-term effort as being worth the necessary time and money.<ref name="Politico"/> The group plans to increase turnout among African-Americans, [[Asian-Americans]], and Hispanic-Americans while also helping the Democratic Party win more [[White American|white]] votes, particularly the votes of white women.<ref name="NJ"/> Political demographer [[Ruy Texeira]] suggested one of the goals of the group would be to raise turnout among educated, relatively liberal white voters in large metropolitan areas, such as in [[Houston]] and [[Dallas]].<ref name="Current"/> Battleground Texas also hopes to help Democrats win more votes in rural areas and plans to have a presence in all [[List of counties in Texas|254 Texas counties]].<ref name=NPR2>{{cite news|last=Gonyea|first=Don|title=Obama Campaigners Try To Get Texas Fired Up For Democrats|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/itsallpolitics/2013/07/02/197652048/obama-campaigners-try-to-get-texas-fired-up-for-democrats|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=NPR|date=2 July 2013}}</ref> Young voters are another target of Battleground Texas.<ref name=Tejano>{{cite news|last=Stitch|first=Ariel|title=Battleground Texas seeks to turn Texas blue|url=http://tejanotribune.com/archives/1332|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=Tejano Tribune|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921061106/http://tejanotribune.com/archives/1332|archive-date=21 September 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The group hopes to make a Democratic presidential candidate competitive in the state by 2020.<ref name=NPR>{{cite news|last=Liasson|first=Mara|title=Will Texas Become A Presidential Battleground?|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/itsallpolitics/2013/07/01/197692543/will-texas-become-a-presidential-battleground|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=NPR|date=1 July 2013}}</ref> In the short-term, Battleground Texas plans on targeting races that are either winnable or important for building Democratic infrastructure in the state.<ref name=Prospect>{{cite news|last=Rapoport|first=Abby|title=prospect.org/article/can-obamas-organizing-army-take-texas|url=http://prospect.org/article/can-obamas-organizing-army-take-texas|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=The American Prospect|date=5 June 2013}}</ref> The goals of Battleground Texas are "unusually ambitious", since most American political organizations focus on [[Elections in the United States#Congressional elections|two]] and [[Elections in the United States#Presidential elections|four year]] election cycles.<ref name=Reuters/>

==Leadership and staff==
Jenn Brown serves as the group's board chair,<ref name="NJ"/> while [[Jeremy Bird]] serves as a senior adviser.<ref name="Staffing Up">{{cite news|last=Burns|first=Alexander|title='Battleground Texas' effort ramps up|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2013/02/battleground-texas-effort-ramps-up-88068.html|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=Politico|date=26 February 2013}}</ref> Other staff members include Priscilla Martinez, Beth Kloser, Michael Maher, Anna Whitney, and Oscar Silva.<ref name=BT>{{cite web|title=Meet Our Team|date=24 February 2013|url=http://battlegroundtexas.com/pages/meet-our-team|publisher=Battleground Texas|access-date=14 September 2013}}</ref> Brown was [[Barack Obama]]'s field director in Ohio in 2012.<ref name="Staffing Up"/> Some of the staff members have experience working in [[Florida]], Ohio, South Carolina, and [[Colorado]], but 80 percent of the staff are native Texans.<ref name="DMN"/> The managerial staff works in [[Austin, Texas|Austin]], but members of the group work across [[Texas]].<ref name=Current/> In 2015, Battleground Texas established an advisory board that includes Brown, Bird, Congressman [[Joaquin Castro]], and former Dallas Mayor [[Ron Kirk]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Jeffers|first1=Gromer|title=Former U.S. Trade Rep. Ron Kirk joins Battleground Texas|url=http://trailblazersblog.dallasnews.com/2015/09/former-u-s-trade-rep-ron-kirk-joins-battleground-texas.html/|access-date=30 September 2015|publisher=The Dallas Morning News|date=16 September 2015}}</ref>

==History==
The group was officially founded in February 2013, and posted strong early fundraising numbers, raising over $1 million by July 2013.<ref name="Early Fundraising">{{cite news|last=Burns|first=Alexander|title=Battleground Texas surpasses $1M|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2013/07/battleground-texas-surpasses-1m-94141.html|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=Politico|date=15 July 2013}}</ref> Most of the money came from within Texas, and the median donation size was $25.<ref name="Current"/> The group has employed many of the tactics of the Obama campaign, including micro-targeting, the use of digital media, and [[data mining]].<ref name=Current/> Additionally, the group sought to apply an insight of political scientist [[Marshall Ganz]], who found that friends and neighbors are much more effective in persuading people to vote than are other campaign workers and volunteers.<ref name=ZRoth>{{cite news|last1=Roth|first1=Zachary|title=Battleground Texas: Inside the fight to turn the state blue|url=http://www.msnbc.com/melissa-harris-perry/the-fight-turn-texas-blue|access-date=20 June 2014|publisher=MSNBC|date=5 June 2014}}</ref> As of February 2014, the group had over 12,000 volunteers.<ref name=Reuters>{{cite news|last=Sullivan|first=Andy|title=Insight: How Obama alums aim to turn Texas toward the Democrats|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/us-usa-politics-texas-insight-idINBREA1P1OL20140226|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119182027/http://in.reuters.com/article/us-usa-politics-texas-insight-idINBREA1P1OL20140226|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 19, 2016|access-date=28 February 2014|newspaper=Reuters|date=27 February 2014}}</ref> As of May 2014, nearly 17,000 BGTX volunteers had made over one million phone calls.<ref name=AChozick>{{cite news|last1=Chozick|first1=Amy|title=For Democrats, Texas Push Gets an Early Shove|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/17/us/politics/grass-roots-group-backs-candidate-in-quest-to-turn-texas-blue.html|access-date=20 June 2014|work=New York Times|date=16 May 2014}}</ref>

Battleground Texas has been involved in deputizing volunteers so that they can help other Texans register to vote.<ref name="NJ"/> Battleground Texas spent its first year focusing on laying the foundation to reach Texan voters.<ref name="DMN"/>
Battleground Texas opposed legislation by [[Texas House of Representatives|State Representative]] [[Jim Murphy (Texas politician)|Jim Murphy]] of [[Houston, Texas|Houston]], which requires training every two years for deputy registrars. According to Battleground Texas, the new law creates an unnecessary barrier to adding new voters to the rolls. Murphy, however, said the law prevents deputy registrars from using the excuse of "I didn't know I couldn't do that" should they violate safeguards in signing up new voters.<ref>"New voters eyed", ''[[Laredo Morning Times]]'', December 26, 2014, p. 6A</ref>

Battleground Texas supported [[Wendy Davis (politician)|Wendy Davis]]'s [[Texas gubernatorial election, 2014|gubernatorial candidacy]], and the [[Texas gubernatorial election, 2014|2014 gubernatorial race]] was considered by some to be the first test of the organization.<ref name=RCP>{{cite news|last=Conroy|first=Scott|title=2014 a Test for Dems' Renewed Efforts in Texas|url=http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2013/08/30/2014_a_test_for_dems_renewed_efforts_in_texas_119771.html|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=RealClearPolitics|date=30 August 2013}}</ref>
Davis was handily defeated by 20 percentage points by the Republican nominee [[Greg Abbott]], the outgoing [[Attorney General of Texas]].<ref name="jayroot,thetexastribune">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-fix/wp/2014/11/06/wendy-davis-lost-really-badly-heres-how-it-happened/|title=Wendy Davis lost badly. Here's how it happened.|author=Jay Root, The Texas Tribune|date=6 November 2014|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=18 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2014/11/greg-abbott-wendy-davis-texas|title=Wendy Davis Loses Big in Texas|work=Mother Jones|access-date=18 September 2015}}</ref> Texas on the whole decidedly swung more toward Republicans on a county-by-county basis between the 2010 and 2014 mid-term elections.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mystatesman.com/interactive/news/more-red-Texas/|title=Interactive: How much more red is Texas? - www.mystatesman.com|work=mystatesman.com|access-date=18 September 2015}}</ref> Following Davis's defeat, some left-leaning analysts argued that Battleground Texas hurt Davis' campaign.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141109163021/http://www.statesman.com/news/news/state-regional-govt-politics/how-battleground-texas-hobbled-the-wendy-davis-cam/nh34K/]</ref> Of the 2014 elections, Texas Republican Party Chairman [[Steve Munisteri]] said, “There's no question that in the last couple of weeks we changed our goal from winning to annihilating them [the Democrats]. When you obliterate the other side, there's not much for them to say.”<ref name="jayroot,thetexastribune"/> Battleground Texas leaders did not dispute that the election went poorly for BGTX, but they argued that a national Republican wave played a major role in Davis's defeat, and noted that BGTX had made long-term investments that would help Texas Democrats in future elections.<ref name=RHamilton>{{cite news|last1=Hamilton|first1=Reeve|title=What Went Wrong With Battleground Texas?|url=http://www.texastribune.org/2014/11/05/little-show-battleground-texas-fights/|access-date=11 February 2015|publisher=The Texas Tribune|date=5 November 2014}}</ref> According to Brown, Battleground Texas registered 100,000 voters, recruited 35,000 volunteers, and knocked on 7.5 million and raised $3.4 million doors during the 2014 election cycle.<ref name=draper>{{cite news|last1=Draper|first1=Robert|title=The Future of Battleground Texas|url=http://www.texasmonthly.com/politics/the-future-of-battleground-texas/|access-date=30 September 2015|publisher=Texas Monthly|date=26 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=A 501tax-exempt|first1=OpenSecrets|last2=NW|first2=charitable organization 1300 L. St|last3=Washington|first3=Suite 200|last4=info|first4=DC 20005 telelphone857-0044|title=Battleground Texas PAC Profile|url=https://www.opensecrets.org/political-action-committees-pacs/C00541391/summary/2014|access-date=2021-07-06|website=OpenSecrets|language=en}}</ref>

In July 2018, the [[Texas Ethics Commission]] fined Battleground Texas and Wendy Davis $6,000 for violating campaign finance laws during Davis' 2014 campaign.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ward |first=Mike |date=2018-07-18 |title=Wendy Davis and Battleground Texas fined $6,000 for 2014 campaign miscues |url=https://www.chron.com/news/politics/texas/article/Wendy-Davis-and-Battleground-Texas-fined-6-000-13085224.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205213138/https://www.chron.com/news/politics/texas/article/Wendy-Davis-and-Battleground-Texas-fined-6-000-13085224.php |archive-date=2021-12-05 |access-date=2024-03-15 |work=[[Houston Chronicle]] |language=en}}</ref>

==Response==
[[Greg Abbott]] said that Battleground Texas represented a greater threat than [[North Korea]]; he called Texas the "last line of defense" against a Democratic presidential victory.<ref name=NK>{{cite news|last=Brown|first=Lowell|title=In Waco, Abbott sounds alarm on U.N. arms treaty, Democratic group|url=http://www.wacotrib.com/news/politics/in-waco-abbott-sounds-alarm-on-u-n-arms-treaty/article_f2a0bf70-8f9e-5a30-92c8-81f4084af9e0.html|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=Waco Tribune-Herald|date=16 April 2013}}</ref> Abbott's campaign placed an "unprecedented Republican" emphasis on winning Hispanic votes in an effort to block the long-term plans of Battleground Texas.<ref name=Eye>{{cite news|last1=Hope|first1=Christy|title=Abbott's hard push for Hispanic votes has an eye to future|url=http://www.dallasnews.com/news/politics/headlines/20140920-abbotts-hard-push-for-hispanic-votes-has-an-eye-to-future.ece|access-date=21 September 2014|publisher=The Dallas Morning News|date=20 September 2014}}</ref> [[FreedomWorks]] promised to oppose Battleground Texas's efforts, making plans to spend $8 million in Texas.<ref name=FW>{{cite news|last=Burns|first=Alexander|title=FreedomWorks vows to fight Dems in Texas|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2013/06/freedomworks-texas-democrats-93379.html|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=Politico|date=25 June 2013}}</ref> U.S Senator [[John Cornyn]] has created a website called "Keep It Red" dedicated to opposing Battleground Texas and appealing to minority voters. On the other hand, Governor Rick Perry dismissed the threat of Battleground Texas; he argued that Texas is too [[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]] to vote Democratic.<ref name="Bring It On">{{cite news|last=Raines|first=Joanna|title='Bring it on,' Rick Perry says to Democrats who think they can create 'Battleground Texas'|url=http://blog.chron.com/txpotomac/2013/01/bring-it-on-perry-challenges-democrats-who-think-they-can-create-battleground-texas/|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=[[Houston Chronicle]]|date=25 January 2013}}</ref> ''[[The New Republic]]'' columnist Nate Cohn also expressed skepticism; he said that Texas Democrats need to do much more than boost Hispanic turnout.<ref name=Cohn>{{cite news|last=Cohn|first=Nate|title=These Eight Charts Explain Why 'Blue Texas' Won't Happen|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/114145/blue-texas-eight-charts-show-why-it-wont-happen|access-date=14 September 2013|newspaper=[[The New Republic]]|date=11 August 2013}}</ref>

[[Project Veritas]], an undercover documentary operation run by conservative activist [[James O'Keefe]], has released multiple recordings of Battleground Texas volunteers and organizers.<ref name=Weigel>{{cite news|last=Weigel|first=David|title=The Campaign to Brand Wendy Davis as a Hater of Disabled People|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/weigel/2014/01/23/the_campaign_to_brand_wendy_davis_as_a_hater_of_disabled_people.html|access-date=28 February 2014|newspaper=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|date=23 January 2014}}</ref> In February 2014, Project Veritas recorded volunteers working for Battleground Texas on hidden video in the act of, and admitting to, copying the names and phone numbers of newly registered voters, which, they claimed, was illegal under Section 13.004 of the [[Law of Texas|Texas legal code]]. However, the [[Texas Secretary of State]]'s website states under its Volunteer Deputy Registrar Guide's FAQ section that deputies may "copy the relevant information from the application in writing just as you would be able to do if you went to the registrar’s office and pulled a copy of the original application".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sos.state.tx.us/elections/pamphlets/deputy.shtml|title=Texas Volunteer Deputy Registrar Guide|work=state.tx.us|access-date=18 September 2015}}</ref> A volunteer was also recorded stating that the group [[electoral fraud|forges]] signatures on voter-related documents.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/corner/371485/project-veritas-unmasks-fresh-dem-voter-fraud-texas-deroy-murdock |title=Project Veritas Unmasks Fresh Dem Voter Fraud in Texas |author=Deroy Murdock |date=19 February 2014 |publisher=[[National Review Online]], The Corner}}</ref> Battleground Texas argued that it did nothing illegal and accused Veritas of using doctored videos.<ref name=BGVer>{{cite news|last=Hashimoto|first=Mike|title=Data-mining? Nevermore, says pro-Wendy Davis group|url=https://www.dallasnews.com/opinion/2014/02/27/data-mining-nevermore-says-pro-wendy-davis-group/|access-date=28 February 2014|newspaper=[[The Dallas Morning News]]|date=27 February 2014}}</ref>

Two special prosecutors – John Economidy, a Republican, and Christine Del Prado, a Democrat – assigned to investigate a legal complaint based on the work of Project Veritas determined that Battleground Texas did not violate any laws. According to the prosecutors' report, “The Veritas video was little more than a canard and political disinformation.” San Antonio Judge Raymond Angelini dismissed the case on April 4, 2014.<ref>{{cite news |last=Tomlinson |first=Chris |date=April 7, 2014 |url=http://kxan.com/2014/04/07/judge-stops-investigation-into-battleground-texas/?source=20140407_fb_veritas|title=Judge stops investigation into Battleground Texas |work=[[KXAN-TV|KXAN]] |agency=Associated Press |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001006/http://kxan.com/2014/04/07/judge-stops-investigation-into-battleground-texas/?source=20140407_fb_veritas |access-date=18 September 2015|archive-date=2016-03-04}}</ref>

==Related organizations==
Battleground Texas is not the only Democratic project in the state, as the Lone Star Project and Be One Texas have similar goals.<ref name="Politico"/> Battleground Texas also works alongside the [[Texas Democratic Party]]<ref name="Politico"/> and local Democratic parties.<ref name="Current"/>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|http://www.battlegroundtexas.com/}}

[[Category:Democratic Party (United States) organizations]]
[[Category:United States political action committees]]

File:BattlegroundTexasLogo.png

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ARandomShyGuy: Uploading a non-free logo using File Upload Wizard

==Summary==
{{Non-free use rationale 2
|Description = Battleground Texas PAC logo
|Source = https://www.battlegroundtexas.com/
|Article = Battleground Texas
|Purpose = to serve as the primary means of visual identification at the top of the article dedicated to the entity in question.
|Replaceability = Any derivative work based upon the logo would be a copyright violation, so creation of a free image is not possible.
|Minimality = This file will only be used in the "Battleground Texas" PAC Wikipedia article. It will be placed in the logo section of the infobox.
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}}

==Licensing==
{{Non-free logo}}

Haley Voters for Biden

2024-09-18T00:40:28Z

ARandomShyGuy: Former name.

#REDIRECT [[Haley Voters for Harris]]

Haley Voters for Harris

2024-09-18T00:39:54Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding PAC logo to infobox.

{{Short description|American political action committee}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Haley Voters for Harris
| former_name = Haley Voters for Biden
| image = HaleyVoters4HarrisLogo.webp
| founded = March 6, 2024
| defunct =
| type = PAC
| membership =
| headquarters = [[United States of America]]
| key_people =
| leader_title = Chair
| leader_name =
| leader_title2 = Chief Executive
| leader_name2 =
| website = {{URL|https://www.haleyvotersforharris.org}}
}}

'''Haley Voters for Harris''' (HV4H) is an American [[political action committee]] (PAC) that consists of former supporters of [[Nikki Haley 2024 presidential campaign|Nikki Haley's 2024 presidential campaign]], who have since switched their support [[Kamala Harris 2024 presidential campaign|Kamala Harris' 2024 presidential campaign]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/4791170-kamala-harris-campaign-nikki-haley/|title=Harris campaign welcomes anti-Trump Republicans after Haley pushes back on group|first=Julia|last=Mueller|date=July 24, 2024|website=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]}}</ref>

==Background==
The organization says it is an outgrowth of Primary Pivot, a group that encouraged democrats and independents to vote for Haley in the primaries.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Waddick |first=Karissa |title='Haley voters for Harris' ignore Nikki Haley's warning letter after she knocks group |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2024/07/25/haley-voters-harris-cease-and-desist/74548097007/ |access-date=2024-08-15 |website=USA TODAY |language=en-US}}</ref>

The organization was founded on March 6, 2024 under the name '''Haley Voters for Biden''' (HV4B).<ref name=":0">{{cite news |last=McCammon |first=Sarah |date=July 24, 2024 |title=Harris campaign welcomes 'Haley Voters for Harris' after Haley says cease and desist |url=https://www.npr.org/2024/07/23/g-s1-12998/haley-voters-for-harris-cease-desist-2024-election |website=NPR}}</ref> This was the same day Haley suspended her presidential campaign.<ref name=":0" />

The organization received a [[cease and desist]] letter from Haley in July 2024.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Navarro |first=Aaron |date=July 24, 2024 |title="Haley voters for Harris" group gets cease and desist request from Nikki Haley |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/haley-voters-for-harris-cease-and-desist-nikki-haley-kamala-harris/ |website=CBS News}}</ref> The organization said they plan to ignore the letter.<ref name=":2" />

== Messaging ==
[[Democratic backsliding in the United States|Democracy]] is a major issue for a number of voters who used to support [[Nikki Haley]] but now support [[Kamala Harris]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=McCammon |first=Sarah |date=August 13, 2024 |title='Republicans for Harris' want conservatives to vote Democrat in 2024 to topple Trump |url=https://www.npr.org/2024/08/13/g-s1-16886/republicans-for-harris-haley-voters-trump-conservatives-gop-democrats |work=NPR}}</ref>

Kamala Harris' experience as a [[prosecutor]] has appeal for some Haley voters.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Walker |first=Adria R. |date=2024-08-20 |title=Ex-Nikki Haley voters rally behind Kamala Harris: ‘I picked the side that had the least issues’ |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/article/2024/aug/20/nikki-haley-voters-for-kamala-harris |access-date=2024-08-20 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

The [[Mexico–United States border crisis|border]] is an issue that the organization has addressed, trying to educate voters about how the Biden-Harris administration pushed a bill to greatly expand the number of border agents beyond what Trump had proposed during his presidency.<ref name=":1" />

The organization also has pointed to greater oil production under Biden than Trump.<ref name=":1" />

==See also==
* [[List of Republicans who oppose the Donald Trump 2024 presidential campaign]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.haleyvotersforharris.org Official website]
* [https://www.abc.net.au/listen/programs/radionational-breakfast/republicans-for-kamala/104260102 "Ex-Nikki Haley voters campaigning for Kamala Harris"] (August 22, 2024) by [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC (Australia)]]
* [https://blueprint2024.com/analysis/haley-defector-analysis/ "Dissecting Biden Defectors and Haley supporters"] (March 21, 2024) by Blueprint
{{Donald Trump}}
{{Joe Biden}}
{{Kamala Harris}}
{{2024 United States presidential election}}

[[Category:2024 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:Crossover voting]]
[[Category:Donald Trump 2024 presidential campaign]]
[[Category:Kamala Harris 2024 presidential campaign]]
[[Category:Joe Biden 2024 presidential campaign]]
[[Category:Never Trump movement]]
[[Category:Nikki Haley]]
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{{US-politics-stub}}

Jerry Brown 1992 presidential campaign

2024-09-17T00:03:35Z

ARandomShyGuy: Putting candidate name in bold and adding info to infobox.

{{Short description|American political campaign}}
{{Infobox U.S. federal election campaign|candidate='''[[Jerry Brown]]''' 34th and 39th [[Governor of California]] (1975-1983) (2011-2019)
|announced=October 16, 1991|status=Unsuccessful in winning the Democratic nomination|logo=JerryBrownLogo92.jpg|suspended=July 1992}}

[[Jerry Brown]], the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] governor of California from 1975 to 1983 and 2011 to 2019, ran a campaign to be elected [[President of the United States]] in the [[1992 United States presidential election|1992 presidential election]].

Brown had previously ran for president, unsuccessfully, in 1976 and 1980, losing both Democratic nominations to [[Jimmy Carter]]. He announced his 1992 campaign on October 16, 1991, and eventually competed against five other candidates. He ran a [[Populism|populist]] campaign focused heavily on corruption in politics. He was hurt by allegations that he changed had changed too much of his positions from what he believed previously. In March 1992, the [[1992 Democratic Party presidential primaries|Democratic primaries]] narrowed to Brown and [[Bill Clinton]], who ended up winning the nomination and the presidency. Brown ended the campaign in July 1992, after winning six primaries and more than 500 delegates.

== Background ==
[[File:Governor Edmund G Brown.jpg|left|thumb|193x193px|Brown in 1981]]
[[Jerry Brown]] was the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] governor of California from 1975 to 1983. He had previously ran for president, unsuccessfully, in 1976 and 1980, losing both Democratic nominations to [[Jimmy Carter]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Glass |first=Andrew |date=October 21, 2011 |title=Jerry Brown enters presidential race, October 21, 1991 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2011/10/jerry-brown-enters-presidential-race-october-21-1991-066508 |url-status=live |access-date=September 16, 2024 |website=Politico}}</ref> In 1982, he ran for Senate, but lost. Afterwards, "he drifted to Mexico to learn Spanish, to Japan to study Buddhism in a monastery, and to India to work with [[Mother Teresa]]."<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title=On the 1992 Campaign Trail with Jerry Brown |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/117695/sidney-blumenthal-jerry-browns-campaign |access-date=2024-09-16 |work=The New Republic |issn=0028-6583}}</ref> Returning to the U.S. in 1987, he went back to California politics, organizing a program to raise money for the party and register new voters, which was successful before he cancelled the program. On February 12, 1989, he was elected chairman of the [[California Democratic Party]]. On February 4, 1991, he resigned as party chairman to explore a bid for Senate. On September 4, 1991, he dropped out of the Senate race to run for President.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Niekerken |first=Bill Van |title=Jerry Brown’s life in politics |url=https://projects.sfchronicle.com/2019/jerry-brown-timeline/ |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=The San Francisco Chronicle |language=en-US}}</ref>

The [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] had held the presidency from 1980 to 1992, and under the incumbent president [[George H. W. Bush|George H.W. Bush]], the economy was stalling; Bush's approval rating started to sink.<ref name=":0" />

== Campaign ==
{{See further|1992 Democratic Party presidential primaries}}
[[File:Brown for President '92.jpg|thumb|A campaign button]]
When Brown was in the process of starting his campaign, [[Jude Wanniski]] set up a meeting between him and Wall Street financiers, but Brown did not show up to the meeting, ultimately sticking to his negative beliefs about money in politics. Brown announced his candidacy on October 21, 1991. His first speech was plagiarized from a manifesto by speechwriter [[Richard N. Goodwin|Richard Goodwin]]. He ran a [[Populism|populist]] campaign generally focused on corruption. He specifically advocated for campaign finance reform, congressional term limits, [[universal health care]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 17, 1992 |title=THE 1992 CAMPAIGN; Brown Criticizes Business on Health |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/17/us/the-1992-campaign-brown-criticizes-business-on-health.html?searchResultPosition=11 |url-status=live |access-date=September 16, 2024 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> gun control, a [[Flat tax|flat income tax]], environmentalism, cuts to military spending and property taxes, and he opposed nuclear power and free trade with Mexico.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Schmalz |first=Jeffrey |date=March 30, 1992 |title=THE 1992 CAMPAIGN: Candidate's Record; Brown Firm on What He Believes, But What He Believes Often Shifts |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/03/30/us/1992-campaign-candidate-s-record-brown-firm-what-he-believes-but-what-he.html |url-status=live |access-date=September 16, 2024 |website=The New York Times}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=The Many Lives of Jerry Brown {{!}} News {{!}} The Harvard Crimson |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1992/4/18/the-many-lives-of-jerry-brown/ |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=www.thecrimson.com}}</ref> His positions on gun control, healthcare, the flat tax, and free trade in 1992 were different from previous years; [[The New York Times|''The New York Times'']] wrote:<ref name=":3" />
{{Quote|text=Many political figures shift their stands over the years, of course, sometimes out of expediency, sometimes out of a genuine change in circumstances and convictions, sometimes because the responsibilities of governing overtake the promises of campaigning. But even Mr. Brown's supporters acknowledge that his shifts have come more often and been more fundamental than those of most other politicians.}}
In 1991, there was no front-runner in the [[1992 Democratic Party presidential primaries|Democratic nominations]], as Brown competed against Arkansas Governor [[Bill Clinton]], Iowa Senator [[Tom Harkin]], Nebraska Senator [[Bob Kerrey]], former Massachusetts Senator [[Paul Tsongas]], and Virginia Governor [[Douglas Wilder]].<ref name=":0" />
{{Quotebox
| quote = The 53-year-old Mr. Brown, who has showcased his insurgent, anti-establishment campaign at huge college rallies and rock-and-roll fund-raising events, has positioned himself as the youth candidate.
| author = [[Alessandra Stanley]]
| source = [[https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/04/us/the-1992-campaign-brown-brown-s-coalition-america-s-young-and-those-who-would-be.html?searchResultPosition=14|The New York Times]], April 4, 1992
| align = right
| width = 250px
}}
Brown portrayed himself as an outsider candidate, running an ad showing interviews with his campaign staff who said statements such as: "I think they're all the same, Republicans and Democrats. They're in it for themselves."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Witt |first=Karen de |date=February 12, 1992 |title=THE 1992 CAMPAIGN: The Ad Campaign; Brown: Capitalizing on 'Outsider' Role |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/12/us/the-1992-campaign-the-ad-campaign-brown-capitalizing-on-outsider-role.html?searchResultPosition=15 |url-status=live |access-date=September 16, 2024 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> He did not allow campaign contributions of more than $100, saying that "money is the root of all evil".<ref name=":1" /> This was the opposite of his previous position, saying limits on campaign donations are "a violation of free speech".<ref name=":3" /> Throughout the campaign and during every debate, he advertised his campaign phone number, 800-426-1112, which played the automated message: "This is Jerry Brown. Thanks for calling. And please do everything you can to assist and be an active member in the insurgent campaign to take back America." The caller could then talk to a real campaigner.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /> Brown went after the youth vote; for example, he appeared on [[MTV]] multiple times.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Stanley |first=Alessandra |date=April 4, 1992 |title=THE 1992 CAMPAIGN: Brown; Brown's Coalition: America's Young and Those Who Would Be |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/04/us/the-1992-campaign-brown-brown-s-coalition-america-s-young-and-those-who-would-be.html?searchResultPosition=14 |url-status=live |access-date=September 16, 1992 |website=The New York Times}}</ref>

After the first Democratic presidential debate, Brown's support plummeted, and he had very low results in the [[1992 New Hampshire Democratic presidential primary|New Hampshire primary]].<ref name=":0" /> On March 5, 1992, he won the Colorado primary, stopping him from being seen as a fringe candidate.<ref name=":2" /> The race eventually came down to Brown and Clinton, and Brown won Connecticut and Vermont. His campaign was hurt by allegations by the [[Los Angeles Times|''Los Angeles Times'']] that, as governor, he gave important judicial opponents to major campaign contributors.<ref name=":4" />

During the March 16 debate, Brown accused Clinton of "funneling money to [his wife [[Hillary Clinton]]'s] [[Rose Law Firm|law firm]] for state business."<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Dufresne |first=Louise |date=2015-11-09 |title=Bill Clinton, Jerry Brown trade jabs at 1992 Democratic primary debate in Chicago - CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/clinton-brown-trade-jabs-at-1992-democratic-primary-in-chicago/ |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=www.cbsnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Berke |first=Richard L. |date=March 16, 1992 |title=THE 1992 CAMPAIGN: Democrats; Brown and Clinton Shout It Out in a Debate |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/03/16/us/the-1992-campaign-democrats-brown-and-clinton-shout-it-out-in-a-debate.html?searchResultPosition=17 |url-status=live |access-date=September 16, 2024 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> This was a misconstruing of a [[The Washington Post|''Washington Post'']] article which had ran the day prior, about [[Whitewater controversy|a scandal]] in which the Clintons "had been business partners with a [[Savings and loan association|savings and loan]] executive whose business was regulated by the state [of Arkansas]."<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewis |first=Anthony |date=March 22, 1992 |title=Abroad at Home; The Iceman Cometh |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/03/22/opinion/abroad-at-home-the-iceman-cometh.html?searchResultPosition=16 |url-status=live |access-date=September 16, 2024 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> Bill Clinton replied at the debate, "I don't care what you say about me, but you ought to be ashamed of yourself for jumping on my wife. You're not worth being on the same platform as my wife." Hillary Clinton responded to the accusation the next day by saying: "I suppose I could have stayed home and baked cookies and had teas, but what I decided to do is fulfill my profession, which I entered before my husband was in public life." This hurt her standing among stay-at-home moms.<ref name=":5" />
[[File:1992 Democratic Primary Results.svg|thumb|States won by Brown are in yellow, states won by Clinton are in blue]]
On March 10 ([[Super Tuesday]]), Clinton won almost all of the day's primaries. However, Brown's momentum recovered, and he became the front-runner after that point. He was taking the lead in New York and Wisconsin, when he made a significant gaffe; at a speech in New York to a Jewish audience, he said he was considering the Reverend [[Jesse Jackson]] as vice president on the general election's ticket.<ref name=":0" /> Jackson had previously been widely accused of [[antisemitism]] for comments that he had made.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Faw |first=Bob |last2=Skelton |first2=Nancy |date=1986-10-19 |title=The 'Hymie' Incident : Jesse Jackson Claimed His Comments Were Harmless. But With a Few Phrases, He Tore at the Fragile Bonds Between Blacks and Jews. An Excerpt From a New Book Chronicling the Jackson Campaign. |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-10-19-tm-5850-story.html |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-03-20 |title=Jackson Admits Making Ethnic Slur |url=https://www.jta.org/archive/jackson-admits-making-ethnic-slur |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=Jewish Telegraphic Agency |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Goldman |first=Ari L. |date=June 1, 1984 |title=HEAD OF JEWISH GROUP SAYS JACKSON IS AN ANTI-SEMITE |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/06/01/us/head-of-jewish-group-says-jackson-is-an-anti-semite.html |url-status=live |access-date=September 16, 2024 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> In April 1992, [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] reported allegations from a California police officer, James C. Pashley, that Brown had held parties during his governorship where cocaine and marijuana were available. Brown denied this.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 10, 1992 |title=THE 1992 CAMPAIGN; ABC Reports Drugs Used at Brown Home |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/10/us/the-1992-campaign-abc-reports-drugs-used-at-brown-home.html?searchResultPosition=10 |url-status=live |access-date=September 16, 2024 |website=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 19, 1992 |title=Man Who Accused Brown Identifies Himself |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/19/us/man-who-accused-brown-identifies-himself.html?searchResultPosition=7 |url-status=live |access-date=September 16, 2024 |website=The New York Times}}</ref>

On June 2, Clinton defeated Brown in California and many other states.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-23 |title=United States presidential election of 1992 {{!}} George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton & Ross Perot, Campaign, & Results {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1992 |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Brown's family then started urging him to endorse Clinton, but he held out for a few weeks.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Rosenbaum |first=David E. |date=July 13, 1992 |title=THE DEMOCRATS; Brown Offers No Support, Just Attacks |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/07/13/news/the-democrats-brown-offers-no-support-just-attacks.html?searchResultPosition=12 |url-status=live |access-date=September 16, 2024 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> In July, he ended his campaign after winning six primaries and more than 500 delegates (a fifth of the total), far below Clinton.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":7" /> He addressed the [[1992 Democratic National Convention]], and notably did not mention Clinton.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-01-11 |title=Gov. Jerry Brown's three presidential campaigns: A recap |url=https://www.latimes.com/local/politics/la-me-0111-brown-president-20150111-story.html |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Aftermath ==
In 1994, Brown began a radio talk show titled "We the People". In 1998, he won a campaign to be the [[List of mayors of Oakland, California|Mayor of Oakland]], and he entered office in 1999. He won a second term in 2002. In 2006, his term ended, and he successfully ran for [[Attorney General of California|state attorney general]]. He was elected Governor of California again in 2010. He won another term in 2015, and served until 2019.<ref name=":2" />

Brown and Clinton had a "sometimes-frayed relationship" for years after the campaign. In 2010, as Brown was running for governor, his Republican opponent [[Meg Whitman]] aired TV ads that highlighted Clinton's criticisms of Brown during a 1992 debate. Brown responded by making a joke about the [[Clinton–Lewinsky scandal|Clinton-Lewinsky scandal]] during a rally: "Who ever said he (Clinton) told the truth?”. Brown later apologized, and Clinton endorsed [[Gavin Newsom]] for Governor.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 24, 2016 |title=Former foes Bill Clinton, Jerry Brown meet in Sacramento |url=https://www.sacbee.com/news/politics-government/capitol-alert/article79443967.html |url-status=live |access-date=September 16, 2024 |website=The Sacramento Bee}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Graham |first=David A. |date=2010-09-13 |title=Jerry Brown's California Campaign Fumbles |url=https://www.newsweek.com/jerry-browns-california-campaign-bumbles-and-fumbles-clinton-remark-213976 |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5" />

== References ==
[[Category:1992 United States Democratic presidential primaries]]
[[Category:Jerry Brown]]
<references />
[[Category:1992 Democratic Party (United States) presidential campaigns]]

Lyndon LaRouche U.S. presidential campaigns

2024-09-15T15:05:17Z

ARandomShyGuy: Putting candidate name in bold to align with other presidential campaign articles.

{{Short description|US presidential campaigns}}
{{Infobox U.S. federal election campaign|committee=Lyndon LaRouche for President|campaign=[[1976 United States presidential election]] [[1980 Democratic Party presidential primaries]] [[1984 Democratic Party presidential primaries]] [[1988 Democratic Party presidential primaries]] [[1992 Democratic Party presidential primaries]] [[1996 Democratic Party presidential primaries]] [[2000 Democratic Party presidential primaries]] [[2004 Democratic Party presidential primaries]] [[2016 United States presidential election]]|candidate='''[[Lyndon LaRouche]]''' Founder of the [[LaRouche movement]] '''R. Wayne Evans''' (1976) '''[[Billy Davis (Mississippi politician)|Billy Davis]]''' (1984) '''Debra Hanania Freeman''' (1988) '''[[James Bevel]]''' (1992) '''[[Alexander Hamilton]]''' † (2016) 1st [[United States Secretary of the Treasury]]|affiliation=[[U.S. Labor Party]] (1976) [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] (1980, 1984, 1988, 1992, 1996, 2000, 2004) Independent Democratic (1984) National Economic Recovery (1988) Democrats for Economic Recovery (1992) Write-in (2016)}}

[[Lyndon LaRouche]]'s United States presidential campaigns were a controversial staple of American politics between 1976 and 2004. LaRouche ran for president on eight consecutive occasions, a record for any candidate, and tied [[Harold Stassen]]'s record as a [[perennial candidate]]. LaRouche ran for the Democratic nomination for [[President of the United States]] seven times, beginning in 1980.

==Campaigns==

===1976===
In 1971 LaRouche founded the [[U.S. Labor Party]] as a vehicle for electoral politics. In 1976 he ran for [[President of the United States]] as the U.S. Labor Party candidate, polling 40,043 votes (0.05%). According to LaRouche supporters, the major accomplishment of the campaign was the broadcast of a paid half-hour television address, which gave LaRouche the opportunity to air his views before a national audience. This was to become a regular feature of later campaigns during the 1980s and 1990s.

His platform included a reference to Vice President [[Nelson Rockefeller]]: "Impeach Rocky to prevent imminent nuclear war".<ref>{{cite news|title=Fascism Wrapped in an American Flag|first=Chip|last=Berlet|author-link=Chip Berlet|author2=Joel Bellman|date=March 10, 1989|work=[[Political Research Associates]]|url=http://www.publiceye.org/larouche/nclc1.html|access-date=August 31, 2009|archive-date=August 31, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831042037/http://www.publiceye.org/larouche/nclc1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===1980===
{{ See also|LaRouche movement#1980 New Hampshire presidential primary |label 1=LaRouche's 1980 New Hampshire presidential primary campaign}}
Since the autumn of 1979, LaRouche resigned from the U.S. Labor Party and founded the [[National Democratic Policy Committee]] (NDPC), a [[political action committee]] whose name drew complaints from the [[Democratic National Committee]], who saw these efforts as infiltration.<ref>{{cite news|title=3-time fringe presidential hopeful LaRouche remains an enigma|first=Robert |last=Estill|work=The San Diego Union|location=San Diego, Calif.|date=March 23, 1986|page=A.15}}</ref><ref>"Spannaus to run against Sen. Warner, again", Joe Borda, ''Loudon County Times'', April 30, 2002 [http://www.loudountimes.com/news/2002/apr/30/spannaus-to-run-against-sen-warner-again/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080824225843/http://www.loudountimes.com/news/2002/apr/30/spannaus-to-run-against-sen-warner-again/|date=2008-08-24}} ''Party insiders and political observers say that they believe the LaRouche organization is trying to use the Democratic Party to legitimize and restart its once-successful fund-raising operation. Former Democratic Party chair Rollie Winter confirmed that for much of the past decade county Democrats have fought to keep LaRouche and his followers from taking over the local Democratic Party. Mary Broz, communications director for the Democratic Party of Virginia, said there is no such thing as a LaRouche Democrat. "That just doesn't exist." Added Alan Moore, former director of the state Democratic Party, "Followers of Lyndon LaRouche are not Democrats."''</ref>

LaRouche budgeted $150,000 for the first primary state, New Hampshire. That included air time on TV stations in overlapping markets such as Maine and Vermont, along with 1,928 radio advertisements on New Hampshire radio. LaRouche reportedly spent $4,000 on a half-hour broadcast on [[WBZ-TV|WBZ]], and a total of $24,200 on all TV spots in the state.<ref>{{cite news |title=Television Hard Sell Begins. Stay Tuned. |first=Chris |last=Black |work=The Boston Globe |date=January 16, 1980 |page=1}}</ref>

The Democratic National Committee asserted that LaRouche is not a Democrat, but the U.S. electoral system made it impossible for the party to prevent LaRouche followers entering Democratic primaries. LaRouche himself polled negligible vote totals, but continued to promote himself as a serious political candidate, a claim which was sometimes accepted by elements of the media and some political figures.

In the end, LaRouche got 177,784 (0.91%) votes in the primaries.

===1984===
LaRouche's 1984 campaign was his most successful, garnering over 76,000 votes. Independent Democrats for LaRouche, a committee formed for the 1984 election, was found guilty in 1988 of soliciting loans in violation of Minnesota securities law, and was ordered to stop selling unregistered Securities.<ref>"U.S. Supreme Court;All-white jury acceptable in murder suit, court says" ''USA Today'' [McLean, Va.] 10 Jan. 1989, 06a.</ref>

===1988 ===
In 1988 LaRouche and running mate Debra Hanania Freeman received 25,082 votes, or 0.03% of the vote.<ref>[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEEDB103AF93AA15751C1A96E948260 "1988 Vote: the Final Word"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528155422/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/29/nyregion/1988-vote-the-final-word.html |date=2022-05-28 }} December 29, 1988, ''New York Times''</ref>

===1992 ===

In 1992, LaRouche became the third person in U.S. history (after [[Joseph Smith]] and [[Eugene Debs]]) to run for president from a prison cell.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} Classical violinist [[Norbert Brainin]] performed a [[benefit concert]] on his behalf in Washington, D.C.; the ''Washington Post'' reviewer praised his musicianship while condemning his political message. LaRouche's running mate, who did the active campaigning, was the [[American Civil Rights Movement]] leader, Reverend [[James Bevel]].

===1996 ===
Prior to the primaries the Chair of the Democratic National Committee, [[Donald Fowler|Don Fowler]], ruled that LaRouche "is not to be considered a qualified candidate for nomination of the Democratic Party for President" on account of LaRouche's "expressed political beliefs, including beliefs which are explicitly racist and anti-Semitic, and otherwise utterly contrary to the fundamental beliefs ... of the Democratic Party and ... on his past activities including exploitation of and defrauding contributors and voters."<ref>LaRouche v. Fowler, 152 F. 3d 974, 975–76 (D.C. Cir. 1998), quoted in {{cite journal|title=Extremism in the Electoral Arena: Challenging the Myth of American Exceptionalism|first=Gur|last=Bligh|journal=Brigham Young University Law Review|location=Provo, Utah|volume=2008|issue=5|page=1367}}</ref> In subsequent primaries LaRouche received enough votes in Louisiana and Virginia to get one delegate from each state. When the state parties refused to award the delegates LaRouche sued in federal court, claiming a violation of the [[Voting Rights Act]]. After losing in the district court the case was appealed to the First District Court of Appeals, which sustained the lower court.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pacer.cadc.uscourts.gov/common/opinions/199808/96-7191a.txt |title= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928001959/http://pacer.cadc.uscourts.gov/common/opinions/199808/96-7191a.txt |archive-date=2006-09-28}}</ref>

In 1999, however, a court ruled that the [[Democratic National Committee]] had the right to keep LaRouche from electing delegates to the [[Democratic National Convention]], based on a party requirement that a Democratic nominee must be a registered voter. LaRouche, as a convicted felon, was not eligible to be a registered voter in the state of [[Virginia]], where he lived. ''(see [[LaRouche criminal trials|United States v. LaRouche]])''

===2000 ===
A routine [[Federal Election Commission|FEC]] audit of the 2000 "LaRouche's Committee for a New Bretton Woods" campaign found that vendors whose sole client was Lyndon LaRouche had added unqualified "mark-up charges" to the bill submitted for matching funds. The vendors were American System Publications, Inc., Eastern States Distributors, Inc., EIR News Services, Inc., Hamilton Systems Distributors, Inc., Mid-West Circulation Corp., Southeast Literature Sales, Inc., and Southwest Literature Distributors, Inc. They had overbilled by $241,519 and the campaign was ordered to repay $222,034. The FEC decision was affirmed by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.fec.gov/press/press2006/20060303litigation.html |title=Larouche |access-date=2006-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060509003558/http://www.fec.gov/press/press2006/20060303litigation.html |archive-date=2006-05-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://pacer.cadc.uscourts.gov/docs/common/opinions/200603/04-1311a.pdf |title= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927121111/http://pacer.cadc.uscourts.gov/docs/common/opinions/200603/04-1311a.pdf |archive-date=2006-09-27}}</ref>

LaRouche qualified to win six delegates in the Arkansas Democratic primary.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ballot-access.org/2000/0601.html|title=Ballot Access News -- June 1, 2000|access-date=February 1, 2008|archive-date=March 16, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316152753/http://www.ballot-access.org/2000/0601.html|url-status=live}}</ref> A minimum of 15% vote was required and LaRouche took 22%. However, the Democratic Party refused to grant him delegates because he was ineligible to vote.

===2004 ===
He waged a campaign, begun in October 2002,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.larouchepub.com/pr_lar/2002/020922_cheney_must_resign.html|title=Iraq is a Fuse, but Cheney Built the Bomb, by Lyndon H. LaRouche, Jr|access-date=2004-09-28|archive-date=2004-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040803220303/http://www.larouchepub.com/pr_lar/2002/020922_cheney_must_resign.html|url-status=live}}</ref> to have [[Dick Cheney]] dumped from the [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] ticket.

Again, LaRouche gained negligible electoral support. However, according to [[Federal Election Commission]] statistics, LaRouche had more individual contributors to his 2004 presidential campaign than any other candidate, until the final quarter of the primary season, when [[John Kerry]] surpassed him. As of the April 15 filing, LaRouche had 7834 individual contributions, of those who have given cumulatively, $200 or more, as compared to 6257 for John Kerry, 5582 for John Edwards, 4090 for Howard Dean, and 2744 for Dick Gephardt.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.larouchepub.com/other/2003/3017_larouche_leads.html|title=FEC Report: Presidential Candidate LaRouche Has the Broadest Support|access-date=2008-02-01|archive-date=2008-02-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080201011729/http://www.larouchepub.com/other/2003/3017_larouche_leads.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

He ran even though his home state of Virginia is one of a handful of states which still has lifetime denial of the vote to felons, which can be overturned only on appeal to the governor. (Neither the Constitution nor federal statute law requires presidents to be registered voters.) The Democratic Party did not consider his candidacy to be legitimate and ruled him ineligible to win delegates. He gained negligible electoral support. He was endorsed by two Democratic state representatives, [[Erik R. Fleming|Erik Fleming]] of [[Mississippi]] and Harold James of [[Pennsylvania]], though Fleming later called the endorsement "the worst mistake of all."<ref name=Kydem>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060329121947/http://kydem.blogspot.com/2005/04/friday-roundup.html Friday roundup] at The Kentucky Democrat; published April 15, 2005; retrieved January 14, 2023; via [[archive.org]]</ref> LaRouche was not one of the major candidates invited to the primary-season debates, although he did participate in some alternative forums for minor candidates.

LaRouche was present in Boston during the [[2004 Democratic National Convention]] but did not attend the convention itself. His followers sang songs insulting Democratic nominee [[John Kerry]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Convention Notebook|first=Steve |last=Terrell |work=The Santa Fe New Mexican|date=July 30, 2004|page=A.7}}</ref> Later in the campaign his followers heckled Kerry and disrupted his rallies.<ref>{{cite news|title=You know it's almost election time when a particular voting|work=Concord Monitor|location=Concord, N.H.|date=October 5, 2004|page=A.01}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Few tough questions in campaign town halls|first=ANNE |last=GEARAN|agency=Associated Press|work=Columbian|location=Vancouver, Wash.|date=October 5, 2004|page=A.2}}</ref>

He held a media conference in which he declared his support for [[John Kerry]] and pledged to mobilize his organization to help defeat [[George W. Bush]] in the [[2004 United States presidential election|November presidential election]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}

===2016===
On October 17, 2016, LaRouchePAC advised readers to write in Lyndon LaRouche and Alexander Hamilton in the 2016 Presidential elections. In the article "What We Need in 2016: — Alexander Hamilton's Principles, LaRouche's Four Laws", the PAC wrote "American citizens should write in LaRouche's name at the presidential ballot box to stand for the re-adoption of Alexander Hamilton's economic principles, as LaRouche has reclarified them. "I'm writing in LaRouche and Alexander Hamilton, let's get the nation to elect the right principles" will cut through the dread with which Americans are questioning each other about the approach of Election Day."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://larouchepac.com/20161017/what-we-need-2016-alexander-hamiltons-principles-larouches-four-laws|title=What We Need in 2016: — Alexander Hamilton's Principles, LaRouche's Four Laws|access-date=2016-12-07|archive-date=2016-12-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220174557/https://larouchepac.com/20161017/what-we-need-2016-alexander-hamiltons-principles-larouches-four-laws|url-status=live}}</ref>

This exhortation was disseminated by PAC members through social media. No verifiable statistics have been assembled concerning vote totals.

==Campaign statistics==

{| border="0" cellpadding="2"
|+'''Lyndon LaRouche political statistics''' ''(amounts in USD)(* off year campaign activity)''
|-
!align=left|Year!!Party!!Running mate!!Total funds raised!!Matching funds!!Campaign debt!!Primary votes!!Sources
|-
!align=left|1976
|Labor||Ronald Wayne Evans
|-
!align=left|1980
|Dem|| || || align=right|$526,253|| || align=right|177,784||
[http://www.fec.gov/members/thomas/thomasarticle08.pdf]
|-
!align=left|1984
|Dem ||[[Billy Davis (Mississippi politician)|Billy Davis]]|| ||align=right|$494,146 ||||||[http://www.fec.gov/members/thomas/thomasarticle08.pdf]
|-
!align=left|1988
|Dem ||[[Debra Freeman]]|| || align=right|$825,577 || ||
||[http://www.fec.gov/members/thomas/thomasarticle08.pdf]
|-
!align=left|1992
|Dem ||[[James Bevel]] || align=right|$2,709,531 || align=right|''ineligible''|| align=right|$2,223,985 || ||[https://web.archive.org/web/20060606131724/http://www.fecinfo.com/cgi-win/x_candpg.exe?DoFn=P60000452*1992][http://www.fec.gov/members/thomas/thomasarticle08.pdf]
|-
!align=left|1994*
| || || align=right|$1,154,623 || || align=right|$2,124,099 || ||[http://www.fecinfo.com]
|-
!align=left|1996
|Dem || || align=right|$4,304,184 || align=right|$624,692 || align=right|$2,079,927 || align=right|496,423 ||[https://web.archive.org/web/20060606131248/http://www.fecinfo.com/cgi-win/x_candpg.exe?DoFn=P60000452*1996][http://www.fec.gov/members/thomas/thomasarticle08.pdf]
|-
!align=left|1998*
| || || align=right|$138,424 || || align=right|$2,051,489 || ||[https://web.archive.org/web/20060606131505/http://www.fecinfo.com/cgi-win/x_candpg1.exe?DoFn=&CandID=P60000452]
|-
!align=left|2000
|Dem || || align=right|$4,898,362 || align=right|$1,448,389 || align=right|$2,471,918 || align=right|327,928 ||[http://www.fecinfo.com][http://www.fec.gov/members/thomas/thomasarticle08.pdf]
|-
!align=left|2002*
| || || align=right|$3,080,601 || || align=right|$2,360,261 || ||[https://web.archive.org/web/20060606131505/http://www.fecinfo.com/cgi-win/x_candpg1.exe?DoFn=&CandID=P60000452]
|-
!align=left|2004
|Dem || || align=right|$10,255,464 || align=right|$1,456,019 || align=right|$3,217,890
|| || [https://web.archive.org/web/20041210085220/http://www.opensecrets.org/presidential/summary.asp?ID=N00002047]
|-
!Total since 1990
| || || align=right|$23,814,604 || align=right|$2,899,889 || align=right|$18,881,195 ||
||[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930115222/http://www.opensecrets.org/presidential/summary.asp?ID=N00002047&Cycle=All]
|}

==Campaign committees==

*1976 – Committee to Elect Lyndon LaRouche (1976 Committee)
*1980 – Citizens For LaRouche
*1984 – Independent Democrats for LaRouche
*1988 – Democrats For National Economic Recovery – LaRouche in 88
*1992 – Democrats For Economic Recovery-LaRouche in 92
*1996 – The Committee to Reverse the Accelerating Global Economic and Strategic Crisis: A LaRouche Exploratory Committee [https://web.archive.org/web/20090118042249/http://www.fec.gov/pages/larouche.htm]
*2000 – LaRouche's Committee for a New Bretton Woods [https://web.archive.org/web/20081201140224/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_L.shtml#larouche_92_1_3]
*2004 – LaRouche in 2004
Unknown years
*LaRouche Democratic Campaign
*Texas Democrats to Draft LaRouche
*LaRouche Campaign

==FEC cases==
*Committee to Elect Lyndon LaRouche v. FEC; FEC v. Committee to Elect Lyndon LaRouche; Jones v. FEC [https://web.archive.org/web/20081201140224/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_L.shtml#larouche_79][http://openjurist.org/613/f2d/849]
*Gelman v. FEC (80 1646)[https://web.archive.org/web/20070712050149/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_G.shtml#gelman_80_1]
*Gelman v. FEC (80 2471)[https://web.archive.org/web/20070712050149/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_G.shtml#gelman_80_2]
*Dolbeare v. FEC (No. 81 Civ. 4468-CLB) [https://web.archive.org/web/20050213142257/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_D.shtml#dolbeare]
*FEC v. Citizens for LaRouche; [https://web.archive.org/web/20110628221539/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_FEC_K.shtml#fec_cfl]
*FEC v. LaRouche [https://web.archive.org/web/20081201140224/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_L.shtml#larouche_84]
*LaRouche v. State Board of Elections [https://web.archive.org/web/20081201140224/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_L.shtml#larouche_85]
*Spannaus v. FEC (85-0404) [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126095845/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_S.shtml#spannaus_85]
*Spannaus v. FEC (91-0681) [https://web.archive.org/web/20071126095845/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_S.shtml#spannaus_91]
*LaRouche v. FEC (92-1100)[https://web.archive.org/web/20081201140224/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_L.shtml#larouche_92_1]
*LaRouche v. FEC (92-1555) [https://web.archive.org/web/20081201140224/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_L.shtml#larouche_92_2]
*FEC v. LaRouche(94-0658) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110628221539/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_FEC_K.shtml#fec_larouche_94]
*LaRouche's Committee for a New Bretton Woods v. FEC [https://web.archive.org/web/20081201140224/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_L.shtml#larouche_04][https://web.archive.org/web/20060509003558/http://www.fec.gov/press/press2006/20060303litigation.html]

===FEC chronology 1979–1992===
(Adapted from material at the FEC website.[http://www.fec.gov/info/appone.htm])

*August 23, 1979 – U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia upholds the Commission's action in denying primary matching fund payments to Lyndon LaRouche, a candidate of the U.S. Labor Party, during the 1976 presidential primary campaign. (613 F.2d 834 (D.C. Cir. 1979), cert. denied, 444 U.S. 1074 (1980).)
*December 18, 1979 – Lyndon LaRouche establishes eligibility to receive primary matching funds.
*February 19, 1980 – U.S. Supreme Court denies a petition for certiorari in three cases brought by Lyndon LaRouche and Leroy Jones against the Commission. (444 U.S. 1074 (1980).)
*April 17, 1980 – Commission terminates the primary matching fund eligibility of Lyndon LaRouche.
*May 28, 1980 – Commission denies a request to re-establish matching fund eligibility for Lyndon LaRouche.
*July 22, 1980 – U.S. District Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia affirms the Commission's determination that Lyndon LaRouche failed to re-establish matching fund eligibility. (Gelman v. FEC, 631 F.2d 939 (D.C. Cir.), cert. denied, 449 U.S. 876 (1980).)
*October 27, 1980 – U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia rules that FEC must notify Citizens for LaRouche Committee of investigations involving contributors to 1980 LaRouche campaign. (Gelman v. FEC, Civil Action No. 80-2471.)
*April 15, 1981 – Commission releases final audit report on Citizens for LaRouche (1980).
*March 11, 1982 – District Court for the Southern District of New York grants preliminary injunction to plaintiffs in ''Dolbeare v. FEC'', in which plaintiffs challenged FEC investigations of the 1980 presidential primary campaign of Lyndon LaRouche. (No. 81 Civ. 4468-CLB (S.D.N.Y. Mar. 9, 1982)([[Non-publication|unpublished opinion]]).) The LaRouche campaign alleged that the FEC had launched investigations to harass the campaign, producing a "chilling effect on the free association rights of the campaign's contributors," and that the FEC had gone beyond the prescribed scope of its investigations. The U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York barred the FEC from initiating any more investigations into the LaRouche campaign's 1980 presidential primary activities until the pending enforcement actions were concluded, and auditing, or issuing depositions to, LaRouche campaign contributors unless the FEC simultaneously notified the LaRouche campaign of such actions.[https://web.archive.org/web/20050213142257/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_D.shtml]
*January 26, 1984 – Commission initially determines Democratic candidate Lyndon LaRouche ineligible for 1984 primary matching funds, based on violations involving his 1980 campaign.
*April 12, 1984 – Lyndon LaRouche establishes eligibility to receive primary matching funds.
*July 7, 1984 – Lyndon LaRouche becomes ineligible for matching funds.
*October 29, 1985 – Commission releases audit report on 1984 presidential primary campaign of Lyndon LaRouche.
*March 24, 1988 – Lyndon H. LaRouche establishes eligibility to receive primary matching funds.
*May 23, 1990 – FEC releases final audit report on LaRouche Democratic Campaign.
*October 3, 1990 – LaRouche committee makes oral presentation contesting FEC audit report.
*December 19, 1991 – Commission denies Lyndon LaRouche's eligibility to receive primary matching funds.
*February 27, 1992 – FEC makes final determination denying matching funds to Lyndon LaRouche, for his 1992 presidential campaign.
*March 3, 1992 – Lyndon LaRouche and his campaign committee ask the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit to review the Commission's decision to deny the campaign matching funds. (LaRouche v. FEC (No. 921100).)
*September 17, 1992 – FEC makes final determination that the LaRouche Democratic Campaign repay $151,260 in federal funds for 1988 campaign.
*October 22, 1992 – Lyndon LaRouche and LaRouche Democratic Campaign '88 petition U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit to review the Commission's final repayment determination.

===Other FEC cases===
In 2004, the FEC dismissed a complaint filed by LaRouche associate Barbara M. Boyd against LaRouche Watch, an online forum, and Red Letter Press, a publishing house affiliated with the [[Freedom Socialist Party]]. The Commission found "no reason to believe" that the forum was a political action committee, or that it was subsidized by Red Letter Press, as alleged by Boyd.<ref>[http://www.fec.gov/press/press2004/20041104mur.html MUR 5400] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831114409/http://fec.gov/press/press2004/20041104mur.html |date=2009-08-31 }} November 4, 2004, [[Federal Election Commission]]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Political views of Lyndon LaRouche]]
*[[LaRouche movement]] (includes information on other political organizing)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://larouchepac.com LaRouche PAC]
* [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/lyndon-larouche-tries-again/ Lyndon LaRouche tries again] Associated Press report on LaRouche's entry into the 2004 presidential race
* [http://citypaper.net/articles/2004-04-22/cb4.shtml Strange Bedfellows] on Pennsylvania state Rep. Harold James' endorsement of LaRouche's 2004 campaign for the Democratic nomination
* [http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/01/27/elec04.prez.democrats.larouche/ LaRouche supporters disrupt Democrats] January 2004 CNN report on LaRouche followers disrupting a Howard Dean event
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041204152922/http://www.prin.edu/users/els/departments/poli_sci/state/state/larouche.htm The 1986 LaRouche electoral debacle in Illinois] Paper presented by John W. Williams at the annual meeting of the 1995 Illinois Political Science Association and printed in 1995 issue of the Illinois Political Science Review
* [http://lyndonlarouchewatch.org/newamericanfascism.htm ''Lyndon LaRouche and the New American Fascism'' by Dennis King] Chapters 11 to 15 gives history of LaRouche electoral activity in the 1970s and 1980s
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081201140224/http://www.fec.gov/law/litigation_CCA_L.shtml#larouche_92_1_3 FEC Court Case Abstracts] Summaries of litigation between the Federal Election Committee and LaRouche political committees.
{{LaRouche movement}}
{{United States presidential election, 1976}}
{{United States presidential election, 1980}}
{{United States presidential election, 1984}}
{{United States presidential election, 1988}}
{{United States presidential election, 1992}}
{{United States presidential election, 1996}}
{{United States presidential election, 2000}}
{{United States presidential election, 2004}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:LaRouche U.S. presidential campaigns}}
[[Category:United States presidential campaigns]]
[[Category:LaRouche movement]]

[[de:Lyndon LaRouche]]

White Dudes for Harris

2024-09-13T21:19:20Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding logo to infobox.

{{Short description|American political advocacy group}}
{{Infobox organization
| logo = WhiteDudesforHarris.svg
| logo_size =
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| image =
| formation = 2024
| founder = Ross Morales Rocketto
| purpose = Campaign advocacy group
}}
'''White Dudes for Harris''' is a group of voters that supports the [[Kamala Harris 2024 presidential campaign]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=O’Brien |first=Rebecca Davis |last2=Bensinger |first2=Ken |date=2024-07-30 |title=Liberal ‘White Dudes’ Rally for Harris: ‘It’s Like a Rainbow of Beige’ |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/07/29/us/politics/kamala-harris-white-dudes.html |access-date=2024-08-07 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=2024-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240807023558/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/07/29/us/politics/kamala-harris-white-dudes.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=White Dudes for Kamala Harris: Giant Zoom calls power fundraising |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cp0843v200lo |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240806191922/https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cp0843v200lo |url-status=live }}</ref> Ross Morales Rocketto has been credited as the group's organizer.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harper |first=Tyler Austin |date=2024-07-31 |title=‘White Dudes for Harris’ Was a Missed Opportunity |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2024/07/white-dudes-harris-zoom-fundraiser/679299/ |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=The Atlantic |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240807181512/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2024/07/white-dudes-harris-zoom-fundraiser/679299/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In July 2024, a fundraiser with approximately 190,000 participants raised more than $4 million.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Winkie |first=Luke |date=2024-07-31 |title=My Rousing Night at “White Dudes for Harris” |url=https://slate.com/life/2024/07/kamala-harris-president-vice-2024-biden-white-dudes.html |access-date=2024-08-07 |work=Slate |language=en-US |issn=1091-2339 |archive-date=2024-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240807181522/https://slate.com/life/2024/07/kamala-harris-president-vice-2024-biden-white-dudes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Attendees included politicians [[Pete Buttigieg]], [[Roy Cooper]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-30 |title='White dudes' rally to elect Kamala Harris as the first female president |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2024-election/white-dudes-rally-elect-first-female-president-rcna164208 |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240806205740/https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2024-election/white-dudes-rally-elect-first-female-president-rcna164208 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[J. B. Pritzker]], and [[Tim Walz]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sainato |first=Michael |date=2024-07-30 |title=Celebrity-studded ‘White Dudes for Harris’ call raises $4m for vice-president |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/article/2024/jul/30/white-dudes-harris-fundraiser-zoom-call |access-date=2024-08-07 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=2024-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240807181606/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/article/2024/jul/30/white-dudes-harris-fundraiser-zoom-call |url-status=live }}</ref> as well as [[Sean Astin]], [[Lance Bass]], [[Jeff Bridges]], [[Josh Gad]], [[Josh Groban]], [[Mark Hamill]], [[Joseph Gordon Levitt]], [[Mark Ruffalo]], [[Paul Scheer]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Morrow |first=Brendan |title=Jeff Bridges, Joseph Gordon-Levitt, more stars join 'White Dudes for Harris' Zoom |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/celebrities/2024/07/30/white-dudes-for-harris-call-jeff-bridges-josh-groban-celebrities/74599110007/ |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=USA Today |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804211658/https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/celebrities/2024/07/30/white-dudes-for-harris-call-jeff-bridges-josh-groban-celebrities/74599110007/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Bradley Whitford]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-04 |title=‘Rainbow of beige’: 9 stars who were on the ‘White Dudes for Harris’ call |url=https://www.scmp.com/magazines/style/entertainment/article/3272807/who-was-white-dudes-harris-call-and-how-much-money-did-they-raise-9-male-stars-marvels-mark-ruffalo |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804053725/https://www.scmp.com/magazines/style/entertainment/article/3272807/who-was-white-dudes-harris-call-and-how-much-money-did-they-raise-9-male-stars-marvels-mark-ruffalo |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=White dudes for Harris |url=https://www.politico.com/newsletters/illinois-playbook/2024/07/30/the-dudes-abide-for-harris-00171786 |work=Politico |access-date=2024-08-07 |archive-date=2024-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240806002708/https://www.politico.com/newsletters/illinois-playbook/2024/07/30/the-dudes-abide-for-harris-00171786 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The White Dudes for Harris account on [[Twitter]] was suspended following the fundraiser in July 2024, causing the group to accuse Twitter CEO [[Elon Musk]] of politically targeting them to influence the [[2024 United States presidential election]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Thadani |first=Trisha |last2=Oremus |first2=Will |last3=Dou |first3=Eva |date=2024-07-31 |title=X suspends ‘White Dudes for Harris’ account after massive fundraiser |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2024/07/30/white-dudes-harris-suspended-x-twitter/ |access-date=2024-08-07 |work=The Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=2024-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805182001/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2024/07/30/white-dudes-harris-suspended-x-twitter/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Maruf |first=Ramishah |date=2024-08-06 |title=‘White Dudes for Harris’ said their account was targeted by X for the second time {{!}} CNN Business |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/08/06/business/white-dudes-for-harris-said-their-account-was-targeted-by-x-for-the-second-time/index.html |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=CNN |language=en |archive-date=2024-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240807004744/https://www.cnn.com/2024/08/06/business/white-dudes-for-harris-said-their-account-was-targeted-by-x-for-the-second-time/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Dolak |first=Kevin |date=2024-07-30 |title=White Dudes for Harris Founders Blame Elon Musk for X Account’s Suspension |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/politics-news/white-dudes-for-harris-founders-blame-elon-musk-x-account-suspension-1235962445/ |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=The Hollywood Reporter |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804134939/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/politics-news/white-dudes-for-harris-founders-blame-elon-musk-x-account-suspension-1235962445/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Kamala Harris}}
{{2024 United States presidential election}}

[[Category:2024 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:Kamala Harris 2024 presidential campaign]]
[[Category:Men's organizations in the United States]]
[[Category:White American organizations]]

Joseph Smith 1844 presidential campaign

2024-09-13T19:45:47Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding candidate info to infobox.

{{Short description|American election campaign}}
{{infobox U.S. federal election campaign
|campaign=[[1844 United States presidential election]]
|candidate= '''[[Joseph Smith]]''' 1st [[President of the Church|President]] of the [[Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)|Church of Christ]] (1830-1844) 2nd Mayor of [[Nauvoo, Illinois]] (1842-1844) '''[[Sidney Rigdon]]''' First Counselor in the [[First Presidency]] [[Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)|Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]] (1833-1844) Second Counselor in the First Presidency [[Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)|Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]] (1832-1833)
|status=Smith was assassinated prior to the election
|affiliation=[[Reform Party (Mormon)|Reform Party]]
|headquarters=[[Nauvoo, Illinois]]
|key_people=[[Willard Richards]] [[John M. Bernhisel]] [[W.W. Phelps]] [[Lucian R. Foster]]
|slogan=[[Matthew 16#Verse 18|Super hanc petram aedificabo]]
|logo=Joseph Smith presidential election pamphlet, 1844.jpg
}}[[File:Joseph_Smith,_Jr._portrait_owned_by_Joseph_Smith_III.jpg|thumb|Joseph Smith]][[File:Rigdon.gif|thumb|Sidney Rigdon, Smith's running mate]]
The campaign of [[Latter Day Saint movement]] founder [[Joseph Smith]] and his vice presidential running mate, [[Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)|Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]] [[First Presidency]] first counselor [[Sidney Rigdon]], took place in 1844. The [[1844 United States presidential election|United States presidential election]] of that year was scheduled for November 1 to December 4, but Smith was [[Death of Joseph Smith|killed]] in [[Carthage, Illinois]], on June 27. Smith was the first Latter Day Saint to seek the presidency, and the first American presidential candidate to be assassinated.<ref name="abcnews">{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/Vote2008/story?id=3963656&page=1|title=The First Mormon Presidential Candidate|date=6 December 2007|website=ABC News}}</ref>

In 1844, Smith was the mayor of [[Nauvoo, Illinois]], which was then the second most populous city in Illinois with 12,000 residents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1956/06/17/page/G32/article/when-mormons-ruled|title=When Mormons Ruled (June 17, 1956)|publisher=}}</ref> Latter Day Saint leaders requested that adherents vote in a bloc behind candidates endorsed by church leaders. As a result, the city's Latter Day Saint residents held the balance of power between the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] and [[Whig Party (United States)|Whigs]] in state elections.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mormons in American Politics: From Persecution to Power|author=Luke Perry, Christopher Cronin|chapter=First a Catholic, Then a Mormon?}}</ref> Smith also commanded a quasi-public military force, the [[Nauvoo Legion]], that with 2,500 men was almost one-third the size of the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Nauvoo Legion in Illinois|author=Bennett, Richard E.}}</ref> Wicks and Foister argue in ''Junius and Joseph'' that political operatives with ties to Smith's [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] opponent [[Henry Clay]] were present at events surrounding the raid on the jail where Smith was [[Joseph Smith and the criminal justice system|awaiting trial]] for treason, among other charges.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Susan Sessions Rugh|date=2006|title=Review: Junius and Joseph: Presidential Politics and the Assassination of the First Mormon Prophet by Robert S. Wicks; Fred R. Foister|journal=Brigham Young University Studies|publisher=Brigham Young University|volume=45|pages=162–164|jstor=43044573|number=4}}</ref>

In his campaign platform, Smith proposed to gradually end slavery, to reduce the size of Congress, to re-establish a national bank, to annex Texas, California, and Oregon, to reform prisons, and to authorize the federal government to protect the liberties of Latter Day Saints and other minorities.

==Motivations, prospects, and effects==
Motivations that have been cited for Smith's candidacy include wanting to give the Saints a candidate they could support in good conscience; avoiding a political party fiasco between the Whigs and Democrats in Illinois; publicizing the Latter Day Saint cause to help obtain redress for Church members' lost property in Missouri; and bringing the tenets of the church and the political ideas of its prophet to the attention of the nation. Another effect of the campaign was to protect the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles|Twelve Apostles]], including [[Brigham Young]], from mob violence, since in the faraway places such as [[Boston]] where they were traveling, they were out of reach of the [[Carthage, Illinois|Carthage]] mob. [[John Taylor (Mormon)|John Taylor]] and [[Willard Richards]] were the only two apostles left behind in Nauvoo.<ref name=kingdom>{{cite journal|title=The Campaign and the Kingdom: The Activities of the Electioneers in Joseph Smith's Presidential Campaign|url=http://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3420&context=byusq|author=Robertson, Margaret C.|date=2000|volume=39|issue=3|journal=BYU Studies Quarterly}}</ref> On the other hand, George R. Gayler notes that the absence of Mormon leaders such as Young, [[Heber C. Kimball]], [[Orson Pratt|Orson]] and [[Parley P. Pratt]], [[Orson Hyde]], and [[John D. Lee]], was a great disadvantage to Smith when he was arrested and imprisoned at Carthage, and that these missing apostles were then hurriedly recalled, but arrived at Nauvoo too late. He also notes that Mormon political conventions in Boston and [[Dresden, Tennessee]], ended in riots, and that judging "from the troubles in Illinois, Massachusetts and Tennessee due largely to the announcement of his candidacy, the United States may have been saved from the bloodiest election in its history by the death of the Prophet."<ref>{{cite journal|author=Gayler, G.|title=The Mormons and Politics in Illinois: 1839–1844|journal=Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society|date=1 April 1956|volume=49|issue=1|pages=48–66|jstor=40189482}}</ref>

Scholars have debated what Smith thought his chances of winning were. At the same time that Smith was running for president, he was also making plans to move the Saints from Nauvoo to Texas or Oregon, for the safety of them and their property. Historian [[Richard Bushman]] argues that Smith started out as a [[Protest vote|protest candidate]] but then began to suspect that victory might be attainable.<ref name=huffpost>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/26/joseph-smith-president_n_1031766.html|title=Well Before Romney, Joseph Smith, Mormon Founder Ran For President|date=26 October 2011|publisher=|via=Huff Post}}</ref> Smith wrote in his journal, "There is oratory enough in the church to carry me into the presidential chair on the first slide" and "When I look into the Eastern papers and see how popular I am, I am afraid I shall be president."<ref name=lds/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/865662315/Susan-Easton-Black-presents-on-how-Joseph-Smith-was-a-dark-horse-presidential-candidate-of-the-1844.html|title=Susan Easton Black presents on how Joseph Smith was a dark-horse presidential candidate of the 1844 election|first=Sharon|last=Haddock|date=13 September 2016|publisher=}}</ref>

==Events==
Illinois, where the Latter Day Saint population was in a position to play a pivotal role in presidential politics, had been a [[Swing state|battleground state]] in the [[1840 United States presidential election]], and Latter Day Saints anticipated it might be again in 1844.<ref name=lds>{{cite web|url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/church/news/scholar-discusses-joseph-smiths-1844-presidential-election-campaign|title=Scholar Discusses Joseph Smith’s 1844 Presidential Election Campaign – Church News and Events|website=ChurchofJesusChrist.org}}</ref>

In 1843, Smith sent letters to [[John C. Calhoun]], [[Lewis Cass]], [[Richard Mentor Johnson]], Henry Clay, and [[Martin Van Buren]], the five leading contenders for the presidency, inquiring about their plans for ending the persecution that the Mormons were suffering in Missouri. Only Calhoun, Cass, and Clay responded to Joseph Smith's letters, and they did not commit to helping the Latter Day Saints. Smith wrote scathing replies to these letters, denouncing the subterfuges of politicians.<ref name=XXXIII>{{cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50302?msg=welcome_stranger|title=The Rise and Fall of Nauvoo by B. H. Roberts|publisher=|via=www.gutenberg.org}}</ref>

On January 29, 1844, Smith held a meeting in the mayor's office at Nauvoo with the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles and others. It was unanimously decided that Smith would run for president on an independent platform. Smith remarked, "I would not have suffered my name to have been used by my friends on any wise as President of the United States, or candidate for that office, if I and my friends could have had the privilege of enjoying our religious and civil rights as American citizens, even those rights which the Constitution guarantees unto all her citizens alike."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.josephsmithjr.org/index.php/history/joseph-smith-jr/213-joseph-smith-s-presidential-campaign|title=Joseph Smith's Presidential Campaign|first=Arnold K. Garr (with comments by Michael|last=Kennedy|website=www.josephsmithjr.org}}</ref> On March 11, 1844, Smith organized the [[Council of Fifty]], a deliberative political body to promote Smith's candidacy.<ref name=lds/>

Due to the requirement in the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] that each elector cast at least one of his votes (for president and vice president) for a candidate who is not an inhabitant of the same state as himself, Smith wanted to choose a running mate who was not a resident of Illinois. New York educator [[James Arlington Bennet]] was invited to be Smith's running mate, but the invitation was withdrawn due to a misunderstanding regarding Bennet's supposed birth in Ireland,<ref>{{cite web|title=Bennet, James Arlington|publisher=The Joseph Smith Papers|url=http://www.josephsmithpapers.org/person/james-arlington-bennet}}</ref> which would have made him ineligible for the presidency under the Constitution's [[natural-born-citizen clause]]. Colonel [[Solomon Copeland]], a state legislator<ref>{{cite web|title=Copeland, Solomon|publisher=The Joseph Smith Papers|url=http://www.josephsmithpapers.org/person/solomon-copeland}}</ref> and wealthy and prominent resident of [[Paris, Tennessee]], was then offered the position, but he declined. Rigdon, a Pennsylvanian, then became Smith's running mate.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rigdon, Sidney|publisher=Harold B. Lee Library|url=http://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Rigdon,_Sidney}}</ref>

At the April 9, 1844 [[General Conference (LDS Church)|church general conference]], a call was made for volunteers to electioneer for Joseph Smith to be the next president. Hundreds of elders volunteered, and the Quorum of the Twelve scheduled public political conferences in each state. Electioneers included [[Wilford Woodruff]], [[Franklin D. Richards (LDS apostle)|Franklin D. Richards]], [[Heber C. Kimball]], [[Moses Tracy]] and his wife Nancy, [[John D. Lee]], [[Ezra T. Benson]], [[Norton Jacob]], [[James Burgess (Latter Day Saints)|James Burgess]], [[Edson Barney]], [[George Miller (Latter Day Saints)|George Miller]], [[Joseph Holbrook]], and [[David Pettegrew]], among others. Smith enlisted the entire manpower of the church in the campaign. Smith [[United States Electoral College|presidential electors]] were appointed and [[D. S. Hollister]] was sent to Baltimore to observe and possibly lobby for the Smith candidacy at the [[1844 Whig National Convention|Whig]] and [[1844 Democratic National Convention|Democratic national convention]]s.<ref name=kingdom/>

The Latter Day Saints formed a new political party, the [[Reform Party (Mormon)|Reform Party]], that held a nomination convention on 17 May which was attended by delegates from all 26 states and ten Illinois counties. The nomination of Smith and Rigdon was uncontested, and a platform was adopted stating that the party would support Smith for the presidency, "the better to carry out the principles of liberty and equal rights, [[Jeffersonian democracy]], [[free trade]], and [[sailors' rights]], and the protection of person and property."<ref name=dialogue>{{cite web|title=The Political Legacy of Joseph Smith|author=Hickman, Martin B.|url=https://www.dialoguejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/sbi/articles/Dialogue_V03N03_19.pdf}}</ref> Arrangements were entered into to hold a national convention in New York on 13 July.<ref name=XXXIII/>

Many of the electioneers used the campaign as a proselytizing opportunity as well as a political mission, and therefore continued on their mission of preaching, baptizing, visiting [[Ward (LDS Church)#Branch|church branches]], and curbing [[apostasy|apostasies]] after Smith's death ended the campaign. They began referring to Smith as a martyr.<ref name=abcnews/>

==Platform==
[[File:William_W._Phelps.jpg|thumb|The campaign's [[theodemocratic]] platform was the result of a collaboration between Smith, [[W.W. Phelps]] (pictured), and possibly [[John M. Bernhisel]].]]
Smith's platform was published in the pamphlet "Views of the Powers and Policy of the Government of the United States", which his electioneers distributed and presented in public and private meetings, and read to congregations of the church and the general public.<ref name=kingdom/>

In a change from the strongly anti-[[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionist]] stance that he had previously adopted,<ref name="HarrisBringhurst2015">{{cite book|author1=Matthew L Harris|author2=Newell G. Bringhurst|title=The Mormon Church and Blacks: A Documentary History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pn20CgAAQBAJ|date=15 November 2015|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-09784-3|page=8}}</ref> Smith proposed the abolition of slavery by the year 1850 through [[compensated emancipation]] funded with revenue from the sale of public lands, and with the savings from cutting the [[salaries of members of the United States Congress]] from $8/day to $2/day. Smith explained, "The [[culture of the Southern United States|Southern people]] are hospitable and noble. They will help to rid so free a country of every vestige of slavery, whenever they are assured of an equivalent for their property." Smith's compensated emancipation proposal was reportedly well received in Kentucky.<ref name=kingdom/>

Although Smith warned, "Speculators will urge a national bank as a savior of credit and comfort," he also put forward his own proposal for a [[history of central banking in the United States|national bank]], which would operate on a principle of [[full-reserve banking]]. The mother bank's [[Share capital|capital stock]] would be owned by the federal government, and the bank's branches would be owned by their respective states. The officers and directors would be elected annually by the people. Smith proposed the adoption of a "judicious [[Customs duties in the United States|tariff]]" to [[protectionism|protect]] agriculture, manufactures, navigation, and commerce.<ref name=XXXIII/>

Smith also called for a reduction in the [[United States congressional apportionment|size of the United States House of Representatives]] to two members per million of population, believing that a smaller body would "do more business than the army that now occupy the halls of the national legislature." More generally, he warned, "No honest man can doubt for a moment but the glory of American liberty is on the wane" and exhorted the people, "Curtail the officers of government in pay, number, and power". He argued, "More economy in the national and state governments would make less taxes among the people". Praising the vision of the "respected and venerable [[Thomas Jefferson]]", he remarked, "what a beautiful prospect an innocent, virtuous nation presents to the sage's eye where there is space for enterprise, hands for industry, heads for heroes, and hearts for moral greatness."<ref name=XXXIII/>

Smith advocated reforming the penal system by mostly [[Prison abolition movement|abolishing prisons]], including [[Debtors' prison|debtor's prisons]], and using the buildings for "seminaries of learning" so that intelligence would banish barbarism. Smith suggested reforming criminals through "reason and friendship" and wrote, "Petition your State legislatures to pardon every convict in their several penitentiaries, blessing them as they go, and saying to them, in the name of the Lord, ''[[Jesus and the woman taken in adultery|Go thy way, and sin no more]]''. Advise your legislators, when they make laws for larceny, burglary, or any felony, to make the penalty applicable to work upon roads, public works, or any place where the culprit can be taught more wisdom and more virtue, and become more enlightened." Smith advocated elimination of [[Court-martial|courts martial]], proposing that deserters instead be given their pay and [[Military discharge|dishonorably discharged]], never again to merit the nation's trust.<ref name=XXXIII/>

Smith called for a day when "the neighbor from any State or from any country, of whatever color, clime, or tongue, could rejoice when he put his foot on the sacred soil of freedom, and exclaim, The very name of <nowiki>'</nowiki>''American''<nowiki>'</nowiki> is fraught with ''friendship!''" With regard to territories that opted to remain outside the federal union, Smith opined that "wisdom would direct [[United States non-interventionism|no tangling alliance]]". Smith suggested as an alternative accepting into the union [[Texas annexation|Texas]], [[History of California|California]], and [[Oregon]], as well as other countries, with the consent of the peoples concerned, including any Indians inhabiting the land. He remarked:<ref name=XXXIII/>

{{quote|And when a neighboring realm petitioned to join the union of the sons of liberty, my voice would be ''come''—yea, come, Texas; come, Mexico; come, Canada; and come, all the world: let us be brethren, let us be one great family, and let there be a universal peace. Abolish the cruel custom of prisons (except certain cases), penitentiaries, courts-martial for desertion; and let reason and friendship reign over the ruins of ignorance and barbarity; yea, I would, as the universal friend of man, open the prisons, open the eyes, open the ears, and open the hearts of all people, to behold and enjoy freedom—unadulterated freedom.}}

Smith advocated granting of power to the president to suppress mobs without waiting for a request from state governors (as required by [[Article Four of the United States Constitution#Section 4: Obligations of the United States|Article Four of the Constitution]]), on the principle that "The governor himself may be a mobber; and instead of being punished, as he should be, for murder or treason, he may destroy the very lives, rights, and property he should protect." Smith favored a constitutional amendment providing for capital punishment of public officials who refused to assist those denied their constitutional rights. He wrote, "The [[States' rights|state rights]] doctrines are what feed mobs."<ref name=dialogue/>

==See also==
*[[1844 United States presidential election]]

==Further reading==
*McBride, Spencer W. (2020). "'Many Think This Is a Hoax': The Newspaper Response to Joseph Smith's 1844 Presidential Campaign", in Spencer W. McBride, Brent M. Rogers, and Keith A. Erekson, ''Contingent Citizens: Shifting Perceptions of Latter-day Saints in American Political Culture''. Cornell University Press {{ISBN|978-1501749544}}.
*{{cite book|last1=Oaks|first1=Dallin H.|last2=Hill|first2=Marvin S.|title=[[Carthage Conspiracy|Carthage Conspiracy: The Trial of the Accused Assassins of Joseph Smith]]|date=1975|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-09875-8}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/50302/50302-h/50302-h.htm#APPENDIXIII Views of the Powers and Policy of the Government of the United States]

{{1844 United States presidential election}}
[[Category:Joseph Smith]]
[[Category:1844 United States presidential campaigns|Smith, Joseph]]
[[Category:1844 in Christianity]]
[[Category:Mormonism and politics|Smith, Joseph 1844 presidential campaign]]
[[Category:Sidney Rigdon]]
[[Category:Abolitionism in the United States]]

Mike Pompeo's tenure as Secretary of State

2024-09-13T18:40:38Z

ARandomShyGuy: ←Redirected page to Mike Pompeo#Tenure as secretary of state

#REDIRECT[[Mike_Pompeo#Tenure_as_secretary_of_state]]

[[Category:Tenures in political office by individual|Pompeo, Mike]]

Daniel Bennett Smith's tenure as Secretary of State

2024-09-13T00:51:09Z

ARandomShyGuy: ←Redirected page to Daniel Bennett Smith#Career

#REDIRECT [[Daniel_Bennett_Smith#Career]]
[[Category:Tenures in political office by individual|Smith, Daniel Bennett]]

Antony Blinken's tenure as Secretary of State

2024-09-13T00:48:01Z

ARandomShyGuy: ←Redirected page to Antony Blinken#Secretary of state

#REDIRECT [[Antony_Blinken#Secretary_of_state]]
[[Category:Tenures in political office by individual|Blinken, Antony]]

George H. W. Bush 1988 presidential campaign

2024-09-12T20:47:41Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding primary campaign logo to infobox.

{{Short description|American political campaign}}
{{See also|George H. W. Bush 1980 presidential campaign|George H. W. Bush 1992 presidential campaign}}
{{Infobox U.S. federal election campaign
| committee = George H. W. Bush for President 1988
| logo = {{Switcher
|[[File:Bush Quayle 1988 campaign logo.svg|250px]]
|General election logo|default=1
|[[File:Bush1988PrimaryLogo.png|250px]]
|Primary campaign logo}}
| logo_alt =
| campaign = [[1988 Republican Party presidential primaries|1988 Republican primaries]] [[1988 United States presidential election|1988 U.S. presidential election]]
| candidate = '''[[George H. W. Bush]]''' 43rd [[Vice President of the United States]] ''(1981–1989)'' '''[[Dan Quayle]]''' [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] from [[Indiana]] ''(1981–1989)''
| affiliation = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]
| status = Announced: October 13, 1987 Presumptive nominee: April 26, 1988 Official nominee: August 18, 1988 Won election: November 8, 1988 Inaugurated: January 20, 1989
| headquarters = [[Washington, D.C.]]
| key_people = [[Lee Atwater]] (campaign manager), [[Roger Ailes]] (media director)
| receipts =
| receipts_footnote =
| fec_date =
| slogan = Experienced Leadership For America's Future Kinder, Gentler Nation
| themesong =
| chant =
| successor =
| website =
}}
{{George H. W. Bush series}}
The '''1988 presidential campaign of George H. W. Bush''', the [[List of vice presidents of the United States|43rd]] [[Vice President of the United States|vice president of the United States]] under President [[Ronald Reagan]], began when he announced he was running for the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]'s nomination in the [[1988 U.S. presidential election]] on October 13, 1987.<ref name="miller">{{Cite news |title=George H. W. Bush: Campaigns and Elections |url=https://millercenter.org/president/bush/campaigns-and-elections |access-date=2017-10-31 |work=[[Miller Center]] |language=en-US |archive-date=2021-06-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606105300/https://millercenter.org/president/bush/campaigns-and-elections |url-status=live }}</ref> Bush won the 1988 election against Democratic nominee [[Michael Dukakis]] on November 8, 1988. He was subsequently [[inauguration of George H. W. Bush|inaugurated as president]] on January 20, 1989.

==Primaries==
Bush's three main opponents in the [[1988 Republican Party presidential primaries]] were Senator [[Bob Dole]] (R-KS); [[Pat Robertson]], an evangelist; and Representative [[Jack Kemp]] (R-NY). Bush was long held back by the widespread perception of him as a "wimp" who had only ever done the bidding of others.<ref name=miller/><ref name="eb">{{Cite news |title=United States presidential election of 1988 |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1988 |access-date=2017-10-31 |work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |language=en |archive-date=2019-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402083314/https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1988 |url-status=live }}</ref> His efforts to fight this perception included recruiting [[Roger Ailes]] to emphasize Bush's status as a [[World War II]] veteran, which Ailes did by producing a biographical ad.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Battaglio |first=Stephen |date=2017-05-19 |title=How I Survived Roger Ailes' Wrath in 1988: 'He Wanted to Beat You Up a Little Bit' |url=http://www.latimes.com/business/hollywood/la-fi-ct-ailes-bush-20170519-story.html |access-date=2017-10-31 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0458-3035 |archive-date=2017-10-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026205910/http://www.latimes.com/business/hollywood/la-fi-ct-ailes-bush-20170519-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In that year's Iowa caucus, held on February 8, 1988, Bush finished in third, behind winner Dole and runner-up Robertson. Bush's support then began to deteriorate, partly because former [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Alexander M. Haig Jr.]] had recently endorsed Dole. The Bush campaign then decided to produce an [[attack ad]] against Dole. Ailes got the idea to make an ad portraying Dole as a "straddler" on the issue of raising taxes, based on one of Dole's own ads describing Bush with the same word.<ref name=miller/><ref name="turnaround">{{Cite news |last=Dionne |first=Mr |date=1988-03-17 |title=Bush vs. Dole: Behind the Turnaround |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/03/17/us/bush-vs-dole-behind-the-turnaround.html |access-date=2017-10-31 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=2017-11-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107015337/http://www.nytimes.com/1988/03/17/us/bush-vs-dole-behind-the-turnaround.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Bush's campaign focused on building a "Firewall" in the [[Southern United States]], a strategy that proved successful after he won multiple primaries there on March 8. Bush was also successful in winning the [[New Hampshire]] primary against Dole on February 16, partly with help from the state's then-governor [[John H. Sununu]], who successfully convinced many political figures in the state to support Bush by offering them low-digit license plates.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lozada |first=Carlos |date=2015-05-29 |title=The 1988 Bush Campaign's Secret Weapon for Victory? License Plates. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/book-party/wp/2015/05/29/the-1988-bush-campaigns-secret-weapon-low-digit-license-plates/ |access-date=2018-01-03 |work=[[The Washington Post]] |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=2018-01-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104074803/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/book-party/wp/2015/05/29/the-1988-bush-campaigns-secret-weapon-low-digit-license-plates/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Subsequently, Bush became the probable Republican nominee, completing a transformation of his status from loser to front-runner in 29 days.<ref name="turnaround" />

After Bush's convincing performance on [[Super Tuesday]] on March 8, in which he won all 16 primaries, Dole dropped out of the race, making Bush the [[presumptive nominee|presumptive]] Republican nominee.<ref name="eb" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-03-02 |title=Can Donald Trump Sweep Super Tuesday? |url=https://www.newsday.com/news/nation/super-tuesday-history-see-which-candidates-have-swept-it-1988-2012-1.11522171 |access-date=2017-10-31 |work=[[Newsday]] |language=en |archive-date=2018-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215123503/https://www.newsday.com/news/nation/super-tuesday-history-see-which-candidates-have-swept-it-1988-2012-1.11522171 |url-status=live }}</ref> After it became clear that Bush would be the Republican nominee, President [[Ronald Reagan]] endorsed him, saying in May 1988 that "I'm going to work as hard as I can to make Vice President George Bush the next president of the United States". Reagan did not campaign strongly for Bush during the rest of the election, however.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Montanaro |first=Domenico |date=2016-07-05 |title=Why President Obama Campaigning for Clinton Is Historic |url=https://www.npr.org/2016/07/05/484817706/looking-back-at-a-century-of-presidents-not-campaigning-for-their-successor |access-date=2017-12-14 |website=[[NPR]] |language=en |archive-date=2017-12-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214081515/https://www.npr.org/2016/07/05/484817706/looking-back-at-a-century-of-presidents-not-campaigning-for-their-successor |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Endorsements==
{{hidden begin|titlestyle=background:#cff|title=List of George H. W. Bush 1988 presidential campaign endorsements|contentstyle=border:solid 1px silver; padding:8px; background:white;}}
;Celebrities
*[[Tony Danza]], actor<ref name="orlando" />
*[[Clint Eastwood]], actor<ref name="orlando" />
*[[Dale Evans]], actress<ref name="orlando" />
*[[Helen Hayes]], actress<ref name="LAtimes" />
*[[Bob Hope]], comedian<ref name="orlando" />
*[[Shirley Jones]], actress<ref name="orlando" />
*[[Cheryl Ladd]], actress<ref name="orlando" />
*[[Rich Little]], comedian<ref name="LAtimes" />
*[[Chuck Norris]], actor<ref name="orlando" />
*[[Hugh O'Brian]], actor<ref name="orlando" />
*[[Roy Rogers]], singer and actor<ref name="orlando" />
*[[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], actor<ref name="orlando" />
*[[Tom Selleck]], actor<ref name="LAtimes">{{Cite web |date=7 June 1988 |title=Campaign '88 Gets the Star Treatment |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-06-07-ca-3918-story.html |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=2024-04-28 |archive-date=2024-04-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240407013354/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-06-07-ca-3918-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Frank Sinatra]], singer<ref name="orlando">{{Cite web |date=10 October 1988 |title=Stars for Dukakis Blitz Pacific Coast |url=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1988/10/10/stars-for-dukakis-blitz-pacific-coast/ |work=[[Orlando Sentinel]] |access-date=28 April 2024 |archive-date=7 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240407010929/https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1988/10/10/stars-for-dukakis-blitz-pacific-coast/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Robert Stack]], actor<ref name="LAtimes" />
{{hidden end}}

==Convention==
The 1988 Republican National Convention was held in [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]]. On the convention's second day, Bush announced that he had chosen Senator [[Dan Quayle]] (R-IN) as his running mate.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Apple |first=R. W. Jr. |last2=Times |first2=Special to the New York |date=1988-08-17 |title=The Republicans in New Orleans; Bush Chooses Senator Quayle of Indians, a 41-Year-Old Conservative, for No. 2 Spot |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/17/us/republicans-new-orleans-bush-chooses-senator-quayle-indiana-41-year-old.html |access-date=2017-11-01 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=2017-11-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107031355/http://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/17/us/republicans-new-orleans-bush-chooses-senator-quayle-indiana-41-year-old.html |url-status=live }}</ref> By the end of the convention, Bush had increased his poll numbers to comfortably surpass those of Dukakis, and he went on to maintain that lead during the rest of his campaign.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Back in TIME for November 21, 1988 |url=http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1996/analysis/back.time/9611/26/ |access-date=2017-11-10 |website=[[CNN]] |archive-date=2006-12-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061220072508/http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1996/analysis/back.time/9611/26/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Message==
Bush did not promise any major changes to the policies of then-sitting President Reagan.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dionne |first=E. J. Jr. |date=1988-11-09 |title=The 1988 Elections; Bush Is Elected by a 6-5 Margin with Solid GOP Base in South; Democrats Hold Both Houses |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/09/us/1988-elections-bush-elected-6-5-margin-with-solid-gop-base-south-democrats-hold.html |access-date=2017-10-31 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=2021-09-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905193201/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/09/us/1988-elections-bush-elected-6-5-margin-with-solid-gop-base-south-democrats-hold.html |url-status=live }}</ref> That year, the Republican Party platform stated, "Our platform reflects George Bush's belief that military strength, diplomatic resoluteness, and firm leadership are necessary to keep our country and our allies free."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Republican Party Platforms: Republican Party Platform of 1988 |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=25846 |access-date=2017-11-27 |website=Presidency.ucsb.edu |archive-date=2012-10-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011004455/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=25846 |url-status=live }}</ref> During his acceptance speech, Bush uttered the phrase "[[Read my lips: no new taxes]]", which was written by [[Peggy Noonan]] and served as the speech's centerpiece. During Bush's presidency, this remark came back to haunt him because he went on to raise taxes during his presidency. The contradiction between Bush's words and subsequent actions as president formed the basis of an attack ad [[Bill Clinton]] ran against Bush in the former's [[Bill Clinton presidential campaign, 1992|successful 1992 presidential campaign]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2008-11-16 |title=Top 10 Unfortunate Political One-Liners |url=http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1859513_1859526_1859516,00.html |access-date=2017-11-10 |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |language=en-US |issn=0040-781X |archive-date=2016-10-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017074516/http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1859513_1859526_1859516,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Personnel==
Bush's campaign manager in 1988 was [[Lee Atwater]], a [[political consultant]] who Bush subsequently named chair of the [[Republican National Committee]] after becoming the Republican nominee.<ref name="obit">{{Cite news |last=Oreskes |first=Michael |last2=Times |first2=Special to The New York |date=1991-03-30 |title=Lee Atwater, Master of Tactics for Bush and G.O.P., Dies at 40 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/30/obituaries/lee-atwater-master-of-tactics-for-bush-and-gop-dies-at-40.html |access-date=2017-10-31 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=2020-05-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503212725/https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CEED91F3DF933A05750C0A967958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |url-status=live }}</ref> Shortly before his death, Atwater apologized for saying that he "would strip the bark off the little bastard [Dukakis]" and "make [[Willie Horton]] his running mate," telling ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' that "I am sorry for both statements: the first for its naked cruelty, the second because it makes me sound racist, which I am not."<ref name=obit/> Bush's media advisor was [[Roger Ailes]], who produced the "[[Revolving Door (advertisement)|Revolving Door]]" attack ad for Bush's campaign. The ad was criticized by Democrats for being race-baiting.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Roger Ailes Produced One of the Most Infamous Political Ads of All Time, and It Helped George H.W. Bush Win the Presidency |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/roger-ailes-revolving-door-ad-bush-election-2017-5 |access-date=2017-10-31 |work=[[Business Insider]] |language=en |archive-date=2017-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025150006/http://www.businessinsider.com/roger-ailes-revolving-door-ad-bush-election-2017-5 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Thabit |first=Paavo |date=1996-01-30 |title=Roger Ailes to Head Fox's New Venture |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1996/01/30/Roger-Ailes-to-head-Foxs-new-venture/8482822978000/?spt=su |access-date=2017-10-31 |work=[[UPI]] |language=en |archive-date=2017-11-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107030725/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1996/01/30/Roger-Ailes-to-head-Foxs-new-venture/8482822978000/?spt=su |url-status=live }}</ref> In May 1988, Ailes and Atwater assembled two focus groups, each of which consisted of 15 likely Dukakis voters, and had the focus group leader read versions of Dukakis' past statements and positions. They found that saying this material reduced support for Dukakis in both groups. That fall, Bush focused extensively on the issues raised in these focus groups.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kaiser |first=Robert G. |date=2008-06-30 |title=How Focus Groups Reshaped the 1988 Presidential Campaign |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/06/29/AR2008062901883.html |access-date=2017-12-18 |work=[[The Washington Post]] |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=2018-11-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181126193302/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/06/29/AR2008062901883.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Television advertising==
The Bush campaign, and independent groups supporting it, made effective use of [[attack ad]]s to reduce support for Dukakis. The most famous of these ads was the "[[Willie Horton]]" ad attacking Dukakis over Massachusetts' furlough program. Atwater persuaded Bush to go along with the ad by noting that Bush was behind Dukakis by 17 points at the time, warning him that "You can get so far behind that even a good campaign won't win it for you."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Simon |first=Roger |date=2015-05-19 |title=The GOP and Willie Horton: Together Again |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2015/05/jeb-bush-willie-horton-118061 |access-date=2017-12-14 |website=[[Politico]] |archive-date=2017-12-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214125703/https://www.politico.com/story/2015/05/jeb-bush-willie-horton-118061 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Results==
Bush did better in every southern state than Reagan had done in 1980.{{sfn|Black|Black|2002|p=26}}

==See also==
*[[1988 Republican Party presidential primaries]]
*[[1988 Republican Party vice presidential candidate selection]]
*[[1988 Republican National Convention]]
*[[1988 United States presidential election]]
*[[Presidential transition of George H. W. Bush]]
*[[Inauguration of George H. W. Bush]]
*[[Michael Dukakis 1988 presidential campaign]]
*[[George H. W. Bush 1992 presidential campaign]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Works cited==
* {{Cite book |last=Black |first=Earl |author-link=Earl Black (political scientist) |url=https://archive.org/details/riseofsouthernre00earl_0 |title=The Rise of Southern Republicans |last2=Black |first2=Merle |author-link2=Merle Black |date=2002 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=067400728X}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.4president.org/speeches/1988/georgebush1988announcement.htm George H. W. Bush announcement speech]
*[http://www.4president.org/speeches/1988/georgebush1988acceptance.htm George H. W. Bush acceptance speech]

{{1988 United States presidential election}}
{{Republican presidential campaigns}}
{{George H. W. Bush}}
{{Dan Quayle}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:George H. W. Bush presidential campaign, 1988}}
[[Category:George H. W. Bush]]
[[Category:Dan Quayle]]
[[Category:1988 United States presidential campaigns|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential campaigns|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Political history of the United States]]

Bob Dole 1996 presidential campaign

2024-09-12T20:27:04Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding primary campaign logo to infobox.

{{Short description|Political campaign for United States presidency}}
{{Infobox U.S. federal election campaign
| committee = Bob Dole for President 1996
| logo = {{Switcher
|[[File:Dole Kemp 1996 campaign logo.svg|220px]]
|General election logo|default=1
|[[File:Dole for President 1464120306685.jpg|220px]]
|Primary campaign logo}}
| campaign = [[1996 Republican Party presidential primaries|1996 Republican primaries]] [[1996 United States presidential election|1996 U.S. presidential election]]
| candidate = '''[[Bob Dole]]''' [[List of United States senators from Kansas|Senator from Kansas]] ''(1969–1996)'' [[Party leaders of the United States Senate|Senate Majority Leader]] ''(1985–1987, 1995–1996)'' '''[[Jack Kemp]]''' 9th [[United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development|U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development]] ''(1989–1993)''
| status = Announced: April 10, 1995 Presumptive nominee: March 19, 1996 Official nominee: August 15, 1996<ref>{{cite web |last1=O'Matz |first1=Megan |last2=Leffler |first2=Pete |title=IT'S OFFICIAL: DOLE WINS NOMINATION * THERE WERE TESTIMONIALS FOR THE GOP CANDIDATE AND ATTACKS ON CLINTON. |url=https://www.mcall.com/news/mc-xpm-1996-08-15-3105402-story.html |website=mcall.com |publisher=The Morning Call |access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref> Lost election: November 5, 1996
| headquarters =
| affiliation = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]
| key_people = {{plainlist|*Scott Reed (campaign manager)<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/09/29/chamber-of-commerce-scott-reed |title=U.S. Chamber of Commerce abruptly ousts top political consultant Scott Reed, alleging leaks |work=The Washington Post|author=Tom Hamburger}}</ref>
}}
| slogan = Bob Dole. A Better Man. For a Better America. The Better Man for a Better America
| website = http://www.dolekemp96.org/
}}
The 1996 presidential campaign of Bob Dole began when [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] Senator and [[Party leaders of the United States Senate|Senate Majority Leader]] [[Bob Dole]] formally announced his candidacy for [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] nomination in 1995. After beating other candidates in the primaries, he became the Republican nominee, with his opponent being [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] [[incumbent]] [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]] in the [[1996 United States presidential election|1996 presidential election]]. Dole conceded defeat in the race in a telephone call to Clinton on November 5, 1996.

== Background==
Dole had been the Republican Party's vice presidential nominee in [[1976 United States presidential election|1976]]. Dole had previously run unsuccessfully for the Republican presidential nomination in both the [[1980 Republican Party presidential primaries|1980]] and [[1988 Republican Party presidential primaries|1988]] Republican presidential primaries.

The Republicans [[Republican Revolution|took control]] of both the Senate and House of Representatives in the [[1994 United States elections|1994 mid-term elections]], due to the fallout from President [[Bill Clinton]]'s policies including his [[Hillarycare|health care plan]], and Dole became Senate Majority Leader for the second time. In October 1995, a year before the presidential election, Dole and Speaker of the House [[Newt Gingrich]] led the Republican-controlled Congress to pass a [[Appropriations bill (United States)|spending bill]] that President Clinton vetoed, leading to the [[United States federal government shutdowns of 1995–1996|federal government shutdown of 1995–96]]. On November 13, Republican and Democratic leaders, including Vice President [[Al Gore]], [[Dick Armey]], and Dole, met to try to resolve the budget and were unable to reach an agreement.<ref name=MyLife>
{{cite book|last=Clinton|first=Bill|title=My Life|publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]]|year=2004|isbn=978-0-375-41457-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mylifeclin00clin/page/n718 673], 680–84|title-link=My Life (Bill Clinton autobiography)}}</ref><ref>"Armey replied gruffly that if I didn't give in to them, they would shut the government down and my presidency would be over. I shot back, saying I would never allow their budget to become law, 'even if I drop to 5 percent in the polls. If you want your budget, you'll have to get someone else to sit in this chair!' Not surprisingly, we didn't make a deal." - Bill Clinton, describing the mood of the discussion (''My Life'', p. 681).</ref> By January 1996, Dole was more open to compromise to end the shutdown (as he was campaigning for the Republican presidential nomination), but was opposed by other Republicans who wanted to continue until their demands were met. In particular, Gingrich and Dole had a tense working relationship as they were potential rivals for the 1996 Republican nomination.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/03/us/politics/03boehner.html|work=The New York Times|first=Jennifer|last=Steinhauer|title=John Boehner, New House Speaker, Will Face Tough Challenges|date=November 3, 2010}}</ref> Clinton aide [[George Stephanopoulos]] cited the shutdown as having a role in Clinton's successful re-election campaign.<ref name="George Stephanopoulos 2000. pp. 406-407">Stephanopoulos, George. ''All Too Human'' Back Bay Books, 2000, pp. 406–407. {{ISBN|978-0-316-93016-1}}</ref>

Despite the 1994 elections, President Clinton's popularity soared due to a booming economy and public opinion polls supporting him in the 1995 budget shutdown. As a result, Clinton and vice president [[Al Gore]] faced no serious opposition in the Democratic primaries.<ref name="oregonlive.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.oregonlive.com/history/2016/08/bob_dole_backs_donald_trump_bu.html|title=Bob Dole backs Donald Trump, but 20 years ago his campaign rejected embryonic Trumpism|first=Douglas Perry | The|last=Oregonian/OregonLive|date=August 25, 2016|website=oregonlive.com}}</ref> A few months before his death in April 1994, [[Richard Nixon]] warned Dole "If the economy's good, you're not going to beat Clinton."<ref name="auto">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/bob-dole-on-life-after-losing-the-1996-presidential-election/2012/09/28/eaef4102-f78e-11e1-8398-0327ab83ab91_story.html|title=Bob Dole on life after losing the 1996 presidential election|first=Bob|last=Dole|date=September 30, 2012|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref>

==Primary campaign==
During an appearance on ''[[Late Show with David Letterman]]'' on February 3, 1995, Dole said that he planned to run for president in 1996 and that he would make a formal announcement in early April.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dole, on Letterman, Makes It Unofficial: He'll Run in '96 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/02/04/us/dole-on-letterman-makes-it-unofficial-he-ll-run-in-96.html |access-date=December 10, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=February 4, 1995}}</ref> He officially announced his candidacy on April 10.<ref>{{cite web |title=Senator Bob Dole Presidential Campaign Announcement {{!}} C-SPAN Classroom |url=https://www.c-span.org/classroom/document/?4320 |website=www.c-span.org |publisher=C-SPAN |access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref>

Dole was the early front runner for the GOP nomination in the [[1996 United States presidential election|1996 presidential race]]. At least eight candidates ran for the nomination. Dole was expected to win the nomination against underdog candidates such as the more conservative Senator [[Phil Gramm]] of Texas and more moderate Senator [[Arlen Specter]] of [[Pennsylvania]]. The candidates met in [[Des Moines]] for a Presidential Candidates [[public forum debate|Forum]].<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/republican-presidential-candidates-forum-des-moines-iowa|title= Republican Presidential Candidates Forum in Des Moines, Iowa|newspaper= The American Presidency Project|author=|date=|access-date= April 7, 2021}}</ref> Dole won the [[Iowa Caucus]] with 26% of the vote, a considerably smaller margin of victory than was expected. In the [[New Hampshire Primary]], Buchanan recorded a surprising victory over Dole, who finished in second place. Speechwriter Kerry Tymchuk observed, "Dole was on the ropes because he wasn't conservative enough".<ref name="oregonlive.com"/>

Steve Forbes surprisingly won primaries in [[Delaware]] and [[Arizona]]. Dole had not campaigned in Delaware,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Apple |first1=R.W. |title=FORBES BEATS DOLE IN DELAWARE VOTE |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/02/25/us/forbes-beats-dole-in-delaware-vote.html |access-date=8 April 2021 |agency=The New York Times |date=25 February 1996}}</ref> and faulty polling by Dole's campaign lured Dole into a false sense of security in Arizona, making Dole believe the state would be an easy victory for him and he would not have to spend much time campaigning in Arizona.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1996/02/28/us/politics-the-overview-forbes-claims-victory-in-arizona-race.html|title= POLITICS: THE OVERVIEW;Forbes Claims Victory in Arizona Race|newspaper= [[The New York Times]]|author= Berke, Richard|date= February 28, 1996|access-date= April 7, 2021}}</ref> After the votes were counted, Buchanan finished a devastating third place, Dole was the runner-up, and Forbes pulled off a shocking, come-from-behind victory. Exit polls showed that Forbes's support came from those who voted for third-party candidate [[Ross Perot]] back [[Ross Perot 1992 presidential campaign|in 1992]], as well as from the large number of voters who cited "taxes" as the most important issue of the race and those who viewed Buchanan as too "extreme" and Dole as too moderate and "mainstream".<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-02-28-mn-40895-story.html|title= Forbes Bounces Back With a Convincing Victory in Arizona|newspaper= [[The Los Angeles Times]]|author= Sahagun, Louis|date= February 28, 1996|access-date= April 7, 2021}}</ref>

Buchanan's and Forbes's early victories put Dole's expected front runner status in doubt during the formative months of the primary season. However, Dole won a sweep of the primaries held on March 19, 1996, securing him enough delegates to win the nomination, and making him his party's [[presumptive nominee]].<ref name="west1">{{cite web |last1=West |first1=Paul |title=Dole wins Midwest, nomination Primary sweep puts GOP senator over the top; Third time's a charm; Candidate subdued in victory, awaits Calif. next week; CAMPAIGN 1996 |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1996-03-20-1996080065-story.html |website=baltimoresun.com |publisher=Baltimore Sun |date=20 March 1996}}</ref> Buchanan suspended his campaign in March, but declared that, if Dole were to choose a [[pro-choice]] running mate, he would run as the US Taxpayers Party (now [[Constitution Party (United States)|Constitution Party]]) candidate.<ref>{{Citation | author-link = Skipp Porteous| last = Porteous | first = Skipp | url = http://www.publiceye.org/ifas/fw/9604/phillips.html | date = April 1996 | title = Howard Phillips on Pat Buchanan | journal = Freedom Writer | publisher = Public Eye}}.</ref> Forbes also withdrew in March having won only two states.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1996/candidates/republican/withdrawn/forbes.shtml|title=AllPolitics - Steve Forbes|website=www.cnn.com}}</ref>

===Notable primary endorsements===
* Former Senator and 1964 Presidential nominee [[Barry Goldwater]] of [[Arizona]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=36285 |title=AZ US President – R Primary Race – Feb 27, 1996 |publisher=Our Campaigns |access-date=June 17, 2010}}</ref>
* [[Governor of Texas|Governor]] [[George W. Bush]] of [[Texas]]<ref name="OCRP">{{cite web |title=US President – R Primaries Race – July 07, 1996 |url=http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=13494 |access-date=March 10, 2008 |work=Our Campaigns.com}}</ref>
* Senator [[William V. Roth|Bill Roth]] of [[Delaware]]<ref name="OCRP"/>
* Senator [[Alan K. Simpson|Alan Simpson]] of [[Wyoming]]<ref name="OCRP"/>
* Senator [[Al D'Amato]] of New York<ref name="OCRP"/>
* Former [[List of Governors of Delaware|Governor]] [[Pierre S. du Pont IV|Pete du Pont]] of [[Delaware]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=36304 |title=DE US President – R Primary Race – Feb 24, 1996 |publisher=Our Campaigns |access-date=June 17, 2010}}</ref>
* Former [[List of Governors of Alabama|Governor]] [[George Wallace]] of [[Alabama]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ourcampaigns.com/CandidateDetail.html?CandidateID=4038 |title=Candidate – George Corley Wallace |publisher=Our Campaigns |access-date=June 17, 2010}}</ref> (''Democrat'')

==General election==
===Presumptive nominee===
After becoming his party's presumptive nominee, Dole initially pledged that he would be a "full time senator" over the next several months, and that he would primarily only undertake campaign travel on weekends, saying that he would be visiting states that had not yet held their primaries.<ref name="west1"/>

On June 11, 1996, Dole resigned his U.S. Senate seat to focus on the campaign, saying he had "nowhere to go but the [[White House]] or home".<ref>{{cite news|last=Berke|first=Richard L.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/05/16/us/politics-overview-dole-says-he-will-leave-senate-focus-presidential-race.html?pagewanted=all|title=New York Times, May 16, 1996: Dole says he will leave Senate to focus on presidential race|work=The New York Times|date=May 16, 1996|access-date=June 17, 2010}}</ref> As told in the Doles' joint biography, ''Unlimited Partners'', speechwriter and biographer Kerry Tymchuk wrote "that he was going to make a statement. He was going to risk it all for the White House. He knew his time as leader was over. It would have been tough to come back [to the Senate as leader] if he lost in November. He knew it was time to move up or move out."<ref name="oregonlive.com"/>

Dole promised a 15% across-the-board reduction in [[income tax]] rates and made former Congressman and [[supply-side economics|supply side]] advocate [[Jack Kemp]] his running mate for vice president. Dole found himself criticized from both the left and the right within the Republican Party over the convention platform, one of the major issues being the inclusion of the [[Human Life Amendment]]. Clinton framed the narrative against Dole early, painting him as a mere clone of unpopular then-House Speaker [[Newt Gingrich]], warning America that Dole would work in concert with the Republican Congress to slash popular social programs, like [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]] and [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]], dubbed by Clinton as "Dole-Gingrich".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/10/07/us/clinton-and-dole-face-to-face-spar-over-medicare-and-taxes.html|work=The New York Times|title=Clinton And Dole, Face To Face, Spar Over Medicare And Taxes|first=Richard L.|last=Berke|date=October 7, 1996|access-date=April 26, 2010}}</ref> Dole's tax-cut plan found itself under attack from the White House, who said it would "blow a hole in the deficit".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/1996/36/b34915.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970628211536/http://www.businessweek.com/1996/36/b34915.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 28, 1997|title=Medicare, taxes and Dole: a talk with the president|work=Bloomberg BusinessWeek|date=June 14, 1997|access-date=June 17, 2010}}</ref>

With the infancy of the Internet, Dole-Kemp was the first presidential campaign to set up a website, edging out Clinton-Gore, which was set up by Arizona State college students Rob Kubasko and Vince Salvato.<ref name="oregonlive.com"/> The Dole-Kemp presidential campaign page is still live as of 2024.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/02/1996/470106/|title=The First Campaign Websites|last=LaFrance|first=Adrienne|date=February 19, 2016|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=February 15, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dolekemp96.org/|title=Dole Kemp 96 Web Site|website=www.dolekemp96.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Dole Kemp 1996 Web Site |url=http://www.4president.us/websites/1996/dolekemp1996website.htm |website=www.4president.us |access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref>

While Dole's past remarks doubting the addictiveness of [[tobacco]] had already caused his campaign some trouble, Dole reiterated these doubts in late June. He stated that he believed that the federal government should not be regulating the sale of tobacco and that he thought tobacco may not be as addictive as others believed it to be.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Seelye |first1=Katharine Q. |title=Dole Repeats His Doubts That Tobacco Is Addictive |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/06/29/us/dole-repeats-his-doubts-that-tobacco-is-addictive.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=12 June 2021 |date=1996-06-29}}</ref> Dole's refusal to accept the scientific consensus on the addictiveness of tobacco provided another subject for the Clinton campaign to attack Dole on.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Noah |first1=Timothy |title=Dole's Tobacco Remarks Leave Him Open to Savage Criticism |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB836521536660995000 |website=Wall Street Journal |access-date=12 June 2021 |date=1996-07-05}}</ref>

===Convention===
{{Main|1996 Republican National Convention}}
At the 1996 Republican National Convention in August, Dole formally became his party's nominee. He was the oldest first-time presidential nominee at the age of 73 years, 1 month on the day he was formally nominated (President Ronald Reagan was 73 years, 6 months in 1984, for his second presidential nomination). If elected, he would have been the oldest president to take office and be the first [[Kansas]] native to become president (as [[Dwight Eisenhower]] was born in [[Texas]]). Dole found the initial draft of the acceptance speech written by [[Mark Helprin]] too hardline, so Kerry Tymchuk who was part of the "'Let Dole be Dole' crowd" revised the speech to cover the 'themes of honor, decency and straight talk. It included the following line, a swat at the all-or-nothing rookie Republicans who had been swept into Congress in the 1994 midterm GOP wave: "In politics honorable compromise is no sin. It is what protects us from absolutism and intolerance"'.<ref name="oregonlive.com"/> He also became the first sitting Senate Party Leader to receive his party's nomination for president. He hoped to use his long experience in Senate procedures to maximize publicity from his rare positioning as Senate Majority Leader against an incumbent president but was stymied by Senate Democrats.

In his convention acceptance speech, Dole stated, "Let me be the bridge to an America that only the unknowing call myth. Let me be the bridge to a time of tranquility, faith, and confidence in action,"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.portlandpublishinghouse.com/bridge.html|title=1996 Bob Dole acceptance speech|publisher=Portlandpublishinghouse.com|access-date=June 17, 2010}}</ref> to which incumbent president [[Bill Clinton]] responded, "We do not need to build a bridge to the past, we need to build a bridge to the future."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/08/31/opinion/mr-clinton-s-bridge.html|title=Mr. Clinton's Bridge|work=The New York Times|date=August 31, 1996|access-date=June 17, 2010}}</ref>

===Post-convention===
[[File:Dole-Kemp Rally at UB 1, 1996.jpg|left|thumb|Dole–Kemp campaign rally at the [[State University of New York at Buffalo]]]]

Concerns over Dole's age and lagging campaign were exemplified by a memorable incident on September 18, 1996. At a rally in [[Chico, California]], he was reaching down to shake the hand of a supporter, when the railing on the stage gave way and he tumbled four feet. While only minorly injured in the fall, "the televised image of his painful grimace underscored the age difference between him and Clinton" and proved an ominous sign for Republican hopes of retaking the White House.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/1996-09-19/news/9609181328_1_bob-dole-grand-canyon-slogan|title=Dole Falls Off Stage At Rally, Bounces Back|work=Orlando Sentinel}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/general-election-2015/politics-blog/11576072/Thought-Ed-Milibands-stumble-was-bad-These-politicians-had-much-worse-falls.html|title=Thought Ed Miliband's stumble was bad? These politicians had much worse falls|work=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=July 23, 2017}}</ref>

[[File:1996 1st Presidential Debate H.png|thumb|Dole (left) and Clinton (right) at the first [[1996 United States presidential debates|presidential debate]], held October 6 at [[The Bushnell Center for the Performing Arts]] in [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]], [[Connecticut]]]]
During the latter half of October 1996, Dole made a campaign appearance with [[Heather Whitestone]], the first deaf Miss America, where both of them signed "I love you" to the crowd. Around that time, Dole and his advisers knew that they would lose the election, but in the last four days of the campaign they went on the "96-hour victory tour" to help Republican Congressional candidates.<ref name="auto1">{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/11/05/politics/crowley-losing-side/index.html|title=Crowley: It's the losing campaigns I remember most – CNNPolitics.com|publisher=CNN|date=November 5, 2012}}</ref>

Dole is the last World War II veteran to have been the presidential nominee of a major party. During the campaign, Dole's advanced age was brought up, with critics stating that he was too old to be president.

In the final stretch of the campaign, Dole made a possible [[upset victory]] over Clinton [[1996 United States presidential election in California|in California]] a central part of his strategy.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite news|last=Ayres|first=B. Drummond Jr.|date=1996-10-31|title=Behind Dole's California Strategy: A Bid to Save His Campaign (Published 1996)|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/10/31/us/behind-dole-s-california-strategy-a-bid-to-save-his-campaign.html|access-date=2020-11-29|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Dole aimed to capitalize on two issues that had been figuring prominently in California politics under Governor [[Pete Wilson]], [[Illegal immigration to the United States|illegal immigration]] and [[affirmative action]].<ref name="auto2"/> This would fail, as Clinton would win the state by a double-digit margin.<ref name="CalSecState">[http://sos.ca.gov/elections/sov/1996_general/sov_nov96.pdf Statement of Vote November 5, 1996, Prepared by Bill Jones California Secretary of State] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080731000000/http://sos.ca.gov/elections/sov/1996_general/sov_nov96.pdf |date=July 31, 2008 }}(access date 2012-02-05)</ref>

===Transition planning===
{{United States presidential transitions series}}

A [[United States presidential transition|presidential transition]] was contingently planned from President Clinton to Dole. In June 1996, [[William Timmons (lobbyist)|William Timmons]], who had experience working on the presidential transitions of [[Richard Nixon]] and [[Ronald Reagan]], was placed in charge of plotting a prospective transition.<ref name="doleaide1">{{cite web |title=Dole aide organizes transfer of power |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/200434002 |website=Newspapers.com |publisher=Statesman Journal (Salem, Oregon) |agency= Washington Post |access-date=18 May 2021 |language=en |url-access=subscription |date=14 Oct 1996}}</ref>

It was decided that a presidential transition for Bob Dole would have been headquartered in [[Washington, D.C.]], where Dole had primarily resided for 35 years.<ref name="doleaide1"/> By mid-October, Timmons had secured 100,000 square feet of office space in the city's downtown for the potential transition, and had also arranged to furnish the office with [[desk]]s, [[computer]]s, and [[telephone]]s for 374 staffers if Dole were elected.<ref name="doleaide1"/> Timmons was very detailed with some aspects of planning, including plotting an hour-by-hour schedule for Dole to follow throughout his transition if elected.<ref name="doleaide1"/> If Dole (or any other candidate) had defeated Clinton, Congress would have provided $3.9 million in federal funding for their post-election transition.<ref name="doleaide1"/>

===Loss and concession===
Dole lost, as pundits had long expected, to incumbent President [[Bill Clinton]] in the 1996 election. Clinton won in a 379–159 [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]] landslide, capturing 49.2% of the vote against Dole's 40.7% and [[Ross Perot]]'s 8.4%.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1996/elections/natl.exit.poll/index1.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=April 26, 2010|title=Presidential Election Exit Poll Results – Part 1}}</ref> As Richard Nixon had predicted to Dole a few months before his death in April 1994, Clinton was able to ride a booming economy to a second term in the White House.<ref name="auto"/>

In his election night concession speech, Dole remarked "I was thinking on the way down in the elevator – tomorrow will be the first time in my life I don't have anything to do."<ref name="auto1"/> Dole later wrote "I was wrong. Seventy-two hours after conceding the election, I was swapping wisecracks with [[David Letterman]] on his late-night show".<ref name="auto"/> During the immediate aftermath of his 1996 loss to Clinton, Dole recalled that his critics thought that "I didn't loosen up enough, I didn't show enough leg. They said I was too serious . . . It takes several months to stop fretting about it and move on. But I did." Dole remarked that his decisive defeat to Clinton made it easier for him to be "magnanimous". On his decision to leave politics for good after the 1996 presidential election campaign, despite his guaranteed stature as a former Senate leader, Dole stated "People were urging [me] to be a hatchet man against Clinton for the next four years. I couldn't see the point. Maybe after all those partisan fights, you look for more friendships. One of the nice things I've discovered is that when you're out of politics, you have more credibility with the other side . . . And you're out among all kinds of people, and that just doesn't happen often for an ex-president; he doesn't have the same freedom. So it hasn't been all bad."<ref name="washingtonpost.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A27100-2005Feb15.html|title=What Might Have Been|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[1996 Republican Party presidential primaries]]
*[[1996 Republican Party vice presidential candidate selection]]
*[[1996 Republican National Convention]]
*[[1996 United States presidential election]]
*[[Bill Clinton 1996 presidential campaign]]
*[[Ross Perot 1996 presidential campaign]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.4president.org/speeches/1996/bobdole1996announcement.htm Bob Dole announcement speech]
*[http://www.4president.org/speeches/1996/dolekemp96convention.htm Bob Dole acceptance speech]

{{1996 United States presidential election}}
{{Republican presidential campaigns}}
{{Unsuccessful major party pres candidates}}

[[Category:Bob Dole]]
[[Category:1996 United States presidential campaigns|Dole, Bob]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential campaigns|Dole, Bob]]
[[Category:Jack Kemp]]

1988 Democratic Party presidential primaries

2024-09-12T01:23:17Z

ARandomShyGuy: Replacing Dukakis primary campaign logo with better higher quality image.

{{Short description|Selection of the Democratic Party nominee}} 
{{Infobox election
| election_name = 1988 Democratic Party presidential primaries
| country = United States
| type = primary
| ongoing = no
| previous_election = 1984 Democratic Party presidential primaries
| previous_year = 1984
| election_date = February 8 to June 14, 1988
| next_election = 1992 Democratic Party presidential primaries
| next_year = 1992
| votes_for_election = 4,105 delegates to the [[1988 Democratic National Convention]]
| needed_votes = 2,053 (majority)
| colour1 = a59400
|image1= File:Dukakis campaign portrait 3x4.jpg
| image_size = 150x150px
| candidate1 = '''[[Michael Dukakis]]'''
| home_state1 = [[Massachusetts]]
| delegate_count1 = 1,792
| states_carried1 = '''30'''
| popular_vote1 = '''10,024,101'''
| percentage1 = '''42.4%'''
| image2 = File:Jesse Jackson For President Crop.jpg
| candidate2 = [[Jesse Jackson]]
| colour2 = 5d73e5
| home_state2 = [[South Carolina]]
| delegate_count2 = 1,023
| states_carried2 = 13
| popular_vote2 = 6,941,816
| percentage2 = 29.3%
| image3 = File:Al Gore Senate portrait (cropped).jpg
| candidate3 = [[Al Gore]]
| colour3 = 567953
| home_state3 = [[Tennessee]]
| delegate_count3 = 374
| states_carried3 = 7
| popular_vote3 = 3,190,992
| percentage3 = 13.5%
| image4 = File:Sen. Paul Simon.jpg
| candidate4 = [[Paul Simon (politician)|Paul Simon]]
| colour4 = 7e4621
| home_state4 = [[Illinois]]
| delegate_count4 = 161
| states_carried4 = 1
| popular_vote4 = 1,107,692
| percentage4 = 4.7%
| image5 = File:Dick Gephardt portrait (cropped).jpg
| candidate5 = [[Dick Gephardt]]
| colour5 = 73638c
| home_state5 = [[Missouri]]
| delegate_count5 = 137
| states_carried5 = 3
| popular_vote5 = 1,452,331
| percentage5 = 6.1%
| map_image = 1988DemocraticPresidentialPrimaries.svg
| map_size = 450px
| map_caption = First place by convention roll call
| title = Democratic nominee
| before_election = [[Walter Mondale]]
| after_election = [[Michael Dukakis]]
}}

From February 8 to June 14, 1988, voters of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] chose its nominee for [[President of the United States|president]] in the [[1988 United States presidential election]]. [[Massachusetts governor]] [[Michael Dukakis]] was selected as the nominee through a series of [[primary election]]s and [[caucus]]es culminating in the [[1988 Democratic National Convention]] held from July 18 to July 21, 1988, in [[Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]].

== Background ==
Having been badly defeated in the [[1984 United States presidential election|1984 presidential election]], the Democrats in 1985 and 1986 were eager to find a new approach to win the presidency. They created the [[Democratic Leadership Council]] (DLC), with the aim of recruiting a candidate for the 1988 election.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}

The large gains in the [[1986 United States Senate elections|1986 mid-term elections]] (which resulted in the Democrats taking back control of the Senate after six years of Republican rule) and the continuing [[Iran–Contra affair]] gave Democrats confidence in the run-up to the primary season.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}

==Candidates==
===Nominee===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="3" |Candidate
! class="unsortable" |Most recent office
!Home state
! data-sort-type="date" |Campaign
Withdrawal date
!Popular
vote
!Contests won
!Running mate
|- style="background:linen;"
! style="background:linen;" scope="row" data-sort-="" |[[Michael Dukakis]]
| [[File:Dukakis campaign portrait 3x4.jpg|alt=|90px]]
| style="background:#a59400;" |
|'''[[Governor of Massachusetts]]''' (1975–1979, 1983–1991)
|[[File:Flag-map of Massachusetts.svg|95x95px|[[Massachusetts]]]] [[Massachusetts]]
| data-sort-value="0" |[[File:DukakisPrimaryLogo.png|alt=|100px]] 
([[Michael Dukakis 1988 presidential campaign|Campaign]]) '''Secured nomination: June 7, 1988'''
| data-sort-value="10,024,101" |'''10,024,101''' (42.37%)
| data-sort-value="30" |'''30''' {{nobr|NH, MN, ME primary, VT primary}} {{nobr|FL, HI caucus, ID caucus, MD}} {{nobr|MA, RI, TX, WA}} {{nobr|AS caucus, CO caucus, KS caucus}} {{nobr|CT, WI, AZ caucus, NY, UT caucus, PA, IN}} {{nobr|OH, NE, OR, CA, MT, NJ, NM, ND}}
|[[Lloyd Bentsen]]
|}

===Withdrew during primaries or convention===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="3" |Candidate
! class="unsortable" |Most recent office
!Home state
! data-sort-type="date" |Campaign
Withdrawal date
!Popular vote
!Contests won
|-
! scope="row" data-sort-value="Jackson" |[[Jesse Jackson]]
|[[File:Jesse Jackson portrait.jpg|alt=|90px]]
| style="background:#5d73e5;" |
|Civil rights leader
|[[File:Flag-map of South Carolina.svg|alt=|86x86px|[[South Carolina]]]] [[South Carolina]]
| data-sort-value="07-18-1988" |[[File:Jesse Jackson 1988 camapign logo.svg|alt=|90px]] '''Eliminated at convention:''' July 21, 1988 ([[Jesse Jackson 1988 presidential campaign|Campaign]])
| data-sort-value="6,941,816" | 6,941,816 (29.34%)
| data-sort-value="13" |'''13''' {{nobr|AL, GA, LA, MS, VA}} {{nobr|AK caucus, SC, PR}} VT caucus, {{nobr|MI caucus, DE caucus, DC}}
|-
! scope="row" data-sort-value="Gore" |[[Al Gore]]
|[[File:Al Gore Senate portrait (cropped).jpg|alt=|90px]]
| style="background:#567953;" |
|'''U.S. Senator''' '''from [[Tennessee]]''' (1985–1993)
|[[File:Flag-map of Tennessee.svg|alt=|126x126px|[[Tennessee]]]] [[Tennessee]]
| data-sort-value="03-19-1988" |[[File:Al Gore '88 logo.svg|163x163px]] '''Withdrew:''' April 21, 1988 ([[Al Gore 1988 presidential campaign|Campaign]])
| data-sort-value="3,190,992" | 3,190,992 (13.49%)
| data-sort-value="8" |'''7''' {{nobr|WY caucus, AR, KY}} {{nobr|NV caucus, NC, OK, TN}}
|-
! scope="row" data-sort-value="Simon" |[[Paul Simon (politician)|Paul Simon]]
|[[File:Sen. Paul Simon.jpg|90px]]
| style="background:#7e4621;"|
|'''U.S. Senator''' '''from [[Illinois]]''' (1985–1997)
|[[File:Flag map of Illinois.svg|95x95px|[[Illinois]]]] [[Illinois]]
| data-sort-value="04-07-1988" |[[File:Paul Simon presidential campaign, 1988.png|136x136px]] '''Withdrew:''' April 7, 1988([[Paul Simon 1988 presidential campaign|Campaign]])
| data-sort-value="1,107,692" | 1,107,692 (4.68%)
| data-sort-value="1" |'''1''' {{nobr|IL}}
|-
! scope="row" data-sort-value="Gephardt" |[[Dick Gephardt]]
|[[File:Dick Gephardt portrait (cropped).jpg|90px]]
| style="background:#73638c;"|
|'''U.S. Representative''' '''from [[Missouri]]''' (1977–2005)
|[[File:Flag-map of Missouri.svg|101x101px|[[Missouri]]]] [[Missouri]]
| data-sort-value="03-29-1988" |[[File:Dickgephardt1988.gif|136x136px]] '''Withdrew:''' March 29, 1988([[Dick Gephardt 1988 presidential campaign|Campaign]])
| data-sort-value="1,452,331" | 1,452,331 (6.14%)
| data-sort-value="3" |'''3''' {{nobr|IA caucus, SD, MO}}
|-
! scope="row" data-sort-value="Hart" |[[Gary Hart]]
|[[File:Gary Hart 1984 (cropped).jpg|90px]]
| style="background:#dc142f;"|
|'''[[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]]''' '''from [[Colorado]]''' (1975–1987)
|[[File:Flag-map of Colorado.svg|101x101px|[[Colorado]]]] [[Colorado]]
| data-sort-value="03-12-1988" |[[File:Garyhart1988.gif|136x136px]] '''Suspended campaign:''' May 8, 1987 '''Re-entered:''' December 12, 1987 '''Withdrew:''' March 12, 1988([[Gary Hart 1988 presidential campaign|Campaign]])
| data-sort-value="390,200" | 390,200 (1.65%)
| data-sort-value="0" |'''0'''
|}

==== Candidates who received less than 1% ====
<gallery>
File:Bruce Babbitt (AZ).png|{{center|[[Governor of Arizona]] '''[[Bruce Babbitt]]''' (Withdrew Feb. 18)}}
File:Lyndon LaRouche (cropped).jpg|{{center|Activist and conspiracy theorist '''[[Lyndon LaRouche]]'''}}
File:David Duke.jpg|{{center|Former [[Grand Wizard]] of the [[Ku Klux Klan#Later Klans: 1950s–present|Knights of the Ku Klux Klan]] '''[[David Duke]]''' ([[David Duke 1988 presidential campaign|campaign]]) }}
File:Douglas Applegate in 1993.jpg|{{center|Representative '''[[Douglas Applegate]]''' of [[Ohio]]}}
</gallery>

===Withdrew before primaries===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" |Candidate
! class="unsortable" |Experience
!Home state
! data-sort-type="date" |Campaign
Withdrawal date
|-
! scope="row" data-sort-value="Schroeder" |[[Pat Schroeder]]
|[[File:PatSchroeder.jpg|alt=|90px]]
|'''U.S. Representative''' '''from [[Colorado]]''' (1973–1997)
|[[File:Flag-map of Colorado.svg|alt=|126x126px|[[Colorado]]]] [[Colorado]]
|'''Withdrew:''' September 28, 1987([[Pat Schroeder 1988 presidential campaign|Campaign]])
|-
! scope="row" data-sort-value="Biden" |[[Joe Biden]]
|[[File:Joe Biden in 1987 at White House.png|alt=|90px]]
|'''U.S. Senator''' '''from [[Delaware]]''' (1973–2009)
|[[File:Flag-map of Delaware.svg|alt=|86x86px|[[Delaware]]]] [[Delaware]]
|[[File:Joe Biden President 88 logo.svg|alt=|150px]] '''Withdrew:''' September 23, 1987 ([[Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign|Campaign]])
|}

===Declined===
* Senator '''[[Lloyd Bentsen]]''' of [[Texas]]
* Senator '''[[Ted Kennedy]]''' of [[Massachusetts]] (December 19, 1985)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/12/20/us/kennedy-citing-senate-goals-rules-out-88-presidential-bid.html|title=Kennedy, Citing Senate Goals, Rules Out '88 Presidential Bid|date=December 20, 1985|work=The New York Times}}</ref>
* Businessman '''[[Lee Iacocca]]''' (July 16, 1986)
* Governor '''[[Mario Cuomo]]''' of [[New York (state)|New York]] (February 19, 1987)
* Senator '''[[Sam Nunn]]''' of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] (February 21, 1987)
* Senator '''[[Dale Bumpers]]''' of [[Arkansas]] (March 20, 1987)
* Governor '''[[Bill Clinton]]''' of [[Arkansas]] (July 15, 1987)
* Senator '''[[Bill Bradley]]''' of [[New Jersey]] (August 2, 1987)
* Former Governor '''[[Chuck Robb]]''' of [[Virginia]] (November 12, 1987)

== Polling ==
=== Nationwide polling ===
'''Before 1987'''
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;text-align:center;"
!Poll source
! style="width:120px;" |Publication
!Sample
size
!
! {{vert header|stp=1|Mario Cuomo}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Gary Hart}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Lee Iacocca}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Jesse Jackson}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Other/Undecided}}
|-
|Gallup{{Efn|Poll combines first- and second-choice responses.|name=1&2}}<ref name="Gallup-1986">{{Cite news |last=Gallup |first=George Jr. |date=4 May 1986 |title=Cuomo gains as Democratic pick |pages=200 |work=[[Fort Worth Star-Telegram]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/639142280/ |access-date=19 Sep 2022}}</ref>
|Jan 1986
|?
|?
|23%
|{{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''46%'''
|17%
|15%
|{{Party shading/Independent}}|'''99%'''
|-
|Gallup{{Efn|Poll combines first- and second-choice responses.|name=1&2}}<ref name="Gallup-1986" />
|April 11–14, 1986
|615 RV
|±6.0%
|25%
|{{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''39%'''
|14%
|18%
|{{Party shading/Independent}}|'''104%'''{{Efn|7% for Tom Bradley, 6% each for Bill Bradley and Jay Rockefeller, 5% for Chuck Robb, 4% for Dianne Feinstein, 2% each for Dale Bumpers, Sam Nunn, Pat Schroeder, and Mark White, 1% each for Bruce Babbitt, Joe Biden, and Dick Gephardt, and <1% for Tony Coelho.}}
|-
|Gallup{{Efn|Poll combines first- and second-choice responses.|name=1&2}}<ref name="Gallup-1986a">{{Cite news |last=Gallup |first=George Jr. |date=7 Aug 1986 |title=Iacocca gains on Hart as choice of Democrats |pages=27 |work=[[Fort Worth Star-Telegram]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/639821872/ |access-date=19 Sep 2022}}</ref>
|July 11–14, 1986
|729 RV
|±5.0%
|22%
|{{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''34%'''
|26%
|17%
|{{Party shading/Independent}}|'''101%'''{{Efn|7% each for Bill Bradley and Tom Bradley, 6% for Jay Rockefeller, 3% each for Chuck Robb, Dianne Feinstein, and Mark White. Less than 2% each for Sam Nunn, Pat Schroeder, Dale Bumpers, Bill Clinton, Dick Gephardt, Bruce Babbitt, Joe Biden, and Tony Coelho.}}
|}
'''1987'''
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;text-align:center;"
!Poll source
! style="width:120px;" |Dates
! Sample size
! Margin of error
! {{vert header|stp=1|Bruce Babbitt}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Joe Biden}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Michael Dukakis}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Dick Gephardt}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Al Gore}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Gary Hart}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Jesse Jackson}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Paul Simon}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Other/Undecided}}
|-
|Gallup<ref name="ShreveportJrnl-1988">{{Cite news |date=28 Jan 1988 |title=Dukakis surging as Hart weakens |pages=1 |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/602026291/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=6 Aug 2023}}</ref>
|Apr. 10–13, 1987
|?
|?
|2%
|–
|4%
|3%
|2%
|'''46%'''
|18%
|–
|25%
|-
| colspan="13" |May 8, 1987: Gary Hart suspends his campaign
|-
|Los Angeles Times
|May 7–9, 1987
|393 RV
|±6.0%
|2%
|3%
|{{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''12%'''
|6%
|6%
|–
|7%
|3%
|{{Party shading/Independent}}|'''61%'''{{Efn|Includes 7% for Mario Cuomo and 3% for Ted Kennedy, neither of whom were included in the suggested responses, 1% each for Bill Bradley, Lee Iacocca, Sam Nunn, John Glenn, Terry Sanford, and Howard Baker (Republican).}}
|-
| colspan="13" |December 16, 1987: Gary Hart re-enters the race
|-
|Washington Post/ABC<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 Dec 1987 |title=Poll shows Hart on top; Dole closing in on Bush |pages=10 |work=[[The Greenville News]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/191235692 |access-date=19 Sep 2022}}</ref>
|Dec. 15–17, 1987
|318 RV
|±6.0%
|2%
|–
|15%
|2%
|5%
|{{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''30%'''
|20%
|8%
|18%
|-
|YCS<ref name="OurCampaigns-2018">{{Cite news |date=31 Aug 2018 |title=US President - D Primares (Polling) |work=OurCampaigns |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=55210&ShowAllMUPoll=Y |access-date=30 March 2020}}</ref>
|Dec. 17–18, 1987
|?
|?
|–
|–
|14%
|4%
|–
| {{party shading/Democratic}} |'''30%'''
|22%
|7%
|23%
|-
|Gallup<ref name="ShreveportJrnl-1988" /><ref name="OurCampaigns-2018" />
|Dec. 17–28, 1987
|?
|?
|–
|–
|10%
|2%
|–
| {{party shading/Democratic}} |'''31%'''
|13%
|10%
|25%
|}
'''1988'''
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;text-align:center;"
!Poll source
! style="width:120px;" |Publication
!Sample
size
! {{vert header|stp=1|Bruce Babbitt}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Michael Dukakis}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Dick Gephardt}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Al Gore}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Gary Hart}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Jesse Jackson}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Paul Simon}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Other/Undecided}}
|-
|YCS<ref name="OurCampaigns-2018" />
|Jan. 3–6, 1988
|?
|–
|11%
|4%
|–
| {{party shading/Democratic}} |'''28%'''
|17%
|13%
|27%
|-
|CBS News/New York Times<ref name="OurCampaigns-2018" />
|Jan. 17–21, 1988
|?
|2%
|6%
|4%
|4%
| {{party shading/Democratic}} |'''23%'''
|17%
|9%
|35%
|-
|Washington Post/ABC<ref name="OurCampaigns-2018" />
|Jan. 17–23, 1988
|?
|3%
|11%
|4%
|–
|23%
| {{party shading/Democratic}} |'''25%'''
|12%
|22%
|-
|Gallup<ref name="ShreveportJrnl-1988" /><ref name="OurCampaigns-2018" />
|Jan. 22–24, 1988
|560
|3%
|16%
|9%
|6%
| {{party shading/Democratic}} |'''23%'''
|15%
|9%
|19%
|-
|Harris Interactive<ref name="OurCampaigns-2018" />
|Jan. 7–26, 1988
|?
|–
|15%
|6%
|–
| {{party shading/Democratic}} |'''19%'''
|15%
|8%
|37%
|-
|Gordon Black<ref name="OurCampaigns-2018" />
|Jan. 21–28, 1988
|?
|–
|13%
|9%
|–
| {{party shading/Democratic}} |'''17%'''
|13%
|7%
|41%
|-
|CBS News/New York Times<ref name="OurCampaigns-2018" />
|Jan. 30–31, 1988
|447
|–
|8%
|4%
|–
| {{party shading/Democratic}} |'''18%'''
|16%
|6%
|48%
|-
| colspan="11" |February 8: Iowa caucus
|-
|Washington Post/ABC<ref name="LA Times-1988">{{Cite news |date=15 Feb 1988 |title=Politics 88 : Dole Tops Bush in Gallup Poll; Dukakis Leads |work=[[The Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-02-15-mn-28994-story.html |access-date=1 May 2022}}</ref>
|Feb. 11–13, 1988
|383 LV
|6%
| {{party shading/Democratic}} |'''40%'''
|16%
|7%
|3%
|7%
|17%
|5%
|-
|CBS News<ref name="LA Times-1988" />
|Feb. 12–13, 1988
|483 LV
|3%
| {{party shading/Democratic}} |'''42%'''
|18%
|4%
|4%
|4%
|12%
|13%
|-
|Gallup<ref name="LA Times-1988" />
|Feb. 12–13, 1988
|756 LV
|5%
| {{party shading/Democratic}} |'''39%'''
|18%
|5%
|3%
|7%
|16%
|7%
|-
| colspan="11" |February 16: New Hampshire primary
|-
|CBS News/New York Times{{Efn|This poll intentionally oversampled voters in border and Southern states in advance of Super Tuesday.}}<ref name="Bartels-1989">{{Cite journal |last1=Bartels |first1=Larry M. |last2=Broh |first2=C. Anthony |date=Winter 1989 |title=A Review: The 1988 Presidential Primaries |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2749359 |journal=The Public Opinion Quarterly |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=563–589 |doi=10.1086/269172 |jstor=2749359 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>
|Feb. 17–21, 1988
|933
|1%
| {{party shading/Democratic}} |'''21%'''
|12%
|8%
|10%
|13%
|6%
|30%
|-
| colspan="11" |March 8: Super Tuesday
|-
|CBS News/New York Times<ref name="Bartels-1989" />
|Mar. 19–22, 1988
|?
|–
| {{party shading/Democratic}} |'''29%'''
|8%
|14%
|–
|22%
|6%
|21%
|}
'''Head-to-head polling'''
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;text-align:center;"
!Poll source
! style="width:120px;" |Publication
!Sample
size
!Margin
of error
! {{vert header|stp=1|Mario Cuomo}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Gary Hart}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Lee Iacocca}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Jesse Jackson}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Other/Undecided}}
|-
| rowspan="3" |Gallup<ref name="Gallup-1986a" />
| rowspan="3" |June 9–16, 1986
| rowspan="3" |452 RV
| rowspan="3" |±6.0%
|30%
|{{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''55%'''
|–
|—
|15%
|-
|–
|{{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''59%'''
|28%
|—
|13%
|-
|—
|{{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''75%'''
|–
|14%
|11%
|}

===Statewide and regional polling===
'''South'''
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;text-align:center;"
!Poll source
! style="width:120px;" |Dates
! Sample size
! Margin of error
! {{vert header|stp=1|Bruce Babbitt}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Joe Biden}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Mario Cuomo}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Michael Dukakis}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Dick Gephardt}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Al Gore}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Gary Hart}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Jesse Jackson}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Paul Simon}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Other/Undecided}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[The Atlanta Journal-Constitution|Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mashek |first=John W. |date=4 Oct 1987 |title=Jackson leads, but undecided reigns in South |pages=1 |work=[[Atlanta Journal Constitution]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/399889917 |access-date=19 Sep 2022}}</ref>{{Efn|Poll of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, North Carolina, Mississippi, South Carolina, Tennessse, Texas, and Virginia.}}
| rowspan="2" |Sep. 18–28, 1987
| rowspan="2" |6,452 A
| rowspan="2" |±2.0%
|3%
|3%
|–
|9%
|5%
|13%
|–
|{{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''27%'''
|5%
|{{Party shading/Independent}}|'''35%'''{{Efn|Including 5% for Pat Schroeder.}}
|-
|–
|–
|17%
|–
|–
|–
|{{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''27%'''
|11%
|–
|{{Party shading/Independent}}|'''45%{{Efn|Including 14% for Sam Nunn.}}'''
|}
'''California'''
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;text-align:center;"
!Poll source
! style="width:120px;" |Dates
! Sample size
! Margin of error
! {{vert header|stp=1|Bruce Babbitt}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Joe Biden}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Michael Dukakis}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Dick Gephardt}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Al Gore}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Gary Hart}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Jesse Jackson}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Paul Simon}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Other/Undecided}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |Teichner/Sacramento Bee<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 May 1987 |title=California poll shows no front-runner |pages=11 |work=[[Desert Dispatch]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/748580614 |access-date=19 Sep 2022}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" |May 8–9, 1987
| rowspan="2" |510 RV
| rowspan="2" |±4.0%
|3%
|4%
|5%
|2%
|2%
|{{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''34%'''
|9%
|2%
|{{Party shading/Independent}}|'''39%'''
|-
|2%
|4%
|8%
|5%
|5%
|–
|{{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''13%'''
|3%
|{{Party shading/Independent}}|'''40%'''
|}
'''Maryland'''
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;text-align:center;"
!Poll source
! style="width:120px;" |Dates
! Sample size
! Margin of error
! {{vert header|stp=1|Bruce Babbitt}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Joe Biden}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Michael Dukakis}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Dick Gephardt}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Al Gore}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Gary Hart}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Jesse Jackson}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Paul Simon}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Other/Undecided}}
|-
|Savitz Research Center<ref>{{Cite news |last=Himowitz |first=Michael J. |date=27 Oct 1987 |title=Jackson, Bush leading now among Marylanders |pages=1 |work=[[Baltimore Evening Sun]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/371563593 |access-date=19 Sep 2022}}</ref>
|October 9–14, 1987
|559 RV
|±4.0%
|2%
|–
|12%
|5%
|6%
|–
|{{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''35%'''
|6%
|{{Party shading/Independent}}|'''35%'''{{Efn|12% for "someone else."}}
|}
'''New Hampshire'''
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;text-align:center;"
!Poll source
! style="width:120px;" |Dates
! Sample size
! Margin of error
! {{vert header|stp=1|Bruce Babbitt}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Joe Biden}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Mario Cuomo}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Michael Dukakis}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Dick Gephardt}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Al Gore}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Gary Hart}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Jesse Jackson}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Chuck Robb}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Paul Simon}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|Other/Undecided}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|Bannon Research<ref>{{cite news|title=Babbitt buoyed by New Hampshire presidential polls|last=Hoy|first=Anne Q.|newspaper=[[Arizona Republic]]|date=5 Nov 1986|page=8|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/122272313/|url-access=subscription|access-date=19 Sep 2022}}</ref>
| rowspan="2"|Sep.–Oct. 1986
| rowspan="2"|501 LV
| rowspan="2"|±5.0%
|1%
|1%
|26%
|–
|1%
|–
|{{party shading/Democratic}} |'''47%'''
|6%
|1%
|–
|19%
|-
|1%
|1%
|19%
|27%
|1%
|—
|{{party shading/Democratic}} |'''33%'''
|3%
|–
|–
|17%
|}

== Pre-primary events ==
=== The Hart-Rice affair ===
[[File:Gary Hart Senator in 1987 (1).jpg|thumb|Former U.S. Senator [[Gary Hart]] delivers a speech in 1987. Hart was the runner-up for the 1984 Democratic nomination and front-runner for 1988, but his campaign faltered and collapsed after revelations of an extra-marital affair.]]
The Democratic front-runner for most of 1987 was former Colorado Senator [[Gary Hart]].<ref>John Dillin for The Christian Science Monitor. 23 February 1987 [http://www.csmonitor.com/1987/0223/acuomo.html Cuomo's `no' opens door for dark horses]</ref> Hart had made a strong showing in the [[1984 Democratic Party presidential primaries|1984 primaries]] and, after Mondale's defeat in the [[1984 United States presidential election|presidential election]], had positioned himself as the moderate centrist many Democrats felt their party would need to win.<ref>{{cite news|author=E. J. Dionne Jr.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/04/14/us/hart-stressing-ideals-formally-enters-the-1988-race.html|title=Gary Hart The Elusive Front-Runner|date=May 3, 1987|work=The New York Times, pg. SM28}}</ref>

However, questions and rumors about possible extramarital affairs and about past debts dogged Hart's campaign.<ref name="NYTimesFall" /> One of the great myths is that Senator Hart challenged the media to "put a tail" on him and that reporters then took him up on that challenge. In fact, Hart had told [[E. J. Dionne]] of ''[[The New York Times]]'' that if reporters followed him around, they would "be bored". However, in a separate investigation, the ''[[Miami Herald]]'' claimed to have received an anonymous tip from a friend of [[Donna Rice]] that Rice was involved with Hart. It was only after Hart had been discovered that the Herald reporters found Hart's quote in a pre-print of ''[[The New York Times Magazine]]''.<ref name="HeraldSummary">{{cite news |date=May 10, 1987 |title=The Gary Hart Story: How It Happened. |url=http://www.unc.edu/~pmeyer/Hart/hartarticle.html |newspaper=The Miami Herald |access-date=November 20, 2014 |archive-date=August 24, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824160635/http://www.unc.edu/~pmeyer/Hart/hartarticle.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On May 8, 1987, a week after the Donna Rice story broke, Hart dropped out of the race.<ref name="NYTimesFall">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/05/09/us/courting-danger-the-fall-of-gary-hart.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm |title=Courting Danger: The Fall Of Gary Hart |work=The New York Times |date=1987-05-09 |first1=David |last1=Johnston |first2=Wayne |last2=King |first3=Jon |last3=Nordheimer}}</ref>

In December 1987, Hart surprised many political [[Pundit (expert)|pundits]] by resuming his presidential campaign.<ref>Bob Drogin for the Los Angeles Times. 16 December 1987 [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-12-16-mn-19649-story.html Hart Back in Race for President : Political World Stunned, Gives Him Little Chance]</ref> He again led in the polls for the Democratic nomination, both nationally and in Iowa. However, the allegations of [[adultery]] and reports of irregularities in his campaign financing had delivered a fatal blow to his candidacy, and he fared poorly in the early primaries before dropping out again.<ref>Associated Press, in the Los Angeles Times. 13 March 1988 [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-03-13-mn-1553-story.html Quits Campaign : 'The People 'Have Decided,' Hart Declares]</ref>

The Hart scandal would later be depicted in the 2018 film [[The Front Runner (film)|''The Front Runner'']], with [[Hugh Jackman]] portraying Hart.

=== Biden plagiarism scandals ===
[[File:Joe Biden, official 104th Congress photo.png|thumb|left|Senator [[Joe Biden]] was another early contender who was forced to withdraw before the primaries when multiple plagiarism scandals derailed his candidacy.]]
{{See also|Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign}}

Delaware Senator [[Joe Biden]] led [[Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign|a highly competitive campaign]] which ended in controversy after he was accused of [[plagiarism|plagiarizing]] a speech by [[Neil Kinnock]], then-leader of the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Biden Is Facing Growing Debate On His Speeches |date=September 16, 1987 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/09/16/us/biden-is-facing-growing-debate-on-his-speeches.html }}</ref> Though Biden had correctly credited the original author in all speeches but one, the one of which he failed to make mention of the originator was caught on video and sent to the press by members of the Dukakis campaign. In the video Biden is filmed repeating a stump speech by Kinnock, with only minor modifications. [[Michael Dukakis]] later acknowledged that his campaign was responsible for leaking the tape, and two members of his staff resigned.<ref name="Politico">{{cite journal |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2021/01/19/joe-biden-1988-campaign-redemption-460332 |title=They failed spectacularly in '88. Now, these Biden aides are getting sweet redemption. |last1=Thompson |first1=Alex |last2=Pager |first2= Tyler |date=January 19, 2021 |journal=[[Politico]]}}</ref>

It was also discovered that Biden had been guilty of plagiarism years before, while a student at the [[Syracuse University College of Law]] in the 1960s. Though Biden professed his integrity, the impression lingering in the media as the result of this double punch would lead him to drop out of the race.<ref name="Politico" /> He formally suspended his campaign on September 28, 1987.

The [[Delaware Supreme Court]]'s Board on Professional Responsibility would later clear Biden of the law school plagiarism charges.<ref>{{cite news | title=Professional Board Clears Biden In Two Allegations of Plagiarism | page=29 | work=The New York Times | date=May 29, 1989 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/29/us/professional-board-clears-biden-in-two-allegations-of-plagiarism.html }}</ref>

After campaigns in 2008 and 2020, Biden was elected vice president in 2008 and 2012 and president in 2020.

== Endorsements ==
'''Michael Dukakis'''
*Senator [[Donald Riegle]] of [[Michigan]]<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jack W. Germond |author2=Jules Witcover |title=Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=0-446-51424-1 |page=298 |chapter=19: Illinois and Michigan: Jesse Jackson Peaks |year=1989 |quote=Appearing at the press conference were Michigan Senator Don Riegle and three other members of the state's congressional delegation, all endorsing him.}}</ref>

'''Jesse Jackson'''
*Senator [[Ernest Hollings]] of [[South Carolina]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1988/06/17/jackson-i-deserve-more-superdelegates/ | title=Jackson: I Deserve More Superdelegates | date=17 June 1988 }}</ref>
* Former Governor [[Orval Faubus]] of [[Arkansas]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1988/04/29/jesse-jacksons-victory/113fbd8b-5e1a-40b6-94e6-7e1af1470f43 |title=JESSE JACKSON'S VICTORY |date=1988-04-29 |author1=William Raspberry |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |place=Washington, D.C. |issn=0190-8286 |oclc=1330888409}}</ref>
*Mayor [[Bernie Sanders]] of [[Burlington, Vermont]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2016/02/15/bernie-sanders-highlights-his-1988-support-of-jesse-jacksons-white-house-run/|title=Bernie Sanders highlights his 1988 support of Jesse Jackson's White House run|newspaper=The Washington Post|last1=Wagner|first1=John|date=February 15, 2016|accessdate=September 9, 2021}}</ref>
*Mayor [[Harold Washington]] of [[Chicago, Illinois]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Oreskes |first1=Michael |title=Chicago's Mayor Endorses Jackson |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/09/09/us/chicago-s-mayor-endorses-jackson.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=4 December 2019 |date=9 September 1987}}</ref>
* Mayor [[Richard Arrington Jr.]] of [[Birmingham, Alabama]]<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jack W. Germond |author2=Jules Witcover |title=Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=0-446-51424-1 |page=281 |chapter=18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco |year=1989 |quote=The black political leaders who had supported Mondale in 1984, such as Mayor Richard Arrington of Birmingham, were now fully in the Jackson camp.}}</ref>
*Actor and comedian [[Bill Cosby]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=User Clip: Bill Cosby for Jesse Jackson {{!}} C-SPAN.org|url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?c4460671/user-clip-bill-cosby-jesse-jackson|access-date=2021-06-21|website=www.c-span.org|language=en-us}}</ref>
*Activist [[Paul Wellstone]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Paul Wellstone's Legacy|url=https://inthesetimes.com/article/paul-wellstones-legacy|access-date=2021-06-21|website=In These Times|date=12 October 2012 |language=en}}</ref>
*''[[The Nation]]''<ref>{{Cite news|date=1988-04-16|title=For Jesse Jackson and His Campaign|language=en-US|url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/jesse-jackson-and-his-campaign/|work=The Nation|access-date=2021-06-21|issn=0027-8378}}</ref>

'''Al Gore'''
* [[Georgia House of Representatives]] Speaker [[Tom Murphy (U.S. politician)|Tom Murphy]]<ref name="ReferenceA">[http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=34462 Our Campaigns - GA US President - D Primary Race - Mar 08, 1988]</ref>
* [[Texas House of Representatives]] Speaker [[Gib Lewis]]<ref name="Warner Books">{{cite book |author1=Jack W. Germond |author2=Jules Witcover |title=Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=0-446-51424-1 |page=286 |chapter=18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco |year=1989 |quote=...Gore was moving around the South gathering endorsements - particularly from prominent state politicians such as Speaker Tom Murphy of Georgia, Speaker Gib Lewis of Texas, Speaker Jon Mills of Florida}}</ref>
* [[Florida House of Representatives]] Speaker [[Jon L. Mills]]<ref name="Warner Books"/>

'''Dick Gephardt'''
* Representative [[Tony Coelho]] of [[California]]<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jack W. Germond |author2=Jules Witcover |title=Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=0-446-51424-1 |page=255 |chapter=16: Iowa: Dick Gephardt's Hour |year=1989 |quote=Congressman Tony Coelho paid a visit and also came back with the view that Gephardt needed a much sharper focus to his message that Iowa voters could identify with}}</ref>
* Representative [[Martin Frost]] of [[Texas]]<ref name="Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Star">{{cite book |author1=Jack W. Germond |author2=Jules Witcover |title=Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=0-446-51424-1 |page=282 |chapter=18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco |year=1989 |quote=The backing of allies such as Representatives Martin Frost and Marvin Leath in Texas...}}</ref>
* Representative [[Marvin Leath]] of [[Texas]]<ref name="Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Star"/>
* Representative [[Mike Synar]] of [[Oklahoma]]<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jack W. Germond |author2=Jules Witcover |title=Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=0-446-51424-1 |page=282 |chapter=18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco |year=1989 |quote=The backing of allies such as Representatives Martin Frost and Marvin Leath in Texas, Mike Synar in Oklahoma...}}</ref>
* Representative [[Claude Pepper]] of [[Florida]]<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jack W. Germond |author2=Jules Witcover |title=Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=0-446-51424-1 |page=282 |chapter=18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco |year=1989 |quote=The backing of allies such as Representatives Martin Frost and Marvin Leath in Texas, Mike Synar in Oklahoma and Claude Pepper in Florida was a valued credential.}}</ref>
* Representative [[Sander Levin]] of [[Michigan]]<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jack W. Germond |author2=Jules Witcover |title=Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=0-446-51424-1 |page=299 |chapter=19: Illinois and Michigan: Jesse Jackson Peaks |year=1989 |quote=Congressman Sander Levin of Michigan, a Gephardt supporter...}}</ref>

'''Gary Hart'''
* Actor [[Warren Beatty]]<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jack W. Germond |author2=Jules Witcover |title=Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=0-446-51424-1 |page=195 |chapter=13: Too Much Damage to Control |year=1989 |quote=There were other phone calls, too, including repeated ones from actor Warren Beatty, a longtime supporter and friend going back to the McGovern campaign of 1971-72}}</ref><ref name="LAtimes">{{cite web |title=Campaign '88 Gets the Star Treatment
|website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-06-07-ca-3918-story.html|date=7 June 1988}}</ref>
* Comedian [[Steve Martin]]<ref name="LAtimes"/>
* Actor [[Jack Nicholson]]<ref name="LAtimes"/>
* Musician [[Stephen Stills]]<ref name="LAtimes"/>
* Actress [[Debra Winger]]<ref name="LAtimes"/>

'''Paul Simon'''
* ''[[The Des Moines Register]]''<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jack W. Germond |author2=Jules Witcover |title=Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988 |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=0-446-51424-1 |page=263 |chapter=16: Iowa: Dick Gephardt's hour |year=1989 |quote=Simon got a lift from the endorsement of the Des Moines Register, influential with the sort of political activists who attended the caucuses.}}</ref>

==Results==
In the [[Iowa caucuses]], Gephardt finished first, Simon finished second, and Dukakis finished third. In the [[New Hampshire primary]], Dukakis finished first, Gephardt finished second, and Simon finished third. Dukakis and Gore campaigned hard against Gephardt with negative ads, and eventually the [[United Auto Workers]] retracted their endorsement of Gephardt, who was heavily dependent on labor union backing.

In the [[Super Tuesday]] races, Dukakis won six primaries, Gore five, Jackson five and Gephardt one, with Gore and Jackson splitting the southern states. The next week, Simon won Illinois. 1988 is tied with 1992 as the race with the most candidates winning primaries since the McGovern reforms of 1971. Gore's effort to paint Dukakis as too liberal for the general election proved unsuccessful and he eventually withdrew. Jackson focused more on getting enough delegates to make sure African-American interests were represented in the platform than on winning outright.<ref>{{cite news|last=Williams|first=Juan|title=Waiting for The Jackson Reaction; Will Jesse End His Crusade With a Bang or a Whimper?|date=1988-07-17|newspaper=The Washington Post|page=C1}}</ref> Dukakis eventually emerged as the party's nominee.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;line-height:20px"
! rowspan="3" |Date<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31773163/chicago_tribune/|title=Clipped from Chicago Tribune|newspaper=Chicago Tribune|date=11 March 1992|page=14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=1992 Presidential Primary Calendar |url=http://frontloading.blogspot.com/2009/02/1992-presidential-primary-calendar.html}}</ref> {{small|(daily totals)}}
! rowspan="3" |Total pledged delegates<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31773082/the_times_leader/ |title=Election calendar at a glance |date= 14 February 1992 |work=The Times Leader |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521034802/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31773082/the_times_leader/ |archive-date= 21 May 2019 |url-status=live |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref>
! rowspan="3" |Contest
! colspan="6" |Delegates won and popular vote
! rowspan="2" |Total
|-
! style="width:100px;" |Michael Dukakis
! style="width:100px;" |Jesse Jackson
! style="width:100px;" |Al Gore
! style="width:100px;" |Paul Simon
! style="width:100px;" |Dick Gephardt
! style="width:100px;" |Others
|-
| style="background:#a59400;" |
| style="background:#5d73e5;" |
| style="background:#668c63;" |
| style="background:#7e4621;" |
| style="background:#73638c;" |
|
|-
!February 8
!45
![[Iowa caucus]]<ref>{{cite web |author1=Robert S. Boyd |author2=Susan Bennett |date=February 9, 1988 |title=Dole, Gephardt take Iowa |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=xaceAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Zc4EAAAAIBAJ&pg=6148%2C3043964 |access-date=1 November 2017 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Spartanburg Herald-Journal |location=Spartanburg, SC |pages=1, 3}}</ref>
|12 27,750
| 11,000
| 80
|15 33,375
|style="background:#c7c0d1;" |'''18 39,125'''
| 13,625
|124,955
|-
!February 16
!16
![[1988 New Hampshire Democratic presidential primary|New Hampshire]]<ref>{{cite web |author1=Robert S. Boyd |author2=Susan Bennett |date=February 17, 1988 |title=Bush, Dukakis score big wins |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ZEMsAAAAIBAJ&sjid=qs4EAAAAIBAJ&pg=4683%2C134101 |access-date=1 November 2017 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Spartanburg Herald-Journal |location=Spartanburg, SC |pages=1, 4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=New Hampshire. Dept. of State |url=http://archive.org/details/manualforgeneral51newh |title=Manual for the General Court |date=1989 |publisher=Concord, N.H. : Dept. of State |others=University of New Hampshire Library |pages=132, 153}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''8 44,112'''
| 9,615
| 8,400
|4 21,094
|4 24,513
| 15,179
|122,913
|-
! rowspan="2" |February 23
!68
![[Minnesota]]<ref name="auto">{{cite web |author1=Robert S. Boyd |author2=Susan Bennett |date=February 24, 1988 |title=Dole scores impressive victories |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=SFOYbPikdlgC&dat=19880224&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=1 November 2017 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Spartanburg Herald-Journal |location=Spartanburg, SC |pages=1, 4}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''25 8,990'''
|15 5,270
|274
|13 4,766
| 1,970
| 5,281
|26,551
|-
!17
![[South Dakota]]<ref name="auto" />
|7 22,349
| 3,867
| 5,993
| 3,992
|style="background:#c7c0d1;" |'''10 31,184'''
| 4,221
|71,606
|-
!February 28
!20
![[Maine|Maine primary]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - ME US President - D Caucus Race - Feb. 28, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=643339 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''8 3,170'''
|7 2,722
| 139
| 378
| 282
| 2,053
|8,744
|-
!March 1
!12
![[Vermont|Vermont Caucus]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Vermont Elections Database (Search Elections) |url=http://vtelectionarchive.sec.state.vt.us/elections/search/year_from:1976/year_to:2016/office_id:1/stage:Democratic |access-date=1 November 2017 |website=Vermont Secretary of State |format=search results: 1976-2016 |archive-date=8 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108094747/http://vtelectionarchive.sec.state.vt.us/elections/search/year_from:1976/year_to:2016/office_id:1/stage:Democratic |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''6 582'''
| style="background:#bec7f4;" |'''6 696'''
| 6
|—
|—
| 120
|1,404
|-
!March 5
!11
![[Wyoming|Wyoming caucus]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - WY US President - D Caucus Race - Mar. 05, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=643368 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''4 76'''
| 38
| style="background:#c1d1c0;" |'''4 88'''
| 6
|3 61
| 1
|270
|-
! rowspan="21" |March 8 (Super Tuesday) (1099)
!47
![[Alabama]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - AL US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=34053 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
| 31,206
| style="background:#bec7f4;" |'''25 176,764'''
|22 151,739
| 3,063
| 30,214
| 12,845
|405,831
|-
!32
![[Arkansas]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Arkansas Primary Results |url=http://uselectionatlas.org/WIKI/images/0/0f/88Primary-1-.pdf |access-date=3 November 2017 |website=U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) }}</ref>
|8 94,103
|7 85,003
| style="background:#c1d1c0;" |'''16 185,758'''
| 9,020
| 59,711
| 63,949
|-
!101
![[Florida]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Florida Department of State (Election Results) |url=https://results.elections.myflorida.com/?ElectionDate=3/8/1988&DATAMODE= |access-date=3 November 2017 |website=Florida Secretary of State |format=search results: 1988 Presidential preference primary (Democratic party)}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''68 520,868'''
|33 254,825
| 161,106
| 27,592
| 182,779
| 121,606
|-
!64
![[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Supplement to the Georgia Official and Statistical Register 1985-1988 |url=http://statregister.galileo.usg.edu/statregister/view?docId=statregister/statsup1985/statsup1985-0228.xml |access-date=3 November 2017 |website=Georgia Official and Statistical Register |page=3 |format=search results: 1988 Presidential preference primary (Democratic party) |archive-date=8 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108095030/http://statregister.galileo.usg.edu/statregister/view?docId=statregister/statsup1985/statsup1985-0228.xml |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| 97,179
| style="background:#bec7f4;" |'''29 247,831'''
|24 201,490
| 8,388
| 41,489
| 26,375
|-
!17
![[Hawaii|Hawaii caucus]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Incomplete Statewide Data for Caucuses |url=http://uselectionatlas.org/WIKI/images/6/6d/Caucuses_-_1988_D.xls |access-date=3 November 2017 |website=U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) |format=Excel worksheet}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''10 2,716'''
|7 1,739
| 58
| 46
| 98
| 318
|-
!16
![[Idaho|Idaho caucus]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Idaho Caucus County Results |url=http://uselectionatlas.org/WIKI/images/6/67/88_ID_D_Caucus.xls |access-date=3 November 2017 |website=U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) |format=Excel worksheet}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''7 144'''
|4 73
| 32
| 16
| 3
| 112
|-
!48
![[Kentucky]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Kentucky County Results |url=http://www.uselectionatlas.org/WIKI/images/e/ee/KY_88_D_Prim.xls |access-date=3 November 2017 |website=U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) |format=Excel worksheet}}</ref>
|11 59,433
|9 49,667
| style="background:#c1d1c0;" |'''27 145,988'''
| 9,393
| 28,982
| 25,258
|-
!52
![[Louisiana]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Louisiana County Results |url=http://www.uselectionatlas.org/WIKI/images/c/cd/LA_88_D_Prim.xls |access-date=3 November 2017 |website=U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) |format=Excel worksheet}}</ref>
|10 95,661
| style="background:#bec7f4;" |'''23 221,522'''
|18 174,971
| 5,153
| 67,029
| 60,683
|-
!56
![[Maryland]]<ref>{{cite web |title=1988 Presidential Election |url=http://www.elections.state.md.us/elections/1988/results_1988/prepapre.html |access-date=3 November 2017 |website=Maryland State Board of Elections}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''34 242,479'''
|22 152,642
| 46,063
| 16,013
| 42,059
| 16,631
|-
!93
![[Massachusetts]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Massachusetts County, Congressional District and Town Results |url=http://uselectionatlas.org/WIKI/images/f/fb/88_MA_D_Prim_by_CD.xls |access-date=3 November 2017 |website=U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) |format=Excel worksheet}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''71 418,256'''
|22 133,385
| 31,631
| 26,176
| 72,943
| 31,552
|-
!40
![[Mississippi]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Mississippi County Results |url=http://www.uselectionatlas.org/WIKI/images/6/61/MS_88_D_Prim.xls |access-date=3 November 2017 |website=U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) |format=Excel worksheet}}</ref>
|1 29,941
| style="background:#bec7f4;" |'''24 160,651'''
|15 120,364
| 2,118
| 19,693
| 26,650
|-
!71
![[Missouri]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Missouri County Results |url=http://uselectionatlas.org/WIKI/images/c/cc/88_MO_D_Prim.xls |access-date=3 November 2017 |website=U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) |format=Excel worksheet}}</ref>
| 61,303
|18 106,386
| 14,549
| 21,433
|style="background:#c7c0d1;" |'''53 305,287'''
| 18,857
|-
!12
![[Nevada|Nevada caucus]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - NV US President - D Caucus - Mar. 08, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=643373 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|3 427
|3 382
| style="background:#c1d1c0;" |'''4 491'''
| 20
| 33
|2 285
|-
!68
![[North Carolina]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - NC US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=203861 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|16 137,993
|25 224,177
| style="background:#c1d1c0;" |'''27 235,669'''
| 8,032
| 37,553
| 36,534
|-
!39
![[Oklahoma]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - OK US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=37471 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|9 66,278
| 52,417
| style="background:#c1d1c0;" |'''20 162,584'''
| 6,901
|10 82,596
| 21,951
|-
!20
![[Rhode Island]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - RI US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=35556 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''16 34,159'''
|4 7,369
| 1,932
| 1,392
| 2,013
| 1,958
|-
!56
![[Tennessee]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Tennessee primary results (1972, 1988, 1992) |url=https://uselectionatlas.org/WIKI/images/e/ea/1972,_1988,_1992_ppp.pdf |access-date=3 November 2017 |website=U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki) |page=5 }}</ref>
| 19,348
|12 119,248
| style="background:#c1d1c0;" |'''44 416,861'''
| 2,647
| 8,470
| 9,740
|-
!145
![[Texas]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - TX US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=264118 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''61 579,713'''
|46 433,335
|38 357,764
| 34,499
| 240,158
| 121,576
|-
!62
![[Virginia]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - VA US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=264086 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|15 80,183
| style="background:#bec7f4;" |'''32 164,709'''
|15 81,419
| 7,045
| 15,935
| 15,608
|-
!53
![[Washington (state)|Washington]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - WA US President - D Caucus Race - Mar. 08, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=643377 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''29 3,784'''
|24 3,083
| 166
| 300
| 78
| 1,074
|-
!6
![[American Samoa|American Samoa caucus]]<ref>{{cite news |title=After Super Tuesday: Caucus Tallies |work=The New York Times |date=10 March 1988 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/03/10/us/after-super-tuesday-caucus-tallies.html |access-date=3 November 2017 }}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''4 (39%)'''
| (7%)
|—
|—
|2 (22%)
| (32%)
|-
!March 10
!10
![[Alaska|Alaska caucus]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - AK US President - D Caucus Race - Mar. 10, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=643340 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|3 774
| style="background:#bec7f4;" |'''4 882'''
| 48
| 18
| 15
| 791
|-
! rowspan="2" |March 12
!36
![[Colorado|Colorado caucus]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - CO US President - D Caucus Race - Mar. 12, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=643342 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''17 4,852'''
|13 3,720
| 307
| 14
|—
|6 1,867
|-
!37
![[South Carolina]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - SC US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 12, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=643341 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
| 1,018
| style="background:#bec7f4;" |'''22 8,114'''
|7 2,777
| 36
| 307
|8 2,853
|-
!March 15
!160
![[Illinois]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rothberg |first1=Donald M. |date=March 16, 1988 |title=Simon win clouds Democratic race |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=300yAAAAIBAJ&sjid=QOYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6295%2C3744344 |access-date=7 November 2017 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Lawrence Journal-World |page=1A}}</ref>
|29 245,289
|57 484,233
| 77,265
| style="background:#cbb5a6;" |'''74 635,219'''
| 35,108
| 23,816
|-
!March 19
!34{{efn|The delegate totals add up to 35.}}
![[Kansas|Kansas caucus]]<ref>{{cite web |title=KS US President - D Caucus Race - Mar. 19, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=453623 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''15 278'''
|13 235
|7 125
|—
| 12
| 114
|-
!March 20
!40
![[Puerto Rico]]<ref>{{cite web |date=March 21, 1988 |title=Bush Wins Puerto Rico Primary and 14 Delegates |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/03/21/us/bush-wins-puerto-rico-primary-and-14-delegates.html |access-date=7 November 2017 |website=New York Times}}</ref>
|11 70,733
| style="background:#bec7f4;" |'''13 87,757'''
|7 45,361
|9 57,639
| 9,159
| 3,753
|-
!March 26
!127
![[Michigan|Michigan caucus]]<ref>{{cite web |date=March 27, 1988 |title=Jackson wins in Michigan |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=6E0yAAAAIBAJ&sjid=QOYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5600%2C6768527 |access-date=7 November 2017 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Lawrence Journal-World |pages=1A, 13A}}</ref>
|45 61,674
| style="background:#bec7f4;" |'''82 113,777'''
| 4,253
| 4,466
| 27,222
| 326
|-
!March 29<ref>{{cite web |date=March 30, 1988 |title=Dukakis says victory boosts his campaign |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=yPolAAAAIBAJ&sjid=gvwFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5543%2C9942659 |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=The Nashua Telegraph |pages=1, 16}}</ref>
!63<ref>{{cite web |date=March 30, 1988 |title=With big win, Dukakis drive back in gear |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=CShVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=aI8DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6372%2C9846149 |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Ellensburg Daily Record |page=8}}</ref>
![[Connecticut]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - CT US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 24, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=38952 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''35 (58%)'''
|17 (28%)
| (8%)
| (1%)
|—
|11{{efn|Only 52 of the 63 delegates were awarded via the primary vote according to the article sourced.}} (5%)
|-
!April 5
!81<ref>{{cite web |date=April 5, 1988 |title=Dukakis resumes his front-runner status |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QoVUAAAAIBAJ&sjid=FI8DAAAAIBAJ&pg=4919%2C509418 |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Ellensburg Daily Record |page=5}}</ref>
![[Wisconsin]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Espo |first1=David |date=April 6, 1988 |title=Dukakis slows Jackson, Bush wins easily |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=VAUmAAAAIBAJ&sjid=8fwFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6219%2C5806729 |access-date=7 November 2017 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Gettysburg Times |pages=1A, 2A}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''44 (47%)'''
|24 (30%)
|13 (17%)
| (5%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" |—
| (1%)
|-
!April 16
!36<ref>{{cite web |title=Democrats stump as New York primary nears |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=tz5OAAAAIBAJ&sjid=DfwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=1239%2C327412 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Lakeland Ledger |access-date=23 September 2023 |page=5A |date=April 17, 1988 |quote="Arizona Democrats, whose favorite son, former Gov. Bruce Babbitt, was an early casualty in the Democratic race, held caucuses on Saturday to allocate 36 delegates."}}</ref>
![[Arizona|Arizona caucus]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - AZ US President - D Caucus Race - Apr. 16, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=643381 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |''' (54%)'''
| (38%)
| (5%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (1%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" |—
| (2%)
|-
!April 18
!15<ref>{{cite web |title=White Catholics Hold Key in New York |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=qLRVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=teEDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4547%2C4322801 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Eugene Register-Guard |access-date=23 September 2023 |page=3A |date=April 19, 1988 |quote=The delegates selected Monday will attend the state convention May 23, where Delaware's 15 national convention delegates will be chosen.}}</ref>
![[Delaware|Delaware caucus]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - DE US President - D Caucus Race - Apr. 18, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=482587 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
| {{nowrap|51.5 (27.25%)}}
| style="background:#bec7f4;" |''' {{nowrap|86.5 (45.77%)}}'''
| {{nowrap|4 (2.12%)}}
|style="background: lightgrey;" |—
|style="background: lightgrey;" |—
| {{nowrap|47 (24.87%)}}
|-
!April 19
!243{{efn|The delegate total adds up to 234.}}
![[New York (state)|New York]]<ref>{{cite web |date=April 20, 1988 |title=Dukakis' victory resounding |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=_NBeAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vG0NAAAAIBAJ&pg=2326%2C2011417 |access-date=7 November 2017 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Newburgh Evening News |pages=1A, 4A}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''142 801,457'''
|87 585,076
|5 157,559
|style="background: lightgrey;" | 17,011
|style="background: lightgrey;" |–
| 14,083
|-
!April 25
!23
![[Utah|Utah caucus]]<ref>{{cite web |date=April 26, 1988 |title=Dukakis aims to extend streak; Bush seeks clincher with Pa. win |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=tYwwAAAAIBAJ&sjid=D4wDAAAAIBAJ&pg=1000%2C1291521 |access-date=29 November 2023 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=The Free-Lance Star |page=6}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''19 (72%)'''
|4 (15%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" |–
|style="background: lightgrey;" |–
|style="background: lightgrey;" |–
| (13%)
|-
!April 26
!161
![[Pennsylvania]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - PA US President - D Primary Race - Apr. 26, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=264115 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''114 1,002,480'''
|47 411,260
|style="background: lightgrey;" | 44,542
|style="background: lightgrey;" | 9,692
|style="background: lightgrey;" | 7,254
| 32,462
|-
! rowspan="3" |May 3
!79<ref>{{cite web |title=Dukakis wins Indiana, Bayh Overwhelms Rival |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=utMpAAAAIBAJ&sjid=BQMEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4113%2C5997893 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Toledo Blade |access-date=23 September 2023 |page=4A |date=May 4, 1988 |quote=The state will send 79 delegates to the Democratic convention and 51 to the Republican meeting.}}</ref>
![[Indiana]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - IN US President - D Primary Race - May 03, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=264282 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''63 (70%)'''
|16 (22%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (3%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (2%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (3%)
|—
|-
!159<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hallett |first1=Joe |title=Dukakis Landslide Buries Jackson in Ohio, Indiana; MARTA Levy Wins Easily |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=utMpAAAAIBAJ&sjid=BQMEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4348%2C5986370 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Toledo Blade |access-date=23 September 2023 |pages=1A, 4A |date=May 4, 1988 |quote="Mr. Ravolo projected that Mr. Dukakis won 115 of the 159 Ohio delegates up for grabs, with Mr. Jackson garnering 41."}}</ref>
![[Ohio]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - OH US President - D Primary Race - May 03, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=156741 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''115 (63%)'''
|41 (27%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (2%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (1%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" |–
|3 (7%){{efn|1 delegate each for favorite sons Rep. [[James Traficant]], [[Douglas Applegate]] and since-withdrawn candidate [[Gary Hart]]}}
|-
!16<ref>{{cite web |title=Dukakis wins Indiana, Bayh Overwhelms Rival |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=utMpAAAAIBAJ&sjid=BQMEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4113%2C5997893 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Toledo Blade |access-date=23 September 2023 |page=4A |date=May 4, 1988 |quote=Mr. Jackson, who hadn't won a primary since March 20 in Puerto Rico, gained 13 delegates in the district, and Mr. Dukakis, 3.}}</ref>
![[Washington, D.C.]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - DC US President - D Primary Race - May 03, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=38980 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|3 (18%)
| style="background:#bec7f4;" |'''13 (80%)'''
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (1%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (1%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" |–
|—
|-
! rowspan="2" |May 10
!25
![[Nebraska]]<ref>{{cite web |date=May 11, 1988 |title=Dukakis "working hard to wrap it up" after wins in W. Va., Neb. |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=qXkQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vosDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6970%2C1832380 |access-date=29 November 2023 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=The Free-Lance Star |page=6}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''18 (63%)'''
|7 (26%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (1%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (1%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (3%)
| (6%)
|-
!37
![[West Virginia]]<ref>{{cite web |date=May 11, 1988 |title=Dukakis gains over Jackson, polls show Bush losing steam |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=r3kQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vosDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6916%2C3388454 |access-date=29 November 2023 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=The Free-Lance Star |page=19}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''36 (75%)'''
|1 (13%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (3%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (1%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (2%)
| (6%)
|-
!May 17
!45
![[Oregon]]<ref>{{cite web |date=May 18, 1988 |title=Dukakis "working hard to wrap it up" after wins in W. Va., Neb. |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=qXkQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vosDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6970%2C1832380 |access-date=29 November 2023 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=The Free-Lance Star |page=6}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''27 (57%)'''
|18 (38%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (1%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (1%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (2%)
| (1%)
|-
! rowspan="4" |June 7
!272
![[California]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - CA US President - D Primary Race - Jun 07, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=38949 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''173 1,910,808'''
|99 1,102,093
|style="background: lightgrey;" | 56,645
|style="background: lightgrey;" | 43,771
|style="background: lightgrey;" |–
| 25,417
|-
!19<ref>{{cite web |title=Bush, Dukakis Say the Race is On |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ClFPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=9gIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6946%2C2416003 |website=Google News Search Archive |publisher=Toledo Blade |access-date=23 September 2023 |pages=1A, 5A |date=June 8, 1988 |quote="Mr. Dukakis had gained 15 delegates; Mr. Jackson gained 4."}}</ref>
![[Montana]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - MT US President - D Primary Race - Jun 07, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=38980 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''15 (69%)'''
|4 (22%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (2%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (1%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (3%)
| (3%)
|-
!100
![[New Jersey]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - NJ US President - D Primary Race - Jun 07, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=264125 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''66 414,829'''
|34 213,705
|style="background: lightgrey;" | 18,062
|style="background: lightgrey;" |—
|style="background: lightgrey;" |—
| 7,706
|-
!24
![[New Mexico]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - NM US President - D Primary Race - Jun 07, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=37465 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |'''16 (61%)'''
|8 (28%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (3%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" | (2%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" |–
| (6%)
|-
!June 14
!?
![[North Dakota]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Campaigns - ND US President - D Primary Race - Jun 14, 1988 |url=https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=264088 |website=Our Campaigns}}</ref>
|style="background:#DBD499;" |''' (85%)'''
| (15%)
|style="background: lightgrey;" |–
|style="background: lightgrey;" |–
|style="background: lightgrey;" |–
|–
|-
!Total<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=55210|title=Our Campaigns - US President - D Primaries Race - Feb 01, 1988|website=www.ourcampaigns.com|access-date=5 April 2018}}</ref>
!
!
!1,427 10,024,101 (42.37%)
!1,046 6,941,816 (29.34%)
!307 3,190,992 (13.49%)
!115 1,452,331 (6.14%)
!98 1,107,692 (4.68%)
! 940,431 (3.98%)
|}

==Convention and general election==
{{main|1988 Democratic National Convention|1988 United States presidential election}}
The [[1988 Democratic National Convention|Democratic Party Convention]] was held in [[Atlanta, Georgia]], July 18–21. The Dukakis nominating speech delivered by Arkansas governor and future president [[Bill Clinton]] was widely criticized as too long and tedious.<ref>{{cite news | title=I just fell on my sword | first=John | last=Brummert | work=Arkansas Democrat-Gazette | date=1988-07-22}}</ref>

[[Texas State Treasurer]] [[Ann Richards]] (who two years later became the [[Governor of Texas|state governor]]) delivered a memorable keynote address in which she uttered the lines "Poor George [Bush], he can't help it, he was born with a silver foot in his mouth." Six years later, Bush's son [[George W. Bush]] would deny Richards re-election as Texas Governor.

With most candidates having withdrawn and asking their delegates to vote for Dukakis, the tally for president was as follows:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=58504|title=Our Campaigns - US President - D Convention Race - Jul 18, 1988|website=www.ourcampaigns.com|access-date=5 April 2018}}</ref>
* [[Michael Dukakis]] - 2,877 (70.09%)
* [[Jesse Jackson]] - 1,219 (29.70%)
* [[Richard Stallings]] - 3 (0.07%)
* [[Joe Biden]] - 2 (0.05%)
* [[Dick Gephardt]] - 2 (0.05%)
* [[Lloyd Bentsen]] - 1 (0.02%)
* [[Gary Hart]] - 1 (0.02%)

[[Jesse Jackson]]'s campaign believed that since they had come in a respectable second, Jackson was entitled to the vice presidential spot. Dukakis refused, and gave the spot to [[Lloyd Bentsen]].

Bentsen was selected in large part to secure the state of Texas and its large electoral vote for the Democrats. During the vice-presidential debate, Republican candidate and Senator [[Dan Quayle]] ignored a head-on confrontation with Bentsen (aside from the [[Senator, you are no Jack Kennedy|"Jack Kennedy" comparison]]) and spent his time attacking Dukakis.

==See also==
* [[1988 Republican Party presidential primaries]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [https://www.c-span.org/video/?8465-1/codename-scarlett ''Booknotes'' interview with Jeanne Simon on ''Codename: Scarlett{{spaced ndash}}Life on the Campaign Trail by the Wife of a Presidential Candidate'', July 23, 1989.]
* [https://www.c-span.org/video/?17362-1/grassroots ''Booknotes'' interview with Dayton Duncan on ''Grass Roots: One Year in the Life of the New Hampshire Presidential Primary'', March 31, 1991.]

{{United States presidential election candidates, 1988}}
{{U.S. presidential primaries}}
{{Democratic Party (United States)}}

[[Category:1988 United States Democratic presidential primaries| ]]
[[Category:Jesse Jackson]]
[[Category:Michael Dukakis]]
[[Category:Al Gore]]
[[Category:Joe Biden]]

Michael Dukakis 1988 presidential campaign

2024-09-12T01:20:03Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding primary campaign logo to infobox.

{{Short description|American political campaign}}
{{Infobox U.S. federal election campaign
| committee = Michael Dukakis for President 1988
| logo = {{Switcher
|[[File:Dukakis Bentsen 1988 campaign logo.svg|250px]]
|General election logo|default=1
|[[File:DukakisPrimaryLogo.png|250px]]
|Primary campaign logo}}
| logo_alt =
| campaign = [[1988 Democratic Party presidential primaries|1988 Democratic primaries]] [[1988 United States presidential election|1988 U.S. presidential election]]
| candidate = '''[[Michael Dukakis]]''' 65th and 67th [[Governor of Massachusetts]] ''(1975–1979, 1983–1991)'' '''[[Lloyd Bentsen]]''' [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] from [[Texas]] ''(1971–1993)''
| affiliation = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]
| status = Announced: March 16, 1987 Presumptive nominee: June 7, 1988 Official nominee: July 21, 1988 Lost election: November 8, 1988
| headquarters = [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]
| key_people = [[Susan Estrich]] (campaign manager) Paul Brountas (campaign chair)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Welch |first1=William M. |title=Paul Brountas: Dukakis' Friend and Adviser |url=https://apnews.com/article/e46f037029bbcd22754500b01b24a01f |website=apnews.com |publisher=Associated Press |access-date=18 May 2021 |date=13 July 1988}}</ref> [[John Sasso]] (campaign manager; resigned on October 1, 1987; returned as vice chairman on September 3, 1988)<ref name="New York Times">{{cite web |title=Two Top Aides to Dukakis Resign As One Admits Role in Biden Tape|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/10/01/us/two-top-aides-to-dukakis-resign-as-one-admits-role-in-biden-tape.html|publisher=New York Times |access-date=18 May 2021 |date=1 October 1987}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sasso Offers A Familiar Hand To A Political Friend|url=https://apnews.com/article/46bd2182c6ebfa9f3d49c316f058c72d|publisher=Associated Press|access-date=18 May 2021 |date=3 September 1988}}</ref> Paul Tully (political director; resigned on October 1, 1987)<ref name="New York Times" /> [[Donna Brazile]] (deputy field director; resigned on October 20, 1988)
| receipts =
| receipts_footnote =
| fec_date =
| slogan = We're on your side Good jobs at good wages Because the Best America has yet to Come
| themesong =
| chant =
| successor = [[Bill Clinton 1992 presidential campaign|Bill Clinton 1992]]
| website =
}}

The 1988 presidential campaign of [[Michael Dukakis]] began when he announced his candidacy for the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]'s nomination for [[President of the United States]] on March 16, 1987, in a speech in [[Boston]]. After winning the nomination, he was formally selected as the Democratic Party's nominee at the party's convention in [[Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] on July 21, 1988.<ref name=nu>{{Cite web |url=http://www.library.neu.edu/archives/collect/findaids/m32findprint.htm |title=Finding aid for Michael S. Dukakis Presidential Campaign Records |website=Northeastern University |access-date=2017-09-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/21/us/the-democrats-in-atlanta-democrats-acclaim-dukakis-and-assert-unity.html |title=Democrats Acclaim Dukakis and Assert Unity |last=Dionne |first=E. J. Jr. |date=1988-07-21 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2017-09-16 |last2=Times |first2=Special to the New York |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> He lost the [[1988 United States presidential election|1988 election]] to his Republican opponent [[George H. W. Bush]], who was the sitting [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] at the time. Dukakis won 10 states and the [[District of Columbia]], receiving a total of 111 [[United States Electoral College|electoral vote]]s compared to Bush's 426 (Dukakis would have received 112, but one [[faithless elector]] who was pledged to him voted for [[Lloyd Bentsen]] for president and Dukakis for vice president instead out of protest). Dukakis received 45% of the [[Popular vote (representative democracy)|popular vote]] to Bush's 53%.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=United States presidential election of 1988 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1988}}</ref> Many commentators blamed Dukakis' loss on the embarrassing [[Michael Dukakis#Tank photograph|photograph of him in a tank]] taken on September 13, 1988, which subsequently formed the basis of a successful Republican [[attack ad]].<ref name=latimes>{{Cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-11-10-mn-299-story.html |title=How Presidential Race Was Won-and Lost: Michael S. Dukakis |last=Drogin |first=Bob |date=1988-11-10 |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=2017-09-16 |language=en-US |issn=0458-3035}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2013/11/dukakis-and-the-tank-099119 |title=Dukakis and the Tank |last=King |first=Josh |date=2013-11-17 |work=Politico |access-date=2017-09-16}}</ref> Much of the blame was also laid on Dukakis' campaign, which was criticized for being poorly managed despite being well funded.<ref name=gallery/><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1988/1027/zduke.html |title=Michael Dukakis: The precarious politics of 'competence' |last=Rheem |first=Donald L. |date=1988-10-27 |work=Christian Science Monitor |access-date=2017-09-16 |issn=0882-7729}}</ref> Had Dukakis been elected, he would have been the first [[Greek American]] president, the first non-[[White Americans|Western European American]] president, and the second governor of Massachusetts to accomplish this feat, after [[Calvin Coolidge]]. Bentsen would have been the second senator from Texas to be elected vice president, after [[Lyndon B. Johnson]].

==Background==
{{main|Michael Dukakis}}
[[Michael Dukakis]] was the 65th and 67th [[governor of Massachusetts]], from 1975 to 1979 and 1983 to 1991. His running mate, [[Lloyd Bentsen]], was a [[United States Senate|U.S. senator]] from [[Texas]], and a member of the [[United States Senate Committee on Finance]] who had previously run for the Democratic nomination in [[Democratic Party presidential primaries, 1976|1976]].

==Initial announcement==
On March 16, 1987, Dukakis, then the Governor of [[Massachusetts]], gave what has become known as the "Marathon Speech" in Boston in which he hinted that he was running for president in next year's election. He formally announced that he would run in a speech given the following month.<ref name=nu/> Previously, he had been urged to consider running for president by [[Mario Cuomo]], who had dropped out the previous month.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/21/us/new-democratic-breed-fills-cuomo-void.html |title=New Democratic Breed Fills Cuomo Void |last=Dionne |first=E.J. Jr. |date=1987-02-21 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2017-09-16|language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/1988/nov/08/usa.alexbrummer |title=Road to the White House paved with dirty tricks |last=White |first=Mike |date=1988-11-08 |work=The Guardian |access-date=2017-09-16 |last2=Brummer |first2=Alex |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> This made him the third declared Democratic candidate for the 1988 election, after [[Richard A. Gephardt]] and [[Bruce Babbitt]]. Dukakis soon received an outpouring of support from voters throughout the country, which reportedly resulted in him receiving more attention than even he had expected.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/03/22/us/to-wife-and-state-dukakis-timing-is-a-surprise.html |title=To Wife and State, Dukakis Timing is a Surprise|date=1987-03-22 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2017-09-16 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

==Democratic primaries==
{{Main|1988 Democratic Party presidential primaries}}
By May 1988, Dukakis had become the Democratic Party's front-runner for their nomination in that year's election, thanks to his victories in the [[New York (state)|New York]] and [[Pennsylvania]] primaries.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/08/magazine/dukakis.html|title=Dukakis|last=Butterfield|first=Fox |date=1988-05-08|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-10-31}}</ref> On June 7, 1988, Dukakis clinched the Democratic Party's nomination by winning all four of the party's last primaries against [[Jesse Jackson presidential campaign, 1988|Jesse Jackson]], the only other remaining Democratic candidate at the time. These victories gave Dukakis significantly more delegates than the 2,081 required to win the nomination.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1988/06/08/dukakis-clinches-nomination/|title=Dukakis Clinches Nomination|work=Chicago Tribune|date=1988-06-08|author=Margolis, Jon|access-date=2017-10-31|language=en}}</ref>

==Endorsements==
{{hidden begin|titlestyle=background:#cff|title=List of Michael Dukakis 1988 presidential campaign endorsements|contentstyle=border:solid 1px silver; padding:8px; background:white;}}
;Celebrities
*[[Karen Allen]], actress<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Woody Allen]], filmmaker<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Teri Austin]], actress<ref name="orlando">{{cite web |title=STARS FOR DUKAKIS BLITZ PACIFIC COAST
|url=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1988/10/10/stars-for-dukakis-blitz-pacific-coast/|date=10 October 1988}}</ref>
*[[Lauren Bacall]], actress<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Doug Barr]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Jeff Berg]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Ruben Blades]], musician<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Peter Boyle]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Cher]], singer<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[John Davis (producer)|John Davis]], producer<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Michael Douglas]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Richard Dreyfuss]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Griffin Dunne]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Mia Farrow]], actress<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Sally Field]], actress<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Carrie Fisher]], actress<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Jane Fonda]], actress<ref name="orlando"/>
*[[Art Garfunkel]], singer<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Richard Gere]], actor<ref name="LAtimes">{{cite web |title=Campaign ’88 Gets the Star Treatment
|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-06-07-ca-3918-story.html|date=7 June 1988}}</ref>
*[[Harry Hamlin]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Arthur Hiller]], director<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Don Johnson]], actor<ref name="orlando"/>
*[[Joanna Kerns]], actress<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[John Lithgow]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Rob Lowe]], actor<ref name="orlando"/>
*[[Leonard Nimoy]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Ken Olin]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Elizabeth Perkins]], actress<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Sydney Pollack]], director<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Alan Rachins]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Tony Randall]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[John Ratzenberger]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Judge Reinhold]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Telly Savalas]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Cybill Shepherd]], actress<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Carly Simon]], singer<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Paul Simon]], singer<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Sissy Spacek]], actress<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Maureen Stapleton]], actress<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Oliver Stone]], director<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Meryl Streep]], actress<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[James Taylor]], singer<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Christopher Walken]], actor<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Raquel Welch]], actress<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Patricia Wettig]], actress<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Bruce Willis]], actor<ref name="orlando"/>
*[[Shelley Winters]], actress<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Moon Unit Zappa]], actress<ref name="orlando"/>
;Individuals
*[[Barry Diller]], businessman<ref name="LAtimes"/>
*[[Tom Hayden]], activist<ref name="orlando"/>
{{hidden end}}

=="Massachusetts Miracle"==
Dukakis' campaign was focused on his experience as Governor of Massachusetts, during which time Massachusetts had emerged from an economic depression and had become a "bastion of prosperity and full employment".<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1987/05/31/dukakis-hopes-2d-massachusetts-miracle-is-in-the-making/ |title=Dukakis Hopes 2nd 'Massachusetts Miracle' Is In The Making |last=Coakley |first=Michael |date=1987-05-31 |work=Chicago Tribune |access-date=2017-09-16 |language=en}}</ref> Commentators had described this as the "[[Massachusetts Miracle]]", a term Bush dismissed as the "Massachusetts mirage".<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/30/us/fiscal-experts-give-dukakis-more-credit-than-bush-does.html |title=Fiscal Experts Give Dukakis More Credit Than Bush Does |last=Gold |first=Allan R. |date=1988-09-30 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2017-09-16|language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

==Running mate selection==
On July 12, 1988, Dukakis announced he had chosen Texas senator [[Lloyd Bentsen]] as his running mate, in the hopes of garnering more support in the [[Southern United States|South]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-07-13-mn-5701-story.html |title=Dukakis Chooses Bentsen of Texas as Running Mate |last=Drogin |first=Bob |date=1988-07-13 |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=2017-09-16 |language=en-US |issn=0458-3035}}</ref> Dukakis compared his pick to [[John F. Kennedy]]'s pick of [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] as his running mate in the [[1960 United States presidential election|1960 election]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/13/us/dukakis-picks-bentsen-for-running-mate-texan-adds-conservative-voice-ticket.html |title=Dukakis Picks Bentsen for Running Mate; Texan Adds Conservative Voice to Ticket; A Regional Balance |last=Toner |first=Robin|date=1988-07-13 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2018-03-20 |language=en}}</ref> As a result, his ticket became known as the "Boston-Austin axis", as Bentsen himself described it.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/14/opinion/essay-boston-austin-axis.html |title=Boston-Austin 'Axis' |last=Safire |first=William |date=1988-07-14 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2017-09-16 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/23/AR2006052300780.html |title=Dukakis Chooses Texas Sen. Bentsen as Running Mate |date=1988-07-13 |work=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=2017-10-31 |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Shortly after Dukakis made the pick, a ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' cover story dubbed Dukakis and Bentsen "the odd couple", and [[Richard Stengel]] noted in 1988 that Bentsen was "...more Bush's twin than Dukakis'".<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/08/11/a-history-of-vice-presidential-picks-from-the-pages-of-time/slide/1988-lloyd-bentsen/ |title=A History of Vice Presidential Picks, from the Pages of TIME |last=Haggin |first=Patience |date=2012-08-11 |journal=Time |language=en-US |access-date=2018-03-20}}</ref> [[James J. Kilpatrick]] called the pair "The [[Sominex]] Twins".<ref>{{cite news |last=Kilpatrick |first=James J. |author-link=James J. Kilpatrick |date=1988-07-16 |title=What's Bentsen Doing Here? |work=[[The Winchester Star]] |volume=93 |issue=11 |page=4 |via=[[NewspaperArchive.com]]}}</ref>

==Acceptance of the nomination==
After winning the primaries in 30 states against [[Jesse Jackson]] and
[[Al Gore presidential campaign, 1988|Al Gore]], Dukakis accepted the Democratic Party's nomination at the [[1988 Democratic National Convention]] on July 21, 1988, where Governor of [[Arkansas]] [[Bill Clinton]] formally nominated Dukakis.<ref name=gallery>{{Cite news |url=http://www.politico.com/magazine/gallery/2013/11/how-bush-beat-dukakis-000005?slide=2 |title=How Bush Beat Dukakis |date=2013-11-14 |work=Politico |access-date=2017-09-16}}</ref>

==Television advertising==
During the campaign, Dukakis was the target of several now-infamous [[attack ad]]s by individuals supporting the Bush campaign, most infamously the "[[Willie Horton]]" ad produced by the pro-Bush [[National Security Political Action Committee]]. Although the Bush campaign disavowed the ad,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/03/us/bush-his-disavowed-backers-and-a-very-potent-attack-ad.html |title=Bush, His Disavowed Backers And a Very Potent Attack Ad |last=Engelberg |first=Stephen|date=1988-11-03 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2017-12-14 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> it still played a major role in Dukakis' defeat.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2015-05-18/what-willie-horton-wrought |title=How one political ad held back a generation of American inmates |last=Raphael |first=TJ |date=2015-05-18 |work=Public Radio International |access-date=2017-12-14 |quote="...Horton...became a decisive part of George H.W. Bush's campaign against Democratic contender Michael Dukakis."|language=en-US}}</ref> The Dukakis campaign was mired in confusion during the general election, as exemplified by "the Handlers", a series of unintentionally confusing commercials that the campaign produced and aired at a cost of $3 million. Dukakis also erred in not responding to the Horton attack until late in the campaign.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.livingroomcandidate.org/commercials/1988 |title=Commercials - 1988 |website=[[The Living Room Candidate]] |language=en |access-date=2017-12-14}}</ref>

==Donna Brazile resignation==
On October 20, 1988, [[Donna Brazile]] resigned from her role as deputy field director for the Dukakis campaign after saying that Bush needed to "fess up" about a rumor that he had had an [[extramarital affair]]. Her comments were also disavowed by the campaign, and Dukakis personally apologized to Bush for them at the [[Alfred E. Smith Memorial Foundation Dinner]] that year.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-10-21-mn-4253-story.html |title=Dukakis Aide Quits; Remarks Are Disavowed |date=1988-10-21 |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=2017-09-20 |language=en-US |issn=0458-3035}}</ref>

==Polling==
A poll conducted on July 21 and 22 of 1988 found that Dukakis had expanded the size of his lead over Bush to 17 points, with 55% of voters surveyed saying they would prefer Dukakis to win, compared to 38% for Bush.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/26/us/dukakis-lead-widens-according-to-new-poll.html |title=Dukakis Lead Widens, According to New Poll |date=1988-07-26 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2017-09-16 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> His lead soon began to shrink, however. For example, on July 30, Dukakis criticized the Reagan administration's handling of ethical issues,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/31/us/dukakis-focuses-on-reagan-ethics.html |title=Dukakis Focuses on Reagan Ethics |last=Toner |first=Robin |date=1988-07-31 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2017-09-16 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> to which [[Ronald Reagan]] himself responded by describing Dukakis as an "invalid", after which his poll numbers dropped by 5 points overnight.<ref name=latimes/> By August 11, Dukakis' lead over Bush had shrunk to 7 points,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1988/0811/agall.html|title=Less oomph in Dukakis 'bounce'. His 17-point lead over Bush shrinks to seven in Gallup poll|date=1988-08-11|work=Christian Science Monitor|access-date=2017-10-31|author=Dillin, John|issn=0882-7729}}</ref> and by August 24, Bush had gained a 4-point lead over Dukakis. Of the dramatic shift in Dukakis' poll numbers, [[Mervin Field]] said, "I have never seen anything like this, this kind of swing in favorability ratings, ever since I have seen polls, going back to 1936."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-08-24-mn-820-story.html|title=Bush Leads Dukakis, 48% to 44%, in Gallup Poll|date=1988-08-24|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=2017-10-31|language=en-US|issn=0458-3035}}</ref> Later that year, after the second Bush-Dukakis debate occurred on October 13, Dukakis' numbers dropped by 7 points that night, largely due to his response to a question about whether he would support the [[death penalty]] for someone if they raped and murdered his wife, [[Kitty Dukakis]], being perceived as emotionless by voters (although others considered the question inherently unfair).<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.politico.com/magazine/gallery/2013/11/how-bush-beat-dukakis-000005?slide=6 |title=How Bush Beat Dukakis (Slide 6) |work=Politico |access-date=2017-09-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Top 10 Debate Moments |url=http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1844704_1844706_1844712,00.html |website=TIME |publisher=TIME Magazine |access-date=23 October 2021}}</ref>

==Transition planning==
{{United States presidential transitions series}}

A [[United States presidential transition|presidential transition]] was contingently planned from President Reagan to Dukakis.

Dukakis' transition planning efforts' activities were largely undertaken in secrecy.<ref name="eyesontheprize">{{cite web |title=Eyes on the prize: Duke plans transition period | url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/545111799 | publisher=North Adams Transcript | agency= Associated Press |website=Newspapers.com |access-date=18 May 2021 |language=en |url-access=subscription |date=19 Sep 1988}}</ref> In September 1988, information surfaced about the transition when the campaign filed paperwork to establish a Massachusetts [[nonprofit]] corporation named "Dukakis Transition '88".<ref name="eyesontheprize"/>

The transition planning was formally chaired by campaign chairman Paul Brountas.<ref name="eyesontheprize"/> However, Marcia Hale was overseeing much of the effort out of an office in [[Boston]].<ref name="eyesontheprize"/> One of the individuals involved in the transition planning was Harrison Wellford, who had been involved in [[Presidential transition of Jimmy Carter#Early planning|the pre-election transition planning]] of [[Jimmy Carter]] in 1976, and would later go on to play a role in the [[presidential transition of Bill Clinton]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burke |first1=John P. |title=Presidential Transitions: From Politics To Practice |date=2000 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |location=Boulder |isbn=1555879160 |page=18}}</ref>

In September, campaign spokesman [[Mark Gearan]] stated, "It's a very quiet operation housed separately from the campaign.<ref name="eyesontheprize"/>

Despite having a pre-election transition planning effort of their own, the Bush campaign took a shot at Dukakis for having a transition effort, with Bush spokesperson Mark Goodin remarking, "As usual, they have the cart before the horse. If they spend less time planning for transition and more time campaigning, they would not be behind in the polls. Our position is you need to win the election before you worry about the transition."<ref name="eyesontheprize"/>

If Dukakis had won, he would not only have a presidential transition, but also a gubernatorial transition, as he would be transitioning out of the Massachusetts governorship, handing over that position to his lieutenant governor [[Evelyn Murphy]].<ref name="eyesontheprize"/> Had he won, he would have been the first sitting governor to transition into the presidency since [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] was elected in [[1932 United States presidential election|1932]].<ref name="eyesontheprize"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.4president.org/speeches/1988/mikedukakis1988annoucement.htm Michael Dukakis announcement speech]
*[http://www.4president.org/speeches/1988/mikedukakis1988acceptance.htm Michael Dukakis acceptance speech]

{{1988 United States presidential election}}
{{Democratic presidential campaigns}}
{{Unsuccessful major party pres candidates}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Michael Dukakis presidential campaign, 1988}}
[[Category:Michael Dukakis]]
[[Category:1988 Democratic Party (United States) presidential campaigns|Dukakis, Michael]]

Richard Nixon 1960 presidential campaign

2024-09-12T00:54:51Z

ARandomShyGuy: Fixing typo. Correcting American to America.

{{Short description|American political campaign}}
{{Infobox U.S. federal election campaign
| committee = Richard Nixon for President 1960
| logo = Nixon Lodge 1960 campaign logo.svg
| campaign = [[1960 Republican Party presidential primaries|1960 Republican primaries]] [[1960 United States presidential election|1960 U.S. presidential election]]
| candidate = '''[[Richard Nixon]]''' 36th [[Vice President of the United States]] (1953–1961) '''[[Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.]]''' [[List of ambassadors of the United States to the United Nations|U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations]] (1953–1960)
| cand_id =
| fec_date =
| status = Announced: January 9, 1960 Official nominee: July 28, 1960 Lost election: November 8, 1960
| affiliation = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]
| headquarters =
| key_people =
| receipts =
| treasurer =
| slogan = Experience Counts Peace, Experience, Prosperity Nixon-Lodge: They Understand What Peace Demands America Needs Nixon-Lodge: Side by Side Our Strongest Team
| themesong = Click with Dick Buckle Down with Nixon<ref>{{Cite web |last=Green |first=Emma |date=2013-10-31 |title=The Forgotten Joy of 1960 Presidential Campaign Jingles |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2013/10/the-forgotten-joy-of-1960-presidential-campaign-jingles/281015/ |access-date=2024-08-20 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}</ref>}}

The '''1960 presidential campaign of Richard Nixon''', the [[List of vice presidents of the United States|36th]] [[Vice President of the United States|vice president of the United States]], under President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], began when he announced he was running for the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]'s nomination in the [[1960 United States presidential election|1960 U.S. presidential election]] on January 9, 1960. He won the [[1960 Republican Party presidential primaries|Republican primaries]] with little opposition and chose as his running mate [[Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.]], the [[List of ambassadors of the United States to the United Nations|United States Ambassador to the United Nations]]. They faced Democrats [[John F. Kennedy]] and running mate [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in the general election. The main issues of the election were the [[civil rights movement]], the [[Cold War]], and Kennedy's [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] faith. Both candidates were against [[communism]], and were in favor of civil rights enough to win Black voters but not enough to lose [[White Southerners|white southerners]].

Kennedy won the general election by a slim margin, and Nixon was urged to contest the election results due to irregularities in Illinois and Texas; he declined to do so. Despite having 15 [[Unpledged elector|unpledged]] and [[Faithless elector|faithless]] electors vote for [[Harry F. Byrd|Harry Byrd]] in the [[Electoral college|Electoral College]], Kennedy was certified as President. In [[1968 United States presidential election|1968]], Nixon would go on to [[Richard Nixon 1968 presidential campaign|ran for president again in a successful campaign]] and ultimately elected as the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 until his resignation in 1974.

== Campaign ==
[[Richard Nixon]] was the [[Vice President of the United States]] from 1953 to 1961, serving alongside [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]. Prior to this, he was a U.S. Representative from 1947 to 1951 and a Senator from 1951 to 1953.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2024-08-18 |title=Richard Nixon {{!}} Biography, Presidency, Watergate, Impeachment, Resignation, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-Nixon |access-date=2024-08-20 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

[[Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.]] was the [[List of ambassadors of the United States to the United Nations|U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations]] from 1953 to 1961. Before this, he was a Senator from Massachusetts.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2024-07-29 |title=United States presidential election of 1960 {{!}} John F. Kennedy vs. Richard Nixon, Results, & Impact {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1960 |access-date=2024-08-20 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Republican primaries ===
{{Main article|1960 Republican Party presidential primaries}}
In late 1959, New York Governor [[Nelson Rockefeller]] suggested that he would run for the Republican presidential nomination, but withdrew in December after "almost total opposition by Republican Party leaders". Nixon then joined the primaries, and faced no serious opposition. In July 1960, at the [[1960 Republican National Convention|Republican National Convention]] in Chicago, Nixon accepted the party's nomination and nominated Lodge to be his running mate.<ref name=":1" />

=== General election ===
Nixon's campaign manager was [[Robert Finch (politician)|Robert Finch]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=1960-10-27 |title=Nixon Aide Accuses Columnist Of 'Smear' Over Story of Loan |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1960/10/27/archives/nixon-aide-accuses-columnist-of-smear-over-story-of-loan.html?searchResultPosition=12 |access-date=2024-08-20 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Nixon had the advantage of Eisenhower being a popular president. He promised to continue Eisenhower's work and "improve upon them in such areas as welfare programs, foreign aid, and defense."<ref name=":1" /> His main opponents in the general election were Massachusetts Senator [[John F. Kennedy]] and Texas Governor [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], Democrats.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=The drama behind President Kennedy’s 1960 election win {{!}} Constitution Center |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-drama-behind-president-kennedys-1960-election-win |access-date=2024-08-20 |website=National Constitution Center – constitutioncenter.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Greenberg |first=David |date=October 10, 2020 |title=The Time Nixon’s Cronies Tried to Overturn a Presidential Election |url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/10/10/the-time-nixons-cronies-tried-to-overturn-a-presidential-election-428318 |url-status=live |access-date=August 20, 2024 |website=Politico}}</ref> Nixon's campaigning was more intense than Kennedy, in that he traveled to more locations at a faster pace and for a longer time. He became the first presidential candidate to visit every state during the election season.<ref name=":1" /> His campaign had two official songs: "Click with Dick" and "Buckle Down with Nixon".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Green |first=Emma |date=2013-10-31 |title=The Forgotten Joy of 1960 Presidential Campaign Jingles |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2013/10/the-forgotten-joy-of-1960-presidential-campaign-jingles/281015/ |access-date=2024-08-20 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Commercial Nixon 1960 Election Ad Tough on Defense.webm|left|thumb|An ad by the Nixon campaign, describing his foreign policy]]
The election happened "amid a rapidly shifting political terrain". [[White Southerners|White southerners]] had previously solidly stayed Democrat, but was shifting to the Republican Party as the Democrats promoted [[Civil rights movement|civil rights in the South]]; for this same reason, historically-Republican New England was shifting to the Democrats. As a result of these changes, ''[[Politico]]'' writes, "both Kennedy and Nixon were trying to simultaneously appeal to urban Black people and white southerners, an exercise in political tightrope-walking."<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Greenfield |first=Jeff |date=February 4, 2024 |title=How Kennedy Narrowly Defeated Nixon — and Why the Alternative History Would Have Been Devastating |url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2024/02/04/1960-election-jfk-nixon-nuclear-war-00136763 |url-status=live |access-date=August 20, 2024 |website=Politico}}</ref>

Both Kennedy and Nixon were against [[Communism|communists]] and the [[Soviet Union]], though Nixon was arguably more [[War hawk|hawkish]] towards them.<ref name=":4" /> He said that in a hypothetical war with the Soviet Union, nuclear weapons "would inevitably be employed".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Baldwin |first=Hanson W. |date=1960-10-30 |title=Nixon Calls Atom Bombing 'Inevitable' in a Major War; NIXON OUTLINES VIEW ON DEFENSE |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1960/10/30/archives/nixon-calls-atom-bombing-inevitable-in-a-major-war-nixon-outlines.html?searchResultPosition=25 |access-date=2024-08-20 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Nixon, like Kennedy, supported [[Zionism]] in Israel.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1960-08-28 |title=Text of Nixon Message to Zionists Here |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1960/08/28/archives/text-of-nixon-message-to-zionists-here.html?searchResultPosition=109 |access-date=2024-08-20 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Another major issue was Kennedy's [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] faith, at a time of widespread [[Anti-Catholicism|anti-Catholic sentiment]].<ref name=":4" /> Nixon gave his opinion on the matter while speaking to a group of [[Protestantism|Protestant]] ministers in Houston on September 12:<ref name=":1" />
{{Quote|text=I believe in an America that is officially neither Catholic, Protestant nor Jewish—where no public official either requests or accepts instructions on public policy from the Pope, the [[National Council of Churches]] or any other ecclesiastical source—where no religious body seeks to impose its will directly or indirectly upon the general populace or the public acts of its officials—and where religious liberty is so indivisible that an act against one church is treated as an act against all.}}
[[File:TNC-172 Kennedy-Nixon First Presidential Debate, 1960.webm|thumb|Full broadcast of the September 26, 1960 debate]]
There were [[1960 United States presidential debates|four televised debates]] between Nixon and Kennedy.<ref name=":0" /> The first debate on September 26, which received around 70 million viewers,<ref name=":4" /> is the subject of disagreement by writers over how detrimental it was to Nixon. Nixon had a "sweaty, haggard appearance" because of the studio's hot [[Stage lighting|stage lights]], and a knee infection caused by [[septic arthritis]], for which he got treated at [[Walter Reed Army Medical Center]] in August 1960.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dvorak |first=Petula |date=September 19, 2016 |title=Like Hillary Clinton, Nixon ignored his doctor’s advice while running for president. It was a disaster. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/like-hillary-clinton-nixon-ignored-his-doctors-advice-while-running-for-president-it-was-a-disaster/2016/09/17/fca27be4-7c41-11e6-beac-57a4a412e93a_story.html |access-date=August 20, 2024 |website=The Washington Post}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Campbell |first=W. Joseph |date=2024-06-26 |title=What people say today about the first televised presidential debate, between Nixon and JFK, doesn’t match first reactions in 1960 |url=https://theconversation.com/what-people-say-today-about-the-first-televised-presidential-debate-between-nixon-and-jfk-doesnt-match-first-reactions-in-1960-231765 |access-date=2024-08-20 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref> Journalist [[Theodore H. White]] writes: "Until the cameras opened on the senator and the vice-president, Kennedy had been the boy under assault and attack by the vice-president as immature, young, inexperienced. Now, obviously, in flesh and behavior, he was the vice-president’s equal." In 2024, [[The Conversation (website)|''The Conversation'']] wrote that there was no unanimity regarding Nixon's appearance in the news media at the time: columnist [[Walter Lippmann|Walter Liptmann]] wrote that the cameras "made him look sick, which he is not, and they made him look older and more worn than he is", whereas ''[[The Washington Post]]'' wrote: "Of the two performances Mr. Nixon’s was probably the smoother. He is an accomplished debater with a professional polish, and he managed to convey a slightly patronizing air of a master instructing a pupil.” ''The Conversation'' writes that was arguably more detrimental was Nixon's seeming "defensive and deferential" attitudes towards topics Kennedy brought up.<ref name=":5" />

In October, columnist [[Drew Pearson (journalist)|Drew Pearson]] accused Nixon of having a conflict of interest as Vice President; on December 10, 1956, Nixon's mother, [[Hannah Milhous Nixon|Hannah Nixon]], allegedly received a $205,000 loan from the [[Hughes Tool Company]], owned by [[Howard Hughes]]. Afterwards, Pearson wrote, Hughes' "problems with various government agencies had improved". Robert Finch responded to the allegation by saying it was "an obvious political smear in the last two weeks of the campaign", and that the loan actually came from Frank J. Waters, a California attorney who was Nixon's friend. Nixon had no comment.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1960-10-27 |title=Nixon Aide Accuses Columnist Of 'Smear' Over Story of Loan |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1960/10/27/archives/nixon-aide-accuses-columnist-of-smear-over-story-of-loan.html?searchResultPosition=12 |access-date=2024-08-20 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

=== Endorsements ===
Black former baseball player [[Jackie Robinson]], a major celebrity, endorsed Nixon after meeting with both candidates, which went against common sentiment among Black voters. He supported [[Hubert Humphrey]] in the [[1960 Democratic Party presidential primaries|Democratic primaries]], but wrote that he also liked Nixon:<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Frommer |first=Frederic J. |date=October 28, 2022 |title=Kennedy and Nixon Both Wooed Jackie Robinson. Guess Who Won. |url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2022/10/28/jackie-robinson-nixon-kennedy-1960-00063770 |url-status=live |access-date=August 20, 2024 |website=Politico}}</ref><ref name=":1" />
{{Quote|text=Though the Democratic nominee is still undetermined at this point, it would be folly to underestimate the impression Nixon’s generally good civil rights record has made among Negroes. I’ve been following Nixon’s career for some time now, and I don’t mind admitting that generally I’ve liked what I’ve seen and heard.|author=[[Jackie Robinson]]|source=Robinson's column in a Black-demographic newspaper, the [[Chicago Defender]], in 1960}}
When Robinson met with Nixon, he disliked when Nixon stopped their conversation to take a phone call in which he seemed to state he was planning to get Robinson to dissociate him (Nixon) from Eisenhower, as Black people generally did not trust Eisenhower. Robinson viewed this as a "cheap trick". However, he found his meeting with Kennedy afterwards to be worse; he wrote that Kennedy "admitted a lack of any depth of understanding about black people". Robinson then endorsed Nixon, receiving animosity from some Black community leaders like [[Malcolm X]].<ref name=":6" />

Civil rights leader [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] initially endorsed Nixon for president, as he did not support Kennedy for religious reasons. On October 19, 1960, however, King was [[Atlanta sit-ins|arrested in Atlanta]] for protesting against a [[Racial segregation in the United States|segregated]] department store. A judge ordered that King be jailed for three months for violating probation for a minor traffic offense.<ref name=":4" /> Jackie Robinson contacted Nixon, asking him to help King; Nixon declined, saying it would be "grandstanding".<ref name=":6" /> Fearing he would not survive, King's wife [[Coretta Scott King]] contacted the Kennedy campaign to see if they could help. [[Robert F. Kennedy|Robert Kennedy]] then was able to get King out of prison on bail, and King said he had a "suitcase full of votes" for Kennedy. ''Politico'' writes that this could have decided the election.<ref name=":4" />

== Results ==
[[File:ElectoralCollege1968.svg|thumb|330x330px|Electoral college results of the general election, November 8, 1960]]
68 million people voted in the general election.<ref name=":4" /> The news media projected on November 8 that Kennedy had won.<ref name=":2" /> In the [[Popular vote (United States presidential election)|popular vote]], Nixon lost to Kennedy by approximately 118,000 votes, or 0.2 percentage points, which was the closest race a U.S. presidential election had been since [[1884 United States presidential election|1884]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Campbell |first=W. Joseph |date=2024-06-26 |title=What people say today about the first televised presidential debate, between Nixon and JFK, doesn’t match first reactions in 1960 |url=https://theconversation.com/what-people-say-today-about-the-first-televised-presidential-debate-between-nixon-and-jfk-doesnt-match-first-reactions-in-1960-231765 |access-date=2024-08-20 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref> In the [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]], Kennedy would receive 303 votes and Nixon 219.<ref name=":2" /> 15 southern [[Unpledged elector|unpledged]] and [[Faithless elector|faithless]] electors cast votes for Senator [[Harry F. Byrd|Harry Byrd]] from Virginia as an attempt to preserve southern segregation.<ref name=":4" />

Nixon was urged to contest the election results due to accusations of voter fraud that were popularized by Nixon's friend, journalist [[Earl Mazo]]. Republican operatives, lead by Finch, [[Thruston Ballard Morton|Thurston B. Morton]], and [[Leonard W. Hall]], announced investigations into 11 states' results for irregularities: Delaware, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, New Mexico, Nevada, Pennsylvania, and South Carolina. They found some irregularities in Illinois and Texas which may have meant Kennedy did not legally win those states.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> Kennedy won by 8,000 to 9,000 votes in Illinois, and in Texas by 46,000 votes.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":2" /> Morton claimed the Republican Party received, as ''Politico'' wrote, "35,000 letters and telegrams with anecdotal accounts of fraud".<ref name=":3" /> In Illinois, Chicago Mayor [[Richard M. Daley|Richard Daley]] was accused of using his "political machine" to influence the vote towards Kennedy, and in Texas, Lyndon B. Johnson was accused of doing the same thing.<ref name=":2" /> (Daley had a history of ballot manipulation, and Johnson was previously accused of cheating in his 1948 Senate run.)<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite news |last=Shesol |first=Jeff |date=2022-01-18 |title=Did John F. Kennedy and the Democrats Steal the 1960 Election? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/18/books/review/campaign-of-the-century-kennedy-nixon-1960-irwin-f-gellman.html |access-date=2024-08-20 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The [[Democratic National Committee v. Russian Federation|Democratic National Committee]] chairman, [[Henry L. Jackson]], called the investigation effort "a [[fishing expedition]] on a grand scale", and former U.S. President [[Harry S. Truman|Harry Truman]] called the effort "a lot of hooey" from "just a bunch of poor losers".<ref name=":3" />

Nixon declined to contest the results. He publicly said:<ref name=":0" />
{{Quote|text=I could think of no worse example for nations abroad, who for the first time were trying to put free electoral procedures into effect, than that of the United States wrangling over the results of our presidential election, and even suggesting that the presidency itself could be stolen by thievery at the ballot box.}}
On November 9, Nixon conceded to Kennedy.<ref name=":2" /> In December, as the Electoral College vote was underway, Hawaii's three electors voted for Kennedy despite Nixon winning the state by 140 popular votes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cheney |first=Kyle |date=February 7, 2022 |title=See the 1960 Electoral College certificates that the false Trump electors say justify their gambit |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2022/02/07/1960-electoral-college-certificates-false-trump-electors-00006186 |url-status=live |access-date=August 20, 2024 |website=Politico}}</ref> Later that month, Nixon held a Christmas party at his home, in which he said to his guests, "We won, but they stole it from us".<ref name=":7" /> Nixon later claimed in his biography, ''[[Six Crises]]'', that voter fraud had occurred in Illinois and Texas.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> Historian Edmund Kallina, however, writes that the discrepancies in the Chicago vote count were not large enough to give the state to Nixon if they had not occurred.<ref name=":2" />

== Aftermath ==
Nixon temporarily retired to private life after the election. In [[1962 California gubernatorial election|1962]], he unsuccessfully ran for [[Governor of California]], losing to the Democrat [[Pat Brown]]. In [[1968 United States presidential election|1968]], Nixon [[Richard Nixon 1968 presidential campaign|successfully ran for president again]] and ultimately elected as the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 until his resignation in 1974.<ref name=":0" />

In 2020, Republican candidate then-incumbent president [[Donald Trump]] lost the [[2020 United States presidential election|presidential election]] and [[Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election|attempted to overturn the election results]]. His allies argued that their claims of voter fraud had historical precedent in how Hawaii's electors voted for Kennedy instead of Nixon.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cheney |first=Kyle |date=February 7, 2024 |title=See the 1960 Electoral College certificates that the false Trump electors say justify their gambit |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2022/02/07/1960-electoral-college-certificates-false-trump-electors-00006186 |access-date=August 20, 2024 |website=Politico}}</ref> (No evidence of widespread fraud in the 2020 election has been found.)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-17 |title=Exhaustive fact check finds little evidence of voter fraud, but 2020's 'Big Lie' lives on |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/exhaustive-fact-check-finds-little-evidence-of-voter-fraud-but-2020s-big-lie-lives-on |access-date=2024-08-20 |website=PBS News |language=en-us}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[1960 Republican Party presidential primaries]]
* [[1960 Republican Party vice presidential candidate selection]]
* [[1960 Republican National Convention]]
* [[1960 United States presidential election]]
* [[John F. Kennedy 1960 presidential campaign]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{1960 United States presidential election}}
{{Republican presidential campaigns}}
{{Unsuccessful major party pres candidates}}
{{Richard Nixon}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Richard Nixon Presidential Campaign, 1960}}
[[Category:Richard Nixon| ]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential campaigns]]
[[Category:1960 United States presidential campaigns]]

Harry S. Truman 1948 presidential campaign

2024-09-12T00:51:06Z

ARandomShyGuy: Fixing category typo.

{{Short description|none}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use American English|date=June 2021}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Use shortened footnotes|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox U.S. federal election campaign
|committee=Harry S. Truman 1948 presidential campaign
|logo=Truman-Barkley 1948 Campaign Button (color) trsp.png
|logo_alt=A campaign button with portraits of Harry S. Truman and Alben W. Barkley. The American flag can also be seen. "Truman and Barkley" is written below the portraits.
|campaign={{ubl|[[1948 Democratic Party presidential primaries|1948 Democratic primaries]]|[[1948 United States presidential election]]}}
|candidate={{ubl|'''[[Harry S. Truman]]''' 33rd [[President of the United States]] ''(1945–1953)''|'''[[Alben W. Barkley]]''' [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] from [[Kentucky]] ''(1927–1949)''}}
|affiliation=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]
|status={{ubl|Announced: March 8, 1948|Official nominee: July 15, 1948|Won election: November 2, 1948|Inaugurated: January 20, 1949}}
|key_people={{ubl|[[Clark Clifford]] (advisor)|[[Louis A. Johnson]] (fundraiser)}}
|themesong="[[I'm Just Wild About Harry#Use in other media|I'm Just Wild About Harry]]"
|slogan=Give 'em hell, Harry!
}}
{{Harry S. Truman series}}

In 1948, [[Harry S. Truman]] and [[Alben W. Barkley]] were [[1948 United States presidential election|elected]] [[President of the United States|president]] and [[Vice President of the United States|vice president of the United States]], defeating [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] nominees [[Thomas E. Dewey]] and [[Earl Warren]]. Truman, a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] and vice president under [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], had ascended to the presidency upon Roosevelt's death in 1945. He announced his candidacy for election on March{{nbs}}8, 1948. Unchallenged by any major nominee in the [[1948 Democratic Party presidential primaries|Democratic primaries]], he won almost all of them easily; however, many Democrats like [[James Roosevelt]] opposed his candidacy and urged former [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] to run instead.

Truman wanted U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice [[William O. Douglas]] to be his [[running mate]]. Douglas declined, claiming a lack of political experience; in reality, his friend [[Thomas Gardiner Corcoran]] had advised him not to be a "number two man to a number two man".{{Sfn|Murphy|2003|p=259}} Senator Barkley's keynote address at the [[1948 Democratic National Convention]] energized the delegates and impressed Truman, who then selected Barkley as his running mate. When the convention adopted Truman's [[civil rights]] [[Plank (party platform)|plank]] in a close vote of {{frac|651|1|2}} to {{frac|582|1|2}}, many Southern delegates walked out of the convention. After order was restored, a roll call vote gave Truman a majority of delegates to be the nominee; Barkley was nominated the vice-presidential candidate by [[Voice vote|acclamation]].

The [[Progressive Party (United States, 1948)|Progressive Party]] nominated [[Henry A. Wallace]], a former Democratic vice president, to run against Truman. [[Strom Thurmond]], the governor of [[South Carolina]], who had led a walkout of a large group of delegates from [[Mississippi]] and [[Alabama]] at the 1948 convention, also ran against Truman as a [[Dixiecrat]], campaigning for [[states' rights]]. With a split of the Democratic Party, most polls and political writers predicted victory for Dewey and gave Truman little chance.

During the campaign, Truman mostly focused on blaming the Republican-controlled Congress for not passing his legislation, calling it a "[[80th United States Congress|do-nothing Congress]]." In early September 1948, Truman conducted various [[Whistle-stop train tour|whistle-stop tour]]s across the nation, covering over {{Convert|21,928|mile|km}} on the [[Ferdinand Magellan (railcar)|''Ferdinand Magellan'' railcar]]. Of all of the speeches which he gave during his whistle-stop tour, only about 70 were broadcast on the radio even locally, and only 20 of them were heard nationally. During the final days of the campaign, the Truman campaign released a film titled ''The Truman Story'' showing newsreel footage of the whistle-stop tour. Although he received some endorsements, including that of [[Screen Actors Guild]] president [[Ronald Reagan]], most broadcasting companies were sure of Dewey's victory. Ultimately, Truman won with 303 [[United States Electoral College|electoral votes]] to Dewey's 189 and Thurmond's 39. Before the results were released, an early edition of the [[Chicago Tribune|''Chicago Daily Tribune'']] wrongly anticipated the result with the headline "[[Dewey Defeats Truman]]". ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine later described an image of Truman holding the newspaper as the "greatest photograph ever made of a politician celebrating victory."{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=342}} Truman and Barkley were inaugurated on January 20, 1949. Truman's 1948 campaign and the election are most remembered for the failure of polls and Truman's [[Upset (competition)|upset victory]].

==Background==
{{Further|Presidency of Harry S. Truman#Accession}}
[[Harry S. Truman]] was born in [[Lamar, Missouri]], in 1884.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=36–37}} After graduating from [[William Chrisman High School|Independence High School]] in 1901, he enrolled at the Spalding's Commercial College, but dropped out within a year.{{Sfn|Ferrell|2013|pp=25–26}} When the United States entered [[World War I]] in 1917, Truman joined Battery{{nbs}}B, successfully recruiting new soldiers for the expanding unit, for which he was selected as their [[First lieutenant#U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Air Force|first lieutenant]].{{Sfn|Offner|2002|p=6}} By July 1918, he became commander of the newly arrived Battery{{nbs}}D of the [[129th Field Artillery Regiment|129th Field Artillery]], [[35th Infantry Division (United States)|35th Division]].{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=115}} After the war, he was elected the [[List of county executives of Jackson County, Missouri|Presiding Judge of Jackson County, Missouri]], and later served as a senator from [[Missouri]].{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=30}} As a senator, he was head of the Senate Special Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program, known as the [[Truman Committee]].{{Sfn|Riddle|1964|pp=16–17}}{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=32}}

[[File:Harry_S_Truman,_bw_half-length_photo_portrait,_facing_front,_1945 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|alt=refer to caption|[[Harry S. Truman]]'s portrait, taken in 1945]]
By 1944, most of the advisors of the incumbent President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] believed that he might not live out a fourth term and that his vice president would likely become the next president. Most of Roosevelt's advisors viewed the incumbent Vice President [[Henry A. Wallace]] as too [[Liberalism|liberal]].{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=294–295}} In 1944, Roosevelt replaced Wallace from his ticket with Truman.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=305–307}} Despite showing little interest in being vice president, Truman was selected by the [[1944 Democratic National Convention]] as the nominee. The Roosevelt–Truman ticket won [[1944 United States presidential election|the presidential election]], defeating the Republican ticket of [[Thomas E. Dewey]] and [[John W. Bricker]].{{Sfn|Busch|2012|pp=98–100}} Truman was sworn in as vice president on January{{nbs}}20, 1945. He had been vice president for 82 days when Roosevelt died on April{{nbs}}12, making Truman the 33rd president.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=345–347}} Truman later said: "I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me."{{Sfn|Parks|1991|p=23}}

Truman asked Roosevelt's cabinet members to remain in their positions, telling them he was open to their advice. He emphasized a central principle of his administration: he would be the one making the decisions, and they were to support him.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=348}} During [[World War II]], with the [[Operation Downfall|invasion of Japan]] imminent, he approved the schedule for dropping two [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bomb]]s to avoid a costly invasion of the Japanese mainland. It had been estimated the invasion could take a year and cause 250,000 to 500,000 American casualties. The United States bombed [[Hiroshima]] on August{{nbs}}6, and [[Nagasaki]] three days later, leaving approximately 105,000 dead;{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=459–464}}{{Sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=24–28}} [[Surrender of Japan|Japan agreed to surrender]] the following day.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=5}} Truman said that attacking Japan in this way, instead of invading it, saved many lives on both sides. With the end of World War{{nbs}}II, Truman implemented the [[Marshall Plan]], allocating foreign aid for Western Europe. Apart from primaries and campaigning in 1948, Truman dealt with the [[Berlin Blockade]], which is considered the first major diplomatic crisis of the [[Cold War]].{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=x}} During [[Presidency of Harry S. Truman|Truman's presidency]], his approval ratings had dropped from 80 percent in early 1945 to 30 percent in early 1947. The 1946 [[1946 United States elections|mid-term election]] alarmed Truman when Republicans won control of both houses of Congress for the first time since the 1920s.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=34}} In 1947, Truman told his [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] [[James Forrestal]] that, except for the "reward of service", he had found little satisfaction in being president.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=584}}

==Gaining the nomination==
===Preparing for a run===
In December 1947, former Vice President Wallace had announced via radio that he would seek the presidency in 1948 as a third-party candidate. He was dissatisfied with [[Truman Doctrine|Truman's foreign policy]], and in his announcement, made an attempt to link Truman to a war-oriented point of view. The previous year, Truman had demanded and received his resignation from the cabinet as the [[United States Secretary of Commerce|Secretary of Commerce]].{{Sfn|Yarnell|1974|pp=2–4}} Due to his declining popularity, Truman had initially decided not to run.{{Sfn|Ross|1968|p=69}} He considered former [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army|Chief of Staff of the Army]] General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] as an ideal candidate for the Democrats, and persuaded him to contest the presidency. In a public statement, however, Eisenhower declined all requests to enter politics, without disclosing his political party affiliation.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=584–586}}{{Sfn|Busch|2012|p=104}} Momentum among [[Americans for Democratic Action]] (ADA) members and politicians grew for the [[Draft Eisenhower movement#"Eisenhower boom" (1948)|Draft Eisenhower movement]]{{snd}}to the extent that some Democratic politicians began organizing a "Dump Truman" effort to persuade Eisenhower to run as a Democrat.{{Sfn|Busch|2012|p=79}} According to Secretary of the Army [[Kenneth Claiborne Royall|Kenneth Royall]], Truman even agreed to run as the vice-presidential nominee of Eisenhower, if he so desired, but all efforts to persuade him failed.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=584}}

In early 1948, Truman agreed to contest the presidency, asserting that he wanted to continue contributing to the welfare of the country.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=584–586}} His advisor, [[Clark Clifford]], later said that the greatest ambition Truman had was to be elected in his own right. His candidacy faced opposition within the Democratic Party from the progressive movement led by Wallace, and the [[states' rights]] movement led by [[Governor of South Carolina|South Carolina Governor]] [[Strom Thurmond]].{{Sfn|Lemelin|2001|pp=39–40}} In November 1947, Democratic political strategist [[James H. Rowe]] wrote a memo titled "The Politics of 1948", highlighting the challenges and the road map for Truman's campaign.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=95}} Clifford edited and presented the forty-three page confidential memo to Truman,{{Sfn|Sitkoff|1971|p=597}}{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=95}} which stated: "The Democratic Party is an unhappy alliance of Southern conservatives, Western progressives, and Big City labor."{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=96}} Rowe accurately predicted Dewey would win the Republican nomination, calling him a "resourceful, intelligent and highly dangerous candidate".{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=96}} Rowe also warned of the potential threat from Southern Democrats and Wallace.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=96}} The Rowe–Clifford memo advised Truman to project himself as a strong liberal and focus his campaign primarily on urban blacks, labor, and farmers{{snd}}who made up the core of the [[New Deal]] coalition.{{Sfn|Lemelin|2001|p=6}} Although Truman did not trust Rowe because of their difference of opinion in the past,{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=95}} he endorsed the strategy.{{Sfn|Lemelin|2001|p=6}}

In his 1948 [[State of the Union|State of the Union address]], Truman emphasized civil rights, saying: "Our first goal is to secure fully the essential human rights of our citizens."{{Sfn|Gardner|2002|p=65}} On March{{nbs}}8, 1948, [[Democratic National Committee]] Chair [[J. Howard McGrath]] officially declared Truman's candidacy.{{Sfn|Ross|1968|p=70}} He said: "The president has authorized me to say, that if nominated by the Democratic National Convention, he will accept and run." {{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=59}} The presidential primary contests began the next day with the [[New Hampshire presidential primary|New Hampshire primary]].{{Sfn|SAGE Publications|2009|pp=397–398}} Truman won the support of all [[unpledged delegates]] unopposed. He faced little opposition in the primary contests, as he was the sole major contender. He won almost all the contests by comfortable margins, receiving approximately 64 percent of the overall vote.{{Sfn|SAGE Publications|2009|pp=397–398}} Despite his performance in the primaries, [[Gallup (company)|Gallup Poll]] indicated no matter how Truman might campaign, he would lose in November to any of four possible Republican nominees: Dewey, [[Arthur Vandenberg]], [[Harold Stassen]], or [[Douglas MacArthur]].{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=608}}

Historian and author Andrew Busch described the political scenario as:
<blockquote>Americans in 1948 had to render judgment on three major policy innovations. It was the first presidential election since [[The Great Depression|depression]], war, and the presence of FDR in which the nation could take stock of the New Deal direction of domestic policy. It was also the first election after the establishment of [[containment]] as the foreign policy of the United States and the first since Truman had made civil rights an important part of the federal policy agenda{{nbs}}... The presidential nominating system in 1948 was substantially different from the reformed system to which we are accustomed, and the differences were important. Primary elections influenced the nomination but did not control it; it was possible to seriously consider a genuine last-minute draft of a candidate; and the national conventions really mattered.{{Sfn|Busch|2012|p=2}}</blockquote>

===Early developments===
In early June, the [[University of California, Berkeley]] invited Truman to accept an honorary doctorate. Truman converted his California trip to a whistle-stop train tour through eighteen strategic states, campaigning from June{{nbs}}3.{{Sfn|Busch|2012|p=80}} The president's discretionary travel fund covered the costs because of a lack of donations to the Democratic National Committee.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=124}}{{Sfn|Bray|1964|p=1}} Truman referred to it as a "non-political trip".{{Sfn|Goldzwig|2008|p=21}} He focused on the [[80th United States Congress|eightieth Congress]] in his speeches, referring to it as "the worst congress".{{Sfn|Busch|2012|p=206}} As his tour progressed, the crowds grew significantly, from approximately a thousand in [[Crestline, Ohio]], to a hundred thousand in [[Chicago|Chicago, Illinois]].{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=624}} In [[Omaha, Nebraska]], Truman's address at the [[Ak-Sar-Ben (arena)|Ak-Sar-Ben]] auditorium to the veterans of the 35th Division has been referred to as an embarrassment.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=131}}{{Sfn|Ross|1968|p=83}} The auditorium had a capacity of ten thousand, but fewer than two thousand attended. Organizers failed to publicize that the auditorium was open to the public and not just veterans of the 35th Division.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=625}} Newspapers printed images of the nearly vacant auditorium, and columnists interpreted this as a further sign of Truman's dwindling popularity.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|pp=131–133}} The same day, Truman watched a parade in his presidential car with [[Roy J. Turner]], the [[governor of Oklahoma]]. When Battery{{nbs}}D of the 129th Field Artillery passed by, Truman joined the veterans of his World War{{nbs}}I military unit and marched with them for half a mile.{{Sfn|Goldzwig|2008|p=24}} Two days later at [[Los Angeles]], an estimated one million people gathered on Truman's way from the railroad station to the Ambassador Hotel. The ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' reported that the crowd "clung to the roofs of buildings, jammed windows and fire escapes and crowded five deep along the sidewalk".{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=628}}
[[File:Justice_William_O_Douglas_(cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of Justice William O Douglas|Justice [[William O. Douglas]] was Truman's initial choice for his running mate.]]

Although Truman ran mostly unopposed in the primaries, the "Eisenhower craze" was in full swing among some Democrats a few weeks before the convention.{{Sfn|Busch|2012|p=104}} Franklin D. Roosevelt's son, [[James Roosevelt]], campaigned for Eisenhower to contest the nomination and take Truman's place on the ticket.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=127}} Despite several refusals, Eisenhower was still being pursued by various political leaders.{{Sfn|Busch|2012|p=104}} Several polling agencies suggested Eisenhower was likely to defeat Dewey if he ran in place of Truman. Reacting to this at a news conference on July{{nbs}}1, Truman said he would not withdraw his candidacy even though no one had seriously challenged him in a single Democratic primary.{{Sfn|Busch|2012|p=104}} Still, Roosevelt made no secret of his intention to prevent Truman from becoming the nominee. Truman once told Roosevelt: "If your father knew what you were doing to me, he would turn over in his grave."{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=127}}

With the convention approaching, Truman still had to decide on a running mate. He wanted one younger than him and strong on liberal issues. His initial choice was Supreme Court Justice [[William O. Douglas]].{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=635}} Douglas was also the alternative candidate for most of the Eisenhower supporters, but he declined, claiming a lack of political experience; he also wanted to remain in the Supreme Court.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=144}} His friend [[Thomas Gardiner Corcoran]] had suggested him not to be a "number two man to a number two man".{{Sfn|Murphy|2003|p=259}} A week before the convention, Roosevelt sent [[Electrical telegraph|telegrams]] to all 1,592 delegates voting for the party nomination, asking them to arrive in [[Philadelphia]] two days early for a special Draft Eisenhower caucus attempting to make a strong joint appeal to Eisenhower.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=142}} Columnist [[Drew Pearson (journalist)|Drew Pearson]] wrote: "If the Democrats failed to get Ike [Eisenhower] to run, every seasoned political leader in the Democratic Party is convinced Harry Truman will suffer one of the worst election defeats in history."{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=143}} Humiliated by the draft, Truman called Roosevelt a "Demo-republican" and "double-dealer".{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=143}} After Eisenhower declined to run yet again, various ADA members unsuccessfully tried to persuade Douglas to contest the nomination,{{Sfn|Donovan|1977|p=404}} but many Truman supporters soon believed that Truman would be chosen as the Democratic nominee.{{Sfn|''The New York Times''|1948|p=19}}{{Sfn|''Logansport Pharos-Tribune''|1948|p=1}}

===Democratic convention===
{{Further|1948 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection}}
[[File:Alben Barkley, pensive (cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=refer to caption|[[Alben W. Barkley]], pictured in 1937]]

The [[1948 Democratic National Convention]] convened at the [[Philadelphia Convention Hall and Civic Center|Philadelphia Convention Hall]] in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from July{{nbs}}12 to July{{nbs}}15. The crowd was smaller than the [[1948 Republican National Convention|Republican National Convention]] held a few weeks earlier.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=636}} Some delegates carried banners with the slogan "Keep American Human with Truman".{{Sfn|Donaldson|1999|p=160}} Viewing the first televised Democratic National Convention from the [[White House]], Truman heard Senator [[Alben W. Barkley]] of [[Kentucky]] deliver a keynote address that energized the delegates in the convention hall.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=637}} After his speech, some delegates broke into a spontaneous demonstration and marched around the hall singing "[[My Old Kentucky Home]]" carrying banners inscribed with "Barkley for Vice-President".{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=156}} When Senator Howard McGrath asked Truman his views on the speech, Truman replied: "If Barkley is what the convention wanted for the vice presidency, then Barkley is my choice too."{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=638}} At 71, Barkley was older than Truman, and from Kentucky, neither of which helped to counteract the issue of Truman's age, nor bring a geographical balance to the ticket.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=638}} Barkley, however, was immensely popular within the Democratic Party, and political experts wrote that his presence on the ticket would help to cement the fractious Democratic coalition.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|pp=156–157}} The following day, Truman called Barkley asking him to be his running mate, saying: "If I had known you wanted it the vice presidency, I certainly would have been agreeable."{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=638}} Barkley agreed to be his running mate.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=638}}

July 14 was scheduled for Truman's nomination and his acceptance speech. Before his arrival, the Southern delegates were agitated when the convention adopted Truman's civil rights plan, which supported equal opportunity in employment and in the military.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=638–639}}{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=147}} Although Truman did not intend to alienate [[Southern United States|the South]],{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|pp=157–158}} many Southern delegates from Mississippi were sent with binding instructions to leave the convention if it did not endorse the states' rights plank.{{Sfn|Busch|2012|pp=104–108}} Soon after Senator [[Francis J. Myers]] read the civil rights plank, many Southern delegates rose in protest.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|pp=157–158}} They demanded the convention to endorse their states' rights plank, which specifically called for the power of [[U.S. state|state]]s to maintain [[Racial segregation in the United States|segregation]].{{Sfn|Busch|2012|pp=106–107}} The convention adopted the civil rights plank in a vote of {{frac|651|1|2}} to {{frac|582|1|2}}. [[Hubert Humphrey]] tried to control the situation with his "The Sunshine of Human Rights" address, saying: "We are not rushing on civil rights, we are 172 years late."{{Sfn|Murphy|2020|p=77}}{{Sfn|Busch|2012|p=107}} Soon after, Thurmond led a walkout of a large group of delegates from Mississippi and Alabama, yelling "Goodbye Harry".{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=147}}

''[[The Washington Post]]''{{'s}} correspondent [[Marquis Childs]] later called the walkout of delegates the "liquidation of one of the major parties".{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=148}} Shortly after order was restored, Charles J. Bloch, a delegate from Georgia, shouted: "The South is no longer going to be the whipping boy of the Democratic Party," and called for the nomination of Senator [[Richard Russell Jr.|Richard Russell]] as an alternative to Truman.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=147}}{{Sfn|Busch|2012|p=108}} The remaining delegates then voted for presidential nomination, which formally made Truman the Democratic nominee, with {{frac|947|1|2}} delegates to Russell's 266.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=159}}{{Sfn|Donaldson|1999|p=164}}{{Sfn|Gullan|1998|p=101}} Although many remaining Southern delegates voted for Russell, a split vote in South Carolina gave the victory to Truman.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=641}} Barkley was nominated as the vice-presidential nominee by [[Voice vote|acclamation]].{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=159}} Truman was expected to deliver his acceptance speech at 10:00{{nbs}}p.m., but because of the walkout by some delegates the convention was behind schedule, and he did not give his speech until 2:00{{nbs}}a.m. on July{{nbs}}15.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=641–643}} Truman began his speech, electrifying the delegates by directly attacking the Republican platform, and praising Barkley{{snd}}who was considered the most popular man in the hall.{{Sfn|Pietrusza|2014|pp=3–4}} He said:<blockquote>I accept the nomination. And I want to thank this convention for its unanimous nomination of my good friend and colleague, Senator Barkley of Kentucky. He is a great man, and a great public servant. Senator Barkley and I will win this election and make these Republicans like it{{snd}}don't you forget that! We will do that because they are wrong and we are right, and I will prove it to you in just a few minutes.{{Sfn|Truman|2003|p=53}}{{Sfn|Brown|1948|pp=300–301}}</blockquote>
He blamed the Republican-controlled Congress for not passing various of his legislative measures.{{Sfn|Lee|1963|p=256}} Although he did not mention his opponent Dewey, he criticized the Republican platform, contrasting them for actions of the eightieth Congress.{{Sfn|Pietrusza|2014|p=4}} He said that he would call Congress back into session on July{{nbs}}26th, Turnip Day,{{Efn|July 26 is referred to as Turnip Day in Missouri, as the [[Turnip|turnip crop]] is traditionally sown on that day. Truman himself was a farmer for eleven years prior becoming a politician.{{Sfn|Batt|Balducchi|1999|p=82}}}} to pass legislation ensuring [[civil rights]] and [[Social Security (United States)|social security]] and establishing a national healthcare program. "They [Congress] can do this job in fifteen days if they want to do it," he challenged.{{Sfn|Truman|2003|p=59}} The session came to be known as the [[Turnip Day Session]].{{Sfn|Truman|2003|p=59}} Describing his reference of the eightieth Congress, ''[[Newsweek]]'' reported: "Nothing short of a stroke of magic could infuse the remnants of the party with enthusiasm, but the magic he had; in a speech bristling with marching words, Mr. Truman brought the convention to its highest peak of excitement."{{Sfn|Pietrusza|2014|p=4}} American author and historian [[David Pietrusza]] later wrote that Truman's speech transformed a "hopelessly bedraggled campaign" into an "instantly energized effort capable of ultimate victory in November".{{Sfn|Pietrusza|2014|p=1}} He referred to the speech as the first great political speech of the television era, and wrote that it moved politics from the radio age to the "ascendancy of the visual, propelling images as well as words immediately into the homes of millions of Americans".{{Sfn|Pietrusza|2014|p=1}}

==Campaign==
{{Quote frame|It will be the greatest campaign any President ever made. Win, lose, or draw, people will know where I stand.|Harry S. Truman{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=653}}|align=center}}

===Initial stages===
[[File:President_Truman_with_Governor_Dewey_at_dedication_of_the_Idlewild_Airport_(cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=President Truman shakes hands with Governor Dewey at Idlewild Airport|President Truman (left) with Governor [[Thomas E. Dewey|Dewey]] (right) at the dedication of the [[Idlewild Airport]]; meeting for the first time since nominated by their respective parties for the presidency.]]

Soon after the convention Truman stated that the whole concept of his campaign was to motivate voters and galvanize support for the candidate and the party.{{Sfn|Truman|2003|p=4}} Republicans charged Truman with crude politics asserting his call for a special session of Congress was the "act of a desperate man".{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=644}} Rather than directly attacking Dewey, Truman sought to continue blaming the Republican-controlled Congress.{{Sfn|Truman|2003|p=4}} On July{{nbs}}17, the Southern delegates who bolted the Democratic Convention convened and nominated Thurmond as the official [[States Rights Democratic Party|States' Rights Democratic Party]] presidential nominee, with [[Fielding L. Wright]], the governor of Mississippi, as their vice-presidential nominee.{{Sfn|Gullan|1998|pp=104–105}} They were soon nicknamed "Dixiecrats", and were perceived as a minor party having strong influence in the South.{{Sfn|Savage|1997|p=122}}

With the split within the Democratic Party, many pollsters believed Truman had little chance of winning. The initial issue Truman had to deal with was financing the campaign. The Democratic National Committee's funds were insufficient.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|pp=174–176}} Moreover, the Dewey campaign had released a collection of quotes from a few well-respected Democratic politicians saying that Truman could not win, reducing the number of donors. A meeting was held at the White House on July{{nbs}}22 to form the campaign finance committee. Truman stated he would travel all over the country after [[Labor Day]], and address every stop on the tour to campaign and raise money.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=186}} Soon after, the Democratic National Committee moved its headquarters from Philadelphia to [[New York City]].{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=175}}

[[Louis A. Johnson]] was named the campaign fundraiser and the finance chairman for the Democratic National Committee.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=176}} With Truman's declining polling numbers, Johnson's fundraising was crucial for the campaign. [[William Loren Batt]], a member of [[Combined Munitions Assignments Board]], headed a new campaign research unit formed to focus on local issues and trends in the cities where Truman was expected to give speeches.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=177}} A day before the special session of Congress, the Progressive Party formally nominated Wallace as their presidential nominee, with [[Glen H. Taylor]], a senator from [[Idaho]], as his running mate.{{Sfn|Gullan|1998|pp=106–107}}

Truman's close friend [[Oscar R. Ewing|Oscar Ewing]] advised him to take his civil rights plan to its next logical step by desegregating the military by executive order rather than passing it through Congress.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|pp=178–181}} Considering the suggestion to be a dangerous move, Truman initially hesitated, asserting that Southern Democrats would oppose it.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|pp=178—181}} Ultimately, on July{{nbs}}26, 1948, Truman signed Executive Order 9980 creating a system of "fair employment practices" within the federal government without discrimination because of race, color, religion or national origin; and [[Executive Order 9981]] re-integrating the [[Racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces|segregated Armed Forces]].{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=179}} The following day, in the special session of Congress, he called for action on civil rights, economy, farm support, education, and housing development.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=651}}{{Sfn|Gullan|1998|pp=108–109}} Republican legislators strongly opposed these measures, but the Dewey campaign partially supported Truman's civil rights plan, trying to separate themselves from the conservative record of Congress.{{Sfn|Donaldson|1999|p=168}} On July{{nbs}}31 Truman and Dewey met for the first and only time during the campaign at the dedication of Idlewild Airport (now [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]]) in New York City.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|pp=188–189}} After speeches were given by both the major party candidates, Truman humorously whispered to Dewey: "Tom, when you get to the White House, for God's sake, do something about the plumbing."{{Sfn|Donovan|1977|p=413}}
{{Listen|type=song|filename=Eubie Blake - Just Wild about Harry.ogg|title="I'm Just Wild about Harry"}}

Truman selected the 1921 popular song "[[I'm Just Wild About Harry]]" as his campaign song.{{Sfn|Jasen|2002|p=98}} His opponents mockingly sang the parody song, with the title "I'm Just Mild About Harry".{{Sfn|Matviko|2005|p=41}} In early August, when the special session of Congress was about to end, Truman claimed in his weekly press conference that the eightieth Congress had failed to pass legislation he had proposed to curb [[inflation]].{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=200}} When a reporter asked him, "Do you think it [Congress] had been a 'do-nothing' Congress?" Truman replied, "Entirely".{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=652}} In a memo to Clark Clifford, Batt provided an overview of events and challenges that the Truman campaign might face. He suggested Truman to campaign in close contact with voters both in August and after Labor Day in September.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=191}} At the outset of the fall campaign, Truman's advisers urged him to focus on critical states decided by narrow margins in 1944, and make his major addresses in the twenty-three largest metropolitan areas. It was decided he should make three long campaign tours{{snd}}one each through the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], the [[Western United States|far West]], and the [[Northeastern United States|Northeast]]{{snd}}and a shorter trip to the South.{{Sfn|Busch|2012|p=128}}

===Whistle-stop tour===
{{Multiple image
| direction = vertical
| total_width = 250
| image1 = President Truman Signs a Sheet of 3 Cent Stamps on the Back of a Train (cropped).jpg
| alt1 = refer to caption
| caption1 = Truman signing a sheet of three-cent stamps on the back of his campaign train
| image2 = Political Cartoon by Jim Berryman, "Down by the Station" (cropped).jpg
| alt2 = refer to caption
| caption2 = Political cartoon "Down by the Station" by [[James T. Berryman]], showing both major party candidates campaigning in whistle stop train tours
}}

Truman formally began his campaign on Labor Day with a one-day tour of Michigan and Ohio. In a speech at [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]], he attacked Republicans, claiming that few "special privilege" groups controlled them.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=214}} Grand Rapids was a Republican stronghold, yet around 25 thousand people attended to listen to him.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=214}} His six stops in Michigan drew approximately half a million people.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=657}} On September{{nbs}}13, a fundraiser was held at the White House with about 30 invited potential donors. Truman asked them for help, saying his campaign did not have the funds to buy radio time, and often had to cut an important part of a speech as a result.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=269}} He began his whistle-stop tour in an {{convert|83|ft|adj=on}} private armored railway car called the ''[[Ferdinand Magellan (railcar)|Ferdinand Magellan]]'' on September{{nbs}}17.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=656}} While boarding the train, Senator Barkley asked him if he was to carry the fight to the Republicans, to which Truman replied: "We're going to give 'em hell".{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=656}}

Apart from Truman and his campaign team, about a hundred other officials boarded the train, including many journalists.{{Sfn|Truman Library (b)|p=3}} Clifford, David Bell, [[George Elsey]], and [[Charles S. Murphy|Charles Murphy]] were responsible for writing Truman's major speeches.{{Sfn|Murphy|1948|p=2}} The tour was divided into three segments{{snd}}first cross-country to California for fifteen days, a six-day tour of the Middle West, followed by a final ten days in the Northeast with a return trip to Missouri. Initially, Truman planned to travel in all 48 states but later decided to campaign only in swing states and Democratic-leaning states, avoiding [[Deep South]] states that heavily favored Dixiecrats.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=654}}

The train departed on September 17 from Pittsburgh, and headed west. The first major stop was in [[Dexter, Iowa]], where Truman delivered a speech on September{{nbs}}18 at the National Plowing Contest.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=210}} He appealed to farmers and average Americans by dressing like a farmer in shirtsleeves and sitting down next to a group of farmers at a large picnic table.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=210}} He called the Republican Party "gluttons of privilege", and said the Democratic Party represents the common people. He said: "I'm not asking you to vote for me, vote for yourselves, vote for your farms, vote for the standard of living you have won under a Democratic administration."{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=211}} Meanwhile, Dewey was also conducting a whistle-stop tour on his train titled the "Dewey Victory Special".{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=206}} Thousands attended his speeches, but author [[Zachary Karabell]] wrote that the crowd could hardly be called excited; they had no intensity or sense of the importance of the moment.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=202}} While campaigning, both major candidates did not mention each other by name, but attacked the other's platform. Truman continued blaming the "do nothing" Congress and called Republicans a special-interest group.{{Sfn|Truman|2003|p=85}} Author Donald R. McCoy observed that: "[Truman's] voice was flat and nasal, his prepared texts were often stilted, and his gestures were limited to chopping hand motions, which were not always appropriate to what he was saying."{{Sfn|Goldzwig|2008|p=18}}

During a speech in [[Salt Lake City]], he said: "Selfish men have always tried to skim the cream from our natural resources to satisfy their own greed. And{{nbs}}... [their] instrument in this effort has always been the Republican Party."{{Sfn|Truman|2003|p=85}} In a busy schedule, Truman delivered four or five speeches a day.{{Sfn|Truman Library (a)|pp=1–6}} Most of the train stops featured a local brass band that played "[[Hail to the Chief]]" or the "[[Missouri Waltz]]".{{Sfn|Goldzwig|2008|p=52}} Robert Donovan, a correspondent at the ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]'', later characterized Truman's campaign as "sharp speeches fairly criticizing Republican policy and defending New Deal liberalism".{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=661}} In shorter speeches of about ten minutes, he praised and endorsed the local candidate for congressional election, and gave the rest of the speech covering local and general topics.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=663}} The size of the crowd increased in each subsequent town as people started seeing Truman as a fearless underdog.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=248}} His speeches were not covered extensively by radio or television. During one speech, a man from the crowd yelled, "Give 'em hell, Harry!", as the news accounts of his promise to Barkley spread across the country.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=663}} Truman replied: "I don't give them Hell. I just tell the truth about them, and they think it's Hell."{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=664}} Soon after, many people started yelling and repeating "Give 'em hell, Harry!", which by late September had become a well-known campaign slogan.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=248}}

While Truman campaigned on the train, Senator Barkley traveled by airplane and campaigned across the nation, though he also avoided campaigning in the Deep South.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=217}} While addressing a crowd of about a hundred thousand on September{{nbs}}28 in Oklahoma, Truman answered the Republican charges of [[communism]] in government. He called that the charges were a "smoke screen" of Republican tactics to hide their failure to deal with other issues.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=679–680}} Considering the importance of a speech and its effect on the campaign, the Democratic National Committee decided to pay for nationwide radio time. The next day, Truman gave his hundredth speech from the rear platform of the train. He spoke at sixteen stops, addressing more than half a million people.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=680}}

During the early days of October, Truman kept his specific attacks on the Congress, backed up with the daily facts supplied by Batt's research team.{{Sfn|White|2014|p=184}} On October{{nbs}}11, he gave eleven speeches at different stops over fifteen hours.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=688–689}} While addressing a crowd at Springfield, Illinois, the next day, he claimed Democrats to be "practical folks", and said that Republicans are afraid to tell the people their stand on specific issues. He remarked: "The Republicans know they can't run on their record{{snd}}that record is too bad. But you ought to know about their record. And since they won't tell you, I will."{{Sfn|Truman|2003|p=115}}

In his letter to his sister, Mary Jane, Truman asserted his firm belief in their victory. He wrote: "We've got 'em on the run and I think we'll win."{{Sfn|White|2014|p=203}} By the end of his tour, he had delivered 352 speeches covering {{Convert|21,928|mile|km}}.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=654}}{{Sfn|White|2014|p=10}}{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=212}} Truman campaigned much more actively than Dewey. Although the candidates had only a slight difference in the number of states visited, Truman had a clear lead in the number of campaign stops, having made 238 stops to Dewey's 40.{{Efn|The number of campaign stops (238 for Truman and 40 for Dewey) are from September 2 till the election day. It differs from the number of days spent in the state, or his overall number of tours.{{Sfn|Holbrook|2002|p=61}}}}{{Sfn|Holbrook|2002|p=60}}
[[File:Truman1948Stops.png|thumb|center|upright=3.5|The tour is divided into three segments: 1 – cross-country to California (Red) 2 – tour of the Middle West (Green) 3 – final ten days in the Northeast with a return trip to Missouri (Yellow)]]

===Media and polls; the final days===
[[File:Truman-Dewey-polls-1948.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Clifford K. Berryman's editorial cartoon of October 19, 1948, shows the consensus of experts in mid-October|[[Clifford K. Berryman]]'s political cartoon of October{{nbs}}19, 1948, shows the consensus of experts in mid-October.]]
[[File:President Harry S. Truman standing in an open car, speaking into microphones, Washington, DC. President Truman had... - NARA - 199965 (cropped).tif|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=President Truman campaigning in an open car in October 1948|President Truman campaigning in an open car in October 1948.]]

As Truman's whistle-stop tour continued the size of the crowd increased. The large, mostly spontaneous gatherings at Truman's whistle-stop events were an important sign of a change in the campaign's momentum, but this shift mostly went unnoticed by polling agencies.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=296}} Except for [[Louis H. Bean]] and Survey Research Center's (SRC) polls, most of the other polls conducted during the fall campaign polled Dewey having a decisive lead over Truman.{{Sfn|Visser|1994|p=48}}{{Sfn|Rosenof|1999|p=63}} Dewey's campaign strategy was to avoid major mistakes and act presidential, which likely helped keep his polling numbers high.{{Sfn|Ross|1968|p=166}} [[Elmo Roper]], a major pollster, announced that his organization would discontinue polling since it had already predicted Dewey's victory by a large majority of electoral votes.{{Sfn|Lemelin|2001|p=42}} He said that his whole inclination was to predict Dewey's victory by a heavy margin, and wanted to devote his time and efforts in other things.{{Sfn|Frantz|1995|p=86}} His latest poll showed Dewey leading by an "unbeatable" 44 percent to Truman's 31 percent.{{Sfn|Lemelin|2001|p=42}}

In early October, when ''Newsweek'' in an election survey asked fifty major political writers their prediction, all of them chose Dewey to win.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=694}} When Truman read the article, he said: "I know every one of these fifty fellows. There isn't a single one of them has enough sense to pound sand in a rat hole."{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=218}} Truman's wife, [[Bess Truman]], was doubtful of Truman's victory, and even asked White House aide Tom Evans: "Does he [Truman] really think he can win?"{{Sfn|Ferrell|2013|p=20}} Editors of major media corporations predicted that, in the wake of the expected Democratic defeat nationally, the South would regain its influence in the Democratic Party.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=228}}

Of all the speeches Truman gave in September and October, only about seventy were broadcast on the radio even locally; twenty were heard nationally.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=213}} The ''New York Herald Tribune'' reported: "The voters are turning out to see the President of the United States; turning out in larger numbers than they will see candidate Dewey."{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=242}} Most of the major newspapers like ''[[The New York Times]]'', the ''Los Angeles Times'', and ''[[The Washington Star]]'' endorsed Dewey.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=694}} The only major editorial endorsing Truman was in ''[[The Boston Post]]'', under the heading "Captain Courageous".{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=697–698}} ''The Boston Post'' called Truman "humbly honest, homespun and as doggedly determined to do what is best for America as [[Abraham Lincoln]]".{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=697–698}} Truman arrived back at the White House in early October and conducted some meetings with the Democratic National Committee's research division.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|pp=264–278}}

On October 3, Truman met with the campaign team to discuss strategy and concluded that the campaign needed a new approach to illustrate his effort for peace and security in the world.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|pp=264–278}} He decided to send Chief Justice [[Fred M. Vinson]] on a diplomatic mission to [[Moscow]] attempting to negotiate an end to the Cold War with Soviet premier [[Joseph Stalin]]. Vinson initially disagreed, asserting that members of the court should confine themselves to their duties, especially in an election year, but he finally agreed to go.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=685–687}} As soon as the news of Truman's "Vinson mission" was released, several of his advisors, including Clifford and Elsey, vehemently opposed it, resulting in Truman immediately withdrawing the plan.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=687–689}}

Several editors and columnists accused Truman for [[appeasing]] the Soviet Union by using foreign policy for political gain.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=687}} ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine wrote: "His attempted action was shocking because it showed that he had no conception whatever of the difference between the President of the United States and a U.S. politician."{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=687}} Even many Democrats strongly anticipated a victory for Dewey and did not campaign to obtain votes for Truman.{{Sfn|Bogardus|1949|p=80}} On October{{nbs}}10, Truman continued with the final segment of his whistle-stop tour by visiting rural counties in Ohio, Indiana, and Wisconsin.{{Sfn|Donaldson|1999|pp=182–183}} The same day, he received a telegram from Thurmond insisting on a debate, but Truman's campaign ignored it as Thurmond's polling numbers were under two percent, even less than Wallace.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=274}} The next day, Dewey also went on a seven-day tour of the Midwest.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=243}} With no policies from Dewey to rebut, Truman focused on making campaign promises.{{Sfn|Donaldson|1999|p=183}} As his tour progressed, a crowd of several thousand waited hours for Truman at various stops.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=699}} Assured of his victory, Truman said that there are going to be "a lot of surprised pollsters".{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=696}} His direct approach stood out more favorably compared to Dewey's strategy. Truman discussed specific issues and solutions, while Dewey mostly discussed general problems.{{Sfn|Bogardus|1949|p=80}}
{{Quote box
| quote = It is not just a battle between two parties. It is a fight for the very soul of the American government.
| author = Harry S. Truman
| source = at [[Chicago Stadium]] on October 25, 1948.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=v}}
| width = 25em
}}

With two weeks to election day, polls showed Dewey's lead reduced by six percent, yet polling within the Truman campaign showed Truman winning with 340 electoral votes to Dewey's 108 and Thurmond's 42.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=697–702}} Truman moved closer to the progressive [[Left-wing politics|left]], drawing crowds with Wallace's message.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=245}} At the packed [[Chicago Stadium]], he delivered a speech to a crowd of 24,000, considered to be his most influential speech during the campaign.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=700–701}} One author of the speech, David Noyes, later said that its aim "was to provoke Dewey into fighting back, a strategy Truman accepted".{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=700–701}} Days before the election, he campaigned in [[Massachusetts]] at various stops attended by millions of people.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=701–703}} The campaign team released a film called ''The Truman Story'' on October{{nbs}}27, using existing newsreel footage of his whistle-stop tour. It was an instant success compared to ''The Dewey Story'', released by the Republican campaign team.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=185}} On October{{nbs}}31, two days before election day, former First Lady [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] urged voters to vote for Truman in a nationally broadcast radio address. Soon after, various leading authors, including Nobel Prize winner [[Sinclair Lewis]], endorsed Truman.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=296}} The president of [[Screen Actors Guild]], [[Ronald Reagan]], also endorsed him, saying he was "more than a little impatient with those promises the Republicans made before they got control of Congress a couple of years ago".{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=297}}

==Election day==
[[File:Dewey Defeats Truman.jpg|thumb|alt=Truman holding Chicago Daily Tribune with erroneous headline "Dewey Defeats Truman"|Truman holding [[Chicago Tribune|''Chicago Daily Tribune'']] with erroneous headline]]
[[File:Harry_S._Truman_1948_Victory_speech.ogg|thumb|Truman's victory speech at [[Kansas City, Missouri]] on November 3]]

On the afternoon of election day, Truman went to the [[Elms Hotel (Excelsior Springs, Missouri)|Elms Hotel]] to stay away from the media; only his family and the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] knew his location.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=705}} Assured of Dewey's victory, the head of the Secret Service, James Maloney, reached New York to provide security to him. About 9:00{{nbs}}p.m., just before Truman was about to retire, he called his advisor Jim Rowley to his room, and asked to be wakened if anything important happened.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=705–706}} Initial counting showed Truman leading in the popular vote,{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=706}} but news commentators predicted a Dewey victory.{{Sfn|Bray|1964|p=38}} Sometime near midnight, Truman woke up, switched on the radio, and heard the [[NBC|National Broadcasting Company]] commentator [[H. V. Kaltenborn]] saying: "Although the president is ahead by 1,200,000 votes, he is undoubtedly beaten."{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=707}} At four in the morning, Rowley woke Truman saying "We've won!"{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=706–708}} At 9:30{{nbs}}a.m. he was declared the winner in Illinois and California.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=709}}

Truman received 303 electoral votes to Dewey's 189 and Thurmond's 39.{{Sfn|Karabell|2001|p=7}}{{Sfn|Savage|1997|p=138}} He narrowly carried Ohio, Illinois, and California, the three most crucial states to both the campaigns. He won 28 states and {{frac|49|1|2}} percent of the popular vote.{{Sfn|Brown|1948|pp=558–562}}{{Sfn|Gullan|1998|p=176}} In congressional races, Democrats won control of both the houses with 54 Senate seats for the Democrats and 42 for the Republicans. In the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] the Democratic victory was overwhelming: 263 seats to 171.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=711}} In an [[Upset (competition)|upset defeat]], Dewey officially conceded at 11:00{{nbs}}a.m. on November{{nbs}}3. Truman's triumph astonished the nation and most of the pollsters. On its cover ''Newsweek'' called Truman's victory startling, astonishing and "a major miracle".{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=709–710}} Truman became the first candidate to lose in a Gallup Poll but win the election.{{Sfn|Sitkoff|1971|p=613}} His close friend Jerome Walsh recalls Truman on the election night:
<blockquote>He [Truman] displayed neither tension nor elation. For instance someone remarked bitterly that if it hadn't been for Wallace, New York and New Jersey would have gone Democratic by good majorities. But the President dismissed this with a wave of his hand. As far as Henry was concerned, he said, Henry wasn't a bad guy; he was doing what he thought was right and he had every right in the world to pursue his course.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=708}}</blockquote> In his victory speech on November{{nbs}}3, he called it "a victory by the Democratic party for the people". An early edition of the ''Chicago Daily Tribune'' had printed the headline [[DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN]], boldly anticipating a victory for Dewey.{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=342}} On November{{nbs}}4 Truman stepped out onto the rear platform of the ''Ferdinand Magellan'' during a brief stop in [[St. Louis|St. Louis, Missouri]].{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=718–719}} Holding the ''Chicago Daily Tribune'' he posed for reporters to capture the moment. ''Time'' magazine later called it the "greatest photograph ever made of a politician celebrating victory".{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=342}} Author and Truman's biographer [[David McCullough]] later wrote:
<blockquote>Like some other photographs of other presidents{{snd}}of [[Theodore Roosevelt]] in a white linen suit at the controls of a steam shovel in Panama, or Woodrow Wilson at [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]], or Franklin Roosevelt, chin up, singing an old hymn beside [[Winston Churchill]] on board the ''[[HMS Prince of Wales (53)|Prince of Wales]]'' in the dark summer of 1941{{snd}}this of Harry Truman in 1948 would convey the spirit of both the man and the moment as almost nothing else would.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=718}}</blockquote>

===Results===
{{start U.S. presidential ticket box}}
{{U.S. presidential ticket box row|name=[[Harry S. Truman]] (Incumbent)|party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]|state=[[Missouri]]|pv=24,179,347|pv_pct=49.55%|ev=303|vp_name=[[Alben W. Barkley]]|vp_state=[[Kentucky]]}}
{{U.S. presidential ticket box row|name=[[Thomas E. Dewey]]|party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]|state=[[New York (state)|New York]]|pv=21,991,292|pv_pct=45.07%|ev=189|vp_name=[[Earl Warren]]|vp_state=[[California]]}}
{{U.S. presidential ticket box row|name=[[Strom Thurmond]]|party=[[Dixiecrat|States' Rights Democratic]]|state=[[South Carolina]]|pv=1,175,930|pv_pct=2.41%|ev=39|vp_name=[[Fielding L. Wright]]|vp_state=[[Mississippi]]}}
{{U.S. presidential ticket box row|name=[[Henry A. Wallace]]|party=[[Progressive Party (United States, 1948)|Progressive]]/[[American Labor Party|American Labor]]|state=[[New York (state)|New York]]|pv=1,157,328|pv_pct=2.37%|ev=0|vp_name=[[Glen H. Taylor]]|vp_state=[[Idaho]]}}
{{U.S. presidential ticket box row|name=[[Norman Thomas]]|party=[[Socialist Party of America|Socialist]]|state=New York|pv=139,569|pv_pct=0.29%|ev=0|vp_name=[[Tucker P. Smith|Tucker Powell Smith]]|vp_state=[[Michigan]]}}
{{U.S. presidential ticket box row|name=[[Claude A. Watson]]|party=[[Prohibition Party|Prohibition]]|state=California|pv=103,708|pv_pct=0.21%|ev=0|vp_name=[[Dale Learn]]|vp_state=[[Pennsylvania]]}}
{{U.S. presidential ticket box row|name=[[Edward A. Teichert]]|party=[[Socialist Labor Party of America|Socialist Labor]]|state=Pennsylvania|pv=29,244|pv_pct=0.06%|ev=0|vp_name=[[Stephen Emery]]|vp_state=[[New York (state)|New York]]}}
{{U.S. presidential ticket box row|name=[[Farrell Dobbs]]|party=[[Socialist Workers Party (United States)|Socialist Workers]]|state=[[Minnesota]]|pv=13,613|pv_pct=0.03%|ev=0|vp_name=[[Grace Carlson]]|vp_state=Minnesota}}
{{U.S. presidential ticket box other|footnote=|pv=3,504|pv_pct=0.01%}}
{{end U.S. presidential ticket box|pv=48,793,535|ev=531|to_win=266}}
[[File:ElectoralCollege1948.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|alt=1948 electoral vote results|1948 electoral vote results]]
{{bar box|title=Electoral vote|titlebar=#ddd|width=600px|barwidth=411px|bars={{bar percent|'''Truman'''|{{party color|Democratic Party (US)}}|57.06}}
{{bar percent|Dewey|{{party color|Republican Party (US)}}|35.59}}
{{bar percent|Thurmond|{{party color|Dixiecrat}}|7.34}}}}{{bar box|title=Popular vote|titlebar=#ddd|width=600px|barwidth=410px|bars={{bar percent|'''Truman'''|{{party color|Democratic Party (US)}}|49.55}}
{{bar percent|Dewey|{{party color|Republican Party (US)}}|45.07}}
{{bar percent|Thurmond|{{party color|Dixiecrat}}|2.41}}
{{bar percent|Wallace|{{party color|Progressive Party (US, 1948)}}|2.37}}
{{bar percent|Others|#777777|0.60}}}}
'''Source'''
* '''Electoral Vote''': {{Cite web|title=1948 Electoral College Results|date=November 5, 2019|url=https://www.archives.gov/electoral-college/1948#certificates|access-date=July 4, 2021|publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]]|ref=none}}
* '''Popular Vote''': {{Cite web|last=Leip|first=Dave|title=1948 Presidential General Election Results|url=https://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1948&f=0&off=0&elect=0|access-date=July 4, 2021|publisher=[[Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections]]|ref=none}}

==Aftermath and legacy==
[[File:President Harry Truman meets with New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey in the Oval Office.jpg|upright=1.25|alt=Photograph of Truman with Dewey, sitting on a desk in the Oval Office in 1951|thumb|Truman with Dewey in the [[Oval Office]] in 1951]]

President Truman and Vice President-elect Barkley were [[Second inauguration of Harry S. Truman|inaugurate]]d on January 20,{{nbs}}1949{{snd}}the first nationally televised inauguration.{{Sfn|McCullough|1992|p=723}} In his second term as president, Congress ratified the [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|22nd Amendment]], making a president ineligible for election to a third term or for election to a second full term after serving more than two remaining years of a term of a previously elected president.{{Sfn|SAGE Publications|2009|p=19}} As Truman was eligible to run in 1952, he contested the New Hampshire primaries, but lost to Senator [[Estes Kefauver]].{{Sfn|SAGE Publications|2009|p=399}} During the [[Korean War]], his approval rating had dropped to approximately twenty percent. A few days after the New Hampshire primary, Truman formally announced he would not seek a second full term.{{Sfn|Busch|2012|p=189}} Truman was eventually able to persuade [[Adlai Stevenson II|Adlai Stevenson]] to run, and the governor gained the nomination at the [[1952 Democratic National Convention]].{{Sfn|Busch|2012|p=183}} Stevenson lost the [[1952 United States presidential election|1952 presidential election]] to the Republican nominee{{snd}}Dwight D. Eisenhower{{snd}}in a landslide.{{Sfn|''The New York Times''|1952|p=26}}

Truman's 1948 campaign and the election are most remembered for the failure of polls, which predicted an easy win for Governor Dewey.{{Sfn|McDonald|Glynn|Kim|Ostman|2001|pp=141–142}} One reason for the press's inaccurate projection was that polls were conducted primarily by telephone, but many people, including much of Truman's populist base, did not own a telephone. The Gallup Poll had assumed that the final stages of the campaign would have no significant impact on the result.{{Sfn|Ross|1968|p=250}} However, post-election surveys concluded that one of every seven voters had made up their mind within the last fortnight of the campaign.{{Sfn|Ross|1968|pp=250–251}} The [[Social Science Research Council]] report stated: "the error in predicting the actual vote from expressed intention to vote was undoubtedly an important, although not precisely measurable, part of the over-all error of the forecast."{{Sfn|Ross|1968|pp=251–252}}

Truman single-handedly coordinated his campaign, making a direct appeal to farmers, who traditionally voted for the Republican Party.{{Sfn|Bogardus|1949|pp=81–83}} [[Leverett Saltonstall]], a Republican senator from Massachusetts, argued that overconfidence had led the Republicans to "put on a campaign of generalities rather than interesting the people in what a Republican administration could and would do for them if elected".{{Sfn|Ross|1968|p=260}} The Rowe–Clifford memo was later described by ''The Washington Post'' as "one of this century's most famous political memorandums".{{Sfn|Baime|2020|p=95}} Author Irvin Ross argued that Truman's success in holding together the Roosevelt coalition helped him organize a successful campaign.{{Sfn|Ross|1968|p=263}} McCullough noted that when it came to his message, Truman had just one strategy: "attack, attack, attack, carry the fight to the enemy's camp".{{Sfn|Busch|2012|p=128}} Years later, President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], who was first elected to the senate in the 1948 election, said:
<blockquote>The American people love Harry Truman, not because he gave them hell, but because he gave them hope.{{Sfn|Truman|2003|p=224}}</blockquote>

==See also==
* {{Portal inline|Politics}}
* {{Portal inline|Missouri}}

==Notes and references==
===Notes===
{{Notelist}}

===References===
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Works cited==
===Books===
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Baime|first=A. J.|author-link=A. J. Baime|title=Dewey Defeats Truman – The 1948 Election and the Battle for America's Soul|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]|year=2020|isbn=978-1-328-58506-6|ol=29821320M}}
* {{Cite book|title=Democracy At Work – Being The Official Report of The Democratic National Convention|publisher=Democratic Political Committee of Pennsylvania|year=1948|editor-last=Brown|editor-first=C. Edgar|ol=32092434M|url=https://archive.org/details/democracyatwork0000unse/mode/2up?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Busch|first=Andrew E.|title=Truman's Triumphs – The 1948 Election and the Making of Postwar America|publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]]|year=2012|isbn=978-0-7006-1866-8|lccn=2012020593|ol=26379614M|url=https://archive.org/details/trumanstriumphs100busc?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Dallek|first=Robert|title=Harry S. Truman|publisher=[[Times Books]]|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8050-6938-9|lccn=2008010193|ol=18500662M|url=https://archive.org/details/harrystruman00dall/page/26/mode/2up|access-date=November 14, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Donaldson|first=Gary|title=Truman Defeats Dewey|publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8131-2075-1|lccn=98024424|ol=364156M|url=https://archive.org/details/trumandefeatsdew00dona?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Donovan|first=Robert J.|author-link=Robert J. Donovan|title=Conflict and Crisis – The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945–1948|publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]]|year=1977|isbn=978-0-393-05636-5|lccn=77009584|ol=21351731M|url=https://archive.org/details/conflictcrisispr00dono?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Ferrell|first=Robert H.|author-link=Robert Hugh Ferrell|title=Harry S. Truman – A Life|publisher=[[University of Missouri Press]]|year=2013|isbn=978-0-8262-6045-1|url=https://archive.org/details/harrystrumanlife00ferr_1/?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Frantz|first=Douglas|author-link=Douglas Frantz|title=Friends in High Places – The Rise and Fall of Clark Clifford|publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]]|year=1995|isbn=978-0-316-29162-0|lccn=95002361|ol=1271143M|url=https://archive.org/details/friendsinhighpla00fran/mode/2up?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Gardner|first=Michael R.|title=Harry Truman and Civil Rights|publisher=[[Southern Illinois University Press]]|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8093-2425-5|lccn=2001041154|ol=3949738M|url=https://archive.org/details/harrytrumancivil00gard/mode/2up?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Goldzwig|first=Steven R.|title=Truman's Whistle-Stop Campaign|publisher=[[Texas A&M University Press]]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-60344-398-2|ol=26148568M|url=https://archive.org/details/trumanswhistlest0000gold/mode/2up?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Gullan|first=Harold I.|title=The Upset That Wasn't – Harry S Truman and the Crucial Election of 1948|publisher=[[Ivan R. Dee|Ivan R. Dee Publisher]]|year=1998|isbn=978-1-56663-206-5|lccn=98026167|ol=365819M|url=https://archive.org/details/upsetthatwasntha00gull/mode/2up?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Jasen|first=David A.|title=A Century of American Popular Music – 2000 Best-loved and Remembered Songs (1899–1999)|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2002|isbn=978-0-415-93700-9|url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofamerica0000jase/mode/2up?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Karabell|first=Zachary|author-link=Zachary Karabell|title=The Last Campaign – How Harry Truman Won the 1948 Election|publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]]|year=2001|isbn=978-0-307-42886-8|ol=7426117M|url=https://archive.org/details/lastcampaignhowh0000kara/mode/2up?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Matviko|editor-first=John W.|title=The American President in Popular Culture|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0-313-32705-6|lccn=2005006570|ol=17174066M|url=https://archive.org/details/americanpresiden00matv/mode/2up?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=McCullough|first=David|author-link=David McCullough|title=Truman|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|year=1992|isbn=978-0-671-86920-5|lccn=92005245|ol=1704072M|url=https://archive.org/details/truman00mccu?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Bruce Allen|author-link=Bruce Allen Murphy|title=Wild Bill – The Legend and Life of William O. Douglas|publisher=[[Random House]]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-394-57628-2|lccn=2002023114|ol=3559985M|url=https://archive.org/details/wildbilllegendan00murp?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Offner|first=Arnold A.|author-link=Arnold A. Offner|title=Another Such Victory – President Truman and the Cold War, 1945–1953|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8047-4254-2|ol=7929507M|url=https://archive.org/details/anothersuchvicto00offn?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Parks|first=Arva Moore|author-link=Arva Moore Parks McCabe|title=Harry Truman and the Little White House in Key West|publisher=Centennial Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-9629402-0-0|lccn=93144349|ol=1478363M|url=https://archive.org/details/harrytrumanlittl0000park?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Riddle|first=Donald H.|title=The Truman Committee – A Study in Congressional Responsibility.|publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|year=1964|isbn=978-0-608-30714-5|lccn=63016306|ol=5884350M|url=https://archive.org/details/trumancommittees0000ridd/mode/2up?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Ross|first=Irwin|title=The Loneliest Campaign – The Truman Victory of 1948|publisher=[[New American Library]]|year=1968|isbn=978-0-8371-8353-4|lccn=68018257|ol=19806779M|url=https://archive.org/details/loneliestcampaig00ross/mode/2up?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Savage|first=Sean J.|title=Truman and the Democratic Party|publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]]|year=1997|isbn=978-0-8131-2003-4|lccn=96049954|ol=28536604M|url=https://archive.org/details/trumandemocratic0000sava/mode/2up?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Truman|first=Harry S.|author-link=Harry S. Truman|title=Miracle of '48 – Harry Truman's Major Campaign Speeches & Selected Whistle-Stops|publisher=[[Southern Illinois University Press]]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8093-2557-3|editor-last=Neal|editor-first=Steve|lccn=2003010658|ol=3675149M|url=https://archive.org/details/miracleof48harry0000trum/mode/2up?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=White|first=Philip|title=Whistle Stop – How 31,000 miles of Train Travel, 352 Speeches, and a Little Midwest Gumption Saved the Presidency of Harry Truman|publisher=[[University Press of New England]]|year=2014|isbn=978-1-322-24235-4|ol=28301464M|url=https://archive.org/details/whistlestophow310000whit/mode/2up?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Yarnell|first=Allen|title=Democrats and Progressives – The 1948 Presidential Election as a Test of Postwar Liberalism|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|year=1974|isbn=978-0-520-02539-4|lccn=73083060|ol=26361502M|url=https://archive.org/details/democratsprogres00yarn/mode/2up?view=theater|access-date=November 8, 2021|url-access=registration|via=the [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|title=Guide to U.S. Elections|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|year=2009|edition=6th|isbn=978-1-60426-536-1|lccn=2009033938|ref={{sfnRef|SAGE Publications|2009}}}}
{{Refend}}

===Journals and articles===
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Batt|first1=William L.|author-link1=William Loren Batt|last2=Balducchi|first2=David E.|date=1999|title=Origin of the 1948 Turnip Day Session of Congress|journal=[[Presidential Studies Quarterly]]|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|volume=29|issue=1|pages=80–83|doi=10.1111/1741-5705.00020|issn=0360-4918|jstor=27551960}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Bogardus|first=Emory S.|author-link=Emory S. Bogardus|date=1949|title=Public Opinion and the Presidential Election of 1948|journal=[[Social Forces]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|volume=28|issue=1|pages=79–83|doi=10.2307/2572103|issn=0037-7732|jstor=2572103}}
* {{Cite web|last=Bray|first=William J.|date=1964|title=Recollections of the 1948 Campaign|url=https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/recollections-1948-campaign-william-j-bray?documentid=NA&pagenumber=1|url-status=live|access-date=June 29, 2021|website=[[Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]]|series=Political File|archive-date=July 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704090341/https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/recollections-1948-campaign-william-j-bray?documentid=NA&pagenumber=1}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Holbrook|first=Thomas M.|date=2002|title=Did the Whistle-Stop Campaign Matter?|journal=[[PS – Political Science & Politics|PS: Political Science & Politics]]|publisher=[[American Political Science Association]]|volume=35|issue=1|pages=59–66|doi=10.1017/S104909650200015X|issn=1049-0965|jstor=1554764|s2cid=154881179 }}
* {{Cite news|last=Knowles|first=Clayton|author-link=Clayton Knowles|date=July 7, 1948|title=Eisenhower Stand Buoys Truman Men|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1948/07/07/archives/eisenhower-stand-buoys-truman-men-democratic-chiefs-say-action-will.html|url-status=live|url-access=subscription|access-date=October 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230080820/https://www.nytimes.com/1948/07/07/archives/eisenhower-stand-buoys-truman-men-democratic-chiefs-say-action-will.html|archive-date=December 30, 2018|issn=0362-4331|ref={{sfnRef|''The New York Times''|1948}}}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=R. Alton|author-link=R. Alton Lee|year=1963|title=The Turnip Session of the Do-Nothing Congress – Presidential Campaign Strategy|journal=[[Social Science Quarterly|The Southwestern Social Science Quarterly]]|volume=44|issue=3|pages=256–267|issn=0038-4941|jstor=42867014}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Lemelin|first=Bernard|date=2001|title=The U.S. Presidential Election of 1948 – The Causes of Truman's 'Astonishing' Victory|journal=Revue française d'études américaines|volume=87|pages=38–61|doi=10.3917/rfea.087.0038|issn=0397-7870|doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=McDonald|first1=Daniel G.|last2=Glynn|first2=Carroll J.|last3=Kim|first3=Sei-Hill|last4=Ostman|first4=Ronald E.|date=April 2001|title=The Spiral of Silence in the 1948 Presidential Election|journal=[[Communication Research (journal)|Communication Research]]|volume=28|issue=2|pages=139–155|doi=10.1177/009365001028002001|issn=0093-6502|s2cid=13165150}}
* {{Cite web|last=Murphy|first=Charles S.|author-link=Charles S. Murphy|date=December 6, 1948|title=Some Aspects of the Preparation of President Truman's Speeches for the 1948 Campaign|url=https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/some-aspects-preparation-president-trumans-speeches-1948-campaign?documentid=NA&pagenumber=1|url-status=live|access-date=June 29, 2021|website=[[Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]]|series=Truman Administration File|archive-date=July 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704090418/https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/some-aspects-preparation-president-trumans-speeches-1948-campaign?documentid=NA&pagenumber=1}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Murphy|first=John M.|year=2020|title=The Sunshine of Human Rights – Hubert Humphrey at the 1948 Democratic Convention.|journal=Rhetoric and Public Affairs|volume=23|issue=1|pages=77–106|doi=10.14321/rhetpublaffa.23.1.0077|issn=1094-8392|jstor=10.14321/rhetpublaffa.23.1.0077|s2cid=216286175}}
* {{Cite web|last=Pietrusza|first=David|author-link=David Pietrusza|year=2014|title=Harry S. Truman's Speech at the 1948 Democratic National Convention – Harry S. Truman (July 15, 1948)|url=https://www.loc.gov/static/programs/national-recording-preservation-board/documents/Truman.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=June 23, 2021|website=[[Library of Congress]]|archive-date=March 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210322115837/https://www.loc.gov/static/programs/national-recording-preservation-board/documents/Truman.pdf}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Rosenof|first=Theodore|date=1999|title=The Legend of Louis Bean: Political Prophecy and the 1948 Election|journal=[[The Historian (journal)|The Historian]]|volume=62|issue=1|pages=63–78|doi=10.1111/j.1540-6563.1999.tb01434.x|issn=0018-2370|jstor=24450539}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Sitkoff|first=Harvard|author-link=Harvard Sitkoff|date=1971|title=Harry Truman and the Election of 1948: The Coming of Age of Civil Rights in American Politics|journal=[[The Journal of Southern History]]|volume=37|issue=4|pages=597–616|doi=10.2307/2206548|issn=0022-4642|jstor=2206548}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Visser|first=Max|date=1994|title=The Psychology of Voting Action: On the Psychological Origins of Electoral Research, 1939-1964|journal=[[Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences]]|volume=30|pages=43–52|doi=10.1002/1520-6696(199401)30:1<43::AID-JHBS2300300105>3.0.CO;2-D|issn=0022-5061|url=https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/the-psychology-of-voting-action--on-the-psychological-origins-of-electoral-research-19391964(8b2b97b1-e083-4a43-a56d-2e7b4162f35f).html|hdl=2066/213365|hdl-access=free}}
* {{Cite web|title=List of Campaign Speeches|url=https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/list-campaign-speeches?documentid=NA&pagenumber=1|url-status=live|publisher=[[Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]]|series=Truman Administration File|ref={{sfnRef|Truman Library (a)}}|access-date=July 4, 2021|archive-date=July 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704090418/https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/list-campaign-speeches?documentid=NA&pagenumber=1}}
* {{Cite web|title=List to board President's special train, Toledo, Ohio|url=https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/list-board-presidents-special-train-toledo-ohio?documentid=NA&pagenumber=1|url-status=live|access-date=June 29, 2021|publisher=[[Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]]|series=President's Secretary's Files|ref={{sfnRef|Truman Library (b)}}|archive-date=July 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704090259/https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/list-board-presidents-special-train-toledo-ohio?documentid=NA&pagenumber=1}}
* {{Cite news|date=July 7, 1948|title=Persist In Movement To Draft Eisenhower|work=[[Pharos-Tribune|Logansport Pharos-Tribune]]|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/89806994/persist-in-movement-to-draft-eisenhower/|access-date=December 2, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202154103/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/89806994/persist-in-movement-to-draft-eisenhower/|archive-date=December 2, 2021|url-status=live|via=[[Newspapers.com]]|ref={{sfnRef|''Logansport Pharos-Tribune''|1948}}}}
* {{cite news|date=November 5, 1952|title=Eisenhower Wins|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1952/11/05/archives/eisenhower-wins.html|work=[[The New York Times]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113055636/https://www.nytimes.com/1952/11/05/archives/eisenhower-wins.html|archive-date=November 13, 2021|issn=0362-4331|url-status=live|url-access=subscription|access-date=November 13, 2021|ref={{sfnRef|''The New York Times''|1952}}}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Dean|first=Virgil W.|date=1993|title=Farm Policy and Truman's 1948 Campaign|journal=[[The Historian (journal)|The Historian]]|volume=55|issue=3|pages=501–516|doi=10.1111/j.1540-6563.1993.tb00908.x|issn=0018-2370|jstor=24448612|ref=none}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Miscamble|first=Wilson D.|date=1980|title=Harry S. Truman, the Berlin Blockade and the 1948 Election|journal=[[Presidential Studies Quarterly]]|publisher=Center for the Study of the Presidency and Congress|volume=10|issue=3|pages=306–316|issn=0360-4918|jstor=27547587|ref=none}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* {{Commons-inline|Category:Harry S. Truman presidential campaign, 1948|Harry S. Truman 1948 presidential campaign}}
* [https://www.c-span.org/video/?3389-1/harry-truman-accepts-1948-democratic-presidential-nomination President Harry Truman 1948 Presidential Acceptance Speech]{{snd}}([[C-SPAN]])
* [https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/online-collections/1948-election-campaign 1948 election campaign collection]{{snd}}([[Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum]])
* [https://www.britishpathe.com/video/the-truman-story/query/The+Truman+Story The Truman Story]{{snd}}([[British-Pathe]])
* [https://www.c-span.org/video/?464552-1/the-dewey-story The Dewey Story]{{snd}}([[C-SPAN]])
* [https://www.c-span.org/video/?77800-1/president-truman-inauguration President Truman Inauguration speech]{{snd}}([[C-SPAN]])
* Harry S. Truman's post-presidential interviews{{snd}}({{Abbr|Attr.|Attribution}}{{snd}}Screen Gems Collection, [[Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum]] (in [[Public domain|Public Domain]]); [[nara:595162|National Archives Catalog record]])
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eUU1BowyRRo Former President Truman Discusses 1948 Campaign and Other Presidents in History]
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N80nV6-J4WE Former President Truman Recalls His Nomination For President in 1948]
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RAuZSt0sd7s Former President Truman Recalls the 1948 Election]
{{-}}
{{Democratic presidential campaigns}}{{Harry S. Truman}}{{1948 United States presidential election}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Truman Harry S. 1948 presidential campaign}}
[[Category:Harry S. Truman]]
[[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential campaigns]]
[[Category:Presidency of Harry S. Truman|Campaign 1948]]
[[Category:Political history of the United States]]
[[Category:1948 United States presidential campaigns]]

Harry S. Truman 1948 presidential campaign

2024-09-12T00:50:33Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding category.

Category:1948 United States presidential campaigns

2024-09-12T00:49:56Z

ARandomShyGuy: ←Created page with '{{Category series navigation|skip-gaps=yes}} Category:1948 United States presidential election 1948'

{{Category series navigation|skip-gaps=yes}}

[[Category:1948 United States presidential election]]
[[Category:United States presidential campaigns by year|1948]]

Al Smith 1932 presidential campaign

2024-09-12T00:49:11Z

ARandomShyGuy: Adding category.

{{short description|none}} 
{{Infobox U.S. federal election campaign
| committee =
| logo = AlfredSmith.png
| campaign = [[1932 United States presidential election|U.S. presidential election, 1932]]
| candidate = '''[[Al Smith]]''' [[Governor of New York]] ''(1919 –1920; 1923 – 1928)''
| status = Lost nomination at convention
| headquarters = [[New York City]]<ref name=broker>{{Cite Power Broker}}</ref>
| affiliation = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]
| key_people = [[Joseph M. Proskauer]] (campaign manager) [[Robert Moses]] [[Belle Moskowitz]]
| slogan =
}}
{{Al Smith series}}

[[Al Smith]], former governor of New York and the [[1928 United States presidential election|1928]] Democratic presidential nominee, ran an unsuccessful campaign for the party's 1932 presidential nomination. He ultimately lost to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], his one-time political ally (and gubernatorial successor), who would go on to win the general election.

==Background==
{{see also|Al Smith presidential campaign, 1924|Al Smith presidential campaign, 1928}}
Al Smith's 1932 presidential campaign was his fourth consecutive bid for the presidency.<ref name=broker/><ref name=paulson>{{Cite book | isbn = 978-0-275-96865-6 | last = Paulson | first = Arthur C. | title = Realignment and party revival | year = 2000 | page = 52 }}</ref> Smith had unsuccessfully campaigned for the Democratic nomination in both [[1920 United States presidential election|1920]] and [[1924 United States presidential election|1924]].<ref name=broker/><ref name=paulson/> Smith secured the nomination in [[1928 United States presidential election|1928]], however he lost the general election to [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]-nominee [[Herbert Hoover]].<ref name=broker/><ref name=paulson/>

After receiving the Democratic nomination in 1928, Smith was prohibited by New York law from running for reelection in [[New York gubernatorial election, 1928|the 1928 gubernatorial election]]. Smith persuaded his then-political ally Franklin D. Roosevelt to run for governor in his place. Consequentially, his loss in the 1928 presidential election left Smith out of office.<ref name=broker/>

===Smith's initial disinterest===
Smith had originally run in 1928, a year heavily expected to be a Democratic loss, in order to keep himself in the conscious of Democrats, in order to remain a viable candidate for the following election (in 1932). However, by the end of the 1928 election, Smith had changed his mind and had decided against running in 1932.<ref name=broker/> In fact, after losing the 1928 election, Smith indicated that he held no interest in again running for any political office.<ref name=broker/>

By all signs, Smith's initial disinterest in against running for the presidency was genuine. Smith had relinquished his positions of power within the Democratic Party (which would have been important for him to retain if he was planning to run again for the party's presidential nomination). In 1929, Smith had stepped-down as leader of the [[Democratic National Committee]].<ref name=broker/> In 1929, Smith neglected to intervene in the ousting of his ally Judge George Alvany as the head of Tammany Hall. This consequentially lost Smith his control of the Tammany machine, whose delegate votes had formed a base of support for all his previous campaigns for the Democratic nomination.<ref name=broker/> Anticipating his own plans to run, Roosevelt had asked [[Edward J. Flynn|Ed Flynn]] to inquire with Smith about his true ambitions. Flynn was convinced by Smith's assertion that he was indeed finished with politics.<ref name=tammany1/>

There was more than one reason for Smith's disinterest. A major reason was the vile prejudice that Smith had endured in his 1928 campaign. Smith was bitter about the anti-[[Catholicism|Catholic]] prejudice that he had faced in the 1928 election, and had little interest in subjecting himself to it again.<ref name=broker/><ref name=tammany1/><ref name=acatholicrunsforpresidentreview>{{cite web |url=https://allthepresidentsbooks.com/2014/08/21/a-catholic-runs-for-president-the-campaign-of-1928-by-edmund-a-moore/ |title=A Catholic Runs for President: The Campaign of 1928 by Edmund A. Moore |last=Timmerman |first=Bob|date=August 21, 2014 |website=allthepresidentsbooks.com |publisher=Bob Timmerman |access-date=May 16, 2018 }}</ref>

Another element of Smith's disinterest was his desire to accumulate personal wealth so that he could both comfortably retire in his old age and leave behind an inheritance for his sons.<ref name=broker/> The office of Governor of New York had paid only $10,000, which was less than even the Governor's cabinet officers earned.<ref name=broker/> Thus, Smith held very little in the way of personal wealth.<ref name=broker/> After leaving the office of governor in early 1929, Smith found high-paying opportunities, such as a $50,000 per-year position as the president of the [[Empire State Building|Empire State Building Corporation]].<ref name=broker/> Smith had personal debt he wanted to pay-off.<ref name=tammany1>{{cite book |last=Golway |first=Terry |title=Machine Made: Tammany Hall and the Creation of Modern American Politics |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company }}</ref> Additionally, family members of his had lost money in the stock-market crash.<ref name=tammany1/>

Additionally, Smith saw himself as part of a proud tradition of [[Tammany Hall]] politicians that retired honorably from public office when their time came.<ref name=broker/> Smith originally felt no personal animosity towards his gubernatorial successor Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Smith trusted that Roosevelt would continue his programs as governor.<ref name=broker/> Roosevelt had long been a supporter of Smith's, participating in all three of Smith's presidential campaigns. In addition, Roosevelt had written an open letter which launched Smith's [[New York gubernatorial election, 1922|1922]] gubernatorial campaign and sent his wife [[Eleanor Roosevelt|Eleanor]] to campaign for Smith (since Roosevelt himself was physically unable to do so himself) when Smith was being challenged in [[New York gubernatorial election, 1924|1924]] by Franklin's own relative [[Theodore Roosevelt Jr.]]<ref name=broker/>

===Smith's change of heart===
====Animosity towards Roosevelt====
In the time since the conclusion of his Governorship in 1929, Smith had become resentful towards his successor (and one-time political ally) Franklin Roosevelt.<ref name=broker/><ref name= bloombergstrangestart/>

Roosevelt, who had begun planning a 1932 run for the presidency immediately after the 1928 election, recognized that, should he change his mind and decide to run, Al Smith was going to be the man to beat for the nomination.<ref name=broker/> Ironically, Roosevelt's treatment of Smith was largely what drove Smith to challenge him for the nomination.<ref name=broker/>

After the 1928 election, Smith had expected Roosevelt to contact him and seek advice for transitioning into the office of governor. However, Roosevelt's call never came. Smith grew impatient before finally calling Roosevelt himself and offering assistance. Roosevelt refused this offer.<ref name=broker/> Roosevelt, immediately after his election, began reneging on some of his campaign promises to continue Smith's policies.<ref name=broker/> Smith nevertheless tried his hardest to ease Roosevelt's transition.<ref name=broker/> He oversaw the installation of wheelchair ramps in the [[New York State Executive Mansion|Executive Mansion]], to accommodate Roosevelt.<ref name=broker/> He even moved out of the Mansion early to allow the Roosevelt's to settle into the residence before the inauguration.<ref name=broker/>

Smith and his political associates felt that, once Roosevelt assumed the office, he began to treat Smith in an immensely disrespectful manner.<ref name=broker/><ref name= bloombergstrangestart/> As governor, Roosevelt continued to refuse Smith's offers to provide him advice.<ref name=broker/><ref name= bloombergstrangestart/> Particularly upsetting was that Roosevelt refused to even entertain Smith's request that he retain [[Robert Moses]] in the role of [[New York Secretary of State|Secretary of State]].<ref name=broker/> Smith not only felt spurned by Roosevelt, but also by [[Jimmy Walker]]. Smith was deeply upset that Roosevelt and Walker, two younger men to whom he had previously been a mentor, had begun to display an immense ingratitude towards him.<ref name=broker/>

As his resentment of Roosevelt grew, the prospect of running in 1932 began to acquire the appeal of potentially blocking the presidential aspirations of Roosevelt.<ref name=broker/>

====Other factors contributing to Smith's change of heart====
Smith's acquired animosity towards Roosevelt was not the only factor that contributed to his change of heart.<ref name=broker/> By 1932, Smith was discontent with his retirement from politics, finding the private-sector uninteresting.<ref name=broker/> Additionally, Smith's sense of personal ambition was a major factor in his decision to run in 1932.<ref name=broker/> Smith also felt that his loyalty and service to the party had entitled him to receive the nomination.<ref name=broker/><ref name=americaatthecrossroads>{{cite web |url=http://fdr4freedoms.org/wp-content/themes/fdf4fdr/DownloadablePDFs/I_FDRBeforethePresidency/05_AmericaattheCrossroads.pdf |title=5. America at the Crossroads: The Election of 1932 |author= |date=n.d. |website=www.fdr4freedoms.org |publisher=fdr4freedoms |access-date=October 28, 2017 }}</ref>

Smith was heavily motivated by the fact that the [[Great Depression in the United States|Depression]] under Hoover's leadership had made the successful election of a Democratic ticket in 1932 seem to be a relatively foregone conclusion. All signs made it appear that Hoover was imminently facing an historic defeat. Smith, having lost in 1928, a year in which a Democratic victory was viewed heavy improbability, felt that he was entitled to receive the nomination in a year in which a Democratic victory was essentially guaranteed.<ref name=broker/><ref name=tammany1/> Smith also desired to prove that Catholics and Irishmen were capable of serving in highest office. Therefore, Smith was interested in the idea of running in a year where his religion, a contributing factor to his 1928 defeat, would not be able to stifle his odds of a general election victory.<ref name=broker/>

==Early campaign==
Smith planned his campaign from New York.<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/>

In February 1932, the New York Times wrote that Smith had commented that, “he would place his cause in the hands of the people and risk his chances without making an active campaign for the nomination.”<ref name= bloombergstrangestart>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2012-03-12/the-strange-start-of-fdr-s-1932-campaign-echoes |title=The Strange Start of FDR's 1932 Campaign: Echoes |last=Scranton |first=Philip |date=March 15, 2012 |website=www.bloomberg.com |publisher=Bloomberg News |access-date=May 16, 2018 }}</ref> While this was not a clear declaration of candidacy, political observers saw this as an indication that Smith was making himself available as a “Stop Roosevelt” candidate ahead of the first primary contest, which would be held in [[New Hampshire]].<ref name=bloombergstrangestart/>

Smith's longtime political allies [[Robert Moses]] and [[Belle Moskowitz]] were a key members of the campaign.<ref name=broker/><ref name=tammany1/> Robert Moses, a loyal supporter of Smith, however, recognized that Smith's candidacy was relatively hopeless. The campaign, hampered by its late start, struggled to assemble an adequate organizational structure.<ref name=broker/>

However, several key members of Smith's previous efforts were notably absent from this campaign. His opponent, Roosevelt had previously been a key campaign surrogate during all three of Smith's previous presidential efforts.<ref name=broker/> Roosevelt, a Protestant, had served as an effective Protestant advocate for the previous candidacies of the Catholic Smith.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.politico.com/states/new-york/city-hall/story/2014/03/frank-and-al-a-tale-of-two-new-yorks-000000 |title=Frank and Al: A tale of two New Yorks |last=Golway |first=Terry |date=March 4, 2014 |website=www.politico.com |publisher=Politico |access-date=October 23, 2017 }}</ref> Roosevelt had served as Smith's floor manager for all three previous campaigns. He also delivered a seconding speech for Smith at the 1920 convention and nominating speeches at both the 1924 and 1928 conventions.<ref name=broker/> Consequentially, Smith's 1932 campaign lacked a key surrogate from the team that had successfully secured him the nomination in 1928. Additionally, in 1931, before he definitively changed his mind about running, Smith had been approached by New York Democratic Party figures such as [[James Farley]] and [[Edward J. Flynn]]. Smith informed them that he was not planning to run, which led them to lend themselves to Roosevelt's effort instead.<ref name=broker/> [[Frances Perkins]] and [[Samuel Irving Rosenman]], both old friends of Smith's, worked for the Roosevelt campaign.<ref name=tammany1/> During the campaign, New York politician James J. Hoey leaked information provided to him from inside the Smith campaign to Roosevelt.<ref name=tammany1/>

A benefit that both Smith and Roosevelt enjoyed over other contenders was their status from having served as governors of New York. Out of just sixteen Democratic tickets since the end of the [[United States Civil War]], nine had New Yorkers at the top of the ticket, and of these six were current or former governors of New York. This was due to New York's electoral importance (having the most electoral votes of any state) and the difficulty it presented for Democratic tickets to win (the state leaned somewhat Republican in presidential elections).

===Split in New York's support===
Tammany Hall quickly threw their support behind Smith, despite the fact that he and Tammany's leader John Curry were not particularly close.<ref name=tammany1/> Roosevelt had made a political miscalculation as governor in his handling of Tammany-related corruption. Roosevelt had been too tough on the corruption for Tammany to support him. However, Roosevelt had also been too weak on Tammany to win-over anti-Tammany Democrats.<ref name=tammany1/>

While Tammany supported Smith, the rest of New York's delegation was divided between Smith and Roosevelt. The former "Smith coalition" was divided between the two governors. Smith was able to garner the backing of [[John H. McCooey]] New York member to the [[Democratic National Committee]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1932/07/03/archives/curry-and-mccooey-to-support-ticket-roosevelt-held-luckiest-man-in.html|title=Curry and McCooey to Support Ticket; Roosevelt Held 'Luckiest Man' in Nation|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 3, 1932|page=10|access-date=June 8, 2012}} {{subscription required|date=June 2012}}</ref> McHooey ran the [[Brooklyn]] Democratic [[Political machine|machine]], consequentially garnering Smith the support of the Brooklyn Democratic organization. In fact, Smith was able to garner the backing of all of the Democratic organizations for each of [[boroughs of New York City|New York City's boroughs]], with the exception of [[The Bronx]] (which backed Roosevelt).<ref name=tammany1/>

==Primary campaign==
{{see also|Democratic Party presidential primaries, 1932}}
[[File:Just Our Al The Workingman's Pal.jpg|thumb|right|Music book from the campaign]]

In 1932 only 17 states held primaries. Thus, while they affected the delegates representing a number of states, primaries did not entirely determine who the nominee would be.<ref name=slate1932>{{Cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/history/2016/03/how_franklin_roosevelt_won_the_contested_1932_convention_and_the_white_house.html|title = The Last Man to Emerge from a Contested Convention and Win: A New Yorker with a Famous Name|date = 31 March 2016}}</ref>

===New Hampshire primary===
Neither Smith nor Roosevelt placed their names on the ballot in the [[New Hampshire presidential primaries|New Hampshire primary]]. Both instead ran as write-ins. Additionally, neither of the two visited New Hampshire ahead of the primary. Instead of campaigning personally in the state, both candidates had their voters be courted by individuals that were campaigning to be elected as delegates pledged to their candidacy.<ref name=bloombergstrangestart/>

Smith was outspent in New Hampshire by Roosevelt (who spent the most of any candidate). Nonetheless, Smith outperformed Roosevelt in the primary.<ref name=artofthenewdeal>{{cite web |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/history/2016/03/how_franklin_roosevelt_won_the_contested_1932_convention_and_the_white_house.html |title=The Art of the New Deal |last=Onion |first=Rebecca |date=March 31, 2016 |website=www.slate.com |publisher=Slate |access-date=October 28, 2017 }}</ref>

===April primaries===
Ahead of the April primaries, Roosevelt delivered a well-publicized radio address where he proclaimed that the US needed to, “build from the bottom up, not the top down….put their faith once more in the forgotten man at the bottom of the economic pyramid.”<ref name=artofthenewdeal/><ref name=therooseveltpresence>{{cite book |last=Maney |first=Patrick J. |date=October 28, 2017 |title=The Roosevelt Presence: The Life and Legacy of FDR }}</ref> Roosevelt's speech caused party leaders, such as Democratic National Committee Chairman [[John J. Raskob]], to judge Roosevelt as an extremist, causing them to oppose his candidacy.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/> Raskob, who prioritized the issue of repealing [[Prohibition in the United States|prohibition]], additionally disapproved of Roosevelt's decision to disregard the issue. Raskob urged Smith and other democrats (such as [[Newton D. Baker]]) to enter the race in order to block Roosevelt.<ref name=therooseveltpresence/>

A red-faced Smith furiously responded to Roosevelt's address during his speech to the New York Democratic Party's annual [[Jefferson's Birthday|Jefferson Day]] Dinner declaring, “This is no time for [[Demagoguery|demagogues]]…I will take off my coat and vest and fight to the end against any candidate to persists in any demagogic appeal to the masses…to destroy themselves by setting class against class and rich against poor”<ref name=artofthenewdeal/><ref name=therooseveltpresence/><ref name=americaatthecrossroads/> Reporters dubbed this the ‘’Angry Warrior Speech’’, a deliberate reference to a line from Roosevelt’s speech nominating Smith at the 1924 convention which declared Smith to be, “the happy warrior of the political battlefield”.<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/><ref>{{cite news |last=Henning |first=Arthur Sears |date=April 14, 1932 |title=Bunk Cannot Win: Al Smith |work=Chicago Tribune |location=Chicago }}</ref>

====Massachusetts primary====
To Smith's benefit, Roosevelt's campaign managers Howe and Farley were overconfident and committed miscalculations early in the primary race.<ref name=therooseveltpresence/> One of these mistakes was entering Roosevelt into the Massachusetts primary.<ref name=therooseveltpresence/> Smith's strongest support ahead of the primaries laid in [[New England]] and the [[Mid-Atlantic (United States)|Mid-Atlantic]]. As a result, before even the New Hampshire primaries took place, Smith's backers were already campaigning in Vermont, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania (all of which were seen as highly viable states for Smith to find victories in).<ref name=bloombergstrangestart/> Meanwhile, Roosevelt's major weakness was among northeastern progressives.<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/> These factors coalesced in April, with Smith winning in the Massachusetts primary, and dealing Roosevelt a humiliating defeat. In winning Massachusetts, Smith was awarded all of the state's 32 delegates.<ref name=therooseveltpresence/><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1932/04/27/archives/wins-massachusetts-36-the-former-governor-has-apparently-carried.html|title = WINS MASSACHUSETTS' 36; the Former Governor Has Apparently Carried the State by Three to One. SEESAW IN PENNSYLVANIA Smith Upsets Predictions by Taking Early Lead, but Rural Vote is Not in Yet. DAVIS DEFEATS BUTLER Result of Battle Between MRS. Pinchot and McFadden is Still in Doubt|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 27 April 1932}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1932/04/27/archives/smith-takes-massachusetts-smith-is-ahead-in-massachusetts.html|title = Smith Takes Massachusetts.; SMITH IS AHEAD IN MASSACHUSETTS|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 27 April 1932}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1932/04/27/archives/smith-expresses-gratitude-to-faithful-massachusetts.html|title = Smith Expresses Gratitude to 'Faithful Massachusetts'|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 27 April 1932}}</ref>

====Pennsylvania primary====
The Pennsylvania primary was held same day as the Massachusetts primary. Smith's campaign had failed to amass a sufficient own slate of delegate candidates, consequentially leaving Roosevelt-supporting delegates unopposed in a significant number of districts. However, the majority of the delegate candidates supporting Roosevelt had ahead of the election promised to, regardless to their own personal favoritism of Roosevelt, back whoever won the popular vote of the state's primary. Roosevelt's campaign, expecting to win the primary, had urged all delegates to pledge their support to the winner of the state's preferential vote in the primary. A number of anti-Roosevelt delegate candidates, ahead of the primary, publicly rebuked the Roosevelt campaign's call for all delegate candidates to pledge support in accordance with the result of the preferential vote. Among them were [[John R. Collins]] (the chairman Democratic Party of Pennsylvania), [[Sedgwick Kistler]] (a member of the DNC), [[Roland S. Morris]] (a former ambassador to Japan) and Judge [[Henry Clay Niles]]. In the Pennsylvania primary Smith performed significantly stronger than he was expected to, coming a very-close second to Roosevelt (only losing by less than 2,000 votes).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1932/04/27/archives/sharp-contest-in-pennsylvania.html|title=Sharp Contest in Pennsylvania|newspaper=The New York Times|date=27 April 1932}}</ref> [[Philadelphia]] proved to be a stronghold of support for Smith. In fourteen Philadelphia-area districts, Smith-supporting delegates were elected. Smith also performed strongly in [[Pittsburgh]], with ten districts in [[Allegheny County, Pennsylvania|Allegheny County]] electing Smith-supporting delegates. Smith additionally received an immense amount of backing from the state's coal country.

====Midwestern primaries====
An obstacle that Smith had competing midwestern primaries was that his openly-conservative economic policies clashed with the midwestern progressivists' leftist economic stances. Roosevelt had been intentionally vague about his economic stances, so as to earn the support of midwestern progressivists without further alienating eastern progressivists (who favored a more conservative economic approach).<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/><ref>Changing Party Coalitions: The Mystery of the Red State-blue State Alignment By Jerry F. Hough</ref>

===May primaries===

Smith and Roosevelt were both defeated in California by [[John Nance Garner]], who had the backing of [[William Randolph Hearst]], a longtime foe of Smith's.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/><ref name=slate1932/>

==Polling==
In early Spring [[Jesse I. Straus]] (president of [[Macy's|R. H. Macy & Co.]]) conducted two polls. The first was a poll of 2,000 individuals who had previously served as delegates and alternates to the 1928 Democratic National Convention. The results of this poll were as follows:<ref name=cq>{{cite web |url=http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1931082500 |title=Presidential Candidates, 1932 |author= |date=n.d. |website=www.cqpress.com |publisher=CQ Press |access-date=October 30, 2017 }}</ref>
*''Undecided:'' 1,156 (57.8%)
*Roosevelt: 478 (23.9%)
*Smith: 125 (6.2%)
*[[Owen D. Young|Young]]: 73 (3.6%)
*[[Albert Ritchie|Ritchie]]: 39 (1.9%)
*[[Joseph Taylor Robinson|Robinson]]: 38 (1.9%)
*[[Newton D. Baker|Baker]]: 35 (1.7%)
*[[James A. Reed (politician)|Reed]] 15 (0.7%)
*[[James M. Cox|Cox]] 8
*[[Cordell Hull|Hull]] 6 (0.3%)
*[[George White (Ohio politician)|White]] 6 (0.3%)

Straus published the results of this first poll public on March 29. He reported that many of the respondents expressed holding Smith in high-regards. However, they felt it would be imprudent to nominate him due to the prospective electoral detriment the issues surrounding his religion posed.<ref name=cq/>

The second poll was of 1,200 Democratic voters. The results of this second poll were as follows:<ref name=cq/>
*Roosevelt: 562 (46.9%)
*Young: 256 (21.4%)
*Smith: 115 (9.6%)
*Robinson: 95 (7.9%)
*Ritchie: 85 (7.1%)
*''Undecided:'' 61 (5.1%)
*Baker (1.3%)

==Pre-convention delegate race==
A challenge to Smith's candidacy was that, in his earlier period of disinterest, he had relinquished his influence in the Democratic Party.<ref name=broker/> However, despite having given up his power in the Democratic Party, Smith retained the support of many of party's leaders. As previously mentioned, Roosevelt's speeches had caused party leaders to judge him as an extremist. Consequentially, party leaders sought to prevent Roosevelt's nomination, with many viewing Smith as the strongest candidate to block him.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/>

Soon after he announced his campaign, Smith's campaign saw a significant boost when Jimmy Walker and the Tammany machine committed their support to him. This came despite Smith not being particularly close to Tammany's new leader, John Curry. This was spurred by Roosevelt authorizing [[Samuel Seabury (judge)|Samuel Seabury]] to investigate corruption in New York City.<ref name=broker/> Tammany remained a major player in national Democratic Party politics. Smith also won the support of the Democratic organizations in Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island, with only the Bronx supporting Roosevelt. Other big-city organizations followed suit, giving Smith nearly two-hundred delegates pledging their support to his candidacy.<ref name=broker/>

However, with Tammany no longer having the level of complete control it once enjoyed over state politics, the New York delegation's support was split between Roosevelt and Smith.<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/>

[[Frank Hague]]'s political machine in New Jersey firmly supported Smith.<ref name=campaigning4>{{cite web |url=https://campaigningforhistory.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/05/14/fdrs-rough-road-to-nomination/ |title=F.D.R.'s Rough Road to Nomination |last=Smith |first=Jean Howard |date=May 14, 2017 |website=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=October 28, 2017 }}</ref> By virtue of his primary win, Smith enjoyed solid support from the Massachusetts delegation.<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/> This support in Massachusetts was bolstered by the backing of [[Joseph B. Ely]].<ref name=campaigning4/>

Roosevelt had secured the most delegates (around 600) heading into the convention. Nonetheless, he had fallen short of the requisite two-thirds necessary for the nomination by 100 votes.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/>

Smith was Roosevelt's closest rival in the delegate race heading into the convention. However, he had only secured a third the number of delegates that Roosevelt had.<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/>

While Roosevelt's delegate lead was large, it was not unsurmountable.<ref name=tammany1/>

Ahead of the convention, financier [[Bernard Baruch]] arranged a meeting between Smith and [[William Gibbs McAdoo]] in hopes that the two would potentially plot for McAdoo to make himself a dark horse during the convention if it became necessary in order to block Roosevelt from capturing the nomination.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/> McAdoo, despite having not declared himself a candidate, was interested in being nominated.<ref name=therooseveltpresence/>

==Convention==
{{see also|1932 Democratic National Convention}}
[[File:Al Smith arrives in Chicago for 1932 DNC S-l1600-1 (cropped3).jpg|thumb|right|Smith arriving at Chicago's LaSalle Street Station]]

Upon his arrival in Chicago, Smith was greeted by sizable crowds and boisterous cheers along his route from the [[LaSalle Street Station]] to the [[Congress Plaza Hotel|Congress Hotel]].<ref name=broker/>

At the convention, Smith gave a speech advocating for the repeal of prohibition. The speech was energetically received.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/> Chicago's anti-prohibition mayor [[Anton Cermak]] had arranged for [[Chicago Stadium|the hall]] to be packed with people that would cheer for Smith's speech.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/> The enthusiastic reaction to Smith's speech was discouraging to Roosevelt, who in his campaign had made a conscious effort to downplay the issue of prohibition.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/>

At the convention Roosevelt won the battles over both the convention chairmanship and the party platform.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/>

===First three ballots===

Garner also hoped to block Roosevelt's nomination.<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/>

Robert Moses worked diligently on behalf of Smith's candidacy during the convention. During the first-three ballots, Moses successfully fought to hold an alliance of [[Dark horse#Politics|dark horse]] candidates together in order to prevent Roosevelt from amassing enough delegates to secure the nomination.<ref name=broker/>

At least eight dark horses arose during the convention, (including Newton D. Baker, [[Harry F. Byrd]] and [[George White (Ohio politician)|George White]]), each hoping to block Roosevelt and emerge the nominee.<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/>

The first ballot concluded on June 29 at 4:28 am.<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/>

In the Roosevelt camp, James Farley was working as floor manager and Ed Flynn was working to partner with Roosevelt supporters such as [[Huey Long]] and [[Cordell Hull]] to fend-off Al Smith's efforts to lead a successful "stop Roosevelt" movement.<ref name=tammany1/> Much of the convention's strategizing and negotiation took place in "[[Smoke-filled room|smoke-filled]]" hotel rooms.<ref name=tammany1/>

Smith himself made efforts to break-off some Roosevelt loyalists. In the midst of the balloting, Ed Flynn was given word by Smith's campaign manager, Proskauer, that Governor Smith wanted to have a word with him at his room in the Congress Hotel. Flynn obliged. As Flynn entered Al Smith's hotel room, the room cleared-out, leaving the two men alone. Smith reportedly said, "Ed, you are not representing the people of [[Bronx County]] in your support of Roosevelt. You know the people of Bronx County want you to support me."<ref name=tammany1/> Flynn said that, while Smith was likely correct, he could not rightfully shift his allegiance. He had committed himself and his fellow Bronx County delegates to the Roosevelt campaign before Smith had launched his candidacy. He believed that it would have been wrong to ditch FDR now, simply because Smith had become a candidate.<ref name=tammany1/> This conversation was later recalled as, "painful", by Flynn, who considered his friendship with Smith to have been, "much longer and more intimate," than his friendship with Roosevelt.<ref name=tammany1/>

After the second ballot, Mississippi's twenty delegates came close to abandoning their support of Roosevelt. However, Roosevelt-supporter Huey Long persuaded them to stay loyal to Roosevelt on the third-ballot.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/>

When convention adjourned at 9:15 am, following the conclusion of its third ballot, no candidate had been able to secure the nomination.<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/> After three rounds of balloting, there appeared to be a genuine glimmer of hope that the party might be unable to secure enough votes for Roosevelt and be forced to select Smith as a compromise candidate.<ref name=broker/>

===Recess between third and fourth ballot===

At the close of the third ballot, it appeared that Roosevelt was losing momentum.<ref name=tammany1/> Both ahead of and during the fourth ballot, many at the convention began searching for a potential compromise candidate. However, such a candidate never materialized, as Roosevelt's campaign maneuvered to secure him the nomination in fourth ballot.<ref name=therooseveltpresence/>

Roosevelt's campaign managers Farley and Howe figured that Smith's delegates were not going to abandon him.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/><ref name=voamakingofanation>{{cite web |url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/a-23-a-2002-02-06-2-1-83110882/120041.html |title=THE MAKING OF A NATION - February 7, 2002: Election of 1932 - 2002-02-06 |author= |date=February 6, 2002 |website=www.learningenglish.voanews.com |publisher=Voice of America |access-date=October 28, 2017 }}</ref> They also realized that the favorite-son candidates supported by delegates from Ohio and Illinois were going retain their blocs’ support. Those states were firmly backing favorite sons, possibly as stalking horses for Newton D. Baker.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/><ref name=voamakingofanation/><ref name=campaigning4/> This led them to conclude that California and Texas presented their greatest opportunities at persuading delegates to abandon the candidates that they had been loyal to on the first three ballots.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/><ref name=voamakingofanation/> Since both states supported Garner, this meant their best shot would be to win-over Garner's delegates. Thus, Roosevelt's team scattered to win over Garner's delegates in the nine hours following the third-ballot.<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/>

William Randolph Hearst was following the convention proceedings remotely from [[Hearst Castle|his residence in California]]. He had realized that his favored candidate, Garner, was not going to win the nomination.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/> Hearst disliked Roosevelt, but nevertheless preferred him against any of the potential dark horse candidates.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/> Roosevelt had, earlier in his campaign, reluctantly walked-back his [[Woodrow Wilson|Wilson]]-era support for the [[League of Nations]] amidst much criticism from Hearst's papers for his previously declared support of it.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/><ref name=therooseveltpresence/> Hearst, who strongly opposed [[internationalism (politics)|internationalism]], therefore preferred Roosevelt to other remaining candidates, such as dedicated internationalist [[Newton D. Baker]] (who Hearst particularly despised).<ref name=broker/><ref name=artofthenewdeal/><ref name=americaatthecrossroads/> [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], a supporter of Roosevelt, called Hearst to warn him that if he did not release Garner's delegates to Roosevelt, Newton Baker could win the nomination.<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/> This telephone call further persuaded Hearst to support Roosevelt.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/><ref name=americaatthecrossroads/>

A disheartened Hearst sent a wire to one of his reporters asking Garner to “throw his votes to Roosevelt”<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/> Upon being given Hearst's message Garner responded, “Hell, I’d do anything to see the Democrats win one more election.”<ref name=americaatthecrossroads/> Having lost the support of Hearst, who had been behind his win in the California primary, Garner came to the conclusion that Roosevelt would be the party's best shot at a general election victory, and released his delegates.<ref name=broker/><ref name=artofthenewdeal/>

Since they voted as blocs, both the California and Texas delegations held internal votes in order to decide whether or not they were going to throw their support behind Roosevelt. In the case of California, the internal vote decided in favor supporting Roosevelt by the narrow margin of 54 to 51.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/> McAdoo played a critical role in persuading California's bloc to support Roosevelt.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/> McAdoo, in turn, had been persuaded to support Roosevelt by Hearst.<ref name=broker/>

===Fourth ballot===

Smith was gathered with a small group of friends, including Moses, at the Congress Hotel listening to the radio when McAdoo delivered his speech declaring California's support for Roosevelt.<ref name=broker/>

Knowing that the race had been lost, Smith immediately signaled for his entourage to begin packing their bags to leave Chicago. Moses and others snuck out a side door of the hotel, while Smith found himself cornered by reporters at the front entrance to the hotel. The reporters, which had incidentally been gathered in anticipation of Roosevelt's arrival at the hotel, asked Smith whether he intended to support the party's nominee. Smith gave them no answer.<ref name=broker/> Smith was reportedly so angered that he left Chicago without congratulating Roosevelt.<ref name=voamakingofanation/> However, his silence was partially due to an agreement between Smith, Raskob and [[John W. Davis]] to convene with each other in New York before declaring their attitudes about the Democratic ticket.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://partners.nytimes.com/library/politics/camp/320703convention-dem-ra.html |title=Roosevelt Puts Economic Recovery First in His Acceptance Speech at Convention; Garner for Vice President by Acclamation |last=Krock |first=Arthur |date=July 3, 1932 |website=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=October 23, 2017}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
On July 2, [[H. L. Mencken]] declared that, by his observation, the party lacked confidence in both Roosevelt's ability to deliver a general election victory and his physical fitness for the office of president. He opined that the party had nominated the weakest candidate that had been presented before them. Mencken faulted Smith, believing that his pure spite towards Roosevelt had left him blind to the strategy that was necessary to successfully thwart Roosevelt's candidacy. Mencken also felt that Smith had lost his edge.<ref name=artofthenewdeal/>

Indeed, had Smith and McAdoo been able to agree on an alternate candidate for their fractions of the Democratic Party to support, they could have succeeded in blocking Roosevelt's nomination.

Smith endorsed Roosevelt in a speech delivered to a record crowd of 200,000 in [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]].

===Future of Catholics in presidential politics===
While Smith would never reach the White House, his hope for it to be shown that Irishmen and Catholics could serve as president was later fulfilled when Democrat [[John F. Kennedy]] (ironically the son of Roosevelt-backer Joseph P. Kennedy) was elected the 35th President of the United States in [[1960 United States presidential election|1960]], becoming the first Catholic to serve as president.

In both the [[2008 United States presidential election|2008]] and [[2012 United States presidential election|2012]] elections, Democrat [[Joe Biden]] was elected to the office of Vice President, serving as the nation's first Catholic Vice President. In [[2016 United States presidential election|2016]], [[Tim Kaine]] was the Democratic nominee for vice president. Kaine and presidential nominee [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]] (the first woman to be nominated for president by a major party) won the popular vote by nearly three million but lost the Electoral College vote to the winner in [[Donald Trump]]. In the following election of [[2020 United States presidential election|2020]], Biden ran and won election, becoming the second ever Catholic president.

In addition, several other Catholics have been nominated by the Democratic Party for the offices of president of vice president. [[John Kerry]] [[John Kerry presidential campaign, 2004|served as the Democratic nominee]] in the [[2004 United States presidential election|2004 election]]. In [[1968 United States presidential election|1968]], [[Edmund Muskie]] was the Democratic Party's vice-presidential nominee. In [[1972 United States presidential election|1972]] John F. Kennedy's brother-in-law [[Sargent Shriver]] served as the Democratic Party's vice-presidential nominee (after [[Thomas Eagleton]], also Catholic, was dropped from the ticket). [[1984 United States presidential election|1984]] [[Geraldine Ferraro]] was the Democratic Party's vice-presidential nominee. Each lost their respective elections.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{United States presidential election, 1932}}

[[Category:1932 United States presidential election]]
[[Category:Al Smith]]
[[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential campaigns]]
[[Category:1932 United States presidential campaigns]]

Category:1932 United States presidential campaigns

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