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Proto-Celtic paganism

2024-11-08T15:13:35Z

Amanyn: /* Other */Corrected vowell to vowel

{{Short description|Beliefs of Proto-Celtic speakers}}
'''Proto-Celtic paganism''' was the beliefs of the speakers of [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]] and includes topics such as the [[Celtic mythology|mythology]], [[Legend|legendry]], [[Folklore|folk tales]], and [[Folk belief|folk beliefs]] of early Celtic culture. By way of the [[comparative method]], [[Celtic philology|Celtic philologists]], a variety of [[Historical linguistics|historical linguists]], have proposed reconstructions of entities, locations, and concepts with various levels of security in early Celtic folklore and mythology (reconstructions are [[Asterisk#Historical linguistics|indicated by the presence of an asterisk]]). The present article includes both reconstructed forms and proposed [[Motif-Index of Folk-Literature#Terminology|motifs]] from the early Celtic period.

==Deities==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Proto-Celtic reconstruction
!Ancient
!Goidelic
!Brittonic
!Etymology
!Notes
|-
|'''''*Belenos{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=72}}'''''
|Gaul. ''Belenus{{sfn|Birkhan|2006|p=195}}''
|{{center|–}}
|W ''Belyn{{sfn|Birkhan|2006|p=195}}''
|Traditionally derived from PIE ''*bʰelH-'' ('white, shining'), although this has come under criticism in recent scholarship.{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=72}}{{Sfn|Schrijver|1999|p=pp. 24–25.}}
|The river name ''[[Bienne (river)|Bienne]]'' and the place name ''[[Biel/Bienne|Bienne]]'' attest of a feminine form *''Belenā''.{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=72}} See [[Belenos]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*Bodwos{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=81}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=90}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''Bodb'''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=81}}'''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=90}}''
|{{center|–}}
|From Celtic–Germanic *''bhodhwo''- ('battle, fight').{{Sfn|Matasović|2009|p=70}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=90}}
|Name of a war divinity. Also attested as a personal name in Gaulish ''Boduos''. A term common to Celtic and Germanic, where a war-goddess is known as ''[[Baduhenna|Badu-henna]].'' The meaning 'crow', a bird symbolizing the carnage in battle, emerged later in Celtic languages.{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=81}}{{Sfn|Matasović|2009|p=70}} Middle Irish ''bodb'' must be understood as the 'bird on the battlefield and manifestation of the war-goddess'.{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=90}} See [[Bodb Derg]] and [[Badb]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*Brigantī ~ Brigantia'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=78}}''
|Gaul. ''*Brigantia{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=87}}''
|OIr. ''Brigit{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=78}}''
|OBritt. ''Brigantia{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=78}}''
|From PIE *''bherǵh-'' ('be high, hill').{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=78}}
|The stem ''Brigant-'' is attested in numerous river names (which are typically deified in ancient Celtic cultures), such as ''{{Ill|Briande|fr}}'', ''[[Briance]]'', ''[[Bregenzer Ach|Bregenzer]]'', or ''[[River Brent|Brent]]'', and in toponyms such as ''[[Bragança, Portugal|Bragança]]'' (< *''Brigantia'').{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=87}} See [[Brigid]] and [[Brigantia (goddess)]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*Flitawī{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=135}}'''''
|Gaul. ''Litaui'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=135}}'''''
|OIr. ''Letha''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=204}}
|OW ''Litau'', OBret. ''Letau'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=135}}'''''
|From PIE *''plth2wih2'' ('the Broad One, i.e. Earth').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=135}}'''''
|See [[Litavis]] and [[Dʰéǵʰōm#The Broad One|Dʰéǵʰōm (The Broad One)]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*Gobann-{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=182}}'''''
|Gaul. ''Cobanno{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=164}}{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=182}}''
|OIr. ''Goibniu''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=182}}
|MW ''Govannon{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=182}}''
|From PCelt. *''goban''- ('smith').''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=164}}''
|The Gaulish, Irish and Welsh forms diverge and are reconstructed as *''Gobannos'', as ''Gobeniū'' ~ *''Gobanniō'', and as ''Gobannonos'', respectively.''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=164}}{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=182}}'' See [[Gobannus]], [[Goibniu]] and [[Gofannon]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*Lugus{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=248}}'''''
|Gaul. ''Lugus,'' CIb. ''Luguei{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=248}}''
|OIr. ''[[Lugh|Lug]]{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=248}}''
|MW ''[[Lleu Llaw Gyffes|Llew]]{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=248}}''
|''Unclear etymology.'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=248}}'''''
|At the origin of the PCelt. [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]] ''*Lugu-deks'' ('serving Lugus'; cf. Gaul. ''Lugudeca'', OIr. ''Lugaid'').''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=248}}'' See [[Lugus]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*Makwonos'''''
|Gaul. ''Mapono''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=217}}
|OIr. [[Aengus#Etymology|Macán]] < *''Maccan Oc''<ref>[[Dáithí Ó hÓgáin|Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí]]. ''Myth, Legend & Romance: An encyclopedia of the Irish folk tradition''. Prentice-Hall Press, 1991. pp. 38–40.</ref><ref>''Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia''. Ed. John T. Koch. Santa Barbara and Oxford: ABC-CLIO. 2006. p. 1389. {{ISBN|185-1094407}}</ref>
|MW ''[[Mabon ap Modron|Mabon]]{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=217}}''
|An n-stem of PCelt. ''*makwo-'' ('son')''.'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=253}}'''''
|See [[Maponos]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*Mātronā'''''
|Gaul. ''[[Dea Matrona|Matrona]]''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=220}}
|{{center|–}}
|MW ''[[Modron]]{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=217}}''
|An n-stem of PCelt. *''mātīr'', gen. *''mātros'' ('mother').{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=220}}
|See [[Matronae]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*Nowdont-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=350}}'''''
|''Nodonti, Nodenti''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=350}}<ref name="MacKillop_Nodons">{{harvnb|MacKillop|2004}}, s.v. ''Nodons'', ''Nudd'' and ''Nuadu Airgetlám''.</ref>
|MIr. ''[[Nuada Airgetlám|Nuadu]]''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=350}}''<ref name="MacKillop_Nodons"/>
|MW ''[[Nudd Llaw Eraint|Nudd]]''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=350}}<ref name="MacKillop_Nodons"/>
|''Unclear etymology.'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=350}}'''''
|''Nodenti'' is the dative singular of *''Nodens''.'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=350}}''''' See [[Nodens]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*Ogmiyos{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=297}}'''''
|Gaul. ''[[Ogmios]]'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=297}}'''''
|MIr. ''[[Ogma]]'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=297}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|A ''yo''-derivate of PCelt. *''ogmos'' (perhaps 'path, orbit').{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=239}}
|A mythological name
|-
|'''''*Olo-(p)atīr'''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}''
|{{center|–}}
|MIr. ''Ollathair{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}''
|{{center|–}}
|Identical to PGmc *''Ala-fader'' (cf. Old Norse ''Alföðr'').{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}
|An epithet meaning 'all-father', used as a byname of the [[Dagda]]. It can be compared with the Old Norse ''Alföðr'', commonly used for [[Odin]].{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=139}}
|-
|''*'''Tonaros''' > *'''Toranos{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=384}}{{sfn|Koch|2020|pp=142–144}}'''''
|Gaul. ''[[Tanarus (river)|Tanarus]], [[Taranis]]''{{sfn|Koch|2020|pp=142–144}}
|{{center|–}} 
|OBritt. ''Tanaro,'' Pict. ''[[Taran mac Ainftech|Taran]]''{{sfn|Koch|2020|pp=142–144}}<ref>[[Marjorie Ogilvie Anderson|Anderson, Marjorie Ogilvie]] (1973). ''Kings and Kingship in Early Scotland''. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press. p. 90.</ref>
|Identical to the [[Proto-Germanic]] Thunder-god ''*Þun(a)raz'' ([[Thor]]). From PIE *''(s)tenh₂-'' ('thunder').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=384}}'''''{{sfn|Koch|2020|pp=142–144}}
|See [[Taranis]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*Windos'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=423}}<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&q=%22windos%22&pg=PA749 Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia]''. Ed. John T. Koch. Santa Barbara and Oxford: ABC-CLIO. 2006. p. 749. {{ISBN|185-1094407}}</ref>
|Gaul. ''[[Vindonnus|Vindo(nnus)]]''<ref>Mac Cana, Proinsias. “Fianaigecht in the Pre-Norman Period.” In: ''Béaloideas'' 54/55 (1986): 76. https://doi.org/10.2307/20522282.</ref><ref>FitzPatrick, Elizabeth; Hennessy, Ronan (2017). "Finn’s Seat: topographies of power and royal marchlands of Gaelic polities in medieval Ireland". In: ''Landscape History'', 38:2, 31. DOI: 10.1080/01433768.2017.1394062</ref>
|OIr. ''Find (mac Cumhaill)''
|W ''Gwyn (ap Nudd)''
|'The White One'. From PCelt. *''windo''- ('white').{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=423}}
|The male names are considered to be cognates.<ref>Sims-Williams, Patrick. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4QgWDAAAQBAJ&dq=gwynn+fionn&pg=PA10 Irish Influence on Medieval Welsh Literature]''. Oxford University Press, 2011. p. 10. {{ISBN|9780199588657}}.</ref><ref>Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=wYAnySDa0O0C&q=%22fionn%22+gwynn&pg=PA126 The Sacred Isle: Belief and Religion in Pre-Christian Ireland]''. Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 1999. p. 126. {{ISBN|9780851157474}}.</ref><ref>Bruford, Alan. “Oral and Literary Fenian Tales”. In: ''Béaloideas'' 54/55 (1986): 29-30. https://doi.org/10.2307/20522280.</ref> See ''[[Gwyn ap Nudd]]'' and ''[[Fionn mac Cumhaill]]'' for further discussion. ''Vindonnus'' appears as an epithet attached to Greek god [[Apollo]] in continental Celtic inscriptions.<ref>Duval, Paul Marie. "Cultes gaulois et gallo-romains. 1. Données rituelles et mythologiques attestées". In: ''Travaux sur la Gaule (1946-1986)''. Rome: École Française de Rome, 1989. p. 245. (Publications de l'École française de Rome, 116) www.persee.fr/doc/efr_0000-0000_1989_ant_116_1_3665</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jacques Lacroix|year=2007|title=Les noms d'origine gauloise - La Gaule des dieux|publisher=Errance|isbn=978-2-87772-349-7|pages=39–40}}</ref>
|-
|'''''*Windo-sēbrā{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=325}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''[[Findabair]]{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=325}}''
|MW ''Gwenhwyfar{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=325}}''
|A compound of ''windo''- ('white') attached to a feminine form of *''sēbro''- ('demon, spectre').''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=325}}''
|A mythological name. See [[Guinevere]] for further discussion.
|-
| colspan="6" |Note: Gaul. = [[Gaulish]]; Gall. = [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]]; Lep. = [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]]; CIb. = [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]; OIr. = [[Old Irish]]; MIr. = [[Middle Irish]]; OBritt. = [[Old Brittonic]]; OW = [[Old Welsh]]; MW = [[Middle Welsh]]; Pict. = [[Pictish language|Pictish]]; OBret. = [[Old Breton]]; MBret. = [[Middle Breton]]; OCo. = [[Old Cornish]]
|}

==Entities==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Proto-Celtic reconstruction
!Meaning
!Ancient
!Goidelic
!Brittonic
!Etymology
!Notes
|-
|'''''*dēwos{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=96}}'''''
|'deity'
|Gaul. ''deuo-'', CIb. ''teuio-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=96}}''
|OIr. ''día{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=96}}''
|OW ''duiu'', MBret. ''doe'', OCo. ''duy{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=96}}''
|From PIE *''deywos'' ('god, deity').''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=96}}''
|See [[Dyēus#Etymology]] and [[Dyēus#"Celestial" derivations|"Celestial" derivations]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*dwosyos{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}'''''
|'[[incubus]], daemon'
|Gaul. ''[[dusios]]{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=158}}''
|{{center|–}}
|Bret. ''Diz'', Co. ''Dus{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=158}}''
|Cognate with Lith. ''dvasià'' ('breath, spirit, soul') and MHG ''getwās'' ('spirit, ghost').''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=158}}'''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}'''''
|Source of Romansch ''dischöl'', Wallon ''dûhon'', and Basque ''tusuri''.''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=158}}''
|-
|'''''*morā{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=278}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}'''''
|'female demon'
|{{center|–}}
|MIr. ''mor-'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=278}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|From PIE *''moreh2'' ('nightly spirit, bad dream').'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=278}}'''
|See [[Mare (folklore)]] and [[The Morrígan#Etymology]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*sēbro-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=325}}'''''
|'demon, spectre'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''síabar'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=325}}'''''
|MW -''hwyfar'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=325}}'''''
|''Unclear etymology.'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=325}}'''''
|
|-
|'''''*skāhslo-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=340}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}'''''
|'demon, supernatural being'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''scál'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=340}}'''''
|MW ''yscwal'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=340}}'''''
|Perhaps related to ''*skek''- ('move, stir').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=340}}''''' Cognate to [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''skōhsl'' ('demon, evil spirit') < *''skōhsla-''.''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}''
|
|-
| colspan="7" |Note: Gaul. = [[Gaulish]]; Gall. = [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]]; Lep. = [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]]; CIb. = [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]; OIr. = [[Old Irish]]; MIr. = [[Middle Irish]]; OBritt. = [[Old Brittonic]]; OW = [[Old Welsh]]; MW = [[Middle Welsh]]; Pict. = [[Pictish language|Pictish]]; OBret. = [[Old Breton]]; MBret. = [[Middle Breton]]; OCo. = [[Old Cornish]]
|}

==Locations==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Proto-Celtic reconstruction
!Meaning
!Ancient
!Goidelic
!Brittonic
!Etymology
!Notes
|-
|'''''*albiyos'''''{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=36}}{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=29}}
|'upper world'
|Gaul. ''albio-''{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=36}}{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=29}}
|{{center|–}}
|OW ''elbid''{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=36}}{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=29}}
|From PIE *''h2elbho''- ('white').{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=29}}
|
|-
|'''''*ande-dubnos'''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=50}}''
|'[[other world]], world of the dead'
|Gaul. ''antumnos{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=50}}''
|{{center|–}}
|MW ''annw(f)n{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=50}}''
|From PCelt. ''ande''- ('below') attached to ''*dubnos.{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=50}}''
|See also Gaul. ''anderon'', genetive plural of *''anderos'', interpreted as meaning 'infernal', perhaps 'gods of the underworld', and cognate with Lat. ''īnferus'' and Skt ''ádhara-''.{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=47}} See [[Annwn]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*bitus'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=29}}''
|'world (of the living)'
|Gaul. ''bitu-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=67}}''
|OIr. ''bith{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=67}}''
|OW ''bid,'' OBret. ''bit'', OCo. ''bit{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=67}}''
|From PIE *''gwiH-tu-'' ('life').''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=67}}''
|See ''[[Bituitus]]'' and ''[[Cessair#Overview|Bith]]''.
|-
|'''''*dubnos{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=107}}'''''
|'lower world'
|Gaul. ''dumno-'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=107}}'''''
|OIr. ''domun'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=107}}'''''
|MW ''dwfn,'' MBret. ''doun'', Co. ''down'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=107}}'''''
|From PIE *''dhewb(h)-'' ('deep').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=107}}'''''
|See ''[[Dumnonii]]'' and ''[[Damnonii]]'' (tribes), ''[[Dumnonia]]'' (kingdom) and ''[[Fir Domnann]]''.
|-
| colspan="7" |Note: Gaul. = [[Gaulish]]; Gall. = [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]]; Lep. = [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]]; CIb. = [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]; OIr. = [[Old Irish]]; MIr. = [[Middle Irish]]; OBritt. = [[Old Brittonic]]; OW = [[Old Welsh]]; MW = [[Middle Welsh]]; Pict. = [[Pictish language|Pictish]]; OBret. = [[Old Breton]]; MBret. = [[Middle Breton]]; OCo. = [[Old Cornish]]
|}

== Other ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Proto-Celtic reconstruction
!Meaning
!Ancient
!Goidelic
!Brittonic
!Etymology
!Notes
|-
|'''''*adbertā'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=25}}
|'offering, victim'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''edbart''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=25}}
|OW ''aperth''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=25}}
|From PCelt. *''ad''- ('to') attached to *''ber-tā'' < *''ber-o''- ('carry, bring, bear').{{sfn|Matasović|2009|pp=25, 62}}
|The OIr. word is the verbal noun of ''ad-opair'' < *''ad-uss-ber-o'' ('sacrifices, offers').{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=25}}
|-
|'''''*adgaryos{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=32}}{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=153}}'''''
|'summoner' (or 'accuser')
|Gaul. ''adgarion''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=32}}
|OIr. ''accrae{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=32}}''
|{{center|–}}
|From PCelt. *''ad''- ('to') attached to *''gar-yo-'' ('call, cry').{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=153}}
|See also OIr. ''ad-gair'' ('summon, subpoena') < *''ad-gar(i)et''. The OIr. ''accrae'' ('complaint') <*''ad-garion'' is also only used in legal contexts, although the original PCelt. meaning may have been 'to summon the deities [as witnesses]' (cf. OIr. ''deogaire'' 'seer' < *''dewo-garios'' 'who summons the deity').''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=32}}''
|-
|'''''*anamon'''''-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=34}}
|'soul'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''anim''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=34}}
|MBret. ''eneff'';{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=34}} ''Anaffoun'' (pl.)<ref>''Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia''. Ed. John T. Koch. Santa Barbara and Oxford: ABC-CLIO. 2006. p. 51. {{ISBN|185-1094407}}</ref>
|From PIE *''h2enh1-mon-'' ('breath').{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=34}}
|The Insular Celtic forms were influenced by the Lat. cognate ''anima''.{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=34}} See also ''anaon'' ('souls of the dead' in [[Breton mythology]]);<ref>''Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia''. Ed. John T. Koch. Santa Barbara and Oxford: ABC-CLIO. 2006. p. 51. {{ISBN|185-1094407}}.</ref> and Gaulish ''anatia'' 'souls'.<ref>Delamarre, Xavier (2003). ''Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental''. p. 44. Errance. {{ISBN|9782877723695}}.</ref>
|-
|'''''*awe-'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=47}}
|'poetic inspiration'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''aui''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=47}}
|MW ''awen''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=47}}
|Related to PCelt. *''awelā'' ('breeze, wind'), itself from PIE ''*h2uh1-el-'' (id.).{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=47}}
|The PCelt. reconstruction is difficult because the OIr. and MW forms do not agree. MoBret. ''awen'' ('inspiration') is a loanword from Welsh.{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=47}}
|-
|'''''*bardos'''''{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=67}}{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=56}}
|'bard, poet'
|Gaul. ''bardo''-{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=67}}{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=56}}
|MIr. ''bard''{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=67}}{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=56}}
|MW ''bardd'', MBret. ''barz'', OCo. ''barth''{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=67}}{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=56}}
|From PIE ''*gʷrH-dʰh₁-o-s'' ('praise-maker').{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=67}}{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=56}}
|See [[Bard]] for further discussion
|-
|'''''*brihtu-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=79}}'''''
|'magical formula, incantation'
|Gaul. ''brixta''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=79}}
|OIr. ''bricht{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=79}}''
|MW -''brith'', OBret. ''brith{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=79}}''
|Perhaps from PIE *''bherg̍h-'' ('enlighten'), or related to PCelt. *''berxto''- ('bright, beautiful').''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=79}}''
|See [[Bricta|Brixta]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*dawnā{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=92}}'''''
|'poem'
|{{center|–}}
|MIr. ''dúan'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=92}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|From PIE *''dh2p-no-'' ('offering').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=92}}'''''
|See ''[[Aois-dàna]]'', 'people of the arts; poet'.
|-
|'''''*dedm-'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=93}}''
|'rite, ceremony'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''deidmea{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=93}}''
|MW ''deuawt'', OBret. ''domot{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=93}}''
|From PIE *''dhedh(h1)m-'' ('custom').''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=93}}''
|The reconstruction of the vowel in PCelt. *''dedmV''- is difficult: OBret. ''domot'' points to *''dedmāto''- while OIr. ''deidmea'' points to *''dedmi''-.''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=93}}''
|-
|'''''*druwid(e)s{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=107}}'''''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=149}}
|'priest, druid'
|Gaul. ''druides''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=107}}
|OIr. ''druí{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=107}}''
|{{center|–}}
|Presumably from PIE ''*dru''- ('oak') attached to *''weyd''- ('see, know').''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=107}}''
|The Brittonic forms MW ''derwydd'' and OBret. ''dorguid'' come from *''do-are-wid-'' ('who sees beyond').{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=149}} See [[Druid]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*ferissā{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=128}}'''''
|'religion, belief'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''iress'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=128}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|Probably from PIE *''peri-dh1-teh2''.'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=128}}'''''
|
|-
|'''''*frato-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=140}}'''''
|'good fortune, grace'
|Gaul. ''ratus'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=140}}'''''
|OIr. ''rath'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=140}}'''''
|OW ''rat'', OBret. ''rad-'', Co. ''ras'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=140}}'''''
|Probably related to PCel. ''far-na-'' ('bestow').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=140}}'''''
|
|-
|'''''*kwritus{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=182}}'''''
|'magical transformation, shape'
|Gaul. ''prittus'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=182}}'''''
|OIr. ''cruth'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=182}}'''''
|MW ''pryd'', MBret. ''pred'', OCo. ''prit'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=182}}'''''
|From PIE *''kwer''- ('make, cause').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=182}}'''''
|See [[Britain (place name)]], [[Prydain]] and tribe [[Cruthin]].
|-
|'''''*kwrityos{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=253}}'''''
|'poet'
|Gaul. ''pritios'''{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=253}}'''''
|OIr. ''Crithe'''{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=253}}'''''
|MW ''prydydd'', OCo. ''pridit'''{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=253}}'''''
|A ''yo''-derivate of''*kwritus.'''{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=253}}'''''
|
|-
|'''''*karnom'''''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}
|'ancient stone, funerary monument'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''carn{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}''
|OW ''carn{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}''
|Probably borrowed from the same non-Indo-European source as PGmc ''*har(u)gaz''.''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}''
|Cf. also [[Carnac stones|''Carnac'']] < *''Karnākon'' (‘place with pagan stone monuments’).''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}'' See [[cairn]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*kaylo-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=197}}'''''
|'omen'
|Gaul. ''caelo-'', ''CIb. caeilo-'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=197}}{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=158}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|OW ''coil(i)ou'', OBret. ''coel'', OCo. ''chuillioc'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=197}}'''''
|From PIE ''*keh2ilo-'' ('whole, wealthy').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=197}}'''''
|Source of PCelt. ''*dus-kaylo-'' (bad omen'; cf. Gaul. ''dus-celi-'', OIr. ''do-chél'') and *''su-kaylo''- ('good omen'; cf. Gaul. ''su-caelo'', MW ''hy-goel'').'''''{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=158}}''''' OIr. ''cél'' is a loanword from Welsh.'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=197}}'''''
|-
|'''''*kentu-samonyo-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=201}}'''''
|'May'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''cétamain'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=201}}'''''
|MW ''kintevin'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=201}}'''''
|A [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]] of *''kentu'' ('first') and *''samon''- ('summer').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=201}}'''''
|Meaning 'first summer'.'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=201}}'''''
|-
|'''''*krābri-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=220}}'''''
|'devotion, religious practice'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''crábud'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=220}}'''''
|MW ''crefydd'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=220}}'''''
|''Unclear etymology.'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=220}}'''''
|MW ''crefydd'' is built on a ''yo''-suffix and OIr. ''crábud'' on a ''itu''-suffix.'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=220}}'''''
|-
|'''''*kreddī-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=221}}'''''
|'believe'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''creitid'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=221}}'''''
|MW ''credu'', MBret. ''crediff'', OCo. ''cresy'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=221}}'''''
|From PIE *''ḱred-dheh1-'' ('believe, trust').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=221}}'''''
|The geminate must be recent since PIE *''dd'' would have yielded PCelt. *''ss''.'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=221}}'''''
|-
|'''''*kreddīmā{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=221}}'''''
|'faith, believing'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''cretem'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=221}}'''''
|MBret. ''critim'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=221}}'''''
|Verbal noun of ''*kreddī-.'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=221}}'''''
|
|-
|'''''*kredro/i{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=222}}'''''
|'relic, sacred object'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''cretair'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=222}}'''''
|OW ''creirriou'', MBret. ''kreir'', Co. ''crêr'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=222}}'''''
|Related to ''*kreddī-'' ('believe').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=222}}'''''
|
|-
|'''''*(f)litu-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=241}}'''''
|'festival, celebration'
|Gaul. ''litu-'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=241}}'''''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=204}}
|OIr. ''líth'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=241}}'''''
|OBret. ''lit'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=241}}'''''
|''Unclear etymology.'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=241}}'''''
|The absence of cognates in other Indo-European languages makes the PCelt. reconstruction (*''flitu''- or *''litu''-) uncertain.'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=241}}'''''
|-
|'''''*marwo-natu-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=259}}'''''
|'funerary poem, eulogy'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''marbnad'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=259}}'''''
|MW ''marwnad'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=259}}'''''
|A compound of PCelt. ''*marwo''- ('dead') and *''natu-'' ('poem').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=259}}'''''
|The compound, pertaining to poetic language, can probably be projected back to Proto-Celtic.'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=259}}'''''
|-
|'''''*meldo-'''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=143}}''
|'lightning, hammer of the thunder-god'
|Gaul. ''Meldio{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=143}}''
|{{center|–}}
|MW ''Mellt{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=143}}''
|Cognate with PGmc *''meldunjaz'' and PBalt-Slav. ''mild-n-.{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=143}}''
|See [[Perkwunos#Thunder-god's_weapon]]
|-
|'''''*natu-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=284}}'''''
|'poem, song, incantation'
|Gaul. ''natia, nato-'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=284}}'''''
|OIr. ''nath'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=284}}'''''
|MW ''nad'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=284}}'''''
|Probably from PIE ''*(s)neh1-'' ('sew').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=284}}'''''
|The semantic development could be explained in terms of poetic metaphors, whereby a poem is identified with a thread.'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=284}}'''''
|-
|'''''*nemetom{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=288}}'''''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=141}}
|'sacred grove, sanctuary'
|Gaul. ''nemēton,'' CIb. ''nemeto-'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=288}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=141}}'''''
|OIr. ''[[nemed]]'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=288}}'''''
|OBritt. ''Nemetona'', OW ''-nivet'', OBret. ''-nimet'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=288}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=141}}'''''
|A ''t''-stem derived from PIE *''némos'' ('sacrifice'), itself from *''nem''- ('distribute'),{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=141}} or possibly related to PCelt. *''nemos'' ('heaven').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=288}}'''''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=234}}
|Related to or borrowed into PGmc *''nemedaz'' ('holy grove'). Greek (''némos'') and Latin (''nemus'') share the meaning 'forest, (holy) clearance', which evolved from the PIE sense 'what is distributed, sacrifice' (cf. Skt ''námas''- 'worship, honour', Alb. ''nëmë'' 'curse, imprecation').{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=141}} See [[Nemeton]], goddesses [[Nemetona]] and [[Arnemetia]], tribe [[Nemetes]].
|-
|'''''*nemos{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=288}}'''''
|'heaven, sky'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''nem'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=288}}'''''
|OW ''nem'', OBret. ''nem'', OCo. ''nef'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=288}}'''''
|From PIE *''nebhos'' ('cloud, cloudy sky').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=288}}'''''
|The irregular *-''m''- of the Celtic forms is best explained as the result of assimilation (''n'' ...''bh'' > ''n'' ...''m'').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=288}}'''''
|-
|'''''*noybo-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=286}}'''''
|'holy'
|Gaul. ''noibo-'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=286}}'''''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=236}}
|OIr. ''noíb'''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=236}}{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=236}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|From PIE *''noybhos.'''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=236}}'''''
|
|-
|'''''*rūnā{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=316}}'''''
|'secret, magic'
|Gaul. ''-runus'' (?)'','' Lep. ''Runatis'' (?)'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=316}}'''''
|OIr. ''rún'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=316}}'''''
|MW ''rin'', MBret. ''rin'', Co. ''rin-'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=316}}'''''
|Related to PGmc *''rūnō'' ('secret, mystery').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=316}}'''''
|Gaul. ''Cobrunus'' (< ''*com-rūnos'' 'confident') is probably cognate with MW ''cyfrin'', MBret. ''queffrin'' and MIr. ''comrún'' ('shared secret, confidence'); Lep. ''Runatis'' may be derived from *''runo-ātis'' ('belonging to the secret').{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=122}} See [[Runes#Etymology]].
|-
|'''''*samoni-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=322}}'''''
|'assembly, (feast of the) first month of the year'
|Gaul. ''Samon''-'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=322}}'''''
|MIr. ''Samain'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=322}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|From PIE *''smHon''- ('reunion, assembly').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=322}}'''''
|Name of a month or feast. The original meaning is best explained as 'assembly (of the living and the dead)' (cf. OIr. -''samain'' 'swarm'). Links to PCelt. *''samon''- ('summer') appear to be [[folk etymologies]].{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=267}}'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=322}}''''' See [[Samhain]] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*sakro-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=317}}'''''
|'consecrated, cursed'
|Gaul. ''sacro-''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=264}}'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=317}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|MW ''hagr'', MBret. ''hagr'', Co. ''hager'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=317}}'''''
|From PIE *''sh2k-ro-'' ('sacred').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=317}}'''''
|The Brittonic cognates mean 'ugly', i.e. 'cursed' < 'consecrated to infernal, malevolent deities'. The original meaning was probably close to that of Latin ''sācer'', meaning 'consecrated', but also 'worthy to be sacrificed', 'cursed'.{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=264}}'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=317}}''''' Cognate to Latin ''[[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#sacerdos|sacerdos]]'', 'priest'.
|-
|'''''*sedo- ~ *sīdos{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=326}}'''''
|'tumulus (inhabited by supernatural beings), peace'
|Gaul. ''sedum, sidum'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=326}}'''''
|OIr. ''síd'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=326}}'''''
|MW ''hedd'', OBret. ''hed'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=326}}'''''
|From PIE ''sēds'' gen. ''sedos'' ('seat').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=326}}'''''
|See ''[[Aos Sí#The sídhe|sidhe]]''.
|-
|'''''*soyto-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=352}}'''''
|'magic'
|{{center|–}}
|{{center|–}}
|MW ''hud'', MBret. ''hud,'' Co. ''hus'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=326}}'''''
|Probably originally identical to PIE *''soito''- ('string, rope'), from ''*seh2i-'' ('to bind').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=326}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}''''' Cognate with PGmc *''saidaz'' ('magic, charm') and Lith. ''saitas'' ('soothsaying, talisman').{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}
|Source of PCelt. ''*soyto-lo-'' ('charming, illusory')'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=326}}'''''
|-
|'''''*to-fare-ufo-kan-o-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=382}}'''''
|'prophesise'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''do-aurchain'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=382}}'''''
|MW ''darogan'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=382}}'''''
|From PCelt. ''to''-''fare''- ('towards'), attached to *''ufo''- ('under') and ''*kan-o-'' ('sing').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=382}}'''''
|
|-
|'''''*wātis{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=404}}'''''
|'seer, sooth-sayer'
|Gaul. ''wáteis'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=404}}'''''
|OIr. ''fáith'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=404}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|From PIE *''weh2-ti-'' ('prophet').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=404}}'''''
|See ''[[vates]]''.
|-
|'''''*wātus{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=405}}'''''
|'poetic inspiration'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''fáth'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=405}}'''''
|MW ''gwawd'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=405}}'''''
|From PIE *''weh2-tu-'' ('prophesy').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=404}}'''''
|
|-
|'''''*weletos{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=412}}'''''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=311}}
|'seer'
|Gaul. ''uelets'''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=311}}'''''
|OIr. ''filed'''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=311}}'''''
|MW ''gwelet'', MBret. ''guelet'''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=311}}'''''
|From PIE *''wel-o''- ('to see').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=412}}'''''
|OIr. ''filed'' is the genitive form of ''[[filí]]'' ('poet, seer'). The ancient Germanic ''[[Veleda|Weleda]]'', the name of a seeress, is most likely a borrowing from Gaulish *''ueletā'' ('seeress'), with regular Germanic sound shift ''-t-'' > ''-d-''.'''''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=311}}'''''
|-
|'''''*widlmā{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=319}}'''''
|'seeress, sorceress'
|Gaul. ''uidluas'''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=319}}'''''
|''[[Fedelm]]'''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=319}}'''''
|W ''gwyddon'''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=319}}'''''
|From PCelt. *''wēdo''- ('sight, presence').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=407}}'''''
|Gaul. ''uidluas'' may be a genitive form of *''uildua'', in which case it may be derived from ''*widlmā'' with [[lenition]] (like in ''anuana'' < *''anman''- 'name').'''''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=319}}'''''
|-
|'''''*yālo-{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=433}}'''''
|'praise, worship'
|{{center|–}}
|OIr. ''áil'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=433}}'''''
|MW ''iawl,'' OBret. ''iolent'''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=433}}'''''
|From PIE *''(H)yeh2lo-'' ('zeal').'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=433}}'''''
|
|-
| colspan="7" |Note: Gaul. = [[Gaulish]]; Gall. = [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]]; Lep. = [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]]; CIb. = [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]; OIr. = [[Old Irish]]; MIr. = [[Middle Irish]]; OBritt. = [[Old Brittonic]]; OW = [[Old Welsh]]; MW = [[Middle Welsh]]; Pict. = [[Pictish language|Pictish]]; OBret. = [[Old Breton]]; MBret. = [[Middle Breton]]; OCo. = [[Old Cornish]]
|}

==See also==
*[[Ancient Celtic religion]]
*[[Celtic mythology]]
*[[Proto-Germanic paganism]]
*[[Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism]]

== References ==
{{citation style|date=January 2024}}
===Citations===
{{reflist}}
===Bibliography===
*{{Cite book|last=Birkhan|first=Helmut|title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2006|isbn=978-1-85109-440-0|editor-last=Koch|editor-first=John T.|chapter=Belenos/Belinos|author-link=Helmut Birkhan}}
*{{Cite book|last=Delamarre|first=Xavier|title=Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental|publisher=Errance|year=2003|isbn=9782877723695|author-link=Xavier Delamarre}}
*{{cite book|last=Koch|first=John T.|title=Celto-Germanic, Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West |publisher=Aberystwyth Canolfan Uwchefrydiau Cymreig a Cheltaidd Prifysgol Cymru, University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies |year=2020|url=https://www.academia.edu/44802752|isbn=9781907029325|author-link=John T. Koch}}
*{{Cite book|last=MacKillop|first=James|title=A dictionary of Celtic mythology|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-860967-1|author-link=James MacKillop (author)}}
*{{Cite book|last=Matasović|first=Ranko|title=Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic|publisher=Brill|year=2009|isbn=9789004173361|author-link=Ranko Matasović}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |author-link=Václav Blažek |last=Blažek |first=Václav |title=Celtic 'Smith' and His Colleagues |journal=Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics |volume=32 |date=2008 |pages=67–85 |jstor=40997494}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kalygin |first=Victor |title=Some archaic elements of Celtic cosmology |journal=Zeitschrift für Celtische Philologie |volume=53 |issue=1 |date=2003 |pages=70–76 |doi=10.1515/ZCPH.2003.70|s2cid=162904613 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Muradova |first=Anna |trans-title=Binary Oppositions in Celtic Cosmology: Modern Breton Folklore Data |title=Бинарные оппозиции в кельтской космологии: на материале современного бретонского фольклора |journal=Studia Celto-Slavica |volume=2 |pages=147–153 |date=2009 |doi=10.54586/LMYJ3678 |language=Russian|doi-access=free }}
{{refend}}

[[Category:Ancient Celtic religion]]

Suleviae

2024-06-26T18:59:05Z

Amanyn: Changed Galicia to Gallaecia. Just before showing some examples, one of which is the one in the ref, the source reads "[...], lists three Celtic cults in Callaecia:"

In [[Celtic polytheism|ancient Celtic religion]], '''Sulevia''' was a goddess worshipped in [[Gaul]], [[Roman Britain|Britain]], and [[Gallaecia]],<ref>Votive inscription to SULEIS NANTUGAICIS, found in [[Paderne de Allariz]]. Cf. {{cite journal|last=Luján Martínez|first=Eugenio R.|title=The Language(s) of the Callaeci|journal=E-Keltoi|date=3 May 2006|volume=6|page=722|url=http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_16/lujan_6_16.pdf|access-date=17 May 2012}}</ref> very often in the plural forms '''Suleviae''' or (dative) '''Sule(v)is'''. Dedications to Sulevia(e) are attested in about forty inscriptions, distributed quite widely in the Celtic world, but with particular concentrations in [[Noricum]], among the [[Helvetii]], along the [[Rhine]], and also in [[Rome]]. Jufer and Luginbühl distinguish the Suleviae from another group of plural [[Celtic goddesses]], the [[Matres]], and interpret the name Suleviae as meaning "those who govern well".<ref name="Jufer">Nicole Jufer & Thierry Luginbühl (2001). ''Les dieux gaulois : répertoire des noms de divinités celtiques connus par l'épigraphie, les textes antiques et la toponymie.'' Editions Errance, Paris. pp.15,64. In the original: ''"Celles qui gouvernent bien"''.</ref> In the same vein, [[Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel]] connects Suleviae with [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''hylyw'' 'leading (well)' and [[Breton language|Breton]] ''helevez'' 'good behaviour'.<ref>Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia de; Hainzmann, Manfred, and Mathieu, Nicolas. “Celtic and Other Indigenous Divine Names Found in the Italian Peninsula.” In: ''Théonymie Celtique, Cultes, Interpretatio - Keltische Theonymie, Kulte, Interpretatio''. Edited by Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel and Andreas Hofeneder, 1st ed. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2013. p. 88. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv8mdn28.8.</ref>

==Epigraphy==

The Suleviae have been identified in one inscription with the [[Junones]], but mostly with the Matres, for example on an inscription from [[Roman Colchester]], as well as on most of the inscriptions from Rome. The Colchester inscription reads:

::::MATRIBVS SVLEVIS SIMILIS ATTI F CI CANT VSLM
::(Translated: ''To the Sulevi mothers, Similis the son of Attius, of the [[Durovernum Cantiacorum|Civitas Cantiacorum]], willingly and deservedly fulfills his vow.'')<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.roman-britain.org/places/camulodunum.htm |title=Roman Britain |website=www.roman-britain.org |access-date=2014-07-21}}</ref>

In another inscription, the dative singular ''Suleviae Idennicae'' is attested in conjunction with Roman goddess Minerva.<ref>Allmer, Auguste. "Les dieux de la Gaule. I. - Dieux de la Gaule celtique (suite: Inscriptions 1254 à 1263)". In: ''Revue épigraphique du Midi de la France'', tome 3, N°90, 1898. pp. 548-549. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/repig.1898.1357; www.persee.fr/doc/repig_1259-6736_1898_num_3_90_1357</ref><ref>Lambert, Pierre-Yves. Hainzmann, Manfred, and Mathieu, Nicolas. “Le Statut Du Théonyme Gaulois.” In: ''Théonymie Celtique, Cultes, Interpretatio - Keltische Theonymie, Kulte, Interpretatio''. Edited by Andreas Hofeneder and Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel, 1st ed. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2013. p. 118. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv8mdn28.11.</ref>

== Relation to other deities ==
Van Andringa interprets the Suleviae as "native domestic divinities honoured at all social levels".<ref>William van Andringa (2002). ''La religion en Gaule romaine: piété et politique (Ier-IIIe siècle apr. J.-C.'' Editions Errance, Paris {{ISBN|2877722287}} p. 275. In the original: ''"divinités domestiques indigènes honorés dans tous les milieux sociaux"''.</ref> For the theory that the Suleviae were a [[Triune deity|triune]] version of Sulis Minerva, see [[Sulis]]. This theory is disputed by some researchers who find no direct links with Sulis, and suggest instead that the similarity in names is coincidental.<ref name="Jufer"/> Another theory connects the Suleviae with the [[Xulsigiae]], known from a site at [[Trier]];<ref name="Wightman">Edith Mary Wightman (1970). ''Roman Trier and the Treveri.'' Rupert Hart-Davis, London.</ref> but this suggestion has also been contested.

==See also==
* [[Triple deity|Triple Goddess]]

==References==
{{reflist|25em}}

{{Celtic mythology (ancient)}}

[[Category:Celtic goddesses]]
[[Category:Gaulish goddesses]]
[[Category:Gallaecian goddesses]]
[[Category:Goddesses of the ancient Britons]]

{{celt-myth-stub}}

List of Celtic place names in Portugal

2024-06-24T11:48:44Z

Amanyn: /* List of rivers */Added ref to Tâmega's etym

{{Short description|none}}
{{refimprove|date=February 2023}}
[[Image:Ethnographic Iberia 200 BCE.PNG|thumb|right|250px|Iberian Peninsula at about 200 BC [http://arkeotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm].]]

In the area of modern Portugal a significant number of towns with [[Celts|Celtic]] [[Toponymy|toponymic]] were already mentioned by ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[Classics|authors]].

The [[Geography of Portugal|regions]] where we can find a greater number of these names are in the [[Norte, Portugal|north]] (inhabited by the [[Callaici]] or [[Callaeci]]) and [[Centro, Portugal|center]] (inhabited by the [[Lusitanians]]) of Portugal.
However, Celtic toponymy occurs throughout the whole country and is also found in the south (the [[Alentejo]], inhabited by the [[Celtici]], and the [[Algarve]], inhabited by the [[Cynetes]]), which correspond to the ancient [[Roman province]]s of [[Gallaecia]] and [[Lusitania]].

The name of Portugal (Portvgalliæ) itself is partly of Celtic origin (see: [[Name of Portugal]] and [[Portus Cale]]).

[[File:Bri e Briga.jpg|thumb|320px|right|Ancient (bracketed) and modern places in the [[Iberian peninsula]] which have names containing the Celtic elements -brigā or -bris < -brixs 'hill, [[hillfort]]'.
[[Celtic toponymy]] of Portugal (Western side of Iberia) is shown light-blue and yellow on the map.]]

==List of towns and places==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Celtic name
! Modern name
|-
| Anobrega || [[Ponte da Barca]]
|-
| Anobra || [[Anobra]] in [[Condeixa-a-Nova]]. Likely derived from ''ānniyobris'' "hill", "ring" (Cf. old Irish ''ainne'' "ring"),<ref>Prósper (2002) p. 376.</ref>
|-
| Arabriga || probably [[Alenquer Municipality, Portugal|Alenquer]] or between [[Sesimbra]] and [[Outão]]
|-
| Arcobica || probably [[Torrão]] in [[Alcácer do Sal]]
|-
| Arcobriga || probably near [[Braga]]
|-
| Aritium Praetorium || probably Tamazim, near Bemposta
|-
| Aritium oppidum vetus || Casal da Várzea
|-
| Aritium Vetus || [[Alvega]] in [[Abrantes]]
|-
| Aranni || probably near [[Ourique Parish|Ourique]]
|-
| Arandis || near [[Ourique Parish|Ourique]]
|-
|Ardila ||
|-
| Armona || [[Ilha de Armona]]
|-
| Auobriga/ *Aobriga || in the [[Ave River|Ave Valley]] region
|-
| Equabonna/Aquabona || [[Coina]] in [[Barreiro Municipality|Barreiro]]
|-
| Auaron Pr. || [[Carreiro, Póvoa de Varzim|Carreiro]] in [[Póvoa de Varzim]] ([[Cape Santo André]])
|-
| Axabrica/Axabrix || [[Xabregas]]
|-
| Boidobr(ig)a (?)|| [[Boidobra]], in [[Covilhã]]. A combination of two elements:
*boudi<ref name="DLG">{{cite dictionary|authorlink=:fr:Xavier Delamarre|last=Delamarre|first=Xavier|year=2003|title=Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental|trans-title=Dictionary of the Gaulish language: A linguistic approach to Old Continental Celtic|volume=(Collection des Hespérides; 9), 3rd edition, Éditions Errance|publisher=Errance |isbn=978-2877722377|at=page boudi- of 83-84}}</ref> or *boudo- 'victory' (Welsh budd 'gain, benefit') and "briga".
|-
| [[Bracara Augusta|Bracara]] || [[Braga]]
|-
| Brigantia || [[Bragança (Portugal)|Bragança]]
|-
| Brita/s ||
|-
| Budens || [[Budens]]
|-
| *Burrulobriga || around [[Elvas Municipality|Elvas]]
|-
| [[Cetóbriga|Caetobriga]]/Caetobrix/Kaitobrix || [[Setúbal]]
|-
| Caeilobricoi || [[Castro Daire]] in [[Lamas de Moledo]]
|-
| Calabria > Caliabriga|| [[Castelo Calabre]] in [[Vila Nova de Foz Côa]]
|-
| Caladunum || probably [[Vilar de Perdizes]] in [[Montalegre]]
|-
| Cambra<Calambriga || [[Vale de Cambra]] ([[Aveiro District|Aveiro]]), [[Casal de Cambra]] ([[Sintra]])
|-
| Cale || [[Vila Nova de Gaia]]; Portucale; Portugal
|-
| Cantippo ||
|-
| Castellum Araocelum || [[São Cosmado]] in [[Mangualde]]
|-
| Catraleucus/ Contraleuco ||
|-
| Cempsibriga || [[Sesimbra]]
|-
| Colobre || [[Alcolobre]] in [[Constância]] (''Colobre'', 935 C.E.): the first element derives from *kwolu- 'wheel'<ref>Matasovic (2009) s.v. kwol-u-.</ref>
|-
| Conimbriga || [[Conímbriga]], [[Condeixa-a-Nova]]; [[Coimbra]] (name only)
|-
| Civitas Aravorum <Aravi> || [[Marialva (Mêda)|Marialva]]
|-
| Collippo || [[Batalha, Portugal|Batalha]]
|-
| Corumbriga ||
|-
| Cottaiobriga || near [[Almeida, Portugal|Almeida]]
|-
|[[Ebora]] || [[Évora]]
|-
| [[Eburobrittium]] || [[Óbidos, Portugal|Óbidos]]
|-
| *Elaneobriga || around [[Braga]]
|-
| Evion
|-
| Ercobriga ||
|-
| Etobrico || [[Alenquer Municipality, Portugal|Alenquer]]
|-
| Jerabrica/Gerabrica/Hierabrica || between [[Lisbon]] and [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]]
|-
| Jurumegna || [[Juromenha]] in [[Alandroal]]
|-
| [[Lacobriga]] || [[Lagos (Portugal)|Lagos]]
|-
| Lamecum || [[Lamego]]
|-
| Langobriga || [[Fiães (Santa Maria da Feira)|Fiães]]
|-
| castello Letiobri || around [[Braga]]
|-
| Lemos ||
|-
| Londobris || [[Berlengas]]
|-
| Longobriga || [[Longroiva]] in [[Mêda]]
|-
| Lubrigos || [[Vila Real Municipality|Vila Real]]
|-
| Civitas Aravorum <Aravi> || [[Marialva (Mêda)]]
|-
| Malaceca/[[Malateca]] || [[Marateca]]
|-
| Medrobiga || [[Marvão]]
|-
| Meidubriga || in Beira Alta
|-
| Mirobriga || [[Miróbriga]]
|-
| Mirobriga || [[Montemor o Velho]]
|-
| Meribriga/Merebriga || in [[Alentejo]]
|-
| Merobriga || probably [[Sines (parish)|Sines]] or near river Mira
|-
| Montobriga/Mundobriga || around [[Castelo de Vide]]
|-
| Moron || [[Castelo de Almourol|Almorol]] or [[Montalvão]]
|-
| Ocelum || Ferro probably in [[Covilhã]]
|-
| Pendraganum || [[Pedrógão Grande]]
|-
| Seliobriga || [[São Martinho de Pedrulhais]] in [[Sepins]]
|-
| Senabriga|| [[Seia]]
|-
| [[Talabriga]] || [[Lamas do Vouga]]
|-
| Talabriga || [[Ponte de Lima]], Estourãos
|-
| Tameobriga || near [[Rio Paiva|Paiva]] and [[Douro River|Douro]]
|-
| Terena || [[Terena (São Pedro)|Terena]]
|-
|[[Tongobriga]]/ Tuntobriga|| "capela dos mouros" in Freixo
|-
| Tur(o)lobriga || around [[Chaves, Portugal|Chaves]]
|-
| Uxonoba ||
|-
| Vicus Camalocensis || around [[Crato Municipality|Crato]]
|-
| Vicus Veniensis || Cabeço de Lameirão in [[Meimoa]]
|-
| Vipasca || [[Aljustrel]]
|}

==List of rivers ==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Celtic name
! Modern name
|-
|Arda from Proto-Celtic *ardwo- <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/61167870/An-Etymological-Lexicon-of-Proto-Celtic|title=An Etymological Lexicon of Proto-Celtic | Languages of Europe | Philology}}</ref>|| [[Arda (Douro)|Arda]]
|-
|Latinised ''Arduinna'' from Celtic *ardwo- hight, related to forests, Goddess of the forests <ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.celtnet.org.uk/gods_a/arduinna.html | title=Inactive }}</ref>|| Ardena
|-
|Ardila *same as above || [[Ardila]]
|-
|Latinised ''Arauca'' from Celtic<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/toponimia/Arouca|title = Arouca | Definição ou significado de Arouca no Dicionário Infopédia de Toponímia}}</ref> || [[Arouca, Portugal|Arouca]]
|-
|Latinised ''Arauca'' from Celtic<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/toponimia/Arouca|title = Arouca | Definição ou significado de Arouca no Dicionário Infopédia de Toponímia}}</ref> || Arouce
|-
|Latinised ''Arauca'' from Celtic<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/toponimia/Arouca|title = Arouca | Definição ou significado de Arouca no Dicionário Infopédia de Toponímia}}</ref> || Arunca
|-
|Latinised ''Cavalum'' from Celtic/Gaulish *caballos - horse<ref>{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/etymologiconmag00whitgoog | page=[https://archive.org/details/etymologiconmag00whitgoog/page/n204 158] | quote=caballos celtic etymology. | title=Etymologicon magnum, or Universal etymological dictionary, on a new plan [By W. Whiter]| last1=Whiter| first1=Walter| year=1800| publisher=Cambridge [England] Printed by F. Hodson, for the author }}</ref> ||Cavalum
|-
| Lethes || [[Lima River|Lima]]
|-
| Minius || [[Minho River|Minho]]
|-
| Munda, Latinised ''Mundaecus'' or ''Mondaecus''|| [[Mondego River|Mondego]]
|-
| Latinised ''Tamaga'', likely from Tamaca<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/toponimia/Tâmega|title = Tâmega | Definição ou significado de Tâmega no Dicionário Infopédia de Toponímia}}</ref> || [[Tâmega River|Tâmega]]
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* Falileyev. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090731025816/http://cadair.aber.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/2160/282/5/ContCelticPNDictionary.pdf ''Dictionary of Continental Celtic Place-Names'']. Aberystwyth University
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=tJIfAAAAMAAJ&q=Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Geography ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography'']
* Gamito, Teresa. [http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_11/gamito_6_11.html ''The Celts in Portugal'']. Universidade do Algarve. E-Keltoi. ''Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies''. Volume 6. The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula]
* Freire,José. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120206114400/http://www.csarmento.uminho.pt/docs/ndat/rg/RGVE1999_015.pdf "A Toponímia Céltica e os vestígios de cultura material da Proto-História de Portugal"]. ''Revista de Guimarães'', Volume Especial, I, Guimarães, 1999, pp. 265–275
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040611215344/http://www.arqueotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm Mapa pormenorizado dos Povos Pré-Romanos da Península Ibérica (200 AC)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=LJMMcdLg7FcC&dq=Setobriga&pg=RA7-PA714]
* ''[http://viasromanas.planetaclix.pt/ Vias Romanas em Portugal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212004353/http://viasromanas.planetaclix.pt/ |date=2021-02-12 }}''
* Juan, Alonso. [http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_15/garcia_alonso_6_15.html -Briga Toponyms in the Iberian Peninsula]. University of Salamanca. E-Keltoi. ''Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies''. Volume 6. "The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula"
* Buchanan, George. [https://archive.org/details/historyscotland01buchgoog/page/n212  ''The history of Scotland... to the present time'']. pg 108
* Hazlitt, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070911232831/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/gazetteer/0192.html ''The Classical Gazetteer'']. Ancient Library. pg 190]
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-76925/ Braganca Bragança, or Braganza, or Brigantia, or Juliobriga (Portugal)] ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' online
* ''[http://arkeotavira.com/necropole/cidades-romanas/cidades.pdf Atlas das Cidades Romanas em Portugal]''
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=KmYtAAAAMAAJ&dq=corumbriga&pg=RA2-PA183 "Corumbriga"] ''The Cambrian Journal''. Cambrian Institute p 183
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/_Texts/Ptolemy/2/4*.html Ptolemy's ''Geography'']. Book II, Chapter 4. Location of Lusitania Hispania (Second Map of Europe.Lacus Curtius]
* Perestrello da Câmara, Paulo. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MksQAAAAYAAJ&dq=Catraleucus&pg=RA3-PA493 ''Diccionario geographico, historico, politico e litterario do reino de Portugal e seus Domínios''] pg 494 (two Mirobrigas)
* Bautista de Castro, João. [https://books.google.com/books?id=LQsIAAAAQAAJ&dq=Contraleucos&pg=PA18 Mappa de Portugal], pg 18 (Catraleucus)
* Pérez Vilatela, Luciano. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rwFnYh9zkgAC&dq=dos+Arc%C3%B3briga&pg=PT69 ''Lusitania: Historia y etnología''] pg.7 (two Arcobrigas in Lusitânia)
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=0OUNAAAAYAAJ&dq=arcobriga++lusitania&pg=PA81 ''Memorias de la Real Academia de la historia'']. pg 81 Real Academia de la Historia. (three Arcobrigas)
* Alarcão,Jorge. [http://www.ipa.min-cultura.pt/pubs/RPA/v7n2/folder/10.pdf ''Notas de arqueologia, epigrafia e toponímia'' – II]
* Guerra, Amílcar. [http://www.ipa.min-cultura.pt/pubs/RPA/v7n2/folder/11.pdf ''Caepiana: uma reavaliação crítica do problema da sua localização e enquadramento histórico'']. IPA Ministério da Cultura. (Longroiva)
* Alarcão,Jorge. [http://www.ipa.min-cultura.pt/pubs/RPA/v8n2/folder/293-311.pdf ''Notas de arqueologia, epigrafia e toponímia'' – III]{{dead link|date=August 2020|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} (Valabriga-Merobriga)
* Guerra, Amílcar. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081209113629/http://www.dpz.es/ifc2/libros/ebook2622.pdf POVOS, CULTURA E LÍNGUA NO OCIDENTE PENINSULAR: UMA PERSPECTIVA, A PARTIR DA TOPONOMÁSTICA] ''Acta Palaeohispanica IX Palaeohispanica 5'', (2005), pp 814–817]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=PPFpEh5qJcEC&dq=celta+anobrega&pg=PA10 Los topónimos: Sus blasones y trofeos (la toponimia Mítica)] pg 10 (Anobrega)
* Nascentes, Antenor. (1932) ''Dicionário etimológico da língua portuguesa''. (ref. Xabregas)

== See also ==
* [[Roman Geography of Portugal]]
* [[List of Celtic place names in Galicia]]
* [[List of Latin place names in Iberia]]
* [[List of Celtic place names in Italy]]

{{Celts}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Celtic place names in Portugal}}
[[Category:Celtic toponyms|Portugal]]
[[Category:Lists of place name etymologies|Celtic Portugal]]
[[Category:Alternative names of European places|Portugal]]
[[Category:Lists of cities in Europe|Portugal]]
[[Category:Lists of cities by toponymy|Portugal]]
[[Category:Portugal geography-related lists| ]]
[[Category:Lists of loanwords of Celtic origin|Portugal]]

Gallaeci (tribe)

2024-06-23T18:51:33Z

Amanyn: Fixed typo (th > to)

{{more footnotes|date=September 2020}}

{{refimprove|date=July 2020}}

The '''Gallaeci''' or '''Callaeci''' were an ancient [[Celt]]ic tribe of [[Gallaecia]], living in the northwest of modern [[Portugal]], roughly in today's western half of the [[Porto District]], from the west of the [[Tâmega river]] valley to the Atlantic coast in the west and north of the [[Douro river]].<ref name="arqueotavira populi">https://web.archive.org/web/20040611215344/http://www.arqueotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)</ref>

== Etymology ==
The Greek name of the tribe was ''Kallaikoi''.

A large tribal confederation (the [[Gallaeci]]) in the northwest of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and the region of [[Gallaecia]] (roughly today's [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] and [[Northern Portugal]], and also included [[Asturias]] and part of [[León (historical region)|León]]) are named after the Gallaeci.<ref name="arqueotavira populi" />

== Culture ==
Culturally, the Gallaeci were part of the [[Late Bronze Age]] and [[Iron Age]] [[Castro Culture]].

== Geography ==
Neighbouring this tribe to the north were the [[Bracari]] and the [[Narbasi]], to the northeast the [[Narbasi]] and some of the [[Nemetati]], and to the east (low valley of the [[Tâmega river]]) were the [[Tongobrigenses]], all of which were also [[Gallaeci|Gallaecian]] tribes.

To the south (south of the [[Douro river]]) were the [[Turduli Veteres]], a tribe part of the [[Turduli]], and to their southeast (south of the [[Douro river]]) were the [[Paesuri]], a tribe part of the [[Lusitanians]] and to their west was the Atlantic coast.<ref name="arqueotavira populi" />

Their territory was in a strategic position at the low course of the [[Douro river]], because land and maritime routes, including [[trade routes]], crossed their territory between the north and the south or vice versa, and from the east to the west or vice versa.

== Roman conquering ==
Roman general [[Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus]] conquered their land and founded the Roman city [[Portus Cale]] (today's [[Porto]] or [[Oporto]] city) in approximately 136 BC based on or close to an older Celtic village and [[fortress]] (a [[Castro culture|Castro]]) that was on the top of a hill on the north bank of the [[Douro river]], close to its [[River mouth|mouth]] or [[estuary]] but more to the inland.

The [[Place name|Place Name]] ([[Toponym]]) ''[[Portus Cale]]'' would later give rise to the name [[Portugal]] (the country).

==See also==
*[[Castro culture]]
*[[Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Refbegin}}
*Queiroga, Francisco (1992), ''War and Castros'', Oxford.
*Silva, Armando Coelho Ferreira da (1986), ''A Cultura Castreja'', Porto.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040611215344/http://www.arqueotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)]

{{Pre-Roman peoples in Portugal}}

[[Category:Tribes of Gallaecia]]
[[Category:Galician Celtic tribes]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples of Portugal]]

{{europe-ethno-group-stub}}
{{Portugal-hist-stub}}

User:Amanyn

2024-06-23T16:09:54Z

Amanyn: Added userbox

Hi. I don't know what else to put here

{{User WP Celts}}

Wikipedia:WikiProject Celts/Participants

2024-06-23T16:06:15Z

Amanyn: Added myself

<includeonly>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Celts/Participants|Click here for details]]</includeonly>

# {{User|SMcCandlish}} <noinclude>Generalized interest – cultural, historical, mythological, linguistic, revivalist/nationalist (though I tend to stay out of .ie vs .uk discussions due to the amount of flaming). I have a degree in cultural anthropology and linguistics. I own a rather large number of books on Celtic history, archaeology, art, and language, especially from the 1990s and earlier, so let me know if there's a cite you need and I might have the book in question. I even have a lot of Manx language materials and other somewhat obscure stuff (other than neopagan material).</noinclude>
# {{User|Newbiepedian}} <noinclude>Interested in Scotland and Ireland (and I suppose Man) - particularly language, religion, church history and social history.</noinclude>
# {{User|Cdjp1}}
# {{User|ClarityKTMpls}} <noinclude>My Irish heritage is important to me and I enjoy exploring it a great deal. I'm interested in learning more, and though I don't have as much free time as I'd like, would be delighted to help out as much as possible.</noinclude>
# [[User:Buaidh| Buaidh ]] 18:49, 7 February 2018 (UTC)
# '''[[User:JeBonSer|JeBon''Ser'']]''' ([[User_talk:JeBonSer|talk]] | [[User:JeBonSer/Guestbook|sign]]) 19:12, 24 February 2019 (UTC). Europa!
# --- [[User:FULBERT|FULBERT]] ([[User talk:FULBERT|talk]]) 14:32, 16 May 2020 (UTC)
# {{User|Titus Gold}} <noinclude> Mainly Wales, also Scotland and Ireland and the history culture and political movements of all the Celtic nations.</noinclude>[[User:Titus Gold|Titus Gold]] ([[User talk:Titus Gold|talk]]) 19:55, 18 September 2023 (UTC)
# {{User|Sawyer-mcdonell}} <noinclude>i'm particularly interested in the religious aspects of the celtic world - the saints, holy wells, churches, and folk practices. i'm very passionate about language revival as well, and basically everything about the celts to be real. happy to be here! [[User:Sawyer-mcdonell|Sawyer-mcdonell]] ([[User talk:Sawyer-mcdonell|talk]]) 04:30, 20 September 2023 (UTC)</noinclude>
#[[User:KINGHB190|KINGHB190]] <noinclude>I am very interested in the history and culture of the Celtic people, both in culture and in genetics.</noinclude>
# [[User:Toby Atkinson-Seed|Toby Atkinson-Seed]] ([[User talk:Toby Atkinson-Seed|talk]]) 19:34, 15 April 2024 (UTC) <noinclude>I am fascinated by the Celtic people of Britain, especially those in the area that is now Oxfordshire, as this is my home. As such, I have a special interest in the Catuvellauni tribe and their history, culture, mythology and role in Celtic Britain as a whole. Even more than this, I would like to find out more about the Ancalites tribe, which we currently know virtually nothing about.</noinclude>
# {{User|Amanyn}} <noinclude>I'm interested in the Celtic world as a whole, but particularly by the legacy of the Gallaeci.</noinclude>

Participants should feel free to use this userbox:
{{User WP Celts}}

User:Amanyn

2024-06-23T15:56:34Z

Amanyn: ←Created page with 'Hi. I don't know what else to put here'

Hi. I don't know what else to put here

Ancient Celtic religion

2024-06-23T14:38:17Z

Amanyn: /* Archaeological sources */Replaced Celtiberian with Gallaecian, added link to Gallaecian warrior statues

{{short description|Religion practised by ancient Celtic people}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Celtic mythology}}
[[File:CLUNY-Maquette pilier nautes 1.JPG|thumb|upright|200px|Model reconstructing the [[Pillar of the Boatmen]] in the [[Musée de Cluny]], Paris. After 14 AD.]]
'''Ancient Celtic religion''', commonly known as '''Celtic paganism''',<ref>{{harvnb|Ross|1974}}{{page needed|date=May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1991}}{{page needed|date=May 2024}}</ref><ref>Jones, Prudence and Pennick, Nigel (1995). ''A History of Pagan Europe''. Routledge.</ref> was the religion of the ancient [[Celts|Celtic peoples]] of Europe. Because there are no extant native records of their beliefs, evidence about their religion is gleaned from archaeology, Greco-Roman accounts (some of them hostile and probably not well-informed), and literature from the early Christian period.<ref name="Green, The Celtic World">[[Miranda Aldhouse-Green|Green, Miranda]] (2012). "Chapter 25: The Gods and the supernatural", ''The Celtic World''. Routledge. pp.465–485</ref> Celtic [[paganism]] was one of a larger group of polytheistic [[Indo-European religion|Indo-European]] religions of [[Iron Age]] Europe.

While the [[List of Celtic deities|specific deities worshipped]] varied by region and over time, underlying this were broad similarities<ref name="Cunliffe 1997 Page 184">{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|p=184}}</ref> in both [[Celtic deities|deities]]<ref name="Cunliffe religion">{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|pp=275–277, 286, 291–296}}</ref> and "a basic religious homogeneity" among the Celtic peoples.<ref>{{harvnb|Ross|1986|p=103}}</ref> Widely worshipped Celtic gods include: [[Lugus]], [[Toutatis]], [[Taranis]], [[Cernunnos]], [[Epona]], [[Maponos]], [[Belenos]], [[Ogmios]], and [[Sucellos]].<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/><ref name="Green, The Celtic World"/> [[Sacred spring]]s were often associated with Celtic healing deities.<ref name="Koch religion">{{harvnb|Koch|2006|pp=1488{{ndash}}1491}}</ref> [[Triplicity]] is a common theme, with a number of [[triple deity|deities seen as threefold]], for example [[Matres and Matronae|the Three Mothers]].

The [[Druid|druids]] were the priests of Celtic religion, but little is definitively known about them.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|2009|p=17}}</ref> Greco-Roman writers said the Celts held ceremonies in [[sacred grove]]s and other [[Sacred natural site|natural]] [[shrine]]s, called [[nemeton]]s, while some Celtic peoples also built temples or ritual enclosures.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/> Celtic peoples often made [[votive offerings]] which would be deposited in water and wetlands, or in ritual shafts and wells.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/> There is evidence that ancient Celtic peoples [[Animal sacrifice|sacrificed animals]], almost always [[livestock]] or [[working animals]].<ref name="Green94-96"/> There is also some evidence that ancient Celts [[Human sacrifice|sacrificed humans]] and, though possibly imperial propaganda, some Greco-Roman sources claim the Gauls sacrificed criminals by [[Death by burning|burning them]] in a [[wicker man]].<ref name="koch687-690"/>

== History ==

=== Origins ===
Celtic paganism, as practiced by the ancient Celts, is a descendant of [[Proto-Celtic paganism]], itself derived from [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Proto-Indo-European paganism]]. Many [[List of Celtic deities|deities in Celtic mythologies]] have cognates in other Indo-European mythologies, such as Celtic [[Brigantia (goddess)|Brigantia]] with Roman [[Aurora (mythology)|Aurora]], Vedic [[Ushas]], and Norse [[Aurvandill]]; Welsh [[Arianrhod]] with Greek [[Selene]], Baltic [[Mėnuo]], and Slavic [[Myesyats]]; and Irish [[Danu (Irish goddess)|Danu]] with Hindu [[Danu (Hinduism)|Danu]] and the namesake of multiple hydronyms such as the [[Danube]], [[Don (river)|Don]], and [[Dnieper]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Mallory |first1=J. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tF5wAAAAIAAJ |title=The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World |last2=Adams |first2=D. Q. |date=2006-08-24 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-928791-8 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Legacy ===
After the [[Roman Empire]]'s conquest of [[Gaul]] (58–51 BCE) and [[Roman Britain|southern Britain]] (43 CE), Celtic religion there underwent some [[Romanisation (cultural)|Romanisation]], resulting in a [[syncretic]] [[Gallo-Roman religion]] with deities such as [[Lenus|Lenus Mars]], [[Grannus|Apollo Grannus]], and [[Telesphorus (mythology)|Telesphorus]].

The Gauls gradually converted to Christianity from the third century onward. After the [[end of Roman rule in Britain]] (c. 410 CE), Celtic paganism began to be replaced by [[Anglo-Saxon paganism]] over much of what became [[History of Anglo-Saxon England|England]]. The Celtic populations of Britain and Ireland gradually converted to Christianity from the fifth century onward. However, Celtic paganism left a legacy in many of the Celtic nations, influenced [[Celtic mythology|mythology]] and in the 20th century served as the basis for a [[new religious movement]], [[Celtic neopaganism]].

Some figures from medieval [[Irish mythology]] are believed to be versions of earlier deities. According to [[Miranda Aldhouse-Green]], the Celts were also [[Celtic Animism|animists]], believing that every part of the natural world had a spirit.<ref name="Green, The Celtic World" />

=== Revival ===
{{Main|Celtic neopaganism}}
Various [[Neopagan]] groups claim association with Celtic paganism. These groups range from the [[Polytheistic reconstructionism|Reconstructionists]], who work to practise ancient Celtic religion with as much accuracy as possible; to [[New Age]], eclectic groups who take some of their inspiration from Celtic mythology and iconography, the most notable of which is [[Neo-Druidry]].{{cn|date=September 2023}}

==Sources==
Comparatively little is known about Celtic [[paganism]] because the evidence for it is fragmentary, due largely to the fact that the Celts who practised it wrote nothing down about their religion.<ref name = "GreenExploring24">Miranda J. Green. (2005) ''Exploring the world of the druids.'' London: Thames & Hudson. {{ISBN|0-500-28571-3}}. p. 24.</ref><ref name = "The Celts">{{harvnb|Emrys Evans|1992|p=170}}</ref> Therefore, all there is to study their religion from is the literature from the [[early Christian]] period, commentaries from classical Greek and Roman scholars, and archaeological evidence.<ref name = "The Celts, an introduction">{{harvnb|Emrys Evans|1992|pp=170{{ndash}}171}}</ref>

The archaeologist [[Barry Cunliffe]] summarised the sources for Celtic religion as ''"fertile chaos"'', borrowing the term from the Irish scholar [[Proinsias Mac Cana|Proinsias MacCana]]. Cunliffe went on to note that "there is more, varied, evidence for Celtic religion than for any other example of Celtic life. The only problem is to assemble it in a systematic form which does not too greatly oversimplify the intricate texture of its detail."<ref name="Cunliffe 1997 Page 183">{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|p=183}}</ref>

===Archaeological sources===
[[File:Kultwagen Strettweg.jpg|thumb|The [[Strettweg Cult Wagon]], c. 600 BC]]
The archaeological evidence does not contain the bias inherent in the literary sources. Nonetheless, the interpretation of this evidence can be coloured by the 21st century mindset.<ref name = "GreenExploring24"/> Various archaeological discoveries have aided understanding of the religion of the Celts.

Most surviving [[Celtic art]] is not figurative; some art historians have suggested that the complex and compelling decorative motifs that characterize some periods have a religious significance, but the understanding of what that might be appears to be irretrievably lost. Surviving figurative [[monumental sculpture]] comes almost entirely from Romano-Celtic contexts, and broadly follows provincial Roman styles, though figures who are probably deities often wear [[torc]]s, and there may be inscriptions in Roman letters with what appear to be Romanized Celtic names. The [[Pillar of the Boatmen]] from Paris, with many deity figures, is the most comprehensive example, datable by a dedication to the [[Emperor Tiberius]] (r. from 14 AD).<ref>{{harvnb|Green|1989}} Chapters 2 & 4.</ref>

Monumental stone sculptures from before conquest by the Romans are much more rare, and it is far from clear that deities are represented. The most significant are the [[Warrior of Hirschlanden]] and "[[Glauberg]] Prince" (respectively 6th and 5th-century BC, from Germany), the [[Mšecké Žehrovice Head]] (probably 2nd-century BC, Czech Republic), and sanctuaries of some sort at the southern French oppida of [[Roquepertuse]] and [[Entremont (oppidum)|Entremont]]. There are also a number of [[Gallaeci|Gallaecian]] standing [[Gallaecian warrior statues|"warrior" figures]], and several other stone heads from various areas. In general, even early monumental sculpture is found in areas with higher levels of contact with the classical world, through trade.<ref>{{harvnb|Stöllner|2014|pp=119-125, 133}}</ref> It is possible that wooden monumental sculpture was more common. Small heads are more common, mainly surviving as ornament in metalwork, and there are also animals and birds that may have a religious significance,<ref>{{harvnb|Green|1989}} Chapter 5, in particular pp. 142-144 on birds, pp. 146-149 on horse.</ref> as on the [[Basse Yutz Flagons]].<ref>Kaul, Fleming, pp. 106–110, "The not so ugly duckling: an essay on meaning" in: Gosden, Christopher, Crawford, Sally, Ulmschneider, Katharina, ''Celtic Art in Europe: Making Connections'', 2014, Oxbow Books, {{ISBN|1782976582}}, 9781782976585, [https://books.google.com/books?id=YOOZBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 google books]</ref> The [[Strettweg Cult Wagon]] is probably associated with [[libation]]s or sacrifices, and pairs of metal "spoons" probably used for [[divination]] have been found.

[[Celtic coinage]], from the late 4th century BC until conquest, clearly copies Greek and Roman examples, sometimes very closely, but the heads and horses that are the most popular motifs may have a local religious significance.<ref>{{harvnb|Green|1989|pp=140, 146-147, 149-150}} (and see index)</ref> There are also the coins of the Roman provinces in the Celtic lands of ''Gaul'', ''[[Raetia]]'', ''[[Noricum]]'', and ''[[Roman Britain|Britannia]]''.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

Most of the surviving monuments and their accompanying inscriptions belong to the Roman period and reflect a considerable degree of [[syncretism]] between Celtic and Roman gods; even where figures and motifs appear to derive from pre-Roman tradition, they are difficult to interpret in the absence of a preserved literature on mythology.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}} A notable example of this is the horned god that was called [[Cernunnos]]; several depictions and inscriptions of him have been found, but very little is known about the myths that would have been associated with him or how he was worshipped.

===Irish and Welsh records===
[[File:ThingDSCF6599.jpg|thumb|upright|One of a pair of British "divining spoons"]]
Literary evidence for Celtic religion also comes from sources written in [[Ireland]] and [[Wales]] during the Middle Ages, a period when traditional Celtic religious practices had become extinct and had long been replaced by Christianity. The evidence from Ireland has been recognised as better than that from Wales, being viewed as "both older and less contaminated from foreign material."<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1991|p=147}}</ref> These sources, which are in the form of epic poems and tales, were written several centuries after Christianity became the dominant religion in these regions, and were written down by Christian monks, "who may not merely have been hostile to the earlier paganism but actually ignorant of it."<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1991|p=148}}</ref> Instead of treating the characters as deities, they are allocated the roles of being historical heroes who sometimes have [[supernatural]] or superhuman powers, for instance, in the Irish sources the gods are claimed to be an ancient tribe of humans known as the [[Tuatha Dé Danann]].

While it is possible to single out specific texts that can be strongly argued to encapsulate genuine echoes or resonances of the pre-Christian past, opinion is divided as to whether these texts contain substantive material derived from [[oral tradition]] as preserved by [[bard]]s or whether they were the creation of the medieval [[Christian monasticism|monastic tradition]].<ref name = "GreenExploring24"/>

===Greek and Roman records===
Various Greek and Roman writers of the [[ancient]] world commented on the Celts and their beliefs. Barry Cunliffe stated that "the Greek and Roman texts provide a number of pertinent observations, but these are at best anecdotal, offered largely as a colourful background by writers whose prime intention was to communicate other messages."<ref name="Cunliffe 1997 Page 183"/> The Roman general [[Julius Caesar]], when leading the conquering armies of the Roman Republic against Celtic Gaul, made various descriptions of the inhabitants, though some of his claims, such as that the Druids practised human sacrifice by burning people in [[wicker man|wicker men]], have come under scrutiny by modern scholars.{{Citation needed|date = December 2015}}

However, the key problem with the use of these sources is that they were often biased against the Celts, whom the classical peoples viewed as "barbarians".<ref name = "GreenExploring24"/> In the case of the Romans who conquered several Celtic realms, they would have likely been biased in favour of making the Celts look uncivilised, thereby giving the "civilised" Romans more reason to conquer them.<ref name = "The Celts, Introduction">Dr Ray Dunning (1999) ''The Encyclopedia of World Mythology'' Parragon. {{ISBN|0-7525-8444-8}}.</ref>

==Deities==
[[File:Gundestrupkedlen- 00054 (cropped).jpg|250px|thumb|right|Image of an [[Horned deity|antlered figure]] on the [[Gundestrup cauldron]], interpreted by many archaeologists as being cognate to the god [[Cernunnos]].]]
[[File:Autel tricephale MuseeStRemi Reims 1131a.jpg|thumb|upright|Altar depicting a three-faced god identified as Lugus, discovered in [[Reims]].]]
{{Main|Celtic deities|Proto-Celtic religion}}

Celtic religion was [[polytheism|polytheistic]], believing in many deities, both gods and goddesses, some of which were venerated only in a small area or region, or by a particular tribe, but others whose worship had a wider geographical distribution.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/> The names of over two hundred Celtic deities have survived (see [[list of Celtic deities]]), although it is likely that many of these were alternative names, regional names or titles for the same deity.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/>

The various Celtic peoples seem to have had a father god, who was often a god of the tribe and of the dead ([[Toutatis]] probably being one name for him); and a mother goddess who was associated with the land, earth and fertility<ref name="Koch religion"/> ([[Dea Matrona|Matrona]] probably being one name for her). The mother goddess could also take the form of a war goddess as [[Tutelary deity|protectress]] of her tribe and its land, for example [[Andraste]].<ref name="Koch religion"/> There also seems to have been a male celestial god—identified with [[Taranis]]—associated with thunder, the wheel, and the bull.<ref name="Koch religion"/> There were gods of skill and craft, such as the pan-regional god [[Lugus]], and the smith god [[Gobannos]].<ref name="Koch religion"/> Celtic healing deities were often associated with [[sacred spring]]s,<ref name="Koch religion"/> such as [[Sirona (goddess)|Sirona]] and [[Borvo]]. Other pan-regional deities include the horned god [[Cernunnos]], the horse and fertility goddess [[Epona]], the divine son [[Maponos]], as well as [[Belenos]], [[Ogmios]], and [[Sucellos]].<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/><ref name="Green, The Celtic World"/> Some [[Triple deity|deities were seen as threefold]], for example [[Matres and Matronae|the Three Mothers]].<ref name = "Mythology : The Celts">{{harvnb|Emrys Evans|1992|p=171}}</ref>

Some Greco-Roman writers, such as [[Julius Caesar]], did not record the native Celtic names of the deities, but instead referred to them by their apparent Roman or Greek equivalents. He declared that the most widely venerated Gaulish god was [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]], the Roman god of trade, saying they also worshipped [[Apollo]], [[Minerva]], [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] and [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]].<ref>[[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]. ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico''. Book 6.</ref> Caesar says the Gauls believed they all descended from a god of the dead and underworld, whom he likened to [[Dīs Pater]].<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/>

According to other [[Classical era|classical]] sources, the Celts worshipped the forces of nature and did not envisage deities in [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] terms.<ref name="Wood">[http://www.juliettewood.com/papers/charlessquire.pdf Juliette Wood. ‘Introduction.’ In Squire, C. (2000). ''The mythology of the British Islands: an introduction to Celtic myth, legend, poetry and romance''. London & Ware: UCL & Wordsworth] Editions Ltd. {{ISBN|1-84022-500-9}}. pp. 12–13.</ref>

===Insular mythology===
In the Irish and Welsh vernacular sources from the Middle Ages, various human mythological figures were featured who have been thought of by many scholars as being based upon earlier gods. The historian [[Ronald Hutton]] however cautioned against automatically characterizing all Irish and Welsh mythological figures as former deities, noting that while some characters "who appear to be human, such as [[Medb]] or [[St Brigit]], probably were indeed once regarded as divine ... the warriors who are the main protagonists of the stories have the same status as those in the Greek myths, standing between the human and divine orders. To regard characters such as [[Cú Chulainn]], [[Fergus Mac Roich]] or [[Conall Cernach]] as former gods turned into humans by a later storyteller is to misunderstand their literary and religious function ... Cú Chulainn is no more a former god than Superman is."<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1991|pp=175{{ndash}}176}}</ref>

Examining these Irish myths, Barry Cunliffe stated that he believed they displayed "a dualism between the male tribal god and the female deity of the land"<ref>{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|p=185}}</ref> while Anne Ross felt that they displayed that the gods were "on the whole intellectual, deeply versed in the native learning, poets and prophets, story-tellers and craftsmen, magicians, healers, warriors ... in short, equipped with every quality admired and desired by the Celtic peoples themselves."<ref>{{harvnb|Ross|1986|p=102}}</ref>

Insular Celts swore their oaths by their tribal gods, and the land, sea and sky; as in, "I swear by the gods by whom my people swear" and "If I break my oath, may the land open to swallow me, the sea rise to drown me, and the sky fall upon me",<ref name = "Sjoestedt">Marie-Louise Sjoestedt, ''Gods and Heroes of the Celts'', translated by Myles Dillon, Berkeley, CA, Turtle Island Foundation, 1982, p. 17. {{ISBN|0-913666-52-1}}.</ref> an example of Celtic [[Threefold death]].

==Animistic aspects==
{{Main|Celtic animism}}
Some scholars, such as Prudence Jones and Nigel Pennick,<ref>Jones, Prudence and Pennick, Nigel (1995). ''A History of Pagan Europe''. Routledge. p. 81.</ref> have speculated that the Celts venerated certain trees. Other scholars, such as [[Miranda Aldhouse-Green]], believe that the Celts were [[animism|animists]], believing that all aspects of the [[Natural environment|natural world]] contained spirits, and that communication was possible with these spirits.<ref name = "GreenAnimals">[[Miranda Green (academic)|Miranda Green]]. (1992:196) ''Animals in Celtic Life and Myth''. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-05030-8}}.</ref>

Places such as rocks, streams, mountains, and trees may all have had shrines or offerings devoted to a deity residing there. These would have been local deities, known and worshiped by inhabitants living near to the shrine itself, and not pan-Celtic like some of the polytheistic gods. The importance of trees in Celtic religion may be shown by the fact that the very name of the [[Eburones|Eburonian]] tribe contains a reference to the [[taxus|yew tree]], and that names like [[Mac Cuilinn]] (son of holly) and [[Mac Ibar]] (son of yew) appear in Irish myths{{dubious|date=April 2014}}. In Ireland, wisdom was symbolised by the salmon who feed on the hazelnuts from the trees that surround the well of wisdom (''Tobar Segais'').{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

The relatively few animal figures in early [[Celtic art]] include many water-birds, and it is speculated that their ability to move on the air, water, and land gave them a special status or significance among the Celts. Examples include the [[Torrs Pony-cap and Horns]] (Scotland), [[Basse Yutz Flagons]] (France), [[Wandsworth Shield]] (England), and the [[Dunaverney flesh-hook]] (late Bronze Age Ireland).<ref>{{harvnb|Green|1989|pp=142{{ndash}}144}}</ref>

==Burial and afterlife==
[[File:Keltengrabhuegel Hochdorf.jpg|thumb|The mound over the rich [[Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave]], near [[Eberdingen]], Germany. Such burials were reserved for the influential and wealthy in Celtic society.]]

Celtic burial practices, which included burying [[grave goods]] of food, weapons, and ornaments with the dead, suggest a belief in [[Afterlife|life after death]].<ref name = "Cunliffe">{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|pp=208{{ndash}}210}}</ref>

A common factor in later mythologies from Christianized Celtic nations was the [[otherworld]].<ref name = "The Celts' page 91">''The Celts'' in ''The Encyclopedia of World Mythology'', Dr Ray Dunning, p. 91.</ref> This was the realm of the [[fairy]] folk and other supernatural beings, who would entice humans into their realm. Sometimes this otherworld was claimed to exist underground, while at other times it was said to lie far to the west. Several scholars have suggested that the otherworld was the Celtic afterlife,<ref name = "The Celts' page 91" /> though there is no direct evidence to prove this.

==Celtic practice==
===Sacred spaces===
[[File:Paganreconstruction (2).gif|thumb|Reconstruction drawing of [[Pagans Hill Roman temple|Pagans Hill]] [[Romano-Celtic temple]]]]
[[File:Mound on top of navan fort.jpg|thumb|[[Eamhain Mhacha]], Ireland]]
Evidence suggests that among the Celts, "offerings to the gods were made throughout the landscape – both the natural and the domestic". There were also sacred spaces known by the Gallo-Brittonic word ''[[nemeton]]'' (plural ''nemeta''), which typically meant a [[sacred grove]] or clearing.<ref>{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|p=197}}</ref> Greco-Roman accounts tell of the Celts worshiping at sacred groves, with [[Tacitus]] describing how his men cut down "groves sacred to savage rites".<ref>[[Tacitus]]. ''Annales''. XIV.</ref> By their very nature, such groves would not survive in the archaeological record, and so we have no direct evidence for them today.<ref>{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|p=198}}</ref> Certain springs were also [[Sacred spring|seen as sacred]] and used as places of worship in the Celtic world. Notable Gaulish examples include the sanctuary of [[Sequana]] at the source of the [[Seine]] in [[Burgundy (region)|Burgundy]] and [[Chamalieres]] near to [[Clermont-Ferrand]]. At both of these sites, a large array of [[votive offerings]] have been uncovered, most of which are wooden carvings, although some of which are embossed metal.<ref>{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|pp=198{{ndash}}199}}</ref>

During the Iron Age, the Celtic peoples of Gaul, Belgica and Britain built temples comprising square or circular timber buildings, usually set within a rectangular enclosure. Celtic peoples further east, in what is now southern Germany, Celtic peoples built rectangular ditched enclosures known as ''[[viereckschanze]]n''; in some cases, these were sacred spaces where votive offerings were buried in deep shafts.<ref>{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|p=200}}</ref> In Ireland, religious buildings and enclosures were circular. According to Barry Cunliffe, "the monumentality of the Irish religious sites sets them apart from their British and continental European counterparts", the most notable examples being the [[Hill of Tara]] (''Temair'') and [[Navan Fort]] (''Emain Macha'').<ref>{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|p=207}}</ref>

In many cases, when the Roman Empire conquered Celtic lands, earlier Iron Age sacred sites were reused and [[Roman temple]]s built on them.<ref>{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|p=204}}</ref> [[Romano-Celtic temple]]s ({{lang-la|[[fanum]]}}) are found only in the northwestern Celtic regions of the empire. They differ from classical Roman temples, and their layouts are believed to be hugely influenced by earlier Celtic wooden temples.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kiernan |first1=Philip |title=Roman Cult Images: The Lives and Worship of Idols from the Iron Age to Late Antiquity |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=151}}</ref>

===Votive offerings===
The Celts made [[votive offerings]] to their deities, which were buried in the earth or thrown into rivers or bogs. According to Barry Cunliffe, in most cases, deposits were placed in the same places on numerous occasions, indicating continual usage "over a period of time, perhaps on a seasonal basis or when a particular event, past or pending, demanded a propitiatory response."<ref name="Cunliffe 1997 Page 194">{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|p=194}}</ref>

In particular, there was a trend to offer items associated with warfare in watery areas, evidence for which is found not only in the Celtic regions, but also in Late Bronze Age (and therefore pre-Celtic) societies and those outside of the Celtic area, namely Denmark. One of the most notable examples is the river [[Thames]] in southern England, where a number of items had been deposited, only to be discovered by archaeologists millennia later. Some of these, like the [[Battersea Shield]], [[Wandsworth Shield]] and the [[Waterloo Helmet]], would have been prestige goods that would have been labour-intensive to make and thereby probably expensive.<ref name="Cunliffe 1997 Page 194"/> Another example is at [[Llyn Cerrig Bach]] in [[Anglesey]], Wales, where offerings, primarily those related to battle, were thrown into the lake from a rocky outcrop in the late first century BC or early first century AD.<ref name="Cunliffe 1997 Page 194"/>

At times, jewellery and other high prestige items that were not related to warfare were also deposited in a ritual context. At Niederzier in the Rhineland for example, a post that excavators believed had religious significance had a bowl buried next to it in which was contained forty-five coins, two [[torc]]s and an armlet, all made of gold, and similar deposits have been uncovered elsewhere in Celtic Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|p=195}}</ref>

===Animal sacrifice===
[[File:Motte Druide coupant le gui au 6e jour de la lune.jpg|thumb|The [[Ritual of oak and mistletoe|oak and mistletoe ritual]] depicted by [[Henri-Paul Motte]] (1900)]]
There is evidence that ancient Celtic peoples sacrificed animals, which were almost always [[livestock]] or [[working animals]].<ref name="Green94-96">{{Cite book |last=Green |first=Miranda |author-link=Miranda Aldhouse-Green |title=Animals in Celtic Life and Myth |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |pages=94–96}}</ref> The idea seems to have been that ritually transferring a life-force to the [[Celtic Otherworld|Otherworld]] pleased the gods and established a channel of communication between the worlds. Animal sacrifices could be acts of thanksgiving, appeasement, to ask for good health and fertility, or as a means of [[divination]]. It seems that some animals were offered wholly to the gods (by burying or burning), while some were shared between gods and humans (part eaten and part set aside).<ref name="Green94-96"/>

[[Pliny the Elder]], a Roman author and military commander in the 1st century AD, wrote of druids performing [[Ritual of oak and mistletoe|a ritual]] whereby they sacrificed two white bulls, cut [[Viscum album|mistletoe]] from a sacred [[oak]] with a golden sickle, and used it to make an elixir to cure infertility and poison.<ref>{{harvnb|Koch|2006|p=612}}</ref>

Archaeologists found that at some Gaulish and British [[Nemeton|sanctuaries]], horses and cattle were killed and their whole bodies carefully buried. At [[Gournay-sur-Aronde]], the animals were left to decompose before their bones were buried around the bounds of the sanctuary along with numerous broken weapons.<ref>{{harvnb|Green|1989|pp=109{{ndash}}110}}</ref> This was repeated at regular intervals of about ten years.<ref name="Green121">{{harvnb|Green|1989|p=121}}</ref> An avenue of animal pit-burials led to a sacred building at [[Cadbury Castle, Somerset|Cadbury]].<ref name="Green121"/> In southern Britain, some British tribes carefully buried animals, especially horses and dogs, in grain storage pits. It is believed these were thanksgiving sacrifices to underworld gods once the stores reached the end of their use.<ref>{{harvnb|Green|1989|p=100}}</ref>

Irish mythology describes the ''tarbfeis'' (bull feast), a shamanistic ritual in which a bull would be sacrificed and a seer would sleep in the bull's hide to have a vision of the future king.<ref>{{harvnb|Davidson|1988|p=51}}</ref>

Following the 12th-century [[Norman invasion of Ireland]], Norman writer [[Gerald of Wales]] wrote in his ''[[Topographia Hibernica]]'' that the Irish kings of [[Tyrconnell]] were inaugurated with a [[horse sacrifice]]. He writes that a white mare was sacrificed and cooked into a broth, which the king bathed in and drank from.<ref name="Davidson54">{{harvnb|Davidson|1988|p=54}}</ref> This has been seen as propaganda meant to paint the Irish as a barbaric people.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Feis |encyclopedia=Medieval Ireland: An Encyclopedia |year=2005 |last=Byrnes |first=Michael |editor-last=Duffy |editor-first =Seán |publisher=Routledge |pages=278–279}}</ref> However, there may be some truth in the account; there are rare mentions of similar horse sacrifices associated with kingship in Scandinavia and India (see ''[[ashvamedha]]'').<ref name="Davidson54"/>

===Human sacrifice===
[[File:The Wicker Man of the Druids crop.jpg|thumb|right|18th century illustration of [[Julius Caesar]]'s account.]]

There is some evidence that ancient Celtic peoples practiced [[human sacrifice]].<ref name="koch687-690">{{harvnb|Koch|2006|pp=687{{ndash}}690}}</ref> Accounts of Celtic human sacrifice come from Roman and Greek sources. [[Julius Caesar]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Gaius Julius Caesar Commentaries on the Gallic War - Book VI:16, translated by W. A. McDevitte and W. S. Bohn, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1869 |url=http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/caesar/gallic6.html#16}}</ref> and [[Strabo]] wrote that the Gauls burnt animal and human sacrifices in a large wickerwork figure, known as a [[wicker man]], and said the human victims were usually criminals. [[Posidonius]] wrote that druids who oversaw human sacrifices foretold the future by watching the death throes of the victims.<ref>{{harvnb|Davidson|1988|pp=60{{ndash}}61}}</ref> Caesar also wrote that slaves of Gaulish chiefs would be burnt along with the body of their master as part of his funeral.<ref name=caesar>{{cite book |title=Gaius Julius Caesar Commentaries on the Gallic War - Book VI:19, translated by W. A. McDevitte and W. S. Bohn, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1869 |url=http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/caesar/gallic6.html#19}}</ref> In the 1st century AD, Roman writer [[Lucan]] mentioned human sacrifices to the Gaulish gods [[Esus]], [[Toutatis]] and [[Taranis]]. In a 4th century [[Scholia|commentary]] on Lucan, an unnamed author added that sacrifices to Esus were [[Hanging|hanged]] from a tree, those to Toutatis were [[Execution by drowning|drowned]], and those to Taranis were [[Death by burning|burned]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maier |first=Bernhard |author-link=Bernhard Maier |title=Dictionary of Celtic Religion and Culture |date=1997 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |page=36}}</ref> According to the 2nd-century Roman writer [[Cassius Dio]], [[Boudica]]'s forces impaled Roman captives during her rebellion against the [[Roman invasion of Britain|Roman occupation]], to the accompaniment of revelry and sacrifices in the sacred groves of [[Andraste|Andate]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Roman History, Cassius Dio, p. 95 ch. 62:7, Translation by Earnest Cary, Loeb classical Library |access-date=24 May 2007 |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/62*.html}}</ref> Historians note that these Greco-Roman accounts should be taken with caution, as it benefited them to make the Celts sound barbaric.<ref>{{cite book |first=Peter S. |last=Wells |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vru5XzGXkuAC |title=The Barbarians Speak: How the Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1999 |pages=59–60 |isbn=0-691-08978-7 }}</ref>

There is some archaeological evidence of human sacrifice among Celtic peoples, although it is rare.<ref name="koch687-690"/> [[Decapitation#Celts|Ritual beheading]] and [[headhunting]] was a major religious and cultural practice which has found copious support in archaeology, including the many skulls found in [[Londinium]]'s [[River Walbrook]] and the headless bodies at the Gaulish sanctuary of [[Gournay-sur-Aronde]].<ref>French archaeologist Jean-Louis Brunaux has written extensively on human sacrifice and the sanctuaries of [[Belgic Gaul]]. See "Gallic Blood Rites," Archaeology 54 (March/April 2001), 54–57; ''Les sanctuaires celtiques et leurs rapports avec le monde mediterranéean'', Actes de colloque de St-Riquier (8 au 11 novembre 1990) organisés par la Direction des Antiquités de Picardie et l'UMR 126 du [[French National Centre for Scientific Research|CNRS]] (Paris: Éditions Errance, 1991); "La mort du guerrier celte. Essai d'histoire des mentalités," in ''Rites et espaces en pays celte et méditerranéen. Étude comparée à partir du sanctuaire d'Acy-Romance (Ardennes, France)'' (École française de Rome, 2000).</ref>

Several ancient Irish [[bog bodies]] have been interpreted as kings who were ritually killed, presumably after serious crop failures or other disasters. Some were deposited in bogs on territorial boundaries (which were seen as liminal places) or near royal inauguration sites, and some were found to have eaten a ceremonial last meal.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kelly |first=Eamonn |title=The Archaeology of Violence |date=2013 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-1438444420 |editor-last=Ralph |editor-first=Sarah |pages=232–40 |chapter=An Archaeological Interpretation of Irish Iron Age Bog Bodies |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/3209307}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bentley |first=Diana |date=March–April 2015 |title=The Dark Secrets of the Bog Bodies |url=https://www.academia.edu/11790293 |journal=[[Minerva (archaeology magazine)|Minerva: The International Review of Ancient Art & Archaeology]] |location=Nashville, Tennessee |publisher=Clear Media |pages=34–37}}</ref>

===Head cult===
[[File:Stone sculpture of celtic hero.jpg|thumb|[[Mšecké Žehrovice Head|Stone head from Mšecké Žehrovice]], Czechia, wearing a [[torc]], late [[La Tène culture]]]]

The iconography of the human head is believed by many archaeologists and historians to have played a significant part in Celtic religion. It has been referred to as a "head cult"<ref name="Koch head cult">{{harvnb|Koch|2006|p=897{{ndash}}898}}</ref> or "cult of the severed head".<ref>[[Barry Cunliffe|Cunliffe, Barry]] (2010), ''Druids: A Very Short Introduction'', [[Oxford University Press]], pp. 71–72.</ref> The Celts had a reputation as [[Headhunting|head hunters]] among the Romans and Greeks. Writing in the 1st century BC, the Greek historians [[Posidonius]] and [[Diodorus Siculus]] said Celtic warriors cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle, hung them from the necks of their horses, then nailed them up outside their homes.<ref name="Koch head cult"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Diodorus Siculus |author-link=Diodorus Siculus |title=History |at=5.29}}</ref> [[Strabo]] wrote in the same century that Celts [[Embalming|embalmed]] the heads of their most esteemed enemies in cedar oil and put them on display.<ref name="Koch head cult"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Strabo |author-link=Strabo |title=Geographica |at=IV.4.5}}</ref> The Roman historian [[Livy]] wrote that the [[Boii]] beheaded the defeated Roman general after the [[Battle of Silva Litana]], covered his skull in gold, and used it as a ritual cup.<ref name="Koch head cult"/>

Archaeologists have found evidence that heads were embalmed and displayed by the southern Gauls.<ref>Salma Ghezal, Elsa Ciesielski, Benjamin Girard, Aurélien Creuzieux, Peter Gosnell, Carole Mathe, Cathy Vieillescazes, Réjane Roure (2019),
"[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440318303194 Embalmed heads of the Celtic Iron Age in the south of France]",
''[[Journal of Archaeological Science]]'', Volume 101, pp.181-188, {{doi|10.1016/j.jas.2018.09.011}}.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The Gauls really did embalm the severed heads of enemies, research shows |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/nov/07/the-gauls-really-did-embalm-the-severed-heads-of-enemies-research-shows#:~:text=They%20were%20fearsome%20warriors%20who,have%20embalmed%20them%20to%20boot. |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=7 November 2018}}</ref>
In another example, at the southern Gaulish site of [[Entremont (oppidum)|Entremont]], there was a pillar carved with skulls, within which were niches where human skulls were kept, nailed into position, fifteen of which were found.<ref>{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|p=202}}</ref> [[Roquepertuse]] nearby has similar heads and skull niches. Many standalone carved stone heads have been found in Celtic regions, some with two or three faces.<ref name="Davidson heads">{{harvnb|Davidson|1988|pp=72{{ndash}}75}}</ref> Examples include the [[Mšecké Žehrovice Head|Mšecké Žehrovice]] and [[Corleck Head|Corleck]] heads.<ref name="IT" /> Severed heads are a common motif in Insular Celtic myths, and there are many tales in which 'living heads' preside over feasts and/or speak prophecies.<ref name="Koch head cult"/><ref name="Davidson heads"/> The [[beheading game]] is a trope found in Irish myth and Arthurian legend.
[[File:Testa in pietra con più facce, da corleck hill, co. di cavan, I-II secolo dc. 03.jpg|thumb|left|Three-faced [[Corleck Head]], 1st or 2nd century AD, Ireland<ref name="IT">[[Fintan O'Toole|O'Toole, Fintan]]. "[https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-history-of-ireland-in-100-objects-1.607095 A history of Ireland in 100 objects: Corleck Head]". ''[[The Irish Times]]'', 25 June 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2023</ref>]]

[[John T. Koch]] says that the efforts taken to preserve and display heads, and the frequency with which severed heads appear, point to a religious importance.<ref name="Koch head cult"/> [[Barry Cunliffe]] believed that the Celts held "reverence for the power of the head" and that "to own and display a distinguished head was to retain and control the power of the dead person".<ref>{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1997|p=210}}</ref> Likewise, the archaeologist Anne Ross asserted that "the Celts venerated the head as a symbol of divinity and the powers of the otherworld, and regarded it as the most important bodily member, the very seat of the soul".<ref>{{harvnb|Ross|1974|pp=161{{ndash}}162}}</ref>

The folklorist [[Hilda Ellis Davidson]] said the early Celts seem to have venerated the head as "the seat of consciousness and wisdom".<ref name="Davidson heads"/> [[Miranda Aldhouse-Green]] refuted suggestions "that the head itself was worshipped, but it was clearly venerated as the most significant element in a human or divine image representing the whole."<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Miranda Green (academic) |author=Green, Miranda |title=The Gods of the Celts |page=32}}{{full citation needed|pub. date, publisher, etc.|date=November 2019}}</ref> In contrast, the historian [[Ronald Hutton]] largely dismissed the idea of a head cult, believing that both the literary and archaeological evidence did not warrant this conclusion. He noted "the frequency with which human heads appear upon Celtic metalwork proves nothing more than they were a favourite decorative motif, among several, and one just as popular among non-Celtic peoples."<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1991|p=195}}</ref>

==Priesthood==
{{Main|Druid|Fili|Bard|Vates}}

===Druids===
[[File:Two Druids.PNG|thumb|right|Two druids, from an 1845 publication, based on a bas-relief found at [[Autun]], France.]]
According to a number of Greco-Roman writers such as [[Julius Caesar]],<ref name="ReferenceA">[[Julius Caesar|Caesar, Julius]]. ''De bello gallico''. VI.13–18.</ref> [[Cicero]],<ref>[[Cicero]]. ''De divinatione''. I.XVI.90.</ref> [[Tacitus]]<ref>[[Tacitus]]. ''Annales''. XIV.30.</ref> and [[Pliny the Elder]],<ref>[[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]. ''Historiae naturalis''. XVI.249.</ref> Gaulish and British society held a group of [[magico-religious]] specialists known as the [[druids]] in high esteem. Their roles and responsibilities differed somewhat between the different accounts, but Caesar's, which was the "fullest" and "earliest original text" to describe the druids,<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|2009}}, p. 02.</ref> described them as being concerned with "divine worship, the due performance of sacrifices, private or public, and the interpretation of ritual questions." He also claimed that they were responsible for officiating at [[human sacrifices]], such as the [[wicker man]] burnings.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Nonetheless, a number of historians have criticised these accounts, believing them to be biased or inaccurate.<ref>[[Stuart Piggott|Piggott, Stuart]] (1968). ''The Druids''. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 111.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|2009}}, pp. 04–05.</ref> Vernacular Irish sources also referred to the druids, portraying them not only as priests but as [[Magician (paranormal)|sorcerers]] who had supernatural powers that they used for cursing and [[divination]] and who opposed the coming of Christianity.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|2009|pp=32{{ndash}}33}}</ref>

Various historians and archaeologists have interpreted the druids in different ways; [[Peter Berresford Ellis]] for instance believed them to be the equivalents of the [[India]]n [[Brahmin]] caste,<ref>[[Peter Berresford Ellis|Ellis, Peter Berresford]] (1994). ''The Druids''. London: Constable. passim.</ref> while Anne Ross believed that they were essentially tribal priests, having more in common with the [[shamans]] of tribal societies than with the classical philosophers.<ref>Ross, Anne (1967). ''Pagan Celtic Britain''. London: Routledge. pp. 52–56.</ref> [[Ronald Hutton]] meanwhile held a particularly sceptical attitude to many claims made about them, and he supported the view that the evidence available was of such a suspicious nature that "we can know virtually nothing of certainty about the ancient Druids, so that – although they certainly existed – they function more or less as legendary figures."<ref>[[Ronald Hutton|Hutton, Ronald]] (2007). ''The Druids'' London: Hambledon Continuum. p. xi.</ref>

===Poets===
In Ireland the [[Filí|fili]] were visionary poets, which many{{who|date=July 2020}} get confused with [[Vates]], associated with lorekeeping, versecraft, and the memorisation of vast numbers of poems. They were also magicians, as Irish magic is intrinsically connected to [[poetry]], and the [[satire]] of a gifted poet was a serious [[curse]] upon the one being satirised.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Broderick |first1=Shane |title=The Brehon Laws |url=https://irishfolklore.wordpress.com/2018/09/02/the-brehon-laws/ |website=Ireland's Folklore and Traditions |date=2 September 2018 |access-date=30 January 2022}}</ref> In Ireland a "bard" was considered a lesser grade of poet than a ''fili'' – more of a minstrel and rote reciter than an inspired artist with magical powers. In the Welsh tradition, the poet is always referred to as a "bardd".

The Celtic poets, of whatever grade, were composers of eulogy and satire, and a chief duty was that of composing and reciting verses on heroes and their deeds, and memorising the genealogies of their patrons. It was essential to their livelihood that they increase the fame of their patrons, via tales, poems and songs. In the 1st century AD, the Latin author Lucan referred to "bards" as the national poets or minstrels of Gaul and Britain.<ref> Lucan. Pharsalia, 1.448</ref> In [[Roman Gaul]] the institution gradually disappeared, whereas in Ireland and Wales it survived into the European [[Middle Ages]]. In Wales, the bardic order was revived, and codified by the poet and forger [[Iolo Morganwg]];{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} this tradition has persisted, centred around the many [[eisteddfod]]s at every level of Welsh literary society.

==Calendar==
{{main|Celtic calendar}}
{{further|Irish calendar}}
The oldest attested Celtic calendar is the [[Coligny calendar]], dated to the 2nd century and as such firmly within the Gallo-Roman period.

=== Origin as Festivals ===
Some [[Gaelic festivals|feast days]] of the medieval [[Irish calendar]] have sometimes been speculated to descend from prehistoric festivals, especially by comparison to terms found in the Coligny calendar. It is not clear what religious festivals the ancient Celts held, but the Insular Celtic peoples celebrated four seasonal festivals, known to the medieval [[Gaels]] as [[Beltaine]] (1 May), [[Lughnasadh]] (1 August), [[Samhain]] (1 November) and [[Imbolc]] (1 February).<ref name="Cunliffe religion" /> [[Beltane]], in particular, is attributed ancient origin by medieval Irish writers.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}
The festivals of [[Samhain]] and [[Imbolc]] are not associated with "paganism" or druidry in Irish legend, but there have nevertheless been suggestions of a prehistoric background since the 19th century, in the case of Samhain by [[John Rhys]] and [[James Frazer]] who assumed that this festival marked the "Celtic new year".{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

==Gallo-Roman religion==
{{main|Gallo-Roman religion}}
{{uncited section|date=September 2023}}
[[File:Mercurius Rosmerta HistMusPfalz 3513.jpg|thumb|upright|Relief of Mercury and Rosmerta from [[Eisenberg, Rhineland-Palatinate|Eisenberg]]]]

The Celtic peoples of Gaul and [[Hispania]] under Roman rule fused Roman religious forms and modes of worship with indigenous traditions. In some cases, Gaulish deity names were used as epithets for Roman deities, as with [[Lenus|Lenus Mars]] or [[Poeninus|Jupiter Poeninus]]. In other cases, Roman gods were given Gaulish female partners – for example, [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] was paired with [[Rosmerta]] and [[Sirona (goddess)|Sirona]] was partnered with [[Apollo]]. In at least one case – that of the equine goddess [[Epona]] – a native Celtic goddess was also adopted by Romans. This process of identifying Celtic deities with their Roman counterparts was known as [[Interpretatio romana]].

Eastern [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mystery religion]]s penetrated Gaul early on. These included the cults of [[Orpheus]], [[Mithras]], [[Cybele]], and [[Isis]]. The [[imperial cult (ancient Rome)|imperial cult]], centred primarily on the ''[[numen]]'' of [[Augustus]], came to play a prominent role in public religion in Gaul, most dramatically at the pan-Gaulish ceremony venerating Rome and Augustus at the Condate Altar near [[Lugdunum]] on 1 August.

Generally Roman worship practices such as offerings of incense and animal sacrifice, dedicatory inscriptions, and naturalistic statuary depicting deities in anthropomorphic form were combined with specific Gaulish practices such as [[:wikt:circumambulation|circumambulation]] around a temple. This gave rise to a characteristic Gallo-Roman [[fanum]], identifiable in archaeology from its concentric shape.

==Christianisation==
{{further|Celtic Christianity}}
{{unreferenced section|date=March 2015}}
[[File:Ccross.svg|thumb|The [[Celtic cross]].]]

Celtic societies under Roman rule presumably underwent a gradual Christianisation in similar ways to the rest of the Empire; there is next to nothing in Christian sources about specific issues relating to Celtic people in the Empire, or their religion. [[Saint Paul]]'s ''[[Epistle to the Galatians]]'' was addressed to a congregation that might have included people from a Celtic background.

In Ireland, the main Celtic country unconquered by the Romans, the conversion to Christianity (Christianisation) inevitably had a profound effect on the socio-religious system from the 5th century onward, though its character can only be extrapolated from documents of considerably later date. By the early 7th century the church had succeeded in relegating Irish druids to ignominious irrelevancy, while the ''[[filidh]],'' masters of traditional learning, operated in easy harmony with their clerical counterparts, contriving at the same time to retain a considerable part of their pre-Christian tradition, social status, and privilege. But virtually all the vast corpus of early [[vernacular literature]] that has survived was written down in monastic [[scriptoria]], and it is part of the task of modern scholarship to identify the relative roles of traditional continuity and ecclesiastical innovation as reflected in the written texts.

[[Cormac's Glossary]] (c. 900 AD) recounts that St. Patrick banished those [[mantic]] rites of the ''filidh'' that involved offerings to "demons", and that the church took particular pains to stamp out [[animal sacrifice]] and other rituals repugnant to Christian teaching{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}. What survived of ancient ritual practice tended to be related to ''filidhecht'', the traditional repertoire of the ''filidh'', or to the central institution of sacral kingship. A good example is the pervasive and persistent concept of the [[hierogamy]] (sacred marriage) of the king with the goddess of sovereignty: the sexual union, or ''[[banais ríghi]]'' ("wedding of kingship"), which constituted the core of the royal inauguration, seems to have been purged from the ritual at an early date through ecclesiastical influence, but it remains at least implicit, and often quite explicit, for many centuries in the literary tradition.

==Folkloristic survivals==
[[File:Beltane 2019 Edinburgh Calton Hill.jpg|thumb|[[Beltane|Beltane festival]], [[Edinburgh]], 2019]]

Nagy has noted the Gaelic [[oral tradition]] has been remarkably conservative; the fact that we have tales in existence that were still being told in the 19th century in almost exactly the same form as they exist in ancient manuscripts leads to the strong probability that much of what the monks recorded was considerably older.<ref name="the_wisdom_of_the_outlaw">{{Cite book | last1 = Nagy | first1 = Joseph Falaky | title = The wisdom of the outlaw: the boyhood deeds of Finn in Gaelic narrative tradition | year = 1985 | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | isbn = 0-520-05284-6 | pages = 2 }}</ref> Though the Christian interpolations in some of these tales are very obvious, many of them read like afterthoughts or footnotes to the main body of the tales, which most likely preserve traditions far older than the manuscripts themselves.

[[File:Clootie Well, The Black Isle - geograph.org.uk - 602344.jpg|thumb|The clootie well near [[Munlochy]], on the [[Black Isle]], Scotland.]]

Mythology based on (though, not identical to) the pre-Christian traditions was still common place knowledge in Celtic-speaking cultures in the 19th century. In the [[Celtic Revival]], such survivals were collected and edited, thus becoming a literary tradition, which in turn influenced modern mainstream "[[Celticity]]". Several Celtic celebrations have been practised in some form since ancient times, such as the [[Beltane]] festival<ref>{{Cite web|title=Beltane {{!}} ancient Celtic festival|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Beltane|access-date=2021-03-08|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> and the [[Killorglin]] [[Puck Fair]] (which seems to be a survival of [[Lughnasadh]]).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-29|title=The pagan origins of King of the goat's Puck Fair|url=http://www.irishcentral.com/culture/travel/The-pagan-origins-of-King-of-the-goats-Puck-Fair.html|access-date=2021-03-08|website=IrishCentral.com|language=en}}</ref>

Various rituals involving acts of pilgrimage to sites such as hills and sacred wells that are believed to have curative or otherwise beneficial properties are still performed, including the tradition of [[Clootie well|clootie wells]] in [[Scotland]], [[Ireland]] and [[Cornwall]], and the practice of [[well dressing]] in the English [[Midlands]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Well Dressing and Well Flowering Customs in England|url=https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/Well-Dressing/|access-date=2021-03-08|website=Historic UK|language=en-GB}}</ref> The same applies to [[Wish tree|wish trees]], which are considered part of the clootie well tradition.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Clootie Wells: The Celtic Wishing Trees|url=https://www.amusingplanet.com/2015/05/clootie-wells-celtic-wishing-trees.html|access-date=2021-03-08|website=www.amusingplanet.com|language=en}}</ref> Based on evidence from the European continent, various figures that are still known in folklore in the [[Celtic nations|Celtic countries]] up to today, or who take part in post-Christian mythology, are known to have also been worshiped in those areas that did not have records before Christianity. On the [[Inishkea Islands]] off the west coast of Ireland, Celtic pagan rituals were seemingly [[Inishkea Islands|performed well into the nineteenth century]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Religion|first=Atlantic|date=2013-09-01|title=The Naomhóg of Inishkea|url=https://atlanticreligion.com/2013/09/01/the-naomhog-of-inishkea/|access-date=2021-03-08|website=The Atlantic Religion|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Inishkea Islands in Co. Mayo in the West of Ireland {{!}} mayo-ireland.ie|url=http://www.mayo-ireland.ie/en/about-mayo/islands/inishkea-islands.html|access-date=2021-03-08|website=www.mayo-ireland.ie|language=en}}</ref>

Other possible remnants of Celtic paganism include the Irish strawboy tradition<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wedding Day Traditions|url=http://www.askaboutireland.ie/reading-room/history-heritage/folklore-of-ireland/folklore-in-ireland/the-life-cycle/marriage/wedding-day-traditions/#:~:text=Strawboys,%20who%20were%20groups%20of,and%20health%20to%20the%20newlyweds.|access-date=2021-03-08|website=www.askaboutireland.ie}}</ref> and [[Wren Day]] traditions,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-19|title=Wren Day: An Ancient Irish Christmas Tradition That Survives to This Day|url=https://oldmooresalmanac.com/wren-day-an-ancient-irish-christmas-tradition-that-survives-to-this-day/|access-date=2021-03-08|website=Old Moore's Almanac|language=en-GB}}</ref> as well as the Shetlandic practice of Skekling,<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Honest Truth: A spooky step back in time to skekling, Shetland's ancient form of Halloween guising|url=https://www.sundaypost.com/fp/the-honest-truth-spooky-step-back-in-time-reveals-shetlands-halloween-skeklers/|website=Sunday Post|date=30 October 2020 }}</ref> all of which involve dressing in unusual costumes made of straw.

In ''Twilight of the Celtic Gods'' (1996), Clarke and Roberts describe a number of particularly conservative folkloristic traditions in remote rural areas of Great Britain, including the Peak District and Yorkshire Dales, including claims of surviving pre-Christian Celtic traditions of veneration of stones, trees and bodies of water.<ref>David Clarke and Andy Roberts, ''Twilight of the Celtic Gods: An Exploration of Britain's Hidden Pagan Traditions'' (1996), {{ISBN|978-0-7137-2522-3}}; [http://www.whitedragon.org.uk/bookrevs/267.htm review].</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cunliffe |first=Barry |author-link=Barry Cunliffe |title=The Ancient Celts |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1997 |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientcelts00cunl_0 |isbn=978-0-19-815010-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Davidson |first=Hilda Ellis |author-link=Hilda Ellis Davidson |title=Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions |year=1988 |publisher=Syracuse University Press}}
* {{cite book| last=Emrys Evans |year=1992 |title=Mythology |publisher=Little Brown & Company |isbn=0-316-84763-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Green |first=Miranda |author-link=Miranda Aldhouse-Green |year=1989 |title=Symbol and Image in Celtic Religious Art |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415080767}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Ronald Hutton |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |year=1991 |title=The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their nature and legacy |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780631172888 |url-access=registration |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=9780631172888 }}
* {{cite book|last=Hutton |first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Hutton |year=2009 |title=Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain |publisher=[[Yale University Press]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Koch |first=John |author-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO}}
* {{cite book |last=Ross |first=Anne |year=1974 |title=Pagan Celtic Britain: Studies in Iconography and Tradition |publisher=Sphere Books Ltd.}}
* {{cite book |last=Ross |first=Anne |year=1986 |title=The Pagan Celts |publisher=B.T. Batsford}}
* {{cite book |last=Stöllner |first=Thomas |year=2014 |title=Celtic Art in Europe: Making Connections |chapter=Between ruling ideology and ancestor worship: the ''mos maiorum'' of the Early Celtic Hero Graves |editor-last=Gosden |editor-first=Christopher |editor-last2=Crawford |editor-first2=Sally |editor-last3=Ulmschneider |editor-first3=Katharina |publisher=[[Oxbow Books]] |isbn=9781782976585}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* [[Edward Anwyl|Anwyl, Edward]] (1906), ''Celtic Religion in Pre-Christian Times''.
* [[Jan de Vries (linguist)|de Vries, Jan]] (1961) ''Keltische Religion, a comprehensive survey''.
* Duval, Paul-Marie (1976) ''Les Dieux de la Gaule'', new ed. updated and enlarged.
* [[W. Y. Evans-Wentz|Evans Wentz, W. Y.]] (1966, 1990) ''The Fairy-Faith in Celtic Countries''. Gerrards Cross, Colin Smythe Humanities Press {{ISBN|0-901072-51-6}}
* [[Miranda Aldhouse-Green|Green, Miranda]] (1986, revised 2004) ''Gods of the Celts''.
* [[Alexander Macbain|Macbain, Alexander]] (1885), ''Celtic Mythology and Religion'' ([https://archive.org/details/celticmythologya00macbuoft Internet Archive online edition]).
* MacCana, Proinsias (1970) ''Celtic Mythology''. Middlesex, Hamlyn. {{ISBN|0-600-00647-6}}
* MacCulloch, J. A. (1911) ''The Religion of the Ancient Celts'' ([http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14672 Project Gutenberg online edition]; 2009 reprint: {{ISBN|978-1-60506-197-9}}).
* MacCulloch, J. A. (1948) ''The Celtic and Scandinavian Religions'', Hutchinson's University Library (2005 reprint: Cosimo Classics, {{ISBN|978-1-59605-416-5}}).
* MacKillop, James (1998) ''A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology''. Oxford, Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-280120-1}}
* [[Bernhard Maier (religious studies professor)|Maier, Bernhard]] (1997); originally published in German in 1994) ''Dictionary of Celtic religion and culture'', Boydell & Brewer, {{ISBN|978-0-85115-660-6}}.
* Raepsaet-Charlier, Marie-Thérèse. "Cultes et territoire, Mères et Matrones, dieux «celtiques»: quelques aspects de la religion dans les provinces romaines de Gaule et de Germanie à la lumière de travaux récents". In: ''L'antiquité classique'', Tome 84, 2015. pp. 173-226. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/antiq.2015.3872; www.persee.fr/doc/antiq_0770-2817_2015_num_84_1_3872
* [[Alwyn D. Rees|Rees, Alwyn]] and [[Brinley Rees|Rees, Brinley]] (1961) ''Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and Wales''. New York, Thames and Hudson. {{ISBN|0-500-27039-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Ross |first=Anne |year=2010 |title=Druids: Preachers of Immortality |publisher=The History Press |isbn=978-0-7524-1433-1}}
* [[Marie-Louise Sjoestedt|Sjoestedt, Marie-Louise]] (1982) ''Gods and Heroes of the Celts''. Translated by Myles Dillon, Berkeley, CA, Turtle Island Foundation. {{ISBN|0-913666-52-1}}. Comparisons between deities of the various Celtic cultures vs Classical models.
* Stercks, Claude (1986). ''Éléments de cosmogonie celtique'', contains an interpretive essay on the goddess Epona and related deities.
* [[Joseph Vendryes|Vendryes, Joseph]]; Tonnelat, Ernest; Unbegaun, B.-O. (1948). ''Les Religions des Celtes, des Germains et des anciens Slaves''.
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://www.worldhistory.org/Ancient_Celtic_Religion/ World History Encyclopedia – Ancient Celtic Religion]
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/index.htm Celtic folklore and mythology] – [[sacred-texts.com]]

{{Celts|state=collapsed}}
{{Gallic peoples|state=collapsed}}
{{History of religions}}
{{Religion topics|ancient}}
{{Paganism|collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Celtic Polytheism}}
[[Category:Ancient Celtic religion| ]]
[[Category:Gaulish deities]]
[[Category:Religion in classical antiquity]]

Haplogroup R-L151

2024-06-19T14:07:43Z

Amanyn: Added Northern Portugal as another region where the haplogroup's most often found

{{Infobox haplogroup
| name = R-L151
| map = File:R1b-map.JPG
| origin-date = 5,000 years
| TMRCA = 
| origin-place = [[Central Europe]]
| ancestor = [[Haplogroup R1b|R1b]] (R-M343) [[Haplogroup R-M269|R-M269]]
| descendants = [[R-U106]] [[Haplogroup R1b-P312|R-P312]] R-S1194 R-A8053
| mutations = L11/PF6539/S127
| members =[[Irish people|Irish]] [[British people|British]] [[French people|French]] [[Spanish people|Spanish]] [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[German people|German]]
}}
'''R-L151''', also known as '''R-L11''' and '''R1b1a2a1a''', is a [[human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup]]; a [[subclade]] of the broader haplogroup [[Haplogroup R1b|R1b]] (R-M343).<ref>{{Citation |title=Y-DNA Haplogroup R and its Subclades - 2013|publisher=International Society of Genetic Genealogy|url=https://isogg.org/tree/2013/ISOGG_HapgrpR13.html}}</ref> It is most often found in males from [[Western Europe]] – especially [[Geography of France|Western France]], [[Northern Spain]], [[Northern Portugal]], [[Great Britain]], and [[Ireland]].{{cn|date=April 2020}}

== Origin ==

This haplogroup is related to the period of [[Corded Ware culture|Corded Ware]] or [[Beaker culture]], and possibly founded 3,000 years before our era in the Central part of Europe (possible [[Bohemia]] region).{{cn|date=April 2020}}

R-L151 is the most populous branch of [[Haplogroup R-M269|R-M269]], and is found in abundance along the [[Atlantic]] coasts of western Europe, especially [[Aquitaine]], [[Asturias]], [[Basques]], [[Belgium]], [[Brittany]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[England]], Ireland (as a whole), the [[Pays de la Loire|Loire]] region, the isle of [[Isle of Man|Man]], [[Northern Portugal]], [[Northern Spain]], [[Scotland]], and [[Wales]].<ref>{{Citation |year= 2016|title=Genomic signals of migration and continuity in Britain before the Anglo-Saxons|journal= Nature Communications|volume= 7|pages= 10326|publisher=US National Library of Medicine|pmc= 4735653|last1= Martiniano|first1= R.|last2= Caffell|first2= A.|last3= Holst|first3= M.|last4= Hunter-Mann|first4= K.|last5= Montgomery|first5= J.|last6= Müldner|first6= G.|last7= McLaughlin|first7= R. L.|last8= Teasdale|first8= M. D.|last9= Van Rheenen|first9= W.|last10= Veldink|first10= J. H.|last11= Van Den Berg|first11= L. H.|last12= Hardiman|first12= O.|last13= Carroll|first13= M.|last14= Roskams|first14= S.|last15= Oxley|first15= J.|last16= Morgan|first16= C.|last17= Thomas|first17= M. G.|last18= Barnes|first18= I.|last19= McDonnell|first19= C.|last20= Collins|first20= M. J.|last21= Bradley|first21= D. G.|pmid= 26783717|doi= 10.1038/ncomms10326|bibcode= 2016NatCo...710326M}}</ref> It is also found at significant levels in [[Switzerland]] and [[Northern Italy]]. R-L151 is found at lower frequencies in [[Poland]] and [[Ukraine]], as well as many other European countries.<ref>{{Citation |title=Y-SNP Branch Information on R1b-L11|publisher=YHRD|url=https://yhrd.org/tools/branch/R1b-L11}}</ref> Since the [[early modern era]], males emigrating from Europe have introduced significant levels of R-L151 to [[The Americas]] and [[Australasia]].

This human haplogroup has two subclades, the south-western branch, P312/S116, and the north-eastern branch, R1b-S21-U106.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:R1b-L11, Haplogroup}}

[[Category:Haplogroup R|L151]]
[[Category:Genetic history of Europe]]
[[Category:Human population genetics]]
[[Category:Human Y-DNA haplogroups|R]]

Magnus Maximus

2024-03-14T20:01:18Z

Amanyn: /* Role in British and Breton history */Gallaecia is also Northern Portugal

{{short description|Roman emperor from 383 to 388}}
{{Redirect|Maxen}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Magnus Maximus
| image = Rare aureus of Magnus Maximus (obverse transparent).png
| image_size =
| alt = Golden coin depicting man with diadem facing right
| caption = ''[[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]]'' of Magnus Maximus marked: {{Smallcaps|{{Abbreviation|d·n·|DOMINUS NOSTER}} mag(nus) maximus {{Abbreviation|p·f·|PIUS FELIX}} {{Abbreviation|aug·|AUGUSTUS}}}}
| succession = [[Roman emperor]]
| moretext = (in the [[Western Roman Empire|West]])
| reign = Spring 383 – 28 August 388
| predecessor = [[Gratian]]
| successor = [[Valentinian II]]
| regent = {{ubl|[[Theodosius I]] (East)|Valentinian II|[[Victor (emperor)|Victor]]}}
| reg-type = {{nowrap|Co-emperors}}
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Gallaecia]], [[Hispania]]
| death_date = 28 August 388
| death_place = [[Aquileia]], [[Venetia et Histria]], [[Roman Italy|Italia]]
| burial_place =
| spouse = [[Saint Elen|Elen]] (traditional)
| issue = {{ubl|[[Victor (emperor)|Victor]]|''"[[Sevira daughter of Maximus|Sevira]]"''|''"Maxima"''}}
| issue-link = #Fate of family
| issue-pipe = Detail
| religion = [[Nicene Christianity]]
}}

'''Magnus Maximus'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Birley |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Birley |date=1983 |title=Magnus Maximus and the persecution of heresy |url=https://www.manchesterhive.com/view/journals/bjrl/66/1/article-p13.xml |journal=[[Bulletin of the John Rylands Library]] |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=24 |doi= 10.7227/BJRL.66.1.2|issn= |quote=[Chronicle of [[Sulpicius Severus]]] 2.48.5: "{{Smallcaps|iam tum rumor incesserat clemens maximum}}"... The reading "Clementem" led to the mistaken view that the emperor was called '''Magnus Clemens Maximus'''.}}</ref> ({{IPA-la|ˈmaŋnus ˈmaksimus|lang}}; {{lang-cy|Macsen Wledig}} {{IPA-cy|ˈmaksɛn ˈwlɛdɪɡ|}}; died 28 August 388) was a [[Gallaeci|Gallaecian]] who was [[Roman emperor|emperor]] of the [[Western Roman Empire]] from 383 to 388. He usurped the throne from emperor [[Gratian]].

He was made emperor in [[Roman Britain|Britannia]] and [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]] the next year while Gratian's brother [[Valentinian II]] retained [[Roman Italy|Italy]], [[Pannonia]], [[Hispania]], and [[Africa Province|Africa]]. In 387, Maximus's ambitions led him to invade Italy, resulting in his defeat by [[Theodosius I]] at the [[Battle of Poetovio]] in 388. In the view of some historians, his death marked the end of direct imperial presence in Northern Gaul and Britannia.<ref>"The New Cambridge Medieval History: {{circa|lk=no|500}}{{ndash}}{{circa|lk=no|700}}" by Paul Fouracre, [[Rosamond McKitterick]], p. 48</ref>

==Life==
===Birth, army career===
Maximus was born in [[Gallaecia]], Hispania, on the estates of [[Count Theodosius]] (the Elder) of the [[Theodosian dynasty]], to whom he claimed to be related.<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238">[[J. B. Bury]] ed. (1924), [https://archive.org/details/cambridgemedieva009698mbp ''The Cambridge Medieval History''], p. 238</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bartrum. |first1=Peter Clement |title=A Welsh Classical Dictionary; People In History And Legend Up To About A. D. 1000 |date=1993 |publisher=The National Library of Wales |isbn=9780907158738 |url=https://archive.org/details/a-welsh-classical-dictionary-people-in-history-and-legend-up-to-about-a.-d.-1000/page/494/mode/2up?q=maximus |page=494}}</ref>{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=154}} Most of his early life is unknown as the earliest mention of him in the historical record was of him being a junior officer possibly in Britain in 368 during the [[Great Conspiracy]] as he assisted Theodosius in defeating barbarians and criminals in Britannia. Maximus would become a distinguished general in the following years; as he would gain the support of his fellow soldiers and the admiration of the Romano-Britons whom he defended, which would lead to his eventual immortalisation in Welsh legend in the centuries following.<ref>Wijnendaele, J. (2020). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/abs/ammianus-magnus-maximus-and-the-gothic-uprising/B72141580D83AEFB704E27C6A0FBADCD Ammianus, Magnus Maximus and the Gothic Uprising]. ''Britannia'', 51, 330-335. doi:10.1017/S0068113X20000045</ref> He served under Count Theodosius in Africa in 373.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''The Later Roman Empire''(Penguin 1986) p. 417</ref> Assigned to Britain in 380, he defeated an incursion of the [[Picts]] and [[Scoti|Scots]] in 381.<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238"/>

===Rebellion and bid for the throne===
The Western emperor [[Gratian]] had received a number of [[Alans]] into his bodyguard, and was accused of showing favouritism towards these [[Indo-Iranian languages|Iranian]] speaking foreigners at the expense of Roman citizens.<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238"/> In 383 the discontented Roman army proclaimed Maximus emperor in Gratian's place. [[Orosius]], who wrote that Maximus was “an energetic and able man and one worthy of the throne had he not risen to it by usurpation, contrary to his oath of allegiance,” claimed that he was proclaimed emperor against his will,<ref>Orosius, ''Historium adversum paganos'' 7.34.9</ref> but [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] portrays him as inciting the troops to rebel against Gratian, as he was upset about Theodosius becoming emperor while he himself was not promoted.<ref>Zosimus, ''Historia Nova'' 4.35.2-3</ref>

Maximus went to [[Gaul]] to pursue his imperial ambitions, taking a large portion of the British garrison with him.<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238"/> After five days of skirmishing near [[Lutetia|Paris]] he defeated Gratian,<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238"/> who fled the battlefield and was killed at [[Lugdunum|Lyon]] on 25 August 383. Continuing his campaign into Italy, Maximus was stopped from overthrowing [[Valentinian II]], who was only twelve, when [[Bauto]] came with a powerful force to forestall him. Negotiations followed in 384, including the intervention of [[Ambrose]], Bishop of Milan, leading to an accord with Valentinian II and Theodosius I in which Maximus was recognized as ''[[Augustus (rank)|Augustus]]'' in the West.<ref>D Divine, ''The North-West Frontier of Rome'' (London 1969) p. 229</ref>

===Administration===
Maximus made his capital at [[History of Trier#Roman Empire|Augusta Treverorum]] (Treves, [[Trier]]) in Gaul, and ruled Britain, Gaul, Spain and Africa. He issued coinage and a number of edicts reorganising Gaul's system of provinces. Some historians believe Maximus may have founded the office of the ''[[Comes Britanniarum]]'' as well, although it was probably Stilicho who created the permanent office.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Craven |first=Maxwell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dxayEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT167 |title=Magnus Maximus |date=2023 |publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited |isbn=978-1-3981-1137-0 |pages=167}}</ref>

Maximus was a stern persecutor of [[heresy|heretics]]. It was on his orders that [[Priscillian]] and six companions were executed for [[Priscillianism|heresy]], although the actual civil charges laid by Maximus were for the practice of [[Magic in the Greco-Roman world|magic]]. Prominent churchmen such as [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]] and [[St. Martin of Tours]] protested against this involvement of the secular power in doctrinal matters, but the executions were carried out nonetheless.<ref>A Momigliano, ''Essays in Ancient and Modern Historiography'' (Oxford 1977) p. 113</ref> Maximus thereby not only established his credentials as an upholder of orthodoxy, but also strengthened his financial resources in the ensuing confiscations.<ref>K Cooper ed., ''Making Early Medieval Societies'' (2016) p. 34 and p. 44</ref> The [[Chronica Gallica of 452|''Gallic Chronicle'' of 452]] describes the Priscillianists as "Manichaeans", a different [[Gnostic]] heresy already condemned in Roman law under [[Diocletian]], and states that Magnus Maximus had them "caught and exterminated with the greatest zeal".<ref>{{cite book |last=Ames |first=Christine Cadwell |date=15 April 2015 |title=Medieval Heresies: Christianity, Judaism, and Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPgGBwAAQBAJ |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=45–46 |isbn=9781107023369}}</ref>

In a threatening letter addressed to Valentinian II, most likely composed between the spring of 384 and the summer of 387, Maximus complains of Valentinian's actions towards Ambrose and adherents of the Nicean Creed, writing: "Can it be that Your Serenity, venerable to me, thinks that a religion which has once taken root in the minds of men, which God himself has established, can be uprooted?" in response to "the disturbance and convulsion of Catholic law."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Omissi |first=Adrastos |date=May 2022 |title=Two letters of the usurper Magnus Maximus (Collectio Avellana 39 and 40) |url=https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/263793/ |journal=Classical Quarterly |language=en |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=391–415 |doi=10.1017/S000983882200043X |s2cid=253923880 |issn=0009-8388}}</ref>

Conversely, Maximus's edict of 387/388, which censured Christians at Rome for burning down a Jewish [[synagogue]], was condemned by bishop [[Ambrose]], who said people exclaimed, "the emperor has become a Jew".<ref>Ambrose, Patrologia Latina, 16–17 (1845), nos. 40</ref>

===Final conflicts and execution===
In 387, Maximus managed to force emperor Valentinian II out of [[Mediolanum|Milan]]. Valentinian fled to Theodosius I, and the two subsequently invaded from the east; their armies, led by [[Richomeres]] and other generals, campaigned against Maximus in July–August 388. Maximus was defeated in the [[Battle of Poetovio]],<ref>Pan. Lat. II.34</ref><ref>For a summary of the invasion of Italy and subsequent campaign against Theodosius see Hebblewhite, M. (2020) Theodosius and the Limits of Empire, 81ff</ref> and retreated to [[Aquileia]]. Meanwhile, the [[Franks]] under [[Marcomer]] had taken the opportunity to invade northern Gaul, at the same time further weakening Maximus's position.

[[Andragathius]], ''[[magister equitum]]'' of Maximus and the killer of Emperor Gratian, was defeated near [[Siscia]], while Maximus's brother, Marcellinus, fell in battle at [[Poetovio]].<ref>Pan. Lat. II.35-6</ref> Maximus surrendered in Aquileia, and although he pleaded for mercy was executed. The Senate passed a decree of ''[[Damnatio memoriae]]'' against him. However, his mother and at least two daughters were spared.<ref>Ambrose, Ep. 40.32</ref> Theodosius's trusted general [[Arbogast (magister militum)|Arbogast]] strangled Maximus's son, [[Victor (emperor)|Victor]], at Trier in the fall of the same year.<ref>Susan Wise Bauer, "The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade", W. W. Norton & Company, 22 Feb 2010 (p.68)</ref>

===Fate of family===

It is not recorded what happened to Maximus's family after his downfall. He is known to have had a wife, who is recorded as having sought spiritual counsel from [[St. Martin of Tours]] during his time at Trier. Her ultimate fate, and even her name (but see the Welsh tradition below), have not been preserved in definitive historical records. The same is true of Maximus's mother and daughters, other than that they were spared by Theodosius I.

One of Maximus's daughters may have been married to [[Ennoius|Ennodius]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Drinkwater |editor-first1=John |editor-last2=Elton |editor-first2=Hugh |title=Fifth-Century Gaul: A Crisis of Identity? |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-41485-7 |page=118 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lHGOvpQfFqcC&pg=PA118 |access-date=Jan 13, 2020}}</ref> proconsul Africae (395). Ennodius's grandson was [[Petronius Maximus]], another ill-fated emperor, who ruled in Rome for only 77 days before he was stoned to death while fleeing from the Vandals on 24 May 455. Other descendants of Ennodius, and thus possibly of Maximus, included [[Olybrius|Anicius Olybrius]], emperor in 472, but also several consuls and bishops such as [[Magnus Felix Ennodius|St. Magnus Felix Ennodius]] (Bishop of [[Pavia]] {{circa|lk=no|514}}-21). We also encounter an otherwise unrecorded daughter of Magnus Maximus, [[Sevira]], on the [[Pillar of Eliseg]] (9th century), an early medieval inscribed stone in Wales, which claims that she married [[Vortigern]], [[king of the Britons]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Laycock |first1=Stuart |title=Warlords: The Struggle for Power in Post-Roman Britain |date=2011 |publisher=The History Press |isbn=978-0-7524-7560-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RrkTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT65 |access-date=Jan 13, 2020}}</ref>

== Role in British and Breton history ==
Maximus's bid for imperial power in 383 coincides with the last date for any evidence of a Roman military presence in Britain, the western [[Pennines]], and the fortress of [[Chester|Deva]]. Coins dated later than 383 have been found in excavations along [[Hadrian's Wall]], suggesting that troops were not entirely stripped from it, as was once thought.<ref name=Frere1>{{Citation
|last=Frere
|first=Sheppard Sunderland
|author-link=Sheppard Frere
|year=1987
|contribution=The End of Roman Britain
|title=Britannia: A History of Roman Britain
|edition=3rd, revised
|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul
|publication-date=1987
|location=London
|page=354
|isbn=0-7102-1215-1
}}</ref> In the ''[[De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae]]'' written {{circa|lk=no|540}}, [[Gildas]] says that Maximus "deprived" Britain not only of its Roman troops, but also of its "armed bands...governors and of the flower of her youth", never to return.<ref>{{Citation
|year=1841
|editor-last=Giles
|editor-first=John Allen
|editor-link=John Allen Giles
|contribution=The Works of Gildas
|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3R1mCE7p44MC&pg=PA13
|title=The Works of Gildas and Nennius
|publisher=James Bohn
|publication-date=1841
|location=London
|page=13
}}, The History, ch. 14.</ref>

Having left with the troops and senior administrators, and planning to continue as the ruler of Britain in the future, his practical course was to transfer local authority to local rulers. Welsh legend supports that this happened, with stories such as ''Breuddwyd Macsen Wledig'' (English: The Dream of Emperor Maximus), where he not only marries a wondrous British woman (thus making British descendants probable), but also gives her father sovereignty over Britain (thus formally transferring authority from Rome back to the Britons themselves).

The earliest Welsh genealogies give Maximus (referred to as ''Macsen/Maxen Wledig'', or ''Emperor Maximus'') the role of founding father of the dynasties of several medieval Welsh kingdoms, including those of [[Kingdom of Powys|Powys]] and [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]].<ref>{{Citation
|year=1887
|editor-last=Phillimore
|editor-first=Egerton
|contribution=Pedigrees from Jesus College MS. 20
|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HlUrAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA83
|title=Y Cymmrodor
|volume=VIII
|publisher=Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion
|publication-date=1887
|pages=83–92
}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|last=Phillimore
|first=Egerton
|year=1888
|editor-last=Phillimore
|editor-first=Egerton
|contribution=The Annales Cambriae and Old Welsh Genealogies, from Harleian MS. 3859
|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aFMrAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA141
|title=Y Cymmrodor
|volume=IX
|publisher=Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion
|publication-date=1888
|pages=141–183
}}</ref> He is given as the ancestor of a Welsh king on the [[Pillar of Eliseg]], erected nearly 500 years after he left Britain, and he figures in lists of the [[Fifteen Tribes of Wales]].<ref name="Rachel Bromwich 2006">Rachel Bromwich, editor and translator. Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Welsh Triads. Cardiff: [[University of Wales Press]], Third Edition, 2006. 441-444</ref>

After he became emperor of the West, Maximus returned to Britain to campaign against the [[Picts]] and Scots (i.e., Irish), probably in support of Rome's long-standing allies the [[Damnonii]], [[Votadini]], and [[Novantae]] (all located in modern [[Scotland]]). While there he likely made similar arrangements for a formal transfer of authority to local chiefs—the later rulers of [[Galloway]], home to the Novantae, claimed Maximus as the founder of their line, the same as did the Welsh kings.<ref name=Frere1/>

The ninth century ''[[Historia Brittonum]]'' gives another account of Maximus and assigns him an important role:

{{blockquote|The seventh emperor was Maximianus, He withdrew from Britain with all its military force, slew Gratianus the king of the Romans, and obtained the sovereignty of all Europe. Unwilling to send back his warlike companions to their wives, families, and possessions in Britain, he conferred upon them numerous districts from the lake on the summit of Mons Iovis, to the city called Cant Guic, and to the western Tumulus, that is Cruc Occident. These are the Armoric Britons, and they remain there to the present day. In consequence of their absence, Britain being overcome by foreign nations, the lawful heirs were cast out, till God interposed with his assistance.}}

Modern historians believe that this idea of mass British troop settlement in [[Brittany]] by Maximus may very well reflect some reality, as it accords with archaeological and other historical evidence and later Breton traditions.

[[Armorica]] declared independence from the Roman Empire in 407, but contributed archers for [[Aetius (general)|Aetius]]'s defence against [[Attila]] the Hun, and its king [[Riothamus]] was subsequently mentioned in contemporary documents as an ally of Rome's against the [[Goths]]. Despite its continued usage of two distinct languages, [[Breton language|Breton]] and [[Gallo language|Gallo]], and extensive invasions and conquests by Franks and Vikings, Armorica retained considerable cultural cohesion into the 13th century.

Maximus also established a military base in his native [[Gallaecia]], i.e., [[Galicia (Spain)]] and [[Northern Portugal]], which persisted as a cultural entity despite occupation by the [[Suebi]] in 409, see [[Kingdom of Galicia]].

Aetius sent large numbers of [[Alans]] to both Armorica and Galicia following the defeat of Attila at the [[Battle of the Catalunian Plains]]. The Alans evidently assimilated quickly into the local Celtic cultures, contributing their own legends, e.g., to the Arthurian Cycle of romances.

==Welsh legend==
Legendary versions of Maximus's career in which he marries the Welsh princess [[Elen Luyddog|Elen]] may have circulated in popular tradition in Welsh-speaking areas from an early date. Although the story of Helen and Maximus's meeting is almost certainly fictional, there is some evidence for the basic claims. He is certainly given a prominent place in the earliest version of the [[Welsh Triads]] which are believed to date from {{circa|lk=no|1100}} and which reflect older traditions in some cases. Welsh poetry also frequently refers to Macsen as a figure of comparison with later Welsh leaders. These legends come down to us in two separate versions.<ref name="Rachel Bromwich 2006"/>

=== Geoffrey of Monmouth ===
[[File:Llanbeblig Hours (f. 3r.) A king, possibly Magnus Maximus, holding a sceptre.jpg|thumb|Illustration from a 14th-century Welsh manuscript thought to intend to depict Magnus Maximus. Llanbeblig Hours (f. 3r.)]]
{{wikisource|History of the Kings of Britain/Book 5}}
According to [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s fictional ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' ({{circa|lk=no|1136}}), the basis for many English and Welsh legends, Maximianus, as he calls him, was a Roman senator, a nephew of [[Coel Hen]] through Coel's brother Ioelinus, and king of the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]] following the death of Octavius ([[Eudaf Hen]]). Geoffrey writes this came about because Octavius wanted to wed his daughter to just such a powerful half-Roman-half-Briton and to give the kingship of Britain, as a dowry, to that husband, so he sent a message to Rome offering his daughter to Maximian.<ref name="Monmouth">G Monmouth (1966). ''The History of the Kings of Britain''. Penguin 1966, pp. 136–147</ref>

[[Caradocus]], the [[List of legendary rulers of Cornwall|Duke of Cornwall]], had suggested and supported the marriage between Octavius's daughter and Maximian. Maximian accepted the offer and left Rome for Britain. Geoffrey claims further that Maximian gathered an army as he sacked [[Franks|Frankish]] towns along the way. He invaded Clausentum (modern [[Southampton]]) unintentionally and nearly fought the army of the Britons under [[Conan Meriadoc]] before agreeing to a truce. Following further negotiations, Maximian was given the kingship of Britain and Octavius retired. Five years into his kingship, Magnus Maximus assembled a vast fleet and invaded [[Gaul]], leaving Britain in the control of Caradocus.<ref name="Monmouth"/> Upon reaching the kingdom of [[Armorica]] (historically, the region between the Loire and Seine rivers, later comprising Brittany, Normandy, Anjou, Maine and Touraine), he defeated the king and killed thousands of inhabitants. Before departing to Rome, he summoned [[Conan Meriadoc|Conanus]], the rebellious nephew of Octavius, and asked him to rule as king of the land, which was renamed [[Brittany]]. Conan's men married native women after cutting out their tongues to preserve the purity of their language. [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] presents this legend to explain the Welsh name for Brittany, Llydaw, as originating from ''lled-taw'' or "half-silent". Given that Conan was well established in genealogies as the founder of Brittany, this account is certainly connected to an older tradition than Geoffrey.

Following the death of Caradocus, rule of Britain as regent passed to [[Dionotus]], who – facing a foreign invasion – appealed to Maximus, who finally sent a man named [[Gracianus Municeps]] with two legions to stop the attack. He killed many thousands before the invaders fled to [[Ireland]]. Maximus died in [[Rome]] soon after and Dionotus became the official king of the Britons. Unfortunately, before he could begin his reign, Gracianus took hold of the crown and made himself king over Dionotus.

While a broadly positive account of Maximian, the ''History'' concludes with the success of the barbarian invaders, and laments, "Alas for the absence of so many warlike soldiers through the madness of Maximianus!".<ref name="Monmouth"/>

===The Dream of Macsen Wledig===
{{wikisource|The Mabinogion/The Dream of Maxen Wledig|The Dream of Maxen Wledig}}
{{main|The Dream of Macsen Wledig}}

Although the ''[[Mabinogion]]'' tale ''The Dream of Macsen Wledig'' is written in later manuscripts than Geoffrey's version, the two accounts are so different that scholars agree the Dream cannot be based purely on Geoffrey's version. The Dream's account also seems to accord better with details in the Triads, so it perhaps reflects an earlier tradition.

Macsen Wledig, the Emperor of Rome, dreams one night of a lovely maiden in a wonderful, far-off land. Awakening, he sends his men all over the earth in search of her. With much difficulty they find her in a rich castle in Wales, daughter of a chieftain based at [[Segontium Roman Fort|Segontium]] ([[Caernarfon]]), and lead the Emperor to her. Everything he finds is exactly as in his dream. The maiden, whose name is [[Helen of the Hosts|Helen]] or Elen, accepts and loves him. Because Elen is found a virgin, Macsen gives her father sovereignty over the island of Britain and orders three castles built for his bride.<ref>S Davies trans, ''Mabinogion'' (Oxford 2007) p. 108</ref>

In Macsen's absence, a new emperor seizes power and warns him not to return. With the help of men from Britain led by Elen's brother [[Conan Meriadoc|Conanus]] (''[[Welsh language|Welsh]]'': Cynan Meriadoc, ''[[Breton language|Breton]]'': Conan Meriadeg), Macsen marches across Gaul and Italy and recaptures Rome. In gratitude to his British allies, Macsen rewards them with a portion of Gaul that becomes known as Brittany.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}

His love Helen (Elen) was travelling along the Roman roads in a Snowdonian valley when she was given grievous news over her husband. Near a well she bent to her knees and cried "croes awr i mi yw hon" translated "a cross hour for me is this", and laid down and died. The village was named [[Croesor]], a Snowdonian village nestled on the knees of the mountain [[Cnicht]]. This is why the village was called Croesor, and although it is close in a sense to Caernarfon, it is a fair way onto the valleys and mountains of Snowdonia. Croesor Primary School had the full fable drawn by the children in the 1970s in a pottery tile mural spanning the length of the small school; this was there from when it was made until the school was sold for private use. {{citation needed|date=January 2020}}

===Coel Hen===
According to another legend, Maximus appointed [[Coel Hen]], perhaps the legendary "[[Old King Cole]]", as governor of northern Britain, ruling from [[Eburacum]] (York). Following Maximus's departure for the continent, Coel became high king of northern Britain.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kessler |first1=Peter |title=Magnus Maximus |url=https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/BritishMagnusMaximus.htm |website=The History Files |access-date=Jan 13, 2020}}</ref>

===Other links with Caernarfon===
Magnus Maximus and Elen are traditionally given as the parents of Saint Peblig (or Publicus, named in the Calendar of the [[Church in Wales]]), to whom a church dedicated stands in Caernarfon. The church is built on an important early Christian site, itself built on a Roman [[Mithraeum]] or temple of [[Mithras]], close to the Segontium Roman Fort. A Roman altar was found in one of the walls during 19th century restoration work. The present church dates mainly from the 14th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/wa-3881-church-of-st-peblig-caernarfon#.VkZqFNLhCUk |title=Church of St Peblig, Caernarfon |website=www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk |publisher=British Listed Buildings |access-date=13 November 2015 }}</ref>

The medieval English king [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] was influenced by the legendary dream of Macsen Wledig/Magnus Maximus. In the dream Maximus had seen a fort, "the fairest that man ever saw", within a city at the mouth of a river in a mountainous country and opposite an island. Edward interpreted this to mean Segontium was the city of Maximus's dream and drew on the imperial link when building [[Caernarfon Castle]] in 1283.<ref>{{cite book|last=Allen Brown|first=Reginald|title=The Architecture of Castles: A Visual Guide|year=1984|publisher=B.T. Batsford|page=88|isbn=0-7134-4089-9}}</ref> It was apparently believed that Maximus died in Wales. According to the ''[[Flores Historiarum]]'', during the construction of the Castle and the nearby planned town, the body believed to be of Magnus Maximus was discovered entombed; King Edward ordered its reburial in a local church.<ref>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Arnold|title=The Welsh Castles of Edward I|year=1986|publisher=Hambledon Press, London|page=78|isbn=0-907628-71-0}}</ref>

==Later literature==
The prominent place of Macsen in history, Welsh legend and in the [[Matter of Britain]] means he is often a character or referred to in historical and Arthurian fiction. Such stories include [[Stephen R. Lawhead]]'s [[Pendragon Cycle]], [[Mary Stewart (novelist)|Mary Stewart]]'s ''[[The Hollow Hills]]'', [[Jack Whyte]]'s Camulod Chronicles, [[M J Trow]]'s Britannia series, [[Nancy McKenzie]]'s ''[[Queen of Camelot]]'' and [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[Puck of Pook's Hill]]''. The popular Welsh [[folk music|folk song]] ''[[Yma o Hyd]]'', recorded by [[Dafydd Iwan]] in 1981, recalls Macsen Wledig and celebrates the continued survival of the [[Welsh people]] since his days.

==Primary sources==
He is mentioned in a number of ancient and medieval sources:

* [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] ''Rerum Gestarum Libri Qui Supersunt'' XXXI.4.9
* [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] ''Histories of the Kings of Britain'' V.5-6
* [[Gildas]] ''[[De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae]]'' II.13-14
* '[[Nennius]]' ''Historia Brittonum'' 27; 29
* [[Paulus Orosius|Orosius]] ''Historium adversum paganos'' VII.34
* [[Pacatus]] ''Panegyricus Latini Pacati Deprani Dictus Theodosio''
* [[Prosper of Aquitaine|Prosper]] (Tiro) of Aquitaine ''Chronicon'' 384; 388
* [[Quintus Aurelius Symmachus]], who wrote a [[panegyric]] for Maximus
* [[Socrates Scholasticus]] ''Historia Ecclesiastica '' V.8; V.11
* [[Sozomen]] ''Historia Ecclesiastica '' VII.13
* [[Sulpicius Severus]] ''Dialogi'' II.6;III.11,13
* Sulpicius Severus ''Historia Sacra'' II.49-51
* Sulpicius Severus ''Vita Sancti Martini'' XX
* ''[[Welsh Triads|Trioedd Ynys Prydein]]'' (The Welsh Triads)
* [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] ''Historia Nova''

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==Sources==
* {{cite book |last=Jones |year=1971 |first=A.H.M. |author2=J.R. Martindale |author3=J. Morris |title=Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire |volume=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-07233-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/prosopography-later-roman-empire/PLRE-I |name-list-style=amp |author-link=A. H. M. Jones |author-link2=John Robert Martindale |author-link3=John Morris (historian) |ref={{sfnref|Jones|Martindale|Morris}}}}
* {{citation |last=McLynn |first=Neil B. |title=Ambrose of Milan: Church and Court in a Christian Capital |url=https://archive.org/details/ambroseofmilanch0000mcly|volume=22 |series= The Transformation of the Classical Heritage |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |year = 1994 |isbn=978-0-520-08461-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Stephen |last2=Friell |first2=Gerard |title=Theodosius: The Empire at Bay |url=https://archive.org/details/theodosiusempire0000will |date=1994 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-07447-5}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Magnus Maximus}}
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/madmax.htm ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''] – Roman Emperors, account
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140331230310/http://roman-empire.net/collapse/maximus.html ''Roman Empire''] account
* ''[http://marikavel.org/genese/genese-titre.htm Genèse de la Bretagne armoricaine]''

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou||||28 August|388}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Gratian]] and [[Valentinian II]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]
| years=383-388
| with=[[Valentinian II]], [[Theodosius I]] and [[Victor (emperor)|Victor]] }}
{{s-aft | after=[[Valentinian II]] and [[Theodosius I]]}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef | before = [[Valentinian II]], [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]] }}
{{s-ttl | title = [[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]] | years = 388 | regent1 = [[Theodosius I]] and [[Maternus Cynegius]] }}
{{s-aft | after = [[Timasius]], [[Promotus]] }}
{{s-reg | leg }}
{{s-bef | before = [[Eudaf Hen|Octavius]] }}
{{s-ttl | title = [[List of legendary kings of Britain|King of Britain]] | years = 383–388 | regent1 = [[Dionotus]] (regent) }}
{{s-aft | after = [[Gracianus Municeps]] }}
{{s-end}}

{{Roman emperors}}
{{Celtic mythology (Welsh)}}
{{Geoffrey of Monmouth}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maximus, Magnus}}
[[Category:330s births]]
[[Category:388 deaths]]
[[Category:4th-century Christians]]
[[Category:4th-century executions]]
[[Category:4th-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:4th-century murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:4th-century Roman consuls]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans in Britain]]
[[Category:Arthurian characters]]
[[Category:British traditional history]]
[[Category:Executed Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Executed Spanish people]]
[[Category:Historical figures as candidates of King Arthur]]
[[Category:Mabinogion]]
[[Category:People executed by the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Valentinianic dynasty]]
[[Category:Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae]]
[[Category:Legendary dreams]]

Magnus Maximus

2024-03-09T21:34:20Z

Amanyn: Fixed typo: Gallaeci > Gallaecian, as the former is plural

{{short description|Roman emperor from 383 to 388}}
{{Redirect|Maxen}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Magnus Maximus
| image = Rare aureus of Magnus Maximus (obverse transparent).png
| image_size =
| alt = Golden coin depicting man with diadem facing right
| caption = ''[[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]]'' of Magnus Maximus marked: {{Smallcaps|{{Abbreviation|d·n·|DOMINUS NOSTER}} mag(nus) maximus {{Abbreviation|p·f·|PIUS FELIX}} {{Abbreviation|aug·|AUGUSTUS}}}}
| succession = [[Roman emperor]]
| moretext = (in the [[Western Roman Empire|West]])
| reign = Spring 383 – 28 August 388
| predecessor = [[Gratian]]
| successor = [[Valentinian II]]
| regent = {{ubl|[[Theodosius I]] (East)|Valentinian II|[[Victor (emperor)|Victor]]}}
| reg-type = {{nowrap|Co-emperors}}
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Gallaecia]], [[Hispania]]
| death_date = 28 August 388
| death_place = [[Aquileia]], [[Venetia et Histria]], [[Roman Italy|Italia]]
| burial_place =
| spouse = [[Saint Elen|Elen]] (traditional)
| issue = {{ubl|[[Victor (emperor)|Victor]]|''"[[Sevira daughter of Maximus|Sevira]]"''|''"Maxima"''}}
| issue-link = #Fate of family
| issue-pipe = Detail
| religion = [[Nicene Christianity]]
}}

'''Magnus Maximus'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Birley |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Birley |date=1983 |title=Magnus Maximus and the persecution of heresy |url=https://www.manchesterhive.com/view/journals/bjrl/66/1/article-p13.xml |journal=[[Bulletin of the John Rylands Library]] |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=24 |doi= 10.7227/BJRL.66.1.2|issn= |quote=[Chronicle of [[Sulpicius Severus]]] 2.48.5: "{{Smallcaps|iam tum rumor incesserat clemens maximum}}"... The reading "Clementem" led to the mistaken view that the emperor was called '''Magnus Clemens Maximus'''.}}</ref> ({{IPA-la|ˈmaŋnus ˈmaksimus|lang}}; {{lang-cy|Macsen Wledig}} {{IPA-cy|ˈmaksɛn ˈwlɛdɪɡ|}}; died 28 August 388) was a [[Gallaeci|Gallaecian]] who was [[Roman emperor|emperor]] of the [[Western Roman Empire]] from 383 to 388. He usurped the throne from emperor [[Gratian]].

He was made emperor in [[Roman Britain|Britannia]] and [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]] the next year while Gratian's brother [[Valentinian II]] retained [[Roman Italy|Italy]], [[Pannonia]], [[Hispania]], and [[Africa Province|Africa]]. In 387, Maximus's ambitions led him to invade Italy, resulting in his defeat by [[Theodosius I]] at the [[Battle of Poetovio]] in 388. In the view of some historians, his death marked the end of direct imperial presence in Northern Gaul and Britannia.<ref>"The New Cambridge Medieval History: {{circa|lk=no|500}}{{ndash}}{{circa|lk=no|700}}" by Paul Fouracre, [[Rosamond McKitterick]], p. 48</ref>

==Life==
===Birth, army career===
Maximus was born in [[Gallaecia]], Hispania, on the estates of [[Count Theodosius]] (the Elder) of the [[Theodosian dynasty]], to whom he claimed to be related.<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238">[[J. B. Bury]] ed. (1924), [https://archive.org/details/cambridgemedieva009698mbp ''The Cambridge Medieval History''], p. 238</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bartrum. |first1=Peter Clement |title=A Welsh Classical Dictionary; People In History And Legend Up To About A. D. 1000 |date=1993 |publisher=The National Library of Wales |isbn=9780907158738 |url=https://archive.org/details/a-welsh-classical-dictionary-people-in-history-and-legend-up-to-about-a.-d.-1000/page/494/mode/2up?q=maximus |page=494}}</ref>{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=154}} Most of his early life is unknown as the earliest mention of him in the historical record was of him being a junior officer possibly in Britain in 368 during the [[Great Conspiracy]] as he assisted Theodosius in defeating barbarians and criminals in Britannia. Maximus would become a distinguished general in the following years; as he would gain the support of his fellow soldiers and the admiration of the Romano-Britons whom he defended, which would lead to his eventual immortalisation in Welsh legend in the centuries following.<ref>Wijnendaele, J. (2020). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/abs/ammianus-magnus-maximus-and-the-gothic-uprising/B72141580D83AEFB704E27C6A0FBADCD Ammianus, Magnus Maximus and the Gothic Uprising]. ''Britannia'', 51, 330-335. doi:10.1017/S0068113X20000045</ref> He served under Count Theodosius in Africa in 373.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''The Later Roman Empire''(Penguin 1986) p. 417</ref> Assigned to Britain in 380, he defeated an incursion of the [[Picts]] and [[Scoti|Scots]] in 381.<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238"/>

===Rebellion and bid for the throne===
The Western emperor [[Gratian]] had received a number of [[Alans]] into his bodyguard, and was accused of showing favouritism towards these [[Indo-Iranian languages|Iranian]] speaking foreigners at the expense of Roman citizens.<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238"/> In 383 the discontented Roman army proclaimed Maximus emperor in Gratian's place. [[Orosius]], who wrote that Maximus was “an energetic and able man and one worthy of the throne had he not risen to it by usurpation, contrary to his oath of allegiance,” claimed that he was proclaimed emperor against his will,<ref>Orosius, ''Historium adversum paganos'' 7.34.9</ref> but [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] portrays him as inciting the troops to rebel against Gratian, as he was upset about Theodosius becoming emperor while he himself was not promoted.<ref>Zosimus, ''Historia Nova'' 4.35.2-3</ref>

Maximus went to [[Gaul]] to pursue his imperial ambitions, taking a large portion of the British garrison with him.<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238"/> After five days of skirmishing near [[Lutetia|Paris]] he defeated Gratian,<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238"/> who fled the battlefield and was killed at [[Lugdunum|Lyon]] on 25 August 383. Continuing his campaign into Italy, Maximus was stopped from overthrowing [[Valentinian II]], who was only twelve, when [[Bauto]] came with a powerful force to forestall him. Negotiations followed in 384, including the intervention of [[Ambrose]], Bishop of Milan, leading to an accord with Valentinian II and Theodosius I in which Maximus was recognized as ''[[Augustus (rank)|Augustus]]'' in the West.<ref>D Divine, ''The North-West Frontier of Rome'' (London 1969) p. 229</ref>

===Administration===
Maximus made his capital at [[History of Trier#Roman Empire|Augusta Treverorum]] (Treves, [[Trier]]) in Gaul, and ruled Britain, Gaul, Spain and Africa. He issued coinage and a number of edicts reorganising Gaul's system of provinces. Some historians believe Maximus may have founded the office of the ''[[Comes Britanniarum]]'' as well, although it was probably Stilicho who created the permanent office.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Craven |first=Maxwell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dxayEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT167 |title=Magnus Maximus |date=2023 |publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited |isbn=978-1-3981-1137-0 |pages=167}}</ref>

Maximus was a stern persecutor of [[heresy|heretics]]. It was on his orders that [[Priscillian]] and six companions were executed for [[Priscillianism|heresy]], although the actual civil charges laid by Maximus were for the practice of [[Magic in the Greco-Roman world|magic]]. Prominent churchmen such as [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]] and [[St. Martin of Tours]] protested against this involvement of the secular power in doctrinal matters, but the executions were carried out nonetheless.<ref>A Momigliano, ''Essays in Ancient and Modern Historiography'' (Oxford 1977) p. 113</ref> Maximus thereby not only established his credentials as an upholder of orthodoxy, but also strengthened his financial resources in the ensuing confiscations.<ref>K Cooper ed., ''Making Early Medieval Societies'' (2016) p. 34 and p. 44</ref> The [[Chronica Gallica of 452|''Gallic Chronicle'' of 452]] describes the Priscillianists as "Manichaeans", a different [[Gnostic]] heresy already condemned in Roman law under [[Diocletian]], and states that Magnus Maximus had them "caught and exterminated with the greatest zeal".<ref>{{cite book |last=Ames |first=Christine Cadwell |date=15 April 2015 |title=Medieval Heresies: Christianity, Judaism, and Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPgGBwAAQBAJ |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=45–46 |isbn=9781107023369}}</ref>

In a threatening letter addressed to Valentinian II, most likely composed between the spring of 384 and the summer of 387, Maximus complains of Valentinian's actions towards Ambrose and adherents of the Nicean Creed, writing: "Can it be that Your Serenity, venerable to me, thinks that a religion which has once taken root in the minds of men, which God himself has established, can be uprooted?" in response to "the disturbance and convulsion of Catholic law."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Omissi |first=Adrastos |date=May 2022 |title=Two letters of the usurper Magnus Maximus (Collectio Avellana 39 and 40) |url=https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/263793/ |journal=Classical Quarterly |language=en |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=391–415 |doi=10.1017/S000983882200043X |s2cid=253923880 |issn=0009-8388}}</ref>

Conversely, Maximus's edict of 387/388, which censured Christians at Rome for burning down a Jewish [[synagogue]], was condemned by bishop [[Ambrose]], who said people exclaimed, "the emperor has become a Jew".<ref>Ambrose, Patrologia Latina, 16–17 (1845), nos. 40</ref>

===Final conflicts and execution===
In 387, Maximus managed to force emperor Valentinian II out of [[Mediolanum|Milan]]. Valentinian fled to Theodosius I, and the two subsequently invaded from the east; their armies, led by [[Richomeres]] and other generals, campaigned against Maximus in July–August 388. Maximus was defeated in the [[Battle of Poetovio]],<ref>Pan. Lat. II.34</ref><ref>For a summary of the invasion of Italy and subsequent campaign against Theodosius see Hebblewhite, M. (2020) Theodosius and the Limits of Empire, 81ff</ref> and retreated to [[Aquileia]]. Meanwhile, the [[Franks]] under [[Marcomer]] had taken the opportunity to invade northern Gaul, at the same time further weakening Maximus's position.

[[Andragathius]], ''[[magister equitum]]'' of Maximus and the killer of Emperor Gratian, was defeated near [[Siscia]], while Maximus's brother, Marcellinus, fell in battle at [[Poetovio]].<ref>Pan. Lat. II.35-6</ref> Maximus surrendered in Aquileia, and although he pleaded for mercy was executed. The Senate passed a decree of ''[[Damnatio memoriae]]'' against him. However, his mother and at least two daughters were spared.<ref>Ambrose, Ep. 40.32</ref> Theodosius's trusted general [[Arbogast (magister militum)|Arbogast]] strangled Maximus's son, [[Victor (emperor)|Victor]], at Trier in the fall of the same year.<ref>Susan Wise Bauer, "The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade", W. W. Norton & Company, 22 Feb 2010 (p.68)</ref>

===Fate of family===

It is not recorded what happened to Maximus's family after his downfall. He is known to have had a wife, who is recorded as having sought spiritual counsel from [[St. Martin of Tours]] during his time at Trier. Her ultimate fate, and even her name (but see the Welsh tradition below), have not been preserved in definitive historical records. The same is true of Maximus's mother and daughters, other than that they were spared by Theodosius I.

One of Maximus's daughters may have been married to [[Ennoius|Ennodius]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Drinkwater |editor-first1=John |editor-last2=Elton |editor-first2=Hugh |title=Fifth-Century Gaul: A Crisis of Identity? |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-41485-7 |page=118 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lHGOvpQfFqcC&pg=PA118 |access-date=Jan 13, 2020}}</ref> proconsul Africae (395). Ennodius's grandson was [[Petronius Maximus]], another ill-fated emperor, who ruled in Rome for only 77 days before he was stoned to death while fleeing from the Vandals on 24 May 455. Other descendants of Ennodius, and thus possibly of Maximus, included [[Olybrius|Anicius Olybrius]], emperor in 472, but also several consuls and bishops such as [[Magnus Felix Ennodius|St. Magnus Felix Ennodius]] (Bishop of [[Pavia]] {{circa|lk=no|514}}-21). We also encounter an otherwise unrecorded daughter of Magnus Maximus, [[Sevira]], on the [[Pillar of Eliseg]] (9th century), an early medieval inscribed stone in Wales, which claims that she married [[Vortigern]], [[king of the Britons]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Laycock |first1=Stuart |title=Warlords: The Struggle for Power in Post-Roman Britain |date=2011 |publisher=The History Press |isbn=978-0-7524-7560-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RrkTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT65 |access-date=Jan 13, 2020}}</ref>

== Role in British and Breton history ==
Maximus's bid for imperial power in 383 coincides with the last date for any evidence of a Roman military presence in Britain, the western [[Pennines]], and the fortress of [[Chester|Deva]]. Coins dated later than 383 have been found in excavations along [[Hadrian's Wall]], suggesting that troops were not entirely stripped from it, as was once thought.<ref name=Frere1>{{Citation
|last=Frere
|first=Sheppard Sunderland
|author-link=Sheppard Frere
|year=1987
|contribution=The End of Roman Britain
|title=Britannia: A History of Roman Britain
|edition=3rd, revised
|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul
|publication-date=1987
|location=London
|page=354
|isbn=0-7102-1215-1
}}</ref> In the ''[[De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae]]'' written {{circa|lk=no|540}}, [[Gildas]] says that Maximus "deprived" Britain not only of its Roman troops, but also of its "armed bands...governors and of the flower of her youth", never to return.<ref>{{Citation
|year=1841
|editor-last=Giles
|editor-first=John Allen
|editor-link=John Allen Giles
|contribution=The Works of Gildas
|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3R1mCE7p44MC&pg=PA13
|title=The Works of Gildas and Nennius
|publisher=James Bohn
|publication-date=1841
|location=London
|page=13
}}, The History, ch. 14.</ref>

Having left with the troops and senior administrators, and planning to continue as the ruler of Britain in the future, his practical course was to transfer local authority to local rulers. Welsh legend supports that this happened, with stories such as ''Breuddwyd Macsen Wledig'' (English: The Dream of Emperor Maximus), where he not only marries a wondrous British woman (thus making British descendants probable), but also gives her father sovereignty over Britain (thus formally transferring authority from Rome back to the Britons themselves).

The earliest Welsh genealogies give Maximus (referred to as ''Macsen/Maxen Wledig'', or ''Emperor Maximus'') the role of founding father of the dynasties of several medieval Welsh kingdoms, including those of [[Kingdom of Powys|Powys]] and [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]].<ref>{{Citation
|year=1887
|editor-last=Phillimore
|editor-first=Egerton
|contribution=Pedigrees from Jesus College MS. 20
|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HlUrAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA83
|title=Y Cymmrodor
|volume=VIII
|publisher=Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion
|publication-date=1887
|pages=83–92
}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|last=Phillimore
|first=Egerton
|year=1888
|editor-last=Phillimore
|editor-first=Egerton
|contribution=The Annales Cambriae and Old Welsh Genealogies, from Harleian MS. 3859
|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aFMrAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA141
|title=Y Cymmrodor
|volume=IX
|publisher=Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion
|publication-date=1888
|pages=141–183
}}</ref> He is given as the ancestor of a Welsh king on the [[Pillar of Eliseg]], erected nearly 500 years after he left Britain, and he figures in lists of the [[Fifteen Tribes of Wales]].<ref name="Rachel Bromwich 2006">Rachel Bromwich, editor and translator. Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Welsh Triads. Cardiff: [[University of Wales Press]], Third Edition, 2006. 441-444</ref>

After he became emperor of the West, Maximus returned to Britain to campaign against the [[Picts]] and Scots (i.e., Irish), probably in support of Rome's long-standing allies the [[Damnonii]], [[Votadini]], and [[Novantae]] (all located in modern [[Scotland]]). While there he likely made similar arrangements for a formal transfer of authority to local chiefs—the later rulers of [[Galloway]], home to the Novantae, claimed Maximus as the founder of their line, the same as did the Welsh kings.<ref name=Frere1/>

The ninth century ''[[Historia Brittonum]]'' gives another account of Maximus and assigns him an important role:

{{blockquote|The seventh emperor was Maximianus, He withdrew from Britain with all its military force, slew Gratianus the king of the Romans, and obtained the sovereignty of all Europe. Unwilling to send back his warlike companions to their wives, families, and possessions in Britain, he conferred upon them numerous districts from the lake on the summit of Mons Iovis, to the city called Cant Guic, and to the western Tumulus, that is Cruc Occident. These are the Armoric Britons, and they remain there to the present day. In consequence of their absence, Britain being overcome by foreign nations, the lawful heirs were cast out, till God interposed with his assistance.}}

Modern historians believe that this idea of mass British troop settlement in [[Brittany]] by Maximus may very well reflect some reality, as it accords with archaeological and other historical evidence and later Breton traditions.

[[Armorica]] declared independence from the Roman Empire in 407, but contributed archers for [[Aetius (general)|Aetius]]'s defence against [[Attila]] the Hun, and its king [[Riothamus]] was subsequently mentioned in contemporary documents as an ally of Rome's against the [[Goths]]. Despite its continued usage of two distinct languages, [[Breton language|Breton]] and [[Gallo language|Gallo]], and extensive invasions and conquests by Franks and Vikings, Armorica retained considerable cultural cohesion into the 13th century.

Maximus also established a military base in his native [[Gallaecia]], i.e., [[Galicia (Spain)]], which persisted as a cultural entity despite occupation by the [[Suebi]] in 409, see [[Kingdom of Galicia]].

Aetius sent large numbers of [[Alans]] to both Armorica and Galicia following the defeat of Attila at the [[Battle of the Catalunian Plains]]. The Alans evidently assimilated quickly into the local Celtic cultures, contributing their own legends, e.g., to the Arthurian Cycle of romances.

==Welsh legend==
Legendary versions of Maximus's career in which he marries the Welsh princess [[Elen Luyddog|Elen]] may have circulated in popular tradition in Welsh-speaking areas from an early date. Although the story of Helen and Maximus's meeting is almost certainly fictional, there is some evidence for the basic claims. He is certainly given a prominent place in the earliest version of the [[Welsh Triads]] which are believed to date from {{circa|lk=no|1100}} and which reflect older traditions in some cases. Welsh poetry also frequently refers to Macsen as a figure of comparison with later Welsh leaders. These legends come down to us in two separate versions.<ref name="Rachel Bromwich 2006"/>

=== Geoffrey of Monmouth ===
[[File:Llanbeblig Hours (f. 3r.) A king, possibly Magnus Maximus, holding a sceptre.jpg|thumb|Illustration from a 14th-century Welsh manuscript thought to intend to depict Magnus Maximus. Llanbeblig Hours (f. 3r.)]]
{{wikisource|History of the Kings of Britain/Book 5}}
According to [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s fictional ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' ({{circa|lk=no|1136}}), the basis for many English and Welsh legends, Maximianus, as he calls him, was a Roman senator, a nephew of [[Coel Hen]] through Coel's brother Ioelinus, and king of the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]] following the death of Octavius ([[Eudaf Hen]]). Geoffrey writes this came about because Octavius wanted to wed his daughter to just such a powerful half-Roman-half-Briton and to give the kingship of Britain, as a dowry, to that husband, so he sent a message to Rome offering his daughter to Maximian.<ref name="Monmouth">G Monmouth (1966). ''The History of the Kings of Britain''. Penguin 1966, pp. 136–147</ref>

[[Caradocus]], the [[List of legendary rulers of Cornwall|Duke of Cornwall]], had suggested and supported the marriage between Octavius's daughter and Maximian. Maximian accepted the offer and left Rome for Britain. Geoffrey claims further that Maximian gathered an army as he sacked [[Franks|Frankish]] towns along the way. He invaded Clausentum (modern [[Southampton]]) unintentionally and nearly fought the army of the Britons under [[Conan Meriadoc]] before agreeing to a truce. Following further negotiations, Maximian was given the kingship of Britain and Octavius retired. Five years into his kingship, Magnus Maximus assembled a vast fleet and invaded [[Gaul]], leaving Britain in the control of Caradocus.<ref name="Monmouth"/> Upon reaching the kingdom of [[Armorica]] (historically, the region between the Loire and Seine rivers, later comprising Brittany, Normandy, Anjou, Maine and Touraine), he defeated the king and killed thousands of inhabitants. Before departing to Rome, he summoned [[Conan Meriadoc|Conanus]], the rebellious nephew of Octavius, and asked him to rule as king of the land, which was renamed [[Brittany]]. Conan's men married native women after cutting out their tongues to preserve the purity of their language. [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] presents this legend to explain the Welsh name for Brittany, Llydaw, as originating from ''lled-taw'' or "half-silent". Given that Conan was well established in genealogies as the founder of Brittany, this account is certainly connected to an older tradition than Geoffrey.

Following the death of Caradocus, rule of Britain as regent passed to [[Dionotus]], who – facing a foreign invasion – appealed to Maximus, who finally sent a man named [[Gracianus Municeps]] with two legions to stop the attack. He killed many thousands before the invaders fled to [[Ireland]]. Maximus died in [[Rome]] soon after and Dionotus became the official king of the Britons. Unfortunately, before he could begin his reign, Gracianus took hold of the crown and made himself king over Dionotus.

While a broadly positive account of Maximian, the ''History'' concludes with the success of the barbarian invaders, and laments, "Alas for the absence of so many warlike soldiers through the madness of Maximianus!".<ref name="Monmouth"/>

===The Dream of Macsen Wledig===
{{wikisource|The Mabinogion/The Dream of Maxen Wledig|The Dream of Maxen Wledig}}
{{main|The Dream of Macsen Wledig}}

Although the ''[[Mabinogion]]'' tale ''The Dream of Macsen Wledig'' is written in later manuscripts than Geoffrey's version, the two accounts are so different that scholars agree the Dream cannot be based purely on Geoffrey's version. The Dream's account also seems to accord better with details in the Triads, so it perhaps reflects an earlier tradition.

Macsen Wledig, the Emperor of Rome, dreams one night of a lovely maiden in a wonderful, far-off land. Awakening, he sends his men all over the earth in search of her. With much difficulty they find her in a rich castle in Wales, daughter of a chieftain based at [[Segontium Roman Fort|Segontium]] ([[Caernarfon]]), and lead the Emperor to her. Everything he finds is exactly as in his dream. The maiden, whose name is [[Helen of the Hosts|Helen]] or Elen, accepts and loves him. Because Elen is found a virgin, Macsen gives her father sovereignty over the island of Britain and orders three castles built for his bride.<ref>S Davies trans, ''Mabinogion'' (Oxford 2007) p. 108</ref>

In Macsen's absence, a new emperor seizes power and warns him not to return. With the help of men from Britain led by Elen's brother [[Conan Meriadoc|Conanus]] (''[[Welsh language|Welsh]]'': Cynan Meriadoc, ''[[Breton language|Breton]]'': Conan Meriadeg), Macsen marches across Gaul and Italy and recaptures Rome. In gratitude to his British allies, Macsen rewards them with a portion of Gaul that becomes known as Brittany.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}

His love Helen (Elen) was travelling along the Roman roads in a Snowdonian valley when she was given grievous news over her husband. Near a well she bent to her knees and cried "croes awr i mi yw hon" translated "a cross hour for me is this", and laid down and died. The village was named [[Croesor]], a Snowdonian village nestled on the knees of the mountain [[Cnicht]]. This is why the village was called Croesor, and although it is close in a sense to Caernarfon, it is a fair way onto the valleys and mountains of Snowdonia. Croesor Primary School had the full fable drawn by the children in the 1970s in a pottery tile mural spanning the length of the small school; this was there from when it was made until the school was sold for private use. {{citation needed|date=January 2020}}

===Coel Hen===
According to another legend, Maximus appointed [[Coel Hen]], perhaps the legendary "[[Old King Cole]]", as governor of northern Britain, ruling from [[Eburacum]] (York). Following Maximus's departure for the continent, Coel became high king of northern Britain.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kessler |first1=Peter |title=Magnus Maximus |url=https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/BritishMagnusMaximus.htm |website=The History Files |access-date=Jan 13, 2020}}</ref>

===Other links with Caernarfon===
Magnus Maximus and Elen are traditionally given as the parents of Saint Peblig (or Publicus, named in the Calendar of the [[Church in Wales]]), to whom a church dedicated stands in Caernarfon. The church is built on an important early Christian site, itself built on a Roman [[Mithraeum]] or temple of [[Mithras]], close to the Segontium Roman Fort. A Roman altar was found in one of the walls during 19th century restoration work. The present church dates mainly from the 14th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/wa-3881-church-of-st-peblig-caernarfon#.VkZqFNLhCUk |title=Church of St Peblig, Caernarfon |website=www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk |publisher=British Listed Buildings |access-date=13 November 2015 }}</ref>

The medieval English king [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] was influenced by the legendary dream of Macsen Wledig/Magnus Maximus. In the dream Maximus had seen a fort, "the fairest that man ever saw", within a city at the mouth of a river in a mountainous country and opposite an island. Edward interpreted this to mean Segontium was the city of Maximus's dream and drew on the imperial link when building [[Caernarfon Castle]] in 1283.<ref>{{cite book|last=Allen Brown|first=Reginald|title=The Architecture of Castles: A Visual Guide|year=1984|publisher=B.T. Batsford|page=88|isbn=0-7134-4089-9}}</ref> It was apparently believed that Maximus died in Wales. According to the ''[[Flores Historiarum]]'', during the construction of the Castle and the nearby planned town, the body believed to be of Magnus Maximus was discovered entombed; King Edward ordered its reburial in a local church.<ref>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Arnold|title=The Welsh Castles of Edward I|year=1986|publisher=Hambledon Press, London|page=78|isbn=0-907628-71-0}}</ref>

==Later literature==
The prominent place of Macsen in history, Welsh legend and in the [[Matter of Britain]] means he is often a character or referred to in historical and Arthurian fiction. Such stories include [[Stephen R. Lawhead]]'s [[Pendragon Cycle]], [[Mary Stewart (novelist)|Mary Stewart]]'s ''[[The Hollow Hills]]'', [[Jack Whyte]]'s Camulod Chronicles, [[M J Trow]]'s Britannia series, [[Nancy McKenzie]]'s ''[[Queen of Camelot]]'' and [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[Puck of Pook's Hill]]''. The popular Welsh [[folk music|folk song]] ''[[Yma o Hyd]]'', recorded by [[Dafydd Iwan]] in 1981, recalls Macsen Wledig and celebrates the continued survival of the [[Welsh people]] since his days.

==Primary sources==
He is mentioned in a number of ancient and medieval sources:

* [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] ''Rerum Gestarum Libri Qui Supersunt'' XXXI.4.9
* [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] ''Histories of the Kings of Britain'' V.5-6
* [[Gildas]] ''[[De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae]]'' II.13-14
* '[[Nennius]]' ''Historia Brittonum'' 27; 29
* [[Paulus Orosius|Orosius]] ''Historium adversum paganos'' VII.34
* [[Pacatus]] ''Panegyricus Latini Pacati Deprani Dictus Theodosio''
* [[Prosper of Aquitaine|Prosper]] (Tiro) of Aquitaine ''Chronicon'' 384; 388
* [[Quintus Aurelius Symmachus]], who wrote a [[panegyric]] for Maximus
* [[Socrates Scholasticus]] ''Historia Ecclesiastica '' V.8; V.11
* [[Sozomen]] ''Historia Ecclesiastica '' VII.13
* [[Sulpicius Severus]] ''Dialogi'' II.6;III.11,13
* Sulpicius Severus ''Historia Sacra'' II.49-51
* Sulpicius Severus ''Vita Sancti Martini'' XX
* ''[[Welsh Triads|Trioedd Ynys Prydein]]'' (The Welsh Triads)
* [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] ''Historia Nova''

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==Sources==
* {{cite book |last=Jones |year=1971 |first=A.H.M. |author2=J.R. Martindale |author3=J. Morris |title=Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire |volume=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-07233-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/prosopography-later-roman-empire/PLRE-I |name-list-style=amp |author-link=A. H. M. Jones |author-link2=John Robert Martindale |author-link3=John Morris (historian) |ref={{sfnref|Jones|Martindale|Morris}}}}
* {{citation |last=McLynn |first=Neil B. |title=Ambrose of Milan: Church and Court in a Christian Capital |url=https://archive.org/details/ambroseofmilanch0000mcly|volume=22 |series= The Transformation of the Classical Heritage |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |year = 1994 |isbn=978-0-520-08461-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Stephen |last2=Friell |first2=Gerard |title=Theodosius: The Empire at Bay |url=https://archive.org/details/theodosiusempire0000will |date=1994 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-07447-5}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Magnus Maximus}}
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/madmax.htm ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''] – Roman Emperors, account
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140331230310/http://roman-empire.net/collapse/maximus.html ''Roman Empire''] account
* ''[http://marikavel.org/genese/genese-titre.htm Genèse de la Bretagne armoricaine]''

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou||||28 August|388}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Gratian]] and [[Valentinian II]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]
| years=383-388
| with=[[Valentinian II]], [[Theodosius I]] and [[Victor (emperor)|Victor]] }}
{{s-aft | after=[[Valentinian II]] and [[Theodosius I]]}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef | before = [[Valentinian II]], [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]] }}
{{s-ttl | title = [[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]] | years = 388 | regent1 = [[Theodosius I]] and [[Maternus Cynegius]] }}
{{s-aft | after = [[Timasius]], [[Promotus]] }}
{{s-reg | leg }}
{{s-bef | before = [[Eudaf Hen|Octavius]] }}
{{s-ttl | title = [[List of legendary kings of Britain|King of Britain]] | years = 383–388 | regent1 = [[Dionotus]] (regent) }}
{{s-aft | after = [[Gracianus Municeps]] }}
{{s-end}}

{{Roman emperors}}
{{Celtic mythology (Welsh)}}
{{Geoffrey of Monmouth}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maximus, Magnus}}
[[Category:330s births]]
[[Category:388 deaths]]
[[Category:4th-century Christians]]
[[Category:4th-century executions]]
[[Category:4th-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:4th-century murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:4th-century Roman consuls]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans in Britain]]
[[Category:Arthurian characters]]
[[Category:British traditional history]]
[[Category:Executed Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Executed Spanish people]]
[[Category:Historical figures as candidates of King Arthur]]
[[Category:Mabinogion]]
[[Category:People executed by the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Valentinianic dynasty]]
[[Category:Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae]]
[[Category:Legendary dreams]]

Magnus Maximus

2024-03-09T20:37:47Z

Amanyn: Replaced Celtiberian with Gallaecian, as he was born in Gallaecia (and Hispano-Celtic is mistaken for Celtiberian)

{{short description|Roman emperor from 383 to 388}}
{{Redirect|Maxen}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Magnus Maximus
| image = Rare aureus of Magnus Maximus (obverse transparent).png
| image_size =
| alt = Golden coin depicting man with diadem facing right
| caption = ''[[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]]'' of Magnus Maximus marked: {{Smallcaps|{{Abbreviation|d·n·|DOMINUS NOSTER}} mag(nus) maximus {{Abbreviation|p·f·|PIUS FELIX}} {{Abbreviation|aug·|AUGUSTUS}}}}
| succession = [[Roman emperor]]
| moretext = (in the [[Western Roman Empire|West]])
| reign = Spring 383 – 28 August 388
| predecessor = [[Gratian]]
| successor = [[Valentinian II]]
| regent = {{ubl|[[Theodosius I]] (East)|Valentinian II|[[Victor (emperor)|Victor]]}}
| reg-type = {{nowrap|Co-emperors}}
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Gallaecia]], [[Hispania]]
| death_date = 28 August 388
| death_place = [[Aquileia]], [[Venetia et Histria]], [[Roman Italy|Italia]]
| burial_place =
| spouse = [[Saint Elen|Elen]] (traditional)
| issue = {{ubl|[[Victor (emperor)|Victor]]|''"[[Sevira daughter of Maximus|Sevira]]"''|''"Maxima"''}}
| issue-link = #Fate of family
| issue-pipe = Detail
| religion = [[Nicene Christianity]]
}}

'''Magnus Maximus'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Birley |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Birley |date=1983 |title=Magnus Maximus and the persecution of heresy |url=https://www.manchesterhive.com/view/journals/bjrl/66/1/article-p13.xml |journal=[[Bulletin of the John Rylands Library]] |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=24 |doi= 10.7227/BJRL.66.1.2|issn= |quote=[Chronicle of [[Sulpicius Severus]]] 2.48.5: "{{Smallcaps|iam tum rumor incesserat clemens maximum}}"... The reading "Clementem" led to the mistaken view that the emperor was called '''Magnus Clemens Maximus'''.}}</ref> ({{IPA-la|ˈmaŋnus ˈmaksimus|lang}}; {{lang-cy|Macsen Wledig}} {{IPA-cy|ˈmaksɛn ˈwlɛdɪɡ|}}; died 28 August 388) was a [[Gallaeci]] who was [[Roman emperor|emperor]] of the [[Western Roman Empire]] from 383 to 388. He usurped the throne from emperor [[Gratian]].

He was made emperor in [[Roman Britain|Britannia]] and [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]] the next year while Gratian's brother [[Valentinian II]] retained [[Roman Italy|Italy]], [[Pannonia]], [[Hispania]], and [[Africa Province|Africa]]. In 387, Maximus's ambitions led him to invade Italy, resulting in his defeat by [[Theodosius I]] at the [[Battle of Poetovio]] in 388. In the view of some historians, his death marked the end of direct imperial presence in Northern Gaul and Britannia.<ref>"The New Cambridge Medieval History: {{circa|lk=no|500}}{{ndash}}{{circa|lk=no|700}}" by Paul Fouracre, [[Rosamond McKitterick]], p. 48</ref>

==Life==
===Birth, army career===
Maximus was born in [[Gallaecia]], Hispania, on the estates of [[Count Theodosius]] (the Elder) of the [[Theodosian dynasty]], to whom he claimed to be related.<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238">[[J. B. Bury]] ed. (1924), [https://archive.org/details/cambridgemedieva009698mbp ''The Cambridge Medieval History''], p. 238</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bartrum. |first1=Peter Clement |title=A Welsh Classical Dictionary; People In History And Legend Up To About A. D. 1000 |date=1993 |publisher=The National Library of Wales |isbn=9780907158738 |url=https://archive.org/details/a-welsh-classical-dictionary-people-in-history-and-legend-up-to-about-a.-d.-1000/page/494/mode/2up?q=maximus |page=494}}</ref>{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=154}} Most of his early life is unknown as the earliest mention of him in the historical record was of him being a junior officer possibly in Britain in 368 during the [[Great Conspiracy]] as he assisted Theodosius in defeating barbarians and criminals in Britannia. Maximus would become a distinguished general in the following years; as he would gain the support of his fellow soldiers and the admiration of the Romano-Britons whom he defended, which would lead to his eventual immortalisation in Welsh legend in the centuries following.<ref>Wijnendaele, J. (2020). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/abs/ammianus-magnus-maximus-and-the-gothic-uprising/B72141580D83AEFB704E27C6A0FBADCD Ammianus, Magnus Maximus and the Gothic Uprising]. ''Britannia'', 51, 330-335. doi:10.1017/S0068113X20000045</ref> He served under Count Theodosius in Africa in 373.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''The Later Roman Empire''(Penguin 1986) p. 417</ref> Assigned to Britain in 380, he defeated an incursion of the [[Picts]] and [[Scoti|Scots]] in 381.<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238"/>

===Rebellion and bid for the throne===
The Western emperor [[Gratian]] had received a number of [[Alans]] into his bodyguard, and was accused of showing favouritism towards these [[Indo-Iranian languages|Iranian]] speaking foreigners at the expense of Roman citizens.<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238"/> In 383 the discontented Roman army proclaimed Maximus emperor in Gratian's place. [[Orosius]], who wrote that Maximus was “an energetic and able man and one worthy of the throne had he not risen to it by usurpation, contrary to his oath of allegiance,” claimed that he was proclaimed emperor against his will,<ref>Orosius, ''Historium adversum paganos'' 7.34.9</ref> but [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] portrays him as inciting the troops to rebel against Gratian, as he was upset about Theodosius becoming emperor while he himself was not promoted.<ref>Zosimus, ''Historia Nova'' 4.35.2-3</ref>

Maximus went to [[Gaul]] to pursue his imperial ambitions, taking a large portion of the British garrison with him.<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238"/> After five days of skirmishing near [[Lutetia|Paris]] he defeated Gratian,<ref name="The Cambridge Medieval History 1924 p. 238"/> who fled the battlefield and was killed at [[Lugdunum|Lyon]] on 25 August 383. Continuing his campaign into Italy, Maximus was stopped from overthrowing [[Valentinian II]], who was only twelve, when [[Bauto]] came with a powerful force to forestall him. Negotiations followed in 384, including the intervention of [[Ambrose]], Bishop of Milan, leading to an accord with Valentinian II and Theodosius I in which Maximus was recognized as ''[[Augustus (rank)|Augustus]]'' in the West.<ref>D Divine, ''The North-West Frontier of Rome'' (London 1969) p. 229</ref>

===Administration===
Maximus made his capital at [[History of Trier#Roman Empire|Augusta Treverorum]] (Treves, [[Trier]]) in Gaul, and ruled Britain, Gaul, Spain and Africa. He issued coinage and a number of edicts reorganising Gaul's system of provinces. Some historians believe Maximus may have founded the office of the ''[[Comes Britanniarum]]'' as well, although it was probably Stilicho who created the permanent office.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Craven |first=Maxwell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dxayEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT167 |title=Magnus Maximus |date=2023 |publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited |isbn=978-1-3981-1137-0 |pages=167}}</ref>

Maximus was a stern persecutor of [[heresy|heretics]]. It was on his orders that [[Priscillian]] and six companions were executed for [[Priscillianism|heresy]], although the actual civil charges laid by Maximus were for the practice of [[Magic in the Greco-Roman world|magic]]. Prominent churchmen such as [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]] and [[St. Martin of Tours]] protested against this involvement of the secular power in doctrinal matters, but the executions were carried out nonetheless.<ref>A Momigliano, ''Essays in Ancient and Modern Historiography'' (Oxford 1977) p. 113</ref> Maximus thereby not only established his credentials as an upholder of orthodoxy, but also strengthened his financial resources in the ensuing confiscations.<ref>K Cooper ed., ''Making Early Medieval Societies'' (2016) p. 34 and p. 44</ref> The [[Chronica Gallica of 452|''Gallic Chronicle'' of 452]] describes the Priscillianists as "Manichaeans", a different [[Gnostic]] heresy already condemned in Roman law under [[Diocletian]], and states that Magnus Maximus had them "caught and exterminated with the greatest zeal".<ref>{{cite book |last=Ames |first=Christine Cadwell |date=15 April 2015 |title=Medieval Heresies: Christianity, Judaism, and Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPgGBwAAQBAJ |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=45–46 |isbn=9781107023369}}</ref>

In a threatening letter addressed to Valentinian II, most likely composed between the spring of 384 and the summer of 387, Maximus complains of Valentinian's actions towards Ambrose and adherents of the Nicean Creed, writing: "Can it be that Your Serenity, venerable to me, thinks that a religion which has once taken root in the minds of men, which God himself has established, can be uprooted?" in response to "the disturbance and convulsion of Catholic law."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Omissi |first=Adrastos |date=May 2022 |title=Two letters of the usurper Magnus Maximus (Collectio Avellana 39 and 40) |url=https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/263793/ |journal=Classical Quarterly |language=en |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=391–415 |doi=10.1017/S000983882200043X |s2cid=253923880 |issn=0009-8388}}</ref>

Conversely, Maximus's edict of 387/388, which censured Christians at Rome for burning down a Jewish [[synagogue]], was condemned by bishop [[Ambrose]], who said people exclaimed, "the emperor has become a Jew".<ref>Ambrose, Patrologia Latina, 16–17 (1845), nos. 40</ref>

===Final conflicts and execution===
In 387, Maximus managed to force emperor Valentinian II out of [[Mediolanum|Milan]]. Valentinian fled to Theodosius I, and the two subsequently invaded from the east; their armies, led by [[Richomeres]] and other generals, campaigned against Maximus in July–August 388. Maximus was defeated in the [[Battle of Poetovio]],<ref>Pan. Lat. II.34</ref><ref>For a summary of the invasion of Italy and subsequent campaign against Theodosius see Hebblewhite, M. (2020) Theodosius and the Limits of Empire, 81ff</ref> and retreated to [[Aquileia]]. Meanwhile, the [[Franks]] under [[Marcomer]] had taken the opportunity to invade northern Gaul, at the same time further weakening Maximus's position.

[[Andragathius]], ''[[magister equitum]]'' of Maximus and the killer of Emperor Gratian, was defeated near [[Siscia]], while Maximus's brother, Marcellinus, fell in battle at [[Poetovio]].<ref>Pan. Lat. II.35-6</ref> Maximus surrendered in Aquileia, and although he pleaded for mercy was executed. The Senate passed a decree of ''[[Damnatio memoriae]]'' against him. However, his mother and at least two daughters were spared.<ref>Ambrose, Ep. 40.32</ref> Theodosius's trusted general [[Arbogast (magister militum)|Arbogast]] strangled Maximus's son, [[Victor (emperor)|Victor]], at Trier in the fall of the same year.<ref>Susan Wise Bauer, "The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade", W. W. Norton & Company, 22 Feb 2010 (p.68)</ref>

===Fate of family===

It is not recorded what happened to Maximus's family after his downfall. He is known to have had a wife, who is recorded as having sought spiritual counsel from [[St. Martin of Tours]] during his time at Trier. Her ultimate fate, and even her name (but see the Welsh tradition below), have not been preserved in definitive historical records. The same is true of Maximus's mother and daughters, other than that they were spared by Theodosius I.

One of Maximus's daughters may have been married to [[Ennoius|Ennodius]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Drinkwater |editor-first1=John |editor-last2=Elton |editor-first2=Hugh |title=Fifth-Century Gaul: A Crisis of Identity? |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-41485-7 |page=118 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lHGOvpQfFqcC&pg=PA118 |access-date=Jan 13, 2020}}</ref> proconsul Africae (395). Ennodius's grandson was [[Petronius Maximus]], another ill-fated emperor, who ruled in Rome for only 77 days before he was stoned to death while fleeing from the Vandals on 24 May 455. Other descendants of Ennodius, and thus possibly of Maximus, included [[Olybrius|Anicius Olybrius]], emperor in 472, but also several consuls and bishops such as [[Magnus Felix Ennodius|St. Magnus Felix Ennodius]] (Bishop of [[Pavia]] {{circa|lk=no|514}}-21). We also encounter an otherwise unrecorded daughter of Magnus Maximus, [[Sevira]], on the [[Pillar of Eliseg]] (9th century), an early medieval inscribed stone in Wales, which claims that she married [[Vortigern]], [[king of the Britons]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Laycock |first1=Stuart |title=Warlords: The Struggle for Power in Post-Roman Britain |date=2011 |publisher=The History Press |isbn=978-0-7524-7560-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RrkTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT65 |access-date=Jan 13, 2020}}</ref>

== Role in British and Breton history ==
Maximus's bid for imperial power in 383 coincides with the last date for any evidence of a Roman military presence in Britain, the western [[Pennines]], and the fortress of [[Chester|Deva]]. Coins dated later than 383 have been found in excavations along [[Hadrian's Wall]], suggesting that troops were not entirely stripped from it, as was once thought.<ref name=Frere1>{{Citation
|last=Frere
|first=Sheppard Sunderland
|author-link=Sheppard Frere
|year=1987
|contribution=The End of Roman Britain
|title=Britannia: A History of Roman Britain
|edition=3rd, revised
|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul
|publication-date=1987
|location=London
|page=354
|isbn=0-7102-1215-1
}}</ref> In the ''[[De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae]]'' written {{circa|lk=no|540}}, [[Gildas]] says that Maximus "deprived" Britain not only of its Roman troops, but also of its "armed bands...governors and of the flower of her youth", never to return.<ref>{{Citation
|year=1841
|editor-last=Giles
|editor-first=John Allen
|editor-link=John Allen Giles
|contribution=The Works of Gildas
|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3R1mCE7p44MC&pg=PA13
|title=The Works of Gildas and Nennius
|publisher=James Bohn
|publication-date=1841
|location=London
|page=13
}}, The History, ch. 14.</ref>

Having left with the troops and senior administrators, and planning to continue as the ruler of Britain in the future, his practical course was to transfer local authority to local rulers. Welsh legend supports that this happened, with stories such as ''Breuddwyd Macsen Wledig'' (English: The Dream of Emperor Maximus), where he not only marries a wondrous British woman (thus making British descendants probable), but also gives her father sovereignty over Britain (thus formally transferring authority from Rome back to the Britons themselves).

The earliest Welsh genealogies give Maximus (referred to as ''Macsen/Maxen Wledig'', or ''Emperor Maximus'') the role of founding father of the dynasties of several medieval Welsh kingdoms, including those of [[Kingdom of Powys|Powys]] and [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]].<ref>{{Citation
|year=1887
|editor-last=Phillimore
|editor-first=Egerton
|contribution=Pedigrees from Jesus College MS. 20
|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HlUrAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA83
|title=Y Cymmrodor
|volume=VIII
|publisher=Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion
|publication-date=1887
|pages=83–92
}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|last=Phillimore
|first=Egerton
|year=1888
|editor-last=Phillimore
|editor-first=Egerton
|contribution=The Annales Cambriae and Old Welsh Genealogies, from Harleian MS. 3859
|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aFMrAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA141
|title=Y Cymmrodor
|volume=IX
|publisher=Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion
|publication-date=1888
|pages=141–183
}}</ref> He is given as the ancestor of a Welsh king on the [[Pillar of Eliseg]], erected nearly 500 years after he left Britain, and he figures in lists of the [[Fifteen Tribes of Wales]].<ref name="Rachel Bromwich 2006">Rachel Bromwich, editor and translator. Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Welsh Triads. Cardiff: [[University of Wales Press]], Third Edition, 2006. 441-444</ref>

After he became emperor of the West, Maximus returned to Britain to campaign against the [[Picts]] and Scots (i.e., Irish), probably in support of Rome's long-standing allies the [[Damnonii]], [[Votadini]], and [[Novantae]] (all located in modern [[Scotland]]). While there he likely made similar arrangements for a formal transfer of authority to local chiefs—the later rulers of [[Galloway]], home to the Novantae, claimed Maximus as the founder of their line, the same as did the Welsh kings.<ref name=Frere1/>

The ninth century ''[[Historia Brittonum]]'' gives another account of Maximus and assigns him an important role:

{{blockquote|The seventh emperor was Maximianus, He withdrew from Britain with all its military force, slew Gratianus the king of the Romans, and obtained the sovereignty of all Europe. Unwilling to send back his warlike companions to their wives, families, and possessions in Britain, he conferred upon them numerous districts from the lake on the summit of Mons Iovis, to the city called Cant Guic, and to the western Tumulus, that is Cruc Occident. These are the Armoric Britons, and they remain there to the present day. In consequence of their absence, Britain being overcome by foreign nations, the lawful heirs were cast out, till God interposed with his assistance.}}

Modern historians believe that this idea of mass British troop settlement in [[Brittany]] by Maximus may very well reflect some reality, as it accords with archaeological and other historical evidence and later Breton traditions.

[[Armorica]] declared independence from the Roman Empire in 407, but contributed archers for [[Aetius (general)|Aetius]]'s defence against [[Attila]] the Hun, and its king [[Riothamus]] was subsequently mentioned in contemporary documents as an ally of Rome's against the [[Goths]]. Despite its continued usage of two distinct languages, [[Breton language|Breton]] and [[Gallo language|Gallo]], and extensive invasions and conquests by Franks and Vikings, Armorica retained considerable cultural cohesion into the 13th century.

Maximus also established a military base in his native [[Gallaecia]], i.e., [[Galicia (Spain)]], which persisted as a cultural entity despite occupation by the [[Suebi]] in 409, see [[Kingdom of Galicia]].

Aetius sent large numbers of [[Alans]] to both Armorica and Galicia following the defeat of Attila at the [[Battle of the Catalunian Plains]]. The Alans evidently assimilated quickly into the local Celtic cultures, contributing their own legends, e.g., to the Arthurian Cycle of romances.

==Welsh legend==
Legendary versions of Maximus's career in which he marries the Welsh princess [[Elen Luyddog|Elen]] may have circulated in popular tradition in Welsh-speaking areas from an early date. Although the story of Helen and Maximus's meeting is almost certainly fictional, there is some evidence for the basic claims. He is certainly given a prominent place in the earliest version of the [[Welsh Triads]] which are believed to date from {{circa|lk=no|1100}} and which reflect older traditions in some cases. Welsh poetry also frequently refers to Macsen as a figure of comparison with later Welsh leaders. These legends come down to us in two separate versions.<ref name="Rachel Bromwich 2006"/>

=== Geoffrey of Monmouth ===
[[File:Llanbeblig Hours (f. 3r.) A king, possibly Magnus Maximus, holding a sceptre.jpg|thumb|Illustration from a 14th-century Welsh manuscript thought to intend to depict Magnus Maximus. Llanbeblig Hours (f. 3r.)]]
{{wikisource|History of the Kings of Britain/Book 5}}
According to [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s fictional ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' ({{circa|lk=no|1136}}), the basis for many English and Welsh legends, Maximianus, as he calls him, was a Roman senator, a nephew of [[Coel Hen]] through Coel's brother Ioelinus, and king of the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]] following the death of Octavius ([[Eudaf Hen]]). Geoffrey writes this came about because Octavius wanted to wed his daughter to just such a powerful half-Roman-half-Briton and to give the kingship of Britain, as a dowry, to that husband, so he sent a message to Rome offering his daughter to Maximian.<ref name="Monmouth">G Monmouth (1966). ''The History of the Kings of Britain''. Penguin 1966, pp. 136–147</ref>

[[Caradocus]], the [[List of legendary rulers of Cornwall|Duke of Cornwall]], had suggested and supported the marriage between Octavius's daughter and Maximian. Maximian accepted the offer and left Rome for Britain. Geoffrey claims further that Maximian gathered an army as he sacked [[Franks|Frankish]] towns along the way. He invaded Clausentum (modern [[Southampton]]) unintentionally and nearly fought the army of the Britons under [[Conan Meriadoc]] before agreeing to a truce. Following further negotiations, Maximian was given the kingship of Britain and Octavius retired. Five years into his kingship, Magnus Maximus assembled a vast fleet and invaded [[Gaul]], leaving Britain in the control of Caradocus.<ref name="Monmouth"/> Upon reaching the kingdom of [[Armorica]] (historically, the region between the Loire and Seine rivers, later comprising Brittany, Normandy, Anjou, Maine and Touraine), he defeated the king and killed thousands of inhabitants. Before departing to Rome, he summoned [[Conan Meriadoc|Conanus]], the rebellious nephew of Octavius, and asked him to rule as king of the land, which was renamed [[Brittany]]. Conan's men married native women after cutting out their tongues to preserve the purity of their language. [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] presents this legend to explain the Welsh name for Brittany, Llydaw, as originating from ''lled-taw'' or "half-silent". Given that Conan was well established in genealogies as the founder of Brittany, this account is certainly connected to an older tradition than Geoffrey.

Following the death of Caradocus, rule of Britain as regent passed to [[Dionotus]], who – facing a foreign invasion – appealed to Maximus, who finally sent a man named [[Gracianus Municeps]] with two legions to stop the attack. He killed many thousands before the invaders fled to [[Ireland]]. Maximus died in [[Rome]] soon after and Dionotus became the official king of the Britons. Unfortunately, before he could begin his reign, Gracianus took hold of the crown and made himself king over Dionotus.

While a broadly positive account of Maximian, the ''History'' concludes with the success of the barbarian invaders, and laments, "Alas for the absence of so many warlike soldiers through the madness of Maximianus!".<ref name="Monmouth"/>

===The Dream of Macsen Wledig===
{{wikisource|The Mabinogion/The Dream of Maxen Wledig|The Dream of Maxen Wledig}}
{{main|The Dream of Macsen Wledig}}

Although the ''[[Mabinogion]]'' tale ''The Dream of Macsen Wledig'' is written in later manuscripts than Geoffrey's version, the two accounts are so different that scholars agree the Dream cannot be based purely on Geoffrey's version. The Dream's account also seems to accord better with details in the Triads, so it perhaps reflects an earlier tradition.

Macsen Wledig, the Emperor of Rome, dreams one night of a lovely maiden in a wonderful, far-off land. Awakening, he sends his men all over the earth in search of her. With much difficulty they find her in a rich castle in Wales, daughter of a chieftain based at [[Segontium Roman Fort|Segontium]] ([[Caernarfon]]), and lead the Emperor to her. Everything he finds is exactly as in his dream. The maiden, whose name is [[Helen of the Hosts|Helen]] or Elen, accepts and loves him. Because Elen is found a virgin, Macsen gives her father sovereignty over the island of Britain and orders three castles built for his bride.<ref>S Davies trans, ''Mabinogion'' (Oxford 2007) p. 108</ref>

In Macsen's absence, a new emperor seizes power and warns him not to return. With the help of men from Britain led by Elen's brother [[Conan Meriadoc|Conanus]] (''[[Welsh language|Welsh]]'': Cynan Meriadoc, ''[[Breton language|Breton]]'': Conan Meriadeg), Macsen marches across Gaul and Italy and recaptures Rome. In gratitude to his British allies, Macsen rewards them with a portion of Gaul that becomes known as Brittany.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}

His love Helen (Elen) was travelling along the Roman roads in a Snowdonian valley when she was given grievous news over her husband. Near a well she bent to her knees and cried "croes awr i mi yw hon" translated "a cross hour for me is this", and laid down and died. The village was named [[Croesor]], a Snowdonian village nestled on the knees of the mountain [[Cnicht]]. This is why the village was called Croesor, and although it is close in a sense to Caernarfon, it is a fair way onto the valleys and mountains of Snowdonia. Croesor Primary School had the full fable drawn by the children in the 1970s in a pottery tile mural spanning the length of the small school; this was there from when it was made until the school was sold for private use. {{citation needed|date=January 2020}}

===Coel Hen===
According to another legend, Maximus appointed [[Coel Hen]], perhaps the legendary "[[Old King Cole]]", as governor of northern Britain, ruling from [[Eburacum]] (York). Following Maximus's departure for the continent, Coel became high king of northern Britain.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kessler |first1=Peter |title=Magnus Maximus |url=https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/BritishMagnusMaximus.htm |website=The History Files |access-date=Jan 13, 2020}}</ref>

===Other links with Caernarfon===
Magnus Maximus and Elen are traditionally given as the parents of Saint Peblig (or Publicus, named in the Calendar of the [[Church in Wales]]), to whom a church dedicated stands in Caernarfon. The church is built on an important early Christian site, itself built on a Roman [[Mithraeum]] or temple of [[Mithras]], close to the Segontium Roman Fort. A Roman altar was found in one of the walls during 19th century restoration work. The present church dates mainly from the 14th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/wa-3881-church-of-st-peblig-caernarfon#.VkZqFNLhCUk |title=Church of St Peblig, Caernarfon |website=www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk |publisher=British Listed Buildings |access-date=13 November 2015 }}</ref>

The medieval English king [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] was influenced by the legendary dream of Macsen Wledig/Magnus Maximus. In the dream Maximus had seen a fort, "the fairest that man ever saw", within a city at the mouth of a river in a mountainous country and opposite an island. Edward interpreted this to mean Segontium was the city of Maximus's dream and drew on the imperial link when building [[Caernarfon Castle]] in 1283.<ref>{{cite book|last=Allen Brown|first=Reginald|title=The Architecture of Castles: A Visual Guide|year=1984|publisher=B.T. Batsford|page=88|isbn=0-7134-4089-9}}</ref> It was apparently believed that Maximus died in Wales. According to the ''[[Flores Historiarum]]'', during the construction of the Castle and the nearby planned town, the body believed to be of Magnus Maximus was discovered entombed; King Edward ordered its reburial in a local church.<ref>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Arnold|title=The Welsh Castles of Edward I|year=1986|publisher=Hambledon Press, London|page=78|isbn=0-907628-71-0}}</ref>

==Later literature==
The prominent place of Macsen in history, Welsh legend and in the [[Matter of Britain]] means he is often a character or referred to in historical and Arthurian fiction. Such stories include [[Stephen R. Lawhead]]'s [[Pendragon Cycle]], [[Mary Stewart (novelist)|Mary Stewart]]'s ''[[The Hollow Hills]]'', [[Jack Whyte]]'s Camulod Chronicles, [[M J Trow]]'s Britannia series, [[Nancy McKenzie]]'s ''[[Queen of Camelot]]'' and [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[Puck of Pook's Hill]]''. The popular Welsh [[folk music|folk song]] ''[[Yma o Hyd]]'', recorded by [[Dafydd Iwan]] in 1981, recalls Macsen Wledig and celebrates the continued survival of the [[Welsh people]] since his days.

==Primary sources==
He is mentioned in a number of ancient and medieval sources:

* [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] ''Rerum Gestarum Libri Qui Supersunt'' XXXI.4.9
* [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] ''Histories of the Kings of Britain'' V.5-6
* [[Gildas]] ''[[De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae]]'' II.13-14
* '[[Nennius]]' ''Historia Brittonum'' 27; 29
* [[Paulus Orosius|Orosius]] ''Historium adversum paganos'' VII.34
* [[Pacatus]] ''Panegyricus Latini Pacati Deprani Dictus Theodosio''
* [[Prosper of Aquitaine|Prosper]] (Tiro) of Aquitaine ''Chronicon'' 384; 388
* [[Quintus Aurelius Symmachus]], who wrote a [[panegyric]] for Maximus
* [[Socrates Scholasticus]] ''Historia Ecclesiastica '' V.8; V.11
* [[Sozomen]] ''Historia Ecclesiastica '' VII.13
* [[Sulpicius Severus]] ''Dialogi'' II.6;III.11,13
* Sulpicius Severus ''Historia Sacra'' II.49-51
* Sulpicius Severus ''Vita Sancti Martini'' XX
* ''[[Welsh Triads|Trioedd Ynys Prydein]]'' (The Welsh Triads)
* [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] ''Historia Nova''

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==Sources==
* {{cite book |last=Jones |year=1971 |first=A.H.M. |author2=J.R. Martindale |author3=J. Morris |title=Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire |volume=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-07233-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/prosopography-later-roman-empire/PLRE-I |name-list-style=amp |author-link=A. H. M. Jones |author-link2=John Robert Martindale |author-link3=John Morris (historian) |ref={{sfnref|Jones|Martindale|Morris}}}}
* {{citation |last=McLynn |first=Neil B. |title=Ambrose of Milan: Church and Court in a Christian Capital |url=https://archive.org/details/ambroseofmilanch0000mcly|volume=22 |series= The Transformation of the Classical Heritage |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |year = 1994 |isbn=978-0-520-08461-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Stephen |last2=Friell |first2=Gerard |title=Theodosius: The Empire at Bay |url=https://archive.org/details/theodosiusempire0000will |date=1994 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-07447-5}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Magnus Maximus}}
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/madmax.htm ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''] – Roman Emperors, account
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140331230310/http://roman-empire.net/collapse/maximus.html ''Roman Empire''] account
* ''[http://marikavel.org/genese/genese-titre.htm Genèse de la Bretagne armoricaine]''

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou||||28 August|388}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Gratian]] and [[Valentinian II]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]
| years=383-388
| with=[[Valentinian II]], [[Theodosius I]] and [[Victor (emperor)|Victor]] }}
{{s-aft | after=[[Valentinian II]] and [[Theodosius I]]}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef | before = [[Valentinian II]], [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]] }}
{{s-ttl | title = [[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]] | years = 388 | regent1 = [[Theodosius I]] and [[Maternus Cynegius]] }}
{{s-aft | after = [[Timasius]], [[Promotus]] }}
{{s-reg | leg }}
{{s-bef | before = [[Eudaf Hen|Octavius]] }}
{{s-ttl | title = [[List of legendary kings of Britain|King of Britain]] | years = 383–388 | regent1 = [[Dionotus]] (regent) }}
{{s-aft | after = [[Gracianus Municeps]] }}
{{s-end}}

{{Roman emperors}}
{{Celtic mythology (Welsh)}}
{{Geoffrey of Monmouth}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maximus, Magnus}}
[[Category:330s births]]
[[Category:388 deaths]]
[[Category:4th-century Christians]]
[[Category:4th-century executions]]
[[Category:4th-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:4th-century murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:4th-century Roman consuls]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans in Britain]]
[[Category:Arthurian characters]]
[[Category:British traditional history]]
[[Category:Executed Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Executed Spanish people]]
[[Category:Historical figures as candidates of King Arthur]]
[[Category:Mabinogion]]
[[Category:People executed by the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Valentinianic dynasty]]
[[Category:Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae]]
[[Category:Legendary dreams]]

Iria Flavia

2024-03-09T20:11:38Z

Amanyn: /* History */Replaced Celtiberian with Gallaecian, as the regions was inhabited by the latter. It looks like there's a confusion between Celtiberian and Hispano-Celtic

{{Short description|Ancient settlement & titular see in Spain}}
'''Iria Flavia''' or simply '''Iria''' in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], northwestern [[Spain]], is an ancient settlement and former bishopric in the modern municipality of [[Padrón]], which remains a Catholic [[titular see]].

== History ==
Located at the [[confluence]] of the [[Sar (river)|Sar]] and [[Ulla (river)|Ulla]] rivers, Iria was a port city, the main seat of the Celtic [[Capori]] tribe, on the road between [[Braga]] and [[Astorga (Spain)|Astorga]]. The Romans rebuilt the road as ''via XVIII'' or ''Via Nova'' and refounded the Gallaecian port as ''Iria Flavia'' ("Flavian Iria") to compliment [[Roman emperor]] [[Vespasian]].

King [[Juan Carlos of Spain]] granted the illustrious resident and writer [[Camilo José Cela]] the title of ''[[Marqués de Iria Flavia]]''.

== Ecclesiastical history ==
No later than 561, perhaps from 400 AD, Iria was the seat of a [[Diocese|bishopric]], also known in Latin as '''Locus Sancti Iacobi''' ('place of Saint James', in Spanish [[Santiago]]), that became a [[suffragan]] of the (Portuguese) Metropolitan of the [[Archdiocese of Braga]] and shared its seat with [[Santiago de Compostela|(Santiago de) Compostela]], which developed into Iberia's major pilgrimage destination (rivalling Rome and Jerusalem) then moved there in 1095. The modern city on the site of Iria Flavia is [[Padrón]].

The followers of the executed bishop [[Priscillian]] of Avila were deeply embedded in the culture of Iberia's northwest. To restore Catholic orthodoxy in the Visigothic [[marches]] that were recovered from the [[Kingdom of the Suebi]] (Galicia) in a series of campaigns during the years leading up to 585, nine dioceses were established in Galicia, including Iria Flavia, mentioned in the document ''Parroquial suevo'' (ca 572–582); the ''Parroquial'' divides the region into dioceses and marks the first definitive integration of this zone in the monarchy of the [[Visigoth]]s, who had been catholicized from [[Arianism]] in 587 (Quiroga and Lovell 1999). The list of the bishops of Iria present at councils and noted in other sources begins in the sixth century with an Andreas and gains historic credibility in the seventh [https://web.archive.org/web/20091026220049/http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Atlantis/2572/ObispadoIria.htm ]. No commercial or political rationale for siting a bishop at Iria Flavia seems to present itself, though excavations have identified a cult sanctuary dating to the second half of the sixth century (Quiroga and Lovelle 1999). The relics that were identified with [[Saint James the Greater]] and which were transferred to Compostela may originally have determined the location of the diocese at Iria, to control the already sanctified site.

At any rate, otherwise unidentified considerations dictated that the new bishopric take the place of the older bishopric at ''[[Aquae Celenae]]'' (modern Caldes De Reis), which was a Roman ''[[municipium]]'' and administrative center that was formerly of considerably more importance than isolated Iria.

Under Adaulfus (Ataulf) II, the city was destroyed by [[Norsemen|Norse]] pirates, and bishop and chapter took refuge behind the strong walls of Compostela. Soon they petitioned [[Ordoño II of León]] and [[Pope Nicholas I]] to permit them (c. 860) to transfer the see from Iria to [[Santiago de Compostela|Compostela]], near the sepulchre and church of St James (founded c. 835). Both pope and king consented, on condition that the honour of the see should be divided between the two places. From the second half of the ninth century the bishops of this see are known as ''Irienses'' or ''Sancti Jacobi'', even ''ecclesiae apostolicae sancti Jacobi''—though no apostolic succession was possible—and finally as ''Compostellani'' (''Catholic Encyclopedia'').

In 1024 it gained territory from the suppressed [[Diocese of Tui]], only to lose it back in 1069 to (re)establish the Diocese of Tui.

In 1095, through reverence for the body and the sepulchre of St James, [[Pope Urban II|Urban II]], by a Bull of December 5, withdrew from Iria its episcopal rank and transferred the see in its entirety to Compostela, in favour of the [[Cluny|Cluniac]] bishop, Dalmatius, present at the [[Council of Clermont]] that year. At the same time Urban exempted it from the authority of the metropolitan and made it immediately subject to the Holy See.

About the year 1100 [[Diego Gelmírez]], bishop of Compostela, rebuilt the former cathedral church, Santa Maria Adina, which had been destroyed by [[Almanzor]]. Excavations have revealed that the site was built on Roman foundations. A Roman [[Votive gift|votive figure]] of a bull has been found, published in ''Corpus Artis Gallaeciae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20050405141554/http://www.uc.pt/aia/galiza.html].

As the legend of [[Saint James the Greater]] having proselytized in Hispania spread, Iria Flavia came to be accounted the first site of his preaching.

=== Residential Bishops of Iria Flavia===
''(possibly missing earlier incumbents)''
*Andrew (fl. 561 – 572){{efn|Signed the acts of the [[First Council of Braga]] and the [[Second Council of Braga]].}}
*Dominicus (fl. 589){{efn|Signed the acts of the [[Third Council of Toledo]].}}
*Samuel (fl. 633){{efn|Signed the acts of the [[Fourth Council of Toledo]].}}
*Gotomar (fl. 638 – 646){{efn|Signed the acts of the [[Sixth Council of Toledo]] and the [[Seventh Council of Toledo]].}}
*Vincibilis (fl. 653){{efn|Signed the acts of the [[Eighth Council of Toledo]].}}
*Ildulfus Felix (fl. 675 – 688){{efn|Signed the acts of the [[Third Council of Braga]], the [[Twelfth Council of Toledo]], the [[Thirteenth Council of Toledo]] and the [[Fifteenth Council of Toledo]].}}
*Selva, during the reign of [[Wittiza]] (694 – 702/3)
*Theodesind (fl. 709)
*Emila, during the reign of [[Pelagius of Asturias|Pelagius]] (718–737)
*Roman, during the reign of [[Fruela I]] (757–768)
*Agustine, during the reign of Fruela I
*Honoratus, during the reign of Fruela I
*Vincele, during the reign of [[Aurelius of Asturias|Aurelius]] (768–774)
*Cresconius I, during the reign of [[Silo of Asturias|Silo]] (774–783)
*Vaula, during the reign of [[Mauregatus of Asturias|Mauregatus]] (783–789)
*[[Quendulf]] (fl. c. 790–818){{efn|Was bishop during the reign of [[Bermudo I]] (788/9–791) and still alive in 818.}}
*[[Theodemar of Iria|Theodemar]] (c. 818 – 847), discovered the tomb of Saint James in 830
*[[Ataulf I (bishop of Iria)|Ataulf = Adaulfus I]] (c. 847 – c. 851)
*[[Ataulf II (bishop of Iria)|Ataulf II]] (c. 851 – c. 867)
* [[Sisenand I (bishop of Iria)|Sisenand I]] = Sisnando (877?79 – 919?20)
* [[Gundesindo Alóitez]] (fl. 923) = Gundesindo (920? – 924)
* [[Hermegild (bishop of Iria)|Hermenegild(o)]] (924–951)
* [[Sisnando Menéndez|Sisenand II]] = Sisnando II (951?52 – 958?968)
*'' [[Rudesind]] ([[apostolic administrator]] 970–977)''
* [[Pelayo Rodríguez (bishop)|Pelayo Rodríguez]] (977 – resigned 985)
* [[Pedro de Mezonzo]] (Peter I) (985?86 – 1003?)
* [[Pelayo Díaz]] (fl. 1007) (1003? – 1011)
* [[Vimara Díaz]] (fl. 1011 – 1013?)
* [[Vistruarius]] = Vistruario (1014?16 – 1032?36)
* Servandus (existence doubtful)
* [[Cresconius II (bishop of Iria)|Cresconius II]] Cresconio (1037?48 – 1066)
* [[Gudesteus (bishop of Iria)|Gudesteus]] = Gudesteo (1066?67 – 1069?70)
* [[Diego Peláez (bishop)|Diego Peláez]] (1071?75 – 1088? ''see below''), first time
* [[Peter II (bishop of Iria)|Peter II]] (1088–1090)
* Diego Peláez (''see above'' 1090–1094), second time
* [[Dalmatius (bishop of Iria)|Dalmatius]] = Dalmacio (1094–1095), first bishop of the [[Latin Church|Latin rite]]

=== Titular see ===
<ref>http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/t0938.htm GCatholic</ref> In 1969 the diocese was nominally restored as Latin [[Titular bishopric]] of Iria Flavia (also Curiate Italian) / Irien(sis) (Latin adjective).

So far it had only one incumbent, of the fitting Episcopal (lowest) rank :
* Ernst Franz Gerd Werner Dicke (1970.02.16 – ...), as [[Auxiliary Bishop]] of [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Aachen]] (Germany) (1970.02.16 – 2003.11.21) and since on emeritate.

== Sources and external links ==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04187b.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':] Compostela
* [http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/t0938.htm GCatholic - Iria Flavia]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050306023052/http://www.dicoruna.es/municipios/Padron/iriaflavia.htm "Iria de Flavia"] (In Spanish)
* [http://www.ifspanish.com "Academia Iria Flavia"]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050919184336/http://192.167.112.135/NewPages/TESTIAM/AM99/14.pdf Jorge Quiroga and Monica R. Lovelle, "Ciudades atlánticas en transición: La “ciudad” tardo-antigua y alto-medieval en el noroeste de la Península Ibérica (s.V-XI)"] from ''Archeologia Medievale'' vol xxvii (1999), pp 257–268

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Archaeological sites in Galicia (Spain)]]
[[Category:Medieval Galicia (Spain)]]
[[Category:Bishops and archbishops of Iria and Compostela| ]]

[[fr:Padrón]]

Cares

2024-02-27T19:24:28Z

Amanyn: Fixed typo (de > the)

{{short description|River in Spain}}
{{other uses}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Cares
| name_native =
| name_native_lang =
| name_other =
| name_etymology =

| image = Rio cares deva.JPG
| image_size = 250
| image_caption =
| map = Rio Cares.png
| map_size = 280px
| map_caption = Course of the Cares
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_map_size =
| pushpin_map_caption=

| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[Spain]]
| subdivision_type2 = State
| subdivision_name2 = [[León (province)|León]], [[Asturias]]
| subdivision_type3 =
| subdivision_name3 =
| subdivision_type4 =
| subdivision_name4 =
| subdivision_type5 = Cities
| subdivision_name5 = [[Posada de Valdeón]], [[Caín, Posada de Valdeón|Caín]], Poncebos, [[Cabrales|Arenas de Cabrales]]

| length = {{convert|54|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| width_min =
| width_avg =
| width_max =
| depth_min =
| depth_avg =
| depth_max =
| discharge1_location=
| discharge1_min =
| discharge1_avg =
| discharge1_max =

| source1 =
| source1_location = Posada de Valdeón, [[Cantabrian Mountains]], [[León (province)|León]]
| source1_coordinates=
| source1_elevation = {{convert|1600|m|abbr=on}}
| mouth =
| mouth_location = Vega del Llés, [[Asturias]]
| mouth_coordinates =
| mouth_elevation =
| progression =
| river_system = [[Deva River]]
| basin_size =
| tributaries_left = Casaño
| tributaries_right = [[Duje River|Duje]], [[Bulnes River|Bulnes]]
| custom_label =
| custom_data =
| extra =
}}

The '''Cares''' is a river in Northern Spain that flows through the autonomous communities of [[Asturias]] and [[León (province)|León]] until it joins the [[Deva River]] and flows into the [[Atlantic Ocean]] at the [[Bay of Biscay]]. It forms the Tina Mayor estuary, the natural border between [[Asturias]] and [[Cantabria]].

[[File:Garganta del Cares.jpg|thumb|right|300px|{{center|The road by the house is the starting point for the "Ruta del Cares":}}]]

The Cares is known because of the narrow and spectacular canyon it forms when passing the [[Picos de Europa]]. A trekking path, "[[Cares Trail|Ruta del Cares]]", runs along the river. The stream is also known for the quality of its [[salmon]].

The Cares river is joined by the [[Deva River|Deva river]]. Many companies rent [[kayak]]s to descend both rivers. [[Kayaking]] is popular here during the summer.

==See also ==
* [[List of rivers of Spain]]

==External links==
*{{in lang|en}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20130501101536/http://www.rutadelcares.org/en/index.php The Cares Route, Official Page in English]
*{{in lang|en}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20070914011400/http://www.rutasporcantabria.com/cares_route.php Cares Canyon route and pictures, in English]
*{{in lang|es}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20070310201251/http://www.el-caminoreal.com/rutacares1.htm Cares Canyon tourist information and pictures]
*{{in lang|es}} [http://www.manbos.com/vergal.asp?galeria=23 Cares Canyon pictures]
*{{in lang|en}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20130412061142/http://www.larutadelcares.es/en/route The route, in English]

{{coord|43.3219|N|4.6056|W|source:wikidata|display=title}}

[[Category:Rivers of Spain]]
[[Category:Rivers of Asturias]]
[[Category:Rivers of Castile and León]]
[[Category:Picos de Europa]]

{{León-geo-stub}}
{{Asturias-geo-stub}}
{{Spain-river-stub}}

Celtic languages

2024-02-24T12:47:47Z

Amanyn: /* Continental/Insular Celtic and P/Q-Celtic hypotheses */Changed "Celtiberian languages" to "Hispano-Celtic", but kept Celtiberian as an alternative form "(or Celtiberian)", because the quotation uses it

{{short description|Language family}}
{{use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox language family
| name = Celtic
| region = Formerly widespread in much of [[Europe]] and central [[Anatolia]]; today [[Cornwall]], [[Wales]], [[Scotland]], [[Ireland]], [[Brittany]], the [[Isle of Man]], [[Chubut Province]] ([[Y Wladfa]]), and [[Nova Scotia]]
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Italo-Celtic]]?
| protoname = [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]]
| child1 = [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] {{extinct}}
| child2 = (?) [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]] {{extinct}}
| child3 = [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]] {{extinct}}
| child4 = [[Cisalpine Gaulish]] {{extinct}}
| child5 = Transalpine [[Gaulish]] {{extinct}}
| child6 = (?) [[Noric language|Noric]] (unclassified) {{extinct}}
| child7 = [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]
| child8 = [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
| iso2 = cel
| iso5 = cel
| lingua = 50= (phylozone)
| glotto = celt1248
| glottorefname = Celtic
| map = Celts in Europe.png
| mapcaption = Distribution of Celtic speakers:
{{legend|#ffff43|[[Hallstatt culture]] area, 6th century BC}}
{{legend|#97ffb6|Maximal Celtic expansion, c. 275 BC}}
{{legend|#d2ffd2|[[Lusitanians|Lusitanian]] area; Celtic affiliation unclear}}
{{legend|#27c600|Areas where Celtic languages were spoken in the Middle Ages}}
{{legend|#1A8000|Areas where Celtic languages remain widely spoken today}}
}}
{{Indo-European topics}}

The '''Celtic languages''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɛ|l|t|ᵻ|k}} {{respell|KEL|tik}}) are a [[Language family|group of related languages]] descended from [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]]. They form a branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family.<ref>"The Celtic languages: An Overview", Donald MacAulay, ''The Celtic Languages'', ed. Donald MacAulay, Cambridge University Press, 1992, 3.</ref> The term "Celtic" was first used to describe this language group by [[Edward Lhuyd]] in 1707,<ref>Cunliffe, Barry W. 2003. ''The Celts: a very short introduction''. pg.48</ref> following [[Paul-Yves Pezron]], who made the explicit link between the [[Celts]] described by classical writers and the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Breton language|Breton]] languages.<ref>Alice Roberts, ''The Celts'' (Heron Books 2015)</ref>

During the first millennium BC, Celtic languages were spoken across much of [[Europe]] and central [[Anatolia]]. Today, they are restricted to the northwestern fringe of Europe and [[Celtic diaspora (disambiguation)|a few diaspora communities]]. There are six living languages: the four continuously living languages [[Breton language|Breton]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic]] and [[Welsh language|Welsh]], and the two [[revived language]]s [[Cornish language|Cornish]] and [[Manx language|Manx]]. All are minority languages in their respective countries, though there are continuing efforts at [[language revitalization|revitalisation]]. Welsh is an official language in [[Wales]] and Irish is an official language of [[Ireland]] and of the [[European Union]]. Welsh is the only Celtic language not classified as [[endangered language|endangered]] by [[UNESCO]]. The Cornish and Manx languages became extinct in modern times. They have been the object of revivals and now each has several hundred second-language speakers.

Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic form the [[Goidelic languages]], while Welsh, Cornish and Breton are [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]. All of these are [[Insular Celtic languages]], since Breton, the only living Celtic language spoken in continental Europe, is descended from the language of settlers from Britain. There are a number of extinct but attested [[continental Celtic languages]], such as [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], [[Galatian language|Galatian]] and [[Gaulish]]. Beyond that there is no agreement on the subdivisions of the Celtic language family. They may be divided into [[Gallo-Brittonic languages|P-Celtic]] and [[Q-Celtic]].

The Celtic languages have [[Celtic literature|a rich literary tradition]]. The earliest specimens of written Celtic are [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]] inscriptions from the 6th century BC in the Alps. Early Continental inscriptions used [[Old Italic script|Italic]] and [[Paleohispanic scripts|Paleohispanic]] scripts. Between the 4th and 8th centuries, Irish and [[Pictish language|Pictish]] were occasionally written in an original script, [[Ogham]], but [[Latin alphabet|Latin script]] came to be used for all Celtic languages. Welsh has had [[Welsh-language literature|a continuous literary tradition]] from the 6th century AD.

== Living languages ==
[[SIL Ethnologue]] lists six living Celtic languages, of which four have retained a substantial number of native speakers. These are: the [[Goidelic languages]] ([[Irish language|Irish]] and [[Scottish Gaelic]], both descended from [[Middle Irish]]) and the [[Brittonic languages]] ([[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Breton language|Breton]], descended from [[Common Brittonic]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aboutworldlanguages.com/celtic-branch|title=Celtic Branch {{!}} About World Languages|website=aboutworldlanguages.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-09-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925040807/http://aboutworldlanguages.com/Celtic-Branch|archive-date=25 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The other two, [[Cornish language|Cornish]] (Brittonic) and [[Manx language|Manx]] (Goidelic), died out in modern times<ref name="Koch06">{{cite book|last=Koch|first=John T.|title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2006|pages=34, 365–366, 529, 973, 1053|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&q=Celtic+Culture:+A+Historical+Encyclopedia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231222127/https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Celtic+Culture:+A+Historical+Encyclopedia|archive-date=31 December 2015|url-status=live|isbn=9781851094400}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A brief history of the Cornish language|url=http://www.magakernow.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=38590#Revival|publisher=Maga Kernow|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081225172227/http://www.magakernow.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=38590#Revival|archive-date=25 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Beresford Ellis|first=Peter|title=The Story of the Cornish Language|year=2005|orig-year=1990|publisher=Tor Mark Press|isbn=0-85025-371-3|pages=20–22}}</ref> with their presumed last native speakers in [[last speaker of the Cornish language|1777]] and [[Ned Maddrell|1974]] respectively. [[language revitalization|Revitalisation]] movements in the 2000s led to the reemergence of native speakers for both languages following their adoption by adults and children.<ref name="iomtoday.co.im">{{cite web|author=|url=http://www.iomtoday.co.im/manx-language/Fockle-ny-ghaa-schoolchildren-take.3901786.jp|title=Fockle ny ghaa: schoolchildren take charge|publisher=Iomtoday.co.im|access-date=18 August 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090704115241/http://www.iomtoday.co.im/manx-language/Fockle-ny-ghaa-schoolchildren-take.3901786.jp|archive-date=4 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title='South West:TeachingEnglish:British Council:BBC|url=http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/uk-languages/south-west|access-date=9 February 2010|work=BBC/British Council website|publisher=BBC|year=2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100108190250/http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/uk-languages/south-west|archive-date=8 January 2010}}</ref> By the 21st century, there were roughly one million native speakers of Celtic languages,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1164-16|title=Celtic Languages|publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=9 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716080137/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1164-16|archive-date=16 July 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> increasing to 1.4 million speakers by 2010.<ref>{{cite book|last=Crystal|first=David|title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-73650-3}}</ref>

=== Demographics ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope="col"| Language !! scope="col" width=150pt| Native name !! scope="col"| Grouping !! scope="col" width=200pt| Number of native speakers !! scope="col" width=220pt| Number of skilled speakers !! scope="col"| Area of origin (still spoken) !! scope="col" width=200pp| [[List of language regulators|Regulated by/language body]] !! scope="col"| Estimated number of speakers in major cities
|-
| scope="row"| [[Irish language|Irish]] || {{lang|ga|Gaeilge}} / {{lang|ga|Gaedhilg}} /
{{lang|ga|Gaelainn}} / {{lang|ga|Gaeilig}} / {{lang|ga|Gaeilic}}
| [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
| 40,000–80,000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/2004/11/24/story517225942.asp|title=Irish Examiner - 2004/11/24: EU grants Irish official language status|work=Irish Examiner|publisher=Archives.tcm.ie|date=24 November 2004|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050119114400/http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/2004/11/24/story517225942.asp|archive-date=19 January 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Linguistic Minorities in Multilingual Settings: Implications for Language Policies|last=Christina Bratt Paulston|date=24 March 1994|publisher=J. Benjamins Pub. Co|page=81|isbn=1-55619-347-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Irish Writing in the Twentieth Century|last=Pierce|first=David|year=2000|publisher=Cork University Press|page=1140|isbn=1-85918-208-9}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Ó hÉallaithe|first=Donncha|year=1999|title=Cuisle}}</ref> In the Republic of Ireland, 73,803 people use Irish daily outside the education system.<ref>{{cite news|title=Just 6.3% of Gaeilgeoirí speak Irish on a weekly basis|work=[[TheJournal.ie]]|date=23 November 2017|url=https://www.thejournal.ie/census-irish-education-3712741-Nov2017/|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref>
| Total speakers: '''1,887,437''' [[Republic of Ireland]]: 1,774,437<ref name="csoi2011">{{cite web|url=http://www.cso.ie/en/media/csoie/census/documents/census2011pdr/Pdf%208%20Tables.pdf|title=cso.ie Central Statistics Office, Census 2011 – This is Ireland – see table 33a|access-date=27 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525115907/http://www.cso.ie/en/media/csoie/census/documents/census2011pdr/Pdf%208%20Tables.pdf|archive-date=25 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[United Kingdom]]: 95,000 [[United States]]: 18,000
| ''[[Gaeltacht]]'' of [[Ireland]]
| {{lang|ga|[[Foras na Gaeilge]]|italic=no}}
| [[Dublin]]: 184,140 [[Galway]]: 37,614 [[Cork (city)|Cork]]: 57,318<ref>{{cite web|author=Central Statistics Office|url=http://www.cso.ie/px/pxeirestat/Statire/SelectVarVal/Define.asp?maintable=C0905&Planguage=0|title=Population Aged 3 Years and Over by Province County or City, Sex, Ability to Speak Irish and Census Year|publisher=Government of Ireland|access-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307112148/http://www.cso.ie/px/pxeirestat/Statire/SelectVarVal/Define.asp?maintable=C0905&Planguage=0|archive-date=7 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Belfast]]: 14,086<ref>{{cite web|author=Department of Finance and Personnel|url=http://www.nisra.gov.uk/Census/key_report_2011.pdf|title=Census 2011 Key Statistics for Northern Ireland|publisher=The Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency|access-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224033625/http://www.nisra.gov.uk/Census/key_report_2011.pdf|archive-date=24 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row"| [[Welsh language|Welsh]] || {{lang|cy|Cymraeg}} / {{lang|cy|Y Gymraeg}} || [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]
| 562,000 (19.0% of the population of Wales) claim that they "can speak Welsh" (2011)<ref name="Stats Wales">{{cite web|title=Welsh language skills by local authority, gender and detailed age groups, 2011 Census|url=https://statswales.wales.gov.uk/Catalogue/Welsh-Language/WelshLanguageSkills-by-LocalAuthority-Gender-DetailedAgeGroups-2011Census|work=StatsWales website|publisher=[[Welsh Government]]|access-date=13 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117063712/https://statswales.wales.gov.uk/Catalogue/Welsh-Language/WelshLanguageSkills-by-LocalAuthority-Gender-DetailedAgeGroups-2011Census|archive-date=17 November 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="ons.gov.uk">Office for National Statistics 2011 [http://ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-unitary-authorities-in-wales/stb-2011-census-key-statistics-for-wales.html#tab---Proficiency-in-Welsh 2011-census-key-statistics-for-wales]{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605111007/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-unitary-authorities-in-wales/stb-2011-census-key-statistics-for-wales.html#tab---Proficiency-in-Welsh|date=5 June 2013}}</ref>
| Total speakers: ≈ '''947,700''' (2011) [[Wales]]: 788,000 speakers (26.7% of the population)<ref name="Stats Wales" /><ref name="ons.gov.uk" /> [[England]]: 150,000<ref>{{cite web|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,463af2212,488f25df2,49749c8cc,0.html|title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – UK: Welsh|publisher=United Nations High Commission for Refugees|access-date=23 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520030519/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,463af2212,488f25df2,49749c8cc,0.html|archive-date=20 May 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Chubut Province]], [[Argentina]]: 5,000<ref name="WAG">{{cite web|title=Wales and Argentina|url=http://www.wales.com/en/content/cms/English/International_Links/Wales_and_the_World/Wales_and_Argentina/Wales_and_Argentina.aspx|work=Wales.com website|publisher=[[Welsh Government]]|year=2008|access-date=23 January 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016085047/http://www.wales.com/en/content/cms/English/International_Links/Wales_and_the_World/Wales_and_Argentina/Wales_and_Argentina.aspx|archive-date=16 October 2012}}</ref> [[United States]]: 2,500<ref>{{cite web|title=Table 1. Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over for the United States: 2006–2008 Release Date: April 2010|url=https://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/language/data/other/detailed-lang-tables.xls|format=xls|access-date=2 January 2011|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|date=27 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140922225023/https://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/language/data/other/detailed-lang-tables.xls|archive-date=22 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Canada]]: 2,200<ref>{{cite web|title=2006 Census of Canada: Topic based tabulations: Various Languages Spoken (147), Age Groups (17A) and Sex (3) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census – 20% Sample Data|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca:80/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?A=R&APATH=3&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=01&GID=837928&GK=1&GRP=1&LANG=E&O=D&PID=89189&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971%2C97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&TABID=1&THEME=70&Temporal=2006&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=|access-date=3 January 2011|publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]|date=7 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826154809/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?A=R&APATH=3&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=01&GID=837928&GK=1&GRP=1&LANG=E&O=D&PID=89189&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971%2C97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&TABID=1&THEME=70&Temporal=2006&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=|archive-date=26 August 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
| [[Wales]]
| [[Welsh Language Commissioner]] The [[Welsh Government]] (previously the [[Welsh Language Board]], {{lang|cy|Bwrdd yr Iaith Gymraeg}})
| [[Cardiff]]: 54,504 [[Swansea]]: 45,085 [[Newport, Wales|Newport]]: 18,490<ref>{{cite web|author=StatsWales|url=https://statswales.wales.gov.uk/Catalogue/Welsh-Language/WelshLanguageSkills-by-LocalAuthority-Gender-DetailedAgeGroups-2011Census|title=Welsh language skills by local authority, gender and detailed age groups, 2011 Census|publisher=Welsh Government|access-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231222127/https://statswales.wales.gov.uk/Catalogue/Welsh-Language/WelshLanguageSkills-by-LocalAuthority-Gender-DetailedAgeGroups-2011Census|archive-date=31 December 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Bangor, Gwynedd|Bangor]]: 7,190
|-
| scope="row"| [[Breton language|Breton]] || {{lang|br|Brezhoneg}} || [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]] || 206,000
| 356,000<ref name="ofis-stats">{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.ofis-bzh.org/fr/langue_bretonne/chiffres_cles/index.php Données clés sur breton, Ofis ar Brezhoneg] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315110648/http://www.ofis-bzh.org/fr/langue_bretonne/chiffres_cles/index.php/ |date=15 March 2012}}</ref>
| [[Brittany]] || {{lang|br|[[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]]|italic=no}}
| [[Rennes]]: 7,000 [[Brest, France|Brest]]: 40,000 [[Nantes]]: 4,000<ref>{{cite web|author=Pole Études et Développement Observatoire des Pratiques Linguistiques|url=http://www.fr.brezhoneg.bzh/46-situation-de-la-langue.htm|title=Situation de la Langue|publisher=Office Public de la Langue Bretonne|access-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305122618/http://www.fr.brezhoneg.bzh/46-situation-de-la-langue.htm|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row"| [[Scottish Gaelic]] || {{lang|gd|Gàidhlig}} || [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
| 57,375 (2011)<ref name="2011 Scotland Census">[http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-web/data-warehouse.html 2011 Scotland Census] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604200212/http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-web/data-warehouse.html|date=4 June 2014}}, Table QS211SC.</ref>
| Scotland: 87,056 (2011)<ref name="2011 Scotland Census" /> [[Nova Scotia]], Canada: 1,275 (2011)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=12&Data=Count&SearchText=Nova%20Scotia&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=All&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=12|title=National Household Survey Profile, Nova Scotia, 2011|publisher=Statistics Canada|date=11 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513084229/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=12&Data=Count&SearchText=Nova%20Scotia&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=All&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=12|archive-date=13 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> || [[Scotland]] || {{lang|gd|[[Bòrd na Gàidhlig]]|italic=no}}
| [[Glasgow]]: 5,726 [[Edinburgh]]: 3,220<ref>{{cite web|author=Scotland's Census|url=http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-web/standard-outputs.html|title=Standard Outputs|publisher=National Records of Scotland|access-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005011314/http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-web/standard-outputs.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Aberdeen]]: 1,397<ref>{{cite web|author=Alison Campsie|url=https://www.pressandjournal.co.uk/fp/uncategorized/48308/new-bid-to-get-us-speaking-in-gaelic/|title=New bid to get us speaking in Gaelic|publisher=The Press and Journal|access-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310172949/https://www.pressandjournal.co.uk/fp/uncategorized/48308/new-bid-to-get-us-speaking-in-gaelic/|archive-date=10 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row"| [[Cornish language|Cornish]] || {{lang|kw|Kernowek / Kernewek}} || [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]
| 563<ref>{{cite web |title=Main language (detailed) |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/TS024/editions/2021/versions/3 |website=Office for National Statistics |access-date=31 July 2023}} (UK 2021 Census)</ref><ref>See [[Cornish language#Geographic distribution and number of speakers|Number of Cornish speakers]]</ref> || 2,000<ref name="BBC BBC/British Council">Around 2,000 fluent speakers. {{cite news|title='South West:TeachingEnglish:British Council:BBC|url=http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/uk-languages/south-west|access-date=9 February 2010|work=BBC/British Council website|publisher=BBC|year=2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100108190250/http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/uk-languages/south-west|archive-date=8 January 2010}}</ref>
| [[Cornwall]] || [[Akademi Kernewek]] [[Cornish Language Partnership]] ({{lang|kw|Keskowethyans an Taves Kernewek}})
| [[Truro]]: 118<ref>{{cite web|author=Equalities and Wellbeing Division|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/language/articles/languageinenglandandwales/2013-03-04|title=Language in England and Wales: 2011|publisher=Office for National Statistics|access-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307100420/http://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/language/articles/languageinenglandandwales/2013-03-04|archive-date=7 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row"| [[Manx language|Manx]] || {{lang|gv|Gaelg}} / {{lang|gv|Gailck}} || [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
| 100+,<ref name="iomtoday.co.im" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-news/anyone-here-speak-jersey-657175.html|title=Anyone here speak Jersey?|work=The Independent|date=11 April 2002|access-date=2011-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911095902/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-news/anyone-here-speak-jersey-657175.html|archive-date=11 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> including a small number of children who are new native speakers<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=glv|title=Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: glv|publisher=Sil.org|date=14 January 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728060024/http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=glv|archive-date=28 July 2011}}</ref>
| 1,823<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.im/lib/docs/treasury/economic/census/census2011reportfinalresized.pdf|title=Isle of Man Census Report 2011|publisher=Economic Affairs Division, Isle of Man Government Treasury|page=27|date=April 2012|access-date=9 June 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105003928/http://www.gov.im/lib/docs/treasury/economic/census/census2011reportfinalresized.pdf|archive-date=5 November 2013}}</ref>
| [[Isle of Man]] || {{lang|gv|[[Coonceil ny Gaelgey]]|italic=no}} || [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]]: 507<ref>{{cite web|author=Sarah Whitehead|url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/apr/02/how-manx-language-came-back-from-dead-isle-of-man|title=How the Manx language came back from the dead|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=2 April 2015|access-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305020940/http://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/apr/02/how-manx-language-came-back-from-dead-isle-of-man|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
|}

=== Mixed languages ===
* [[Beurla Reagaird]], Highland travellers' language
* [[Shelta]], based largely on [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[Hiberno-English]] (some 86,000 speakers in 2009).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=sth|title=Shelta|publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=9 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100629003323/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=sth|archive-date=29 June 2010|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Classification ==
[[File:Celtic language family tree.svg|250px|thumb|Classification of Celtic languages according to Insular vs. Continental hypothesis. ''(click to enlarge)'']]
[[File:IndoEuropeanTree.svg|250px|thumb|Classification of Indo-European languages. ''(click to enlarge)'']]

[[File:Map of Celtic Nations-flag shades.svg|right|250px|thumb|upright=0.8|The [[Celtic nations]], where Celtic languages are spoken today, or were spoken into the modern era:
{{legend|#009E60|[[Ireland]] ([[Irish language|Irish]])}}
{{legend|#0072C6|[[Scotland]] ([[Scottish Gaelic]])}}
{{legend|#D3B04A|[[Isle of Man]] ([[Manx language|Manx]])}}
{{legend|red|[[Wales]] ([[Welsh language|Welsh]])}}
{{legend|#FFD700|[[Cornwall]] ([[Cornish language|Cornish]])}}
{{legend|black|[[Brittany]] ([[Breton language|Breton]])}}
]]
[[File:Bronce de Botorrita II.jpg|250px|thumb|upright=1.35|The second of the four [[Botorrita plaque]]s. The third plaque is the longest text discovered in any ancient Celtic language. However, this plaque is inscribed in Latin script.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&dq=botorrita+ii&pg=PA233 Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331025501/https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&lpg=PA233&ots=p-RudfBy1H&dq=botorrita%20ii&pg=PA233#v=onepage&q=botorrita%20ii&f=false|date=31 March 2017}} John T. Koch, Vol 1, p. 233</ref>]]
Celtic is divided into various branches:

* [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]], the oldest attested Celtic language (from the 6th century BC).<ref name=Schumacher /> Anciently spoken in [[Switzerland]] and in Northern-Central [[Italy]]. Coins with Lepontic inscriptions have been found in [[Noricum]] and [[Gallia Narbonensis]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Percivaldi|first1=Elena|title=I Celti: una civiltà europea|date=2003|publisher=Giunti Editore|page=82}}</ref><ref name="kruta2" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Stifter|first=David|title=Old Celtic Languages|year=2008|pages=12|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf|access-date=19 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002035607/http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf|archive-date=2 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>MORANDI 2004, pp. 702-703, n. 277</ref>
* [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], also called Eastern or Northeastern Hispano-Celtic, spoken in the ancient [[Iberian Peninsula]], in the eastern part of [[Old Castile]] and south of [[Aragon]]. Modern provinces: Segovia, Burgos, Soria, Guadalajara, Cuenca, Zaragoza and Teruel. The relationship of Celtiberian with [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]], in northwest Iberia, is uncertain.<ref>{{cite book|last=Prósper|first=B.M.|title=Lenguas y religiones prerromanas del occidente de la península ibérica|year=2002|publisher=Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca|isbn=84-7800-818-7|pages=422–27}}</ref><ref>Villar F., B. M. Prósper. (2005). ''Vascos, Celtas e Indoeuropeos: genes y lenguas. Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca''. pgs. 333–350. {{ISBN|84-7800-530-7}}.</ref>
* [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]], also known as Western or Northwestern Hispano-Celtic, anciently spoken in the northwest of the peninsula (modern [[Northern Portugal]], and the Spanish regions of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[Asturias]] and northwestern [[Castile and León]]).<ref>"In the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, and more specifically between the west and north Atlantic coasts and an imaginary line running north-south and linking Oviedo and Merida, there is a corpus of Latin inscriptions with particular characteristics of its own. This corpus contains some linguistic features that are clearly Celtic and others that in our opinion are not Celtic. The former we shall group, for the moment, under the label northwestern Hispano-Celtic. The latter are the same features found in well-documented contemporary inscriptions in the region occupied by the Lusitanians, and therefore belonging to the variety known as LUSITANIAN, or more broadly as GALLO-LUSITANIAN. As we have already said, we do not consider this variety to belong to the Celtic language family." Jordán Colera 2007: p.750</ref>
* [[Gaulish]] languages, including [[Galatian language|Galatian]] and possibly [[Noric language|Noric]]. These were once spoken in a wide arc from [[Belgium]] to [[Turkey]]. They are now all extinct.
* [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]], spoken in [[Great Britain]] and [[Brittany]]. Including the living languages [[Breton language|Breton]], [[Cornish language|Cornish]], and [[Welsh language|Welsh]], and the lost [[Cumbric]] and [[Pictish language|Pictish]], though Pictish may be a sister language rather than a daughter of [[Common Brittonic]].<ref>[[Kenneth H. Jackson]] suggested that there were two Pictish languages, a pre-Indo-European one and a ''[[Pritennic|Pritenic]]'' Celtic one. This has been challenged by some scholars. See [[Katherine Forsyth]]'s ''"Language in Pictland: the case against 'non-Indo-European Pictish{{' "}} '' {{cite web|url=http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/archive/00002081/01/languagepictland.pdf|title=Etext|access-date=20 January 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060219054300/http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/archive/00002081/01/languagepictland.pdf|archive-date=19 February 2006|url-status=live}} {{small|(27.8 [[Megabyte|MB]])}}. See also the introduction by James & Taylor to the ''"Index of Celtic and Other Elements in W. J. Watson's 'The History of the Celtic Place-names of Scotland{{' "}}'' {{cite web|url=http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/institutes/sassi/spns/INDEX2INTRO.pdf|title=Etext|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060220054951/http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/institutes/sassi/spns/INDEX2INTRO.pdf|archive-date=20 February 2006}} {{small|(172 [[Kilobyte|KB]] )}}. Compare also the treatment of Pictish in Price's ''The Languages of Britain'' (1984) with his ''Languages in Britain & Ireland'' (2000).</ref> Before the arrival of Scotti on the Isle of Man in the 9th century, there may have been a Brittonic language there. The theory of a Brittonic [[Iverni#O'Rahilly's theory|Ivernic language]] predating Goidelic speech in Ireland has been suggested, but is not widely accepted.<ref name="Koch06" />
* [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]], including the extant [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Manx language|Manx]], and [[Scottish Gaelic]].

=== Continental/Insular Celtic and P/Q-Celtic hypotheses ===
Scholarly handling of Celtic languages has been contentious owing to scarceness of primary source data. Some scholars (such as Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; and Schrijver 1995) posit that the primary distinction is between [[Continental Celtic languages|Continental Celtic]] and [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]], arguing that the differences between the Goidelic and Brittonic languages arose after these split off from the Continental Celtic languages.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalmedievalist.com/opinionated-celtic-faqs/celtic-languages/|title=What are the Celtic Languages?|work=Celtic Studies Resources|access-date=2017-09-18|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010203551/http://www.digitalmedievalist.com/opinionated-celtic-faqs/celtic-languages/|archive-date=10 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Other scholars (such as Schmidt 1988) make the primary distinction between P-Celtic and Q-Celtic languages based on the replacement of initial Q by initial P in some words. Most of the Gallic and Brittonic languages are P-Celtic, while the Goidelic and Hispano-Celtic (or Celtiberian) languages are Q-Celtic. The P-Celtic languages (also called [[Gallo-Brittonic languages|Gallo-Brittonic]]) are sometimes seen (for example by Koch 1992) as a central innovating area as opposed to the more conservative peripheral Q-Celtic languages. According to Ranko Matasovic in the introduction to his 2009 ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' : "Celtiberian...is almost certainly an independent branch on the Celtic genealogical tree, one that became separated from the others very early."<ref>Ranko Matasovic 2009 ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' Leiden: Brill, 2009, p.13 https://archive.org/stream/EtymologicalDictionaryOfProtoCeltic/Etymological%20Dictionary%20of%20Proto-Celtic_djvu.txt</ref>

The Breton language is Brittonic, not Gaulish, though there may be some input from the latter,<ref>{{cite book|last=Barbour and Carmichael|first=Stephen and Cathie|title=Language and nationalism in Europe|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=56|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ixmu8Iga7gC&q=Breton%20Gaulish%20words&pg=PA56|isbn=978-0-19-823671-9}}</ref> having been introduced from Southwestern regions of Britain in the post-Roman era and having evolved into Breton.

In the P/Q classification schema, the first language to split off from Proto-Celtic was Gaelic. It has characteristics that some scholars see as archaic, but others see as also being in the Brittonic languages (see Schmidt). In the Insular/Continental classification schema, the split of the former into Gaelic and Brittonic is seen as being late.

The distinction of Celtic into these four sub-families most likely occurred about 900 BC according to Gray and Atkinson<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature02029|last1=Gray and Atkinson|first1=RD|last2=Atkinson|first2=QD|title=Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin|journal=Nature|volume=426|issue=6965|pages=435–439|year=2003|pmid=14647380|bibcode=2003Natur.426..435G|s2cid=42340|url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:d6aef57c-ce30-40fb-8786-f64c4a70afd1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.2003.tb00299.x|last=Rexova|first=K.|author2=Frynta, D|author3=Zrzavy, J.|year=2003|title=Cladistic analysis of languages: Indo-European classification based on lexicostatistical data|journal=Cladistics|volume=19|issue=2|pages=120–127|s2cid=84085451}}</ref> but, because of estimation uncertainty, it could be any time between 1200 and 800 BC. However, they only considered Gaelic and Brythonic. The controversial paper by Forster and Toth<ref>{{cite journal|last=Forster|first=Peter|author2=Toth, Alfred|year=2003|title=Toward a phylogenetic chronology of ancient Gaulish, Celtic, and Indo-European|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=100|issue=15|pages=9079–9084|pmid=12837934|doi=10.1073/pnas.1331158100|pmc=166441|bibcode=2003PNAS..100.9079F|doi-access=free}}</ref> included Gaulish and put the break-up much earlier at 3200 BC ± 1500 years. They support the Insular Celtic hypothesis. The early Celts were commonly associated with the archaeological [[Urnfield culture]], the [[Hallstatt culture]], and the [[La Tène culture]], though the earlier assumption of association between language and culture is now considered to be less strong.<ref name=Renfrew>{{cite book|last1=Renfrew|first1=Colin|title=Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins|year=1987|publisher=Jonathan Cape|location=London|isbn=0224024957}}</ref><ref name=James>{{cite book|last1=James|first1=Simon|title=The Atlantic Celts: Ancient People or Modern Invention?|year=1999|publisher=British Museum Press|location=London|isbn=0714121657}}</ref>

There are legitimate scholarly arguments for both the Insular Celtic hypothesis and the P-/Q-Celtic hypothesis. Proponents of each schema dispute the accuracy and usefulness of the other's categories. However, since the 1970s the division into Insular and Continental Celtic has become the more widely held view (Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; Schrijver 1995), but in the middle of the 1980s, the P-/Q-Celtic theory found new supporters (Lambert 1994), because of the inscription on the Larzac piece of lead (1983), the analysis of which reveals another common phonetical innovation ''-nm-'' > ''-nu'' (Gaelic ''ainm'' / Gaulish ''anuana'', Old Welsh ''enuein'' "names"), that is less accidental than only one. The discovery of a third common innovation would allow the specialists to come to the conclusion of a [[Gallo-Brittonic languages|Gallo-Brittonic]] dialect (Schmidt 1986; Fleuriot 1986).

The interpretation of this and further evidence is still quite contested, and the main argument for Insular Celtic is connected with the development of verbal morphology and the syntax in Irish and British Celtic, which Schumacher regards as convincing, while he considers the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic division unimportant and treats Gallo-Brittonic as an outdated theory.<ref name=Schumacher>{{cite book|last1=Schumacher|first1=Stefan|last2=Schulze-Thulin|first2=Britta|last3=aan de Wiel|first3=Caroline|title=Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon|year=2004|publisher=Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen der Universität Innsbruck|location=Innsbruck|isbn=3-85124-692-6|pages=84–87|language=de}}</ref> Stifter affirms that the Gallo-Brittonic view is "out of favour" in the scholarly community as of 2008 and the Insular Celtic hypothesis "widely accepted".<ref>{{cite book|last=Stifter|first=David|title=Old Celtic Languages|year=2008|pages=11|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf|access-date=19 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002035607/http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf|archive-date=2 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

When referring only to the modern Celtic languages, since no Continental Celtic language has living descendants, "Q-Celtic" is equivalent to "Goidelic" and "P-Celtic" is equivalent to "Brittonic".

How the family tree of the Celtic languages is ordered depends on which hypothesis is used:
{{col-begin|width=50%}}
{{col-2}}
"'''Insular Celtic hypothesis'''"
{{tree list}}
* [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]]
** [[Continental Celtic languages|Continental Celtic]] {{extinct}}
*** [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] {{extinct}}
*** [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]] {{extinct}}
*** [[Gaulish]] {{extinct}}
** [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
*** [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]
*** [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
{{tree list/end}}
{{col-break}}
"'''P/Q-Celtic hypothesis'''"
{{tree list}}
* [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]]
** Q-Celtic
*** [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] {{extinct}}
*** [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]] {{extinct}}
*** [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
** [[Gallo-Brittonic languages|P-Celtic]]
*** [[Gaulish]] {{extinct}}
*** [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]
{{tree list/end}}
{{col-end}}

=== Eska (2010) ===
Eska<ref>Joseph F. Eska (2010) "The emergence of the Celtic languages". In Martin J. Ball and Nicole Müller (eds.), ''The Celtic languages''. Routledge. {{ISBN|9781138969995}}</ref> evaluates the evidence as supporting the following tree, based on [[comparative method#Terminology|shared innovations]], though it is not always clear that the innovations are not [[areal feature]]s. It seems likely that Celtiberian split off before Cisalpine Celtic, but the evidence for this is not robust. On the other hand, the unity of Gaulish, Goidelic, and Brittonic is reasonably secure. Schumacher (2004, p. 86) had already cautiously considered this grouping to be likely genetic, based, among others, on the shared reformation of the sentence-initial, fully inflecting relative pronoun ''*i̯os, *i̯ā, *i̯od'' into an uninflected enclitic particle. Eska sees [[Cisalpine Gaulish]] as more akin to Lepontic than to Transalpine Gaulish.

{{tree list}}
* Celtic
** [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]
** [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]]
** Nuclear Celtic?
*** Cisalpine Celtic: [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]] → [[Cisalpine Gaulish]] {{extinct}}
*** Transalpine–Goidelic–Brittonic (secure)
**** [[Transalpine Gaulish]] {{extinct}} ("Transalpine Celtic")
**** [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
***** [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
***** [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]
{{tree list/end}}

Eska considers a division of Transalpine–Goidelic–Brittonic into Transalpine and Insular Celtic to be most probable because of the greater number of innovations in Insular Celtic than in P-Celtic, and because the Insular Celtic languages were probably not in great enough contact for those innovations to spread as part of a [[sprachbund]]. However, if they have another explanation (such as an [[Subject–verb–object|SOV]] [[Stratum (linguistics)|substratum]] language), then it is possible that P-Celtic is a valid clade, and the top branching would be:

{{tree list}}
* Transalpine–Goidelic–Brittonic (P-Celtic hypothesis)
** [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
** [[Gallo-Brittonic languages|Gallo-Brittonic]]
*** [[Transalpine Gaulish]] ("Transalpine Celtic")
*** [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]
{{tree list/end}}

=== Italo-Celtic ===
Within the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family, the Celtic languages have sometimes been placed with the [[Italic languages]] in a common [[Italo-Celtic]] subfamily. This hypothesis fell somewhat out of favour after reexamination by American linguist [[Calvert Watkins]] in 1966.<ref>[[Calvert Watkins|Watkins, Calvert]], "Italo-Celtic Revisited". In: {{cite book|title=Ancient Indo-European dialects|editor-last=Birnbaum|editor-first=Henrik|editor2=Puhvel, Jaan|year=1966|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]]|oclc=716409|pages=29–50}}</ref> Irrespectively, some scholars such as Ringe, Warnow and Taylor have argued in favour of an Italo-Celtic grouping in 21st century theses.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ringe|first1=Don|last2=Warnow|first2=Tandy|last3=Taylor|first3=Ann|title=Indo-European and Computational Cladistics|journal=Transactions of the Philological Society|date=March 2002|volume=100|issue=1|pages=59–129|doi=10.1111/1467-968X.00091|citeseerx=10.1.1.139.6014|url=https://www.cs.rice.edu/~nakhleh/CPHL/RWT02.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222105246/http://www.cs.rice.edu/%7Enakhleh/CPHL/RWT02.pdf |archive-date=2006-02-22 |url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref>

== Characteristics ==
Although there are many differences between the individual Celtic languages, they do show many family resemblances.

* [[consonant mutation]]s (Insular Celtic only)
* [[inflected preposition]]s (Insular Celtic only)
* two [[grammatical gender]]s (modern Insular Celtic only; Old Irish and the Continental languages had three genders, although Gaulish may have merged the neuter and masculine in its later forms)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3cHdQC1cXLEC&pg=PA222|title=The Celts: History, Life, and Culture|last1=Koch|first1=John T.|last2=Minard|first2=Antone|year=201|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-964-6}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=September 2012}}
* a [[vigesimal]] number system (counting by twenties)
** Cornish {{lang|kw|hwetek ha dew ugens}} "fifty-six" (literally "sixteen and two twenty")
* verb–subject–object (VSO) word order (probably Insular Celtic only)
* an interplay between the subjunctive, future, imperfect, and habitual, to the point that some tenses and moods have ousted others
* an impersonal or autonomous verb form serving as a [[passive voice|passive]] or [[intransitive verb|intransitive]]
** Welsh {{lang|cy|dysgaf}} "I teach" vs. {{lang|cy|dysgir}} "is taught, one teaches"
** Irish {{lang|ga|múinim}} "I teach" vs. {{lang|ga|múintear}} "is taught, one teaches"
* no [[infinitive]]s, replaced by a quasi-nominal verb form called the verbal noun or [[verbnoun]]
* frequent use of vowel mutation as a morphological device, e.g. formation of plurals, verbal stems, etc.
* use of preverbal particles to signal either subordination or illocutionary force of the following clause
** mutation-distinguished subordinators/relativisers
** [[grammatical particle|particle]]s for [[affirmation and negation|negation]], interrogation, and occasionally for affirmative declarations
* pronouns positioned between particles and verbs
* lack of simple verb for the [[imperfective aspect|imperfective]] "have" process, with possession conveyed by a composite structure, usually BE + preposition
** Cornish {{lang|kw|Yma kath dhymm}} "I have a cat", literally "there is a cat to me"
** Welsh {{lang|cy|Mae cath gyda fi}} "I have a cat", literally "a cat is with me"
** Irish {{lang|ga|Tá cat agam}} "I have a cat", literally "there is a cat at me"
* use of [[periphrasis|periphrastic]] constructions to express verbal tense, voice, or [[grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions
* distinction by function of the two versions of BE verbs traditionally labelled substantive (or existential) and [[copula (linguistics)|copula]]
* bifurcated [[demonstrative]] structure
* suffixed pronominal supplements, called confirming or supplementary pronouns
* use of singulars or special forms of counted nouns, and use of a singulative suffix to make singular forms from plurals, where older singulars have disappeared

Examples:
: {{lang-ga|Ná bac le mac an bhacaigh is ní bhacfaidh mac an bhacaigh leat.}}
: (Literal translation) ''Do not bother with son the beggar's and not will-bother son the beggar's with-you.''
:* {{lang|ga|bhacaigh}} is the genitive of {{lang|ga|bacach}}. The {{lang|ga|igh}} the result of [[affection (linguistics)|affection]]; the {{lang|ga|bh}} is the [[lenition|lenited]] form of {{lang|ga|b}}.
:* {{lang|ga|leat}} is the second person singular inflected form of the preposition {{lang|ga|le}}.
:* The order is verb–subject–object (VSO) in the second half. Compare this to English or French (and possibly Continental Celtic) which are normally subject–verb–object in word order.

: {{lang-cy|pedwar ar bymtheg a phedwar ugain}}
: (Literally) ''four on fifteen and four twenties''
:* {{lang|cy|bymtheg}} is a mutated form of {{lang|cy|pymtheg}}, which is {{lang|cy|pump}} ("five") plus {{lang|cy|deg}} ("ten"). Likewise, {{lang|cy|phedwar}} is a mutated form of {{lang|cy|pedwar}}.
:* The multiples of ten are {{lang|cy|deg, ugain, deg ar hugain, deugain, hanner cant, trigain, deg a thrigain, pedwar ugain, deg a phedwar ugain, cant}}.

=== Comparison table ===
The [[lexical similarity]] between the different Celtic languages is apparent in their [[Swadesh list|core vocabulary]], especially in terms of [[phonetic transcription|actual pronunciation]]. Moreover, the [[phonetics|phonetic]] [[comparative method|differences between languages]] are often the product of regular [[sound change]] (i.e. [[lenition]] of /b/ into /v/ or Ø).

The table below has words in the modern languages that were [[historical linguistics|inherited direct]] from [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]], as well as a few old [[loanword|borrowing]]s from [[Latin]] that made their way into all the daughter languages. There is often a closer match between Welsh, Breton and Cornish on the one hand and Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx on the other. For a fuller list of comparisons, see the [[wikt:Appendix:Celtic Swadesh lists|Swadesh list for Celtic]].
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2"| English !! scope="col" colspan="3"| Brittonic !! scope="col" colspan="3"| Goidelic
|-
! scope="col"| Welsh !! scope="col"| Breton<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dico.parlant.breton.free.fr/|title=Dictionnaires bretons parlants|access-date=6 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207020502/http://dico.parlant.breton.free.fr/|archive-date=7 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> !! scope="col"| Cornish !! scope="col"| Irish
Gaelic<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.abair.tcd.ie/?page=transcription&lang=eng|title=Trinity College Phonetics and Speech Lab|access-date=6 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212072649/http://www.abair.tcd.ie/?page=transcription&lang=eng|archive-date=12 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
!Scottish
Gaelic<ref>{{cite web |title=Learn Gaelic Dictionary |url=https://learngaelic.scot/dictionary/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207015434/https://learngaelic.scot/dictionary/ |archive-date=7 February 2019 |access-date=6 February 2019}}</ref>
!Manx
|-
| scope="row"| bee || {{lang|cy|gwenynen}} || {{lang|br|gwenanenn}} || {{lang|kw|gwenenen}} || {{lang|ga|beach}}
|''seillean''
|''shellan''
|-
| scope="row"| big || {{lang|cy|mawr}} || {{lang|br|meur}} || {{lang|kw|meur}} || {{lang|ga|mór}}
|''mòr''
|''mooar''
|-
| scope="row"| dog || {{lang|cy|ci}} || {{lang|br|ki}} || {{lang|kw|ki}} || {{lang|ga|madra}}, {{lang|ga|gadhar}} ({{lang|ga|cú}} "hound")
|''cù''
|''coo''
|-
| scope="row"| fish || {{lang|cy|pysgodyn}}† || {{lang|br|pesk}}† || {{lang|kw|pysk}}† || {{lang|ga|iasc}}
|''iasg''
|''yeeast''
|-
| scope="row"| full || {{lang|cy|llawn}} || {{lang|br|leun}} || {{lang|kw|leun}} || {{lang|ga|lán}}
|''làn''
|''lane''
|-
| scope="row"| goat || {{lang|cy|gafr}} || {{lang|br|gavr}} || {{lang|kw|gaver}} || {{lang|ga|gabhar}}
|''gobhar''
|''goayr''
|-
| scope="row"| house || {{lang|cy|tŷ}} || {{lang|br|ti}} || {{lang|kw|chi}} || {{lang|ga|teach, tigh}}
|''taigh''
|''thie''
|-
| scope="row"| lip (anatomical) || {{lang|cy|gwefus}} || {{lang|br|gweuz}} || {{lang|kw|gweus}} || {{lang|ga|liopa, beol}}
|''bile''
|''meill''
|-
| scope="row"| mouth of a river || {{lang|cy|aber}} || {{lang|br|aber}} || {{lang|kw|aber}} || {{lang|ga|inbhear}}
|''inbhir''
|''inver''
|-
| scope="row"| four || {{lang|cy|pedwar}} || {{lang|br|pevar}} || {{lang|kw|peswar}} || {{lang|ga|ceathair, cheithre}}
|''ceithir''
|''kiare''
|-
| scope="row"| night || {{lang|cy|nos}} || {{lang|br|noz}} || {{lang|kw|nos}} || {{lang|ga|oíche}}
|''oidhche''
|''oie''
|-
| scope="row"| number† || ''rhif, nifer''†|| {{lang|br|niver}}† || {{lang|kw|niver}}† || {{lang|ga|uimhir}}
|''àireamh''
|''earroo''
|-
| scope="row"| three || {{lang|cy|tri}} || {{lang|br|tri}} || {{lang|kw|tri}} || {{lang|ga|trí}}
|''trì''
|''tree''
|-
| scope="row"| milk || {{lang|cy|llaeth}}† || {{lang|br|laezh}}† || {{lang|kw|leth}}† || {{lang|ga|bainne, leacht}}
|''bianne, leachd''
|''bainney''
|-
| scope="row"| you (sg) || {{lang|cy|ti}} || {{lang|br|te}} || {{lang|kw|ty}} || {{lang|ga|tú, thú}}
|''thu, tu''
|''oo''
|-
| scope="row"| star || {{lang|cy|seren}} || {{lang|br|steredenn}} || {{lang|kw|steren}} || {{lang|ga|réalta}}
|''reult, rionnag''
|''rollage''
|-
| scope="row"| today || {{lang|cy|heddiw}} || {{lang|br|hiziv}} || {{lang|kw|hedhyw}} || {{lang|ga|inniu}}
|''an-diugh''
|''jiu''
|-
| scope="row"| tooth || {{lang|cy|dant}} || {{lang|br|dant}} || {{lang|kw|dans}} || {{lang|ga|fiacail}}, {{lang|ga|déad}}
|''fiacaill, deud''
|''feeackle''
|-
| scope="row"| (to) fall || {{lang|cy|cwympo}} || {{lang|br|kouezhañ}} || {{lang|kw|kodha}} || {{lang|ga|tit(im)}}
|''tuit(eam)''
|''tuitt(ym)''
|-
| scope="row"| (to) smoke || {{lang|cy|ysmygu}} || {{lang|br|mogediñ, butuniñ}} || {{lang|kw|megi}} || {{lang|ga|caith(eamh) tobac}}
|''smocadh''
|''toghtaney, smookal''
|-
| scope="row"| (to) whistle || {{lang|cy|chwibanu}} || {{lang|br|c'hwibanat}} || {{lang|kw|hwibana}} || {{lang|ga|feadáil}}
|''fead''
|''fed''
|-
| scope="row"| time, weather || {{lang|cy|amser}} || {{lang|br|amzer}} || {{lang|kw|amser}} "time", {{lang|kw|kewer}} "weather" || {{lang|ga|aimsir}}
|''aimsir''
|''emshyr''
|-
|}
† Borrowings from Latin.

=== Examples ===
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''
* {{lang-ga|Saoláitear gach duine den chine daonna saor agus comhionann i ndínit agus i gcearta. Tá bua an réasúin agus an choinsiasa acu agus ba cheart dóibh gníomhú i dtreo a chéile i spiorad an bhráithreachais.}}
* {{lang-gv|Ta dagh ooilley pheiagh ruggit seyr as corrym ayns ard-cheim as kiartyn. Ren Jee feoiltaghey resoon as cooinsheanse orroo as by chair daue ymmyrkey ry cheilley myr braaraghyn.}}
* {{lang-gd|Tha gach uile dhuine air a bhreith saor agus co-ionnan ann an urram 's ann an còirichean. Tha iad air am breith le reusan is le cogais agus mar sin bu chòir dhaibh a bhith beò nam measg fhèin ann an spiorad bràthaireil.}}
* {{lang-br|Dieub ha par en o dellezegezh hag o gwirioù eo ganet an holl dud. Poell ha skiant zo dezho ha dleout a reont bevañ an eil gant egile en ur spered a genvreudeuriezh.}}
* {{lang-kw|Genys frank ha par yw oll tus an bys yn aga dynita hag yn aga gwiryow. Enduys yns gans reson ha kowses hag y tal dhedha omdhon an eyl orth y gila yn spyrys a vrederedh.}}
* {{lang-cy|Genir pawb yn rhydd ac yn gydradd â'i gilydd mewn urddas a hawliau. Fe'u cynysgaeddir â rheswm a chydwybod, a dylai pawb ymddwyn y naill at y llall mewn ysbryd cymodlon.}}

== Possible members of the family ==
Several poorly-documented languages may have been Celtic.

*'''[[Ancient Belgian language|Ancient Belgian]]'''
* '''[[Camunic language|Camunic]]''' is an extinct language spoken in the first millennium BC in the [[Val Camonica]] and [[Valtellina]] valleys of the [[Central Alps]]. It has recently been proposed that it was a Celtic language.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Markey|first1=Thomas|title=Shared Symbolics, Genre Diffusion, Token Perception and Late Literacy in North-Western Europe|journal= NOWELE: North-Western European Language Evolution|date=2008|volume=54-55|pages=5–62|publisher=NOWELE|doi=10.1075/nowele.54-55.01mar}}</ref>
* '''[[Iverni#O'Rahilly's theory|Ivernic]]'''
* '''[[Ligurian (ancient language)|Ligurian]]''', on the Northern Mediterranean Coast straddling the southeast French and northwest Italian coasts, including parts of [[Tuscany]], [[Elba]] and [[Corsica]]. Xavier Delamarre argues that Ligurian was a Celtic language similar to Gaulish.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.celtnet.org.uk/gods_v/vasio.html|title=Celtic Gods: The Gaulish and Ligurian god, Vasio (He who is given Libation) |access-date=2015-03-04|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518143426/http://www.celtnet.org.uk/gods_v/vasio.html|archive-date=18 May 2013}}</ref> The Ligurian-Celtic question is also discussed by Barruol (1999). Ancient Ligurian is listed as either Celtic (epigraphic),<ref name=kruta1>{{cite book|last=Kruta|first=Venceslas|title=The Celts|year=1991|publisher=Thames and Hudson|pages=54}}</ref> or Para-Celtic (onomastic).<ref name=kruta2>{{cite book|last=Kruta|first=Venceslas|title=The Celts|year=1991|publisher=Thames and Hudson|pages=55}}</ref>
* '''[[Lusitanian language|Lusitanian]]''', spoken in the area between the Douro and Tagus rivers of western [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] (a region straddling the present border of [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]]). Known from only five inscriptions and various place names.<ref name=Wodtko /> It is an Indo-European language and some scholars have proposed that it may be a para-Celtic language that evolved alongside Celtic or formed a [[dialect continuum]] or [[sprachbund]] with Tartessian and Gallaecian. This is tied to a theory of an Iberian origin for the Celtic languages.<ref name=Wodtko>{{cite book|last=Wodtko|first=Dagmar S|title=Celtic from the West Chapter 11: The Problem of Lusitanian|year=2010|publisher=Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK|isbn=978-1-84217-410-4|pages=360–361}}</ref><ref name=cunliffe /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ballester|first=X.|title="Páramo" o del problema del la */p/ en celtoide|journal=Studi Celtici|year=2004|volume=3|pages=45–56}}</ref> It is also possible that the Q-Celtic languages alone, including Goidelic, originated in western Iberia (a theory that was first put forward by [[Edward Lhuyd]] in 1707) or shared a common linguistic ancestor with Lusitanian.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=fDYyBwAAQBAJ&dq=edward+lhuyd+lusitanian+celtic&pg=PA8 Unity in Diversity, Volume 2: Cultural and Linguistic Markers of the Concept] Editors: Sabine Asmus and Barbara Braid. Google Books.</ref> Secondary evidence for this hypothesis has been found in research by biological scientists, who have identified (1) deep-rooted similarities in human DNA found precisely in both the former [[Lusitania]] and [[Ireland]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hill|first1=E. W.|last2=Jobling|first2=M. A.|last3=Bradley|first3=D. G.|year=2000|title=Y chromosome variation and Irish origins|journal=Nature|volume=404|issue=6776|pages=351–352|doi=10.1038/35006158|pmid=10746711|bibcode=2000Natur.404..351H|s2cid=4414538}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=McEvoy|first1=B.|last2=Richards|first2=M.|last3=Forster|first3=P.|last4=Bradley|first4=D. G.|year=2004|title=The longue durée of genetic ancestry: multiple genetic marker systems and Celtic origins on the Atlantic facade of Europe|journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet.|volume=75|issue=4|pages=693–702|doi=10.1086/424697|pmid=15309688|pmc=1182057}}</ref> and; (2) the so-called "[[disjunct distribution#Lusitanian distribution|Lusitanian distribution]]" of animals and plants unique to western Iberia and Ireland. Both phenomena are now generally thought to have resulted from human emigration from Iberia to Ireland, in the late [[Paleolithic]] or early [[Mesolithic]] eras.<ref name="Mascheretti et al. (2003)">{{cite journal|last1=Masheretti|first1=S.|last2=Rogatcheva|first2=M. B.|last3=Gündüz|first3=I.|last4=Fredga|first4=K.|last5=Searle|first5=J. B.|year=2003|title=How did pygmy shrews colonize Ireland? Clues from a phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences|journal=Proc. R. Soc. B|volume=270|issue=1524|pages=1593–1599|doi=10.1098/rspb.2003.2406|pmc=1691416|pmid=12908980}}</ref> Other scholars see greater linguistic affinities between Lusitanian, [[Italic languages|proto-Gallo-Italic]] (particularly with [[Ligurian (ancient language)|Ligurian]]) and [[Old European hydronymy|Old European]].<ref name=Villar2000>{{cite book|last1=Villar|first1=Francisco|title=Indoeuropeos y no indoeuropeos en la Hispania Prerromana|year=2000|publisher=Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca|location=Salamanca|isbn=84-7800-968-X|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G7zC8UCvmo0C|language=es|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231222127/https://books.google.com/books?id=G7zC8UCvmo0C|archive-date=31 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>''The inscription of Cabeço das Fráguas revisited. Lusitanian and Alteuropäisch populations in the West of the Iberian Peninsula'' Transactions of the Philological Society vol. 97 (2003)</ref> Prominent modern linguists such as [[Ellis Evans]], believe [[Gallaecian]]-Lusitanian was in fact one same language (not separate languages) of the "P" Celtic variant.<ref>[https://ilg.usc.es/agon/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/Callaica_Nomina.pdf Callaica_Nomina] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930005923/https://ilg.usc.es/agon/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/Callaica_Nomina.pdf |date=30 September 2020 }} ''ilg.usc.es''</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&q=Evans+lusitanian+celt+linguist&pg=PA484|title=Celtic Culture: A-Celti|year=2006|isbn=9781851094400 |last1=Koch |first1=John T. |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}</ref>
* '''[[Rhaetic]]''', spoken in central [[Switzerland]], [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]] in [[Austria]], and the Alpine regions of northeast [[Italy]]. Documented by a limited number of short inscriptions (found through Northern Italy and Western Austria) in two variants of the [[Etruscan alphabet]]. Its linguistic categorization is not clearly established, and it presents a confusing mixture of what appear to be [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]], [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], and uncertain other elements. [[Howard Hayes Scullard]] argues that Rhaetian was also a Celtic language.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Scullard|first1=HH|title=The Etruscan Cities and Rome|url=https://archive.org/details/etruscancitiesro0000scul|url-access=registration|date=1967|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|isbn=9780801403736}}</ref>
* '''[[Tartessian language|Tartessian]]''', spoken in the southwest of the Iberia Peninsula (mainly southern [[Portugal]] and southwest Spain).<ref name=koch2>{{cite book|last=Koch|first=John T|title=Celtic from the West Chapter 9: Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic|year=2010|publisher=Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK|isbn=978-1-84217-410-4|pages=292–293}}</ref> Tartessian is known by 95 inscriptions, with the longest having 82 readable signs.<ref name=cunliffe>{{cite book|last=Cunliffe|first=Barry|title=The Celts – A Very Short Introduction – see figure 7|year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-280418-9|pages=51–52}}</ref><ref name="Colera">{{cite journal|last=Cólera|first=Carlos Jordán|title=The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula:Celtiberian|journal=E-Keltoi|date=16 March 2007|volume=6|pages=749–750|url=http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_17/jordan_6_17.pdf|access-date=16 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624081159/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_17/jordan_6_17.pdf|archive-date=24 June 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=koch2011>{{cite book|last=Koch|first=John T|title=Tartessian 2: The Inscription of Mesas do Castelinho ro and the Verbal Complex. Preliminaries to Historical Phonology|year=2011|url=http://www.oxbowbooks.com/bookinfo.cfm/ID/91450//Location/Oxbow|publisher=Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK|isbn=978-1-907029-07-3|pages=1–198|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723195518/http://www.oxbowbooks.com/bookinfo.cfm/ID/91450//Location/Oxbow|archive-date=23 July 2011}}</ref> [[John T. Koch]] argues that Tartessian was also a Celtic language.<ref name=koch2011 />

== See also ==
* [[Ogham]]
* [[Celts]]
* [[Celts (modern)]]
* [[wikt:Appendix:Celtic Swadesh lists|A Swadesh list of the modern Celtic languages]]
* [[Celtic Congress]]
* [[Celtic League]]
* [[Continental Celtic languages]]
* [[Italo-Celtic]]
* [[Language family]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== References ==
{{refbegin}}
* Ball, Martin J. & James Fife (ed.) (1993). ''The Celtic Languages''. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-01035-7}}.
* Borsley, Robert D. & Ian Roberts (ed.) (1996). ''The Syntax of the Celtic Languages: A Comparative Perspective''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0521481600}}.
* {{cite book|last=Cowgill|first=Warren|author-link=Warren Cowgill|year=1975|chapter=The origins of the Insular Celtic conjunct and absolute verbal endings|editor=H. Rix|title=Flexion und Wortbildung: Akten der V. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Regensburg, 9.–14. September 1973|location=Wiesbaden|pages=40–70|publisher=Reichert|isbn=3-920153-40-5}}
* ''Celtic Linguistics, 1700–1850'' (2000). London; New York: Routledge. 8 vols comprising 15 texts originally published between 1706 and 1844.
* {{cite journal|author1=Forster, Peter|author2=Toth, Alfred|title=Toward a phylogenetic chronology of ancient Gaulish, Celtic, and Indo-European|journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA|volume=100|issue=15|pages=9079–84|date=July 2003|pmid=12837934|pmc=166441|doi=10.1073/pnas.1331158100|bibcode=2003PNAS..100.9079F|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|author1=Gray, Russell D.|author2=Atkinson, Quintin D.|title=Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin|journal=Nature|volume=426|issue=6965|pages=435–39|date=November 2003|pmid=14647380|doi=10.1038/nature02029|bibcode=2003Natur.426..435G|s2cid=42340|url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:d6aef57c-ce30-40fb-8786-f64c4a70afd1}}
* {{cite book|author=Hindley, Reg|title=The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary|publisher=Routledge|year=1990|isbn=0-415-04339-5}}
* Lewis, Henry & [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen]] (1989). ''A Concise Comparative Celtic Grammar''. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. {{ISBN|3-525-26102-0}}.
* {{cite journal|last=McCone|first=Kim|year=1991|title=The PIE stops and syllabic nasals in Celtic|journal=Studia Celtica Japonica|volume=4|pages=37–69}}
* {{cite book|last=McCone|first=Kim|year=1992|chapter=Relative Chronologie: Keltisch|title=Rekonstruktion und relative Chronologie: Akten Der VIII. Fachtagung Der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Leiden, 31 August – 4 September 1987|editor=R. Beekes|editor2=A. Lubotsky|editor3=J. Weitenberg|pages=12–39|publisher=Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck|isbn=3-85124-613-6}}
* {{cite book|author=McCone, K.|year=1996|title=Towards a Relative Chronology of Ancient and Medieval Celtic Sound Change|location=Maynooth|publisher=Department of Old and Middle Irish, St. Patrick's College|isbn=0-901519-40-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Russell, Paul|title=An Introduction to the Celtic Languages|publisher=Longman|year=1995|isbn=0582100828}}
* {{cite book|author=Schmidt, K.H.|year=1988|chapter=On the reconstruction of Proto-Celtic|editor=G. W. MacLennan|title=Proceedings of the First North American Congress of Celtic Studies, Ottawa 1986|pages=231–48|location=Ottawa|publisher=Chair of Celtic Studies|isbn=0-09-693260-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Schrijver|first=Peter|year=1995|title=Studies in British Celtic historical phonology|location=Amsterdam|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=90-5183-820-4 |author-link=Peter Schrijver}}
* {{cite book|last1=Schumacher|first1=Stefan|last2=Schulze-Thulin|first2=Britta|last3=aan de Wiel|first3=Caroline|title=Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon|year=2004|publisher=Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen der Universität Innsbruck|location=Innsbruck|isbn=3-85124-692-6|language=de}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite journal |last=Markey |first=Thomas L. |date=2006 |title=Early Celticity in Slovenia and at Rhaetic Magrè (Schio) |journal=Linguistica |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=145–72 |doi=10.4312/linguistica.46.1.145-172|doi-access=free }}.
* {{Cite journal |last=Sims-Williams |first=Patrick |title=An Alternative to 'Celtic from the East' and 'Celtic from the West' |journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal |volume=30 |issue=3 |date=2020 |pages=511–29 |doi=10.1017/S0959774320000098|s2cid=216484936 |doi-access=free |hdl=2160/317fdc72-f7ad-4a66-8335-db8f5d911437 |hdl-access=free }}.
* {{Cite journal |last=Stifter |first=David |title=The early Celtic epigraphic evidence and early literacy in Germanic languages |journal=NOWELE: North-Western European Language Evolution |volume=73 |issue=1 |date=Apr 2020 |pages=123–152 |issn=0108-8416 |doi=10.1075/nowele.00037.sti|s2cid=219024967 |url=http://mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/12914/1/Stifter }}

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|d=Q25293|s=Portal:Celtic languages|c=category:Celtic languages|b=Category:Languages of Europe|v=Category:Celtic languages|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|n=no|wikt=Category:Celtic languages|q=no}}
* {{Curlie|Science/Social_Sciences/Linguistics/Languages/Natural/Indo-European/Celtic/}}
* [http://www.abdn.ac.uk/celtic Aberdeen University Celtic Department] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208012252/http://www.abdn.ac.uk/celtic |date=8 December 2008 }}
* [http://www.summerlands.com/crossroads/celticlanguage/labara1.html "Labara: An Introduction to the Celtic Languages", by Meredith Richard]
* [http://www.breizh.net/icdbl/saozg/Celtic_Languages.pdf Celts and Celtic Languages] (PDF)
{{Celtic languages|state=expanded}}
{{Celts}}
{{Indo-European languages}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Celtic languages}}
[[Category:Celtic languages| ]]

Calque

2023-09-16T13:15:45Z

Amanyn: Undid my last change (it was wrong)

{{Short description|Loaned translation of an expression}}
{{Distinguish|literal translation|claque}}
{{Wiktionary|calque}}

In [[linguistics]], a '''calque''' ({{IPAc-en|k|æ|l|k}}) or '''loan translation''' is a [[word]] or [[phrase]] borrowed from another [[language]] by [[literal translation|literal]] word-for-word or root-for-root [[translation]]. When used as a [[verb]], "to calque" means to borrow a word or phrase from another language while translating its components, so as to create a new [[lexeme]] in the target language. For instance, the English word "skyscraper" has been calqued in dozens of other languages,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gachelin |first=Jean-Marc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWh_Vizvm-oC&pg=PA97 |title=Lexique-grammaire, domaine anglais |publisher=Université de Saint-Etienne |year=1986 |isbn=978-2-901559-14-6 |pages=97}}</ref> combining words for "sky" and "scrape" in each language. Another notable example is the Latin weekday names, which came to be associated by ancient Germanic speakers with their own gods following a practice known as ''{{Lang|la|[[interpretatio germanica]]}}'': the Latin "Day of [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]]", ''{{Lang|la|Mercurii dies}}'' (later ''{{Lang|fr|mercredi}}'' in modern [[French language|French]]), was borrowed into [[Late Proto-Germanic]] as the "Day of [[Wōđanaz]]" (*''Wodanesdag''), which became ''{{Lang|ang|Wōdnesdæg}}'' in [[Old English]], then "Wednesday" in Modern English.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Simek|first=Rudolf|title=Dictionary of northern mythology|publisher=D.S. Brewer|year=1993|isbn=0-85991-369-4|pages=371}}</ref>

The term ''calque'' itself is a [[loanword]] from the French [[noun]] {{wikt-lang|fr|calque}} ("tracing, imitation, close copy"), while the word ''loanword'' is a calque of the [[German language|German]] noun ''{{Lang|de|Lehnwort}}''.<ref>Knapp, Robbin D. 27 January 2011. "[http://germanenglishwords.com/ Robb: German English Words]." ''Robb: Human Languages''.</ref> Calquing is distinct from [[phono-semantic matching]]: while calquing includes [[semantic]] translation, it does not consist of [[phonetic]] matching—i.e., of retaining the approximate [[sound]] of the borrowed word by matching it with a similar-sounding pre-existing word or [[morpheme]] in the target language.<ref name="palgrave.com">{{cite book|last=Zuckermann|first=Ghil'ad|url=http://www.palgrave.com/br/book/9781403917232|title=Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2003|isbn=1-4039-1723-X|author-link=Ghil'ad Zuckermann}}</ref>

Proving that a word is a calque sometimes requires more documentation than does an untranslated loanword because, in some cases, a similar phrase might have arisen in both languages independently. This is less likely to be the case when the grammar of the proposed calque is quite different from that of the borrowing language, or when the calque contains less obvious imagery.

== Types ==
One system classifies calques into five groups. This terminology is not universal:<ref>Smith, May. ''The Influence of French on Eighteenth-century Literary Russian''. pp. 29–30.</ref>
* ''Phraseological calques'': [[idiom|idiomatic phrase]]s are translated word for word. For example, "[[:wiktionary:go without saying|it goes without saying]]" calques the French {{lang|fr|ça va sans dire}}.<ref>[[Henry Watson Fowler|Fowler, H. W.]] [1908] 1999. "[http://www.bartleby.com/116/105.html Vocabulary § Foreign Words]." chap. 1 in ''The King's English'' (2nd ed.). New York: [[Bartleby.com|Bartelby.com]].</ref>
* ''Syntactic calques'': [[syntactic function]]s or constructions of the source language are imitated in the target language, in violation of their meaning. For example, the use of "by" instead of "with" in the phrase "fine by me" is thought to have come from Yiddish {{transliteration|yi|bei}}, namely from the 1930s Yiddish Broadway musical song title {{lang|yi|rtl=yes|בײַ מיר ביסטו שיין‬}} / {{transliteration|yi|Bei Mir Bistu Shein}} / {{literal translation|To Me You’re Beautiful}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://languagelore.net/2013/01/25/its-ok-by-me-as-a-syntactic-calque/|date=25 January 2013|title=“It’s OK by Me” as a Syntactic Calque|first=Michael|last=Shapiro|website=Language Lore}}</ref>
* ''Loan-translations'': words are translated [[morpheme]] by morpheme, or component by component, into another language.
* ''Semantic calques'' (also known as ''[[semantic loan]]s''): additional meanings of the source word are transferred to the word with the same primary meaning in the target language. As described below, the "computer mouse" was named in English for its resemblance to the animal; many other languages have extended their own native word for "mouse" to include the computer mouse.
* ''Morphological calques'': the [[inflection]] of a word is transferred. Some authors call this a ''morpheme-by-morpheme translation''.<ref name="gilliot">Gilliot, Claude. "The Authorship of the Qur'ān." In ''The Qur'an in its Historical Context'', edited by [[Gabriel Said Reynolds|G. S. Reynolds]]. p. 97.</ref>

Some linguists refer to a ''phonological calque'', in which the pronunciation of a word is imitated in the other language.<ref name=":0">Yihua, Zhang, and Guo Qiping. 2010. "An Ideal Specialised Lexicography for Learners in China based on English-Chinese Specialised Dictionaries." Pp. 171–92 in ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vP2jibCnejQC&pg=PA1 Specialised Dictionaries for Learners]'', edited by P. A. F. Olivera. Berlin: de Gruyter. [https://books.google.com/books?id=vP2jibCnejQC&pg=PA187 p. 187]. {{ISBN|9783110231328}}</ref> For example, the English word "radar" becomes the similar-sounding Chinese word {{wikt-lang|zh|雷达}} ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|p=léidá}}),<ref name=":0" /> which literally means "to arrive (as fast) as thunder".

===Partial===
{{anchor|Partial calques}}
{{anchor|Loan blend}}
{{anchor|Loanblend}}
Partial calques, or loan blends, translate some parts of a compound but not others.<ref>Durkin, Philip. ''The Oxford Guide to Etymology''. § 5.1.4</ref> For example, the name of the Irish digital television service ''{{lang|ga|[[Saorview]]|italic=no}}'' is a partial calque of that of the UK service "[[Freeview (UK)|Freeview]]", translating the first half of the word from English to Irish but leaving the second half unchanged. Other examples include "[[liverwurst]]" (< German {{wikt-lang|de|Leberwurst}})<ref>{{Cite OED|liverwurst}}</ref> and "[[apple strudel]]" (< German {{wikt-lang|de|Apfelstrudel}}).<ref>{{Cite OED|apple strudel}}</ref>

=== Semantic ===
The "[[computer mouse]]" was named in English for its resemblance to the [[mouse|animal]]. Many other languages use their word for "mouse" for the "computer mouse", sometimes using a [[diminutive]] or, in [[Chinese language|Chinese]], adding the word "[[Cursor (user interface)|cursor]]" ({{Lang|zh-Hani|标|italic=no}}), making {{Lang|cmn-latn|shǔbiāo}} "mouse cursor" ({{zh|t=鼠標 |s=鼠标 |p=shǔbiāo}}).{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}

== Examples ==
{{Main list|List of calques}}

The common English phrase "[[flea market]]" is a loan translation of the French {{wikt-lang|fr|marché aux puces}} ("market with fleas").<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite web |title=flea market |url=https://www.bartleby.com/ |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311115056/http://www.bartleby.com/61/77/F0177700.html |archivedate=March 11, 2007 |website=Bartleby}}</ref> At least 22 other languages calque the French expression directly or indirectly through another language.

Another example of a common morpheme-by-morpheme loan-translation is of the [[English language|English]] word "[[wikt:skyscraper|skyscraper]]", which may be calqued using the word for "sky" or "cloud" and the word, variously, for "scrape", "scratch", "pierce", "sweep", "kiss", etc. At least 54 languages have their own versions of the English word.

Some [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] and [[Slavic languages]] derived their words for "translation" from words meaning "carrying across" or "bringing across", calquing from the Latin {{lang|la|translātiō}} or {{lang|la|trādūcō}}.<ref>[[Christopher Kasparek]], "The Translator's Endless Toil", ''[[The Polish Review]]'', vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, p. 83.</ref>

== History ==

Since at least 1894, according to the {{Lang|fr|[[Trésor de la langue française informatisé]]|italic=no}}, the [[French (language)|French]] term ''calque'' has been used in its [[linguistic]] sense, namely in a publication by Louis Duvau:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Duvau |first1=Louis |title=Expressions hybrides |journal=Mémoires de la Société de linguistique de Paris |date=1894 |volume=8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/memoires7818soci/page/190/mode/2up?q=%22Un+autre+ph%C3%A9nom%C3%A8ne+d'hybridation%22 191] |location=Paris}}</ref>
{{Verse translation
|lang=fra
|Un autre phénomène d'hybridation est la création dans une langue d'un mot nouveau, dérivé ou composé à l'aide d'éléments existant déja dans cette langue, et ne se distinguant en rien par l'aspect extérieur des mots plus anciens, mais qui, en fait, n'est que le '''calque''' d'un mot existant dans la langue maternelle de celui qui s'essaye à un parler nouveau. [...] nous voulons rappeler seulement deux ou trois exemples de ces '''calques''' d'expressions, parmi les plus certains et les plus frappants.
|
Another phenomenon of hybridization is the creation in a language of a new word, derived or composed with the help of elements already existing in that language, and which is not distinguished in any way by the external aspect of the older words, but which, in fact, is only the '''copy''' (''calque'') of a word existing in the mother tongue of the one who tries out a new language. [...] we want to recall only two or three examples of these '''copies''' (''calques'') of expressions, among the most certain and the most striking.}}

Since at least 1926, the term ''calque'' has been attested in English through a publication by the linguist {{interlanguage link|Otakar Vočadlo|cs}}:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vočadlo |first1=Otakar |title=Slav Linguistic Purity and the Use of Foreign Words |journal=The Slavonic Review |date=1926 |volume=5 |issue=14 |page=353 |jstor=4202081}}</ref>

: [...] such imitative forms are called ''{{Lang|fr|calques}}'' (or ''{{Lang|fr|décalques}}'') by French [[Philology|philologists]], and this is a frequent method in coining abstract terminology, whether nouns or verbs.

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Anglicism]]
* [[Chinese Pidgin English]]
* [[Cognate]]
* [[Gallicism]]
* [[Germanism (linguistics)|Germanism]]
* [[Inkhorn term]]
* [[Loanword]]
* [[Metatypy]]
* [[Semantic loan]]
* [[Translation#Etymology|Translation]]
* [[Wasei-eigo]]
* [[Engrish]]{{div col end}}

== References ==
'''Notes'''
{{Reflist}}

'''Bibliography'''
* [[Christopher Kasparek|Kasparek, Christopher]]. 1983. "The Translator's Endless Toil." ''[[The Polish Review]]'' 28(2):83–87.
* [http://germanenglishwords.com/ Robb: German English Words]
* [[Ghil'ad Zuckermann|Zuckermann, Ghil'ad]]. 2003. ''[https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9781403938695 Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew]''. Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|1-4039-1723-X}}
* 2009. [http://www.zuckermann.org/pdf/Hybridity_versus_Revivability.pdf "Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns."] ''Journal of Language Contact'' (2):40–67.

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Wiktionary category|category=English calques}}
* [http://www.etymonline.com EtymOnline]
* [http://www.merriam-webster.com/ Merriam Webster Online]

{{Clear}}
{{Appropriation in the arts}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Etymology]]
[[Category:Calques| ]]

[[sv:Lånord#Översättninglån]]

Bartolomeu Dias

2023-09-06T19:10:12Z

Amanyn: Correction of the word "Conceição" that was written "Conceicão"

{{Short description|Late 15th-century Portuguese maritime explorer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| image = Bartolomeu Dias, South Africa House (cut).JPG
| caption = Statue of Dias at the [[High Commission of South Africa, London|High Commission of South Africa]] in London
| other_names = Bartholomew Diaz
| birth_date = 1450
| death_date = {{death date | 1500 | 05 | 29 | df=y}} (aged approximately 50)
| death_place = South Atlantic Ocean, near the [[Cape of Good Hope]]
| nationality = [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]
| occupation = Navigator and explorer
| known_for = Being the first European mariner to round the southern tip of Africa}}

'''Bartolomeu Dias'''<ref>ˈPronunciation: English: di əs; Portuguese ˈdi əʃ; [http://www.dictionary.com/browse/dias "Dias"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]</ref> ({{circa}} 1450 – 29 May 1500) was a Portuguese mariner and explorer. In 1488, he became the first European navigator to round the [[Cape Agulhas|southern tip]] of Africa and to demonstrate that the most effective southward route for ships lies in the open ocean, well to the west of the African coast. His discoveries effectively established the sea route between Europe and Asia.

==Early life==
Bartholomeu Dias was born around 1455. His family had a maritime background, and one of his ancestors, Dinis Dias, explored the African coast in the 1440s and discovered the [[Cape Verde Peninsula]] in 1445.<ref>Oakley 2003</ref>

Tracing his biography is complicated by the existence of several contemporary Portuguese seafarers with the same name.<ref>Dutra 2007</ref> He was clearly a seaman of considerable experience and may have been trading for ivory along the Guinea coast as early as 1478. In 1481, Dias accompanied an expedition, led by [[Diogo de Azambuja]], to construct a fortress and trading post called [[São Jorge da Mina]] in the [[Gulf of Guinea]].<ref>Ravenstein 2010 pp. 1–2</ref> Indirect evidence also points to his possible participation in [[Diogo Cão]]'s first expedition (1482–1484) down the African coast to the [[Congo River]].<ref>Ravenstein 2010 p. 6</ref>

==Voyage around Africa==
Diogo Cão had made two voyages to try to reach the southern end of Africa’s western coastline but had failed both times. Nevertheless, [[John_II_of_Portugal|King John II of Portugal]] remained determined to continue the effort. In October 1486, he commissioned Dias to lead an expedition in search of a trade route around the southern tip of Africa. Dias was also charged with searching for [[Prester John]], a legendary figure believed to be the powerful Christian ruler of a realm somewhere beyond Europe, possibly in the African interior. Dias was provided with two caravels of about 50 tons each and a square-rigged supply ship captained by his brother Diogo. He recruited some of the leading pilots of the day, including [[Pêro de Alenquer]] and João de Santiago, who had previously sailed with Cão.<ref>Oakley 2003</ref><ref>Crowley 2015, pp. 17–19</ref>

No contemporary documents detailing this historic voyage have been found as almost all maritime records were destroyed in the [[1755 Lisbon earthquake]] and ensuing [[tsunami]]. Much of the available information comes from the sixteenth-century historian [[João de Barros]], who wrote about the voyage some sixty years later.<ref>Crowley 2015, pp. 17–19</ref>

[[File: Diaz on his voyage to the cape.jpg|thumb|left|An illustration of the ''São Cristóvão'' and ''São Pantaleão'']]

The small fleet left Lisbon in or around July 1487. Like his predecessor, Cão, Dias carried a set of ''[[padrão]]s'', carved stone pillars to be used to mark his progress at important landfalls. Also on board were six Africans who had been kidnapped by Cão and taught Portuguese. Dias's plan was to drop them off at various points along the African coast so that they could testify to the grandeur of the Portuguese kingdom and make inquiries into the possible whereabouts of Prester John.<ref>Crowley 2015, pp. 17–19</ref>

The expedition sailed directly to the [[Congo River|Congo]], and from there proceeded more carefully down the African coast, often naming notable geographic features after saints that were honored on the Catholic Church’s calendar. When they weighed anchor at what today is [[Porto Alexandre, Angola]], Dias left the supply ship behind so that it could re-provision them later, on their return voyage. By December, Dias had passed the farthest point reached by Cão, and on 8 December 1487 he arrived at the Golfo da Conceição (modern-day [[Walvis Bay]], [[Namibia]]). After making slow progress along the Namibian coast, the two ships turned southwest, away from land. Historians have debated whether this happened because they were driven offshore by a storm or because they were deliberately trying to find more favorable winds. Whatever its cause, the change of course brought them success: the ships traced a broad arc around the tip of Africa and, on 4 February 1488, after 30 days on the open ocean, they reached the continent’s southern cape and entered what would later become known as [[Mossel Bay]].<ref>Ravenstein 1900, pp. 644–645</ref>

The ships continued east for a time and confirmed that the coast gradually trended to the northeast. Dias realized that they had accomplished Portugal's long-sought goal: they had rounded the southern cape of Africa. Dias's expedition reached its furthest point on 12 March 1488, when it anchored at [[Kwaaihoek]], near the mouth of the [[Boesmans River (Eastern Cape)|Boesmans River]]—where they erected the Padrão de São Gregório. By then, the crew had become restless and was urging Dias to turn around. Supplies were low and the ships were battered. Although Dias wanted to continue, the rest of the officers unanimously favored returning to Portugal, so he agreed to turn back. On their return voyage, they sailed close enough to Africa’s southwestern coast to encounter the [[Cape of Good Hope]] for the first time in May 1488. Tradition has it that Dias originally named it the Cape of Storms (''Cabo das Tormentas'') and that King John II later renamed it the Cape of Good Hope (''Cabo da Boa Esperança'') because it symbolized the opening of a sea route from west to east.<ref>Ravenstein 1900, pp. 644–645</ref><ref>Crowley 2015, pp. 21–23</ref>

At the cape, Dias erected the last of their padrãos and then headed northward. They reached their supply ship in July, after nine months of absence, and found that six of that ship’s nine crewmen had died in skirmishes with the natives. The vessel had become rotten with worms, so they unloaded the supplies they needed from it, and burnt it on the beach. Few details are known about the remainder of the voyage. The ships made stops at [[Príncipe]], the Rio do Resgate (in present-day Liberia), and the Portuguese trading post of [[São Jorge da Mina]]. Dias returned to Lisbon in December 1488, after an absence of 16 months.<ref>Ravenstein 1900, p. 648</ref><ref>Crowley 2015, pp. 21–23</ref>

The Dias expedition had explored a thousand more miles of the African coastline than previous expeditions had reached; it had rounded the southern tip of the continent, and it had demonstrated that the most effective southward ship route lay in the open ocean well to the west of the African coast-a route that would be followed by generations of Portuguese sailors. Despite these successes, Dias' reception at court was muted. There were no official proclamations, and, at the time, Dias received little in recognition of his accomplishments.<ref>Crowley 2015, p. 24</ref>

==Later years==
Dias was later ennobled for his accomplishments, and by 1494 he was serving as a squire in the court of King John II. He also served as superintendent of the royal warehouses from 1494 to 1497.<ref>Dutra 2007</ref>

Following Dias’s return from his successful first voyage around Africa’s southern cape, Portugual took a decade-long break from Indian Ocean exploration. King John was beset by numerous problems, including the death of his only son, a war in Morocco, and his own failing health. It was not until 1497 that another voyage was commissioned and Dias was asked to provide assistance.<ref>Crowley 2015, p. 26</ref> Drawing on his experience with maritime exploration, Dias contributed to the design and construction of the ''[[São Gabriel (ship)|São Gabriel]]'' and its sister ship the ''São Rafael''. These were two of the ships that [[Vasco da Gama]] used to sail around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and continue to India. Dias participated in the first half of da Gama’s voyage but stayed behind after reaching the [[Cape Verde Islands]].<ref>Livermore 2021</ref> Two years later he was one of the captains of the [[2nd Portuguese India Armada (Cabral, 1500)|second Indian expedition]], headed by [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]]. This flotilla was the first to reach [[Brazil]], landing there on 22 April 1500 before continuing east to India. Dias perished in May 1500 when captaining a ship near the [[Cape of Good Hope]]: four ships, including Dias’s, encountered a huge storm off the cape and were lost on 29 May.<ref>Livermore 2021</ref>

==Personal life==
Dias was married and had two sons, Simão Dias de Novais and António Dias de Novais.<ref>Ravenstein 2010, p. 1</ref> His grandson [[Paulo Dias de Novais]] became the first governor of [[Portuguese Angola]] and, in 1576, the founder of [[São Paulo de Luanda]].<ref>Livermore 2021</ref>

== Legacy==
The Portuguese government erected two navigational beacons, '''Dias Cross''' and '''da Gama Cross''', to commemorate Dias and [[Vasco da Gama]], who were the first modern European explorers to reach the Cape of Good Hope. When lined up, these crosses point to [[Whittle Rock]] , a large, permanently submerged shipping hazard in [[False Bay]].

==See also==
* [[Dias Cross Memorial]]
* [[Diogo Cão]]
* [[Diogo Dias]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Gordon |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Renaissance |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003}}
*{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Roger |title=Conquerors : How Portugal Forged the First Global Empire |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-8129-9400-1 |edition=First |location=New York |oclc=904967943}}
*{{Cite book |last=Dutra |first=Francis A. |title=The Oxford Companion to World Exploration |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |chapter=Dias, Bartholomew}}
*{{cite encyclopedia| editor-last = Howgego| editor-first = Raymond John| encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Exploration to 1800| title = Dias, Bartolomeu| year = 2003| publisher = Hordern House |isbn=1875567364}}
*{{Cite web|last=Livermore|first=Harold V.|date=2021|title=Bartolomeu Dias|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bartolomeu-Dias|url-status=live|access-date=4 May 2021|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}
*{{Cite book |title=Medieval Iberia : an encyclopedia |date=2003 |publisher=Routledge |editor-last=Gerli |editor-first=E. Michael |chapter=Dias, Bartolomeu |last=Oakley |first=Robert |isbn=0-415-93918-6 |location=New York |oclc=50404104}}
*{{Cite book |last=Ravenstein |first=Ernst Georg |title=Bartolomeu Dias |date=2010 |others=William Brooks Greenlee, Pero Vaz de Caminha |isbn=978-1-906421-03-8 |location=England |publisher=Viartis |oclc=501399584}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Ravenstein|first=E. G.|date=1900|title=The Voyages of Diogo Cão and Bartholomeu Dias, 1482–88|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1775267|journal=The Geographical Journal|volume=16|issue=6|pages=625–655|doi=10.2307/1775267|issn=0016-7398|hdl=2027/mdp.39015050934820|hdl-access=free}}

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline|Bartolomeu Dias}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Diaz de Novaes, Bartholomeu |volume= 8 |last= Beazley |first= Charles Raymond |author-link= Charles Raymond Beazley | page = 172 |short= 1 }}
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04775b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]

{{Portuguese explorers|state=expanded}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dias, Bartolomeu}}
[[Category:1450s births]]
[[Category:1500 deaths]]
[[Category:15th-century explorers of Africa]]
[[Category:Maritime history of South Africa]]
[[Category:Portuguese explorers]]
[[Category:Portuguese Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Maritime history of Portugal]]
[[Category:15th-century Portuguese people]]
[[Category:South African explorers]]

Calque

2023-09-01T13:09:15Z

Amanyn: Correction from Wōđanaz to Wōðanaz

{{Short description|Loaned translation of an expression}}
{{Distinguish|literal translation|claque}}
{{Wiktionary|calque}}

In [[linguistics]], a '''calque''' ({{IPAc-en|k|æ|l|k}}) or '''loan translation''' is a [[word]] or [[phrase]] borrowed from another [[language]] by [[literal translation|literal]] word-for-word or root-for-root [[translation]]. When used as a [[verb]], "to calque" means to borrow a word or phrase from another language while translating its components, so as to create a new [[lexeme]] in the target language. For instance, the English word "skyscraper" has been calqued in dozens of other languages,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gachelin |first=Jean-Marc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWh_Vizvm-oC&pg=PA97 |title=Lexique-grammaire, domaine anglais |publisher=Université de Saint-Etienne |year=1986 |isbn=978-2-901559-14-6 |pages=97}}</ref> combining words for "sky" and "scrape" in each language. Another notable example is the Latin weekday names, which came to be associated by ancient Germanic speakers with their own gods following a practice known as ''{{Lang|la|[[interpretatio germanica]]}}'': the Latin "Day of [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]]", ''{{Lang|la|Mercurii dies}}'' (later ''{{Lang|fr|mercredi}}'' in modern [[French language|French]]), was borrowed into [[Late Proto-Germanic]] as the "Day of [[Wōđanaz|Wōðanaz]]" (*''Wodanesdag''), which became ''{{Lang|ang|Wōdnesdæg}}'' in [[Old English]], then "Wednesday" in Modern English.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Simek|first=Rudolf|title=Dictionary of northern mythology|publisher=D.S. Brewer|year=1993|isbn=0-85991-369-4|pages=371}}</ref>

The term ''calque'' itself is a [[loanword]] from the French [[noun]] {{wikt-lang|fr|calque}} ("tracing, imitation, close copy"), while the word ''loanword'' is a calque of the [[German language|German]] noun ''{{Lang|de|Lehnwort}}''.<ref>Knapp, Robbin D. 27 January 2011. "[http://germanenglishwords.com/ Robb: German English Words]." ''Robb: Human Languages''.</ref> Calquing is distinct from [[phono-semantic matching]]: while calquing includes [[semantic]] translation, it does not consist of [[phonetic]] matching—i.e., of retaining the approximate [[sound]] of the borrowed word by matching it with a similar-sounding pre-existing word or [[morpheme]] in the target language.<ref name="palgrave.com">{{cite book|last=Zuckermann|first=Ghil'ad|url=http://www.palgrave.com/br/book/9781403917232|title=Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2003|isbn=1-4039-1723-X|author-link=Ghil'ad Zuckermann}}</ref>

Proving that a word is a calque sometimes requires more documentation than does an untranslated loanword because, in some cases, a similar phrase might have arisen in both languages independently. This is less likely to be the case when the grammar of the proposed calque is quite different from that of the borrowing language, or when the calque contains less obvious imagery.

== Types ==
One system classifies calques into five groups. This terminology is not universal.<ref>Smith, May. ''The Influence of French on Eighteenth-century Literary Russian''. pp. 29–30.</ref>
* ''Phraseological calques'': [[idiom|idiomatic phrase]]s are translated word for word. For example, "[[:wiktionary:go without saying|it goes without saying]]" calques the French {{lang|fr|ça va sans dire}}.<ref>[[Henry Watson Fowler|Fowler, H. W.]] [1908] 1999. "[http://www.bartleby.com/116/105.html Vocabulary § Foreign Words]." chap. 1 in ''The King's English'' (2nd ed.). New York: [[Bartleby.com|Bartelby.com]].</ref>
* ''Syntactic calques'': [[syntactic function]]s or constructions of the source language are imitated in the target language, in violation of their meaning. For example, the use of "by" instead of "with" in the phrase "fine by me" is thought to have come from Yiddish {{transliteration|yi|bei}}, namely from the 1930s Yiddish Broadway musical song title {{lang|yi|rtl=yes|בײַ מיר ביסטו שיין‬}} / {{transliteration|yi|Bei Mir Bistu Shein}} / {{literal translation|To Me You’re Beautiful}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://languagelore.net/2013/01/25/its-ok-by-me-as-a-syntactic-calque/|date=25 January 2013|title=“It’s OK by Me” as a Syntactic Calque|first=Michael|last=Shapiro|website=Language Lore}}</ref>
* ''Loan-translations'': words are translated [[morpheme]] by morpheme, or component by component, into another language.
* ''Semantic calques'' (also known as ''[[semantic loan]]s''): additional meanings of the source word are transferred to the word with the same primary meaning in the target language. As described below, the "computer mouse" was named in English for its resemblance to the animal; many other languages have extended their own native word for "mouse" to include the computer mouse.
* ''Morphological calques'': the [[inflection]] of a word is transferred. Some authors call this a ''morpheme-by-morpheme translation''.<ref name="gilliot">Gilliot, Claude. "The Authorship of the Qur'ān." In ''The Qur'an in its Historical Context'', edited by [[Gabriel Said Reynolds|G. S. Reynolds]]. p. 97.</ref>

Some linguists refer to a ''phonological calque'', in which the pronunciation of a word is imitated in the other language.<ref name=":0">Yihua, Zhang, and Guo Qiping. 2010. "An Ideal Specialised Lexicography for Learners in China based on English-Chinese Specialised Dictionaries." Pp. 171–92 in ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vP2jibCnejQC&pg=PA1 Specialised Dictionaries for Learners]'', edited by P. A. F. Olivera. Berlin: de Gruyter. [https://books.google.com/books?id=vP2jibCnejQC&pg=PA187 p. 187]. {{ISBN|9783110231328}}</ref> For example, the English word "radar" becomes the similar-sounding Chinese word {{wikt-lang|zh|雷达}} ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|p=léidá}}),<ref name=":0" /> which literally means "to arrive (as fast) as thunder".

===Partial===
{{anchor|Partial calques}}
{{anchor|Loan blend}}
{{anchor|Loanblend}}
Partial calques, or loan blends, translate some parts of a compound but not others.<ref>Durkin, Philip. ''The Oxford Guide to Etymology''. § 5.1.4</ref> For example, the name of the Irish digital television service ''{{lang|ga|[[Saorview]]|italic=no}}'' is a partial calque of that of the UK service "[[Freeview (UK)|Freeview]]", translating the first half of the word from English to Irish but leaving the second half unchanged. Other examples include "[[liverwurst]]" (< German {{wikt-lang|de|Leberwurst}})<ref>{{Cite OED|liverwurst}}</ref> and "[[apple strudel]]" (< German {{wikt-lang|de|Apfelstrudel}}).<ref>{{Cite OED|apple strudel}}</ref>

=== Semantic ===
The "[[computer mouse]]" was named in English for its resemblance to the [[mouse|animal]]. Many other languages use their word for "mouse" for the "computer mouse", sometimes using a [[diminutive]] or, in [[Chinese language|Chinese]], adding the word "[[Cursor (user interface)|cursor]]" ({{Lang|zh-Hani|标|italic=no}}), making {{Lang|cmn-latn|shǔbiāo}} "mouse cursor" ({{zh|t=鼠標 |s=鼠标 |p=shǔbiāo}}).{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}} At least 35 languages have their own versions of the English term.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}

== Examples ==
{{Main list|List of calques}}

The common English phrase "[[flea market]]" is a loan translation of the French {{wikt-lang|fr|marché aux puces}} ("market with fleas").<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite web |title=flea market |url=https://www.bartleby.com/ |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311115056/http://www.bartleby.com/61/77/F0177700.html |archivedate=March 11, 2007 |website=Bartleby}}</ref> At least 22 other languages calque the French expression directly or indirectly through another language.

Another example of a common morpheme-by-morpheme loan-translation is of the [[English language|English]] word "[[wikt:skyscraper|skyscraper]]", which may be calqued using the word for "sky" or "cloud" and the word, variously, for "scrape", "scratch", "pierce", "sweep", "kiss", etc. At least 54 languages have their own versions of the English word.

Some [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] and [[Slavic languages]] derived their words for "translation" from words meaning "carrying across" or "bringing across", calquing from the Latin {{lang|la|translātiō}} or {{lang|la|trādūcō}}.<ref>[[Christopher Kasparek]], "The Translator's Endless Toil", ''[[The Polish Review]]'', vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, p. 83.</ref>

== History ==

Since at least 1894, according to the {{Lang|fr|[[Trésor de la langue française informatisé]]|italic=no}}, the [[French (language)|French]] term ''calque'' has been used in its [[linguistic]] sense, namely in a publication by Louis Duvau:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Duvau |first1=Louis |title=Expressions hybrides |journal=Mémoires de la Société de linguistique de Paris |date=1894 |volume=8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/memoires7818soci/page/190/mode/2up?q=%22Un+autre+ph%C3%A9nom%C3%A8ne+d'hybridation%22 191] |location=Paris}}</ref>
{{Verse translation
|lang=fra
|Un autre phénomène d'hybridation est la création dans une langue d'un mot nouveau, dérivé ou composé à l'aide d'éléments existant déja dans cette langue, et ne se distinguant en rien par l'aspect extérieur des mots plus anciens, mais qui, en fait, n'est que le '''calque''' d'un mot existant dans la langue maternelle de celui qui s'essaye à un parler nouveau. [...] nous voulons rappeler seulement deux ou trois exemples de ces '''calques''' d'expressions, parmi les plus certains et les plus frappants.
|
Another phenomenon of hybridization is the creation in a language of a new word, derived or composed with the help of elements already existing in that language, and which is not distinguished in any way by the external aspect of the older words, but which, in fact, is only the '''copy''' (''calque'') of a word existing in the mother tongue of the one who tries out a new language. [...] we want to recall only two or three examples of these '''copies''' (''calques'') of expressions, among the most certain and the most striking.}}

Since at least 1926, the term ''calque'' has been attested in English through a publication by the linguist {{interlanguage link|Otakar Vočadlo|cs}}:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vočadlo |first1=Otakar |title=Slav Linguistic Purity and the Use of Foreign Words |journal=The Slavonic Review |date=1926 |volume=5 |issue=14 |page=353 |jstor=4202081}}</ref>

: [...] such imitative forms are called ''{{Lang|fr|calques}}'' (or ''{{Lang|fr|décalques}}'') by French [[Philology|philologists]], and this is a frequent method in coining abstract terminology, whether nouns or verbs.

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Anglicism]]
* [[Chinese Pidgin English]]
* [[Cognate]]
* [[Gallicism]]
* [[Germanism (linguistics)|Germanism]]
* [[Inkhorn term]]
* [[Loanword]]
* [[Metatypy]]
* [[Semantic loan]]
* [[Translation#Etymology|Translation]]
* [[Wasei-eigo]]
* [[Engrish]]{{div col end}}

== References ==
'''Notes'''
{{Reflist}}

'''Bibliography'''
* [[Christopher Kasparek|Kasparek, Christopher]]. 1983. "The Translator's Endless Toil." ''[[The Polish Review]]'' 28(2):83–87.
* [http://germanenglishwords.com/ Robb: German English Words]
* [[Ghil'ad Zuckermann|Zuckermann, Ghil'ad]]. 2003. ''[https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9781403938695 Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew]''. Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|1-4039-1723-X}}
* 2009. [http://www.zuckermann.org/pdf/Hybridity_versus_Revivability.pdf "Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns."] ''Journal of Language Contact'' (2):40–67.

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Wiktionary category|category=English calques}}
* [http://www.etymonline.com EtymOnline]
* [http://www.merriam-webster.com/ Merriam Webster Online]

{{Clear}}
{{Appropriation in the arts}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Etymology]]
[[Category:Calques| ]]

[[sv:Lånord#Översättninglån]]

The Valkyries

2023-06-30T22:30:34Z

Amanyn: Correction of the name of the author

{{Short description|Novel by Paulo Coelho}}
{{Infobox book
| name = The Valkyries
| title_orig = As Valkírias
| translator =
| image = The Valkyries.jpg
| caption = First edition (Brazil)
| author = [[Maniyan Seminary]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = [[Brazil]]
| language = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
| series =
| genre = Love, Mystery, Spiritual
| publisher =
| release_date = 1992
| english_release_date =
| media_type =
| pages =
| isbn =
| oclc =
| preceded_by = Brida
| followed_by = By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept
}}

'''''The Valkyries''''' ({{lang-pt|As Valkírias}}; {{ISBN|978-0062513342}}) is a 1992 [[novel]] by [[Paulo Coelho]].

''The Valkyries'' is a spiritual fictional novel written by Paulo Coelho. It was first published on 1 January 1988.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Coehlho |first=Paulo |date=25 December 2022 |title=The Valkyries on Goodreads |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1425.The_Valkyries}}</ref>

==Plot summary==
The book is written as a [[third-person narrative]] describing how Paulo and his wife embark on a 40 day journey through the [[Mojave Desert]]. There they meet the valkyries, a group of warrior women who travel on Pegasus.

At the beginning of the story, "J", Coelho's master in [[The Pilgrimage|RAM]], shows him a copy of the poem by [[Oscar Wilde|Wilde]] that says "we destroy what we love" and this theme is central to the story.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Paulo Coelho}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Valkyries, The}}
[[Category:1992 Brazilian novels]]
[[Category:Novels by Paulo Coelho]]
[[Category:Brazilian autobiographical novels]]
[[Category:Novels set in deserts]]
[[Category:Portuguese-language novels]]

{{Brazil-lit-stub}}
{{1990s-autobio-novel-stub}}