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<div>{{short description|Public school in Worcestershire, England}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=December 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox school<br />
| name = Bromsgrove School<br />
| image = Bromsgrove_School_Crest_of_Arms.png<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|52.328611|-2.063333|type:edu_region:GB_dim:100|format=dec|display=inline,title}}<br />
| pushpin_map = Worcestershire#England#UK<br />
| motto = Deo, regi, vicino<br />([[Latin]]: "For God, for King, for Neighbour")<br />
| established = 1553 (established)<br />1476 (first recorded)<br />
| closed = <br />
| type = [[Public school (United Kingdom)|Public school]] <br /> [[Independent school|Independent]]<br />[[day school|day]] and [[boarding school]]<br />[[Coeducational|Coeducational school]]<br />
| religion = [[Church of England]]<br />
| president = <br />
| head_label = Headmaster<br />
| head = Michael E. Punt M.A. (Oxon) MSc<br />
| chair_label = Chairman of the Governors<br />
| chair = Michael Luckman<br />
| r_head_label = Chaplain<br />
| r_head = Paul Hedworth.<br />
| founder = Sir [[Sir Thomas Cookes, 2nd Baronet|Thomas Cookes]]<br />
| specialist = <br />
| address = Worcester Road<br />
| city = [[Bromsgrove]]<br />
| county = [[Worcestershire]]<br />
| country = England<br />
| postcode = B61 7DU<br />
| local_authority = [[Worcestershire County Council|Worcestershire]]<br />
| urn = 117012<br />
| ofsted = <br />
| staff = 599 (200 teaching staff)<br />
| enrolment = 2114<br />
| gender = [[Coeducational]]<br />
| lower_age = 2<br />
| upper_age = 18<br />
| houses = 13 (senior school)<br />4 (preparatory school)<br />3 (pre-preparatory)<br />
| colours = Maroon<br />
{{color box|Maroon}}<br />
| publication = <br />
| free_label_1 = Former pupils<br />
| free_1 = [http://www.bromsgrovians.com/ Old Bromsgrovians]<br />
| website = http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk<br />
| caption = Coat of arms of Bromsgrove School (arms of Cookes, with [[Red Hand of Ulster|inescutcheon of a baronet]])<br />
}}<br />
'''Bromsgrove School''' is a [[co-educational]] [[boarding school|boarding]] and [[day school|day]] school in the [[Worcestershire]] town of [[Bromsgrove]], England. Founded in 1553, it is one of the oldest [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public schools]] in Britain, and one of the 14 founding members of the [[Headmasters' Conference]].<br />
<br />
Bromsgrove School has both boarding and day students consisting of three schools, pre-prep nursery school (ages 2&ndash;7), preparatory school (ages 7&ndash;13) and the senior school (13&ndash;18). Bromsgrove charges up to £15,490 per term, with three terms per academic year.<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2019 |title=Fees |url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/fees.aspx |access-date=18 July 2024 |website=Bromsgrove School}}</ref> The school has a total of 200 teaching staff, with 2,114 pupils.<br />
<br />
Spread across 100 acres, the main campus is located in the heart of the town of [[Bromsgrove]]. However, Bromsgrove School has also expanded overseas, with an additional boarding school in Bangkok ([[Bromsgrove International School Thailand]]) and a new school within the Mission Hills complex in [[Shenzhen|Shenzhen, China]], [[Bromsgrove School Mission Hills]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://bromsgrove.mhis.education/en-us/campus.php|title=Campus and Facilities- Bromsgrove School Mission Hills|website=bromsgrove.mhis.education|access-date=2019-01-05}}</ref><br />
<br />
The school's headmaster from September 2022 is Michael Punt, who was previously headmaster of Chigwell School.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School.jpg|thumb|Thomas Cookes House, founded by Sir Thomas Cookes in 1693, is the oldest building on the site]]<br />
The school was first recorded in 1476 as a [[chantry]] school and was re-established as a [[grammar school]] between 1548 and 1553. The 1693 [[financial endowment]] of [[Sir Thomas Cookes, 2nd Baronet]] (1648–1701) of [[Norgrove Court]] in Worcestershire, produced the first buildings on the present site and the historic link with [[Worcester College, Oxford]], which he founded. The arms of Cookes (''Argent, two chevronels between six martlets 3, 2 and 1 gules'') were adopted by both Worcester College and Bromsgrove School. [[John Day Collis]] became head-master in December 1842. The tercentenary of the grammar school was celebrated on 31 March 1853. In 1856, Collis had the chapel and new school rooms built, and existing buildings enlarged and improved. In 1869 Bromsgrove was one of the fourteen founding schools of the [[Headmasters' Conference]].<br />
<br />
=== Second World War ===<br />
During the [[Second World War]], the entire school was temporarily moved to [[Llanwrtyd Wells]] in [[Wales]], as the school buildings were requisitioned by [[British government]] departments for the war effort. Many former pupils and members of staff were killed during the [[World War II|Second World War]], and their names are commemorated at the war memorial of the town. In 2007, the school was granted the [[Freedom of the City|freedom]] of Llanwrtyd Wells.<ref>[http://www.bromsgroveadvertiser.co.uk/news/banewsroundup/display.var.1749580.0.unique_honour_for_town_school.php Unique Honour For Town School (from Bromsgrove Advertiser)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
=== Overseas ===<br />
In 2002, the school established [[Bromsgrove International School Thailand (BIST)]] in [[Thailand]]. Then, in 2016, the school opened Bromsgrove School Mission Hills, in Shenzhen, China.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
==Scandals==<br />
===Financial===<br />
{{Main|Independent school fee fixing scandal}}<br />
In 2005, the school was one of fifty of the country's independent schools which were found guilty of running an illegal price-fixing cartel, exposed by ''[[The Times]]'', which had allowed them to drive up fees for thousands of parents.<ref>Independent schools face huge fines over cartel to fix fees, The Times newspaper, 10 November 2005 [https://web.archive.org/web/20070310233300/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/education/article588559.ece (subscription site)] [http://www.pressmon.com/cgi-bin/press_view.cgi?id=991819 Alternative site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150608214028/http://www.pressmon.com/cgi-bin/press_view.cgi?id=991819 |date=8 June 2015 }}</ref> Each school was required to pay a nominal penalty of £10,000 and all agreed to make ex-gratia payments totalling £3 million into a trust designed to benefit pupils who attended the schools during the period in respect of which fee information was shared.<ref>[http://www.oft.gov.uk/news/press/2006/182-06 The Office of Fair Trading: OFT names further trustees as part of the independent schools settlement<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610055129/http://www.oft.gov.uk/news/press/2006/182-06 |date=10 June 2008 }}</ref><br />
<br />
===Abuse===<br />
Richard Knight, an Organist and assistant director of music at Bromsgrove School was jailed for two years in 2018 for having sex with two girls from Bromsgrove School on school property, as well as at his own home, inside his car and on the school's USA 2010 Chapel Music Tour.<br />
Judge Jeremy Baker QC, speaking at Worcester Crown Court on Friday, 23 November 2018, told Knight, 53, that the two victims had "particularly vulnerable" emotional backgrounds. "You knew that and that was why they were specifically targeted over and above other children at school", he said.<br />
The judge described Knight's behaviour as "predatory" and that there was a "significant degree of planning".<br />
Mr Knight, previously the conductor of Malvern Festival Chorus, had begun the second affair after the first one ended, and taught both pupils at the school. Knight had sex with one of the victims for the first time at her own home while her parents were out during Christmas Eve. The victim would often have to ride her bicycle to various pharmacists to get morning after pills. <br />
The court also heard evidence that Knight's wife had been a pupil of his at a school he worked at previously. They married in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worcesternews.co.uk/news/17255635.predatory-teacher-richard-knight-claims-fell-love-two-vulnerable-bromsgrove-school-pupils-sex/|title = 'Predatory' teacher claims he 'fell in love' with two vulnerable pupils he had sex with}}</ref><br />
<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/former-teacher-richard-knight-jailed-15457938|title = Former teacher jailed after 'sexual activity' with two pupils|date = 23 November 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Commemoration Day ==<br />
Commemoration Day (known colloquially as Commem) is the senior school's traditional end of year celebration. It is a special day for the school and especially for the upper sixth leavers. When Sir Thomas Cookes re-endowed the school in 1693, he enjoined that once a year a sermon should be preached to the scholars of the school in [[St John the Baptist Church, Bromsgrove|St John's Parish Church]]. It is this that the school commemorates as well as celebrating the end of the academic year with a prizegiving.<br />
<br />
Following a very small private ceremony in the Cookes Room celebrating the founder Sir Thomas Cookes, where the heads of school lay a wreath beneath a portrait of Cookes, the whole school (except the lower fourth) then proceeds to St John's Church for the commemoration service. Unusually the school does not have its own school song, however, [[Charles Villiers Stanford]]'s setting of [[Te Deum|Te Deum Laudamus]] in [[Services in B-flat major (Stanford)|B flat]] has been sung at the service since 1989, becoming an unofficial school song.<br />
<br />
After the church service everyone returns to school and takes their place in the speeches' marquee. The school and parents are addressed by the president of the school and the headmaster. Prizes are awarded to upper sixth leavers and other pupils.<br />
<br />
At 4.15pm the chapel bell begins to toll, calling the school to final call over. All the pupils line up in houses with their houseparents, housemothers and tutors on the parade ground between Kyteless and the chapel. Each house, beginning with school house (the senior house of the school), in turn then moves forward and every pupil shakes hands with their house staff, the heads of school and then the headmaster and his wife. The final ceremony is the lowering of the school flag by the heads of school who hand it to the deputy head who then hands it to the headmaster for safekeeping until the start of the next academic year.<br />
<br />
==Students==<br />
Bromsgrove School has boarding and day students and consists of three schools, pre-prep nursery school (ages 2&ndash;7), preparatory school (ages 7&ndash;13) and the senior school (13&ndash;18). The school has a total of 200 teaching staff, with 1,660 pupils, including 220 in the pre-preparatory school, 500 in the preparatory School and 940 in the senior school, of whom 60% are male and 40% female, 60% boarding and 40% day. As well as British students, there are more than three hundred from 49 different countries, especially [[Russia]], Germany, China and [[Hong Kong]].<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School 01.JPG|thumb|Main Worcester Road entrance]]<br />
<br />
The school website states that the pass rate at grades A* to C (exams at age 16) is 96%.<ref>{{citation |author=Isbi staff|url=http://www.isbi.com/isbi-viewschool/1536-Bromsgrove_School.html |title=Bromsgrove School, Worcestershire |publisher=[Which School Ltd.] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090403191647/http://www.isbi.com/isbi-viewschool/1536-Bromsgrove_School.html |archive-date=3 April 2009}}</ref> Bromsgrove also started teaching the [[International Baccalaureate Diploma]] (IB) in 2009, with sixth form students having the choice between IB, BTEC and A-Levels. The rugby match against [[King Edward's School, Birmingham]], that has been played annually since 1875,<ref>Bromsgrove & KES Birmingham.<br />
*Thomas Winter Hutton, ''King Edward's School, Birmingham, 1552-1952'', Blackwell, 1952. p. 148 "The first Bromsgrove game was in 1875, and 121 games have been played—two in a season at one period."<br />
*Henry Icely, ''Bromsgrove School through four centuries'', Blackwell, 1953. pp. 69,99. "Rugby football, hitherto an unregulated and unsatisfactory game, was by 1875 a far better occupation for October half-holidays than wooding." "In the seventies the Rugby game was still twelve a side. There were School matches. KES, Birmingham, was an early fixture; [[St Edward's School, Oxford|SES, Oxford]], was played for the first time in 1882."</ref> is thought to be the [[Oldest football competitions|oldest continuous rugby fixture]] between two schools in England.<ref>{{Citation|author=School staff |url=http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/senior_school/senior_sports/senior_sports_rugby.htm |title=Senior School Sports Rugby |publisher=Bromsgrove School |access-date=7 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121111341/http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/senior_school/senior_sports/senior_sports_rugby.htm |archive-date=21 November 2008}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Heads of school and monitors ==<br />
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2022}}<br />
Similar to most [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public schools]] in Britain and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], Bromsgrove has a system of school leaders known as monitors. As representatives of the school, monitors' jobs are mostly based around keeping the school running at its best level of quality and tradition, with chapel and lunch duties being an example of this. Pupils who belong to any of these categories, in addition to other leadership roles, are entitled to a certain set of privileges, such as monitor ties, brown shoes, and waistcoats/cardigans.<br />
<br />
In addition to the monitors, Bromsgrove has a set of [[Prefect#Academic|heads of school]] featuring a [[Head girl and head boy|head boy and girl]], and their respective deputies.<br />
<br />
Monitors and heads of school are chosen towards the end of their penultimate lower sixth year; the decision is made from a combination of both a student poll and teacher vote.<br />
<br />
== Academic results ==<br />
57% of Bromsgrove School students achieved A*/A for the 2019 A Levels examination while 64% of students obtained A*/A for the 2019 GCSE examination.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-05|title=Bromsgrove School Guide: Reviews Rankings, Fees and More|url=https://britannia-study.com.my/uk-boarding-school/bromsgrove-school|access-date=2020-12-22|website=Britannia StudyLink Malaysia: UK Study Expert|language=en-GB}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Houses==<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School 03.JPG|thumb|North Gate entrance, with the Dining Hall seen behind to the right]]<br />
The preparatory school houses of Boulton ([[Matthew Boulton]]), Darby ([[Abraham Darby I|Abraham Darby]]), Telford ([[Thomas Telford]]), Watt ([[James Watt]]), were named after famous British industrialists.<br /><br />
The houses were renamed in 2020 Cedar, Rowan, Ash, Willow, Sycamore and Beech after species of trees. The change was made to avoid links to those involved with the slave trade or child labour.<br /><br />
[[File:Perry Hall, Home of A.E. Housman.jpg|thumb|Housman Hall, one of the school's senior boarding houses, was formerly the home of poet [[A. E. Housman]]]]<br />
The senior school is divided into thirteen houses; six for boys, five for girls and two mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Boarding houses ===<br />
Mary Windsor, named after the daughter of Thomas Hickman-Windsor, 1st Earl of Plymouth and his wife Anne Savile, is for girl boarders. In 2012, Mary Windsor was moved into a new building as part of the developments around the south gate.<br />
<br />
Oakley House is the largest house, home to both boarding and day girls. It is situated alongside Mary Windsor and Elmshurst, in the newly developed area by the South Gate.<br />
<br />
Housman Hall for sixth form girls and boys was opened in 2005, after the school bought the [[Ramada]] Perry Hall Hotel for £3 million. The building was formerly the home of [[Alfred Edward Housman|A. E. Housman]], an old Bromsgrovian, and was expanded in 2009 into the neighbouring building, subsequently named after Housman. During an opening ceremony in 2014, Housman Hall was reopened after the school had completed a refurbishment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/schoolnews/official-re-opening-of-housman-hall-/241.aspx|title=Official Re-Opening of Housman Hall|website=bromsgrove-school.co.uk|access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref><br />
<br />
Elmshurst is also for boy boarders and was named after the original house that was located at 17 New Road. Elmshurst was sold in the mid-1970s and the students relocated within the school campus to the current building, which was refurbished in 2018.<br />
<br />
Webber House, while still classed as an autonomous annex of Wedron-Gordon House, is the newest boarding house at Bromsgrove School, catering to Sixth Form boarders.<br />
<br />
=== Day Houses ===<br />
Lupton, named after Lupton House, in [[Sedbergh School]], and Lyttelton, named after the school's links with [[Baron Lyttelton]], a local lord, are houses for day boys, located in the centre of the campus. Walters, named after the school's wartime headmaster, is also a boys' day house.<br />
<br />
Thomas Cookes and Hazeldene are two girls' day houses that are situated in the original and oldest building on the school's site.<br />
<br />
School House is the senior house of the school, and often considered the most prestigious. After beginning as a boarding house, School is now a boys day house situated in the west wing of the Wendron-Gordon building. It consistently ranks as one of the most academically able houses, winning multiple prizes in academics and debating. It leads the final call over during the end of year Commemoration Day ceremony.<br />
<br />
Ottilie Hild is the newest girls' day house, overlooking Gordon Green and opened in September 2020.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!House<br />
!Abbr.<br />
!Gender<br />
!Type<br />
!Colours<br />
|-<br />
|Elmshurst<br />
|E<br />
|Boys<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Darkblue}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Hazeldene<br />
|Hz<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Lightblue}}<br />
|-<br />
|Housman Hall<br />
|HH<br />
|Mixed<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Black}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Lupton<br />
|Lu<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Red}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Lyttleton<br />
|Ly<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Purple}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Mary Windsor<br />
|MW<br />
|Girls<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Maroon}} {{Colour box|Black}}<br />
|-<br />
|Oakley<br />
|O<br />
|Girls<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Darkgreen}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Ottilie Hild<br />
|OH<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|{{Colour box|#B62419}} {{Colour box|#F5E6C9}}<br />
|-<br />
|School<br />
|S<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Skyblue}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Thomas Cookes<br />
|TC<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Yellow}}<br />
|-<br />
|Walters<br />
|Ws<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Black}} {{color box|Gold}} {{Color box|Silver||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Wendron-Gordon<br />
|WG<br />
|Boys<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Green}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== School terms ==<br />
There are three academic terms in the year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/term-dates|title=Term Dates|website=bromsgrove-school.co.uk|access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref><br />
<br />
* The [[Michaelmas]] term, from early September to mid December. New pupils are now admitted only at the start of the Michaelmas, unless in exceptional circumstances.<br />
* The [[Lent]] term, from early January to late March.<br />
* The Summer term, from late April to late June or early July.<br />
<br />
Within each term, there is a break known as a [[half term]], in which all pupils return home.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}<br />
<br />
== Headmasters==<br />
The headmasters of the school:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrovians.com/frmContextPage.aspx?S=e4282ow|title=Bromsgrovians Connected|website=bromsgrovians.com|access-date=2018-03-13}}</ref><br />
{{Columns-list|colwidth=18em|<br />
*2022-present Michael Punt<br />
*2014–2022 Peter Clague<br />
*2004–2014 Christopher Edwards<br />
*1986–2004 Timothy Taylor<br />
*1970–1985 Nick Earle<br />
*1953–1970 Lionel Carey<br />
*1931–1953 David Walters<br />
*1912–1931 Robert G Routh<br />
*1901–1912 Frederick Hendy<br />
*1873–1901 Herbert Millington<br />
*1867–1873 George Blore<br />
*1842–1867 [[John Day Collis]]<br />
*1832–1842 George Jacob<br />
*1819–1832 John Topham<br />
*1817–1819 no headmaster<br />
*1816 Thomas Davies (sent to Fleet Prison)<br />
*1813–1816 no headmaster<br />
*1812 Joseph Fell (writing master)<br />
*1810–1812 no headmaster<br />
*1804–1810 Hugh Price<br />
*1799–1804 Jeremiah Roberts<br />
*1788–1799 Charles Shipley<br />
*1776–1788 John Best<br />
*1756–1776 John Bennett<br />
*1735–1756 Charles Wilmott<br />
*1721–1735 Thomas Wilmott<br />
*1693–1721 John Barney<br />
*1690–1693 Robert Durant<br />
*1687–1690 Samuel Lloyd<br />
*1679–1687 John Barney<br />
*1678–1679 Samuel Lloyd<br />
*1667–1678 James Orton<br />
*1665–1667 no headmaster<br />
*1664–1665 William Broughton<br />
*1650–1664 William Suthwell<br />
*1643–1650 William Spicer<br />
*1625–1643 John Crumpe<br />
*1622–1625 James Purcell<br />
*1616–1622 Thomas Flavell<br />
*1611–1616 William Binion<br />
*1606–1611 Henry Duggard<br />
*1597–1606 Humphrey Roe<br />
*1577–1597 Arnold Hancox<br />
*1562–1577 Robert Kymberley<br />
*1558–1562 Thomas Palmer<br />
*1545–1558 William Foonys<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Old Bromsgrovians==<br />
<br />
{{See also|Category:People educated at Bromsgrove School}}<br />
<br />
Notable Old Bromsgrovians include five Victoria Cross recipients and [[A. E. Housman]]. In business and politics, [[Digby Jones]] and [[Michael Heseltine]] were both educated at Bromsgrove, as were actors [[Ian Carmichael]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2010/feb/06/ian-carmichael-obituary|title=Ian Carmichael obituary|last=Barker|first=Dennis|date=2010-02-06|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-09-24|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> [[Richard Wattis]] (of ''[[Hancock's Half Hour]], [[Sykes (TV series)|Sykes]], [[Father Dear Father]]''), [[Trevor Eve]] (of [[Shoestring (TV series)|''Shoestring'']]), [[Nick Miles]] (of ''[[Emmerdale]]'') and [[Arthur Darvill]] (of ''[[Doctor Who]]''). The author [[Nicholas Evans]] who wrote ''[[The Horse Whisperer (book)|The Horse Whisperer]]'' and journalist [[Chris Atkins (journalist)|Chris Atkins]] were educated at Bromsgrove. More recently, [[Iskra Lawrence]] (an English model, global role model and brand ambassador) attended the School.<br />
<br />
In music, composer [[Isaiah Burnell]] was director of music from 1907 for 25 years. [[John Illsley]], of the band [[Dire Straits]], [[Guillemots (band)|Guillemots]] member [[Fyfe Dangerfield]], [[Ritchie Neville]] of boy band Five and jazz saxophonist [[Soweto Kinch]] attended the school.<br />
<br />
The school continues to produce leading sportsman – [[Matt Neal]] attended during the 1980s, and [[Andy Goode]] was part of the drive by the school to welcome more leading rugby players to the school. Bromsgrove continues to educate many England national sportsmen including [[Ben Foden]] and [[Matt Mullan]] who have played [[Rugby union]] for England.<br />
<br />
Others include [[Peter Spence]], an English journalist and writer who wrote the British sitcom ''[[To the Manor Born]]'' and Admiral [[Ben Key (Royal Navy officer)|Sir Ben Key]] KCB, CBE, ADC, who is a senior naval officer; and has served as First Sea Lord since November 2021.<br />
<br />
Rear-Admiral [[David Haslam (Royal Navy officer)|Sir David William Haslam]] (1923–2009) was educated at Bromsgrove School; he returned as a governor and lived opposite the school in Worcester Road until his death.<br />
<br />
===Medals for gallantry===<br />
Five Old Bromsgrovians are known to have received the [[Victoria Cross]]:<ref>Lovell, Nicholas (1996). ''V.C.s of Bromsgrove School: The Stories of Five Victoria Crosses Won by Old Bromsgrovians''. Bromsgrove: Bromsgrove School Enterprises. {{ISBN|0-9521362-3-6}}</ref><br />
<br />
*[[George White (British Army officer)|Sir George White]] (1835–1912), [[Commander-in-Chief, India]], 1893–1899, [[Governor of Gibraltar]] 1900–1904<br />
*[[Percy Thompson Dean]] (1877–1939)<br />
*[[Eustace Jotham]] (1884–1915)<br />
*[[Frank Bernard Wearne]] (1894–1917)<br />
*[[Nigel Gray Leakey]] (1913–1941)<br />
<br />
One old Bromsgrovian, [[Oliver Bryson]], is known to have received the [[George Cross]],<ref>Ashcroft, Michael (2010). ''George Cross Heroes''. London: Headline Review. p. 365. {{ISBN|978-0-7553-6082-6}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of the oldest schools in the United Kingdom]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk Bromsgrove School Website]<br />
* [http://www.bromsgrovians.com/ Bromsgrove School Alumni Website]<br />
* [http://www.roll-of-honour.com/Databases/BromsgroveSchool Bromsgrove School OB's who died in three wars]<br />
* [http://maps.google.co.uk/maps/ms?ie=UTF8&hl=en&msa=0&msid=111399239993506295079.0000011233e6f70ebff75&z=16 Map of Bromsgrove School Grounds]<br />
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{{Schools in Worcestershire}}<br />
{{Public schools in England}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 1550s]]<br />
[[Category:Private schools in Worcestershire]]<br />
[[Category:1553 establishments in England]]<br />
[[Category:People educated at Bromsgrove School| ]]<br />
[[Category:Member schools of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference]]<br />
[[Category:Boarding schools in Worcestershire]]<br />
[[Category:Bromsgrove]]<br />
[[Category:International Baccalaureate schools in England]]<br />
[[Category:Worcester College, Oxford]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_housing_in_the_United_Kingdom&diff=1241144141Public housing in the United Kingdom2024-08-19T15:41:22Z<p>AmgineIX: /* System build estates */ all of the red roads have been demolished</p>
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<div>{{short description|British government and local authority housing programmes}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=July 2017}}<br />
[[File:Golden Lane Estate - geograph.org.uk - 1404919.jpg|thumb|[[Golden Lane Estate]] (1955–1962), London]]<br />
[[File:Councilhousing01.jpg|thumb|Council houses at [[Hackenthorpe]], South Yorkshire]]<br />
'''Public housing in the United Kingdom''', also known as '''council housing''' or '''social housing''', provided the majority of rented accommodation until 2011, when the number of households in private rental housing surpassed the number in social housing. Dwellings built for public or social housing use are built by or for [[Municipality|local authorities]] and known as [[council house]]s. Since the 1980s non-profit [[housing association]]s became more important and subsequently the term "social housing" became widely used, as technically council housing only refers to housing owned by a local authority, though the terms are largely used interchangeably.<br />
<br />
Before 1865, housing for the poor was provided solely by the private sector. Council houses were then built on council estates, known as schemes in Scotland,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/heritage/marking-100-years-of-scotland-s-council-houses-1-5006388|title=Marking 100 years of Scotland's council houses|website=www.scotsman.com|date=18 September 2019 |language=en|access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref> where other amenities, like schools and shops, were often also provided. From the 1950s, blocks of [[Apartment|flat]]s and three-or-four-storey blocks of [[Apartment#Maisonette|maisonette]]s were widely built, alongside large developments of terraced housing, while the 1960s and to some degree the 1970s saw construction of many [[High-rise building|high-rise tower blocks]]. Flats and houses were also built in mixed estates.<br />
<br />
Council homes were built to supply uncrowded, well-built homes on [[secure tenancies]] at reasonable rents to primarily working-class people. Council housing in the mid-20th century included many large suburban council estates, featuring terraced and semi-detached houses, where other amenities like schools and shops were often also provided.{{sfn|Hollow|2011}} By the late 1970s, almost a third of UK households lived in social housing.<br />
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Since 1979 council housing stock has been sold to private occupiers under the [[Right to Buy]] legislation, and new social housing has mainly been developed and managed by [[housing association]]s. A substantial part of the UK population still lives in council housing; in 2010, about 17% of UK households.<!-- later figures welcome--> Approximately 55% of the country's social housing stock is owned by local authorities. Increasingly the stock is managed on a day-to-day basis by [[arms-length management organisation]]s rather than directly by the authority, and by [[housing association]]s.<ref>{{citation |last=Cowan |first=David |year=2009 |title=Trust, Distrust and Betrayal |journal=[[Modern Law Review]] |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=157–181 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2230.2009.00739.x |s2cid=146749217}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Public housing became needed to provide "[[homes fit for heroes]]" in 1919,{{sfn|UWE|2008|loc=Section 3 para. 1}}{{sfn|Hanley|2012|p=60}} then to enable [[slum clearance]]. Standards were set to ensure high-quality homes. [[Aneurin Bevan]], a Labour politician, passionately believed that council houses should be provided for all, while the Conservative politician [[Harold Macmillan]] saw council housing "as a stepping stone to home ownership".{{sfn|Hanley|2012|p=92}} The Conservative government of [[Margaret Thatcher]] introduced Right to Buy in 1979, with the millionth council house being sold within seven years. In time, the transfer of public housing stock to private ownership reached the point where councils had to rent back their own houses to house the homeless.{{sfn|Hanley|2012|pp=134,135}}<br />
<br />
===Before council housing===<br />
Even in the stable medieval model of landowner and peasant, where estate workers lived at the landowner's whim in a tied cottage, the aged and infirm needed provision from their former employer, the church or the state.{{sfn|de Pennington|2011}} <!-- could be more focussed --><br />
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====Almshouses====<br />
[[File:Dorset sherbone almshouses.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Almshouse]] at [[Sherborne]], Dorset]]<br />
The documented history of social housing in Britain starts with [[almshouse]]s, which were established from the 10th century, to provide a place of residence for "poor, old and distressed folk". The first recorded almshouse was founded in [[York]] by King [[King Æthelstan of England|Æthelstan]]; the oldest still in existence is the [[Hospital of St Cross|Hospital of St. Cross]] in [[Winchester]], dating to {{circa}} 1133.{{sfn|UWE|2008|loc=Section 7 para. 3}}<br />
<br />
====Workhouses====<br />
The public [[workhouse]] was the final fallback solution for the destitute.{{sfn|UWE|2008|loc=Section 7 para. 3}} Rural poverty had been greatly increased by the [[Inclosure Act]]s leaving many in need of assistance. This was divided into outside relief, or handouts to keep the family together, and inside relief, which meant submitting to the workhouse. The workhouse provided for two groups of people – the transient population roaming the country looking for seasonal work, and the long-term residents. The two were kept separate where possible. The long-term residents included single elderly men incapable of further labour, and young women with their children—often women who had been abandoned by their husbands, single mothers and servant-girls who had been dismissed from residential positions.{{sfn|de Pennington|2011}}<br />
<br />
====Migration to the city====<br />
The pressure for decent housing was increased by overcrowding in the large cities during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of the 19th century; many social commentators (such as [[Octavia Hill]]) reported on the squalor, sickness and immorality that arose. Some industrialists and independent organisations provided housing in [[Apartment building|tenement block]]s, while some philanthropist factory owners built entire villages for their workers, such as [[Saltaire]] (1853), [[Bournville]] (1879) and [[Port Sunlight]] (1888).{{sfn|UWE|2008|loc=Section 2.}}<br />
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===Council-built housing===<br />
[[File:Corporation Buildings, Farringdon Road.jpg|thumb|Corporation Buildings, Farringdon Road in 1865]]<br />
The [[City of London Corporation]] built [[tenement]]s in [[Farringdon Road]] in 1865,<ref>Tarn, J. N. (1973) ''Five Percent Philanthropy: An Account of Housing in Urban Areas Between 1840 and 1914'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press [https://books.google.com/books?id=yCQ9AAAAIAAJ&dq=st+martins+cottages+liverpool&pg=PA62 pp. 42, 61]</ref> but this was an isolated instance. The first council to build housing as an integrated policy was [[Liverpool City Council|Liverpool Corporation]],<ref>Beggs-Humphreys, M, Gregor, H and Humphreys, D (1959) ''The Industrial Revolution'', Oxford, Routledge [https://books.google.com/books?id=dRf_AQAAQBAJ&dq=Labouring+Classes+Dwelling+Houses+Act+%281866%29+Liverpool&pg=PA34 p.34]</ref> starting with St Martin's Cottages in Ashfield Street, [[Vauxhall, Liverpool|Vauxhall]], completed in 1869.<ref>{{cite web |title=St Martin's Cottages municipal housing, Silvester Street, Liverpool |publisher=RIBApix |url=https://www.architecture.com/image-library/RIBApix/image-information/poster/st-martins-cottages-municipal-housing-silvester-street-liverpool/posterid/RIBA88748.html}}</ref> The Corporation then built Victoria Square Dwellings, opened by Home Secretary Sir Richard Cross in 1885.<ref>{{cite web |title=Victoria Square municipal housing, Liverpool, prior to conversion |publisher=RIBApix |url=https://www.architecture.com/image-library/ribapix/image-information/poster/victoria-square-municipal-housing-liverpool-prior-to-conversion/posterid/RIBA88747.html}}</ref><br />
<br />
That year, a [[royal commission]] was held, as the state had taken an interest in housing and housing policy. This led to the [[Housing of the Working Classes Act 1890]] ([[53 & 54 Vict.]] c. 70),<ref>{{cite web|title=Housing of The Working Classes Act, 1890|url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1890/act/70/enacted/en/print |publisher=Government of Ireland|access-date=24 December 2015|year=1890|ref={{sfnRef|Housing of the Working Classes Act |1890}} }}</ref> which encouraged the London authority to improve the housing in their areas.{{sfn|UWE|2008}} It also gave them the power to acquire land and to build [[tenement]]s and houses (cottages). As a consequence, [[London County Council]] opened the [[Boundary Estate]] in 1900, a 'block dwelling estate' of tenements in [[Tower Hamlets]].{{sfn|Yelling|1995|p=167}} The Housing of the Working Classes Act 1900 extended these power to all local councils, which then began building tenements and houses.{{sfn|UWE|2008|loc=Section 2.}}{{sfn|Burnett|1986|p=184}}<br />
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===Homes fit for heroes – interwar policy===<br />
In 1912, [[Raymond Unwin]] published a pamphlet ''Nothing gained by Overcrowding''.{{sfn|Parkinson-Bailey|2000|p=153}} He worked on the influential Tudor Walters Report of 1918, which recommended housing in short terraces, spaced {{Convert|70|ft|m}} apart at a density of {{Convert|12|/acre|/ha}}. The [[First World War]] indirectly provided a new impetus, when the poor physical health and condition of many urban recruits to the [[British Army|army]] was noted with alarm. This led to a campaign under the slogan "Homes fit for heroes". In 1919, the Government first required councils to provide housing, built to the Tudor Walters standards, under the [[Housing, Town Planning, &c. Act 1919]] (Addison Act), helping them to do so through the provision of subsidies.{{sfn|UK Parliament- Acts|2015}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newcastleareas.wordpress.com/2019/08/11/100-years-exhibition-the-1919-act/|title=100 years exhibition – the 1919 Act|last=Geography|first=Kay's|date=11 August 2019|website=Newcastle residential areas|language=en|access-date=12 August 2019}}</ref> London County Council embraced these freedoms and planned eight 'cottage estates' in the peripheries of London: [[Becontree]], [[St Helier, London|St Helier]], [[Downham, London|Downham]] for example; seven further followed including [[Bellingham, London|Bellingham]]. Houses were built on green field land on the peripheries of the urban area. The war had caused house building costs to rise enormously: [[Ernest Simon, 1st Baron Simon of Wythenshawe|Sir Ernest Simon]] reported to the Manchester Housing Committee in 1910 that "houses that had cost £250 to build pre war were then costing £1,250, so the economic rent was 30/- a week but had to be let at 12/6d".<br />
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The provision of local authority housing varied throughout the UK; in the period 1919–39 67% of the houses built in Scotland were in the [[public sector]], compared to 26% in England.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scran.ac.uk/scotland/pdf/SP2_4Housing.pdf|title=URBAN HOUSING IN SCOTLAND 1840–1940|last=Knox|first=W.W.|website=SCRAN|publisher=Historic Environment Scotland|access-date=12 August 2019}}</ref><br />
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===LCC cottage estates===<br />
{{main|London County Council cottage estate}}<br />
{{LCC cottage estates}}<br />
{{anchor|Housing, &c. Act 1923}}<br />
{{Infobox UK legislation<br />
| short_title = Housing, &c. Act 1923<br />
| type = Act<br />
| parliament = Parliament of the United Kingdom<br />
| long_title = <br />
| year = 1923<br />
| citation = [[13 & 14 Geo. 5]]. c. 24<br />
| introduced_commons = <br />
| introduced_lords = <br />
| territorial_extent = <br />
| royal_assent = <br />
| commencement = <br />
| expiry_date = <br />
| repeal_date = <br />
| amends = <br />
| replaces = <br />
| amendments = <br />
| repealing_legislation = [[Housing (Consequential Provisions) Act 1985]]<br />
| related_legislation = <br />
| status = repealed<br />
| legislation_history = <br />
| theyworkforyou = <br />
| millbankhansard = <br />
| original_text = <br />
| revised_text = <br />
| use_new_UK-LEG = <br />
| UK-LEG_title = <br />
| collapsed = yes<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The Addison Act provided subsidies solely to local authorities and not to private builders. Many houses were built over the next few years in 'cottage estates'.{{sfn|Hollow|2011}} The '''Housing, &c. Act 1923''' ([[Nevil Chamberlain|Chamberlain Act]]) of 1923 stopped subsidies going to council houses but extended the subsidies to private builders. Following the line of the railways, predominantly private estates were built on cheap agricultural land; building houses that the professional classes with an income of £300–500 a year were able to afford. <!-- Cheadle Hume, Sale, Timperley --> These pattern-book houses, put up speculatively by companies such as [[George Wimpey|Wimpey]], [[Costain Group|Costain]], [[John Laing Group|Laing]] and [[Taylor Woodrow]], were mocked by [[Osbert Lancaster]] as "[[By-pass Variegated]]".{{sfn|Parkinson-Bailey|2000|p=154}} Large council estates following the line of the radial roads. <!--Kingsway, Princess Parkway, Withington, Chorlton cum Hardy--> This marked a further movement out of the city, first by the middle classes and then the blue-collar workers, leaving just the poorest layer of society living in the urban area.{{sfn|Parkinson-Bailey|2000|p=155}}<br />
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The first Labour government was returned in 1924. The [[Housing (Financial Provisions) Act 1924]] (Wheatley Act) restored subsidies to municipal housing but at a lower level, it failed to make any provision for lower paid, who were living in the worse conditions, and could not afford to pay the higher rents of the new houses, or travel to or from them to work. They continued in substandard housing circling the urban core; in Manchester, for example, this 'slum belt' was about half a mile wide.{{sfn|Parkinson-Bailey|2000|p=155}}<br />
<!-- this list need re-assessing<br />
Examples of these were built at the [[Downham Estate]] in London,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ideal-homes.org.uk/case-studies/downham-estate/2|title=Why the estate was needed – Case Studies |publisher=Ideal Homes}}</ref> [[Kates Hill]] in [[Dudley]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackcountrybugle.co.uk/News/How-1920146s-Dudley-honoured-Nurse-Cavell-2.htm|title=How 1920s Dudley honoured Nurse Cavell|work=Black Country Bugle}}</ref> [[Low Hill]] in [[Wolverhampton]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.geograph.org.uk/article/A-History-of-Council-Housing-in-Wolverhampton/3|title=A History of Council Housing in Wolverhampton|publisher=geograph.org.uk}}</ref> [[Weoley Castle]] in Birmingham<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brumagem.co.uk/ae_Weoley-area_Birmingham.htm|title=Profile: Weoley in Birmingham|publisher=brumagem.co.uk}}</ref> and [[Norris Green]] in Liverpool.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catalystmedia.org.uk/issues/nerve3/norris_green.htm|title=Nerve Articles – Issue 3|publisher=catalystmedia.org.uk}}</ref><br />
Blocks of flats were also built.<ref>[[Chris Roberts (author)|Chris Roberts]], Heavy Words Lightly Thrown: The Reason Behind Rhyme, Thorndike Press,2006 (ISBN 0-7862-8517-6)</ref> --><br />
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===Statutory slum clearance plans===<br />
{{main|Slum clearance in the United Kingdom}}<br />
While new council housing had been built, little had been done to resolve the problem of inner-city [[slum]]s, which could also be found in many smaller towns. This was to change with the [[Housing Act 1930]] ([[Arthur Greenwood|Greenwood]] Act), which required councils to prepare [[slum clearance]] plans, and some progress was made before the [[Second World War]] intervened.{{sfn|UK Parliament- Acts|2015}}{{sfn|Parkinson-Bailey|2000|p=155}}<br />
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===Post-war reconstruction phase===<br />
<!-- [[WP:NFCC]] violation: [[File:Quarry Hill Flats1.jpg|thumb|right|Built in the 1930s, and demolished in 1978, the Quarry Hill Flats, [[Quarry Hill, Leeds|Quarry Hill]], Leeds are a notable former example of council housing]] --><br />
[[File:Councilhousing03.jpg|thumb|right|Council housing in [[Rastrick]], [[Calderdale]], West Yorkshire]]<br />
During the Second World War almost four million British homes were [[The Blitz|destroyed or damaged]], and afterwards there was a major boom in council house construction.<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553483_27/United_Kingdom.html "United Kingdom" Section VII (History), J (World War II and Its Aftermath), J2 (Postwar Britain)], ''[[MSN Encarta]] Online Encyclopedia'', 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20091030190848/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553483_27/United_Kingdom.html Archived] 31 October 2009.</ref><!-- this ref only applies to the four million houses, not to the major boom. Still looking for that-- but that is a tertiary source--> The bomb damage from the war only worsened the condition of Britain's housing stock, which was in poor condition before its outbreak. Before the war many social housing projects, such as the [[Quarry Hill, Leeds|Quarry Hill Flats]] in [[Leeds]] were built. However, the bomb damage meant that much greater progress had to be made with [[slum clearance]] projects. In heavily bombed cities like London, [[Coventry]] and [[Kingston upon Hull]], the redevelopment schemes were often larger and more radical.<br />
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In the immediate post-war years, and well into the 1950s, council house provision was shaped by the [[New Towns Act 1946]] ([[9 & 10 Geo. 6]]. c. 68) and the [[Town and Country Planning Act 1947]]{{sfn|UK Parliament-New Towns|2015}} of the 1945–51 [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government. Simultaneously, this government introduced housing legislation that removed [[wikt:explicit|explicit]] references to housing for the working class and introduced the concept of "general needs" construction (i.e., that council housing should aim to fill the needs of a wide range of society). In particular, [[Aneurin Bevan]], the [[Secretary of State for Health|Minister for Health and Housing]], promoted a vision of new estates where "the working man, the doctor and the clergyman will live in close proximity to each other".{{sfn|Panagidis|Savva|2015}}<br />
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While a number of large cities tentatively erected their first high-rise developments (e.g., Aston Cross in [[Birmingham]], [[Churchill Gardens]] in [[Westminster]]), in England and [[Wales]] homes were typically [[semi-detached]] or in small [[Terraced house|terrace]]s. A three-bedroom semi-detached council house was typically built on a square grid {{convert|21|ft|m}} on the side, with a maximum density of houses of no more than {{Convert|12|/acre|/ha}}, that is to say around {{Convert|337|m2|sqyd}} per house. As a result, most houses had generous space around them. The [[new town]]s and many existing towns had countless estates built to this basic model. In [[Scotland]], the tradition of [[tenement]] living meant that most homes of this period were built in low-rise (3–4) storey blocks of [[Apartment|flat]]s.<br />
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For many working-class people, this housing model provided their first experience of private indoor toilets, private bathrooms and hot running water, as well as gardens and electric lighting. For [[Leasehold estate|tenants]] in England and Wales it also usually provided the first experience of private garden space (usually front and rear). The quality of these houses, and in particular the existence of small gardens in England and Wales, compared very favourably with social housing being built on the European continent in this period.{{according to whom|date=July 2024}}<br />
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===Focusing on a new urban vision===<br />
The 1951 [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government began to re-direct the building programme back from "general needs" towards "welfare accommodation for low income earners" The principal focus was on [[inner-city]] [[slum clearance]], completing the job that was started in the 1930s. <br />
[[Harold Macmillan#Housing Minister (1951–1954)|Harold Macmillan]]'s task, as Minister for Housing, was to deliver 300,000 houses a year. These were {{convert|700|sqft|m2}}, 20% smaller than a Tudor Walters Bevan house, usually built as a two-bedroom terrace called "The Peoples House".{{sfn|Hanley|2012|pp=88–93}} {{sfn|Gimson|2013}}<br />
From 1956, with the [[Housing Subsidy Act 1956]] the government subsidy was restricted to only new houses built to replace those removed by slum clearance, and more money was given to tower blocks higher than six stories.{{sfn|Hanley|2012|p=93}} With this subsidy, neighbourhoods throughout the country were demolished and rebuilt as mixed estates with low and high-rise building.{{sfn|UWE|2008|loc= Section 6.}}<br />
At the same time the rising influence of [[modernism|modernist]] architecture, the development of new cheaper construction techniques, such as [[system building]] (a form of [[prefabrication]]), and a growing desire by many towns and cities to retain population (and thus rental income and local rates) within their own boundaries (rather than "export" people to New Towns and "out of boundary" [[peripheral]] estates) led to this model being adopted; abandoned inner-city areas were demolished, and estates of high-rise apartments blocks proliferated on vacant sites.{{sfn|UWE|2008|loc= Section 6.}} Whole working class communities were scattered, and the tenants either relocated themselves to neighbouring overcrowded properties or became isolated away from friends in flats and houses, on estates without infrastructure or a bus-route.{{sfn|Hanley|2012|pp=68, 69, 71}}<br />
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[[Glasgow]] led the way and others followed. [[High-rise building|Tower block]]s became the preferred model. The councils visited Marseille and saw the results of [[Le Corbusier|Charles Édouard Jenneret]]'s (Le Corbusier's) vision.{{sfn|Hanley|2012|p=103}} The argument was advanced that more generously sized dwellings could be provided this way, that communities could be re-housed close to existing employment opportunities and there would be far less disruption to local [[shopping]] and [[leisure]] patterns. During the 1950s and 1960s, the number of high-rise dwellings rose significantly. In 1953, just 23% of public-sector approvals were for flats, with only 3% high-rise (defined as blocks of six stories or more). By 1966, however, high-rise housing accounted for 26% of all homes started.<ref>''The Five Giants: A Biography of the Welfare State'' by Nicholas Timmins.</ref> A National Dwelling and Housing Survey carried out in 1977 also found higher levels of housing satisfaction amongst owner occupiers than council housing tenants. The survey found that 90% of owner occupiers were "satisfied" or "very satisfied" with their accommodation and only 4% "dissatisfied" or "very dissatisfied", while for council tenants the equivalent figures were 74% and 14%, respectively.<ref>Labour and Inequality: A Fabian Study of Labour in Power, 1974–79 edited by Nick Bosanquet and Peter Townsend</ref><br />
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Subsequent research at the [[London School of Economics]] has tried to cast doubt on claims that only high rise developments could accommodate the population density required for these policies.<ref>R. Burdett, T. Travers, D. Czischke, P. Rode and B. Moser, ''Density and Urban Neighbourhoods in London: Summary Report'' (Enterprise [[LSE Cities]], 2004), pp. 13–14.</ref><br />
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The post-war governments considered the provision of as much new housing as possible to be a major part of post-war policy, and provided subsidies for local authorities to build such housing. The Conservatives competed with Labour for the popular vote over who could build more houses, abandoning Bevan's principle that numbers weren't enough – that the homes had to be spacious and well built, too.<br />
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The use of [[system building]] methods was later seen as possibly being a short-sighted, false economy, as many of the later houses are in a poor state of repair or have been demolished. On many estates, older council houses, with their largely superior build quality, have outlived them – more incredibly, they have even been outlasted by a large percentage of Edwardian and late Victorian private houses.{{sfn|Meek|2014|loc= page 3.}}<br />
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A number of types of system building used in flats have serious flaws. They were initially very popular with tenants due to their generous space standards, and with [[councillor]]s and housing officials due to their speed of construction<ref>Glendenning, Miles, and Muthesius, Stefan (1994), ''Tower Block: Modern Public Housing in England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland''.</ref> – but have suffered problems, especially poor protection from damp and weather ingress, as well as other design defects and poor management. Also, studies such as ''[[Family and Kinship in East London]]'' found that people moving to such estates lost their old social networks and failed to develop new ones.{{sfn|Meek|2014|loc= page 3}} As noted by one study:<br />
<br />
"There was, however, one way in which slum clearance rather than enhancing housing standards actually threatened to reduce them: the building by experimented prefabricated methods, of large impersonal estates of high-rise buildings, lacking many of the amenities common in similar developments on the continent."<ref>The Welfare State in Britain since 1945 by Rodney Lowe</ref><br />
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The last major push in council home provision was made under the Wilson government of 1964. The energetic Minister of Housing [[Richard Crossman]] accepted the truth that the provision rate was too slow and instructed authorities to exercise their compulsory purchase powers and construct large overspill estates. In [[Birmingham]] he forced the building of [[Castle Vale]] and the 15,590 dwelling [[Chelmsley Wood]] estate, [[Solihull]].{{sfn|Hanley|2012|p=29}}<ref name=cw-hist>{{cite web|title=History of Chelmsley Wood|url=http://www.solihull.gov.uk/Resident/Libraries/Local-family-history/localhistory/chelmsleywoodhistory|publisher=Metropolitan Borough of Solihull|access-date=14 January 2016}}</ref><br />
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===Right to buy===<br />
[[File:Dwellings completed in England 1946-2015.png|thumb|upright=1.8|Permanent dwellings completed in England by tenure type, showing the effect of the 1980 Housing Act in curtailing council house construction and reducing total new build numbers]]<br />
Laws restricted councils' investment in housing, preventing them subsidising it from local taxes, but more importantly, council tenants were given the [[Right to Buy]] in the [[Housing Act 1980]] offering a discount price on their council house. Proposed as policy by Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] and carried out under the remit of [[Secretary of State for the Environment]] [[Michael Heseltine]], the Right To Buy scheme allowed tenants to buy their home with a discount of 33–50% off the market value, depending on the time they had lived there.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/20/newsid_4017000/4017019.stm | work=BBC News | title=1979: Council tenants will have 'right to buy' | date=20 December 1979}}</ref> Councils were prevented from reinvesting the proceeds of these sales in new housing, and the total available stock, particularly of more desirable homes, declined.<br />
<br />
The policy resulted in a selective uptake, with middle-aged and married skilled workers with mature children being the most likely to purchase their homes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Kleinhans |first1=Reinout |last2=Van Ham |first2=Maarten |date=2013 |title=Lessons learned from the largest tenure-mix operation in the world : right to buy in the United Kingdom |url=https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/handle/10023/6629 |journal=Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=104 |hdl=10023/6629 |via=University of St. Andrews}}</ref> In effect, those in extreme poverty did not have the option to avail the offer, exacerbating the social and economic inequalities prevalent in the sector. Furthermore, the price of private increased due to the rent deregulation policies that were implemented simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Maclennan |first1=Duncan |last2=Gibb |first2=Kenneth |date=1990 |title=Housing Finance and Subsidies in Britain after a Decade of 'Thatcherism' |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43082865 |journal=Urban Studies |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=908 |doi=10.1080/00420989020080901 |jstor=43082865 |bibcode=1990UrbSt..27..905M |s2cid=154888469 |issn=0042-0980}}</ref> This made it increasingly difficult for those excluded from the policy to afford alternatives, leaving them with the least desirable residual sector of social housing. Over time, changes were made to the [[Right to Buy]] policy, especially for specific regions but overall, the policy reinforced the stigmatized position of public/social housing as a 'last resort', moving away from the previous welfare-statist ideals.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
The "right to buy" was popular with many former Labour voters and, although the Labour government of [[Tony Blair]] tightened the rules (reducing the maximum discount in areas of most housing need), it did not end the right-to-buy.<ref name=bbc-20150414>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14380936 |title=A history of social housing |last=Wheeler |first=Brian |work=BBC News |date=14 April 2015 |access-date=25 January 2019}}</ref> Labour did relax the policy forbidding reinvestment of sales proceeds.{{sfn|Allen|2009}}<br />
<br />
Following its election in 2015, the Conservative government has announced proposals to extend the Right to Buy to housing association tenants.<ref name=bbc-20150414/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.historyandpolicy.org/policy-papers/papers/the-right-to-buy-history-and-prospect|title=The Right to Buy: History and Prospect|last=Murie|first=Alan|date=11 November 2015 |publisher=History & Policy|access-date=5 July 2016}}</ref><!-- Poorly written- needs explanation of restriction --><br />
<br />
Social housing is being sold off under right to buy, new social housing is not being built to replace it and waiting lists for social housing have become very long, up to 18 years. Over a million people are on the social housing waiting list and a quarter of people on social housing waiting lists have been there for 5 years or more.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-44413766 More than a million on social housing waiting lists] ''[[BBC]]''</ref> The number of social homes is at a record low, over 100,000 households were on council waiting lists for over 10 years.<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/social-housing-uk-family-wait-homeless-shelter-accommodation-a8389926.html More than 100,000 families waiting more than a decade for social housing, figures show] ''[[The Independent]]''</ref> Council houses sold under right to buy are typically sold at half market value, some of the money from the sale has to go to the Treasury. Councils can replace only one in three of homes sold under right to buy.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/jun/11/councils-able-to-replace-one-third-homes-sold-under-right-to-buy Councils able to replace just one-third of homes sold under right to buy] ''[[The Guardian]]''</ref><br />
<br />
===Stock transfer===<br />
<!-- poorly written-- does not explain how not for profit associations were allowed to make a profit and become developers maybe look at Meek -- the references are shoddy but point in the right place even if the text doesn't--><br />
The Housing Acts of [[Housing Act 1985|1985]] and [[Housing Act 1988|1988]] facilitated the transfer of council housing to not-for-profit housing associations. The 1988 Act redefined housing associations as non-public bodies, permitting access to private finance, which was a strong motivation for transfer as public sector borrowing had been severely constrained. These housing associations were also the providers of most new public-sector housing. By 2003 36.5% of the social rented housing stock was held by housing associations.<ref name=jrf-20030910>{{cite report |url=https://www.jrf.org.uk/report/evolution-stock-transfer-housing-associations <!-- pdf: https://www.jrf.org.uk/file/36920/download?token=bE3LyB__&filetype=full-report --> |title=The evolution of stock transfer housing associations |author=Hal Pawson, Cathy Fancie |publisher=Joseph Rowntree Foundation |isbn=1-86134-545-3 |date=10 September 2003 |access-date=3 March 2017}}</ref> In some council areas [[referendum]]s on changing ownership were won by opponents of government policy, preventing transfers to housing associations.{{sfn|Meek|2014}}<br />
<br />
The [[City of Wakefield|Wakefield]] district council found itself unable to maintain its supply of council housing and transferred it all to a housing association, in 2004; this represented the second largest stock transfer in British history. Housing rented from the council accounted for about 28% of the district and around 40% of the actual city of Wakefield.{{sfn|Walker Morris|2005}}<br />
<!-- Other than Wakefield, districts that maintain large amounts of council housing include most [[inner London]] boroughs with [[Southwark]], [[London Borough of Hackney|Hackney]], [[London Borough of Islington|Islington]], [[London Borough of Camden|Camden]] and [[Lambeth]] having the highest proportions/amounts. Outside of London, examples include [[Barnsley]], [[Corby]], [[Easington (district)|Easington]], Hull, Leeds, Manchester, [[Nottingham]], Sheffield and Birmingham.--><br />
<br />
Many districts of the country have less than 10% of housing rented from the council; the national average stood at 14%.{{sfn|Meek|2014}}<br />
<br />
===Renewal and regeneration===<br />
On 16 May 1968, the problems associated with tower blocks were brought into sharp focus after the partial collapse of [[Ronan Point]], a system-built tower block in [[London Borough of Newham|Newham]], east London, as a consequence of a gas explosion. A similar incident caused significant damage to one side of a block in [[Manchester]].<br />
Although these incidents were due to a series of failures (not least being the illegal connection of gas cookers by unqualified friends of tenants{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}), subsequently all system-built tower blocks were usually built with "all electric" heating, to prevent the occurrence of such an explosion.<br />
<br />
The same year Manchester started the construction of the [[Hulme Crescents]]. Thirteen tower blocks connected by aerial walkways and the four long curving south facing blocks of flats and maisonettes connected by walkways and bridges. Five thousand homes were constructed in eight years. Three thousand of these were the deck access flats, almost immediately the constructional problems became apparent: they leaked, ducting failed and they were too expensive to heat. A child died falling from a deck and by 1975, and they were declared unsuitable for families with children, the elderly and the disabled. In 1975, 96.3% of the residents wanted to leave. 643 families petitioned to be rehoused.{{sfn|Parkinson-Bailey|2000|pp=194–195}} They were demolished between 1991 and 1994.<br />
<br />
Proportion of houses and flats built by local authorities and New Towns in England and Wales, 1960–80 (a)<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible autocollapse sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Year !! Houses (%) !! Flats (b) 2–4-storey (%) !! Flats 5–14-storey !! Flats 15-storey and over !! Total flats<br />
|-<br />
| 1960 || 52.8 || 33.0 || 11.1 || 3.1 || 47.2<br />
|-<br />
| 1961 || 51.3 || 32.2 || 12.7 || 3.8 || 48.7<br />
|-<br />
| 1962 || 50.1 || 32.6 || 12.3 || 5.0 || 49.9<br />
|-<br />
| 1963 || 46.9 || 31.2 || 12.9 || 9.0 || 53.1<br />
|-<br />
| 1964 || 44.8 || 31.0 || 12.2 || 12.0 || 55.2<br />
|-<br />
| 1965 || 48.3 || 30.2 || 10.9 || 10.6 || 51.7<br />
|-<br />
| 1966 || 47.5 || 26.8 || 15.3 || 10.4 || 52.5<br />
|-<br />
| 1967 || 50.0 || 27.0 || 13.3 || 9.7 || 50.0<br />
|-<br />
| 1968 || 49.3 || 30.8 || 14.0 || 5.9 || 50.7<br />
|-<br />
| 1969 || 50.5 || 35.9 || 9.8 || 3.8 || 49.4<br />
|-<br />
| 1970 || 51.5 || 38.6 || 8.2 || 1.7 || 48.5<br />
|-<br />
| 1971 || 50.0 || 41.4 || 6.7 || 1.9 || 50.0<br />
|-<br />
| 1972 || 48.5 || 44.1 || 6.1 || 1.3 || 51.5<br />
|-<br />
| 1973 || 54.9 || 41.7 || 2.9 || 0.5 || 45.1<br />
|-<br />
| 1974 || 55.9 || 41.6 || 2.4 || 0.1 || 44.1<br />
|-<br />
| 1975 || 60.7 || 38.1 || 1.2 || – || 39.3<br />
|-<br />
| 1976 || 57.3 || 40.9 || 1.6 || 0.2 || 42.7<br />
|-<br />
| 1977 || 54.6 || 44.1 || 1.3 || – || 45.4<br />
|-<br />
| 1978 || 55.2 || 42.2 || 2.6 || – || 44.8<br />
|-<br />
| 1979 || 54.3 || 44.2 || 1.5 || – || 45.7<br />
|-<br />
| 1980 || 50.2 || 49.4 || 0.5 || – || 49.8<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small>Notes:<br /><br />
(a) Tenders approved.<br /><br />
(b) Including maisonettes.</small><br />
<br />
While some tower blocks have been demolished, many that occupy convenient city centre sites (such as [[The Sentinels]] in Birmingham, [[Trellick Tower]] and Great Arthur House on the [[Golden Lane Estate]] in London) remain extremely popular with residents and have even been subject to an element of [[gentrification]], caused by the onward sale of [[lease]]s purchased by original tenants under the [[right to buy scheme]] to more affluent purchasers.<br />
<br />
In 1988, the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government of [[Margaret Thatcher]] set up the first of six [[housing action trust]]s designed to regenerate some of Britain's most deprived council housing areas, which involved refurbishment or demolition of council properties in these areas, as well as improved community facilities and scope for new private and social housing developments. The North Hull HAT was set up to regenerate a large area of predominantly interwar council housing in the north of [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]], [[Humberside]]. [[Liverpool]] HAT covered 67 of the worst tower blocks on [[Merseyside]]; 54 of these blocks were demolished and replaced by new public or private sector housing developments, while the remaining 13 blocks were refurbished. [[Stonebridge, London|Stonebridge]] HAT in [[Harlesden]], London, was the final HAT to cease to exist when it was wound up in 2007, mostly covering an area of council housing built during the 1960s and 1970s. [[Waltham Forest]] HAT in [[South London]] covered several council estates, mostly built during the 1960s, and lasted until 2002, with the final phase of the regeneration being completed several years later by [[English Partnerships]]. [[Tower Hamlets]] HAT involved the regeneration of three council estates, mostly consisting of flats, in [[East London]]. Perhaps the most notable HAT was the one founded in 1993 to regenerate the [[Castle Vale]] estate in [[Birmingham]], which had been built in the 1960s. The original master plan for the redevelopment of Castle Vale saw 17 out of 34 tower blocks on the estate earmarked for demolition, as well as 24 of the estate's 27 maisonette blocks, but by the time of the HAT's demise in 2005 all but two of the 34 tower blocks had been demolished, as well as all of the maisonette blocks and more than 100 bungalows. Community facilities on the estate were also improved, and the main shopping centre was completely redeveloped.<br />
<br />
[[File:BWFE panorama from northwest.JPG|thumb|centre|600px|[[Broadwater Farm]] in [[London Borough of Haringey|Haringey]], north London]] One of the most ambitious post-war council housing developments, the complex of [[housing estate|estate]]s at [[Broadwater Farm]] (shown above), became a national symbol of perceived failures in the council housing system following the [[Broadwater Farm riot]] in 1985. Since then, Broadwater Farm has been the focus of an intense regeneration programme, resulting in a dramatic drop in crime on the estate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christianwolmar.co.uk/2005/01/20-years-later-at-broadwater-farm/|title=20 years later at Broadwater Farm |publisher=Christian Wolmar}}</ref><br />
[[File:Ferry Lane Estate.JPG|thumb|1970s council housing in [[London Borough of Haringey|Haringey]], north London]]<br />
<br />
In London, many council estates are being demolished and replaced with luxury housing, resulting in a net loss of [[social housing]]. Campaigners fear almost 8,000 homes could be lost during the decade following 2018. Among estates for regeneration, over 80 will be partly or completely demolished.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-45196994 Dozens of London council estates earmarked for demolition] ''[[BBC]]''</ref><br />
<br />
=== Financialization ===<br />
In recent years, the [[financialization]] of housing in the UK has contributed to issues in the public housing sector. Under the wider [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] agenda, the [[deregulation]] of mortgage finance and the liberalisation of credit was implemented, creating systemic risks as [[Subprime lending|'sub-prime borrowers]]' bought homes with loans they could not realistically pay back.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hick |first1=Rod |last2=Stephens |first2=Mark |date=2023 |title=Housing, the welfare state and poverty: On the financialization of housing and the dependent variable problem |journal=Housing, Theory and Society |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=85 |doi=10.1080/14036096.2022.2095438 |issn=1403-6096|doi-access=free }}</ref> In the U.K, financialization became increasingly prominent after the 1990s as [[securitization]] and foreign finance were introduced in the housing sector. One of the key mechanisms of financialization was securitization, which allowed investors' mortgages to be sold as packages in the market, encouraging the imperative of profitability.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Jacobs |first1=Keith |last2=Manzi |first2=Tony |date=2019 |title=Conceptualising 'financialisation': governance, organisational behaviour and social interaction in UK housing |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/19491247.2018.1540737 |journal=International Journal of Housing Policy |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=184–202 |doi=10.1080/19491247.2018.1540737 |s2cid=159191526 |issn=1949-1247}}</ref> Housing associations, which previously relied on government grants and private donations, could now access capital markets and sell bonds. However, this led to a shift in their focus from providing affordable homes to generating returns for investors. Financialization also led to an increase in [[Buy to let|buy-to-let]] mortgages, resulting in higher private tenancy levels and rising costs.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
==Council housing estates==<br />
{{Confusing|section|date=September 2018}}<br />
[[File:SeaG2.jpg|thumb|[[Seacroft]], east [[Leeds]]]]<br />
[[File:Yorkplaceflatswetherby.jpg|thumb|York Place Flats, a medium rise development of council flats in [[Wetherby]], West Yorkshire]]<br />
The design and character of a council estate is related to the government initiative that allowed it to be built. The estates of the Addison Act are mixed tenure estates with generously proportioned semi-detached houses designed to be fit for heroes, albeit only [[affordability of housing in the United Kingdom|affordable]] by the most prosperous workers.{{sfn|Hanley|2012|p=94}} The generosity changed in the 1930s, with the push to eliminate the slums. [[Aneurin Bevan]]'s new towns and estates planned to the Tudor Walters standards were designed to be the pinnacle of housing to which all classes would aspire. This gradually changed through the 1950s and 1960s, partly due to the increase in private housebuilding under [[Harold Macmillan]], as well as due to dropping standards, especially with the adoption of system-building by many local authorities across the UK in the 1960s.{{sfn|Hanley|2012|p=95}} Nonetheless, space standards in council homes (based on those prescribed by the [[Parker-Morris Report]] remained above those of many privately built dwellings at the time.<br />
<br />
The earliest council estates were built within the borough boundaries on low value land that was walking distance from the places of employment. When that was exhausted, [[peripheral estate]]s were built on the edge of the town. Residents needed to commute by public transport or bicycle, as almost none of the people living in these areas had cars until well after [[World War II]].<!--Denton and Moston?--> Councils bought vacant land in neighbouring boroughs to build [[overspill estate]]s. In [[Greater Manchester]], this included [[Wythenshawe]] in 1930<ref>{{cite web |title=One hundred years ago a man had a dream - and that dream was Wythenshawe |date=30 December 2019 |url=https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/one-hundred-years-ago-man-17445301}}</ref> and then [[Hattersley]] in the 1960s. Later, infill estates were created on small pieces of brown field land that had been vacated by contracting heavy industry. <!-- write first and find references at leisure.--><br />
<br />
Some pit villages, such as [[Grimethorpe]] in Yorkshire, are almost entirely composed of original council housing. [[Leeds]] has [[Seacroft]] – the 'town within the city'. [[Sheffield]] boasts the award-winning [[Park Hill, Sheffield|Park Hill]]. Both Seacroft and Park Hill are now undergoing major redevelopment. In [[Tyneside]], large council estates include [[Byker]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Council Housing, Byker, Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyne and Wear |url=https://historicengland.org.uk/services-skills/education/educational-images/council-housing-byker-newcastle-upon-tyne-3027}}</ref> and [[Walker, Newcastle upon Tyne|Walker]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Social Housing WALKER |url=https://uksocialhousing.com/properties/WALKER?page=13}}</ref> in [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]], [[Felling, Tyne and Wear|Felling]] in [[Gateshead]] and [[Meadow Well]] in [[North Tyneside]], the site of violent civil disorder in 1991.<ref>{{cite news |title=Meadow Well: Is the stigma unfair 30 years after riots? |work=BBC News |date=9 September 2021 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-tyne-58474465}}</ref> Meadow Well has been largely redeveloped since this unrest, with most of the old housing having been demolished.<br />
<br />
===Estate design===<br />
<!-- Needs to be discussion of council tenements--><br />
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<!-- Needs to be discussion of infill estates--><br />
<!-- Needs to be discussion of brutalism--><br />
<!-- Needs to be discussion of streets in the sky--><br />
<!-- Needs to be discussion of garden estates--><br />
<!-- Needs to be discussion of <br />
==House design==<br />
{{main|Council house}}<br />
--><br />
<!-- Needs to be discussion of ==Apartment design==--><br />
<!-- Radburn cul-de-sacs--><br />
<!-- Crossland estates--><br />
[[File:Tomcollinshouse 1.jpg|thumb|right|Tom Collins House, [[Byker Wall]] Estate, [[Newcastle Upon Tyne]]]]<br />
The very earliest council estates were in London, as they were permitted to finance houses ten years before non-metropolitan areas and these were 'block estates' that is estates of [[tenement]] blocks, or in modern terminology estates of low or medium rise flats. The first was the Boundary Estate. The alternative was the 'cottage estate'{{cn|date=November 2023}} trialled at [[Totterdown Fields]], which emulated [[garden city movement|garden city]] principles, though this was hampered until the [[Hampstead Garden Suburb Act 1906]] and the [[Housing, Town Planning, &c. Act 1909]], removed some of the restrictions imposed by the 1875s byelaws. The [[Progress Estate]], Well Hall Road, had an open spaced layout that gave a pleasant environment to residents.{{sfn|Progress|1915}}<br />
<br />
The [[Tudor Walters Report]] was adopted and council estates opened up. They were designed to [[Radburn design housing|Radburn principles]] with wide feeder roads joining short cul-de-sacs. Houses were separated by at least {{convert|70|ft|m}} from the facing houses. The former gridiron street pattern was deprecated.<br />
<br />
The [[Housing, Town Planning, &c. Act 1919]] (also known as the Addison Act after [[Secretary of State for Health|Minister of Health]], [[Christopher Addison, 1st Viscount Addison|Dr Christopher Addison]], the-then Minister for Housing), and the resulting wave of mass council housing in the early 1920s was among the first generation of houses in the country to feature electricity, running water, bathrooms, indoor toilets and front/rear gardens. However, some council houses were still being built with outdoor toilets, attached to the house, until well into the 1930s. Some of the earliest council houses did not feature an actual bathroom; the bath could often be found in the kitchen with a design that allowed it to double as a work surface. These new houses had two, three, four or five bedrooms, and generously sized back gardens intended for vegetable growing. At the best they were built at a density of houses of {{Convert|12|/acre|/ha}}. However, later in the 20th century these houses were modernised to feature modern bathrooms and indoor toilets.{{sfn|UWE|2008|loc= Section 3.}}<br />
<br />
<!-- Throttling back of funding- decline in standard- cul-de-sac to increase density and the <br />
-- this section needs to give information to folks researching the purchases of 'ex-locals'<br />
--><br />
The [[Housing (Financial Provisions) Act 1924]] (Wheatley Act), reduced the expected standard in a council built house. Under the Addison Act a house would be {{convert|1000|sqft|m2}} but after 1924 it would be {{convert|620|sqft|m2}}.{{sfn|UWE|2008|loc= Section 4.}}<br />
Flats and bungalows were first built by local councils during the interwar years, but in relatively low volumes. Most interwar council houses were built on completely new estates.<br />
<br />
The [[Housing Act 1930]] encouraged further mass slum clearance. There was a cut in funding and the housing density on the [[peripheral estate]]s was increased; leading to a poorer build quality. The former tenants of the inner city properties, were displaced far from their workplaces unable to afford the higher rents (though reduced from the 1919 levels) or the cost of transport. Although the standard of housing improved, stable communities were broken up, and with it, support networks.{{sfn|UWE|2008|loc= Section 4.}}<br />
<br />
===System build estates===<br />
[[File:Red Road flats at Balornock - geograph.org.uk - 119968.jpg|thumb|Glasgow's Red Road flats]]<br />
It was not until the 1950s that mixed estates of multi-storey flats and houses became a common sight. Until then it was rare to see blocks of flats that were more than three or four storeys high. An early and famous development of council flats was at [[Quarry Hill, Leeds|Quarry Hill]] in Leeds. Modelled on [[Karl-Marx-Hof]] flats in Vienna, the complex was built by Leeds City Council.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/leeds/content/image_galleries/image_gallery_quarry_hill_gallery.shtml?9|title=Leeds – In Pictures Quarry Hill's history |publisher=BBC}}</ref> At the time they were considered revolutionary: each flat had a motorised rubbish chute leading to a central incinerator. The complex had its own offices, shops and [[gasworks]]. The 1970s sitcom [[Queenie's Castle]] was filmed there. Long-term problems with the steel-frame structure led to demolition, beginning in 1978 and there is now no evidence of their existence. Though not in UK, the [[Oliver Bond flats]] in Dublin, Ireland were built in 1936 and have a similar design to many of the council estates in the UK today. The [[Red Road (flats)|Red Road flats]] in Glasgow were once the tallest residential buildings in Europe.<ref>{{cite news |title=Glasgow's Red Road tower blocks 'too tough' for blast demolition |work=BBC News |date=19 September 2016 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-glasgow-west-37406817}}</ref> <br />
<!--Garages were provided on new housing developments, although these were usually in separate blocks to houses, as car ownership increased.--><br />
<br />
By the 1990s, many multi-storey flats and low-rise flats and maisonettes (mostly built in the 1950s and 1960s) were being demolished, due to their deteriorating condition, structural problems and a difficulty in finding new tenants when these properties became empty.<br />
<br />
One notable regeneration programme featuring tower blocks was that of the [[Castle Vale]] estate in Birmingham, built between 1964 and 1969 to rehouse families from inner city 'slums' in areas including [[Aston]] and [[Nechells]]. 32 of the estate's 34 tower blocks were cleared between 1995 and 2004, with the remaining two being refurbished and re-opened as "vertical warden-controlled schemes". All of the estate's 27 maisonette blocks were also cleared, as were more than 100 bungalows. The remaining low-rise stock, however, was retained. The two remaining tower blocks were comprehensively refurbished. The sites of the demolished flats have been replaced by both private and social housing in low-rise redevelopments.<ref name="amc1">{{cite book|last=Mornement |first=Adam |title=No Longer Notorious: The Revival of Castle Vale, 1993–2005 |publisher=Castle Vale Neighbourhood Partnership |date=March 2005 |pages=4–15 |chapter=Chapter 1: The Rise and Fall of Castle Vale, 1964–1993 |url=http://www.crp-ltd.co.uk/downloads/chapter01.pdf }}</ref><br />
<br />
The mood had changed and new [[council garden estate]]s were built. These consist of low rise dwellings, mainly houses with gardens. The high residential density, equivalent to a tower block, is achieved by pedestrianisation of the estate, which allowed the dwellings to be very close together, separated by pathways not {{Convert|11|m|ft|adj=on}} -wide roads. The resident's car park is next to the service road. Front doors open onto pedestrian areas, which thus provide safe play areas for children. An early late 1960s example of this design is [[Cressingham Gardens]]. This estate has been popular with its residents, and they have resisted all attempts to be resettled.<ref>{{cite news|title=A time for trust at Lambeth's Cressingham Gardens estate|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/davehillblog/2015/mar/08/a-time-for-trust-at-the-cressingham-gardens-estate|newspaper=The Guardian|date=8 March 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Largest estates===<br />
{{citations needed|date=February 2024}}<br />
[[Becontree]] in Dagenham is the largest area of council housing in the UK with a population of over 100,000.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Europe's largest council estate coped during the pandemic |date=13 April 2021 |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/becontree-council-estate-coped-covid-pandemic-europe-b929278.html}}</ref> It forms the bulk of a town. It was built during the 1920s and early 1930s.<ref>{{cite web |title=B/W Print; the Becontree Estate in Dagenham, Aerofilms, 1930-1950 |url=https://www.ltmuseum.co.uk/collections/collections-online/photographs/item/1998-54954}}</ref> Otherwise, the largest estates are [[Wythenshawe]] in the south of Manchester and [[Bransholme]] in the north-east of Hull. <br />
<!--Arron Way in [[Corby]] was a large estate, although the majority of the housing became derelict and the area is now undergoing regeneration. --><br />
<br />
In [[Scotland]], Glasgow has the highest proportion of social housing. The largest estates include [[Drumchapel]], [[Easterhouse]], [[Castlemilk]] and [[Pollok]]. In Edinburgh there are several smaller peripheral estates such as [[Craigmillar]], [[Wester Hailes]] and [[Sighthill, Edinburgh|Sighthill]]. The large council estates in <br />
[[Wales]] include [[Caia Park]] in [[Wrexham]], [[Bettws, Newport|Bettws]] in [[Newport, Wales|Newport]] and [[Ely, Cardiff|Ely]] in [[Cardiff]]. <!-- stats not checked --><br />
<br />
==Demographics==<br />
[[File:Tenure by ethnic group, 2021 Census.png|upright=1.25|thumb|Tenure by ethnic group in England and Wales, 2021 census<ref name="RM134">{{cite web |title=RM134: Tenure by ethnic group - Household Reference Persons |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/RM134/editions/2021/versions/1/filter-outputs/189e5b6d-edce-47e5-b5f7-b92c7d7f0db9#get-data |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=28 March 2023}}</ref>]]<br />
The [[2021 United Kingdom census]] for England and Wales recorded 4.2 million people, or 17.1% of the population, residing in either a housing association of local council housing. This was a slight increase from the 4.1 million figure (17.6%) recorded in the 2011 census. 23.1% of the population in [[Greater London]] reside in social housing – the highest proportion out of all regions in England.<ref>{{cite web |title=Housing, England and Wales: Census 2021 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/housing/bulletins/housingenglandandwales/census2021 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=5 January 2023}}</ref> Occupation of social housing varied significantly between different ethnic groups, with the Black population near three times as likely to live in social housing as the White British population.<ref>{{cite news |title=Black people in England and Wales three times as likely to live in social housing |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2023/mar/15/census-black-britons-social-housing-ons |work=The Guardian |date=15 March 2023}}</ref> The breakdown by ethnic groups according to the census was:<ref name="RM134"/><ref>{{cite web |title=The Impacts of the Housing Crisis on People of Different Ethnicities: An analysis of the latest data from England & Wales |url=https://tfl.ams3.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/media/documents/Positive-Money-Housing-Demographics-Report-April-2023-2.pdf |publisher=Positive Money |access-date=30 April 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|+ Tenure by ethnicity in England and Wales<br />
|-<br />
! Ethnic group !! Social rented !! Privately rented !! Own with mortgage !! Own outright<br />
|-<br />
| [[British Indian|Indian]] || 6% || 25% || 43% || 26%<br />
|-<br />
| [[British Chinese|Chinese]] || 8% || 31% || 32% || 29%<br />
|-<br />
| [[British Pakistani|Pakistani]] || 14% || 26% || 37% || 23%<br />
|-<br />
| [[White British]] || 16% || 16% || 30% || 37%<br />
|-<br />
| '''All England and Wales''' || '''17%''' || '''20%''' || '''30%''' || '''33%'''<br />
|-<br />
| [[White Irish]] || 18% || 19% || 27% || 37%<br />
|-<br />
| [[British Arabs|Arab]] || 27% || 48% || 15% || 10%<br />
|-<br />
| [[Mixed (United Kingdom ethnicity category)|Mixed]] || data-sort-value="27" |{{Percentage | 106883| 403332 }} || data-sort-value="33" |{{Percentage | 133512| 403332 }} || data-sort-value="28" | {{Percentage | 113700| 403332 }} || data-sort-value="12" |{{Percentage | 49237| 403332 }}<br />
|-<br />
| [[British Bangladeshi|Bangladeshi]] || 34% || 27% || 30% || 9%<br />
|-<br />
| [[Black British people|Black]] || data-sort-value="43" | {{Percentage | 392563| 916781 }} || data-sort-value="27" |{{Percentage | 249952| 916781 }} || data-sort-value="21" |{{Percentage | 188645| 916781 }} || data-sort-value="9" |{{Percentage | 85621| 916781 }}<br />
|-<br />
| [[White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller|Irish Traveller/White Gypsy]] || 44% || 28% || 9% || 19%<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Public housing debate==<br />
{{POV section|anti-Conservative bias, loaded language, no attempt to portray both left and right wing approaches to the issue, assumption that right-wing criticisms are motivated by snobbery/contempt for the poor|talk=|date=April 2020}}<br />
The debate on public housing provision is politically polarised, as can be seen in the large number of parliamentary acts referred to in previous sections. The left saw council estates as a great achievement, while successive Conservative administrations attempted to curb their spread. In 1951, they changed the raison d'être from being affordable homes for all to homes only for the most needy, thereby breaking up the social mix by grouping dysfunctional families together.{{sfn|Hanley|2012}}<br />
<br />
Council estates could then be stereotyped as "problem places", where social difficulties like crime and [[welfare dependency]] are expected. Estates with particularly marked economic and social deprivation are derogated as [[sink estate]]s.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://policypress.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1332/policypress/9781861348159.001.0001/upso-9781861348159-chapter-8|title='Problem' people, 'problem places? New Labour and council estates|year=2007 |publisher=University Press Scholarship|doi=10.1332/policypress/9781861348159.001.0001 |last1=Atkinson |first1=Rowland |last2=Helms |first2=Gesa |isbn=9781861348159 }}</ref> Council house residents may be stereotyped as an underclass.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/research/priorities/centreforadvancedstudies/casestudies/community.aspx|title=Community understanding |publisher=The University of Nottingham}}</ref> In reality, council house residents are ethnically and culturally diverse.<ref name=Open/> Suggestions for [[crime prevention]] include:<br />
{{quote|With reference to housing layouts, the regeneration of large housing estates should incorporate measures such as diversification of tenure, the creation of smaller community areas, the provision of facilities for the young and proposals to create a more attractive environment, since it has been shown that packages of such measures are successful in reducing crime.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.durham.gov.uk/pages/Service.aspx?ServiceId=497 |title=Planning and crime prevention |access-date=8 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908181246/http://www.durham.gov.uk/pages/Service.aspx?ServiceId=497 |archive-date=8 September 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>}}<br />
<!-- general policy discussions --><br />
<!-- policy discussions --><br />
<!-- design discussions --><br />
<!-- this sounds more like a critique of the system rather than the design --- moved -- ><br />
--><br />
Those who regard stable homes as a family's right see public housing differently from those who see it as welfare. They are comfortable that council housing was generally typified by unimaginatively designed houses with generously sized rooms.{{efn|Council housing was generally typified by unimaginatively designed houses with generously sized rooms when compared to houses at the bottom end of the private sector, particularly those built in the 1970s after the [[Parker Morris Committee|Parker Morris]] standards were introduced.}} They could cope with aggravating estate rules that could forbid tenants "personalising" their houses.{{sfn|Hanley|2012}}<br />
<br />
The public debate around housing can be understood as the debate between housing as a [[commodity]] versus as a [[Rights|right]]. In the immediate aftermath of both [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], reconstruction was required to improve the housing stock destroyed in the violence and consequently, the attitude towards housing sector in those periods was more rights-based. As a result, the initial years of the public housing sector witnessed an engaged role of the state, with legislation establishing an inclusive, affordable housing sector for the majority [[Working class|working classes]]. However, as a consequence of the [[Post-war|post-war era]] of investment that encouraged homeownership, housing increasingly became commodified. A housing sector that treats housing as a commodity implies that it is subject to market forces and can be bought and sold in accordance with demand and supply. <br />
<br />
The system favours those who have already secured tenancy, even when they are no longer in dire need. The combination of security of tenure and subsidised rent gives little incentive to tenants to downsize from family accommodation after their children have moved out. Meanwhile, those who are on the waiting list are often in much greater need of this welfare, yet they cannot have it; once a council house has been granted to a tenant, they cannot be evicted except for anti-social behaviour, serious offences committed at the premises.<ref>{{citation|last=Mack|first=Jon|year=2009|title=Possession following criminal conviction: Ground 14|journal=Landlord & Tenant Review|volume=13|issue=6|pages=209–211}}</ref> Recent policy decisions to reduce the supply of public housing have exacerbated this problem. The Cameron government addressed this shortage by imposing a [[bedroom tax]] to encourage movement.{{sfn|Hanley|2012}}<br />
<br />
Social policy economists, such as [[Anthony J. Culyer|Culyer]] and Barr, have been critical of the role that council housing plays in attempts to help the [[Poverty in the United Kingdom|poor]]. One large criticism is that it hurts labour mobility with its system of allocating housing to those in the local area. Working-class people thus face a disincentive for moving across district lines, where they would be further down the waiting list for council housing in the new districts.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}<br />
<br />
The movement from a close urban society with multiple emotional and practical support mechanisms to new out-of-town estates with few informal facilities has been recognised since the 1930s. Again, when residence is restricted to the poor and dysfunctional, the effect is greater. Council estates have been blamed for creating isolated communities and fostering there a mentality where residents have low aspirations.{{sfn|Hanley|2012}}<br />
<br />
{{quote|The truth is that council housing is a living tomb. You dare not give the house up because you might never get another, but staying is to be trapped in a ghetto of both place and mind. … The people in them need to have better training and more incentives to work. And council estates need to be less cut off from the rest of the economy and society. ([[Will Hutton]], 2007)<ref name=Open>{{cite web|url=http://www.open.edu/openlearn/society/politics-policy-people/sociology/problem-populations-problem-places/content-section-3.4|title='Problem' populations, 'problem' places|publisher=OpenLearn}}</ref>{{sfn|Hanley|2012}}}}<br />
[[File:Seacroft2.jpg|thumb|PRC housing in [[Seacroft]], [[Leeds]] awaiting demolition and replacement]]<br />
<br />
==Domestic violence==<br />
The [[Housing Act 1996]] imposes a duty on local housing authorities in England to rehouse victims of domestic violence. The authority simply needs a 'reason to believe' that the person is homeless for them to be eligible for assistance, and that they are in priority need of accommodation.<ref>[https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1996/52/part/VII Part VII, Housing Act 1996.]</ref> Failure in this duty has led to cases of victims returning to their abuser.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-41803342 The domestic violence victims 'left begging for a home. 31 October 2017.] ''[[BBC News]]''</ref><br />
<br />
==Law==<br />
[[File:De beauvoir estate 1.jpg|thumb|De Beauvoir Estate, [[De Beauvoir Town]], east London ]]<br />
The legal status and management of council houses, and the social housing sector, has been subject to lobbying and change in recent years. [[Local government in the United Kingdom|Local authorities]] now have new legal powers to enable them to deal with anti-social behaviour and the misuse of council houses by organised gangs or anti-social tenants. An example is when a gang uses social housing as a "[[crack house]]".<ref>{{citation|last=Mack|first=Jon|year=2009|title=Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003: Part 1A closure order|magazine=[[Criminal Law & Justice Weekly]]|volume=173|pages=116–117}}</ref> [[Anti-social behaviour order]]s (ASBOs) were created by the [[Crime and Disorder Act 1998]], and [[Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003#Antisocial Behaviour Injunctions .28ASBIs.29|ASBIs]] were created by amendments to the Housing Act 1996, enacted by the [[Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003]]. Tony Blair launched the [[Respect Agenda]] in 2005,<ref>[http://www.number10.gov.uk/output/Page7459.asp Blair's Speech outlining 'Respect' agenda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031083658/http://www.number10.gov.uk/output/Page7459.asp |date=31 October 2007 }} (6 May 2005)</ref> aimed at instilling core values in the tenants of council houses. Recently bodies such as the Social Housing Law Association<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shla.org.uk|title=Social Housing Law Association}}</ref> have been formed to discuss the impact of legislation in the social housing sector and to provide training and lobbying facilities for those who work in that area.<br />
<br />
==Historical statistics on housing construction==<br />
<br />
Dwellings completed by local authorities, New Towns, and Scottish Housing Association, 1945–80 (thousands)<ref>The Future of Council Housing edited by John English</ref><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible autocollapse sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Year !! England and Wales !! Scotland and Northern Ireland<br />
|-<br />
| 1945–50 (annual average) || 96.3 || 14.3<br />
|-<br />
| 1951–55 (annual average) || 188.1 || 30.9<br />
|-<br />
| 1956–60 (annual average) || 124.4 || 25.9<br />
|-<br />
| 1961 || 98.5 || 20.1<br />
|-<br />
| 1962 || 111.7 || 19.0<br />
|-<br />
| 1963 || 102.4 || 21.6<br />
|-<br />
| 1964 || 126.1 || 29.5<br />
|-<br />
| 1965 || 140.9 || 27.6<br />
|-<br />
| 1966 || 142.4 || 28.2<br />
|-<br />
| 1967 || 159.3 || 34.0<br />
|-<br />
| 1968 || 148.0 || 33.3<br />
|-<br />
| 1969 || 139.9 || 34.3<br />
|-<br />
| 1970 || 134.9 || 34.4<br />
|-<br />
| 1971 || 117.2 || 28.6<br />
|-<br />
| 1972 || 93.6 || 19.6<br />
|-<br />
| 1973 || 79.3 || 17.3<br />
|-<br />
| 1974 || 99.4 || 16.2<br />
|-<br />
| 1975 || 122.9 || 22.8<br />
|-<br />
| 1976 || 124.2 || 21.2<br />
|-<br />
| 1977 || 121.2 || 14.3<br />
|-<br />
| 1978 || 96.8 || 9.9<br />
|-<br />
| 1979 || 75.0 || 7.9<br />
|-<br />
| 1980 || 77.1 || 7.0<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Proportion of houses and flats built by local authorities and New Towns in Scotland and Scottish Special Housing Association, 1960–80 (a)<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible autocollapse sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Year !! Houses (%) !! Flats (b) 2–4-storey (%) !! Flats 5-storey and over !! Maisonettes !! Total flats<br />
|-<br />
| 1960 || 46.7 || 34.4 || 12.1 || 6.8 || 53.3<br />
|-<br />
| 1961 || 52.5 || 31.4 || 7.3 || 8.9 || 47.5<br />
|-<br />
| 1962 || 38.2 || 30.8 || 13.2 || 17.7 || 61.8<br />
|-<br />
| 1963 || 40.9 || 25.0 || 22.2 || 11.9 || 59.1<br />
|-<br />
| 1964 || 38.6 || 26.5 || 24.6 || 10.4 || 61.4<br />
|-<br />
| 1965 || 35.2 || 21.0 || 28.7 || 15.1 || 64.8<br />
|-<br />
| 1966 || 41.9 || 25.1 || 25.1 || 7.9 || 58.1<br />
|-<br />
| 1967 || 46.6 || 24.8 || 28.6 || || 53.4<br />
|-<br />
| 1968 || 59.1 || 28.2 || 12.7 || || 40.9<br />
|-<br />
| 1969 || 57.2 || 25.6 || 17.2 || || 42.8<br />
|-<br />
| 1970 || 52.8 || 25.4 || 21.8 || || 47.2<br />
|-<br />
| 1971 || 61.9 || 23.3 || 14.8 || || 38.1<br />
|-<br />
| 1972 || 67.2 || 24.9 || 7.9 || || 32.8<br />
|-<br />
| 1973 || 81.9 || 13.4 || 4.7 || || 18.1<br />
|-<br />
| 1974 || 86.6 || 11.7 || 1.7 || || 13.4<br />
|-<br />
| 1975 || 77.0 || 17.6 || 5.4 || || 23.0<br />
|-<br />
| 1976 || 84.1 || 13.7 || 2.2 || || 15.9<br />
|-<br />
| 1977 || 79.0 || 20.7 || 0.3 || || 21.0<br />
|-<br />
| 1978 || 82.2 || 16.5 || 1.3 || || 17.8<br />
|-<br />
| 1979 || 75.6 || 24.4 || || || 24.4<br />
|-<br />
| 1980 || 77.7 || 22.3 || || || 22.3<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small>Notes:<br /><br />
(a) Tenders approved.<br /><br />
(b) Including maisonettes, which are not shown separately from 1967.</small><br />
<br />
===Analysis of housing built by year and government===<br />
Different British governments oversaw the vision, regulations and overall budget for social housing.<br />
<br />
Between 1978 and 2016,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/live-tables-on-house-building#live-tables|title=Table 211: permanent dwellings started and completed, by tenure, United Kingdom (quarterly)|date=25 May 2017|publisher=[[Office for National Statistics]] |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> the amount of social housing started to be built failed to keep up with population growth<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/datasets/populationestimatestimeseriesdataset|title=Population estimates time series dataset |date=22 June 2017|publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> from 2008 onwards.{{Clarify|date=April 2018|"1. the English is mangled; 2. there is a dropoff in social housing started and completed from 2008 on but how does that correlate to the rising population?"}}<br />
[[File:Social Housing Building by Government.jpg|thumb|Analysis of UK house building by government and Prime Minister 1978–2016 (partial data)]]<br />
<br />
In 2011 almost 40,000 English socially rented homes were built. Just 5,900 social housing homes were completed in 2017 which is the smallest proportion of overall housing building since records began. Government funding for social housing in 2018 is widely considered insufficient.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/jul/21/may-2bn-council-housing-pledge-not-enough-council-leaders-warn May's housing cash pledge is not enough, council leaders warn] ''[[The Observer]]''</ref> London and some other local authorities are moving people out, away from their work and their social networks due to lack of available social housing.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/oct/29/number-of-homeless-households-moved-out-of-london-soars Number of homeless households moved out of London soars] ''[[The Guardian]]''</ref> In 2018 it is promised that the government will build just 2,500 social homes per year. Most newly built homes will be too expensive for the poorest people.<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/government-housing-social-homes-spending-5-per-cent-affordable-council-theresa-may-conference-a8689591.html Just 5 per cent of new homes to be built with government money will be most affordable type, ministers admit] ''[[The Independent]]''</ref> In 2019 in England official figures demonstrated that only 37,825 new homes were built for letting at discounted rents though the national housing waiting list is over 1.1&nbsp;million households.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/society/2019/nov/20/housebuilding-data-shows-dearth-of-homes-for-affordable-renting Housebuilding data shows dearth of homes for affordable renting] ''[[The Guardian]]''</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[ABC city]]<br />
*''[[Dispossession: The Great Social Housing Swindle]]'' – documentary film discussing social policy towards public housing in the UK<br />
*[[List of large council estates in the UK]]<br />
*[[List of existing model dwellings]]<br />
*[[HLM]]<br />
*[[Housing in the United Kingdom]]<br />
*[[Public housing]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
;Footnotes<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
;Notes<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
; Bibliography<br />
* {{cite web|last1=Allen|first1=Chris|title=Anti-Social Housing: 'Right to Buy' and Thatcher's Legacy|url=https://wallscometumblingdown.wordpress.com/2009/03/11/anti-social-housing-right-to-buy-and-thatchers-legacy/|publisher=The Institute of Applied Social Sciences University of Birmingham|access-date=9 December 2015|website= Walls come tumbling down|year= 2009}}<br />
* {{cite book|last1=Burnett|first1=John|title=A social history of housing : 1815–1985|date=1986|publisher=Methuen|location=New York|isbn=0416367801|edition=2nd e.}}<br />
* {{cite book|last1=Calow|first1=Dennis|title=Home Sweet Home: A century of Leicester housing 1814–1914|date=2007|publisher=University of Leicester:Special collections online|location=Leicester|url=http://cdm15407.contentdm.oclc.org/u?/p15407coll5,1181|access-date=7 October 2015}}<br />
* {{cite web|last1=Gimson|first1=Andrew|title=How Macmillan built 300,000 houses a year |date=17 October 2013 |publisher=Conservative Home|url=http://www.conservativehome.com/thetorydiary/2013/10/how-macmillan-built-300000-houses-a-year.html}}<br />
* {{cite book|last1=Hanley|first1=Lynsey|title=Estates : an intimate history|date=2012|publisher=Granta|location=Granta|isbn=9781847087027|edition=New}}<br />
* {{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/1593132 |title=Suburban Ideals on England's Interwar Council Estates |first=Matthew |last=Hollow |year=2011 | access-date=29 December 2012}}<br />
* {{cite journal|last1=Meek|first1=James|title=Where shall we live|journal=London Review of Books|date=2014|volume=36|issue=1|pages=7–16|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v36/n01/james-meek/where-will-we-live}}<br />
* {{cite web|last1=Panagidis|last2=Savva|title=Entry #411:Southwyck Open House|url=http://designingtheurbancommons.org/gallery/southwyck-open-house/|website=Designing the Urban Common|publisher=Theatrum Mundi|year=2015|access-date=7 December 2015}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Parkinson-Bailey | first = John J. | title = Manchester: an Architectural History | year = 2000 | publisher=Manchester University Press | location = Manchester | isbn = 0-7190-5606-3}}<br />
* {{cite web|title=Council Housing|url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/towncountry/towns/overview/councilhousing/|website=Living Heritage-Improving towns|publisher=UK Parliament|access-date=9 December 2015|ref={{sfnref|UK Parliament- Acts|2015}}}}<br />
* {{cite web|title=New Towns|url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/towncountry/towns/overview/newtowns/|website=Living Heritage-Improving towns|publisher=UK Parliament|access-date=9 December 2015|ref={{sfnref|UK Parliament-New Towns|2015}} }}<br />
* {{cite magazine|last1=de Pennington|first1=Joanne|title=Beneath the Surface: A Country of Two Nations|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/bsurface_01.shtml|magazine=BBC History|access-date=9 December 2015|year=2011}}<br />
* {{cite web|url=http://www.ideal-homes.org.uk/case-studies/progress-estate|title=Case Studies – Progress Estate |publisher=Ideal Homes |access-date=1 October 2015|ref={{sfnref|Progress|1915}} }}<br />
* {{cite book|last1=Rubinstein|first1=Antonia|last2=Andrews|first2=Andy|last3=Schweitzer|first3=Pam|title=Just like the country|date=1991|access-date=17 December 2016|url=http://reminiscencetheatrearchive.org.uk/documents/Just_Like_The_Country_Book_Part_1.pdf |volume=1 |publisher=Age Exchange |via=Reminiscence Theatre Archive}}<br />
* {{cite book|last1=Rubinstein|first1=Antonia|last2=Andrews|first2=Andy|last3=Schweitzer|first3=Pam |author-mask=2 |author-mask2=2 |author-mask3=2 |title=Just like the country part 2|date=1991|access-date=17 December 2016|url=http://reminiscencetheatrearchive.org.uk/documents/Just_Like_The_Country_Book_Part_2.pdf |volume=2 |publisher=Age Exchange |via=Reminiscence Theatre Archive}}<br />
* {{cite web|last1=Walker Morris: Press Release|title=Wakefield housing initiative England's largest|url=http://www.walkermorris.co.uk/news/wakefield-housing-initiative-england%E2%80%99s-largest|publisher=Walker Morris|year=2005|access-date=9 December 2015|ref={{sfnRef|Walker Morris|2005}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211152544/http://www.walkermorris.co.uk/news/wakefield-housing-initiative-england%E2%80%99s-largest|archive-date=11 December 2015|url-status=dead}}<br />
* {{cite web|title=History of Council Housing|url=http://fet.uwe.ac.uk/conweb/house_ages/council_housing/print.htm|publisher=University of the West of England|access-date=3 December 2015|ref={{sfnRef|UWE|2008}}|date=2008}}<br />
*{{cite journal|last1=Yelling|first1=J.A.|journal=Transactions|date=1995|volume=46|pages=167–173|title=Banishing London's slums: The interwar cottage estates |url=http://www.lamas.org.uk/transactions-archive/Vol%2046.pdf|access-date=19 December 2016|publisher=London and Middlesex Archeological Society}}<br />
<br />
<!--Parking a reference: https://www.theguardian.com/culture/gallery/2013/nov/16/architecture-housing --><br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*{{cite book|title=English Housing Survey: Households – Annual report on England's households, 2013-4|date=14 July 2015|publisher=Department for Communities and Local Government|isbn=9781409846420|edition=Revised September 2015|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/461439/EHS_Households_2013-14.pdf|access-date=4 January 2016}}<br />
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/4444731.stm "Council home for sale at £895,000"] BBC News<br />
* [http://www.defendcouncilhousing.org.uk/dch/ Website of the campaign to "Defend Council Housing" against privatisation]<br />
* [http://www.shla.org.uk Social Housing Law Association]<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150906133138/http://underoneroofexchange.co.uk/council_house_exchange.html Council house exchange] Describing how mutual exchange schemes operate<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170622133648/http://www.haroldhill.org/memories/guestbook.htm Harold Hill: A People's History] Recollections of former and current residents of the Harold Hill council estate<br />
* [http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/3014/1/DX076681.pdf Streets in the Sky] Christopher Bacons history, with references, of high-rise social housing in the United Kingdom. University of Sheffield<br />
*[https://www.scran.ac.uk/scotland/pdf/SP2_4Housing.pdf Urban Housing in Scotland 1840–1940 by historian W.W. Knox (pdf)]<br />
<br />
{{Public housing in the United Kingdom}}<br />
{{Housing in the United Kingdom}}<br />
{{Europe topic|Public housing in}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Council House}}<br />
[[Category:Public housing in the United Kingdom| ]]<br />
[[Category:House types]]<br />
[[Category:Housing in the United Kingdom]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Existence_of_God&diff=1239341904Existence of God2024-08-08T18:54:00Z<p>AmgineIX: He's dead now</p>
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{{Philosophy of religion sidebar|God}}<br />
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The '''existence of God''' is a subject of debate in the [[philosophy of religion]].<ref>''The Rationality of Theism'' quoting [[Quentin Smith]] "God is not 'dead' in academia; it returned to life in the late 1960s". They cite "the shift from hostility towards theism in Paul Edwards's ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (1967) to sympathy towards theism in the more recent ''[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''.</ref> A wide variety of arguments for and against the existence of [[God]] can be categorized as [[logic]]al, [[Empirical research|empirical]], [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]], [[Subjectivity|subjective]] or [[Science|scientific]]. In [[Philosophy|philosophical]] terms, the question of the existence of God involves the disciplines of [[epistemology]] (the nature and scope of [[knowledge]]) and [[ontology]] (study of the nature of [[being]] or [[existence]]) and the [[Value theory|theory of value]] (since some definitions of God include "perfection").<br />
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The [[Western philosophy|Western tradition of philosophical discussion]] of the existence of God began with [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]], who made arguments for the existence of a being responsible for fashioning the [[universe]], referred to as the [[demiurge]] or the [[unmoved mover]], that today would be categorized as [[cosmological argument]]s. Other arguments for the existence of God have been proposed by [[Anselm of Canterbury|St. Anselm]], who formulated the first [[ontological argument]]; [[Thomas Aquinas]], who presented his own version of the cosmological argument (the [[Five Ways (Aquinas)|first way]]); [[René Descartes]], who said that the existence of a benevolent God is [[logically necessary]] for the evidence of the senses to be meaningful. [[John Calvin]] argued for a ''[[sensus divinitatis]]'', which gives each human a knowledge of God's existence. [[Islamic philosopher]]s who developed arguments for the existence of God comprise [[Averroes]], who made arguments influenced by Aristotle's concept of the unmoved mover; [[Al-Ghazali]] and [[Al-Kindi]], who presented the [[Kalam cosmological argument]]; [[Avicenna]], who presented the [[Proof of the Truthful]]; and [[Al-Farabi]], who made [[Platonism in Islamic philosophy|Neoplatonic arguments]]. <br />
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In philosophy, and more specifically in the philosophy of religion, [[atheism]] refers to the [[proposition]] that God does not exist.<ref name ="Draper">{{cite web |last1=Draper |first1=Paul |title=Atheism and Agnosticism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2022}}</ref> Some religions, such as [[Jainism]], reject the possibility of a [[creator deity]]. Philosophers who have provided arguments against the existence of God include [[David Hume]], [[Ludwig Feuerbach]], and [[Bertrand Russell]]. <br />
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[[Theism]], the proposition that God exists, is the dominant view among [[philosophy of religion|philosophers of religion]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cruz De |first1=Helen |last2=Nichols |first2=Ryan |title=Advances in Religion, Cognitive Science, and Experimental Philosophy|date=28 January 2016 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |pages=135 |isbn=978-1-4742-2382-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iKfnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA135}}</ref> In a 2020 [[PhilPapers]] survey, 69.50% of philosophers of religion stated that they accept or lean towards theism, while 19.86% stated they accept or lean towards atheism.<ref>{{cite web |title=PhilPapers Survey 2020 |url=https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4842?aos=22 |website=PhilPapers}}</ref> Prominent contemporary philosophers of religion who defended theism include [[Alvin Plantinga]], [[Yujin Nagasawa]], [[John Hick]], [[Richard Swinburne]], and [[William Lane Craig]], while those who defended atheism include [[Graham Oppy]], [[Paul Draper (philosopher)|Paul Draper]], [[Quentin Smith]], <br />
[[J. L. Mackie]], and [[J. L. Schellenberg]].<br />
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== Positions ==<br />
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Positions on the existence of God can be divided along numerous axes, producing a variety of [[Orthogonality|orthogonal]] classifications. Theism and atheism are positions of belief or lack of it, while [[gnosticism]] and [[agnosticism]] are positions of knowledge or the lack of it. [[Ignosticism]] concerns belief about God's conceptual coherence. [[Apatheism]] concerns belief about the practical importance of whether God exists.<br />
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For the purposes of discussion, [[Richard Dawkins]] described seven "milestones" on his [[spectrum of theistic probability]]:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |title=The God Delusion |title-link=The God Delusion |publisher=Bantam Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-618-68000-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_0593058259/page/n54 50] |author-link=Richard Dawkins}}</ref><br />
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# Strong theist. 100% [[probability]] that God exists. In the words of [[Carl Jung|Carl G. Jung]]: "I do not believe, I know."<br />
# ''De facto'' [[theist]]. Very high probability but short of 100%. "I don't know for certain, but I strongly believe in God and live my life on the assumption that he is there."<br />
# Leaning towards theism. Higher than 50% but not very high. "I am very uncertain, but I am inclined to believe in God."<br />
# Completely impartial. Exactly 50%. "God's existence and nonexistence are exactly equiprobable."<br />
# Leaning towards [[atheism]]. Lower than 50% but not very low. "I do not know whether God exists but I'm inclined to be skeptical."<br />
# ''De facto'' atheist. Very low probability, but short of zero. "I don't know for certain but I think God is very improbable, and I live my life on the assumption that he is not there."<br />
# Strong atheist. "I know there is no God, with the same conviction as Jung knows there is one."<br />
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=== Theism ===<br />
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{{Main|Theism}}<br />
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The Catholic Church, following the teachings of [[Paul the Apostle]] (e.g., {{Bibleverse|Romans|1:20|ESV}}), [[Thomas Aquinas]], and the [[First Vatican Council]], affirms that God's existence "can be known with certainty from the created world by the natural light of human reason".<ref>Vatican Council I, ''Dei Filius'' 2; quoted in ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'', 2nd edition (New York: Doubleday, 1995) n. 36, p. 20.</ref><br />
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==== Traditional religious definition of God ====<br />
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In [[classical theism]], God is characterized as the metaphysically ultimate being (the first, timeless, absolutely simple and sovereign being, who is devoid of any [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] qualities), in distinction to other conceptions such as [[Theistic Personalism|theistic personalism]], [[open theism]], and [[process theism]]. Classical theists do not believe that God can be completely defined. They believe it would contradict the [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] nature of God for mere humans to define him. [[Robert Barron]] explains by analogy that it seems impossible for a two-dimensional object to conceive of three-dimensional humans.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barron |first=Robert |title=Catholicism: A Journey to the Heart of the Faith |publisher=The Doubleday Religious Publishing Group |year=2011 |isbn=9780307720511}}</ref><br />
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In modern Western societies, the [[Conceptions of God|concepts of God]] typically entail a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]], supreme, ultimate, and [[Personal god|personal being]], as found in the [[Christianity|Christian]], [[Islam]]ic and [[Judaism|Jewish]] traditions. In monotheistic religions outside the [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic traditions]], the existence of God is discussed in similar terms. In these traditions, God is also identified as the author (either directly or by inspiration) of certain texts, or that certain texts describe specific historical events caused by the God in question or communications from God (whether in direct speech or via dreams or omens). Some traditions also believe that God is the entity which is currently answering prayers for intervention or information or opinions.[[File:Ibn rushd.jpg|thumb|Ibn Rushd, a 12th-century Islamic scholar]]<br />
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Many Islamic scholars have used philosophical and rational arguments to prove the existence of God. For example, [[Averroes|Ibn Rushd]], a 12th-century Islamic scholar, philosopher, and physician, states there are only two arguments worthy of adherence, both of which are found in what he calls the "Precious Book" (The Qur'an). Rushd cites "providence" and "invention" in using the Qur'an's parables to claim the existence of God. Rushd argues that the Earth's weather patterns are conditioned to support human life; thus, if the planet is so finely-tuned to maintain life, then it suggests a fine tuner—God. The Sun and the Moon are not just random objects floating in the [[Milky Way]], rather they serve us day and night, and the way nature works and how life is formed, humankind benefits from it. Rushd essentially comes to a conclusion that there has to be a higher being who has made everything perfectly to serve the needs of human beings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ibn Rushd (Averroes) |url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/#H4 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509151451/https://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/#H4 |archive-date=2018-05-09 |access-date=2018-05-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Quranic Parable |url=https://quran.com/25/61 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509151127/https://quran.com/25/61 |archive-date=2018-05-09 |access-date=2018-05-09 |website=Quran.com}}</ref><br />
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Moses ben Maimon, widely known as [[Maimonides]], was a Jewish scholar who tried to logically prove the existence of God. Maimonides offered proofs for the existence of God, but he did not begin with defining God first, like many others do. Rather, he used the description of the earth and the universe to prove the existence of God. He talked about the Heavenly bodies and how they are committed to eternal motion. Maimonides argued that because every physical object is finite, it can only contain a finite amount of power. If everything in the universe, which includes all the planets and the stars, is finite, then there has to be an infinite power to push forth the motion of everything in the universe. Narrowing down to an infinite being, the only thing that can explain the motion is an infinite being (meaning God) which is neither a body nor a force in the body. Maimonides believed that this argument gives us a ground to believe that God is, not an idea of what God is. He believed that God cannot be understood or be compared.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seeskin |first=Kenneth |title=Maimonides |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/maimonides/#GodViaNeg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526073550/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/maimonides/#GodViaNeg |archive-date=2018-05-26 |access-date=2018-05-14 |website=plato.stanford}}</ref><br />
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==== Non-personal definitions of God ====<br />
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In [[pantheism]], God and the universe are considered to be the same thing. In this view, the natural sciences are essentially studying the nature of God. This definition of God creates the philosophical problem that a universe with God and one without God are the same, other than the words used to describe it.<br />
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[[Deism]] and [[panentheism]] assert that there is a God distinct from, or which extends beyond (either in time or in space or in some other way) the universe. These positions deny that God intervenes in the operation of the universe, including communicating with humans personally. The notion that God never intervenes or communicates with the universe, or may have evolved into the universe (as in [[pandeism]]), makes it difficult, if not by definition impossible, to distinguish between a universe with God and one without.<br />
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The ''[[Ethics (Spinoza book)|Ethics]]'' of [[Philosophy of Baruch Spinoza#Substance of God|Baruch Spinoza]] gave two demonstrations of the existence of God.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spinoza |first=Benedictus de |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza)/Part_1 |title=Ethics |at=Part 1, Prop. 11}}</ref> The God of Spinoza is uncaused by any external force and has no [[free will]], it is not personal and not anthropomorphic.<br />
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==== Debate about how theism should be argued ====<br />
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In Christian faith, theologian and philosopher Thomas Aquinas made a distinction between: (a) preambles of faith and (b) articles of faith.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sommer |first=Josh |date=2022-03-31 |title=Philosophy & Preambles of Faith |url=https://thebaptistbroadcast.com/philosophy-preambles-of-faith |access-date=2023-10-24 |website=The Baptist Broadcast |language=en-US}}</ref> The preambles include alleged truths contained in revelation which are nevertheless demonstrable by reason, e.g., the immortality of the soul, the existence of God. The articles of faith, on the other hand, contain truths that cannot be proven or reached by reason alone and presuppose the truths of the preambles, e.g., in Christianity, the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]], is not demonstrable and presupposes the existence of God.<br />
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The argument that the existence of God can be known to all, even prior to exposure to any divine revelation, predates Christianity.{{clarify|date=April 2022}} [[Paul the Apostle]] made this argument when he said that pagans were without excuse because "since the creation of the world God's invisible nature, namely, his eternal power and deity, has been clearly perceived in the things that have been made".<ref>{{Bibleverse-lb||Romans|1:20|NIV}}.</ref> In this, Paul alludes to the proofs for a creator, later enunciated by Thomas Aquinas<ref>For the proofs of God's existence by Thomas Aquinas see [[Quinquae viae]].</ref> and others, that had also been explored by the Greek philosophers.<br />
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Another apologetical school of thought, including Dutch and American [[Reformed Churches|Reformed]] thinkers (such as [[Abraham Kuyper]], [[Benjamin Warfield]], and [[Herman Dooyeweerd]]), emerged in the late 1920s. This school was instituted by [[Cornelius Van Til]], and came to be popularly called [[presuppositional apologetics]] (though Van Til felt "transcendental" would be a more accurate title). The main distinction between this approach and the more classical [[Evidentialism|evidentialist]] approach is that the presuppositionalist denies any common ground between the believer and the non-believer, except that which the non-believer denies, namely, the assumption of the truth of the theistic worldview. In other words, presuppositionalists do not believe that the existence of God can be proven by appeal to raw, uninterpreted, or "brute" facts, which have the same (theoretical) meaning to people with fundamentally different worldviews, because they deny that such a condition is even possible. They claim that the only possible proof for the existence of God is that the very same belief is the necessary condition to the intelligibility of all other human experience and action. They attempt to prove the existence of God by means of appeal to the [[Transcendence (philosophy)|transcendental]] necessity of the belief—indirectly (by appeal to the unavowed presuppositions of the non-believer's worldview) rather than directly (by appeal to some form of common factuality). In practice this school uses what have come to be known as [[Transcendental argument for the existence of God|transcendental arguments]]. These arguments claim to demonstrate that all human experience and action (even the condition of unbelief, itself) is a proof for the existence of God, because God's existence is the necessary condition of their intelligibility.<br />
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Protestant Christians note that the Christian faith teaches "[[salvation]] is by faith",<ref>{{Bibleverse-lb|2|Timothy|3:14–15|NIV}} <cite>NIV</cite> "But as for you, continue in what you have learned and have become convinced of, because you know those from whom you learned it, and how from infancy you have known the holy Scriptures, which are able to make you wise for salvation through faith in Christ Jesus." ''The Holy Bible, New International Version''. International Bible Society. 1984.</ref> and that faith is reliance upon the faithfulness of God. The most extreme example of this position is called [[fideism]], which holds that faith is simply the will to believe, and argues that if God's existence were rationally demonstrable, faith in its existence would become superfluous. [[Søren Kierkegaard]] argued that objective knowledge, such as 1+1=2, is unimportant to existence. If God could rationally be proven, his existence would be unimportant to humans.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}} It is because God cannot rationally be proven that his existence is important to us. In ''The Justification of Knowledge'', the [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] theologian [[Robert L. Reymond]] argues that believers should not attempt to prove the existence of God. Since he believes all such proofs are fundamentally unsound, believers should not place their confidence in them, much less resort to them in discussions with non-believers; rather, they should accept the content of revelation by faith. Reymond's position is similar to that of his mentor [[Gordon Clark]], which holds that all worldviews are based on certain unprovable first premises (or, axioms), and therefore are ultimately unprovable. The Christian theist therefore must simply choose to start with Christianity rather than anything else, by a "[[leap of faith]]". This position is also sometimes called [[presuppositional apologetics]], but should not be confused with the Van Tillian variety.<br />
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=== Atheism ===<br />
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{{Main|Atheism}}<br />
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In the philosophy of religion, [[atheism]] is standardly defined as the [[metaphysical]] claim that God does not exist. In 1972, [[Antony Flew]] proposed defining atheism as the psychological state of lacking any belief in God. However, Flew's definition is usually rejected, due to the need for a name for the direct opposite [[proposition]] to theism, the metaphysical claim that God does exist.<ref name ="Draper">{{cite web |last1=Draper |first1=Paul |title=Atheism and Agnosticism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2022}}</ref><br />
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==== Positive atheism ====<br />
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{{Main|Negative and positive atheism}}<br />
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[[Positive atheism]] (also called "strong atheism" and "hard atheism") is a proposed form of atheism that asserts that no deities exist.<ref name="Flew1976">{{Cite book |last=Flew |first=Antony |title=The Presumption of Atheism, and other Philosophical Essays on God, Freedom, and Immortality |publisher=Barnes and Noble |year=1976 |location=New York |pages=14ff |chapter=The Presumption of Atheism |quote=In this interpretation an atheist becomes: not someone who positively asserts the non-existence of God; but someone who is simply not a theist. Let us, for future ready reference, introduce the labels 'positive atheist' for the former and 'negative atheist' for the latter. |author-link=Antony Flew |access-date=2011-12-10 |chapter-url=http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/flew01.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051012172554/http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/flew01.htm |archive-date=2005-10-12 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="mmartin">{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISBN0521842700 |title=The Cambridge Companion to Atheism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-84270-9 |access-date=2016-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502153531/http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0521842700 |archive-date=2015-05-02 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="synonyms">{{Cite web |year=2007 |title=Definitions of the term "Atheism" |url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/atheist4.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206205828/http://www.religioustolerance.org/atheist4.htm |archive-date=2010-12-06 |access-date=2010-06-01 |publisher=Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance}}</ref> The strong atheist explicitly asserts the non-existence of gods.<br />
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==== Negative atheism ====<br />
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Negative atheism (also called "weak atheism" and "soft atheism") is a proposed form of atheism other than positive, wherein a person does not believe in the existence of any deities, but does not explicitly assert there to be none.<ref name="Flew1976" /><ref name="mmartin" /><ref name="synonyms" /><br />
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=== Agnosticism ===<br />
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{{Main|Agnosticism}}<br />
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Agnosticism is the view that the [[truth value]] of certain claims—especially claims about the existence of any deity, but also other religious and metaphysical claims—is unknown or unknowable.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carroll |first=Robert |date=2009-02-22 |title=agnosticism |url=http://skepdic.com/agnosticism.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090925141206/http://www.skepdic.com/agnosticism.html |archive-date=2009-09-25 |access-date=2009-10-17 |website=The Skeptic's Dictionary |publisher=skepdic.com}}</ref> Agnosticism does not define one's belief or disbelief in gods; agnostics may still identify themselves as theists or atheists.<ref name="Agnostic Types">{{Cite web |last=Cline |first=Austin |title=What is Agnosticism? |url=http://atheism.about.com/od/aboutagnosticism/p/overview.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426195921/http://atheism.about.com/od/aboutagnosticism/p/overview.htm |archive-date=2012-04-26 |access-date=2009-01-08 |publisher=[[About.com]]}}</ref><br />
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==== Strong agnosticism ====<br />
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[[Strong agnosticism]] is the belief that it is impossible for humans to know whether or not any deities exist.<br />
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==== Weak agnosticism ====<br />
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{{Main|Weak agnosticism}}<br />
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Weak agnosticism is the belief that the existence or nonexistence of deities is unknown but not necessarily unknowable.<br />
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==== Agnostic theism ====<br />
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{{Main|Agnostic theism}}<br />
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Agnostic theism is the [[philosophical]] view that encompasses both theism and agnosticism. An agnostic theist believes in the existence of a god or God, but regards the basis of this proposition as ''unknown or inherently unknowable''. Agnostic theists may also insist on ignorance regarding the properties of the gods they believe in.<ref name="about">{{Cite web |date=2012-04-13 |title=Introduction to Agnosticism: What is Agnostic Theism? Believing in God, but not Knowing God |url=http://atheism.about.com/od/aboutagnosticism/a/theism.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605134502/http://atheism.about.com/od/aboutagnosticism/a/theism.htm |archive-date=2011-06-05 |access-date=2013-05-14 |publisher=Atheism.about.com}}</ref><br />
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==== Agnostic atheism ====<br />
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{{Main|Agnostic atheism}}<br />
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Agnostic atheism is a philosophical position that encompasses both atheism and agnosticism. Agnostic atheists are atheistic because they do not hold a [[belief]] in the existence of any deity and agnostic because they claim that the existence of a [[deity]] is either unknowable in principle or currently unknown in fact.<br />
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The theologian [[Robert Flint]] explains:<br />
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{{Blockquote|If a man have failed to find any good reason for believing that there is a God, it is perfectly natural and rational that he should not believe that there is a God; and if so, he is an atheist, although he assume no superhuman knowledge, but merely the ordinary human power of judging of evidence. If he go farther, and, after an investigation into the nature and reach of human knowledge, ending in the conclusion that the existence of God is incapable of proof, cease to believe in it on the ground that he cannot know it to be true, he is an agnostic and also an atheist, an agnostic-atheist—an atheist because an agnostic."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flint |first=Robert |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWMtAAAAYAAJ |title=Agnosticism |publisher=C. Scribner sons |year=1903 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWMtAAAAYAAJ/page/n66 50] |chapter=Erroneous Views of Agnosticism |quote=agnostic atheism. |access-date=2009-11-15}}</ref>}}<br />
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=== Apatheism ===<br />
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{{Main|Apatheism}}<br />
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An apatheist is someone who is not interested in accepting or denying any claims that gods exist or do not exist. An apatheist lives as if there are no gods and explains natural [[phenomena]] without reference to any deities. The existence of gods is not rejected, but may be designated unnecessary or useless; gods neither provide purpose to [[Personal life|life]], nor influence [[everyday life]], according to this view.<ref name="Zdybicka-p20">{{cite book |last=Zdybicka |first=Zofia J. |year=2005 |contribution=Atheism |url=http://ptta.pl/pef/ <br />
|page=20 |contribution-url=http://ptta.pl/pef/haslaen/a/atheism.pdf |editor-first=Andrzej |editor-last=Maryniarczyk |title=Universal Encyclopedia of Philosophy |volume=1 |publisher=Polish Thomas Aquinas Association |access-date=2010-05-04}}</ref><br />
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=== Ignosticism ===<br />
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{{Main|Ignosticism}}<br />
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The ignostic (or igtheist) usually concludes that the question of God's existence or nonexistence is usually not worth discussing because concepts like "God" are usually not sufficiently or clearly defined. Ignosticism or igtheism is the theological position that every other theological position (including [[agnosticism]] and atheism) assumes too much about the concept of God and many other theological concepts. It can be defined as encompassing two related views about the existence of God. The view that a coherent definition of God must be presented before the question of the existence of God can be meaningfully discussed. Furthermore, if that definition is [[Falsifiability|unfalsifiable]], the ignostic takes the [[Theological noncognitivism|theological noncognitivist]] position that the question of the existence of God (per that definition) is meaningless.{{Citation needed|reason=Citation needed for what seems very dubious Original Research (OR). The OR seems especially dubious as seemingly coming from a pseudo-Popperian perspective; Karl Popper objected to Logical Positivists' insistence that what was not verifiable was meaningless, and brought in Falsifiability partly to oppose them, but he also said that they were abusing the word 'meaningless' in a way that would wrongly render many important areas of human thought and experience 'meaningless'; there's no reason to suppose that ignostics are generally pseudo-Popperians, nor to unwittingly or wittingly imply it in this article. But all that's probably a lot less relevant here than the fact that the statement is seemingly OR.|date=August 2018}} In this case, the concept of God is not considered meaningless; the term "God" is considered meaningless. The second view is synonymous with theological noncognitivism, and skips the step of first asking "What is meant by 'God'?" before proclaiming the original question "Does God exist?" as meaningless.<br />
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Some philosophers have seen ignosticism as a variation of agnosticism or atheism,<ref name="The Argument From Non-Cognitivism">{{Cite web |title=The Argument From Non-Cognitivism |url=http://www.strongatheism.net/library/atheology/argument_from_noncognitivism/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429162223/http://www.strongatheism.net/library/atheology/argument_from_noncognitivism/ |archive-date=2014-04-29 |access-date=2008-02-11}}</ref> while others{{Who|date=December 2016}} have considered it to be distinct.{{Citation needed|date=December 2016}} An ignostic maintains that he cannot even say whether he is a [[Theism|theist]] or an atheist until a sufficient definition of theism is put forth.<br />
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The term "ignosticism" was coined in the 1960s by [[Sherwin Wine]], a [[rabbi]] and a founding figure of [[Humanistic Judaism]]. The term "igtheism" was coined by the [[Secular humanism|secular humanist]] [[Paul Kurtz]] in his 1992 book ''The New Skepticism''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2010-07-28 |title=isms of the week: Agnosticism and Ignosticism |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2010/07/definitions_1 |url-status=live |access-date=December 19, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216014452/http://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2010/07/definitions_1 |archive-date=December 16, 2011}}</ref><br />
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== Philosophical issues ==<br />
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=== The problem of the supernatural ===<br />
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One problem posed by the question of the existence of God is that traditional beliefs usually ascribe to God various [[supernatural]] powers. Supernatural beings may be able to conceal and reveal themselves for their own purposes, as for example in the tale of [[Baucis and Philemon]]. In addition, according to concepts of God, God is not part of the natural order, but the ultimate creator of nature and of the scientific laws. Thus in [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian philosophy]], God is viewed as part of the explanatory structure needed to support scientific conclusions and any powers God possesses are—strictly speaking—of the natural order that is derived from God's place as originator of nature (see also [[Monadology]]).<br />
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In [[Karl Popper]]'s [[philosophy of science]], belief in a supernatural God is outside the natural domain of scientific investigation because all scientific hypotheses must be falsifiable in the natural world. The [[non-overlapping magisteria]] view proposed by [[Stephen Jay Gould]] also holds that the existence (or otherwise) of God is irrelevant to and beyond the domain of science.<br />
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Scientists follow the [[scientific method]], within which theories must be verifiable by [[physical experiment]]. The majority of prominent conceptions of God explicitly or effectively posit a being whose existence is not testable either by proof or disproof.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Spitzer |first=Robert J. |title=New proofs for the existence of God: contributions of contemporary physics and philosophy |date=2010 |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Pub |isbn=978-0-8028-6383-6 |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |pages=73 |language=en-us |oclc=466359148}}</ref> Therefore, the question of God's existence may lie outside the purview of modern science [[Relationship between religion and science|by definition]].<ref>{{Cite book |author=Stenger |first=Victor J. |title=God : the failed hypothesis : how science shows that God does not exist |date=2007 |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn=978-1-59102-481-1 |location=Amherst, New York |pages=43 |language=en-us |oclc=72988016}}</ref> The [[Catholic Church]] maintains that knowledge of the existence of God is the "natural light of human reason".<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church, Paragraph 47; cf. Canons of the First Vatican Council, 2:2.</ref> [[Fideism|Fideists]] maintain that belief in God's existence may not be amenable to demonstration or refutation, but rests on [[faith]] alone.<br />
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[[Logical positivism|Logical positivists]] such as [[Rudolf Carnap]] and [[A. J. Ayer]] viewed any talk of gods as literal nonsense. For the logical positivists and adherents of similar schools of thought, statements about religious or other transcendent experiences can not have a [[truth value]], and are deemed to be without meaning, because such statements do not have any clear verification criteria. As the Christian biologist Scott C. Todd put it "Even if all the data pointed to an intelligent designer, such a hypothesis is excluded from science because it is not naturalistic."<ref>Scott C. Todd, "A View from Kansas on that Evolution Debate," Nature, Vol. 401, Sep. 30, 1999, p. 423.</ref> This argument limits the domain of science to the empirically observable and limits the domain of God to the empirically unprovable.<br />
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=== Nature of relevant proofs and arguments ===<br />
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[[John Polkinghorne]] suggests that the nearest analogy to the existence of God in physics is the ideas of [[quantum mechanics]] which are seemingly paradoxical but make sense of a great deal of disparate data.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Polkinghorne |first=John |title=Belief in God in an Age of Science |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-300-07294-5 |author-link=John Polkinghorne}}</ref><br />
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Alvin Plantinga compares the question of the existence of God to the question of the existence of [[Problem of other minds|other minds]], claiming both are notoriously impossible to "prove" against a determined skeptic.<ref>Plantinga, Alvin. ''Other Minds: A Study of the Rational Justification of Belief in God,'' Cornell (1990) {{ISBN|0-8014-9735-3}} and ''Warranted Christian Belief,'' Oxford University Press (2000), {{ISBN|0-19-513193-2}}.</ref><br />
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One approach, suggested by writers such as Stephen D. Unwin, is to treat (particular versions of) theism and [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]] as though they were two hypotheses in the [[Bayesian probability|Bayesian]] sense, to list certain data (or alleged data), about the world, and to suggest that the likelihoods of these data are significantly higher under one hypothesis than the other.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Debate the Existence of God – Beale v Howson |url=http://www.starcourse.org/discussion/ |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=www.starcourse.org}}</ref> Most of the arguments for, or against, the existence of God can be seen as pointing to particular aspects of the universe in this way. In almost all cases it is not seriously suggested by proponents of the arguments that they are irrefutable, merely that they make one worldview seem significantly more likely than the other. However, since an assessment of the weight of evidence depends on the [[prior probability]] that is assigned to each worldview, arguments that a theist finds convincing may seem thin to an atheist and vice versa.<ref>See e.g. ''The Probability of God'' by ''Stephen D. Unwin'' its criticism in [[The God Delusion]], and the critical comment in that article.</ref><br />
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Philosophers, such as [[Wittgenstein]], take a view that is considered [[Anti-realism|anti-realist]] and oppose philosophical arguments related to God's existence. For instance, [[Charles Taylor (philosopher)|Charles Taylor]] contends that the real is whatever will not go away. If we cannot reduce talk about God to anything else, or replace it, or prove it false, then perhaps God is as real as anything else.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-08-30 |title=iep.utm.edu |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/wittgens/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512033044/http://www.iep.utm.edu/wittgens/ |archive-date=2013-05-12 |access-date=2013-05-14 |publisher=iep.utm.edu}}</ref><br />
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In [[George Berkeley]]'s ''[[A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge]]'' of 1710, he argued that a "naked thought" cannot exist, and that a perception is a thought; therefore only minds can be proven to exist, since all else is merely an idea conveyed by a perception. From this Berkeley argued that the universe is based upon observation and is non-objective. However, he noted that the universe includes "ideas" not perceptible to humankind, and that there must, therefore, exist an omniscient superobserver, which perceives such things. Berkeley considered this proof of the existence of the Christian god.<br />
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=== Outside of Western thought ===<br />
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Existence in absolute truth is central to [[Vedanta]] epistemology. Traditional sense perception based approaches were put into question as possibly misleading due to preconceived or superimposed ideas. But though all object-cognition can be doubted, the existence of the doubter remains a fact even in ''[[nastika]]'' traditions of ''mayavada'' schools following [[Adi Shankara]].<ref name="isbn0-7914-7081-4">{{Cite book |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |url=https://archive.org/details/surveyhinduismth00klos |title=A survey of Hinduism |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7914-7081-7 |location=Albany, New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/surveyhinduismth00klos/page/n375 357] |language=en-us |url-access=limited}}</ref> The five eternal principles to be discussed under ontology, beginning with God or Isvara, the [[Ultimate Reality]] cannot be established by the means of [[logic]] alone, and often require superior proof.<ref>Sudesh Narang (1984), ''The Vaisnava Philosophy According to Baladeva Vidyābhūṣaṇa'', p. 30.</ref><br />
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In [[Vaisnavism]] [[Vishnu]], or his intimate ontological form of [[Krishna]], is equated to the personal absolute God of the Western traditions. Aspects of Krishna as ''[[svayam bhagavan]]'' in original Absolute Truth, ''[[sat chit ananda]]'', are understood originating from three essential attributes of Krishna's form, i.e., "eternal existence" or ''{{IAST|sat}}'', related to the ''[[brahman]]'' aspect; "knowledge" or chit, to the ''[[paramatman]]''; and "bliss" or ''ananda'' in [[Sanskrit]], to ''[[bhagavan]]''.<ref name="isbn0-231-12256-X">{{Cite book |last1=Ekstrand |first1=Maria |title=The Hare Krishna movement: the postcharismatic fate of a religious transplant |title-link=Hare Krishna movement |last2=Bryant |first2=Edwin H. |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-231-12256-6 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/harekrishnamovem00brya/page/n29 7] |language=en-us}}</ref><br />
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== Arguments ==<br />
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=== Arguments for the existence of God===<br />
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==== Logical arguments ====<br />
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===== Aquinas' Five Ways =====<br />
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{{Main|Five Ways (Aquinas)}}<br />
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In article 3, question 2, first part of his ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', [[Thomas Aquinas]] developed his five arguments for God's existence. These arguments are grounded in an Aristotelian ontology and make use of the [[Infinite regress|infinite regression argument]].<ref name="Aquinas 1274">{{Cite book |last=Aquinas |first=Thomas |url=http://www.newadvent.org/summa/ |title=Summa Theologica |year=1274 |at=Part 1, Question 2, Article 3 |access-date=2012-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615112233/http://www.newadvent.org/summa/ |archive-date=2012-06-15 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aquinas |first1=Thomas |title=Summa of the Summa |last2=Kreeft |first2=Peter |publisher=Ignatius Press |year=1990 |isbn=9780898703009 |pages=65–69}}</ref> Aquinas did not intend to fully prove the existence of God as he is orthodoxly conceived (with all of his traditional attributes), but proposed his Five Ways as a first stage, which he built upon later in his work.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davies, Brian |title=The Thought of Thomas Aquinas |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1992 |isbn=9780191520440 |page=26}}</ref> Aquinas' Five Ways argued from the [[unmoved mover]], [[first cause]], [[necessary being]], [[argument from degree]], and the [[Five Ways (Aquinas)#Fifth way: Argument from Final Cause or Ends|argument from final cause]].<ref name="Aquinas 1274"/><br />
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* The unmoved mover argument: things in the world are in motion, something can only be caused to move by a mover, therefore everything in the world must be moved by an unmoved mover. <br />
* The first cause argument: things in the world have a cause, and nothing is the cause of itself, so everything in the world must have a first cause or an uncaused cause. <br />
* The necessary being argument: things in the world are contingent, and contingent beings cannot exist without a cause, so everything in the world must be caused by a necessary being. <br />
* The degree argument: there are degrees of goodness and perfection among things, and something of a maximum degree must be the cause of things of a lower degree, so there must be a supremely good and perfect cause for all good things. <br />
* The final cause argument: things in the world act for an end or purpose, but only an intelligent being can direct itself towards a purpose, so there must be an intelligent being that directs things towards their purpose.<br />
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===== Cosmological argument =====<br />
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{{Main|Cosmological argument}}<br />
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The cosmological argument is an [[a posteriori]] argument for a cause or reason for the cosmos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Craig |first=William Lane |title=The Cosmological Argument From Plato to Leibniz |date=October 2001 |publisher=[[Wipf and Stock Publishers]] |isbn=1-57910-787-7 |location=Eugene, Oregon |pages=x |language=en-us}}</ref><br />
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One type of cosmological, or "first cause" argument, typically called the [[Kalam cosmological argument]], asserts that since everything that begins to exist has a cause, and the universe began to exist, the universe must have had a cause which was itself not caused. This ultimate first cause is identified with God. Christian apologist [[William Lane Craig]] gives a version of this argument in the following form:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Craig |first=William Lane |title=The Existence of God and the Beginning of the Universe |url=http://www.leaderu.com/truth/3truth11.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123023313/http://www.leaderu.com/truth/3truth11.html |archive-date=23 January 2013 |access-date=22 June 2008 |website=Truth Journal |publisher=Leaderu.com}}</ref><br />
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# Whatever begins to exist has a cause.<br />
# The Universe began to exist.<br />
# Therefore, the Universe had a cause.<br />
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===== Ontological argument =====<br />
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{{Main|Ontological argument}}<br />
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The ontological argument has been formulated by philosophers including [[St. Anselm]] and [[René Descartes]]. The argument proposes that God's existence is self-evident. The logic, depending on the formulation, reads roughly as follows:<ref name="Nolan">{{Cite web |last=Nolan |first=Lawrence |title=Descartes' Ontological Argument |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-ontological/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513205040/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-ontological/ |archive-date=2012-05-13 |access-date=2012-06-20 |publisher=Stanford}}</ref><br />
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{{Blockquote|<br />
Whatever is contained in a clear and distinct idea of a thing must be predicated of that thing; but a clear and distinct idea of an absolutely perfect Being contains the idea of actual existence; therefore since we have the idea of an absolutely perfect Being such a Being must really exist.<ref name="Nolan" />}}<br />
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Thomas Aquinas criticized the argument for proposing a definition of God which, if God is transcendent, should be impossible for humans.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aquinas |first=Thomas |url=http://www.newadvent.org/summa/ |title=Summa Theologica |year=1274 |at=Part 1, Question 2 |access-date=2012-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615112233/http://www.newadvent.org/summa/ |archive-date=2012-06-15 |url-status=live}}</ref> Immanuel Kant criticized the proof from a logical standpoint: he stated that the term "God" really signifies two different terms: both idea of God, and God. Kant concluded that the proof is equivocation, based on the ambiguity of the word God.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kreeft |first=Peter |title=Socrates Meets Kant |publisher=Ignatius Press |year=2009 |isbn=9781586173487}}</ref> Kant also challenged the argument's assumption that existence is a predicate (of perfection) because it does not add anything to the essence of a being. If existence is not a predicate, then it is not [[Logical truth|necessarily true]] that the greatest possible being exists.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Ontological Argument |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/ont-arg |access-date=October 12, 2011 |last=Himma |first=Kenneth Einar |date=27 April 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027042158/http://www.iep.utm.edu/ont-arg/ |archive-date=27 October 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> A common rebuttal to Kant's critique is that, although "existence" does add something to both the concept and the reality of God, the concept would be vastly different if its referent is an unreal Being.{{Citation needed|date=August 2013}} Another response to Kant is attributed to Alvin Plantinga, who says that even if one were to grant that existence is not a real predicate, ''necessary existence'', which is the correct formulation of an understanding of God, ''is'' a real predicate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plantinga 'The Ontological Argument' Text |url=http://mind.ucsd.edu/syllabi/02-03/01w/readings/plantinga.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130314123846/http://mind.ucsd.edu/syllabi/02-03/01w/readings/plantinga.html |archive-date=2013-03-14 |access-date=2013-05-14 |publisher=Mind.ucsd.edu}}</ref><br />
====== Gödel's ontological proof======<br />
{{Excerpt|Gödel's ontological proof}}<br />
The proof<ref>Gödel's proof is reprinted on p.403-404,429-437 of: {{cite book | url=https://monoskop.org/images/a/aa/Kurt_G%C3%B6del_Collected_Works_Volume_III_1995.pdf | isbn=0-19-507255-3 | author=Kurt Gödel | editor=Solomon Feferman and John W. Dawson jr. and Warren Goldfarb and Charles Parsons and Robert M. Solovay | title=Unpublished Essays and Lectures | location=Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press | series=Collected Works | volume=III | edition=1st | date=Mar 1995 }}</ref>{{#tag:ref |The presentation below follows that in Koons (2005),<ref name="Koons.2005"/> p.3-7.}} uses [[modal logic]], which distinguishes between [[logical truth|''necessary'' truths]] and [[Contingency (philosophy)|''contingent'' truths]]. In the most common semantics for modal logic, many "[[Modal logic#Semantics|possible worlds]]" are considered. A [[truth]] is ''necessary'' if it is true in all possible worlds. By contrast, if a statement happens to be true in our world, but is false in another world, then it is a ''contingent'' truth. A statement that is true in some world (not necessarily our own) is called a ''[[logically possible|possible]]'' truth.<br />
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Furthermore, the proof uses [[higher-order logic|higher-order]] (modal) logic because the definition of God employs an explicit quantification over properties.<ref>Fitting, 2002, p. 139</ref><br />
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First, Gödel axiomatizes the notion of a "positive property":<ref group=note>It assumes that it is possible to single out ''positive'' properties from among all properties. Gödel comments that "Positive means positive in the [[morality|moral]] [[aesthetics|aesthetic]] sense (independently of the accidental structure of the world)... It may also mean pure ''attribution'' as opposed to ''privation'' (or containing privation)." (Gödel 1995), see also manuscript in (Gawlick 2012).</ref> for each property ''φ'', either ''φ'' or its [[negation]] ¬''φ'' must be positive, but not both (axiom 2). If a positive property ''φ'' implies a property ''ψ'' in each possible world, then ''ψ'' is positive, too (axiom 1).<ref group=note>As a profane example, if the property of being green is positive, that of not being red is, too (by axiom 1), hence that of being red is negative (by axiom 2). More generally, at most one color can be considered positive.</ref> Gödel then argues that each positive property is "possibly exemplified", i.e. applies at least to some object in some world (theorem 1). Defining an object to be Godlike if it has all positive properties (definition 1),<ref group=note>Continuing the color example, a godlike object must have the unique color that is considered positive, or no color at all; both alternatives may seem counter-intuitive.</ref> and requiring that property to be positive itself (axiom 3),<ref group=note>If one considers the [[partial order]] <math> \preceq </math> defined by <math> \varphi \preceq \psi </math> if <math> \square \forall y (\varphi(y) \to \psi(y)) </math>, then Axioms 1-3 can be summarized by saying that positive properties form an [[ultrafilter]] on this ordering. Definition 1 and Axiom 4 are needed to establish the ''Godlike'' property as principal element of the ultrafilter.</ref> Gödel shows that in ''some'' possible world a Godlike object exists (theorem 2), called "God" in the following.<ref group=note>By removing all modal operators from axioms, definitions, proofs, and theorems, a modified version of theorem 2 is obtained saying "∃''x'' ''G''(''x'')", i.e. "There exists an object which has all positive, but no negative properties". Nothing more than axioms 1-3, definition 1, and theorems 1-2 needs to be considered for this result.</ref> Gödel proceeds to prove that a Godlike object exists in ''every'' possible world.<br />
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====== Meinongian argument ======<br />
{{Excerpt|Meinongian argument}}<br />
====== Trademark argument ======<br />
{{Excerpt|Trademark argument}}<br />
===== Plantinga's free-will defense =====<br />
{{Excerpt|Alvin Plantinga's free-will defense}}<br />
Specifically, the argument from evil asserts that the following set of propositions are, by themselves, logically inconsistent or contradictory:<br />
# God is [[omniscient]] (all-knowing)<br />
# God is [[omnipotent]] (all-powerful)<br />
# God is [[omnibenevolent]] (morally perfect)<br />
# There is evil in the world<br />
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Plantinga's free-will defense begins by noting a distinction between ''moral evil'' and ''physical evil'' (Plantinga's defense primarily references moral evil), then asserting that Mackie's argument failed to establish an ''explicit'' logical contradiction between God and the existence of moral evil. In other words Plantinga shows that (1–4) are not on their own contradictory, and that any contradiction must originate from an atheologian's ''implicit'' unstated assumptions, assumptions representing premises not stated in the argument itself. With an ''explicit'' contradiction ruled out, an atheologian must add premises to the argument for it to succeed.{{sfn|Plantinga|1977|loc=ch.&nbsp;4|p=12-17}} Nonetheless, if Plantinga had offered no further argument, then an atheologian's intuitive impressions that a contradiction must exist would have remained unanswered. Plantinga sought to resolve this by offering two further points.{{sfn|Plantinga|1977|loc=ch.&nbsp;4|p=23-25}}<br />
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First, Plantinga, using [[modal logic]], pointed out that omnipotence is the power to do all things logically possible, and thus God could not be expected to do things that are logically impossible.<ref>{{cite web |title=Logical Problem of Evil |url=https://iep.utm.edu/evil-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> God could not, for example, create square circles, act contrary to his nature, or, more relevantly, create beings with free will that would never choose evil.{{sfn|Plantinga|1977|loc=ch.&nbsp;4|p=17}} Taking this latter point further, Plantinga argued that the moral value of human free will is a credible offsetting justification that God could have as a morally justified reason for permitting the existence of evil.{{sfn|Plantinga|1977|loc=ch.&nbsp;4|p=27}} Plantinga did not claim to have shown that the conclusion of the logical problem is wrong, nor did he assert that God's reason for allowing evil is, in fact, to preserve free will. Instead, his argument sought only to show that the [[logical problem of evil]] was invalid.{{sfn|Plantinga|1977|loc=ch.&nbsp;4|p=34}}<br />
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Plantinga's defense has received strong support among academic philosophers, with many agreeing that it defeated the logical problem of evil.<ref name="Howard-Snyder">{{harvnb|Howard-Snyder|O'Leary-Hawthorne|1998|p=1}}: "It used to be widely held by philosophers that God and evil are incompatible. Not any longer. Alvin Plantinga's Free Will Defense is largely responsible for this shift."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Meister|2009|p=134}}: "Most philosophers have agreed that the free will defense has defeated the logical problem of evil.&nbsp;... Because of [Plantinga's argument], it is now widely accepted that the logical problem of evil has been sufficiently rebutted."</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite web |last=Craig |first=William Lane |author-link=William Lane Craig |title=The Problem of Evil |url=https://www.reasonablefaith.org/writings/popular-writings/existence-nature-of-god/the-problem-of-evil/ |website=Reasonable Faith |access-date=27 April 2019 |quote=Therefore, I'm very pleased to be able to report that it is widely agreed among contemporary philosophers that the logical problem of evil has been dissolved. The co-existence of God and evil is logically possible.}}</ref>{{sfnm |1a1=Alston |1y=1991 |1p=49 |2a1=Peterson |2a2=Hasker |2a3=Reichenbach |2a4=Basinger |2y=1991 |2p=133}} Contemporary atheologians{{sfnm |1a1=Bergmann |1y=1999 |2a1=LaFollette |2y=1980 |3a1=Howard-Snyder |3a2=O'Leary-Hawthorne |3y=1998}} have presented arguments claiming to have found the additional premises needed to create an explicitly contradictory [[theism|theistic]] set by adding to the propositions 1–4.<br />
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===== Proof of the Truthful =====<br />
{{Excerpt|Proof of the Truthful}}<br />
==== Empirical arguments ====<br />
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===== Argument from beauty =====<br />
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{{Excerpt|Argument from beauty}}<br />
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===== Argument from consciousness =====<br />
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{{Excerpt|Argument from consciousness}}<br />
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===== Argument from design =====<br />
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{{Excerpt|Teleological argument}}<br />
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===== Argument from natural laws =====<br />
{{main|Natural-law argument}}<br />
The [[Natural-law argument|argument from natural law]]s (promoted by [[Isaac Newton]], [[René Descartes]], and [[Robert Boyle]]) holds that the existence of God is evident by the observation of [[Scientific law|governing laws]] and existing order in the Universe.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |last2=Roberts |first2=Jon H. |title=Science without God? rethinking the history of scientific naturalism |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |isbn=9780198834588 |edition=First}}</ref><br />
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===== Argument from psychedelics =====<br />
{{See|Philosophy of psychedelics}}<br />
Human subjects in scientific studies have reported that [[psychedelic drugs]] such as [[LSD]], [[mescaline]], [[psilocybin mushroom]]s, and [[DMT]] provide perceptions of a transcendent reality, including encounters with God.<ref>{{cite news |title=Experiences of 'Ultimate Reality' or 'God' Confer Lasting Benefits to Mental Health |url=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/news/newsroom/news-releases/2019/04/experiences-of-ultimate-reality-or-god-confer-lasting-benefits-to-mental-health |work=www.hopkinsmedicine.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Wade |first1=Grace |title=Religious leaders given psilocybin say they "felt God" |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2379589-religious-leaders-given-psilocybin-say-they-felt-god/ |work=New Scientist}}</ref> <br />
Since prehistory, cultures around the world have used [[entheogen]]s for the purpose of enabling [[mystical experience]]s. In ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'', English philosopher and writer [[Aldous Huxley]] recounts his mystical experiences while he was under the influence of mescaline, arguing that the human brain normally filters reality, and that such drugs remove this filter, exposing humans to a broader spectrum of conscious awareness which he calls the "[[Mind at Large]]".<br />
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===== Argument from sensus divinitatis =====<br />
The argument from ''[[sensus divinitatis]]'' (Latin for "sense of divinity") posits that humans are born with an innate sense, or cognitive mechanism, that grants them awareness of God's presence. [[Alvin Plantinga]] argues that if beliefs formed by sensory experience can be considered properly basic, requiring no external justification, then beliefs in theism formed by a ''sensus divinitatis'' can be considered properly basic as well, and thus require no external justification.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Webb |first1=Mark |title=Religious Experience |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religious-experience/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2022}}</ref> Research in the [[cognitive science of religion]] suggests that the human brain has a natural and evolutionary predisposition towards theistic beliefs, which [[Kelly James Clark]] argues is empirical evidence for the presence of a ''sensus divinitatis''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stewart |first1=Melville Y. |title=Science and Religion in Dialogue |date=2010 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Malden, MA |isbn=9781405189217}}</ref><br />
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===== Rational warrant =====<br />
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Philosopher [[Stephen Toulmin]] is notable for his work in the history of ideas<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stephen Edelston Toulmin |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/600670/Stephen-Edelston-Toulmin |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714133155/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/600670/Stephen-Edelston-Toulmin |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=16 June 2014 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> that features the (rational) warrant: a statement that connects the premises to a conclusion.<br />
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Joseph Hinman applied Toulmin's approach in his argument for the existence of God, particularly in his book ''The Trace of God: A Rational Warrant for Belief''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hinman |first=Joseph |title=The Trace of God: A Rational Warrant for Belief |date=2014-05-28 |publisher=GrandViaduct |isbn=978-0-9824087-1-1 |edition=1}}</ref> Instead of attempting to prove the existence of God, Hinman argues you can "demonstrate the rationally-warranted nature of belief".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hinman |first=Joseph |title=On Rational Warrant |url=http://metacrock.blogspot.com/2010/07/on-rational-warrant.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714233756/http://metacrock.blogspot.com/2010/07/on-rational-warrant.html |archive-date=2014-07-14 |access-date=2014-06-13 |website=Metacrock|date=11 July 2010 }}</ref><br />
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Hinman uses a wide range of studies, including ones by Robert Wuthnow, Andrew Greeley, Mathes and Kathleen Nobel to establish that mystical experiences are life-transformative in a way that is significant, positive and lasting.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hinman |first=Joseph |title=The Trace of God: A Rational Warrant for Belief |date=2014-05-28 |publisher=GrandViaduct |isbn=978-0-9824087-1-1 |edition=1 |pages=85–92}}</ref> He draws on additional work to add several additional major points to his argument. First, the people who have these experiences not only do not exhibit traditional signs of mental illness but, often, are in better mental and physical health than the general population due to the experience.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hinman |first=Joseph |title=The Trace of God: A Rational Warrant for Belief |date=2014-05-28 |publisher=GrandViaduct |isbn=978-0-9824087-1-1 |edition=1 |pages=90–92}}</ref> Second, the experiences work. In other words, they provide a framework for navigating life that is useful and effective.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hinman |first=Joseph |title=The Trace of God: A Rational Warrant for Belief |date=2014-05-28 |publisher=GrandViaduct |isbn=978-0-9824087-1-1 |edition=1 |pages=100–103}}</ref> All of the evidence of the positive effects of the experience upon people's lives he, adapting a term from [[Derrida]], terms "the trace of God": the footprints left behind that point to the impact.<br />
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Finally, he discusses how both religious experience and belief in God is, and has always been, normative among humans:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hinman |first=Joseph |title=The Trace of God: A Rational Warrant for Belief |date=2014-05-28 |publisher=GrandViaduct |isbn=978-0-9824087-1-1 |edition=1 |pages=104–105}}</ref> people do not need to prove the existence of God. If there is no need to prove, Hinman argues, and the Trace of God (for instance, the impact of mystical experiences on them), belief in God is rationally warranted.{{Clarify|date=January 2017}}<br />
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==== Inductive arguments ====<br />
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Some have put forward arguments for the existence of God based on [[inductive reasoning]]. For example, one class of philosophers asserts that the proofs for the existence of God present a fairly large probability though not absolute certainty. A number of obscure points, they say, always remain; an act of faith is required to dismiss these difficulties. This view is maintained, among others, by the [[Scotland|Scottish]] statesman [[Arthur Balfour]] in his book ''The Foundations of Belief'' (1895). The opinions set forth in this work were adopted in [[France]] by [[Ferdinand Brunetière]], the editor of the ''[[Revue des deux Mondes]]''. Many orthodox Protestants express themselves in the same manner, as, for instance, Dr. E. Dennert, President of the Kepler Society, in his work ''Ist Gott tot?''<ref>(Stuttgart, 1908).</ref><br />
==== Metaphysical arguments ====<br />
===== Argument from degree =====<br />
{{Excerpt|Argument from degree}}<br />
===== Argument from desire =====<br />
{{Excerpt|Argument from desire}}<br />
C. S. Lewis, in ''[[Mere Christianity]]'' and elsewhere, posed that all natural desires have a natural object. One thirsts, and there exists water to quench this thirst; One hungers, and there exists food to satisfy this hunger. He then argued that the human desire for perfect justice, perfect peace, perfect happiness, and other intangibles strongly implies the existence of such things, though they seem unobtainable on earth. He further posed that the unquenchable desires of this life strongly imply that we are intended for a different life, necessarily governed by a God who can provide the desired intangibles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=C. S. |title=Mere Christianity, Bk. III |chapter=10}}</ref><br />
===== Argument from love =====<br />
{{Excerpt|Argument from love}}<br />
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===== Argument from mathematics =====<br />
{{See|Philosophy of mathematics|Mathematics and God}}<br />
The argument from mathematics is presented by American philosopher [[William Lane Craig]]. In the [[philosophy of mathematics]], the ontological status of mathematical entities, such as numbers, sets, and functions is debated. Within this philosophical context, two primary positions emerge: [[mathematical realism]] and [[mathematical anti-realism]]. Realists argue that mathematical objects exist independently of human thought as abstract, non-causal entities. In contrast, anti-realists deny the independent existence of these mathematical objects. A pivotal issue in this debate is the phenomenon that physicist [[Eugene Wigner]] termed "the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics." This refers to the ability of mathematics to describe and predict phenomena in the natural world, exemplified by theoretical physicist [[Peter Higgs]]' use of mathematical equations to predict the existence of a fundamental particle, which was verified experimentally decades later.<br />
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Craig posits that this effectiveness presents a significant philosophical question about the applicability of mathematics, regardless of one's stance on the existence of mathematical entities. He argues that theism provides a more compelling framework for understanding this phenomenon than [[metaphysical naturalism]]. Under realism, non-theistic perspectives might view the alignment of mathematical abstractions with physical reality as a mere coincidence. However, a theistic realist might argue that this alignment is intentional, as a Supreme Being created the world based on these abstract [[mathematical structure]]s. On the other hand, anti-realists, particularly those of a naturalistic persuasion, see mathematical relationships as reflections of real-world interactions, without necessitating abstract entities. Yet, Craig challenges this view by questioning why the physical world inherently exhibits such complex mathematical patterns without an intentional design. In contrast, the theistic anti-realist has a straightforward explanation: the world reflects a complex mathematical structure because it was created by God following an abstract model. Thus, Craig concludes that theism offers a superior explanation for why mathematics applies so effectively to understanding and predicting the physical world.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ruloff |first1=Colin |last2=Horban |first2=Peter |title=Contemporary arguments in natural theology: God and rational belief |date=2021 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |location=London New York Oxford New Delhi Sydney |isbn=9781350093850}}</ref><br />
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===== Argument from morality =====<br />
{{Excerpt|Argument from morality}}<br />
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===== Argument from reason =====<br />
{{Excerpt|Argument from reason}}<br />
===== Transcendental argument =====<br />
{{Excerpt|Transcendental argument for the existence of God}}<br />
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==== Subjective arguments ====<br />
===== Argument from religious experience =====<br />
{{main|Argument from religious experience}}<br />
The argument from religious experience holds that the best explanation for [[religious experience]]s is that they are actual perceptions of God's presence. Philosopher Robert Sloan Lee notes that this argument possesses an "unexpected resilience" despite seemingly being able to be easily defeated by simple objections, such as pointing out the existence of [[hallucination]]s.<ref name="lee">{{cite book |last=Lee|first=Robert Sloan|date=July 1, 2021 |editor-last=Branson|editor-first=Beau|title=Introduction to Philosophy: Philosophy of Religion|publisher=Rebus Community|url=https://press.rebus.community/intro-to-phil-of-religion/chapter/non-standard-arguments-for-gods-existence/ |chapter=Non-Standard Arguments for God's existence |isbn=9781989014233}}</ref> Philosopher [[William J. Abraham]] states "We do not generally believe that because some reports of ordinary natural objects sometimes involve illusion, hallucination, and the like, then all reports do so".<ref name="lee"/> He continues, "If we insist that they apply only to religious experience, then we face the embarrassing fact that we apply standards in the religious sphere which we do not apply elsewhere".<ref name="lee"/><br />
===== Arguments from witnesses' testimony =====<br />
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Arguments from testimony rely on the testimony or experience of witnesses, possibly embodying the propositions of a specific revealed [[religion]]. Swinburne argues that it is a principle of rationality that one should accept testimony unless there are strong reasons for not doing so.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Swinburne |first=Richard |title=[[Is There a God?]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-823545-3 |author-link=Richard Swinburne}}</ref><br />
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* The [[witness argument]] gives credibility to personal [[witness]]es, contemporary and throughout the ages. A variation of this is the [[argument from miracles]] (also referred to as "the priest stories") which relies on testimony of supernatural events to establish the existence of God.<br />
* The [[Argument from common consent|majority argument]] argues that the theism of people throughout most of recorded history and in many different places provides ''[[prima facie]]'' demonstration of God's existence.<br />
* Islam asserts that the revelation of its holy book, the [[Qur'an]], and its unique literary attributes, vindicate its divine authorship, and thus the existence of God.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Islamic Awareness: The Challenge of the Qur'an |url=http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Miracle/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912050734/http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Miracle/ |archive-date=2016-09-12 |access-date=2016-08-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Inimitability of the Qur'an |url=http://www.hamzatzortzis.com/essays-articles/exploring-the-quran/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160922115521/http://www.hamzatzortzis.com/essays-articles/exploring-the-quran/ |archive-date=2016-09-22 |access-date=2016-08-28}}</ref><br />
* [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], also known as [[Mormonism]], similarly asserts that the miraculous appearance of God, Jesus Christ, and angels to [[Joseph Smith]] and others and subsequent finding and translation of the [[Book of Mormon]] establishes the existence of God. The whole [[Latter Day Saint movement]] makes the same claim for example [[Community of Christ]], [[Church of Christ (Temple Lot)]], [[Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite)]], [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)]], [[Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite)]], etc.{{Citation needed|date=June 2016}}<br />
** The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite), similarly asserts that the finding and translation of the [[Plates of Laban]], also known as the Brass Plates, into the [[Book of the Law of the Lord]] and [[Voree plates]] by [[James Strang]], [[One Mighty and Strong]], establishes the existence of God.{{Citation needed|date=June 2016}}<br />
** Various sects that have broken from the Church of Christ (Temple Lot) (such as [[Church of Christ "With the Elijah Message"]] and [[Church of Christ (Assured Way)]]) claim that the message brought by [[John the Baptist]], One Mighty and Strong, to [[Otto Fetting]] and [[W. A. Draves]] in [[The Word of the Lord|The Word of the Lord Brought to Mankind by an Angel]] establishes the existence of God.{{Citation needed|date=June 2016}}<br />
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====== Arguments from historical events ======<br />
* [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]] assert that God intervened in key specific moments in history, especially at [[the Exodus]] and the giving of the [[Ten Commandments]] in front of all the tribes of Israel, positing an argument from empirical evidence stemming from sheer number of witnesses, thus demonstrating his existence.<ref name="Greco2013">{{Cite book |last=Greco |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CfVDG8aAcLIC&pg=PA134 |title=God and the Gods: A Compelling Investigation and Personal Quest for the Truth About God of the Bible and the Gods of Ancient History |date=26 June 2013 |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=978-1-4759-9597-8 |pages=134– |language=en-us}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=July 2020}}<br />
* [[Christological argument]]s assert that certain events of the Christian [[New Testament]] are historically accurate, and prove God's existence, namely:<br />
** The [[Resurrection of Jesus]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Polkinghorne |first=John |title=Science and Christian Belief |pages=108–122 |author-link=John Polkinghorne}}</ref> (an [[argument from miracles]])<br />
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====== Arguments from the authority of historical personages ======<br />
These arguments are an [[appeal to authority]]:<br />
* The claims of Jesus, as a morally upstanding person, to be the son of God <br />
* Jesus, said to be a wise person, believed that God exists <br />
* The belief of [[Lekhraj Kripalani]], who founded the [[Brahma Kumaris]] religion when God was said to enter his body<ref>"Based on our real life experiences we clearly know that it was God, the Supreme Soul, Shiva, Himself, had entered into his body. It was God who had revealed the truth about the coming destruction, and of the establishment of the heavenly world which would then follow. And it was God Himself who had given the sign that he, Dada, was to be His medium and the engine for creating such a divine world." {{Cite web |url=http://brahmakumaris.org/about-us/history/60.html |title=Divine Descent of God |access-date=March 6, 2011 |archive-date=July 25, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725102100/http://brahmakumaris.org/about-us/history/60.html }}</ref><ref>Babb, Lawrence A. (1987). Redemptive Encounters: Three Modern Styles in the Hindu Tradition (Comparative Studies in Religion and Society). Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-7069-2563-7}}.</ref><br />
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===== Anecdotal arguments =====<br />
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{{See also|Anecdotal evidence}}<br />
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* The sincere seeker's argument, espoused by Muslim Sufis of the Tasawwuf tradition, posits that every individual who follows a formulaic path towards guidance, arrives at the same destination of conviction in the existence of God and specifically in the monotheistic tenets and laws of Islam. This apparent natural law for guidance and belief could only be consistent if the formula and supplication were being answered by the same Divine entity being addressed, as claimed in Islamic revelations. This was formally organized by Imam Abu Hamid [[Al-Ghazali]] in such notable works as "Deliverance from Error" and "The Alchemy of Happiness", in Arabic "[[Kimiya-yi sa'ādat]]". The path includes following the golden rule of no harm to others and treating others with compassion, silence or minimal speech, seclusion, daily fasting or minimalist diet of water and basic nourishment, honest wages, and daily supplication towards "the Creator of the Universe" for guidance.<ref name="Ghazali 1100">{{Cite book |last=Ghazali |first=Abu Hamid |url=http://ghazali.org/books/md/gz101.htm |title=Deliverance from Error |year=1100 |access-date=2016-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825093541/http://ghazali.org/books/md/gz101.htm |archive-date=2016-08-25 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Ghazali 1105">{{Cite book |last=Ghazali |first=Abu Hamid |url=http://www.ghazali.org/books/alchemy/ |title=The Alchemy of Happiness |year=1105 |access-date=2016-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911101949/http://www.ghazali.org/books/alchemy/ |archive-date=2016-09-11 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
* The [[Argument from a proper basis]] argues that belief in God is "properly basic"; that it is similar to statements like "I see a chair" or "I feel pain".{{Citation needed|date=June 2016}} Such beliefs are non-falsifiable and, thus, neither provable nor disprovable; they concern perceptual beliefs or indisputable mental states.<br />
* In [[Germany]], the School of [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]] taught that human reason is able to perceive the suprasensible. Jacobi distinguished three faculties: sense, [[reason]], and understanding. Just as sense has immediate perception of the material so has reason immediate perception of the immaterial, while the understanding brings these perceptions to a person's consciousness and unites them to one another.<ref>([[A. Stöckl]], ''Geschichte der neueren Philosophie'', II, 82 sqq.)</ref> God's existence, then, cannot be proven (Jacobi, like Immanuel Kant, rejected the absolute value of the principle of causality), it must be felt by the mind.<br />
* The same theory was advocated in Germany by [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]], who assumed an inner religious sense by means of which people feel religious truths. According to Schleiermacher, religion consists solely in this inner perception, and dogmatic doctrines are inessential.<ref>(Stöckl, loc. cit., 199 sqq.)</ref><br />
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==== Hindu arguments ====<br />
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The school of Vedanta argues that one of the proofs of the existence of God is the law of [[karma]]. In a commentary to [[Brahma Sutras]] (III, 2, 38, and 41), [[Adi Sankara]] argues that the original karmic actions themselves cannot bring about the proper results at some future time; neither can super sensuous, non-intelligent qualities like [[adrsta]] by themselves mediate the appropriate, justly deserved pleasure and pain. The fruits, according to him must be administered through the action of a conscious agent, namely, a supreme being ([[Ishvara]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reichenbach |first=Bruce R. |date=April 1989 |title=Karma, causation, and divine intervention |url=http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/reiche2.htm |url-status=dead |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=135–149 [145] |doi=10.2307/1399374 |jstor=1399374 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027070413/http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/reiche2.htm |archive-date=2009-10-27 |access-date=2009-12-29}}</ref> The [[Nyaya]] school make similar arguments.<br />
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==== Other arguments ====<br />
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* The [[evolutionary argument against naturalism]], which argues that naturalistic evolution is incapable of providing humans with the cognitive apparatus necessary for their knowledge to have positive epistemic status.<ref>Alvin Plantinga, ''Warrant and Proper Function.''</ref><br />
* An argument from belief in God being properly basic as presented by Alvin Plantinga.<ref>Alvin Plantinga, ''Warranted Christian Belief.''</ref><br />
* Argument from Personal Identity.<ref>Richard Swinburne, ''The Coherence of Theism.''</ref><br />
* Argument from the "divine attributes of scientific law".<ref>This argument is articulated by Vern Poythress in chapter 1 of Redeeming Science, pp. 13–31. Available: http://www.frame-poythress.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/PoythressVernRedeemingScience.pdf#page=14 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114181018/http://www.frame-poythress.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/PoythressVernRedeemingScience.pdf#page=14|date=2012-11-14}}</ref><br />
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=== Arguments against the existence of God===<br />
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<!--This section is linked from [[Atheism]]--><br />
The arguments below aim to show that God does not exist—by showing a creator is unnecessary or [[Proof by contradiction|contradictory]], at odds with known [[Science|scientific]] or [[History|historical]] facts, or that there is insufficient proof that God exists.<br />
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==== Logical arguments ====<br />
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<!-- This section is linked from [[Atheism]] --><br />
The following arguments deduce, mostly through self-contradiction, the non-existence of God as "the Creator".<br />
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* No scientific evidence of God's existence has been found. Therefore, according to [[scientific skepticism|scientific skeptic]] or [[scientism|scientist]] worldviews, whether or not God exists is unknown; or even, God does not exist (depending on the strength of such worldviews).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baggini |first=Julian |date=2003-08-28 |title=Atheism |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/actrade/9780192804242.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-280424-2}}</ref><br />
* [[Stephen Hawking]] and co-author [[Leonard Mlodinow]] state in their book ''[[The Grand Design (book)|The Grand Design]]'' that it is reasonable to ask who or what created the universe, but if the answer is God, [[Problem of the creator of God|then the question has merely been deflected to that of who created God]]. Both authors claim that it is possible to answer these questions purely within the realm of science, and without invoking any divine beings.<ref>Stephen Hawking, Leonard Mlodinow, ''[[The Grand Design (book)|The Grand Design]]'', p. 172.</ref> Christian scholars, like [[Leonhard Euler]] and [[Bernard d'Espagnat]],<ref name="newscientist.com">{{Cite web |last=Geftner |first=Amanda |title=Concept of 'hypercosmic God' wins Templeton Prize |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16769-concept-of-hypercosmic-god-wins-templeton-prize/ |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=New Scientist |language=en-US}}</ref> disagree with that kind of skeptical argument.<br />
* Dawkins' [[Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit]] analogizes the above. Some theists argue that [[evolution]] and abiogenesis are akin to a hurricane assembling a Boeing 747 — that the universe (or life) is too complex, cannot be made by non-living matter alone and would have to be designed by someone, who theists call God. Dawkin's counter-argument is that such a God would himself be complex—the "Ultimate" Boeing 747—and therefore require a designer.<br />
* [[Theological noncognitivism]] is the argument that religious language – specifically, words such as "God" – are not cognitively meaningful and that irreducible definitions of God are circular.<br />
* The analogy of [[Russell's teapot]] argues that the [[Philosophic burden of proof|burden of proof]] for the existence of God lies with the theist rather than the atheist; it can be considered an extension of [[Occam's razor|Occam's Razor]].<br />
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===== Arguments from incompatible divine properties =====<br />
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Some arguments focus on the existence of specific conceptions of God as being omniscient, omnipotent, and morally perfect.<br />
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'''The Omnipotence Paradox'''<br />
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The Omnipotence Paradox is a philosophical problem that challenges the idea of an all-powerful God. The paradox argues that if God is truly omnipotent, then he should be able to do anything, including things that are logically impossible. However, if God cannot do something that is logically impossible, then he is not truly omnipotent. This paradox has been debated by philosophers for centuries and continues to be a topic of discussion in modern times.<br />
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The basic form of the Omnipotence Paradox can be presented as follows: Can God create a stone so heavy that he cannot lift it? If God can create such a stone, then he is not omnipotent because he cannot lift it. If God cannot create such a stone, then he is also not omnipotent because there is something he cannot do.<ref>Rowe, William L. "The Problem of Evil and Some Varieties of Atheism." American Philosophical Quarterly.</ref><br />
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One of the earliest recorded discussions of the Omnipotence Paradox can be found in the writings of the ancient Greek philosopher [[Epicurus]]. In his work "[[Epicureanism|Letter to Menoeceus]]," Epicurus argues that if God is truly omnipotent, then he should be able to prevent evil from existing in the world. However, since evil does exist, either God is not omnipotent or he is not benevolent.<ref>Epicurus. "Letter to Menoeceus." Translated by Robert Drew Hicks.</ref><br />
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Another version of the omnipotence paradox involves God's ability to change the past. If God is truly omnipotent, then he should be able to change events that have already occurred. But if he can change the past, then he would be altering his own actions and decisions, which would mean that he was not truly free to act in the first place.<ref>Adams, Marilyn McCord. "The Problem of Evil." The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Religion.</ref><br />
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Another early discussion of the Omnipotence Paradox can be found in the writings of the medieval philosopher St. Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas argued that God's omnipotence was limited by his own nature and by logical laws. He believed that God could not perform actions that were logically contradictory, such as creating a square circle or making 2+2=5.<ref>Aquinas, Thomas. "Summa Theologica." Translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province.</ref><br />
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One of the most famous versions of this paradox is the question: "Can God create a being more powerful than himself?" This question implies a contradiction because if God is truly omnipotent, then he should be able to create anything, including a being more powerful than himself. However, if such a being exists, then God would no longer be omnipotent.<ref>Craig, William Lane. "The Coherence of Theism." Routledge.</ref><br />
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'''The omniscience paradox'''<br />
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The omniscience paradox challenges the idea that God can know everything that will happen in the future. If God knows everything that will happen in advance, then it seems that human beings do not have free will. After all, if God already knows what we will do in every situation, then it seems that we cannot choose to do anything differently.<ref>Kane, Robert. "Free Will." The Oxford Handbook of Free Will.</ref><br />
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Another version of the omniscience paradox involves God's knowledge of his own future actions. If God knows what he will do in advance, then it seems that he does not have the freedom to choose otherwise. But if he does not know what he will do, then he is not truly omniscient.<ref>Plantinga, Alvin. "God and Other Minds." Cornell University Press.</ref><br />
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A more recent version of the omniscience paradox is the "paradox of the stone tablet." This argument goes as follows: suppose that God writes down everything that will happen in the future on a stone tablet. If God is truly omniscient, then he already knows what is written on the tablet. But if what is written on the tablet is true, then it seems that human beings do not have free will.<ref>Oppy, Graham. "Ontological Arguments and Belief in God." Cambridge University Press.</ref><br />
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'''The contradiction of omniscience and omnipotence'''<br />
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The contradiction of omniscience and omnipotence has been a topic of philosophical debate for centuries. The concept of omniscience refers to the idea that God knows everything, while omnipotence refers to the idea that God is all-powerful. The contradiction arises when one considers whether an all-knowing God can also be all-powerful. If God knows everything, then he must know what he will do in the future, and if he knows what he will do in the future, then he cannot change his mind and do something else. This would mean that God is not all-powerful because he is limited by his knowledge of the future. On the other hand, if God is all-powerful, then he should be able to change his mind and do something else, but if he does this, then he cannot be all-knowing because he did not know what he was going to do in the first place.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Hoffman |first1=Joshua |title=Omnipotence |date=2022 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/omnipotence/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |access-date=2023-11-16 |edition=Spring 2022 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |last2=Rosenkrantz |first2=Gary}}</ref><br />
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'''The problem of evil'''<br />
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The problem of evil against God is one of the most challenging philosophical and theological issues. It seeks to reconcile the existence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, and benevolent God with the presence of evil and suffering in the world. This problem has been debated for centuries by philosophers, theologians, and scholars from different religious traditions.<br />
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The problem of evil can be formulated in different ways. One common formulation is the logical problem of evil, which argues that the existence of evil is logically incompatible with the existence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good God. This argument goes as follows:<br />
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1. Suppose God is defined by the properties of being all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good.<br />
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2. If God is all-powerful, then he can prevent evil from occurring.<br />
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3. If God is all-knowing, then he knows where evil exists and knows how to eliminate evil.<br />
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4. If God is perfectly good, then he would want to prevent evil from occurring.<br />
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5. Evil exists.<br />
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6. Therefore, God does not exist.<br />
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This argument challenges the traditional concept of God as an omnipotent and omnibenevolent being who created the world and governs it with love and care. If such a God exists, why does he allow evil to happen? The existence of natural disasters, diseases, wars, crimes, and other forms of suffering seems to contradict the idea of a loving and compassionate God.<br />
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Another formulation of the problem of evil is the evidential problem of evil, which argues that while the existence of evil may not logically disprove the existence of God, it provides strong evidence against his existence. This argument acknowledges that it is possible for an all-powerful and all-good God to have reasons for allowing evil to occur that are beyond our understanding. However, it contends that the sheer amount and intensity of evil in the world make it highly unlikely that such reasons exist.<br />
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The problem of evil has been a central concern in the philosophy of religion since ancient times. In his dialogue "[[Euthyphro|The Euthyphro]]," [[Plato]] raises the question of whether the gods love what is good because it is good, or whether it is good because the gods love it. This question raises the issue of whether morality is independent of God or dependent on him. If morality is independent of God, then God may not be necessary for moral values and duties to exist. If morality is dependent on God, then it raises the problem of whether God's commands are arbitrary or whether there is a reason behind them.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Adams, Marilyn McCord. "Horrendous Evils and the Goodness of God." Cornell University Press, 1999.</ref><ref>Plantinga, Alvin. "God, Freedom, and Evil." Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1977.</ref><ref>Swinburne, Richard. "The Problem of Evil." Oxford University Press, 2006.</ref><br />
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'''The problem of divine immutability'''<br />
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The problem of divine immutability is a philosophical and theological issue that has been debated for centuries. At the heart of the problem is the question of whether or not God can change. This question has far-reaching implications for how we understand the nature of God, the relationship between God and creation, and the problem of evil.<br />
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One of the main arguments for divine immutability is based on the idea that God is perfect and complete in all respects. According to this view, if God were to change in any way, it would imply that there was something lacking or imperfect in God's nature. This would be inconsistent with the idea of a perfect and complete being.<ref>Hasker, William. "Divine Immutability." In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta.</ref><br />
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Another argument for divine immutability is based on the idea that God exists outside of time. According to this view, God's nature is eternal and unchanging, and therefore cannot be affected by anything that happens within time. This means that God cannot change in response to events in the world, since these events are themselves temporal and subject to change.<ref>Morris, Thomas V. ''Our Idea of God: An Introduction to Philosophical Theology''. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2000.</ref><br />
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However, there are also a number of arguments against divine immutability. One of these is based on the idea that if God cannot change, then it would be impossible for God to interact with the world in any meaningful way. According to this view, if God's nature is fixed and unchanging, then there can be no real relationship between God and creation.<ref>Moltmann, Jürgen. God in Creation: A New Theology of Creation and the Spirit of God. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Fortress Press, 1985.</ref><br />
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Another argument against divine immutability is based on the problem of evil. If God cannot change, then it would seem that God must have always known about and allowed for the existence of evil in the world. This raises questions about how we can reconcile a perfectly good and loving God with a world that contains so much suffering and injustice.<ref>Swinburne, Richard. ''Providence and the Problem of Evil''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.</ref><br />
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'''[[Argument from free will]]'''<br />
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The argument from free will contends that omniscience and the free will of humanity are incompatible and that any conception of God that incorporates both properties is therefore inherently contradictory: if God is omniscient, then God already knows humanity's future, contradicting the claim of free will.<ref>Kane, Robert. "Free Will." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Spring 2021 ed., plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/freewill/.</ref><ref>Swinburne, Richard. The Coherence of Theism. Clarendon Press, 1993.</ref><br />
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[[problem of hell|'''The problem of hell''']] <br />
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The problem of hell is one of the most difficult challenges to the existence of God. The basic argument is that if God is all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good, then why would he create a place of eternal punishment like hell? This question has been debated by philosophers and theologians for centuries.<br />
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The problem of hell can be traced to ancient times. The concept of an afterlife was common in many cultures, but the idea of eternal punishment was not. The ancient Greeks believed in a realm called Hades where the dead went, but it was not a place of punishment. The ancient Egyptians believed in a judgment after death that determined whether a person would go to a good or bad afterlife, but again, it was not eternal punishment. It was not until the rise of Christianity that the concept of eternal punishment in hell became widespread.<br />
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The [[Hell in Christianity|Christian concept of hell]] is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ and the Bible.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}} According to Christian theology, hell is a place of eternal punishment for those who have rejected God and lived sinful lives. It is often described as a place of fire and torment where there is weeping and gnashing of teeth. The idea of eternal punishment in hell has been controversial throughout Christian history.<br />
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One argument against the existence of God based on the problem of hell is that it seems incompatible with God's perfect goodness. If God is perfectly good, then why would he create a place like hell where people suffer for eternity? This argument has been made by many philosophers throughout history.<ref>Craig, William Lane. "The Problem Of Hell: A Philosophical Overview." Philosophia Christi 16, no. 1 (2014): 39–54.</ref><ref>Davis, Stephen T., and Daniel Kendall. "The Problem Of Hell." Theological Studies 75, no. 1 (2014): 3–22.</ref><ref>Walls, Jerry L. "Hell: The Logic Of Damnation." International Journal For Philosophy Of Religion 75, no. 2 (2014): 109–122.</ref><ref>Taliaferro, Charles. "The Problem Of Hell Reconsidered." Religious Studies 47, no. 1 (2011): 73–87.</ref><ref>Trakakis, Nick. "The Problem Of Hell: A Challenge To Theistic Belief." Sophia 52, no. 1 (2013): 5–20.</ref><br />
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'''Transcendental Argument for the Non-existence of God (TANG)'''<br />
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The Transcendental Argument for the Non-Existence of God (TANG) is a philosophical argument that attempts to demonstrate the non-existence of God by showing that the concept of God is logically incompatible with certain necessary conditions for rationality. The argument is based on the idea that if certain necessary conditions for rationality are true, then the existence of God is impossible. The proponents of TANG argue that it is a powerful argument against theism, and it has been the subject of much debate in philosophical circles.<br />
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The basic structure of TANG can be summarized as follows:<br />
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1. If rationality exists, then certain necessary conditions for rationality must be true.<br />
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2. The existence of God is logically incompatible with these necessary conditions for rationality.<br />
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3. Therefore, if these necessary conditions for rationality are true, then the existence of God is impossible.<br />
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The proponents of TANG argue that there are three necessary conditions for rationality:<br />
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1. The laws of logic are valid.<br />
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2. Our cognitive faculties are reliable.<br />
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3. There is an objective moral standard.<br />
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According to TANG, if these three necessary conditions are true, then the existence of God is impossible.<br />
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Firstly, proponents of TANG argue that the laws of logic are valid and necessary for rationality. They contend that if the laws of logic were not valid, then we could not reason or make sense of anything. Therefore, they argue that it is necessary for rationality that the laws of logic be valid and universally applicable.<br />
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Secondly, proponents of TANG argue that our cognitive faculties must be reliable in order for us to reason rationally. They contend that if our cognitive faculties were not reliable, then we could not trust our own reasoning processes and would have no basis for knowledge or belief. Therefore, they argue that it is necessary for rationality that our cognitive faculties be reliable.<br />
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Finally, proponents of TANG argue that there must be an objective moral standard in order for us to reason rationally. They contend that if there were no objective moral standard, then we could not make moral judgments or reason about ethical issues. Therefore, they argue that it is necessary for rationality that there be an objective moral standard.<br />
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Proponents of TANG argue that the existence of God is logically incompatible with these necessary conditions for rationality. They contend that if God exists, then the laws of logic are contingent on his will and could be different from what they are. They also argue that if God exists, then our cognitive faculties are contingent on his will and could be unreliable. Finally, they argue that if God exists, then morality is contingent on his will and there is no objective moral standard.<br />
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Therefore, proponents of TANG conclude that if these necessary conditions for rationality are true, then the existence of God is impossible. They argue that the concept of God is logically incompatible with these necessary conditions and therefore cannot exist.<ref>Martin, Michael. ''Atheism: A Philosophical Justification''. Temple University Press, 1992.</ref><ref name=":2">Oppy, Graham. ''Arguing about Gods''. Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref><ref>Gale, Richard M. ''On the Nature and Existence of God''. Cambridge University Press, 1991.</ref><ref>Smith, Quentin. ''Theism, Atheism, and Big Bang Cosmology''. Clarendon Press, 1993.</ref><ref>Sobel, Jordan Howard. ''Logic and Theism: Arguments For and Against Beliefs in God''. Cambridge University Press, 2004.</ref><br />
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'''Atheist-Existential Argument'''<br />
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The [[Atheistic existentialism|atheist-existential]] argument posits that human existence is characterized by absurdity, meaninglessness, and despair. According to this argument, humans are finite beings living in an infinite universe, and their existence is devoid of any inherent purpose or meaning. Proponents of this argument contend that if God existed, He would have provided humanity with a clear purpose and meaning for existence. However, since no such purpose or meaning exists, it follows that God does not exist.<br />
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[[Jean-Paul Sartre]] was one of the most prominent proponents of the atheist-existential argument. In his book "[[Existentialism Is a Humanism|Existentialism is a Humanism]]," Sartre argues that human existence is absurd because there is no inherent purpose or meaning to life. He contends that humans are free to create their own meaning and purpose but are ultimately responsible for their choices and actions. Sartre asserts that if God existed, He would have provided humanity with a clear purpose and meaning for existence. However, since no such purpose or meaning exists, it follows that God does not exist.<ref>Sartre, Jean-Paul. ''Existentialism is a Humanism''. Yale University Press, 2007.</ref><br />
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Similarly, [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] argues in his book "[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]" that human existence is meaningless because there is no inherent purpose or meaning to life. Nietzsche contends that humans must create their own values and meanings, and that the concept of God is a human invention that serves as a crutch for those who cannot accept the absurdity of existence. Nietzsche asserts that the death of God is a necessary step in human evolution, as it allows humanity to embrace its freedom and create its own values and meanings.<ref>Nietzsche, Friedrich. ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra''. Penguin Classics, 2003.</ref><br />
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[[Albert Camus]] also presents a similar argument in his book "[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]." Camus argues that human existence is absurd because there is no inherent purpose or meaning to life. He contends that humans must create their own meaning in the face of this absurdity, and that the concept of God is a distraction from this task. Camus asserts that the only way to confront the absurdity of existence is through rebellion, which involves embracing life despite its lack of inherent meaning.<ref>Camus, Albert. ''The Myth of Sisyphus''. Vintage International, 1991.</ref><br />
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[[Martin Heidegger]] also presents an existentialist argument for the non-existence of God in his book "[[Being and Time]]." Heidegger contends that human existence is characterized by anxiety and dread because humans are aware of their mortality and the ultimate futility of their actions. He argues that if God existed, He would have provided humanity with a clear purpose and meaning for existence, thus alleviating this anxiety. However, since no such purpose or meaning exists, it follows that God does not exist.<ref>Heidegger, Martin. ''Being and Time''. Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2008.</ref><ref>Solomon, Robert C., and Kathleen M. Higgins, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Death. Oxford University Press, 2013.</ref><br />
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'''The "no reason" argument'''<br />
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The "no reason" argument tries to show that an omnipotent and omniscient being would not have any reason to act in any way, specifically by creating the universe, because it would have no needs, wants, or desires since these very concepts are subjectively human. Since the universe exists, there is a contradiction, and therefore, an omnipotent god cannot exist. This argument is expounded upon by [[Scott Adams]] in the book ''[[God's Debris]]'', which puts forward a form of [[Pandeism]] as its fundamental theological model. A similar argument is put forward in [[Ludwig von Mises]]'s "Human Action". He referred to it as the "praxeological argument" and claimed that a perfect being would have long ago satisfied all its wants and desires and would no longer be able to take action in the present without proving that it had been unable to achieve its wants faster—showing it imperfect.<br />
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The argument is based on the idea that if something exists, there must be a reason or explanation for its existence. Therefore, if God exists, there must be a reason or explanation for his existence. However, proponents of the "no reason" argument argue that there is no reason or explanation for God's existence, and therefore he does not exist.<br />
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One of the main proponents of the "no reason" argument is [[J. L. Mackie]]. In his book "The Miracle of Theism: Arguments For and Against the Existence of God," Mackie argues that the concept of an uncaused cause, which is often used to explain God's existence, is flawed. He argues that if everything must have a cause or explanation for its existence, then God must also have a cause or explanation for his existence. However, since God is often described as an uncaused cause, this creates a contradiction in the concept of God.<ref>Mackie, J. L. ''The Miracle of Theism: Arguments For and Against the Existence of God''.</ref><br />
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Another proponent of the "no reason" argument is Bertrand Russell. In his book "[[Why I Am Not a Christian]]," Russell argues that the concept of God as an uncaused cause is illogical. He argues that if everything must have a cause or explanation for its existence, then God must also have a cause or explanation for his existence. However, since God is often described as an uncaused cause, this creates a contradiction in the concept of God.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Russell |first=Bertrand |date=2020-04-22 |title=Why I am not a Christian |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315099552 |doi=10.4324/9781315099552|isbn=9781351583459 |s2cid=153862737 }}</ref><br />
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Furthermore, proponents of the "no reason" argument argue that the burden of proof lies with those who claim that God exists. They argue that since there is no evidence or reason to believe in God's existence, it is more reasonable to assume that he does not exist.<br />
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In addition to these arguments, proponents of the "no reason" argument also point to the problem of evil as evidence against God's existence. They argue that if God is all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good, then he would not allow evil to exist in the world for any reason. He would have no specific reason for doing so. However, since evil does exist and is allowed to, this creates a contradiction in the concept of God.<ref>Rowe, William L. "The Problem of Evil and Some Varieties of Atheism." American Philosophical Quarterly 16 (1979): 335–341.</ref><ref>Oppy, Graham Robert. ''Arguing About Gods''.</ref><ref>Drange, Theodore M. "The Arguments From Evil and Nonbelief." Religious Studies 28 (1992): 347–365.</ref><br />
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==== Empirical arguments ====<br />
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The following empirical arguments rely on observations or experimentation to yield their conclusions.<br />
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'''Argument from naturalism'''<br />
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The argument from naturalism is a philosophical argument that asserts that the natural world is all there is and that supernatural explanations are unnecessary. This argument is based on the premise that the universe operates according to natural laws and that these laws can be discovered through scientific inquiry. The argument from naturalism has been a topic of debate among philosophers for centuries, with proponents and opponents presenting various arguments and counterarguments.<br />
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The argument from naturalism can be traced to ancient Greek philosophy, where philosophers such as [[Democritus]] and Epicurus argued that the universe was composed of atoms and void, with no need for supernatural explanations. However, it was not until the Enlightenment period in the 18th century that naturalism became a dominant philosophical position. During this time, philosophers such as David Hume and Immanuel Kant argued that knowledge could only be derived from empirical observation and rational analysis, without recourse to supernatural explanations.<br />
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One of the key premises of the argument from naturalism is that the natural world is all there is. According to this view, there are no supernatural entities or forces that exist beyond the physical realm. This premise is based on the assumption that everything in the universe operates according to natural laws, which can be discovered through scientific inquiry. As philosopher [[Paul Kurtz]] states, "the naturalistic outlook holds that nature is a self-contained system of physical causes and effects"<ref>Kurtz, Paul. ''The New Skepticism: Inquiry and Reliable Knowledge''. Prometheus Books, 1992.</ref><br />
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Another important premise of the argument from naturalism is that supernatural explanations are unnecessary. According to this view, any phenomenon in the universe can be explained through natural causes and processes, without invoking supernatural entities or forces. This premise is based on the assumption that naturalistic explanations are sufficient to account for all observed phenomena. As philosopher William Rowe states, "Naturalism holds that there is no need to postulate any supernatural entities or forces in order to explain the world"<ref>Rowe, William L. "The Argument from Naturalism." In The Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology, edited by William Lane Craig and J. P. Moreland. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. pp. 331–350.</ref><br />
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Proponents of the argument from naturalism argue that naturalistic explanations are more parsimonious than supernatural explanations. This means that naturalistic explanations are simpler and require fewer assumptions than supernatural explanations. For example, if a person observes a tree falling, a naturalistic explanation would be that the tree fell due to gravity, whereas a supernatural explanation would be that a deity caused the tree to fall. The naturalistic explanation is simpler and requires fewer assumptions than the supernatural explanation.<br />
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Opponents of the argument from naturalism argue that there are phenomena in the universe that cannot be explained through naturalistic causes and processes. These phenomena are often referred to as "supernatural" or "[[paranormal]]" and include things like miracles, psychic abilities, and [[Near-death experience|near-death experiences]]. According to opponents of naturalism, these phenomena require supernatural explanations.<br />
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However, proponents of the argument from naturalism counter that there is no empirical evidence to support supernatural explanations for these phenomena. They argue that many supposed supernatural phenomena can be explained through naturalistic causes and processes. For example, near-death experiences can be explained through changes in brain chemistry and oxygen deprivation, rather than as evidence of an afterlife.<ref>Plantinga, Alvin. ''Where the Conflict Really Lies: Science, Religion, and Naturalism''. Oxford University Press, 2011.</ref><ref>Swinburne, Richard. ''Is There a God?'' Oxford University Press, 2010. </ref><ref>Dennett, Daniel C. ''Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon''. Penguin Books, 2007.</ref><br />
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'''The Argument from Evolution'''<br />
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The Argument from Evolution against God's existence is a philosophical argument that attempts to prove the non-existence of God by using the theory of evolution. The argument is based on the idea that the theory of evolution provides a natural explanation for the diversity of life on Earth, and therefore, there is no need to invoke a divine creator.<br />
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The theory of evolution was first proposed by [[Charles Darwin]] in his book "[[On the Origin of Species]]" in 1859. According to the theory, all living organisms have evolved over time from a common ancestor through a process of natural selection. Natural selection is the process by which certain traits become more or less common in a population over time depending on their usefulness for survival and reproduction. Over millions of years, this process has led to the vast diversity of life we see on Earth today.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.959 |title=Origin of species |date=1900 |publisher=H. M. Caldwell |location=New York, New York and Boston, Massachusetts |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.959}}</ref><br />
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One of the key arguments against God's existence based on evolution is known as the argument from imperfection. This argument suggests that if God were responsible for creating all life on Earth, then why would he create imperfect organisms? For example, why would he create animals with vestigial organs that serve no purpose or cause suffering?<ref>Gould, S. J. (1991). ''Bully for Brontosaurus: Reflections in Natural History''. W. W. Norton & Company.</ref><br />
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Another argument against God's existence based on evolution is known as the argument from bad design. This argument suggests that if God were responsible for creating all life on Earth, then why would he create organisms with such poor design features? For example, why would he create animals with eyes that are poorly designed or prone to disease?<ref>Dawkins, R. (1986). ''The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe Without Design''. W. W. Norton & Company. </ref><br />
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'''The Euthyphro dilemma'''<br />
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The Euthyphro dilemma is a philosophical problem that raises questions about the relationship between morality and God's existence. The dilemma was first presented by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato in his dialogue "Euthyphro." The dilemma asks whether something is morally good because God commands it, or whether God commands it because it is morally good. This dilemma has been used as an argument against the existence of God, as it seems to suggest that either God is not necessary for morality or that God's commands are arbitrary and not based on any objective standard of morality.<ref name=":0">Plato. "Euthyphro." The Collected Dialogues of Plato, edited by Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns, Princeton University Press, 1961.</ref><br />
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The first horn of the dilemma suggests that something is morally good because God commands it. This view is known as divine command theory, which states that moral truths are grounded in God's will or commands. According to this view, God's commands determine what is right and wrong, and morality is dependent on God's existence. If God did not exist, then there would be no objective basis for morality.<br />
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The second horn of the dilemma suggests that God commands something because it is morally good. This view implies that there is an objective standard of morality that exists independently of God's will. In other words, God recognizes what is morally good and commands us to follow it. This view is known as moral realism, which holds that moral truths exist independently of human opinion or belief.<br />
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Critics of the divine command theory argue that it leads to a problematic conclusion: if something is morally good simply because God commands it, then anything could be considered morally good if God commanded it. For example, if God commanded us to kill innocent people, then killing innocent people would be considered morally good according to divine command theory. This seems to suggest that morality is arbitrary and dependent on God's whims rather than being grounded in any objective standard.<br />
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On the other hand, critics of moral realism argue that it raises questions about the nature of morality itself. If there is an objective standard of morality that exists independently of God's will, then what is the source of this standard? Is it a natural law, or is it something else entirely? Furthermore, if there is an objective standard of morality, then why do different cultures and societies have different moral codes? This seems to suggest that morality is not as objective as moral realists claim.<ref>Adams, Robert Merrihew. "Divine Command Metaethics Modified Again." The Journal of Religious Ethics, vol. 33, no. 1, 2005, pp. 29–50. </ref><ref>Craig, William Lane. "The Euthyphro Dilemma." Reasonable Faith, 2010, www.reasonablefaith.org/writings/scholarly-writings/divine-command-theory/the-euthyphro-dilemma/.</ref><ref>Korsgaard, Christine M. "The Sources of Normativity." Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref><ref>Nielsen, Kai. "Ethics Without God." Prometheus Books, 1990.</ref><br />
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'''The problem of anthropic argument'''<br />
<br />
The [[Anthropic principle|anthropic argument]] is a philosophical and theological concept that argues that the universe and its physical laws are finely tuned to allow for the existence of life and, therefore, must have been designed by an intelligent creator. Proponents of this argument claim that the odds of the universe existing as it does by chance are so astronomically low that it is more reasonable to believe in a creator than not. However, opponents of the anthropic argument argue that it is flawed and does not necessarily prove the existence of God.<br />
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One of the main criticisms of the anthropic argument is that it suffers from the fallacy of [[selection bias]]. This is because proponents only consider the universe as it exists today, without taking into account all the other possible ways it could have existed. For example, if the physical laws were different, life as we know it may not have been possible, but that does not mean that some other form of life could not have existed under those conditions. Therefore, opponents argue that just because our universe allows for life does not necessarily mean that it was designed to do so.<br />
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Another criticism of the anthropic argument is that it assumes that life is inherently valuable and important. Opponents argue that this is a subjective value judgment and cannot be used as evidence for the existence of God. Additionally, opponents point out that there are many aspects of the universe that are not conducive to life, such as [[Black hole|black holes]] or [[Supernova|supernovae]], which could be seen as evidence against a benevolent creator.<br />
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Furthermore, opponents argue that the anthropic argument is based on a flawed understanding of [[probability]]. They claim that just because something is unlikely does not mean it is impossible, and therefore, low probabilities cannot be used as evidence for design. Additionally, opponents argue that probability calculations can only be made if all possible outcomes are known, which is impossible in the case of the universe.<br />
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Opponents of the anthropic argument also point out that there are alternative explanations for the fine-tuning of the universe. Some scientists propose the [[Multiverse|multiverse theory]], which suggests that our universe is just one of many possible universes, each with its own set of physical laws. In this scenario, it is not surprising that we find ourselves in a universe that allows for life because we could not exist in any other type of universe. Other scientists suggest that the physical constants of the universe are not actually fixed but can vary over time, which could explain why our universe appears to be finely tuned for life.<ref>Craig, William Lane. ''The Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology''. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>Leslie, John. ''Universes''. Routledge, 1989.</ref><ref>Martin, Michael. ''The Cambridge Companion to Atheism''. Cambridge University Press, 2007.</ref><br />
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'''Argument from the problem of miracles'''<br />
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The problem of miracles is rooted in the concept of natural law, which assumes that the universe operates according to predictable and consistent laws. According to this view, any event that violates natural law, such as a miracle, cannot occur. Therefore, if a miracle is claimed to have occurred, it must be either a misunderstanding or a deliberate deception.<br />
<br />
One of the most prominent advocates of the problem of miracles was the Scottish philosopher David Hume. In his essay "[[Of Miracles]]," Hume argued that it is always more reasonable to believe that someone is mistaken or lying than to accept that a miracle has occurred. He claimed that there is no amount of testimony or evidence that can prove a miracle beyond doubt because it always contradicts natural law. Hume's argument was based on his empiricist philosophy, which held that all knowledge comes from sensory experience and that claims about supernatural events are not supported by such experience.<ref>Hume, David. "Of Miracles." In An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, edited by Tom L. Beauchamp, 114–123. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.</ref><br />
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'''The argument from the problem of religious experience'''<br />
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This argument suggests that religious experiences are subjective and cannot be verified or falsified, making them unreliable as evidence for the existence of God.<br />
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The argument from the problem of religious experience against God's existence can be formulated as follows:<br />
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1. Religious experiences are subjective and cannot be verified or falsified.<br />
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2. If religious experiences cannot be verified or falsified, then they are unreliable as evidence for the existence of God.<br />
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3. Therefore, religious experiences are unreliable as evidence for the existence of God.<br />
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Premise 1 is based on the fact that religious experiences are personal and subjective. They are often described in terms of feelings, emotions, and sensations that are difficult to describe or measure objectively. For example, a person may claim to have had a mystical experience in which they felt a deep sense of unity with all things. However, this experience cannot be objectively measured or verified by others. It is purely subjective and exists only in the mind of the individual who had it.<br />
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Premise 2 follows logically from premise 1. If religious experiences cannot be verified or falsified, then they cannot be used as evidence to support any particular belief about God's existence or nature. This is because there is no way to distinguish between genuine religious experiences and mere hallucinations or delusions. Without objective criteria for verifying or falsifying religious experiences, they remain purely subjective and cannot be used as evidence in any rational debate about the existence of God.<br />
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Premise 3 is the conclusion that follows logically from premises 1 and 2. If religious experiences are unreliable as evidence for the existence of God, then they cannot be used to support any argument for the existence of God. This means that any argument that relies on religious experiences as evidence for God's existence is inherently flawed and cannot be taken seriously by those who demand objective evidence for their beliefs.<ref>Alston, William P. "Religious Experience and Religious Belief." The Journal of Philosophy, vol. 67, no. 14, 1970, pp. 471–476. </ref><ref>Draper, Paul. "The Problem of the Hiddenness of God and the Problem of Evil." Religious Studies, vol. 35, no. 3, 1999, pp. 331–352.</ref><ref>Hick, John. ''An Interpretation of Religion: Human Responses to the Transcendent''. Yale University Press, 1989.</ref><ref>James, William. ''The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature''. Penguin Classics, 2002.</ref><ref>Rowe, William L. "Religious Experience and the Principle of Credulity." International Journal for Philosophy of Religion, vol. 16, no. 2, 1984, pp. 73–93.</ref><br />
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===== Argument from inconsistent revelations =====<br />
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{{Excerpt|Argument from inconsistent revelations}}<br />
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===== Argument from parsimony =====<br />
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The argument from [[Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics)|parsimony]] (using [[Occam's razor]]) contends that since natural (non-supernatural) theories adequately explain the [[development of religion]] and belief in gods,<ref>''Religion Explained: The Evolutionary Origins of Religious Thought'', Pascal Boyer, Basic Books (2001).</ref> the actual existence of such supernatural agents is superfluous and may be dismissed unless otherwise proven to be required to explain the phenomenon.<br />
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===== Argument from historical induction =====<br />
<br />
The argument from "historical induction" concludes that since most theistic religions throughout history (e.g. [[ancient Egyptian religion]], [[Religion in ancient Greece|ancient Greek religion]]) and their gods ultimately come to be regarded as untrue or incorrect, all theistic religions, including contemporary ones, are therefore most likely untrue/incorrect by induction. [[H. L. Mencken]] wrote a short piece about the topic entitled "Memorial Service" in 1922.<ref>H. L. Mencken, [http://jonathongreen.co.uk/h-l-mencken-where-is-the-graveyard-of-dead-gods/ "Where is the Graveyard of Dead Gods?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917143203/http://jonathongreen.co.uk/h-l-mencken-where-is-the-graveyard-of-dead-gods/|date=2018-09-17}}</ref> It is implied as part of Stephen F. Roberts' popular quotation:<br />
<br />
<blockquote>I contend that we are both atheists. I just believe in one fewer god than you do. When you understand why you dismiss all the other possible gods, you will understand why I dismiss yours.</blockquote><br />
<br />
===== Argument from nonbelief =====<br />
<br />
{{Excerpt|Argument from nonbelief}}<br />
<br />
===== Arguments from the poor design of the universe =====<br />
<br />
The [[problem of evil]] contests the existence of a god who is both omnipotent and [[Omnibenevolence|omnibenevolent]] by arguing that such a god should not permit the existence of [[evil]] or [[suffering]]. The theist responses are called [[Theodicy|theodicies]]. Similarly, the [[argument from poor design]] contends that an all-powerful, benevolent creator god would not have created lifeforms, including humans, which seem to exhibit poor design.<br />
<br />
[[Richard Carrier]] has argued that the universe itself seems to be very ill-designed for life, because the vast majority of the space in the universe is utterly hostile to it. This is arguably unexpected on the hypothesis that the universe was designed by a god, especially a [[personal god]]. Carrier contends that such a god could have easily created a [[Geocentric model|geocentric universe]] ''[[ex nihilo]]'' in [[Young Earth creationism|the recent past]], in which most of the volume of the universe is inhabitable by humans and other lifeforms—precisely the kind of universe that most humans believed in until the [[History of science|rise of modern science]]. While a personal god ''might'' have created the kind of universe we observe, Carrier contends that this is not the kind of universe we would most ''likely'' expect to see if such a god existed. He finally argues that, unlike theism, our observations about the nature of the universe are strongly expected on the hypothesis of atheism, since the universe would have to be vast, very old, and almost completely devoid of life if life were to have [[Abiogenesis|arisen by sheer chance]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Neither Life Nor The Universe Appear Intelligently Designed |encyclopedia=The End of Christianity |publisher=Prometheus Books |location=Amherst, New York |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXbaUE8cT64C |last=Carrier |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Carrier |editor-last=Loftus |editor-first=John W. |isbn=978-1-61614-414-2}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Subjective arguments ====<br />
<br />
{{See also|Anecdotal evidence}}<br />
<br />
Similar to the [[Wiktionary:subjective#Pronunciation|subjective]] arguments for the existence of God, subjective arguments against God's existence mainly rely on the testimony or experience of witnesses, or the propositions of a revealed religion in general.<br />
<br />
* The witness argument gives credibility to personal witnesses, contemporary and from the past, who disbelieve or strongly doubt the existence of God.<br />
* The conflicted religions argument notes that many religions give differing accounts as to what God is and what God wants; since all the contradictory accounts cannot be correct, many if not all religions must be incorrect.<br />
* The disappointment argument claims that if, when asked for, there is no visible help from God, there is no reason to believe that there is a God.<br />
<br />
==== Hindu arguments ====<br />
<br />
[[Atheism in Hinduism|Atheistic Hindu doctrines]] cite various arguments for rejecting a creator God or ''Ishvara''. The ''[[Samkhyapravachana Sutra|IAST]]'' of the [[Samkhya]] school states that there is no philosophical place for a creator God in this system. It is also argued in this text that the existence of Ishvara (God) cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sinha |first1=Nandalal |url=http://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft |title=The samkhya philosophy; containing samkhya-pravachana sutram, with the vritti of Aniruddha, and the bhasya of Vijnana Bhiksu and extracts from the vritti-sara of Mahadeva Vedantin; tatva samasa; samkhya karika; panchasikha sutram. Translated [and edited] by Nandlal Sinha |last2=Aniruddha |last3=Vijñanabhiksu |first3=fl 1550 |last4=Mahadeva Vedantin |date=1915 |publisher=Allahabad Panini Office |others=Robarts – University of Toronto}}</ref> Classical Samkhya argues against the existence of God on metaphysical grounds. For instance, it argues that an unchanging God cannot be the source of an ever-changing world. It says God is a necessary metaphysical assumption demanded by circumstances.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rajadhyaksha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ihkRAQAAIAAJ |title=The six systems of Indian philosophy |year=1959 |page=95 |access-date=2016-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025131/https://books.google.com/books?id=ihkRAQAAIAAJ |archive-date=2016-01-01 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Sutras of Samkhya endeavor to prove that the idea of God is inconceivable and self-contradictory, and some{{Which|date=June 2012}} commentaries speak plainly on this subject. The ''Sankhya- tattva-kaumudi'', commenting on Karika 57, argues that a perfect God can have no need to create a world, and if God's motive is kindness, Samkhya questions whether it is reasonable to call into existence beings who while non-existent had no suffering. Samkhya postulates that a benevolent deity ought to create only happy creatures, not an imperfect world like the real world.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eliot |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4ZpPleiyokC |title=Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol II. (of 3) |date=2007-09-01 |isbn=9781406862966 |page=243 |publisher=Echo Library |access-date=2016-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103130540/http://books.google.com/books?id=K4ZpPleiyokC |archive-date=2014-01-03 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to Sinha, the following arguments were given by Samkhya philosophers against the idea of an eternal, self-caused, creator God:<br />
<br />
* If the existence of [[Karma (Hinduism)|karma]] is assumed, the proposition of God as a moral governor of the universe is unnecessary. For, if God enforces the consequences of actions then he can do so without karma. If however, he is assumed to be within the law of karma, then karma itself would be the giver of consequences and there would be no need of a God.<br />
* Even if karma is denied, God still cannot be the enforcer of consequences. Because the motives of an enforcer God would be either egoistic or altruistic. Now, God's motives cannot be assumed to be altruistic because an altruistic God would not create a world so full of suffering. If his motives are assumed to be egoistic, then God must be thought to have desire, as agency or authority cannot be established in the absence of desire. However, assuming that God has desire would contradict God's eternal freedom which necessitates no compulsion in actions. Moreover, desire, according to Samkhya, is an attribute of prakṛti and cannot be thought to grow in God. <br />
* Despite arguments to the contrary, if God is still assumed to contain unfulfilled desires, this would cause him to suffer pain and other similar human experiences. Such a worldly God would be no better than Samkhya's notion of higher self.<br />
* Furthermore, there is no proof of the existence of God. He is not the object of perception, there exists no general proposition that can prove him by inference.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Samkhya maintained that the various cosmological, ontological and teleological arguments could not prove God.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sinha |first=Nandalal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6l-CtwAACAAJ&q=The+samkhya+philosophy+by+Nandlal+Sinha |title=The Samkhya Philosophy; Containing Samkhya-Pravachana Sutram, with the Vritti of Aniruddha, and the Bhasya of Vijnana Bhiksu and Extracts from the Vritti-Sara of Mahadeva Vedantin; Tatva Samasa; Samkhya Karika; Panchasikha Sutram. Translated and EDI |date=2012 |publisher=HardPress |isbn=978-1-4076-9891-5 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
Proponents of the school of [[Mimamsa]], which is based on [[ritual]]s and [[orthopraxy]], decided that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God is insufficient. They argue that there is no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there is no need for an author to compose the Vedas or a god to validate the rituals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Neville |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ThLR13JpCWsC |title=Religious truth |year=2001 |isbn=9780791447789 |page=51 |publisher=SUNY Press |access-date=2016-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025131/https://books.google.com/books?id=ThLR13JpCWsC |archive-date=2016-01-01 |url-status=live}}</ref> Mimamsa argues that the gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the ''[[mantra]]s'' that speak their names. In that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of gods.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Coward |first=Harold |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C |title=The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought |date=2008-02-07 |isbn=9780791473368 |page=114 |publisher=SUNY Press |author-link=Harold Coward |access-date=2016-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025131/https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C |archive-date=2016-01-01 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Psychological aspects ==<br />
<br />
{{See also|Evolutionary psychology of religion}}<br />
[[File:Europe belief in God.svg|thumb|Europeans polled who "believe in a god", according to [[Eurobarometer]] in 2005]]<br />
<br />
[[File:North America Religious Belief.svg#/media/File:North America Religious Belief.svg|thumb|North Americans polled about religious identity 2010–2012|link=File:North_America_Religious_Belief.svg]]<br />
<br />
Several authors have offered psychological or sociological explanations for belief in the existence of deities.<br />
<br />
[[Psychologist]]s observe that the majority of humans often ask existential questions such as "why we are here" and whether life has purpose. Some psychologists{{Weasel inline|date=June 2012}} have posited that religious beliefs may recruit cognitive mechanisms in order to satisfy these questions. [[William James]] emphasized the inner religious struggle between [[Depression (mood)|melancholy]] and happiness, and pointed to [[trance]] as a cognitive mechanism. [[Sigmund Freud]] stressed fear and pain, the need for a powerful parental figure, the obsessional nature of ritual, and the hypnotic state a community can induce as contributing factors to the psychology of religion.<br />
<br />
[[Pascal Boyer]]'s ''Religion Explained'' (2002), based in part on his anthropological field work, treats belief in God as the result of the brain's tendency towards [[agency detection]]. Boyer suggests that, because of evolutionary pressures, humans err on the side of attributing agency where there is not any. In Boyer's view, belief in supernatural entities spreads and becomes culturally fixed because of their memorability. The concept of "minimally counterintuitive" beings that differ from the ordinary in a small number of ways (such as being invisible, able to fly, or having access to strategic and otherwise secret information) leave a lasting impression that spreads through word-of-mouth.<br />
<br />
[[Scott Atran]]'s ''In Gods We Trust: The Evolutionary Landscape of Religion'' (2002) makes a similar argument and adds examination of the socially coordinating aspects of shared belief. In ''Minds and Gods: The Cognitive Foundations of Religion'', Todd Tremlin follows Boyer in arguing that universal human cognitive process naturally produces the concept of the supernatural. Tremlin contends that an agency detection device (ADD) and a [[theory of mind]] module (ToMM) lead humans to suspect an agent behind every event. Natural events for which there is no obvious agent may be attributed to God (c.f. [[Act of God]]).<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
* [[Apologetics]]<br />
* [[Copleston–Russell debate]]<br />
* [[Christian existential apologetics]]<br />
* [[Efficacy of prayer]]<br />
* ''[[The Existence of God (book)]]''<br />
* [[Existence of Jesus]]<br />
* [[Gödel's ontological proof]]<br />
* ''[[Is There a God?]]''<br />
* [[Metaphysics]]<br />
* [[Pascal's Wager]]<br />
* [[Problem of evil]]<br />
* [[Problem of the creator of God]]<br />
* [[Rationalism]]<br />
* [[Relationship between religion and science]]<br />
* [[Spectrum of theistic probability]]<br />
* ''[[The Atheist Experience]]''<br />
* [[Transcendental theology]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist|group=note}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist|refs=<br />
<ref name="Koons.2005">{{cite report | url=http://www.robkoons.net/media/69b0dd04a9d2fc6dffff80b4ffffd524.pdf | author=Robert C. Koons | author-link=Robert Koons |title=Sobel on Gödel's Ontological Proof | institution=University of Texas at Austin | type=Unpublished Paper | date=Jul 2005 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802202333/http://www.robkoons.net/media/69b0dd04a9d2fc6dffff80b4ffffd524.pdf | archive-date = 2020-08-02 }}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia|title=From the necessary existent to God|first=Peter |last=Adamson|editor-first=Peter |editor-last=Adamson|encyclopedia=Interpreting Avicenna: Critical Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OeVribsJbgUC|date=2013-07-04|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-19073-2}}<br />
* {{cite book|first=Peter |last=Adamson|title=Philosophy in the Islamic World: A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KEpRDAAAQBAJ|year=2016|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-957749-1}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
|last=Alston<br />
|first=William P.<br />
|s2cid=16744068<br />
|author-link=William Alston<br />
|year=1991<br />
|title=The Inductive Argument from Evil and the Human Cognitive Condition<br />
|journal=Philosophical Perspectives<br />
|volume=5<br />
|pages=29–67<br />
|doi=10.2307/2214090<br />
|issn=1758-2245<br />
|jstor=2214090<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
|last=Bergmann<br />
|first=Michael<br />
|author-link=Michael Bergmann (philosopher)<br />
|year=1999<br />
|title=Might-Counterfactuals, Transworld Untrustworthiness, and Plantinga's Free Will Defense<br />
|url=http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~bergmann/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Bergmann-1999-Transworld-Untrustworthiness.pdf <br />
|journal=Faith and Philosophy<br />
|volume=16<br />
|issue=3<br />
|pages=336–351<br />
|doi=10.5840/faithphil199916332<br />
|issn=2153-3393<br />
|access-date=27 April 2019<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
|last1=Howard-Snyder<br />
|first1=Daniel<br />
|last2=O'Leary-Hawthorne<br />
|first2=John<br />
|year=1998<br />
|title=Transworld Sanctity and Plantinga's Free Will Defense<br />
|journal=International Journal for Philosophy of Religion<br />
|volume=44<br />
|issue=1<br />
|pages=1–21<br />
|doi=10.1023/A:1003210017171<br />
|s2cid=171072893<br />
|issn=1572-8684<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Inati|first=Shams C.|title=Ibn Sina's Remarks and Admonitions: Physics and Metaphysics: An Analysis and Annotated Translation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6KTcAgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-53742-1}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
|last=LaFollette<br />
|first=Hugh<br />
|year=1980<br />
|title=Plantinga on the Free Will Defense<br />
|url=http://www.hughlafollette.com/papers/Plantinga_on_the_Free_Will_Defense.pdf<br />
|journal=International Journal for Philosophy of Religion<br />
|volume=11<br />
|issue=2<br />
|pages=123–132<br />
|doi=10.1007/BF00136761<br />
|s2cid=170584546<br />
|issn=1572-8684<br />
|access-date=11 September 2013<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite journal |first=Toby |last=Mayer |title=Ibn Sina's 'Burhan Al-Siddiqin' |year=2001 |journal=[[Journal of Islamic Studies]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=18–39 |doi=10.1093/jis/12.1.18}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last=Meister<br />
|first=Chad<br />
|year=2009<br />
|title=Introducing Philosophy of Religion<br />
|location=London<br />
|publisher=Routledge<br />
|doi=10.4324/9780203880029<br />
|isbn=978-0-415-40327-6<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last1=Peterson<br />
|first1=Michael<br />
|last2=Hasker<br />
|first2=William<br />
|author2-link=William Hasker<br />
|last3=Reichenbach<br />
|first3=Bruce<br />
|last4=Basinger<br />
|first4=David<br />
|author4-link=David Basinger<br />
|year=1991<br />
|title=Reason and Religious Belief: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion<br />
|location=New York<br />
|publisher=Oxford University Press<br />
|isbn=978-0-19-506155-0<br />
|url=https://archive.org/details/reasonreligiousb0000unse<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last=Plantinga<br />
|first=Alvin<br />
|author-link=Alvin Plantinga<br />
|year=1965<br />
|chapter=The Free Will Defence<br />
|editor-last=Black<br />
|editor-first=Max<br />
|editor-link=Max Black<br />
|title=Philosophy in America<br />
|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyinamer00blac<br />
|chapter-url-access=registration<br />
|location=Ithaca, New York<br />
|publisher=Cornell University Press<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last=Plantinga<br />
|first=Alvin<br />
|author-link=Alvin Plantinga<br />
|year=1977<br />
|title=God, Freedom, and Evil<br />
|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan<br />
|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company<br />
|isbn=978-0-8028-1731-0<br />
|url=https://archive.org/details/godfreedomevil00plan<br />
}}<br />
* {{Cite SEP |url-id=mulla-sadra |title=Mulla Sadra |first=Sajjad |last=Rizvi |date=2009}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
<br />
* [[Richard Dawkins]], ''[[The God Delusion]]'', Black Swan, 2007 ({{ISBN|978-0-552-77429-1}}).<br />
* [[Christopher Hitchens]], ''[[God is Not Great|God is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything]]''. Twelve Books, 2007 ({{ISBN|978-0-446-57980-3}}).<br />
* Hick, John, ed. (1964). ''The Existence of God: Readings'', in ''The Problems of Philosophy Series''. New York: Macmillan Company.<br />
* {{Cite web |last=Plantinga |first=Alvin |author-link=Alvin Plantinga |title=Two Dozen (or so) Theistic Arguments |url=http://www.calvin.edu/academic/philosophy/virtual_library/articles/plantinga_alvin/two_dozen_or_so_theistic_arguments.pdf |url-status=dead |publisher=[[Calvin College]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724042130/http://www.calvin.edu/academic/philosophy/virtual_library/articles/plantinga_alvin/two_dozen_or_so_theistic_arguments.pdf |archive-date=2008-07-24 |access-date=2007-11-25}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Schneider |first=Nathan |title=God in Proof: The Story of a Search from the Ancients to the Internet |publisher=University of California Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780520269071 |author-link=Nathan Schneider}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Swinburne |first=Richard |title=The Existence of God |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0199271672 |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |author-link=Richard Swinburne}}<br />
* {{Cite book |title=Two Dozen (or so) Arguments for God |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0190842222 |editor-last=Walls |editor-first=Jerry L. |location=Oxford |editor-last2=Dougherty |editor-first2=Trent}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Wikiquote}}<br />
{{Wikibooks|God and Religious Toleration/The proof of God}}<br />
{{Wikiversity|Existence of God}}<br />
* [http://www.apollos.ws/philosophy-of-religion-article/ A Collection of Arguments for the Existence of God] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170626175350/http://www.apollos.ws/philosophy-of-religion-article/ |date=2017-06-26 }}<br />
* [http://www.alislam.org/books/essence1/chap2.htm Proofs of God's Existence: Islam—Ahmadiyyat] (PDF)<br />
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06608b.htm The Existence of God]—''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]''<br />
* [http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/pg1.htm The Classical Islamic Arguments for the Existence of God] by Majid Fakhry<br />
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{{God arguments}}<br />
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[[Category:Arguments against the existence of God|Arguments against the existence of God]]<br />
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[[Category:Philosophical problems]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Promenade_concert&diff=1235889329Promenade concert2024-07-21T19:13:32Z<p>AmgineIX: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Musical performance}}<br />
{{for|the 1950s Canadian TV series|Promenade Concert}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}<br />
{{more footnotes|date=October 2011}}<br />
<br />
'''Promenade concerts''' were musical performances in the 18th and 19th century [[pleasure garden]]s of [[London]], where the audience would stroll about while listening to the music. The term derives from the French ''se promener'', "to walk".<br />
<br />
Today, the term ''promenade concert'' is often associated with the [[the Proms|BBC Proms]] summer [[classical music]] concert series founded in 1895 by [[Robert Newman (impresario)|Robert Newman]] and the [[Conducting|conductor]] [[Henry Wood]].<ref>Jennifer Ruth Doctor, David C. H. Wright, Nicholas Kenyon: [https://books.google.com/books?id=GEYXAQAAIAAJ ''The Proms: A New History''] (2007)</ref><br />
<br />
== Eighteenth century ==<br />
[[File:Microcosm of London Plate 089 - Vauxhall Garden edited.jpg|thumb|right|Vauxhall Gardens, from the ''[[Microcosm of London]]'', 1810]]<br />
Pleasure gardens, which levied a small entrance fee and provided a variety of entertainment, had become extremely popular in [[London]] by the eighteenth century. Music was provided from [[bandstand]]s (known as ‘’orchestras’’) or more permanent buildings, and was generally of the popular variety: [[ballroom dances]], [[quadrilles]] ([[wiktionary:Medley|medley]]s), [[cornet]] solos etc. Other entertainments would have included [[fireworks]], [[Masquerade ball|masquerade]]s and [[acrobatics]]. There were 38 gardens which are known to have provided music. Perhaps the most famous of these were [[Vauxhall Gardens]] (1661–1859), south of the [[Thames]]. Known at first as New Spring Gardens this was the favourite haunt of diarists [[Samuel Pepys]] and [[John Evelyn]]. The music of [[Handel]] was very popular here in the eighteenth century, and in 1738 there was even a statue erected of Handel playing the [[lyre]]. The Gardens were described as fashionable in the late 18th and early 19th century by [[Fanny Burney]] and [[William Thackeray]]. [[Aristocracy]] and [[Royal family|royalty]] mingled with the ordinary folk. On 21 April 1749 twelve thousand people paid 2s 6d each to hear Handel rehearsing his ''[[Music for the Royal Fireworks]]'' in Vauxhall Gardens, causing a three-hour traffic jam on [[London Bridge]]. The music had been commissioned by the king in celebration of the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]]. The performance six days later in [[Green Park]] was even more spectacular, especially when the building caught fire. The composer Dr [[Thomas Arne]] was appointed composer of Vauxhall Gardens in 1745. It was here that many of his [[songs]] achieved their great popularity. The musicians were housed in a covered building while the audience strolled outside. In the nineteenth century Sir [[Henry Bishop (composer)|Henry Bishop]] was the official composer to the Gardens. Many of his songs, which include "[[Home! Sweet Home!]]", were performed there. Vauxhall Gardens remained a national institution until 1859.<ref>David Coke, Alan Borg. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=idsdkgAACAAJ Vauxhall Gardens: A History]'' (2011)</ref><br />
<br />
Another prestige venue for promenade concerts was [[Ranelagh Gardens]] (1742–1803). Here both musicians and audience were under cover in a gigantic [[Georgian period in British history|Georgian]] [[Rotunda (architecture)|rotunda]] which can be seen in a painting of [[Canaletto]] in the [[National Gallery (London)|National Gallery]]. It was here that [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] performed on the [[harpsichord]] and [[Organ (music)|organ]] as a [[child prodigy]] in 1764. [[Joseph Haydn]], too, appeared here during his visits to London.<br />
<br />
== Nineteenth century ==<br />
[[File:Hengler's promenade concerts - Evanion collection (c.1880) - BL.jpg|thumb|right|A c. 1880 poster for promenade concerts at [[Hengler's Circus]], on the site of the present-day London Palladium]]<br />
The term "promenade concert" seems to have been first used in England in 1838 when London’s [[Lyceum Theatre, London|Lyceum Theatre]] announced ‘Promenade Concerts à la Musard’. [[Philippe Musard]] was a [[French people|French]] musician who had introduced open-air concerts in the [[English people|English]] style in [[Paris]].<br />
<br />
Musard came to [[England]] in 1840 to conduct concerts in the Lyceum Theatre. His programmes consisted of [[overtures]], [[waltzes]], popular instrumental solos and [[quadrilles]]. The success of these concerts led to further musical promenade concerts, both in London and other places including [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]] and [[Birmingham]]. The [[Crown and Anchor Tavern]] in the [[Strand, London|Strand]] gave a series of concerts with the band of the Theatre Royal, [[Drury Lane]] under the direction of [[Henri Valentino]]. In 1840 [[Edward Eliason]], leader of the orchestra of Drury Lane Theatre, started a series of ''Concerts d’été'' with an orchestra of nearly a hundred players.<br />
<br />
Soon there was also a series of ‘’Concerts d’hiver’’ under [[Louis Antoine Jullien]] (1812–1860). Jullien was a sound musician whose performances were combined with outrageous showmanship: [[Beethoven]] was conducted with a jewelled baton. With his extravagant clothing and long black hair and moustache he would go through a series of antics including having his white kid gloves brought to him on a silver [[salver]]. He conducted with his back to the orchestra in order to face his audience, and his orchestra were often joined by the bands of the [[Royal Artillery]] or drummers from the [[National Guard (France)|French Garde Nationale]]. He died in a [[lunatic asylum]].<ref>[[Adam Carse|Carse, Adam]]. ''The Life of Jullien'' (1951), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/730600 reviewed in ''Music & Letters'', Vol 34 No 1, January 1953]</ref><br />
<br />
Jullien was succeeded by the English conductor [[Alfred Mellon]] (1820–1867), and then [[Luigi Arditi]] (1822–1903). Another notable conductor was [[August Manns]] (1825–1907) who is associated with the Saturday concerts at [[The Crystal Palace|London’s Crystal Palace]], the enormous glass building which housed the [[Great Exhibition]] in 1851.<ref>Wyndham, Henry Saxe. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aatZAQAAQBAJ August Manns and the Saturday Concerts]'' (2013)</ref><br />
<br />
== Repertoire ==<br />
The pleasure gardens were the chief institutions for the performance of music by English composers. Songs and vocal pieces were composed especially for them. [[Strophic]] [[ballads]] were the staple diet. The songs were often on [[pastoral]] subjects, or [[drinking songs]], hunting songs or even songs on morbid subjects.<br />
<br />
Two famous songs written for the gardens were Arne's [[Shakespeare]] setting ''Where the bee sucks'', and [[Charles Edward Horn]]'s setting of [[Robert Herrick (poet)|Herrick]]’s ''Cherry Ripe''. Gradually opera started to influence the style of music, and larger concerted pieces would be heard. Choruses from Handel's [[oratorios]] were often included. Instrumental music included the popular [[concerto]]. Organ music was played between the acts of [[ballad opera]]s (Vauxhall and Ranelagh both had organs installed). [[Cremorne Gardens, London|Cremorne Gardens]] (1836–78) became Ranelagh’s natural successor in Chelsea during the Victorian period, presenting works by [[Boieldieu]], [[Daniel Auber|Auber]] and [[Jacques Offenbach|Offenbach]] in the 1870s.<ref>[https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.A2252166 Smolko, Joanna R. 'Pleasure Garden' in ''Oxford Music Online'']</ref><br />
<br />
In the late 19th century concerts under August Manns explored works by well-known composers: [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]], [[Franz Liszt|Liszt]], [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]], [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]], [[Robert Schumann|Schumann]], [[Bedřich Smetana|Smetana]] and [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]. London audiences were starting to become more discerning and exploratory. In 1895 [[Henry Wood (conductor)|Henry Wood]] began the series of promenade concerts that continue today as the [[BBC Proms]]. From the middle of the 20th century, open-air summer concerts at English country houses have revived the original tradition of the London pleasure gardens.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*{{wikt-inline|promenade concert}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
*David Cox: The Henry Wood Proms; British Broadcasting Corporation 1980; {{ISBN|978-0-563-17697-8}}<br />
*Article: “London” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music edited by Stanley Sadie 1980; {{ISBN|978-1-56159-174-9}}<br />
*Michel Faul : Louis Jullien, musique, spectacle et folie au XIXe siècle - atlantica (2006){{ISBN|978-2-35165-038-7}}. See specific site : <http://louisjullien.site.voila.fr><br />
*Article: "Jullien et les concerts promenades: invention ou réalité de l'exportation d'une tradition française" in Le théâtre français à l'étranger au XIXe siècle, edited by Jean-Claude Yon, Nuveau Monde édition, {{ISBN|978-2-84736-364-7}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*http://www.vauxhallandkennington.org.uk/sgdetail.shtml<br />
*http://louisjullien.site.voila.fr<br />
<br />
[[Category:Classical music in London]]<br />
[[Category:Former parks and open spaces of London]]<br />
[[Category:Music performance]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mark_Elder&diff=1235888651Mark Elder2024-07-21T19:09:34Z<p>AmgineIX: Pieces' links</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|British conductor|bot=PearBOT 5}}<br />
{{distinguish|Mark Elder (American football)}}<br />
{{EngvarB|date=November 2017}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}}<br />
<!-- please do not add an infobox, per [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Classical music/Style guidelines#Biographical infoboxes]]--><br />
[[File:Mark Elder.jpg|thumb|Mark Elder in 2011]]<br />
'''Sir Mark Philip Elder''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|sep=,|size=100%|CH|CBE}} (born 2 June 1947) is a British conductor. He is currently music director of the [[Hallé Orchestra]] in Manchester, England.<br />
<br />
==Life and career==<br />
Elder was born in [[Hexham]], Northumberland, the son of a dentist.<ref>{{cite news | author=Richard Morrison | title=Pally at the Halle | url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/article1024103.ece | work=The Times | date=20 February 2004 | access-date=23 September 2007}}</ref> He played the [[bassoon]] when in primary school, at [[Bryanston School]], Dorset, and in the [[National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain|National Youth Orchestra]], where he was one of the foremost musicians (bassoon and keyboard) of his generation. He attended [[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge]] as a [[choral scholar]], where he studied music. He later became a protégé of Sir [[Edward Downes]] and gained experience conducting [[Verdi]] operas (as well as [[War and Peace (opera)|Prokofiev's ''War and Peace'']] and [[Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg|Wagner's ''Meistersinger'']]) in Australia, at the [[Sydney Opera House]].<ref>{{cite news | author=Tom Service | author-link=Tom Service | title=The Italian Job | url=http://music.guardian.co.uk/classical/story/0,,2062068,00.html | work=The Guardian | date=21 April 2007 | access-date=17 July 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Family===<br />
Elder and his wife, Mandy, have a daughter, Katie.<ref>{{cite news | author=Joey Canessa | title=My Home: Mark Elder, conductor | url=http://money.independent.co.uk/property/homes/article332954.ece | work=The Independent | date=14 December 2005 | access-date=15 February 2007 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210952/http://money.independent.co.uk/property/homes/article332954.ece | archive-date=27 September 2007 | df=dmy-all }}</ref><br />
<br />
===The ENO and association with several orchestras===<br />
From 1979 to 1993, Elder was the music director of [[English National Opera]] (ENO). He was known as part of the "Power House" team that also included general director [[Peter Jonas (director)|Peter Jonas]] and artistic director [[David Pountney]], and gave ENO several very successful years of productions.{{cn|date=December 2022}}<br />
<br />
Elder served as principal guest conductor of the [[City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra]] (1992–1995) and music director of the [[Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra]] (1989–1994). He held positions as Principal Guest Conductor of the [[BBC Symphony Orchestra]] (1982–1985) and the [[London Mozart Players]] (1980–1983).{{cn|date=December 2022}}<br />
<br />
===The Hallé years===<br />
Elder was appointed music director of the [[Hallé Orchestra]] in 1999.<ref>{{cite news | author=Fiachra Gibbons | title=Miracle man to stir Halle giant | url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk_news/story/0,,292269,00.html | work=The Guardian | date=7 June 1999 | access-date=20 February 2007}}</ref> His first concert as music director was in October 2000.<ref>{{cite news | author=David Fallows | title=Hallé/Elder | url=http://arts.guardian.co.uk/reviews/story/0,,703013,00.html | work=The Guardian | date=28 October 2000 | access-date=15 February 2007}}</ref> He proposed several novel ideas for concerts. These have included the abandonment of traditional concert evening garb.<ref>{{cite news | author=Martin Kettle | title=In search of glories past | url=https://www.theguardian.com/friday_review/story/0,,736599,00.html | work=The Guardian | date=14 June 2002 | access-date=15 February 2007}}</ref> <br />
<br />
Elder is generally regarded as having restored the orchestra to high musical standards, after a period where the continuing existence of the orchestra was in doubt.<ref>{{cite news | author=Brian Hunt | title=An orchestra raised from the dead | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2001/11/15/bmbh15.xml | work=The Daily Telegraph | date=15 November 2001 | access-date=16 February 2007}}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> In 2004, he signed a contract to extend his tenure from 2005 to 2008, with an optional two-year extension at the end of that time.<ref>{{cite news | author=David Ward | title=I'm staying with Hallé, says conductor | url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/jul/19/arts.artsnews | work=The Guardian | date=19 July 2004 | access-date=15 February 2007}}</ref> A 2005 report indicated Elder's intention to remain with the orchestra until at least 2010.<ref>{{cite news | author=Hugh Canning | title=Opera: Armed for action | url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/article577628.ece | work=The Times | date=16 October 2005| access-date=20 February 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
In May 2009, the orchestra announced the extension of Elder's contract to 2015.<ref>Martin Cullingford, "Elder renews Hallé contract until 2015". ''Gramophone'', 15 May 2009.</ref> In November 2013, the Hallé announced the further extension of Elder's contract through "at least 2020".<ref>{{cite press release | url=http://www.halle.co.uk/news.aspx?News_ID=10633&FriendlyID=Sir-Mark-Elder-renews-his-contract-as-Music-Director-of-the-Hall | title=Sir Mark Elder renews his contract as Music Director of the Hallé | publisher=The Hallé | date=November 2013 | access-date=28 November 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203032016/http://www.halle.co.uk/news.aspx?News_ID=10633&FriendlyID=Sir-Mark-Elder-renews-his-contract-as-Music-Director-of-the-Hall | archive-date=3 December 2013 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Sir Mark Elder renews contract at Hallé until at least 2020 | url=http://www.gramophone.co.uk/classical-music-news/sir-mark-elder-renews-contract-at-hall%C3%A9-until-at-least-2020 | work=Gramophone | date=20 November 2013| access-date=28 November 2013}}</ref> In February 2023, Elder stated his intention to stand down as music director of The Hallé at the close of the 2023-2024 season.<ref>{{cite web | author=Janne Palkisto | title=Finnish Radio Symphony Orchestra concert, 1 February 2023, interval discussion | url=https://areena.yle.fi/1-64554828 | work=YLE (Finnish Radio) | date=2023-02-01 | access-date=2023-02-16}}</ref><br />
<br />
Elder has been president of the [[London Philharmonic Choir]] from 2014 and is currently the [[Royal Academy of Music]]'s Barbirolli Chair of Conducting. In November 2021, the [[Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra]] announced the appointment of Elder as its next principal guest conductor, effective from 1 August 2022, with an initial contract of three years through 31 July 2025.<ref>{{cite press release | url=https://harmonien.no/english/bergen-philharmonic-orchestra-appoints-sir-mark-elder-as-principal-guest-conductor/ | title=Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra appoints Sir Mark Elder as Principal Guest Conductor | publisher=Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra | date=15 November 2021 | access-date=2021-11-16}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Public pronouncements===<br />
Elder first conducted the ''[[Last Night of the Proms]]'' in 1987. He was scheduled to conduct again in 1990, but his remarks about the nature of some of the traditional Proms selections in the context of the impending first [[Gulf War]] led to his dismissal from that engagement.<ref>{{cite news | author=Richard Morrison | title=Restored to (hope and) glory|url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/article710215.ece |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120712113937/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/article710215.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 July 2012 | work=The Times | date=28 April 2006 | access-date=20 February 2007}}</ref> <br />
<br />
In 2006, he returned to conduct the BBC Symphony Orchestra for his second "Last Night" engagement, and used the traditional speech at the end of the concert to criticise aircraft baggage restrictions, in place following the uncovering of the [[2006 transatlantic aircraft plot]], which have made it difficult for musicians to carry their instruments on aircraft. In a reference to the fact that laptop computers are now allowed in aircraft cabins, Elder said, "...it seems to me that next year we should all look forward to 'Concerto for Laptop and Orchestra'."<ref>{{cite news | title=Conductor criticises air security | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/5331694.stm | work=BBC News | date=10 September 2006 | access-date=11 February 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | author=Jeevan Vasagar| title=Concerto for laptop? Conductor's sharp note over airport security | url=http://arts.guardian.co.uk/news/story/0,,1869495,00.html | work=The Guardian | date=11 September 2006 | access-date=15 February 2007}}</ref> He made a plea for children to be given more opportunity to sing at school.<ref>{{cite news | author=Richard Morrison | title=Last Night of the Proms | url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,14936-2352179,00.html | work=The Times | date=11 September 2006 | access-date=11 February 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Honours===<br />
Elder was appointed [[Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] (CBE) in the 1989 [[Queen's Birthday Honours]].<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=51772 |supp=y|page=7|date=16 June 1989}}</ref> He won an [[Olivier Award]] in 1991 for his outstanding work at English National Opera. He received the 2006 conductor prize of the Royal Philharmonic Society.<ref>{{cite news | author=Charlotte Higgins | title=Hallé's Elder, champion of British music, takes conductor prize | url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/may/10/arts.artsnews1 | work=The Guardian | date=10 May 2006 | access-date=15 February 2007}}</ref> In April 2007, Elder was one of eight conductors of British orchestras to endorse the 10-year classical music outreach manifesto, "Building on Excellence: Orchestras for the 21st Century", to increase the presence of classical music in the UK, including giving free entry to all British schoolchildren to a classical music concert.<ref>{{cite news | author=Charlotte Higgins | title=Orchestras urge free concerts for children | url=http://education.guardian.co.uk/artinschools/story/0,,2066195,00.html | work=The Guardian | date=26 April 2007 | access-date=4 May 2007}}</ref> <br />
<br />
Elder was [[Knight Bachelor|knighted]] in the [[Queen's Birthday Honours]] of June 2008.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=58729 |supp=y |page=1|date=14 June 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | author=Maev Kennedy | title=Queen's birthday honours | url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2008/jun/14/monarchy | work=The Guardian | date=14 June 2008 | access-date=20 June 2008}}</ref> He was appointed [[Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour]] (CH) in the [[2017 Birthday Honours]] for services to music.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=61962|supp=y|page=B25|date=17 June 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment===<br />
In addition to being involved in the above-named orchestras, Elder became "principal artist" of the <br />
[[Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment]] in December 2011.<ref>{{cite web|author=Sophia Lambton|url=http://www.classical-music.com/news/sir-mark-elder-becomes-principal-artist-orchestra-age-enlightenment|title=Sir Mark Elder becomes principal artist with the Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment|work=BBC Music Magazine|date=13 December 2011}}</ref> As noted in the article: "His first project with the OAE as principal artist was [to give] a performance of Berlioz's ''[[Roméo et Juliette (Berlioz)|Romeo and Juliet]]'' on 18 February 2012 at the Royal Festival Hall, London."<br />
<br />
===Style===<br />
Describing his own conducting style, Elder has said that in contrast to Sir [[Adrian Boult]], who was <br />
famously non-perspirational:<br />
:I'm quite a physical conductor. I remember seeing Adrian Boult backstage after the 1978 Proms and he was wearing a freshly ironed light blue [[Marks & Spencer|M&S]] shirt and he said to me "I see you're one of the sweaty ones."<ref>{{cite news | author=Sandra Deeble | title=My work space | url=https://www.theguardian.com/guardian_jobs_and_money/story/0,,1317632,00.html | work=The Guardian | date=2 October 2004 | access-date=17 July 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Recordings and writing===<br />
Elder has recorded for the [[Hyperion Records|Hyperion]], NMC, [[Chandos Records|Chandos]], [[Opera Rara]], and [[Glyndebourne]] record labels, as well as for the Hallé Orchestra's own label. In addition to his conducting and recording activities, Elder also has written on music for ''[[The Guardian]]'' and other newspapers.<ref>{{cite news | author=Mark Elder | title=The music of war | url=http://arts.guardian.co.uk/fridayreview/story/0,,734811,00.html | work=The Guardian | date=5 October 2001 | access-date=15 February 2007}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.bridgewater-hall.co.uk/halleorchestra/markelder.html Mark Elder biography at the Bridgewater Hall]<br />
*[http://www.musicalcriticism.com/interviews/elder-0608.shtml Interview with Mark Elder at MusicalCriticism.com, 13 June 2008]<br />
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080212012544/http://www.musolife.com/mark-elder.html Femke Colborne, MusoLife article on Mark Elder, 1 August 2007.]<br />
*{{AllMusic|class=artist|id=q22071}}<br />
*[http://www.bruceduffie.com/elder.html Two Interviews with Mark Elder] by Bruce Duffie, 20 October 1986 & 10 October 1997<br />
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{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-culture}}<br />
{{succession box | title=[[English National Opera|Music Director, English National Opera]] | before=[[Charles Groves]] | years=1979–1993 | after=[[Sîan Edwards]]}}<br />
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{{Rochester Philharmonic conductors}}<br />
{{Hallé principal conductors}}<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Elder, Mark}}<br />
[[Category:1947 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:People from Hexham]]<br />
[[Category:English conductors (music)]]<br />
[[Category:British male conductors (music)]]<br />
[[Category:Music directors (opera)]]<br />
[[Category:People educated at Bryanston School]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Conductors (music) awarded knighthoods]]<br />
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge]]<br />
[[Category:Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge]]<br />
[[Category:Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century British conductors (music)]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century English musicians]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century British conductors (music)]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century English musicians]]<br />
[[Category:Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century British male musicians]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century British male musicians]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bromsgrove_School&diff=1235457132Bromsgrove School2024-07-19T10:51:27Z<p>AmgineIX: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Public school in Worcestershire, England}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=December 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox school<br />
| name = Bromsgrove School<br />
| image = Bromsgrove_School_Crest_of_Arms.png<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|52.328611|-2.063333|type:edu_region:GB_dim:100|format=dec|display=inline,title}}<br />
| pushpin_map = Worcestershire#England#UK<br />
| motto = Deo, regi, vicino<br />([[Latin]]: "For God, for King, for Neighbour")<br />
| established = 1553 (established)<br />1476 (first recorded)<br />
| closed = <br />
| type = [[Public school (United Kingdom)|Public school]] <br /> [[Independent school|Independent]]<br />[[day school|day]] and [[boarding school]]<br />[[Coeducational|Coeducational school]]<br />
| religion = [[Church of England]]<br />
| president = <br />
| head_label = Headmaster<br />
| head = Michael E. Punt M.A. (Oxon) MSc<br />
| chair_label = Chairman of the Governors<br />
| chair = Michael Luckman<br />
| r_head_label = Chaplain<br />
| r_head = Paul Hedworth.<br />
| founder = Sir [[Sir Thomas Cookes, 2nd Baronet|Thomas Cookes]]<br />
| specialist = <br />
| address = Worcester Road<br />
| city = [[Bromsgrove]]<br />
| county = [[Worcestershire]]<br />
| country = England<br />
| postcode = B61 7DU<br />
| local_authority = [[Worcestershire County Council|Worcestershire]]<br />
| urn = 117012<br />
| ofsted = <br />
| staff = 599 (200 teaching staff)<br />
| enrolment = 2114<br />
| gender = [[Coeducational]]<br />
| lower_age = 2<br />
| upper_age = 18<br />
| houses = 13 (senior school)<br />4 (preparatory school)<br />3 (pre-preparatory)<br />
| colours = Maroon<br />
{{color box|Maroon}}<br />
| publication = <br />
| free_label_1 = Former pupils<br />
| free_1 = [http://www.bromsgrovians.com/ Old Bromsgrovians]<br />
| website = http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk<br />
| caption = Coat of arms of Bromsgrove School (arms of Cookes, with [[Red Hand of Ulster|inescutcheon of a baronet]])<br />
}}<br />
'''Bromsgrove School''' is a [[co-educational]] [[boarding school|boarding]] and [[day school|day]] school in the [[Worcestershire]] town of [[Bromsgrove]], England. Founded in 1553, it is one of the oldest [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public schools]] in Britain, and one of the 14 founding members of the [[Headmasters' Conference]].<br />
<br />
Bromsgrove School has both boarding and day students consisting of three schools, pre-prep nursery school (ages 2&ndash;7), preparatory school (ages 7&ndash;13) and the senior school (13&ndash;18). Bromsgrove charges up to £15,490 per term, with three terms per academic year.<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2019 |title=Fees |url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/fees.aspx |access-date=18 July 2024 |website=Bromsgrove School}}</ref> The school has a total of 200 teaching staff, with 2,114 pupils.<br />
<br />
Spread across 100 acres, the main campus is located in the heart of the town of [[Bromsgrove]]. However, Bromsgrove School has also expanded overseas, with an additional boarding school in Bangkok ([[Bromsgrove International School Thailand]]) and a new school within the Mission Hills complex in [[Shenzhen|Shenzhen, China]], [[Bromsgrove School Mission Hills]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://bromsgrove.mhis.education/en-us/campus.php|title=Campus and Facilities- Bromsgrove School Mission Hills|website=bromsgrove.mhis.education|access-date=2019-01-05}}</ref><br />
<br />
The school's headmaster from September 2022 is Michael Punt, who was previously headmaster of Chigwell School.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School.jpg|thumb|Thomas Cookes House, founded by Sir Thomas Cookes in 1693, is the oldest building on the site]]<br />
The school was first recorded in 1476 as a [[chantry]] school and was re-established as a [[grammar school]] between 1548 and 1553. The 1693 [[financial endowment]] of [[Sir Thomas Cookes, 2nd Baronet]] (1648-1701) of [[Norgrove Court]] in Worcestershire, produced the first buildings on the present site and the historic link with [[Worcester College, Oxford]], which he founded. The arms of Cookes (''Argent, two chevronels between six martlets 3, 2 and 1 gules'') were adopted by both Worcester College and Bromsgrove School. [[John Day Collis]] became head-master in December 1842. The tercentenary of the grammar school was celebrated on 31 March 1853. In 1856, Collis had the chapel and new school rooms built, and existing buildings enlarged and improved. In 1869 Bromsgrove was one of the fourteen founding schools of the [[Headmasters' Conference]].<br />
<br />
=== Second World War ===<br />
During the [[Second World War]], the entire school was temporarily moved to [[Llanwrtyd Wells]] in [[Wales]], as the school buildings were requisitioned by [[British government]] departments for the war effort. Many former pupils and members of staff were killed during the [[World War II|Second World War]], and their names are commemorated at the war memorial of the town. In 2007, the school was granted the [[Freedom of the City|freedom]] of Llanwrtyd Wells.<ref>[http://www.bromsgroveadvertiser.co.uk/news/banewsroundup/display.var.1749580.0.unique_honour_for_town_school.php Unique Honour For Town School (from Bromsgrove Advertiser)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
=== Overseas ===<br />
In 2002, the school established [[Bromsgrove International School Thailand (BIST)]] in [[Thailand]]. Then, in 2016, the school opened Bromsgrove School Mission Hills, in Shenzhen, China.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
==Scandals==<br />
===Financial===<br />
{{Main|Independent school fee fixing scandal}}<br />
In 2005, the school was one of fifty of the country's independent schools which were found guilty of running an illegal price-fixing cartel, exposed by ''[[The Times]]'', which had allowed them to drive up fees for thousands of parents.<ref>Independent schools face huge fines over cartel to fix fees, The Times newspaper, 10 November 2005 [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/education/article588559.ece (subscription site)] [http://www.pressmon.com/cgi-bin/press_view.cgi?id=991819 Alternative site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150608214028/http://www.pressmon.com/cgi-bin/press_view.cgi?id=991819 |date=8 June 2015 }}</ref> Each school was required to pay a nominal penalty of £10,000 and all agreed to make ex-gratia payments totalling £3 million into a trust designed to benefit pupils who attended the schools during the period in respect of which fee information was shared.<ref>[http://www.oft.gov.uk/news/press/2006/182-06 The Office of Fair Trading: OFT names further trustees as part of the independent schools settlement<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610055129/http://www.oft.gov.uk/news/press/2006/182-06 |date=10 June 2008 }}</ref><br />
<br />
===Abuse===<br />
Richard Knight, an Organist and assistant director of music at Bromsgrove School was jailed for two years in 2018 for having sex with two girls from Bromsgrove School on school property, as well as at his own home, inside his car and on the school's USA 2010 Chapel Music Tour.<br />
Judge Jeremy Baker QC, speaking at Worcester Crown Court on Friday, 23 November 2018, told Knight, 53, that the two victims had "particularly vulnerable" emotional backgrounds. "You knew that and that was why they were specifically targeted over and above other children at school", he said.<br />
The judge described Knight's behaviour as "predatory" and that there was a "significant degree of planning".<br />
Mr Knight, previously the conductor of Malvern Festival Chorus, had begun the second affair after the first one ended, and taught both pupils at the school. Knight had sex with one of the victims for the first time at her own home while her parents were out during Christmas Eve. The victim would often have to ride her bicycle to various pharmacists to get morning after pills. <br />
The court also heard evidence that Knight's wife had been a pupil of his at a school he worked at previously. They married in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worcesternews.co.uk/news/17255635.predatory-teacher-richard-knight-claims-fell-love-two-vulnerable-bromsgrove-school-pupils-sex/|title = 'Predatory' teacher claims he 'fell in love' with two vulnerable pupils he had sex with}}</ref><br />
<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/former-teacher-richard-knight-jailed-15457938|title = Former teacher jailed after 'sexual activity' with two pupils|date = 23 November 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Commemoration Day ==<br />
Commemoration Day (known colloquially as Commem) is the senior school's traditional end of year celebration. It is a special day for the school and especially for the upper sixth leavers. When Sir Thomas Cookes re-endowed the school in 1693, he enjoined that once a year a sermon should be preached to the scholars of the school in [[St John the Baptist Church, Bromsgrove|St John's Parish Church]]. It is this that the school commemorates as well as celebrating the end of the academic year with a prizegiving.<br />
<br />
Following a very small private ceremony in the Cookes Room celebrating the founder Sir Thomas Cookes, where the heads of school lay a wreath beneath a portrait of Cookes, the whole school (except the lower fourth) then proceeds to St John's Church for the commemoration service. Unusually the school does not have its own school song, however, [[Charles Villiers Stanford]]'s setting of [[Te Deum|Te Deum Laudamus]] in [[Services in B-flat major (Stanford)|B flat]] has been sung at the service since 1989, becoming an unofficial school song.<br />
<br />
After the church service everyone returns to school and takes their place in the speeches' marquee. The school and parents are addressed by the president of the school and the headmaster. Prizes are awarded to upper sixth leavers and other pupils.<br />
<br />
At 4.15pm the chapel bell begins to toll, calling the school to final call over. All the pupils line up in houses with their houseparents, housemothers and tutors on the parade ground between Kyteless and the chapel. Each house, beginning with school house (the senior house of the school), in turn then moves forward and every pupil shakes hands with their house staff, the heads of school and then the headmaster and his wife. The final ceremony is the lowering of the school flag by the heads of school who hand it to the deputy head who then hands it to the headmaster for safekeeping until the start of the next academic year.<br />
<br />
==Students==<br />
Bromsgrove School has boarding and day students and consists of three schools, pre-prep nursery school (ages 2&ndash;7), preparatory school (ages 7&ndash;13) and the senior school (13&ndash;18). The school has a total of 200 teaching staff, with 1,660 pupils, including 220 in the pre-preparatory school, 500 in the preparatory School and 940 in the senior school, of whom 60% are male and 40% female, 60% boarding and 40% day. As well as British students, there are more than three hundred from 49 different countries, especially [[Russia]], Germany, China and [[Hong Kong]].<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School 01.JPG|thumb|Main Worcester Road entrance]]<br />
<br />
The school website states that the pass rate at grades A* to C (exams at age 16) is 96%.<ref>{{citation |author=Isbi staff|url=http://www.isbi.com/isbi-viewschool/1536-Bromsgrove_School.html |title=Bromsgrove School, Worcestershire |publisher=[Which School Ltd.] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090403191647/http://www.isbi.com/isbi-viewschool/1536-Bromsgrove_School.html |archive-date=3 April 2009}}</ref> Bromsgrove also started teaching the [[International Baccalaureate Diploma]] (IB) in 2009, with sixth form students having the choice between IB, BTEC and A-Levels. The rugby match against [[King Edward's School, Birmingham]], that has been played annually since 1875,<ref>Bromsgrove & KES Birmingham.<br />
*Thomas Winter Hutton, ''King Edward's School, Birmingham, 1552-1952'', Blackwell, 1952. p. 148 "The first Bromsgrove game was in 1875, and 121 games have been played—two in a season at one period."<br />
*Henry Icely, ''Bromsgrove School through four centuries'', Blackwell, 1953. pp. 69,99. "Rugby football, hitherto an unregulated and unsatisfactory game, was by 1875 a far better occupation for October half-holidays than wooding." "In the seventies the Rugby game was still twelve a side. There were School matches. KES, Birmingham, was an early fixture; [[St Edward's School, Oxford|SES, Oxford]], was played for the first time in 1882."</ref> is thought to be the [[Oldest football competitions|oldest continuous rugby fixture]] between two schools in England.<ref>{{Citation|author=School staff |url=http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/senior_school/senior_sports/senior_sports_rugby.htm |title=Senior School Sports Rugby |publisher=Bromsgrove School |access-date=7 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121111341/http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/senior_school/senior_sports/senior_sports_rugby.htm |archive-date=21 November 2008}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Heads of school and monitors ==<br />
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2022}}<br />
Similar to most [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public schools]] in Britain and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], Bromsgrove has a system of school leaders known as monitors. As representatives of the school, monitors' jobs are mostly based around keeping the school running at its best level of quality and tradition, with chapel and lunch duties being an example of this. Pupils who belong to any of these categories, in addition to other leadership roles, are entitled to a certain set of privileges, such as monitor ties, brown shoes, and waistcoats/cardigans.<br />
<br />
In addition to the monitors, Bromsgrove has a set of [[Prefect#Academic|heads of school]] featuring a [[Head girl and head boy|head boy and girl]], and their respective deputies.<br />
<br />
Monitors and heads of school are chosen towards the end of their penultimate lower sixth year; the decision is made from a combination of both a student poll and teacher vote.<br />
<br />
== Academic results ==<br />
57% of Bromsgrove School students achieved A*/A for the 2019 A Levels examination while 64% of students obtained A*/A for the 2019 GCSE examination.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-05|title=Bromsgrove School Guide: Reviews Rankings, Fees and More|url=https://britannia-study.com.my/uk-boarding-school/bromsgrove-school|access-date=2020-12-22|website=Britannia StudyLink Malaysia: UK Study Expert|language=en-GB}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Houses==<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School 03.JPG|thumb|North Gate entrance, with the Dining Hall seen behind to the right]]<br />
The preparatory school houses of Boulton ([[Matthew Boulton]]), Darby ([[Abraham Darby I|Abraham Darby]]), Telford ([[Thomas Telford]]), Watt ([[James Watt]]), were named after famous British industrialists.<br /><br />
The houses were renamed in 2020 Cedar, Rowan, Ash, Willow, Sycamore and Beech after species of trees. The change was made to avoid links to those involved with the slave trade or child labour.<br /><br />
[[File:Perry Hall, Home of A.E. Housman.jpg|thumb|Housman Hall, one of the school's senior boarding houses, was formerly the home of poet [[A. E. Housman]]]]<br />
The senior school is divided into thirteen houses; six for boys, five for girls and two mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Boarding houses ===<br />
Mary Windsor, named after the daughter of Thomas Hickman-Windsor, 1st Earl of Plymouth and his wife Anne Savile, is for girl boarders. In 2012, Mary Windsor was moved into a new building as part of the developments around the south gate.<br />
<br />
Oakley House is the largest house, home to both boarding and day girls. It is situated alongside Mary Windsor and Elmshurst, in the newly developed area by the South Gate.<br />
<br />
Housman Hall for sixth form girls and boys was opened in 2005, after the school bought the [[Ramada]] Perry Hall Hotel for £3 million. The building was formerly the home of [[Alfred Edward Housman|A. E. Housman]], an old Bromsgrovian, and was expanded in 2009 into the neighbouring building, subsequently named after Housman. During an opening ceremony in 2014, Housman Hall was reopened after the school had completed a refurbishment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/schoolnews/official-re-opening-of-housman-hall-/241.aspx|title=Official Re-Opening of Housman Hall|website=bromsgrove-school.co.uk|access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref><br />
<br />
Elmshurst is also for boy boarders and was named after the original house that was located at 17 New Road. Elmshurst was sold in the mid-1970s and the students relocated within the school campus to the current building, which was refurbished in 2018.<br />
<br />
Webber House, while still classed as an autonomous annex of Wedron-Gordon House, is the newest boarding house at Bromsgrove School, catering to Sixth Form boarders.<br />
<br />
=== Day Houses ===<br />
Lupton, named after Lupton House, in [[Sedbergh School]], and Lyttelton, named after the school's links with [[Baron Lyttelton]], a local lord, are houses for day boys, located in the centre of the campus. Walters, named after the school's wartime headmaster, is also a boys' day house.<br />
<br />
Thomas Cookes and Hazeldene are two girls' day houses that are situated in the original and oldest building on the school's site.<br />
<br />
School House is the senior house of the school, and often considered the most prestigious. After beginning as a boarding house, School is now a boys day house situated in the west wing of the Wendron-Gordon building. It consistently ranks as one of the most academically able houses, winning multiple prizes in academics and debating. It leads the final call over during the end of year Commemoration Day ceremony.<br />
<br />
Ottilie Hild is the newest girls' day house, overlooking Gordon Green and opened in September 2020. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!House<br />
!Abbr.<br />
!Gender<br />
!Type<br />
!Colours<br />
|-<br />
|Elmshurst<br />
|E<br />
|Boys<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Darkblue}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Hazeldene<br />
|Hz<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Lightblue}}<br />
|-<br />
|Housman Hall<br />
|HH<br />
|Mixed<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Black}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Lupton<br />
|Lu<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Red}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Lyttleton<br />
|Ly<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Purple}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Mary Windsor<br />
|MW<br />
|Girls<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Maroon}}<br />
|-<br />
|Oakley<br />
|O<br />
|Girls<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Darkgreen}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Ottilie Hild<br />
|OH<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|School<br />
|S<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Skyblue}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Thomas Cookes<br />
|TC<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Yellow}}<br />
|-<br />
|Walters<br />
|Ws<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Black}} {{color box|Gold}} {{Color box|Silver||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Webber<br />
|Wb<br />
|Mixed<br />
|Boarding<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Wendron-Gordon<br />
|WG<br />
|Boys<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Green}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== School terms ==<br />
There are three academic terms in the year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/term-dates|title=Term Dates|website=bromsgrove-school.co.uk|access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref><br />
<br />
* The [[Michaelmas]] term, from early September to mid December. New pupils are now admitted only at the start of the Michaelmas, unless in exceptional circumstances.<br />
* The [[Lent]] term, from early January to late March.<br />
* The Summer term, from late April to late June or early July.<br />
<br />
Within each term, there is a break known as a [[half term]], in which all pupils return home.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}<br />
<br />
== Headmasters==<br />
The headmasters of the school:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrovians.com/frmContextPage.aspx?S=e4282ow|title=Bromsgrovians Connected|website=bromsgrovians.com|access-date=2018-03-13}}</ref><br />
{{Columns-list|colwidth=18em|<br />
*2022-present Michael Punt<br />
*2014–2022 Peter Clague<br />
*2004–2014 Christopher Edwards<br />
*1986–2004 Timothy Taylor<br />
*1970–1985 Nick Earle<br />
*1953–1970 Lionel Carey<br />
*1931–1953 David Walters<br />
*1912–1931 Robert G Routh<br />
*1901–1912 Frederick Hendy<br />
*1873–1901 Herbert Millington<br />
*1867–1873 George Blore<br />
*1842–1867 [[John Day Collis]]<br />
*1832–1842 George Jacob<br />
*1819–1832 John Topham<br />
*1817–1819 no headmaster<br />
*1816 Thomas Davies (sent to Fleet Prison)<br />
*1813–1816 no headmaster<br />
*1812 Joseph Fell (writing master)<br />
*1810–1812 no headmaster<br />
*1804–1810 Hugh Price<br />
*1799–1804 Jeremiah Roberts<br />
*1788–1799 Charles Shipley<br />
*1776–1788 John Best<br />
*1756–1776 John Bennett<br />
*1735–1756 Charles Wilmott<br />
*1721–1735 Thomas Wilmott<br />
*1693–1721 John Barney<br />
*1690–1693 Robert Durant<br />
*1687–1690 Samuel Lloyd<br />
*1679–1687 John Barney<br />
*1678–1679 Samuel Lloyd<br />
*1667–1678 James Orton<br />
*1665–1667 no headmaster<br />
*1664–1665 William Broughton<br />
*1650–1664 William Suthwell<br />
*1643–1650 William Spicer<br />
*1625–1643 John Crumpe<br />
*1622–1625 James Purcell<br />
*1616–1622 Thomas Flavell<br />
*1611–1616 William Binion<br />
*1606–1611 Henry Duggard<br />
*1597–1606 Humphrey Roe<br />
*1577–1597 Arnold Hancox<br />
*1562–1577 Robert Kymberley<br />
*1558–1562 Thomas Palmer<br />
*1545–1558 William Foonys<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Old Bromsgrovians==<br />
<br />
{{See also|Category:People educated at Bromsgrove School}}<br />
<br />
Notable Old Bromsgrovians include five Victoria Cross recipients and [[A. E. Housman]]. In business and politics, [[Digby Jones]] and [[Michael Heseltine]] were both educated at Bromsgrove, as were actors [[Ian Carmichael]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2010/feb/06/ian-carmichael-obituary|title=Ian Carmichael obituary|last=Barker|first=Dennis|date=2010-02-06|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-09-24|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> [[Richard Wattis]] (of ''[[Hancock's Half Hour]], [[Sykes (TV series)|Sykes]], [[Father Dear Father]]''), [[Trevor Eve]] (of [[Shoestring (TV series)|''Shoestring'']]), [[Nick Miles]] (of ''[[Emmerdale]]'') and [[Arthur Darvill]] (of ''[[Doctor Who]]''). The author [[Nicholas Evans]] who wrote ''[[The Horse Whisperer (book)|The Horse Whisperer]]'' and journalist [[Chris Atkins (journalist)|Chris Atkins]] were educated at Bromsgrove. More recently, [[Iskra Lawrence]] (an English model, global role model and brand ambassador) attended the School.<br />
<br />
In music, composer [[Isaiah Burnell]] was director of music from 1907 for 25 years. [[John Illsley]], of the band [[Dire Straits]], [[Guillemots (band)|Guillemots]] member [[Fyfe Dangerfield]], [[Ritchie Neville]] of boy band Five and jazz saxophonist [[Soweto Kinch]] attended the school.<br />
<br />
The school continues to produce leading sportsman – [[Matt Neal]] attended during the 1980s, and [[Andy Goode]] was part of the drive by the school to welcome more leading rugby players to the school. Bromsgrove continues to educate many England national sportsmen including [[Ben Foden]] and [[Matt Mullan]] who have played [[Rugby union]] for England.<br />
<br />
Others include [[Peter Spence]], an English journalist and writer who wrote the British sitcom ''[[To the Manor Born]]'' and Admiral [[Ben Key (Royal Navy officer)|Sir Ben Key]] KCB, CBE, ADC, who is a senior naval officer; and has served as First Sea Lord since November 2021.<br />
<br />
Rear-Admiral [[David Haslam (Royal Navy officer)|Sir David William Haslam]] (1923–2009) was educated at Bromsgrove School; he returned as a governor and lived opposite the school in Worcester Road until his death.<br />
<br />
===Medals for gallantry===<br />
Five Old Bromsgrovians are known to have received the [[Victoria Cross]]:<ref>Lovell, Nicholas (1996). ''V.C.s of Bromsgrove School: The Stories of Five Victoria Crosses Won by Old Bromsgrovians''. Bromsgrove: Bromsgrove School Enterprises. {{ISBN|0-9521362-3-6}}</ref><br />
<br />
*[[George White (British Army officer)|Sir George White]] (1835–1912), [[Commander-in-Chief, India]], 1893–1899, [[Governor of Gibraltar]] 1900–1904<br />
*[[Percy Thompson Dean]] (1877–1939)<br />
*[[Eustace Jotham]] (1884–1915)<br />
*[[Frank Bernard Wearne]] (1894–1917)<br />
*[[Nigel Gray Leakey]] (1913–1941)<br />
<br />
One old Bromsgrovian, [[Oliver Bryson]], is known to have received the [[George Cross]],<ref>Ashcroft, Michael (2010). ''George Cross Heroes''. London: Headline Review. p. 365. {{ISBN|978-0-7553-6082-6}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of the oldest schools in the United Kingdom]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk Bromsgrove School Website]<br />
* [http://www.bromsgrovians.com/ Bromsgrove School Alumni Website]<br />
* [http://www.roll-of-honour.com/Databases/BromsgroveSchool Bromsgrove School OB's who died in three wars]<br />
* [http://maps.google.co.uk/maps/ms?ie=UTF8&hl=en&msa=0&msid=111399239993506295079.0000011233e6f70ebff75&z=16 Map of Bromsgrove School Grounds]<br />
<br />
{{Schools in Worcestershire}}<br />
{{Public schools in England}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 1550s]]<br />
[[Category:Private schools in Worcestershire]]<br />
[[Category:1553 establishments in England]]<br />
[[Category:People educated at Bromsgrove School| ]]<br />
[[Category:Member schools of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference]]<br />
[[Category:Boarding schools in Worcestershire]]<br />
[[Category:Bromsgrove]]<br />
[[Category:International Baccalaureate schools in England]]<br />
[[Category:Worcester College, Oxford]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bromsgrove_School&diff=1235348633Bromsgrove School2024-07-18T20:50:41Z<p>AmgineIX: Fees updated</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Public school in Worcestershire, England}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=December 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox school<br />
| name = Bromsgrove School<br />
| image = Bromsgrove_School_Crest_of_Arms.png<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|52.328611|-2.063333|type:edu_region:GB_dim:100|format=dec|display=inline,title}}<br />
| pushpin_map = Worcestershire#England#UK<br />
| motto = Deo, regi, vicino<br />([[Latin]]: "For God, for King, for Neighbour")<br />
| established = 1553 (established)<br />1476 (first recorded)<br />
| closed = <br />
| type = [[Public school (United Kingdom)|Public school]] <br /> [[Independent school|Independent]]<br />[[day school|day]] and [[boarding school]]<br />[[Coeducational|Coeducational school]]<br />
| religion = [[Church of England]]<br />
| president = <br />
| head_label = Headmaster<br />
| head = Michael E. Punt M.A. (Oxon) MSc<br />
| chair_label = Chairman of the Governors<br />
| chair = Michael Luckman<br />
| r_head_label = Chaplain<br />
| r_head = Paul Hedworth.<br />
| founder = Sir [[Sir Thomas Cookes, 2nd Baronet|Thomas Cookes]]<br />
| specialist = <br />
| address = Worcester Road<br />
| city = [[Bromsgrove]]<br />
| county = [[Worcestershire]]<br />
| country = England<br />
| postcode = B61 7DU<br />
| local_authority = [[Worcestershire County Council|Worcestershire]]<br />
| urn = 117012<br />
| ofsted = <br />
| staff = 599 (200 teaching staff)<br />
| enrolment = 2114<br />
| gender = [[Coeducational]]<br />
| lower_age = 2<br />
| upper_age = 18<br />
| houses = 13 (senior school)<br />4 (preparatory school)<br />3 (pre-preparatory)<br />
| colours = Maroon<br />
{{color box|Maroon}}<br />
| publication = <br />
| free_label_1 = Former pupils<br />
| free_1 = [http://www.bromsgrovians.com/ Old Bromsgrovians]<br />
| website = http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk<br />
| caption = Coat of arms of Bromsgrove School (arms of Cookes, with [[Red Hand of Ulster|inescutcheon of a baronet]])<br />
}}<br />
'''Bromsgrove School''' is a [[co-educational]] [[boarding school|boarding]] and [[day school|day]] school in the [[Worcestershire]] town of [[Bromsgrove]], England. Founded in 1553, it is one of the oldest [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public schools]] in Britain, and one of the 14 founding members of the [[Headmasters' Conference]].<br />
<br />
Bromsgrove School has both boarding and day students consisting of three schools, pre-prep nursery school (ages 2&ndash;7), preparatory school (ages 7&ndash;13) and the senior school (13&ndash;18). Bromsgrove charges up to £15,490 per term, with three terms per academic year.<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2019 |title=Fees |url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/fees.aspx |access-date=18 July 2024 |website=Bromsgrove School}}</ref> The school has a total of 200 teaching staff, with 2,114 pupils.<br />
<br />
Spread across 100 acres, the main campus is located in the heart of the town of [[Bromsgrove]]. However, Bromsgrove School has also expanded overseas, with an additional boarding school in Bangkok ([[Bromsgrove International School Thailand]]) and a new school within the Mission Hills complex in [[Shenzhen|Shenzhen, China]], [[Bromsgrove School Mission Hills]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://bromsgrove.mhis.education/en-us/campus.php|title=Campus and Facilities- Bromsgrove School Mission Hills|website=bromsgrove.mhis.education|access-date=2019-01-05}}</ref><br />
<br />
The school's headmaster from September 2022 is Michael Punt, who was previously headmaster of Chigwell School.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School.jpg|thumb|Thomas Cookes House, founded by Sir Thomas Cookes in 1693, is the oldest building on the site]]<br />
The school was first recorded in 1476 as a [[chantry]] school and was re-established as a [[grammar school]] between 1548 and 1553. The 1693 [[financial endowment]] of [[Sir Thomas Cookes, 2nd Baronet]] (1648-1701) of [[Norgrove Court]] in Worcestershire, produced the first buildings on the present site and the historic link with [[Worcester College, Oxford]], which he founded. The arms of Cookes (''Argent, two chevronels between six martlets 3, 2 and 1 gules'') were adopted by both Worcester College and Bromsgrove School. [[John Day Collis]] became head-master in December 1842. The tercentenary of the grammar school was celebrated on 31 March 1853. In 1856, Collis had the chapel and new school rooms built, and existing buildings enlarged and improved. In 1869 Bromsgrove was one of the fourteen founding schools of the [[Headmasters' Conference]].<br />
<br />
=== Second World War ===<br />
During the [[Second World War]], the entire school was temporarily moved to [[Llanwrtyd Wells]] in [[Wales]], as the school buildings were requisitioned by [[British government]] departments for the war effort. Many former pupils and members of staff were killed during the [[World War II|Second World War]], and their names are commemorated at the war memorial of the town. In 2007, the school was granted the [[Freedom of the City|freedom]] of Llanwrtyd Wells.<ref>[http://www.bromsgroveadvertiser.co.uk/news/banewsroundup/display.var.1749580.0.unique_honour_for_town_school.php Unique Honour For Town School (from Bromsgrove Advertiser)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
=== Overseas ===<br />
In 2002, the school established [[Bromsgrove International School Thailand (BIST)]] in [[Thailand]]. Then, in 2016, the school opened Bromsgrove School Mission Hills, in Shenzhen, China.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
==Scandals==<br />
===Financial===<br />
{{Main|Independent school fee fixing scandal}}<br />
In 2005, the school was one of fifty of the country's independent schools which were found guilty of running an illegal price-fixing cartel, exposed by ''[[The Times]]'', which had allowed them to drive up fees for thousands of parents.<ref>Independent schools face huge fines over cartel to fix fees, The Times newspaper, 10 November 2005 [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/education/article588559.ece (subscription site)] [http://www.pressmon.com/cgi-bin/press_view.cgi?id=991819 Alternative site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150608214028/http://www.pressmon.com/cgi-bin/press_view.cgi?id=991819 |date=8 June 2015 }}</ref> Each school was required to pay a nominal penalty of £10,000 and all agreed to make ex-gratia payments totalling £3 million into a trust designed to benefit pupils who attended the schools during the period in respect of which fee information was shared.<ref>[http://www.oft.gov.uk/news/press/2006/182-06 The Office of Fair Trading: OFT names further trustees as part of the independent schools settlement<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610055129/http://www.oft.gov.uk/news/press/2006/182-06 |date=10 June 2008 }}</ref><br />
<br />
===Abuse===<br />
Richard Knight, an Organist and assistant director of music at Bromsgrove School was jailed for two years in 2018 for having sex with two girls from Bromsgrove School on school property, as well as at his own home, inside his car and on the school's USA 2010 Chapel Music Tour.<br />
Judge Jeremy Baker QC, speaking at Worcester Crown Court on Friday, 23 November 2018, told Knight, 53, that the two victims had "particularly vulnerable" emotional backgrounds. "You knew that and that was why they were specifically targeted over and above other children at school", he said.<br />
The judge described Knight's behaviour as "predatory" and that there was a "significant degree of planning".<br />
Mr Knight, previously the conductor of Malvern Festival Chorus, had begun the second affair after the first one ended, and taught both pupils at the school. Knight had sex with one of the victims for the first time at her own home while her parents were out during Christmas Eve. The victim would often have to ride her bicycle to various pharmacists to get morning after pills. <br />
The court also heard evidence that Knight's wife had been a pupil of his at a school he worked at previously. They married in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worcesternews.co.uk/news/17255635.predatory-teacher-richard-knight-claims-fell-love-two-vulnerable-bromsgrove-school-pupils-sex/|title = 'Predatory' teacher claims he 'fell in love' with two vulnerable pupils he had sex with}}</ref><br />
<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/former-teacher-richard-knight-jailed-15457938|title = Former teacher jailed after 'sexual activity' with two pupils|date = 23 November 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Commemoration Day ==<br />
Commemoration Day (known colloquially as Commem) is the senior school's traditional end of year celebration. It is a special day for the school and especially for the upper sixth leavers. When Sir Thomas Cookes re-endowed the school in 1693, he enjoined that once a year a sermon should be preached to the scholars of the school in [[St John the Baptist Church, Bromsgrove|St John's Parish Church]]. It is this that the school commemorates as well as celebrating the end of the academic year with a prizegiving.<br />
<br />
Following a very small private ceremony in the Cookes Room celebrating the founder Sir Thomas Cookes, where the heads of school lay a wreath beneath a portrait of Cookes, the whole school (except the lower fourth) then proceeds to St John's Church for the commemoration service. Unusually the school does not have its own school song, however, [[Charles Villiers Stanford]]'s setting of [[Te Deum|Te Deum Laudamus]] in [[Services in B-flat major (Stanford)|B flat]] has been sung at the service since 1989, becoming an unofficial school song.<br />
<br />
After the church service everyone returns to school and takes their place in the speeches' marquee. The school and parents are addressed by the president of the school and the headmaster. Prizes are awarded to upper sixth leavers and other pupils.<br />
<br />
At 4.15pm the chapel bell begins to toll, calling the school to final call over. All the pupils line up in houses with their houseparents, housemothers and tutors on the parade ground between Kyteless and the chapel. Each house, beginning with school house (the senior house of the school), in turn then moves forward and every pupil shakes hands with their house staff, the heads of school and then the headmaster and his wife. The final ceremony is the lowering of the school flag by the heads of school who hand it to the deputy head who then hands it to the headmaster for safekeeping until the start of the next academic year.<br />
<br />
==Students==<br />
Bromsgrove School has boarding and day students and consists of three schools, pre-prep nursery school (ages 2&ndash;7), preparatory school (ages 7&ndash;13) and the senior school (13&ndash;18). The school has a total of 200 teaching staff, with 1,660 pupils, including 220 in the pre-preparatory school, 500 in the preparatory School and 940 in the senior school, of whom 60% are male and 40% female, 60% boarding and 40% day. As well as British students, there are more than three hundred from 49 different countries, especially [[Russia]], Germany, China and [[Hong Kong]].<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School 01.JPG|thumb|Main Worcester Road entrance]]<br />
<br />
The school website states that the pass rate at grades A* to C (exams at age 16) is 96%.<ref>{{citation |author=Isbi staff|url=http://www.isbi.com/isbi-viewschool/1536-Bromsgrove_School.html |title=Bromsgrove School, Worcestershire |publisher=[Which School Ltd.] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090403191647/http://www.isbi.com/isbi-viewschool/1536-Bromsgrove_School.html |archive-date=3 April 2009}}</ref> Bromsgrove also started teaching the [[International Baccalaureate Diploma]] (IB) in 2009, with sixth form students having the choice between IB, BTEC and A-Levels. The rugby match against [[King Edward's School, Birmingham]], that has been played annually since 1875,<ref>Bromsgrove & KES Birmingham.<br />
*Thomas Winter Hutton, ''King Edward's School, Birmingham, 1552-1952'', Blackwell, 1952. p. 148 "The first Bromsgrove game was in 1875, and 121 games have been played—two in a season at one period."<br />
*Henry Icely, ''Bromsgrove School through four centuries'', Blackwell, 1953. pp. 69,99. "Rugby football, hitherto an unregulated and unsatisfactory game, was by 1875 a far better occupation for October half-holidays than wooding." "In the seventies the Rugby game was still twelve a side. There were School matches. KES, Birmingham, was an early fixture; [[St Edward's School, Oxford|SES, Oxford]], was played for the first time in 1882."</ref> is thought to be the [[Oldest football competitions|oldest continuous rugby fixture]] between two schools in England.<ref>{{Citation|author=School staff |url=http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/senior_school/senior_sports/senior_sports_rugby.htm |title=Senior School Sports Rugby |publisher=Bromsgrove School |access-date=7 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121111341/http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/senior_school/senior_sports/senior_sports_rugby.htm |archive-date=21 November 2008}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Heads of school and monitors ==<br />
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2022}}<br />
Similar to most [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public schools]] in Britain and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], Bromsgrove has a system of school leaders known as monitors. As representatives of the school, monitors' jobs are mostly based around keeping the school running at its best level of quality and tradition, with chapel and lunch duties being an example of this. Pupils who belong to any of these categories, in addition to other leadership roles, are entitled to a certain set of privileges, such as monitor ties, brown shoes, and waistcoats/cardigans.<br />
<br />
In addition to the monitors, Bromsgrove has a set of [[Prefect#Academic|heads of school]] featuring a [[Head girl and head boy|head boy and girl]], and their respective deputies.<br />
<br />
Monitors and heads of school are chosen towards the end of their penultimate lower sixth year; the decision is made from a combination of both a student poll and teacher vote.<br />
<br />
== Academic results ==<br />
57% of Bromsgrove School students achieved A*/A for the 2019 A Levels examination while 64% of students obtained A*/A for the 2019 GCSE examination.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-05|title=Bromsgrove School Guide: Reviews Rankings, Fees and More|url=https://britannia-study.com.my/uk-boarding-school/bromsgrove-school|access-date=2020-12-22|website=Britannia StudyLink Malaysia: UK Study Expert|language=en-GB}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Houses==<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School 03.JPG|thumb|North Gate entrance, with the Dining Hall seen behind to the right]]<br />
The preparatory school houses of Boulton ([[Matthew Boulton]]), Darby ([[Abraham Darby I|Abraham Darby]]), Telford ([[Thomas Telford]]), Watt ([[James Watt]]), were named after famous British industrialists.<br /><br />
The houses were renamed in 2020 Cedar, Rowan, Ash, Willow, Sycamore and Beech after species of trees. The change was made to avoid links to those involved with the slave trade or child labour.<br /><br />
[[File:Perry Hall, Home of A.E. Housman.jpg|thumb|Housman Hall, one of the school's senior boarding houses, was formerly the home of poet [[A. E. Housman]]]]<br />
The senior school is divided into thirteen houses; six for boys, five for girls and two mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Boarding houses ===<br />
Mary Windsor, named after the daughter of Thomas Hickman-Windsor, 1st Earl of Plymouth and his wife Anne Savile, is for girl boarders. In 2012, Mary Windsor was moved into a new building as part of the developments around the south gate.<br />
<br />
Oakley House is the largest house, home to both boarding and day girls. It is situated alongside Mary Windsor and Elmshurst, in the newly developed area by the South Gate.<br />
<br />
Housman Hall for sixth form girls and boys was opened in 2005, after the school bought the [[Ramada]] Perry Hall Hotel for £3 million. The building was formerly the home of [[Alfred Edward Housman|A. E. Housman]], an old Bromsgrovian, and was expanded in 2009 into the neighbouring building, subsequently named after Housman. During an opening ceremony in 2014, Housman Hall was reopened after the school had completed a refurbishment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/schoolnews/official-re-opening-of-housman-hall-/241.aspx|title=Official Re-Opening of Housman Hall|website=bromsgrove-school.co.uk|access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref><br />
<br />
Elmshurst is also for boy boarders and was named after the original house that was located at 17 New Road. Elmshurst was sold in the mid-1970s and the students relocated within the school campus to the current building, which was refurbished in 2018. Elmshurst now has an additional annexe known as Webber, which is located by the Conway Road entrance.<br />
<br />
Webber House, while still classed as an autonomous annex of Wedron-Gordon House, is the newest boarding house at Bromsgrove School, catering to Sixth Form boarders.<br />
<br />
=== Day Houses ===<br />
Lupton, named after Lupton House, in [[Sedbergh School]], and Lyttelton, named after the school's links with [[Baron Lyttelton]], a local lord, are houses for day boys, located in the centre of the campus. Walters, named after the school's wartime headmaster, is also a boys' day house.<br />
<br />
Thomas Cookes and Hazeldene are two girls' day houses that are situated in the original and oldest building on the school's site.<br />
<br />
School House is the senior house of the school, and often considered the most prestigious. After beginning as a boarding house, School is now a boys day house situated in the west wing of the Wendron-Gordon building. It consistently ranks as one of the most academically able houses, winning multiple prizes in academics and debating. It leads the final call over during the end of year Commemoration Day ceremony.<br />
<br />
Ottilie Hild is the newest girls' day house, overlooking Gordon Green and opened in September 2020. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!House<br />
!Abbr.<br />
!Gender<br />
!Type<br />
!Colours<br />
|-<br />
|Elmshurst<br />
|E<br />
|Boys<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Darkblue}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Hazeldene<br />
|Hz<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Lightblue}}<br />
|-<br />
|Housman Hall<br />
|HH<br />
|Mixed<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Black}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Lupton<br />
|Lu<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Red}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Lyttleton<br />
|Ly<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Purple}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Mary Windsor<br />
|MW<br />
|Girls<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Maroon}}<br />
|-<br />
|Oakley<br />
|O<br />
|Girls<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Darkgreen}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Ottilie Hild<br />
|OH<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|School<br />
|S<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Skyblue}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Thomas Cookes<br />
|TC<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Yellow}}<br />
|-<br />
|Walters<br />
|Ws<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Black}} {{color box|Gold}} {{Color box|Silver||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Webber<br />
|Wb<br />
|Mixed<br />
|Boarding<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Wendron-Gordon<br />
|WG<br />
|Boys<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Green}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== School terms ==<br />
There are three academic terms in the year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/term-dates|title=Term Dates|website=bromsgrove-school.co.uk|access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref><br />
<br />
* The [[Michaelmas]] term, from early September to mid December. New pupils are now admitted only at the start of the Michaelmas, unless in exceptional circumstances.<br />
* The [[Lent]] term, from early January to late March.<br />
* The Summer term, from late April to late June or early July.<br />
<br />
Within each term, there is a break known as a [[half term]], in which all pupils return home.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}<br />
<br />
== Headmasters==<br />
The headmasters of the school:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrovians.com/frmContextPage.aspx?S=e4282ow|title=Bromsgrovians Connected|website=bromsgrovians.com|access-date=2018-03-13}}</ref><br />
{{Columns-list|colwidth=18em|<br />
*2022-present Michael Punt<br />
*2014–2022 Peter Clague<br />
*2004–2014 Christopher Edwards<br />
*1986–2004 Timothy Taylor<br />
*1970–1985 Nick Earle<br />
*1953–1970 Lionel Carey<br />
*1931–1953 David Walters<br />
*1912–1931 Robert G Routh<br />
*1901–1912 Frederick Hendy<br />
*1873–1901 Herbert Millington<br />
*1867–1873 George Blore<br />
*1842–1867 [[John Day Collis]]<br />
*1832–1842 George Jacob<br />
*1819–1832 John Topham<br />
*1817–1819 no headmaster<br />
*1816 Thomas Davies (sent to Fleet Prison)<br />
*1813–1816 no headmaster<br />
*1812 Joseph Fell (writing master)<br />
*1810–1812 no headmaster<br />
*1804–1810 Hugh Price<br />
*1799–1804 Jeremiah Roberts<br />
*1788–1799 Charles Shipley<br />
*1776–1788 John Best<br />
*1756–1776 John Bennett<br />
*1735–1756 Charles Wilmott<br />
*1721–1735 Thomas Wilmott<br />
*1693–1721 John Barney<br />
*1690–1693 Robert Durant<br />
*1687–1690 Samuel Lloyd<br />
*1679–1687 John Barney<br />
*1678–1679 Samuel Lloyd<br />
*1667–1678 James Orton<br />
*1665–1667 no headmaster<br />
*1664–1665 William Broughton<br />
*1650–1664 William Suthwell<br />
*1643–1650 William Spicer<br />
*1625–1643 John Crumpe<br />
*1622–1625 James Purcell<br />
*1616–1622 Thomas Flavell<br />
*1611–1616 William Binion<br />
*1606–1611 Henry Duggard<br />
*1597–1606 Humphrey Roe<br />
*1577–1597 Arnold Hancox<br />
*1562–1577 Robert Kymberley<br />
*1558–1562 Thomas Palmer<br />
*1545–1558 William Foonys<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Old Bromsgrovians==<br />
<br />
{{See also|Category:People educated at Bromsgrove School}}<br />
<br />
Notable Old Bromsgrovians include five Victoria Cross recipients and [[A. E. Housman]]. In business and politics, [[Digby Jones]] and [[Michael Heseltine]] were both educated at Bromsgrove, as were actors [[Ian Carmichael]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2010/feb/06/ian-carmichael-obituary|title=Ian Carmichael obituary|last=Barker|first=Dennis|date=2010-02-06|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-09-24|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> [[Richard Wattis]] (of ''[[Hancock's Half Hour]], [[Sykes (TV series)|Sykes]], [[Father Dear Father]]''), [[Trevor Eve]] (of [[Shoestring (TV series)|''Shoestring'']]), [[Nick Miles]] (of ''[[Emmerdale]]'') and [[Arthur Darvill]] (of ''[[Doctor Who]]''). The author [[Nicholas Evans]] who wrote ''[[The Horse Whisperer (book)|The Horse Whisperer]]'' and journalist [[Chris Atkins (journalist)|Chris Atkins]] were educated at Bromsgrove. More recently, [[Iskra Lawrence]] (an English model, global role model and brand ambassador) attended the School.<br />
<br />
In music, composer [[Isaiah Burnell]] was director of music from 1907 for 25 years. [[John Illsley]], of the band [[Dire Straits]], [[Guillemots (band)|Guillemots]] member [[Fyfe Dangerfield]], [[Ritchie Neville]] of boy band Five and jazz saxophonist [[Soweto Kinch]] attended the school.<br />
<br />
The school continues to produce leading sportsman – [[Matt Neal]] attended during the 1980s, and [[Andy Goode]] was part of the drive by the school to welcome more leading rugby players to the school. Bromsgrove continues to educate many England national sportsmen including [[Ben Foden]] and [[Matt Mullan]] who have played [[Rugby union]] for England.<br />
<br />
Others include [[Peter Spence]], an English journalist and writer who wrote the British sitcom ''[[To the Manor Born]]'' and Admiral [[Ben Key (Royal Navy officer)|Sir Ben Key]] KCB, CBE, ADC, who is a senior naval officer; and has served as First Sea Lord since November 2021.<br />
<br />
Rear-Admiral [[David Haslam (Royal Navy officer)|Sir David William Haslam]] (1923–2009) was educated at Bromsgrove School; he returned as a governor and lived opposite the school in Worcester Road until his death.<br />
<br />
===Medals for gallantry===<br />
Five Old Bromsgrovians are known to have received the [[Victoria Cross]]:<ref>Lovell, Nicholas (1996). ''V.C.s of Bromsgrove School: The Stories of Five Victoria Crosses Won by Old Bromsgrovians''. Bromsgrove: Bromsgrove School Enterprises. {{ISBN|0-9521362-3-6}}</ref><br />
<br />
*[[George White (British Army officer)|Sir George White]] (1835–1912), [[Commander-in-Chief, India]], 1893–1899, [[Governor of Gibraltar]] 1900–1904<br />
*[[Percy Thompson Dean]] (1877–1939)<br />
*[[Eustace Jotham]] (1884–1915)<br />
*[[Frank Bernard Wearne]] (1894–1917)<br />
*[[Nigel Gray Leakey]] (1913–1941)<br />
<br />
One old Bromsgrovian, [[Oliver Bryson]], is known to have received the [[George Cross]],<ref>Ashcroft, Michael (2010). ''George Cross Heroes''. London: Headline Review. p. 365. {{ISBN|978-0-7553-6082-6}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of the oldest schools in the United Kingdom]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk Bromsgrove School Website]<br />
* [http://www.bromsgrovians.com/ Bromsgrove School Alumni Website]<br />
* [http://www.roll-of-honour.com/Databases/BromsgroveSchool Bromsgrove School OB's who died in three wars]<br />
* [http://maps.google.co.uk/maps/ms?ie=UTF8&hl=en&msa=0&msid=111399239993506295079.0000011233e6f70ebff75&z=16 Map of Bromsgrove School Grounds]<br />
<br />
{{Schools in Worcestershire}}<br />
{{Public schools in England}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 1550s]]<br />
[[Category:Private schools in Worcestershire]]<br />
[[Category:1553 establishments in England]]<br />
[[Category:People educated at Bromsgrove School| ]]<br />
[[Category:Member schools of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference]]<br />
[[Category:Boarding schools in Worcestershire]]<br />
[[Category:Bromsgrove]]<br />
[[Category:International Baccalaureate schools in England]]<br />
[[Category:Worcester College, Oxford]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bromsgrove_School&diff=1235348097Bromsgrove School2024-07-18T20:47:04Z<p>AmgineIX: Updated 2024 enrolment number as per govt website</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Public school in Worcestershire, England}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=December 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox school<br />
| name = Bromsgrove School<br />
| image = Bromsgrove_School_Crest_of_Arms.png<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|52.328611|-2.063333|type:edu_region:GB_dim:100|format=dec|display=inline,title}}<br />
| pushpin_map = Worcestershire#England#UK<br />
| motto = Deo, regi, vicino<br />([[Latin]]: "For God, for King, for Neighbour")<br />
| established = 1553 (established)<br />1476 (first recorded)<br />
| closed = <br />
| type = [[Public school (United Kingdom)|Public school]] <br /> [[Independent school|Independent]]<br />[[day school|day]] and [[boarding school]]<br />[[Coeducational|Coeducational school]]<br />
| religion = [[Church of England]]<br />
| president = <br />
| head_label = Headmaster<br />
| head = Michael E. Punt M.A. (Oxon) MSc<br />
| chair_label = Chairman of the Governors<br />
| chair = Michael Luckman<br />
| r_head_label = Chaplain<br />
| r_head = Paul Hedworth.<br />
| founder = Sir [[Sir Thomas Cookes, 2nd Baronet|Thomas Cookes]]<br />
| specialist = <br />
| address = Worcester Road<br />
| city = [[Bromsgrove]]<br />
| county = [[Worcestershire]]<br />
| country = England<br />
| postcode = B61 7DU<br />
| local_authority = [[Worcestershire County Council|Worcestershire]]<br />
| urn = 117012<br />
| ofsted = <br />
| staff = 599 (200 teaching staff)<br />
| enrolment = 2114<br />
| gender = [[Coeducational]]<br />
| lower_age = 2<br />
| upper_age = 18<br />
| houses = 13 (senior school)<br />4 (preparatory school)<br />3 (pre-preparatory)<br />
| colours = Maroon<br />
{{color box|Maroon}}<br />
| publication = <br />
| free_label_1 = Former pupils<br />
| free_1 = [http://www.bromsgrovians.com/ Old Bromsgrovians]<br />
| website = http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk<br />
| caption = Coat of arms of Bromsgrove School (arms of Cookes, with [[Red Hand of Ulster|inescutcheon of a baronet]])<br />
}}<br />
'''Bromsgrove School''' is a [[co-educational]] [[boarding school|boarding]] and [[day school|day]] school in the [[Worcestershire]] town of [[Bromsgrove]], England. Founded in 1553, it is one of the oldest [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public schools]] in Britain, and one of the 14 founding members of the [[Headmasters' Conference]].<br />
<br />
Bromsgrove School has both boarding and day students consisting of three schools, pre-prep nursery school (ages 2&ndash;7), preparatory school (ages 7&ndash;13) and the senior school (13&ndash;18). Bromsgrove charges up to £14,055 per term, with three terms per academic year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/fees.aspx|website=Bromsgrove School|title=Fees|date=September 2019|access-date=11 March 2020}}</ref> The school has a total of 200 teaching staff, with 1,660 pupils.<br />
<br />
Spread across 100 acres, the main campus is located in the heart of the town of [[Bromsgrove]]. However, Bromsgrove School has also expanded overseas, with an additional boarding school in Bangkok ([[Bromsgrove International School Thailand]]) and a new school within the Mission Hills complex in [[Shenzhen|Shenzhen, China]], [[Bromsgrove School Mission Hills]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://bromsgrove.mhis.education/en-us/campus.php|title=Campus and Facilities- Bromsgrove School Mission Hills|website=bromsgrove.mhis.education|access-date=2019-01-05}}</ref><br />
<br />
The school's headmaster from September 2022 is Michael Punt, who was previously headmaster of Chigwell School.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School.jpg|thumb|Thomas Cookes House, founded by Sir Thomas Cookes in 1693, is the oldest building on the site]]<br />
The school was first recorded in 1476 as a [[chantry]] school and was re-established as a [[grammar school]] between 1548 and 1553. The 1693 [[financial endowment]] of [[Sir Thomas Cookes, 2nd Baronet]] (1648-1701) of [[Norgrove Court]] in Worcestershire, produced the first buildings on the present site and the historic link with [[Worcester College, Oxford]], which he founded. The arms of Cookes (''Argent, two chevronels between six martlets 3, 2 and 1 gules'') were adopted by both Worcester College and Bromsgrove School. [[John Day Collis]] became head-master in December 1842. The tercentenary of the grammar school was celebrated on 31 March 1853. In 1856, Collis had the chapel and new school rooms built, and existing buildings enlarged and improved. In 1869 Bromsgrove was one of the fourteen founding schools of the [[Headmasters' Conference]].<br />
<br />
=== Second World War ===<br />
During the [[Second World War]], the entire school was temporarily moved to [[Llanwrtyd Wells]] in [[Wales]], as the school buildings were requisitioned by [[British government]] departments for the war effort. Many former pupils and members of staff were killed during the [[World War II|Second World War]], and their names are commemorated at the war memorial of the town. In 2007, the school was granted the [[Freedom of the City|freedom]] of Llanwrtyd Wells.<ref>[http://www.bromsgroveadvertiser.co.uk/news/banewsroundup/display.var.1749580.0.unique_honour_for_town_school.php Unique Honour For Town School (from Bromsgrove Advertiser)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
=== Overseas ===<br />
In 2002, the school established [[Bromsgrove International School Thailand (BIST)]] in [[Thailand]]. Then, in 2016, the school opened Bromsgrove School Mission Hills, in Shenzhen, China.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
==Scandals==<br />
===Financial===<br />
{{Main|Independent school fee fixing scandal}}<br />
In 2005, the school was one of fifty of the country's independent schools which were found guilty of running an illegal price-fixing cartel, exposed by ''[[The Times]]'', which had allowed them to drive up fees for thousands of parents.<ref>Independent schools face huge fines over cartel to fix fees, The Times newspaper, 10 November 2005 [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/education/article588559.ece (subscription site)] [http://www.pressmon.com/cgi-bin/press_view.cgi?id=991819 Alternative site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150608214028/http://www.pressmon.com/cgi-bin/press_view.cgi?id=991819 |date=8 June 2015 }}</ref> Each school was required to pay a nominal penalty of £10,000 and all agreed to make ex-gratia payments totalling £3 million into a trust designed to benefit pupils who attended the schools during the period in respect of which fee information was shared.<ref>[http://www.oft.gov.uk/news/press/2006/182-06 The Office of Fair Trading: OFT names further trustees as part of the independent schools settlement<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610055129/http://www.oft.gov.uk/news/press/2006/182-06 |date=10 June 2008 }}</ref><br />
<br />
===Abuse===<br />
Richard Knight, an Organist and assistant director of music at Bromsgrove School was jailed for two years in 2018 for having sex with two girls from Bromsgrove School on school property, as well as at his own home, inside his car and on the school's USA 2010 Chapel Music Tour.<br />
Judge Jeremy Baker QC, speaking at Worcester Crown Court on Friday, 23 November 2018, told Knight, 53, that the two victims had "particularly vulnerable" emotional backgrounds. "You knew that and that was why they were specifically targeted over and above other children at school", he said.<br />
The judge described Knight's behaviour as "predatory" and that there was a "significant degree of planning".<br />
Mr Knight, previously the conductor of Malvern Festival Chorus, had begun the second affair after the first one ended, and taught both pupils at the school. Knight had sex with one of the victims for the first time at her own home while her parents were out during Christmas Eve. The victim would often have to ride her bicycle to various pharmacists to get morning after pills. <br />
The court also heard evidence that Knight's wife had been a pupil of his at a school he worked at previously. They married in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worcesternews.co.uk/news/17255635.predatory-teacher-richard-knight-claims-fell-love-two-vulnerable-bromsgrove-school-pupils-sex/|title = 'Predatory' teacher claims he 'fell in love' with two vulnerable pupils he had sex with}}</ref><br />
<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/former-teacher-richard-knight-jailed-15457938|title = Former teacher jailed after 'sexual activity' with two pupils|date = 23 November 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Commemoration Day ==<br />
Commemoration Day (known colloquially as Commem) is the senior school's traditional end of year celebration. It is a special day for the school and especially for the upper sixth leavers. When Sir Thomas Cookes re-endowed the school in 1693, he enjoined that once a year a sermon should be preached to the scholars of the school in [[St John the Baptist Church, Bromsgrove|St John's Parish Church]]. It is this that the school commemorates as well as celebrating the end of the academic year with a prizegiving.<br />
<br />
Following a very small private ceremony in the Cookes Room celebrating the founder Sir Thomas Cookes, where the heads of school lay a wreath beneath a portrait of Cookes, the whole school (except the lower fourth) then proceeds to St John's Church for the commemoration service. Unusually the school does not have its own school song, however, [[Charles Villiers Stanford]]'s setting of [[Te Deum|Te Deum Laudamus]] in [[Services in B-flat major (Stanford)|B flat]] has been sung at the service since 1989, becoming an unofficial school song.<br />
<br />
After the church service everyone returns to school and takes their place in the speeches' marquee. The school and parents are addressed by the president of the school and the headmaster. Prizes are awarded to upper sixth leavers and other pupils.<br />
<br />
At 4.15pm the chapel bell begins to toll, calling the school to final call over. All the pupils line up in houses with their houseparents, housemothers and tutors on the parade ground between Kyteless and the chapel. Each house, beginning with school house (the senior house of the school), in turn then moves forward and every pupil shakes hands with their house staff, the heads of school and then the headmaster and his wife. The final ceremony is the lowering of the school flag by the heads of school who hand it to the deputy head who then hands it to the headmaster for safekeeping until the start of the next academic year.<br />
<br />
==Students==<br />
Bromsgrove School has boarding and day students and consists of three schools, pre-prep nursery school (ages 2&ndash;7), preparatory school (ages 7&ndash;13) and the senior school (13&ndash;18). The school has a total of 200 teaching staff, with 1,660 pupils, including 220 in the pre-preparatory school, 500 in the preparatory School and 940 in the senior school, of whom 60% are male and 40% female, 60% boarding and 40% day. As well as British students, there are more than three hundred from 49 different countries, especially [[Russia]], Germany, China and [[Hong Kong]].<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School 01.JPG|thumb|Main Worcester Road entrance]]<br />
<br />
The school website states that the pass rate at grades A* to C (exams at age 16) is 96%.<ref>{{citation |author=Isbi staff|url=http://www.isbi.com/isbi-viewschool/1536-Bromsgrove_School.html |title=Bromsgrove School, Worcestershire |publisher=[Which School Ltd.] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090403191647/http://www.isbi.com/isbi-viewschool/1536-Bromsgrove_School.html |archive-date=3 April 2009}}</ref> Bromsgrove also started teaching the [[International Baccalaureate Diploma]] (IB) in 2009, with sixth form students having the choice between IB, BTEC and A-Levels. The rugby match against [[King Edward's School, Birmingham]], that has been played annually since 1875,<ref>Bromsgrove & KES Birmingham.<br />
*Thomas Winter Hutton, ''King Edward's School, Birmingham, 1552-1952'', Blackwell, 1952. p. 148 "The first Bromsgrove game was in 1875, and 121 games have been played—two in a season at one period."<br />
*Henry Icely, ''Bromsgrove School through four centuries'', Blackwell, 1953. pp. 69,99. "Rugby football, hitherto an unregulated and unsatisfactory game, was by 1875 a far better occupation for October half-holidays than wooding." "In the seventies the Rugby game was still twelve a side. There were School matches. KES, Birmingham, was an early fixture; [[St Edward's School, Oxford|SES, Oxford]], was played for the first time in 1882."</ref> is thought to be the [[Oldest football competitions|oldest continuous rugby fixture]] between two schools in England.<ref>{{Citation|author=School staff |url=http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/senior_school/senior_sports/senior_sports_rugby.htm |title=Senior School Sports Rugby |publisher=Bromsgrove School |access-date=7 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121111341/http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/senior_school/senior_sports/senior_sports_rugby.htm |archive-date=21 November 2008}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Heads of school and monitors ==<br />
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2022}}<br />
Similar to most [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public schools]] in Britain and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], Bromsgrove has a system of school leaders known as monitors. As representatives of the school, monitors' jobs are mostly based around keeping the school running at its best level of quality and tradition, with chapel and lunch duties being an example of this. Pupils who belong to any of these categories, in addition to other leadership roles, are entitled to a certain set of privileges, such as monitor ties, brown shoes, and waistcoats/cardigans.<br />
<br />
In addition to the monitors, Bromsgrove has a set of [[Prefect#Academic|heads of school]] featuring a [[Head girl and head boy|head boy and girl]], and their respective deputies.<br />
<br />
Monitors and heads of school are chosen towards the end of their penultimate lower sixth year; the decision is made from a combination of both a student poll and teacher vote.<br />
<br />
== Academic results ==<br />
57% of Bromsgrove School students achieved A*/A for the 2019 A Levels examination while 64% of students obtained A*/A for the 2019 GCSE examination.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-05|title=Bromsgrove School Guide: Reviews Rankings, Fees and More|url=https://britannia-study.com.my/uk-boarding-school/bromsgrove-school|access-date=2020-12-22|website=Britannia StudyLink Malaysia: UK Study Expert|language=en-GB}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Houses==<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School 03.JPG|thumb|North Gate entrance, with the Dining Hall seen behind to the right]]<br />
The preparatory school houses of Boulton ([[Matthew Boulton]]), Darby ([[Abraham Darby I|Abraham Darby]]), Telford ([[Thomas Telford]]), Watt ([[James Watt]]), were named after famous British industrialists.<br /><br />
The houses were renamed in 2020 Cedar, Rowan, Ash, Willow, Sycamore and Beech after species of trees. The change was made to avoid links to those involved with the slave trade or child labour.<br /><br />
[[File:Perry Hall, Home of A.E. Housman.jpg|thumb|Housman Hall, one of the school's senior boarding houses, was formerly the home of poet [[A. E. Housman]]]]<br />
The senior school is divided into thirteen houses; six for boys, five for girls and two mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Boarding houses ===<br />
Mary Windsor, named after the daughter of Thomas Hickman-Windsor, 1st Earl of Plymouth and his wife Anne Savile, is for girl boarders. In 2012, Mary Windsor was moved into a new building as part of the developments around the south gate.<br />
<br />
Oakley House is the largest house, home to both boarding and day girls. It is situated alongside Mary Windsor and Elmshurst, in the newly developed area by the South Gate.<br />
<br />
Housman Hall for sixth form girls and boys was opened in 2005, after the school bought the [[Ramada]] Perry Hall Hotel for £3 million. The building was formerly the home of [[Alfred Edward Housman|A. E. Housman]], an old Bromsgrovian, and was expanded in 2009 into the neighbouring building, subsequently named after Housman. During an opening ceremony in 2014, Housman Hall was reopened after the school had completed a refurbishment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/schoolnews/official-re-opening-of-housman-hall-/241.aspx|title=Official Re-Opening of Housman Hall|website=bromsgrove-school.co.uk|access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref><br />
<br />
Elmshurst is also for boy boarders and was named after the original house that was located at 17 New Road. Elmshurst was sold in the mid-1970s and the students relocated within the school campus to the current building, which was refurbished in 2018. Elmshurst now has an additional annexe known as Webber, which is located by the Conway Road entrance.<br />
<br />
Webber House, while still classed as an autonomous annex of Wedron-Gordon House, is the newest boarding house at Bromsgrove School, catering to Sixth Form boarders.<br />
<br />
=== Day Houses ===<br />
Lupton, named after Lupton House, in [[Sedbergh School]], and Lyttelton, named after the school's links with [[Baron Lyttelton]], a local lord, are houses for day boys, located in the centre of the campus. Walters, named after the school's wartime headmaster, is also a boys' day house.<br />
<br />
Thomas Cookes and Hazeldene are two girls' day houses that are situated in the original and oldest building on the school's site.<br />
<br />
School House is the senior house of the school, and often considered the most prestigious. After beginning as a boarding house, School is now a boys day house situated in the west wing of the Wendron-Gordon building. It consistently ranks as one of the most academically able houses, winning multiple prizes in academics and debating. It leads the final call over during the end of year Commemoration Day ceremony.<br />
<br />
Ottilie Hild is the newest girls' day house, overlooking Gordon Green and opened in September 2020. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!House<br />
!Abbr.<br />
!Gender<br />
!Type<br />
!Colours<br />
|-<br />
|Elmshurst<br />
|E<br />
|Boys<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Darkblue}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Hazeldene<br />
|Hz<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Lightblue}}<br />
|-<br />
|Housman Hall<br />
|HH<br />
|Mixed<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Black}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Lupton<br />
|Lu<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Red}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Lyttleton<br />
|Ly<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Purple}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Mary Windsor<br />
|MW<br />
|Girls<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Maroon}}<br />
|-<br />
|Oakley<br />
|O<br />
|Girls<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Darkgreen}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Ottilie Hild<br />
|OH<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|School<br />
|S<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Skyblue}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Thomas Cookes<br />
|TC<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Yellow}}<br />
|-<br />
|Walters<br />
|Ws<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Black}} {{color box|Gold}} {{Color box|Silver||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Webber<br />
|Wb<br />
|Mixed<br />
|Boarding<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Wendron-Gordon<br />
|WG<br />
|Boys<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Green}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== School terms ==<br />
There are three academic terms in the year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/term-dates|title=Term Dates|website=bromsgrove-school.co.uk|access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref><br />
<br />
* The [[Michaelmas]] term, from early September to mid December. New pupils are now admitted only at the start of the Michaelmas, unless in exceptional circumstances.<br />
* The [[Lent]] term, from early January to late March.<br />
* The Summer term, from late April to late June or early July.<br />
<br />
Within each term, there is a break known as a [[half term]], in which all pupils return home.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}<br />
<br />
== Headmasters==<br />
The headmasters of the school:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrovians.com/frmContextPage.aspx?S=e4282ow|title=Bromsgrovians Connected|website=bromsgrovians.com|access-date=2018-03-13}}</ref><br />
{{Columns-list|colwidth=18em|<br />
*2022-present Michael Punt<br />
*2014–2022 Peter Clague<br />
*2004–2014 Christopher Edwards<br />
*1986–2004 Timothy Taylor<br />
*1970–1985 Nick Earle<br />
*1953–1970 Lionel Carey<br />
*1931–1953 David Walters<br />
*1912–1931 Robert G Routh<br />
*1901–1912 Frederick Hendy<br />
*1873–1901 Herbert Millington<br />
*1867–1873 George Blore<br />
*1842–1867 [[John Day Collis]]<br />
*1832–1842 George Jacob<br />
*1819–1832 John Topham<br />
*1817–1819 no headmaster<br />
*1816 Thomas Davies (sent to Fleet Prison)<br />
*1813–1816 no headmaster<br />
*1812 Joseph Fell (writing master)<br />
*1810–1812 no headmaster<br />
*1804–1810 Hugh Price<br />
*1799–1804 Jeremiah Roberts<br />
*1788–1799 Charles Shipley<br />
*1776–1788 John Best<br />
*1756–1776 John Bennett<br />
*1735–1756 Charles Wilmott<br />
*1721–1735 Thomas Wilmott<br />
*1693–1721 John Barney<br />
*1690–1693 Robert Durant<br />
*1687–1690 Samuel Lloyd<br />
*1679–1687 John Barney<br />
*1678–1679 Samuel Lloyd<br />
*1667–1678 James Orton<br />
*1665–1667 no headmaster<br />
*1664–1665 William Broughton<br />
*1650–1664 William Suthwell<br />
*1643–1650 William Spicer<br />
*1625–1643 John Crumpe<br />
*1622–1625 James Purcell<br />
*1616–1622 Thomas Flavell<br />
*1611–1616 William Binion<br />
*1606–1611 Henry Duggard<br />
*1597–1606 Humphrey Roe<br />
*1577–1597 Arnold Hancox<br />
*1562–1577 Robert Kymberley<br />
*1558–1562 Thomas Palmer<br />
*1545–1558 William Foonys<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Old Bromsgrovians==<br />
<br />
{{See also|Category:People educated at Bromsgrove School}}<br />
<br />
Notable Old Bromsgrovians include five Victoria Cross recipients and [[A. E. Housman]]. In business and politics, [[Digby Jones]] and [[Michael Heseltine]] were both educated at Bromsgrove, as were actors [[Ian Carmichael]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2010/feb/06/ian-carmichael-obituary|title=Ian Carmichael obituary|last=Barker|first=Dennis|date=2010-02-06|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-09-24|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> [[Richard Wattis]] (of ''[[Hancock's Half Hour]], [[Sykes (TV series)|Sykes]], [[Father Dear Father]]''), [[Trevor Eve]] (of [[Shoestring (TV series)|''Shoestring'']]), [[Nick Miles]] (of ''[[Emmerdale]]'') and [[Arthur Darvill]] (of ''[[Doctor Who]]''). The author [[Nicholas Evans]] who wrote ''[[The Horse Whisperer (book)|The Horse Whisperer]]'' and journalist [[Chris Atkins (journalist)|Chris Atkins]] were educated at Bromsgrove. More recently, [[Iskra Lawrence]] (an English model, global role model and brand ambassador) attended the School.<br />
<br />
In music, composer [[Isaiah Burnell]] was director of music from 1907 for 25 years. [[John Illsley]], of the band [[Dire Straits]], [[Guillemots (band)|Guillemots]] member [[Fyfe Dangerfield]], [[Ritchie Neville]] of boy band Five and jazz saxophonist [[Soweto Kinch]] attended the school.<br />
<br />
The school continues to produce leading sportsman – [[Matt Neal]] attended during the 1980s, and [[Andy Goode]] was part of the drive by the school to welcome more leading rugby players to the school. Bromsgrove continues to educate many England national sportsmen including [[Ben Foden]] and [[Matt Mullan]] who have played [[Rugby union]] for England.<br />
<br />
Others include [[Peter Spence]], an English journalist and writer who wrote the British sitcom ''[[To the Manor Born]]'' and Admiral [[Ben Key (Royal Navy officer)|Sir Ben Key]] KCB, CBE, ADC, who is a senior naval officer; and has served as First Sea Lord since November 2021.<br />
<br />
Rear-Admiral [[David Haslam (Royal Navy officer)|Sir David William Haslam]] (1923–2009) was educated at Bromsgrove School; he returned as a governor and lived opposite the school in Worcester Road until his death.<br />
<br />
===Medals for gallantry===<br />
Five Old Bromsgrovians are known to have received the [[Victoria Cross]]:<ref>Lovell, Nicholas (1996). ''V.C.s of Bromsgrove School: The Stories of Five Victoria Crosses Won by Old Bromsgrovians''. Bromsgrove: Bromsgrove School Enterprises. {{ISBN|0-9521362-3-6}}</ref><br />
<br />
*[[George White (British Army officer)|Sir George White]] (1835–1912), [[Commander-in-Chief, India]], 1893–1899, [[Governor of Gibraltar]] 1900–1904<br />
*[[Percy Thompson Dean]] (1877–1939)<br />
*[[Eustace Jotham]] (1884–1915)<br />
*[[Frank Bernard Wearne]] (1894–1917)<br />
*[[Nigel Gray Leakey]] (1913–1941)<br />
<br />
One old Bromsgrovian, [[Oliver Bryson]], is known to have received the [[George Cross]],<ref>Ashcroft, Michael (2010). ''George Cross Heroes''. London: Headline Review. p. 365. {{ISBN|978-0-7553-6082-6}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of the oldest schools in the United Kingdom]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk Bromsgrove School Website]<br />
* [http://www.bromsgrovians.com/ Bromsgrove School Alumni Website]<br />
* [http://www.roll-of-honour.com/Databases/BromsgroveSchool Bromsgrove School OB's who died in three wars]<br />
* [http://maps.google.co.uk/maps/ms?ie=UTF8&hl=en&msa=0&msid=111399239993506295079.0000011233e6f70ebff75&z=16 Map of Bromsgrove School Grounds]<br />
<br />
{{Schools in Worcestershire}}<br />
{{Public schools in England}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 1550s]]<br />
[[Category:Private schools in Worcestershire]]<br />
[[Category:1553 establishments in England]]<br />
[[Category:People educated at Bromsgrove School| ]]<br />
[[Category:Member schools of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference]]<br />
[[Category:Boarding schools in Worcestershire]]<br />
[[Category:Bromsgrove]]<br />
[[Category:International Baccalaureate schools in England]]<br />
[[Category:Worcester College, Oxford]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bromsgrove_School&diff=1235294008Bromsgrove School2024-07-18T15:57:47Z<p>AmgineIX: /* Day Houses */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Public school in Worcestershire, England}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=December 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox school<br />
|name=Bromsgrove School<br />
|image=Bromsgrove_School_Crest_of_Arms.png<br />
|coordinates={{coord|52.328611|-2.063333|type:edu_region:GB_dim:100|format=dec|display=inline,title}}<br />
|pushpin_map=Worcestershire#England#UK<br />
|motto=Deo, regi, vicino<br />([[Latin]]: "For God, for King, for Neighbour")<br />
|established=1553 (established)<br />1476 (first recorded)<br />
|closed=<br />
|type=[[Public school (United Kingdom)|Public school]] <br /> [[Independent school|Independent]]<br />[[day school|day]] and [[boarding school]]<br />[[Coeducational|Coeducational school]]<br />
|religion=[[Church of England]]<br />
|president=<br />
|head_label=Headmaster<br />
|head=Michael E. Punt M.A. (Oxon) MSc<br />
|chair_label=Chairman of the Governors|chair=Michael Luckman|r_head_label=Chaplain|r_head=Paul Hedworth.|founder=Sir [[Sir Thomas Cookes, 2nd Baronet|Thomas Cookes]]|specialist=|address=Worcester Road|city=[[Bromsgrove]]|county=[[Worcestershire]]<br />
|country=England<br />
|postcode=B61 7DU<br />
|local_authority=[[Worcestershire County Council|Worcestershire]]<br />
|urn=117012<br />
|ofsted=<br />
|staff=599 (200 teaching staff)<br />
|enrolment=1,660<br />
|gender=[[Coeducational]]|lower_age=2|upper_age=18|houses=13 (senior school)<br />4 (preparatory school)<br />3 (pre-preparatory)<br />
|colours=Maroon<br />
{{color box|Maroon}}<br />
|publication=<br />
|free_label_1=Former pupils<br />
|free_1=[http://www.bromsgrovians.com/ Old Bromsgrovians]<br />
|website=http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk<br />
|caption=Coat of arms of Bromsgrove School (arms of Cookes, with [[Red Hand of Ulster|inescutcheon of a baronet]])}}<br />
'''Bromsgrove School''' is a [[co-educational]] [[boarding school|boarding]] and [[day school|day]] school in the [[Worcestershire]] town of [[Bromsgrove]], England. Founded in 1553, it is one of the oldest [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public schools]] in Britain, and one of the 14 founding members of the [[Headmasters' Conference]].<br />
<br />
Bromsgrove School has both boarding and day students consisting of three schools, pre-prep nursery school (ages 2&ndash;7), preparatory school (ages 7&ndash;13) and the senior school (13&ndash;18). Bromsgrove charges up to £14,055 per term, with three terms per academic year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/fees.aspx|website=Bromsgrove School|title=Fees|date=September 2019|access-date=11 March 2020}}</ref> The school has a total of 200 teaching staff, with 1,660 pupils.<br />
<br />
Spread across 100 acres, the main campus is located in the heart of the town of [[Bromsgrove]]. However, Bromsgrove School has also expanded overseas, with an additional boarding school in Bangkok ([[Bromsgrove International School Thailand]]) and a new school within the Mission Hills complex in [[Shenzhen|Shenzhen, China]], [[Bromsgrove School Mission Hills]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://bromsgrove.mhis.education/en-us/campus.php|title=Campus and Facilities- Bromsgrove School Mission Hills|website=bromsgrove.mhis.education|access-date=2019-01-05}}</ref><br />
<br />
The school's headmaster from September 2022 is Michael Punt, who was previously headmaster of Chigwell School.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School.jpg|thumb|Thomas Cookes House, founded by Sir Thomas Cookes in 1693, is the oldest building on the site]]<br />
The school was first recorded in 1476 as a [[chantry]] school and was re-established as a [[grammar school]] between 1548 and 1553. The 1693 [[financial endowment]] of [[Sir Thomas Cookes, 2nd Baronet]] (1648-1701) of [[Norgrove Court]] in Worcestershire, produced the first buildings on the present site and the historic link with [[Worcester College, Oxford]], which he founded. The arms of Cookes (''Argent, two chevronels between six martlets 3, 2 and 1 gules'') were adopted by both Worcester College and Bromsgrove School. [[John Day Collis]] became head-master in December 1842. The tercentenary of the grammar school was celebrated on 31 March 1853. In 1856, Collis had the chapel and new school rooms built, and existing buildings enlarged and improved. In 1869 Bromsgrove was one of the fourteen founding schools of the [[Headmasters' Conference]].<br />
<br />
=== Second World War ===<br />
During the [[Second World War]], the entire school was temporarily moved to [[Llanwrtyd Wells]] in [[Wales]], as the school buildings were requisitioned by [[British government]] departments for the war effort. Many former pupils and members of staff were killed during the [[World War II|Second World War]], and their names are commemorated at the war memorial of the town. In 2007, the school was granted the [[Freedom of the City|freedom]] of Llanwrtyd Wells.<ref>[http://www.bromsgroveadvertiser.co.uk/news/banewsroundup/display.var.1749580.0.unique_honour_for_town_school.php Unique Honour For Town School (from Bromsgrove Advertiser)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
=== Overseas ===<br />
In 2002, the school established [[Bromsgrove International School Thailand (BIST)]] in [[Thailand]]. Then, in 2016, the school opened Bromsgrove School Mission Hills, in Shenzhen, China.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
==Scandals==<br />
===Financial===<br />
{{Main|Independent school fee fixing scandal}}<br />
In 2005, the school was one of fifty of the country's independent schools which were found guilty of running an illegal price-fixing cartel, exposed by ''[[The Times]]'', which had allowed them to drive up fees for thousands of parents.<ref>Independent schools face huge fines over cartel to fix fees, The Times newspaper, 10 November 2005 [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/education/article588559.ece (subscription site)] [http://www.pressmon.com/cgi-bin/press_view.cgi?id=991819 Alternative site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150608214028/http://www.pressmon.com/cgi-bin/press_view.cgi?id=991819 |date=8 June 2015 }}</ref> Each school was required to pay a nominal penalty of £10,000 and all agreed to make ex-gratia payments totalling £3 million into a trust designed to benefit pupils who attended the schools during the period in respect of which fee information was shared.<ref>[http://www.oft.gov.uk/news/press/2006/182-06 The Office of Fair Trading: OFT names further trustees as part of the independent schools settlement<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610055129/http://www.oft.gov.uk/news/press/2006/182-06 |date=10 June 2008 }}</ref><br />
<br />
===Abuse===<br />
Richard Knight, an Organist and assistant director of music at Bromsgrove School was jailed for two years in 2018 for having sex with two girls from Bromsgrove School on school property, as well as at his own home, inside his car and on the school's USA 2010 Chapel Music Tour.<br />
Judge Jeremy Baker QC, speaking at Worcester Crown Court on Friday, 23 November 2018, told Knight, 53, that the two victims had "particularly vulnerable" emotional backgrounds. "You knew that and that was why they were specifically targeted over and above other children at school", he said.<br />
The judge described Knight's behaviour as "predatory" and that there was a "significant degree of planning".<br />
Mr Knight, previously the conductor of Malvern Festival Chorus, had begun the second affair after the first one ended, and taught both pupils at the school. Knight had sex with one of the victims for the first time at her own home while her parents were out during Christmas Eve. The victim would often have to ride her bicycle to various pharmacists to get morning after pills. <br />
The court also heard evidence that Knight's wife had been a pupil of his at a school he worked at previously. They married in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worcesternews.co.uk/news/17255635.predatory-teacher-richard-knight-claims-fell-love-two-vulnerable-bromsgrove-school-pupils-sex/|title = 'Predatory' teacher claims he 'fell in love' with two vulnerable pupils he had sex with}}</ref><br />
<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/former-teacher-richard-knight-jailed-15457938|title = Former teacher jailed after 'sexual activity' with two pupils|date = 23 November 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Commemoration Day ==<br />
Commemoration Day (known colloquially as Commem) is the senior school's traditional end of year celebration. It is a special day for the school and especially for the upper sixth leavers. When Sir Thomas Cookes re-endowed the school in 1693, he enjoined that once a year a sermon should be preached to the scholars of the school in [[St John the Baptist Church, Bromsgrove|St John's Parish Church]]. It is this that the school commemorates as well as celebrating the end of the academic year with a prizegiving.<br />
<br />
Following a very small private ceremony in the Cookes Room celebrating the founder Sir Thomas Cookes, where the heads of school lay a wreath beneath a portrait of Cookes, the whole school (except the lower fourth) then proceeds to St John's Church for the commemoration service. Unusually the school does not have its own school song, however, [[Charles Villiers Stanford]]'s setting of [[Te Deum|Te Deum Laudamus]] in [[Services in B-flat major (Stanford)|B flat]] has been sung at the service since 1989, becoming an unofficial school song.<br />
<br />
After the church service everyone returns to school and takes their place in the speeches' marquee. The school and parents are addressed by the president of the school and the headmaster. Prizes are awarded to upper sixth leavers and other pupils.<br />
<br />
At 4.15pm the chapel bell begins to toll, calling the school to final call over. All the pupils line up in houses with their houseparents, housemothers and tutors on the parade ground between Kyteless and the chapel. Each house, beginning with school house (the senior house of the school), in turn then moves forward and every pupil shakes hands with their house staff, the heads of school and then the headmaster and his wife. The final ceremony is the lowering of the school flag by the heads of school who hand it to the deputy head who then hands it to the headmaster for safekeeping until the start of the next academic year.<br />
<br />
==Students==<br />
Bromsgrove School has boarding and day students and consists of three schools, pre-prep nursery school (ages 2&ndash;7), preparatory school (ages 7&ndash;13) and the senior school (13&ndash;18). The school has a total of 200 teaching staff, with 1,660 pupils, including 220 in the pre-preparatory school, 500 in the preparatory School and 940 in the senior school, of whom 60% are male and 40% female, 60% boarding and 40% day. As well as British students, there are more than three hundred from 49 different countries, especially [[Russia]], Germany, China and [[Hong Kong]].<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School 01.JPG|thumb|Main Worcester Road entrance]]<br />
<br />
The school website states that the pass rate at grades A* to C (exams at age 16) is 96%.<ref>{{citation |author=Isbi staff|url=http://www.isbi.com/isbi-viewschool/1536-Bromsgrove_School.html |title=Bromsgrove School, Worcestershire |publisher=[Which School Ltd.] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090403191647/http://www.isbi.com/isbi-viewschool/1536-Bromsgrove_School.html |archive-date=3 April 2009}}</ref> Bromsgrove also started teaching the [[International Baccalaureate Diploma]] (IB) in 2009, with sixth form students having the choice between IB, BTEC and A-Levels. The rugby match against [[King Edward's School, Birmingham]], that has been played annually since 1875,<ref>Bromsgrove & KES Birmingham.<br />
*Thomas Winter Hutton, ''King Edward's School, Birmingham, 1552-1952'', Blackwell, 1952. p. 148 "The first Bromsgrove game was in 1875, and 121 games have been played—two in a season at one period."<br />
*Henry Icely, ''Bromsgrove School through four centuries'', Blackwell, 1953. pp. 69,99. "Rugby football, hitherto an unregulated and unsatisfactory game, was by 1875 a far better occupation for October half-holidays than wooding." "In the seventies the Rugby game was still twelve a side. There were School matches. KES, Birmingham, was an early fixture; [[St Edward's School, Oxford|SES, Oxford]], was played for the first time in 1882."</ref> is thought to be the [[Oldest football competitions|oldest continuous rugby fixture]] between two schools in England.<ref>{{Citation|author=School staff |url=http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/senior_school/senior_sports/senior_sports_rugby.htm |title=Senior School Sports Rugby |publisher=Bromsgrove School |access-date=7 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121111341/http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/senior_school/senior_sports/senior_sports_rugby.htm |archive-date=21 November 2008}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Heads of school and monitors ==<br />
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2022}}<br />
Similar to most [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public schools]] in Britain and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], Bromsgrove has a system of school leaders known as monitors. As representatives of the school, monitors' jobs are mostly based around keeping the school running at its best level of quality and tradition, with chapel and lunch duties being an example of this. Pupils who belong to any of these categories, in addition to other leadership roles, are entitled to a certain set of privileges, such as monitor ties, brown shoes, and waistcoats/cardigans.<br />
<br />
In addition to the monitors, Bromsgrove has a set of [[Prefect#Academic|heads of school]] featuring a [[Head girl and head boy|head boy and girl]], and their respective deputies.<br />
<br />
Monitors and heads of school are chosen towards the end of their penultimate lower sixth year; the decision is made from a combination of both a student poll and teacher vote.<br />
<br />
== Academic results ==<br />
57% of Bromsgrove School students achieved A*/A for the 2019 A Levels examination while 64% of students obtained A*/A for the 2019 GCSE examination.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-05|title=Bromsgrove School Guide: Reviews Rankings, Fees and More|url=https://britannia-study.com.my/uk-boarding-school/bromsgrove-school|access-date=2020-12-22|website=Britannia StudyLink Malaysia: UK Study Expert|language=en-GB}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Houses==<br />
[[File:Bromsgrove School 03.JPG|thumb|North Gate entrance, with the Dining Hall seen behind to the right]]<br />
The preparatory school houses of Boulton ([[Matthew Boulton]]), Darby ([[Abraham Darby I|Abraham Darby]]), Telford ([[Thomas Telford]]), Watt ([[James Watt]]), were named after famous British industrialists.<br /><br />
The houses were renamed in 2020 Cedar, Rowan, Ash, Willow, Sycamore and Beech after species of trees. The change was made to avoid links to those involved with the slave trade or child labour.<br /><br />
[[File:Perry Hall, Home of A.E. Housman.jpg|thumb|Housman Hall, one of the school's senior boarding houses, was formerly the home of poet [[A. E. Housman]]]]<br />
The senior school is divided into thirteen houses; six for boys, five for girls and two mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Boarding houses ===<br />
Mary Windsor, named after the daughter of Thomas Hickman-Windsor, 1st Earl of Plymouth and his wife Anne Savile, is for girl boarders. In 2012, Mary Windsor was moved into a new building as part of the developments around the south gate.<br />
<br />
Oakley House is the largest house, home to both boarding and day girls. It is situated alongside Mary Windsor and Elmshurst, in the newly developed area by the South Gate.<br />
<br />
Housman Hall for sixth form girls and boys was opened in 2005, after the school bought the [[Ramada]] Perry Hall Hotel for £3 million. The building was formerly the home of [[Alfred Edward Housman|A. E. Housman]], an old Bromsgrovian, and was expanded in 2009 into the neighbouring building, subsequently named after Housman. During an opening ceremony in 2014, Housman Hall was reopened after the school had completed a refurbishment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/schoolnews/official-re-opening-of-housman-hall-/241.aspx|title=Official Re-Opening of Housman Hall|website=bromsgrove-school.co.uk|access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref><br />
<br />
Elmshurst is also for boy boarders and was named after the original house that was located at 17 New Road. Elmshurst was sold in the mid-1970s and the students relocated within the school campus to the current building, which was refurbished in 2018. Elmshurst now has an additional annexe known as Webber, which is located by the Conway Road entrance.<br />
<br />
Webber House, while still classed as an autonomous annex of Wedron-Gordon House, is the newest boarding house at Bromsgrove School, catering to Sixth Form boarders.<br />
<br />
=== Day Houses ===<br />
Lupton, named after Lupton House, in [[Sedbergh School]], and Lyttelton, named after the school's links with [[Baron Lyttelton]], a local lord, are houses for day boys, located in the centre of the campus. Walters, named after the school's wartime headmaster, is also a boys' day house.<br />
<br />
Thomas Cookes and Hazeldene are two girls' day houses that are situated in the original and oldest building on the school's site.<br />
<br />
School House is the senior house of the school, and often considered the most prestigious. After beginning as a boarding house, School is now a boys day house situated in the west wing of the Wendron-Gordon building. It consistently ranks as one of the most academically able houses, winning multiple prizes in academics and debating. It leads the final call over during the end of year Commemoration Day ceremony.<br />
<br />
Ottilie Hild is the newest girls' day house, overlooking Gordon Green and opened in September 2020. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!House<br />
!Abbr.<br />
!Gender<br />
!Type<br />
!Colours<br />
|-<br />
|Elmshurst<br />
|E<br />
|Boys<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Darkblue}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Hazeldene<br />
|Hz<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Lightblue}}<br />
|-<br />
|Housman Hall<br />
|HH<br />
|Mixed<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Black}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Lupton<br />
|Lu<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Red}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Lyttleton<br />
|Ly<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Purple}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Mary Windsor<br />
|MW<br />
|Girls<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Maroon}}<br />
|-<br />
|Oakley<br />
|O<br />
|Girls<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Darkgreen}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Ottilie Hild<br />
|OH<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|School<br />
|S<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Skyblue}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Thomas Cookes<br />
|TC<br />
|Girls<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Yellow}}<br />
|-<br />
|Walters<br />
|Ws<br />
|Boys<br />
|Day<br />
|{{color box|Black}} {{color box|Gold}} {{Color box|Silver||}}<br />
|-<br />
|Webber<br />
|Wb<br />
|Mixed<br />
|Boarding<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Wendron-Gordon<br />
|WG<br />
|Boys<br />
|Boarding<br />
|{{color box|Green}} {{Color box|White||}}<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== School terms ==<br />
There are three academic terms in the year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk/term-dates|title=Term Dates|website=bromsgrove-school.co.uk|access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref><br />
<br />
* The [[Michaelmas]] term, from early September to mid December. New pupils are now admitted only at the start of the Michaelmas, unless in exceptional circumstances.<br />
* The [[Lent]] term, from early January to late March.<br />
* The Summer term, from late April to late June or early July.<br />
<br />
Within each term, there is a break known as a [[half term]], in which all pupils return home.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}<br />
<br />
== Headmasters==<br />
The headmasters of the school:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bromsgrovians.com/frmContextPage.aspx?S=e4282ow|title=Bromsgrovians Connected|website=bromsgrovians.com|access-date=2018-03-13}}</ref><br />
{{Columns-list|colwidth=18em|<br />
*2022-present Michael Punt<br />
*2014–2022 Peter Clague<br />
*2004–2014 Christopher Edwards<br />
*1986–2004 Timothy Taylor<br />
*1970–1985 Nick Earle<br />
*1953–1970 Lionel Carey<br />
*1931–1953 David Walters<br />
*1912–1931 Robert G Routh<br />
*1901–1912 Frederick Hendy<br />
*1873–1901 Herbert Millington<br />
*1867–1873 George Blore<br />
*1842–1867 [[John Day Collis]]<br />
*1832–1842 George Jacob<br />
*1819–1832 John Topham<br />
*1817–1819 no headmaster<br />
*1816 Thomas Davies (sent to Fleet Prison)<br />
*1813–1816 no headmaster<br />
*1812 Joseph Fell (writing master)<br />
*1810–1812 no headmaster<br />
*1804–1810 Hugh Price<br />
*1799–1804 Jeremiah Roberts<br />
*1788–1799 Charles Shipley<br />
*1776–1788 John Best<br />
*1756–1776 John Bennett<br />
*1735–1756 Charles Wilmott<br />
*1721–1735 Thomas Wilmott<br />
*1693–1721 John Barney<br />
*1690–1693 Robert Durant<br />
*1687–1690 Samuel Lloyd<br />
*1679–1687 John Barney<br />
*1678–1679 Samuel Lloyd<br />
*1667–1678 James Orton<br />
*1665–1667 no headmaster<br />
*1664–1665 William Broughton<br />
*1650–1664 William Suthwell<br />
*1643–1650 William Spicer<br />
*1625–1643 John Crumpe<br />
*1622–1625 James Purcell<br />
*1616–1622 Thomas Flavell<br />
*1611–1616 William Binion<br />
*1606–1611 Henry Duggard<br />
*1597–1606 Humphrey Roe<br />
*1577–1597 Arnold Hancox<br />
*1562–1577 Robert Kymberley<br />
*1558–1562 Thomas Palmer<br />
*1545–1558 William Foonys<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Old Bromsgrovians==<br />
<br />
{{See also|Category:People educated at Bromsgrove School}}<br />
<br />
Notable Old Bromsgrovians include five Victoria Cross recipients and [[A. E. Housman]]. In business and politics, [[Digby Jones]] and [[Michael Heseltine]] were both educated at Bromsgrove, as were actors [[Ian Carmichael]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2010/feb/06/ian-carmichael-obituary|title=Ian Carmichael obituary|last=Barker|first=Dennis|date=2010-02-06|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-09-24|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> [[Richard Wattis]] (of ''[[Hancock's Half Hour]], [[Sykes (TV series)|Sykes]], [[Father Dear Father]]''), [[Trevor Eve]] (of [[Shoestring (TV series)|''Shoestring'']]), [[Nick Miles]] (of ''[[Emmerdale]]'') and [[Arthur Darvill]] (of ''[[Doctor Who]]''). The author [[Nicholas Evans]] who wrote ''[[The Horse Whisperer (book)|The Horse Whisperer]]'' and journalist [[Chris Atkins (journalist)|Chris Atkins]] were educated at Bromsgrove. More recently, [[Iskra Lawrence]] (an English model, global role model and brand ambassador) attended the School.<br />
<br />
In music, composer [[Isaiah Burnell]] was director of music from 1907 for 25 years. [[John Illsley]], of the band [[Dire Straits]], [[Guillemots (band)|Guillemots]] member [[Fyfe Dangerfield]], [[Ritchie Neville]] of boy band Five and jazz saxophonist [[Soweto Kinch]] attended the school.<br />
<br />
The school continues to produce leading sportsman – [[Matt Neal]] attended during the 1980s, and [[Andy Goode]] was part of the drive by the school to welcome more leading rugby players to the school. Bromsgrove continues to educate many England national sportsmen including [[Ben Foden]] and [[Matt Mullan]] who have played [[Rugby union]] for England.<br />
<br />
Others include [[Peter Spence]], an English journalist and writer who wrote the British sitcom ''[[To the Manor Born]]'' and Admiral [[Ben Key (Royal Navy officer)|Sir Ben Key]] KCB, CBE, ADC, who is a senior naval officer; and has served as First Sea Lord since November 2021.<br />
<br />
Rear-Admiral [[David Haslam (Royal Navy officer)|Sir David William Haslam]] (1923–2009) was educated at Bromsgrove School; he returned as a governor and lived opposite the school in Worcester Road until his death.<br />
<br />
===Medals for gallantry===<br />
Five Old Bromsgrovians are known to have received the [[Victoria Cross]]:<ref>Lovell, Nicholas (1996). ''V.C.s of Bromsgrove School: The Stories of Five Victoria Crosses Won by Old Bromsgrovians''. Bromsgrove: Bromsgrove School Enterprises. {{ISBN|0-9521362-3-6}}</ref><br />
<br />
*[[George White (British Army officer)|Sir George White]] (1835–1912), [[Commander-in-Chief, India]], 1893–1899, [[Governor of Gibraltar]] 1900–1904<br />
*[[Percy Thompson Dean]] (1877–1939)<br />
*[[Eustace Jotham]] (1884–1915)<br />
*[[Frank Bernard Wearne]] (1894–1917)<br />
*[[Nigel Gray Leakey]] (1913–1941)<br />
<br />
One old Bromsgrovian, [[Oliver Bryson]], is known to have received the [[George Cross]],<ref>Ashcroft, Michael (2010). ''George Cross Heroes''. London: Headline Review. p. 365. {{ISBN|978-0-7553-6082-6}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of the oldest schools in the United Kingdom]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://www.bromsgrove-school.co.uk Bromsgrove School Website]<br />
* [http://www.bromsgrovians.com/ Bromsgrove School Alumni Website]<br />
* [http://www.roll-of-honour.com/Databases/BromsgroveSchool Bromsgrove School OB's who died in three wars]<br />
* [http://maps.google.co.uk/maps/ms?ie=UTF8&hl=en&msa=0&msid=111399239993506295079.0000011233e6f70ebff75&z=16 Map of Bromsgrove School Grounds]<br />
<br />
{{Schools in Worcestershire}}<br />
{{Public schools in England}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 1550s]]<br />
[[Category:Private schools in Worcestershire]]<br />
[[Category:1553 establishments in England]]<br />
[[Category:People educated at Bromsgrove School| ]]<br />
[[Category:Member schools of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference]]<br />
[[Category:Boarding schools in Worcestershire]]<br />
[[Category:Bromsgrove]]<br />
[[Category:International Baccalaureate schools in England]]<br />
[[Category:Worcester College, Oxford]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Foster_and_Partners&diff=1235019683Foster and Partners2024-07-17T09:02:06Z<p>AmgineIX: millau corrected to tallest and citation added</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Architectural firm based in London}}<br />
{{EngvarB|date=April 2018}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox architectural practice<br />
| name = Parters - fosters Group Limited<br />
| image = Foster and partners.svg<br />
| caption = <br />
| architects = {{unbulleted list <br />
| [[Norman Foster (architect)|Norman, Lord Foster]], Founder and Executive Chairman|[[Spencer de Grey]]<br />
}}<br />
| employees = 1,800<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archpaper.com/2020/04/foster-partners-imposes-staff-furloughs-pay-cuts/|title=Foster + Partners imposes staff furloughs, pay cuts|date=8 April 2020}}</ref><br />
| founded = {{start date and age|df=y|1967}}<br />
| significant_buildings = [[City Hall, Southwark|London City Hall]]<br> [[Queen Elizabeth II Great Court|Great Court]]<br> [[Bloomberg London]]<br> [[Apple Fifth Avenue]]<br />
| awards = 1998, 2004, 2018 [[Stirling Prize]]<br />
| website = {{URL|fosterandpartners.com}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Foster and Partners''' (stylized as '''Foster + Partners''') is a [[United Kingdom|British]] international architecture firm based in London, England, founded in 1967 by British architect and designer Lord [[Norman Foster, Baron Foster of Thames Bank|Norman Foster]]. Foster and Partners has designed buildings and structures including [[the Gherkin]] in London, the [[Hearst Tower (Manhattan)|Hearst Tower]] in New York City,<ref name=FastCompany09>{{cite news |last1=Kuang |first1=Cliff |title=Norman Foster’s No Good, Rotten, Very Bad Week |url=https://www.fastcompany.com/1165458/norman-fosters-no-good-rotten-very-bad-week |access-date=7 September 2023 |work=Fast Company |date=13 February 2009}}</ref> the 1990s renovation of the [[Reichstag building|Reichstag]] in Berlin,<ref name=WaPo17>{{cite news |last1=Cohen de Lara |first1=Max |last2=Mulder van der Vegt |first2=David |title=These 5 architectural designs influence every legislature in the world — and tell you how each governs |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/03/04/these-5-designs-influence-every-legislature-in-the-world-and-tell-you-how-each-governs/ |access-date=29 November 2023 |work=Washington Post |issue=4 March2017 |date=}}</ref> the [[Millau Viaduct]] in France,<ref name=NYT23>{{cite news |last1=Nayeri |first1=Farah |title=Norman Foster Is Still Looking Upward |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/10/arts/design/norman-foster-centre-pompidou.html |access-date=7 September 2023 |work=New York Times |date=10 May 2023}}</ref> and the [[Hong Kong International Airport]].<ref name=NYT19>{{cite news |last1=Wong |first1=Gillian |last2=Specia |first2=Megan |title=Hong Kong Airport, a City’s Symbol of Pride, Is Now Its Hub of Unrest |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/13/world/asia/hong-kong-airport-protests.html |access-date=5 September 2023 |work=New York Times |date=13 August 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
In addition to architectural design, the firm’s practice encompasses engineering<ref name=ArchNews21>{{cite news |last1=Hickman |first1=Matt |title=Foster + Partners sold to a Canadian private investment firm |url=https://www.archpaper.com/2021/10/foster-partners-sold-canadian-private-investment-firm/ |access-date=11 September 2023 |work=The Architect's Newspaper |date=11 October 2021}}</ref> and design.<ref name=Wallpaper22>{{cite news |last1=Bertoli |first1=Rosa |title=Leading light: Foster + Partners’ Industrial Design shines bright |url=https://www.wallpaper.com/design/leading-light-as-two-new-lamps-and-past-triumphs-go-on-show-in-london-foster-partners-industrial-design-department-is-still-shining-brightly |access-date=7 September 2023 |work=Wallpaper |date=30 August 2022}}</ref> As of 2021, the firm had approximately 1,500 employees, located in offices in multiple cities, including [[New York City|New York]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[Madrid]].<ref name=ArchNews21>{{cite news |last1=Hickman |first1=Matt |title=Foster + Partners sold to a Canadian private investment firm |url=https://www.archpaper.com/2021/10/foster-partners-sold-canadian-private-investment-firm/ |access-date=11 September 2023 |work=The Architect's Newspaper |date=11 October 2021}}</ref> The firm has won the [[Pritzker Architecture Prize]]<ref name=ArchDigest23>{{cite news |last1=Fazzare |first1=Elizabeth |title=Norman Foster Is More Invested in the Future Than Ever |url=https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/architect-norman-foster-invested-future |access-date=7 September 2023 |work=Architectural Digest |date=12 May 2023}}</ref> and the [[Stirling Prize]].<ref name=CNN18>{{cite news |last1=Prisco |first1=Jacopo |title=Bloomberg’s European HQ named UK’s best new building |url=https://www.cnn.com/style/article/riba-stirling-prize-winner-2018/index.html |access-date=11 September 2023 |work=CNN |date=10 October 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Foster and Partners London Office.jpg|thumb|Foster + Partners London office]]<br />
The firm was established by Norman Foster in 1967<ref name=ArchDigest23>{{cite news |last1=Fazzare |first1=Elizabeth |title=Norman Foster Is More Invested in the Future Than Ever |url=https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/architect-norman-foster-invested-future |access-date=7 September 2023 |work=Architectural Digest |date=12 May 2023}}</ref> shortly after leaving his first studio, [[Team 4]].<ref name=dezeen23>{{cite news |last1=Ravenscroft |first1=Tom |title="There are a lot of dangerous myths" about sustainability says Norman Foster |url=https://www.dezeen.com/2023/01/19/norman-foster-sustainability-interview/ |access-date=11 September 2023 |work=dezeen |date=19 January 2023}}</ref> The firm was originally called '''Foster Associates''' before the name was changed to '''Foster & Partners''' in 1999.<ref name=Guardian99>{{cite news |last1=Glancey |first1=Jonathan |title=The Guardian Profile: Sir Norman Foster, The Master Builder |work=The Guardian |date=2 January 1999}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 2007, the private equity company [[3i]] took a stake in the practice. The practice regained complete ownership in June 2014, when the 140 partners bought it back.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Rogers|first1=David|title=Foster's buys out private equity stake|url=http://www.bdonline.co.uk/news/fosters-buys-out-private-equity-stake/5069471.article|website=[[Building Design]]|access-date=2 July 2014|date=1 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
In October 2021, Foster + Partners was bought for an undisclosed sum by a Canadian private investment firm, Hennick & Company, which became the single biggest shareholder of the practice. Foster retains a controlling interest.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bdonline.co.uk/news/breaking-news-foster-and-partners-sold-to-private-equity-firm/5114098.article|title=Breaking news: Foster & Partners sold to private equity firm|first=Elizabeth|last=Hopkirk|date=11 October 2021|publisher=Building Design Online|access-date=11 October 2021}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Major projects==<br />
Major projects, ordered by year of completion and categorized by type:<br />
<br />
===Masterplans===<br />
* [[More London]], London, UK (1998–2000)<br />
* [[Duisburg Inner Harbour]], Germany (1991–2003)<br />
* [[Trafalgar Square]] redevelopment, London, UK (1996–2003)<br />
* [[Quartermile]], Edinburgh, Scotland (2001–)<br />
* [[Masdar City]], Abu Dhabi, UAE (2007–)<br />
* [[West Kowloon Cultural District]], Hong Kong (2009)<br />
* [[Thames Hub integrated infrastructure vision|Thames Hub]], UK (2011–)<br />
* [[Central Square, Cardiff]], Wales <br />
* [[Amaravati]], India (under construction)<ref>[https://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/amaravati-masterplan/ Amaravati masterplan | Foster + Partners]</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=March 2022}}<br />
<br />
===Airports===<br />
* [[Red Sea International Airport]], Tabuk, Saudi Arabia (2021–)<br />
<br />
===Bridges===<br />
* [[Millau Viaduct]], the tallest bridge in the world (2004)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Millau Viaduct {{!}} Architecture Projects |url=http://fp-corporatewebsite-prod.azurewebsites.net/projects/millau-viaduct |access-date=2024-07-17 |website=fp-corporatewebsite-prod.azurewebsites.net |language=en}}</ref><br />
* [[Årstabroarna#Western Årsta Bridge|Western Årsta Bridge]], Sweden (1994/2005)<br />
* [[Millennium Bridge (London)|Millennium Bridge]], London, UK (1998–2002)<br />
<br />
===Government===<br />
* [[Reichstag building]] redevelopment, Berlin, Germany (1999)<br />
* [[City Hall, Southwark|London City Hall]], UK (2002)<br />
* [[Supreme Court Building of Singapore|New Supreme Court Building]], Singapore (2005)<br />
* [[Palace of Peace and Reconciliation]], [[Astana]], Kazakhstan (2006)<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Curtis |first=Simon |title=The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order |last2=Klaus |first2=Ian |date= |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year= |isbn=9780300266900 |location=New Haven and London |publication-date=2024}}</ref>{{Rp|page=20}}<br />
* Buenos Aires City Hall (new headquarters), [[Buenos Aires]], Argentina<ref>{{cite news|title=Macri muda a Parque Patricios la sede de la jefatura de gobierno de la ciudad|url=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1676377-macri-muda-a-parque-patricios-la-sede-de-la-jefatura-de-gobierno-de-la-ciudad|language=es|author=Laura Rocha|website=La Nación|date=29 March 2014|access-date=29 March 2014|archive-date=18 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171218130602/http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1676377-macri-muda-a-parque-patricios-la-sede-de-la-jefatura-de-gobierno-de-la-ciudad|url-status=dead}}</ref> (2015)<br />
<br />
===Cultural===<br />
* [[Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts]], [[University of East Anglia]], [[Norwich]], UK (1978)<br />
* [[Clyde Auditorium]], part of the [[Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre]] complex, [[Glasgow]] (1997)<br />
* Sackler Galleries, [[Royal Academy of Arts]], London, UK (1985–1991)<br />
* [[Carré d'Art]], [[Nîmes]], France (1984–1993)<br />
* [[American Air Museum]], [[Imperial War Museum Duxford]], UK (1997) – [[Stirling Prize]]<br />
* [[Queen Elizabeth II Great Court]] redevelopment, [[British Museum]], London, UK (2000)<br />
* [[The Sage Gateshead]], Gateshead, UK (1997–2004)<br />
* The Zénith, [[Zénith de Saint-Étienne]], Saint-Étienne, France (2004–2007)<br />
* The Robert and Arlene Kogod Courtyard, [[Smithsonian Institution]], [[National Portrait Gallery (United States)|National Portrait Gallery]], Washington, D.C., US (2004–2007)<br />
* [[Winspear Opera House]], Dallas, US (2003–2009)<br />
* Art of the Americas Wing, [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]], Boston, US (1999–2010)<br />
* [[Khan Shatyr Entertainment Center]], Astana, Kazakhstan (2006–2010)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=20}}<br />
* [[Sperone Westwater Gallery]], New York City, US (2008–2010)<br />
* Extension to [[Lenbachhaus]] art museum, [[Munich]], Germany (2013)<br />
* [[OVO Hydro]], Glasgow, Scotland (2004–2013)<br />
* [[Datong]] Art Museum, China (2011–2022)<ref>{{cite web|title=Datong Art Museum opens to the public|url=https://www.fosterandpartners.com/news/archive/2022/01/datong-art-museum-opens-to-the-public/|publisher=Foster + Partners|date=5 January 2022|accessdate=7 January 2022}}</ref><br />
* [[Hall of Realms]], Madrid, Spain (2018–2021)<br />
<br />
===Higher education===<br />
* Kings Norton Library, [[Cranfield University]], UK (1994)<br />
* [[Faculty of Law, Cambridge]], [[Cambridge]], UK (1995)<br />
* [[The Robert Gordon University#The campus today|Faculty of Management]] (now known as Aberdeen Business School), [[The Robert Gordon University]], UK (1998)<br />
* [[Imperial College School of Medicine]], Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, UK (1994–1998)<br />
* Center for Clinical Science Research, [[Stanford University]] Stanford, California, US (1995–2000)<br />
* [[British Library of Political and Economic Science]], [[London School of Economics]], London, UK (1993–2001)<br />
* [[Imperial College London]], Flowers Building, London, UK (1997–2001)<br />
* Faculty of Social Studies, [[University of Oxford]], UK (1996–2002)<br />
* [[James H. Clark Center]], Stanford, California, US (1999–2003)<br />
* [[Universiti Teknologi Petronas]], Tronoh, [[Perak]], Malaysia (2004)<br />
* [[Tanaka Business School]], renamed the [[Imperial College Business School]], London, UK (2004)<br />
* [[Free University of Berlin]], Berlin, Germany (2005)<br />
* [[Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy]], [[University of Toronto]], Toronto, Canada (2006)<br />
* Library, [[California State University Channel Islands]], [[Camarillo, California|Camarillo]], California, US (2000–2008)<br />
* [[Yale School of Management]], new campus, [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]], US (2013)<ref>Design New Haven {{cite web |url=http://www.downtownnewhaven.blogspot.com/2008/12/lord-norman-foster-unveils-svelte-glass.html |title=Lord Norman Foster Unveils Svelte Glass Design for Yale School of Management |access-date=13 February 2009 |date=11 December 2008 |work=Design New Haven}}</ref><br />
* [[Masdar Institute of Science and Technology]], [[Abu Dhabi]], UAE (2007–2015)<br />
* China Resources University, [[Shenzhen]], China (2011–2016)<br />
* [[Health Education Campus]] (HEC), [[Case Western Reserve University]], [[Cleveland Clinic]], [[Cleveland]], Ohio, US (2015–2019), location of the first U.S. [[2020 presidential debates|2020 Presidential Debate]] between [[Donald Trump]] and [[Joe Biden]].<br />
* [[York University (TTC)|York University]], Toronto, Canada (2018)<br />
<br />
===Sport===<br />
* [[Wembley Stadium]] reconstruction, London, UK (2007)<br />
* [[Lusail Iconic Stadium]], [[Lusail]], Qatar (2010)<br />
<br />
===Transportation===<br />
* [[Stansted Airport]], Uttlesford, UK (1991)<br />
* [[Metro Bilbao]], Spain (1997) – Line 2 (2004)<br />
* [[Hong Kong International Airport]], ''Chek Lap Kok'', Hong Kong (1998)<br />
* [[Canary Wharf tube station]], London, UK (1999)<br />
* [[Expo MRT station]], Singapore (2001)<br />
* [[Dresden Hauptbahnhof]] redevelopment, [[Dresden]], Germany (1997–2006)<br />
* [[Beijing Capital International Airport]], Beijing, China (2008)<br />
* [[Heathrow Terminal 2]], London, UK <br />
* [[Spaceport America]], [[New Mexico]], US (2005–2013)<br />
* Four railway stations for the [[Haramain High Speed Rail Project]], Saudi Arabia<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fosterandpartners.com/news/archive/2009/04/foster-partners-buro-happold-joint-venture-to-design-four-stations-for-new-haramain-high-speed-railway/|title=Foster + Partners + Buro Happold joint venture to design four stations for new Haramain High-speed Railway &#124; Foster + Partners|first=Foster + Partners /|last=www.fosterandpartners.com|website=www.fosterandpartners.com}}</ref><br />
* [[Kai Tak Cruise Terminal]], Hong Kong (2013)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fosterandpartners.com/Projects/1843/Default.aspx|title=Kai Tak Cruise Terminal, Hong Kong, 2010–2013|access-date=21 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011183642/http://www.fosterandpartners.com/Projects/1843/Default.aspx|archive-date=11 October 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
* [[Mexico City Texcoco Airport]], Mexico (projected 2020)<br />
* [[Slussenområdet]] redevelopment, [[Stockholm]], Sweden (projected 2022)<ref>{{cite web|title=Slussen Masterplan & Urban Design in collaboration with Berg Arkitektkontor|url=http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/slussen-masterplan/|access-date=18 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214184623/http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/slussen-masterplan/|archive-date=14 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
* [[Queen Alia International Airport]], [[Amman]], Jordan (2005–2013)<br />
* [[Thames Hub integrated infrastructure vision|Thames Hub]], UK (from 2011)<br />
* [[Thames Hub Airport]], UK (from 2013)<br />
* [[Ocean Terminal, Hong Kong|Ocean Terminal]] extension, Hong Kong<br />
* [[York University station]] – [[Line 1 Yonge–University#Toronto–York Spadina Subway Extension|TYSSE]], [[Vaughan, Ontario]]/[[Toronto]], Canada (2017)<br />
* [[Red Sea International Airport]], Hanak, Saudi Arabia (2023)<br />
* [[Tocumen International Airport]] Terminal 2, [[Panama City]], Panama (2023)<br />
* [[Techo Takhmao International Airport]], [[Phnom Penh]], Cambodia (2025)<br />
* [[New Central Polish Airport|Solidarity Transport Hub or Central Communication/Transport Port]], [[Baranów, Grodzisk Mazowiecki County|Baranów]], Poland (2027)<br />
<br />
===Office===<br />
* [[Fred. Olsen Lines]] terminal, [[London Docklands]], UK (1971)<br />
* [[Willis Building, Ipswich]], UK (1971–1975)<br />
* [[HSBC Building (Hong Kong)|HSBC Tower]], Hong Kong (1986)<br />
* [[Commerzbank Tower]], Frankfurt, Germany (1997)<br />
* [[Citigroup Centre, London]], UK (1996–2000)<br />
* [[8 Canada Square]] (global headquarters of [[HSBC Group]], London, UK (1997–2002)<br />
* [[The Gherkin]], London, UK – [[Swiss Re]] headquarters (2004) – [[Stirling Prize]]<br />
* [[McLaren Technology Centre]], base for the [[McLaren]] Formula One team and McLaren Group, [[Woking]], UK (2004)<br />
* [[Deutsche Bank Place]], [[Sydney]] (1997–2005)<br />
* [[Hearst Tower (New York City)|Hearst Tower]], New York City, US (2006)<br />
* [[Willis Building (London)|Willis Building]], London, UK (2001–2007)<br />
* [[Torre Cepsa]], Madrid, Spain (2002–2009)<br />
* [[Principal Place]], [[Shoreditch]], London (2012–2016) – UK headquarters of [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]]<br />
* [[Apple Park]] (corporate headquarters of [[Apple Inc.]]), [[Cupertino, California]], US (2013–2017)<br />
* [[Bloomberg London]] (European headquarters), London UK (2017) – Stirling Prize<br />
* [[Hankook]] Technoplex, [[Daejeon]], [[South Korea]] (2016-2020)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-10-20 |title=Hankook Tire, Central R+D Centre {{!}} Foster + Partners |url=https://www.archilovers.com/projects/193207/hankook-tire-central-r-d-centre.html |access-date=2024-06-13 |website=Archilovers |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hankook Technoplex {{!}} Offices and Headquarters |url=http://fp-corporatewebsite-prod.azurewebsites.net/projects/hankook-technoplex |access-date=2024-06-13 |website=fp-corporatewebsite-prod.azurewebsites.net |language=en}}</ref><br />
* [[Varso]] (the tallest building in Poland and in the [[European Union]]), Warsaw, Poland (2022)<br />
* [[425 Park Avenue]], New York City, US (2022)<br />
* {{Interlanguage link|Russian Copper Company|ru|Русская медная компания|WD=}} Headquarters, [[Yekaterinburg]], Russia (2020)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Игорь Алтушкин: биография, личная жизнь, фонд, дети, РМК, Екатеринбург {{!}} BEGETON |url=https://begeton.com/blog/4788-igor-altushkin-biografiya-lichnaya-zhizn-fond-deti-rmk-ekaterinburg/ |access-date=2023-06-12 |website=begeton.com |language=ru |archive-date=27 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527030117/https://begeton.com/blog/4788-igor-altushkin-biografiya-lichnaya-zhizn-fond-deti-rmk-ekaterinburg/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Алтушкин Игорь Алексеевич / "Компания". Биографии |url=https://ko.ru/biography/igor-altushkin/ |access-date=2023-06-12 |website=ko.ru |language=ru}}</ref><br />
* [[MOL Campus]] (the tallest Building in [[Hungary]]), Budapest, Hungary (2022)<br />
<br />
===Leisure===<br />
* The Great Glasshouse, [[National Botanic Garden of Wales]], Wales, UK (1995–2000)<br />
* Elephant House, [[Copenhagen Zoo#Foster's Elephant House]], Copenhagen, Denmark (2002–2008)<br />
* [[Dolder Grand]] restoration, [[Zürich]], Switzerland (2002–2008)<br />
* Faustino Winery [[Bodegas Faustino]], [[Castilla y Leon]], Spain (2007–2010)<br />
* Le Dôme winery, [[Saint-Émilion]], France (−2021)<br />
* ME Hotel, [[ME by Meliá]], London, UK (2004–2013)<br />
* [[Murray Building|The Murray]], Hong Kong (2018)<ref>[https://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/the-murray/ The Murray | Projects | Foster + Partners]. Fosterandpartners.com (2018). Retrieved 2018.</ref><ref>[https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/economy/article/2099895/top-world-architect-and-original-designer-involved-hotel Top architect Norman Foster transforms Hong Kong's colonial-era Murray Building into five-star hotel.] (26 June 2017). South China Morning Post.</ref><br />
<br />
===Mixed use===<br />
* [[Albion Riverside]], London, UK (1998–2003)<br />
* [[Al Faisaliyah Center]], [[Riyadh]], Saudi Arabia (1994–2000)<br />
* [[The Index (Dubai)]], [[Dubai]], UAE (2010)<br />
* [[The Troika (Kuala Lumpur)|The Troika]], Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (2004–2011)<br />
* [[The Bow (Calgary)|The Bow]], Calgary, Canada (2005–2013)<br />
* [[Central Market Project]], Abu Dhabi, UAE (2006–2013)<br />
* [[One Central Park]], Sydney, Australia (2012–2013)<br />
* [[2 World Trade Center]] (formerly [[200 Greenwich Street]]), New York City, US (completion date not set yet)<br />
* [[CityCenterDC]], Washington, D.C., US<br />
* [[Crystal Island (building project)|Crystal Island]], Moscow, Russia (completion date not set yet)<br />
* [[Hermitage Plaza]], [[La Défense]], Paris, France (from 2008)<br />
* [[India Tower]], [[Mumbai]], India (cancelled)<br />
* [[Oceanwide Center]], San Francisco, US (predicted completion date 2021)<br />
* [[Comcast Technology Center]], Philadelphia, US (completed 2018)<br />
* [[VietinBank Business Center Office Tower]], [[Hanoi]], Vietnam (predicted completion date 2017)<br />
* [[Principal Place]] (including [[Principal Tower]]), London, UK (2017)<br />
* [[Battersea Power Station]] Phase 3, London, UK (under construction)<ref>{{cite web | title= Superstar Architects Gehry and Foster to design Battersea Power Station's High Street |date=22 October 2013 |url=http://www.primeresi.com/superstar-architects-gehry-and-foster-to-design-battersea-power-stations-high-street/24772/ | access-date=23 October 2013}}</ref><br />
* [[The One (Toronto)|The One]], Toronto, Canada (projected 2024)<br />
<br />
===Residential===<br />
*The Murezzan, [[St Moritz]], Switzerland (2003–2007)<ref>[http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/the-murezzan/ The Murezzan | Projects | Foster + Partners]. Fosterandpartners.com. Retrieved 23 June 2014.</ref><br />
*Regent Place, Sydney, Australia (2003–2007)<ref>[http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/regent-place/ Regent Place | Projects | Foster + Partners] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025224/http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/regent-place |date=28 August 2017 }}. Fosterandpartners.com (19 June 2003). Retrieved 23 June 2014.</ref><br />
* Jameson House, Vancouver, Canada (2004–2011)<ref>[http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/jameson-house/ Jameson House | Projects | Foster + Partners]. Fosterandpartners.com. Retrieved 23 June 2014.</ref><br />
* The Aleph, Buenos Aires, Argentina (2006–2013)<ref>[http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/the-aleph/ The Aleph | Projects | Foster + Partners] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818001342/http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/the-aleph |date=18 August 2017 }}. Fosterandpartners.com. Retrieved 23 June 2014.</ref><br />
* Anfa Place, [[Casablanca]], Morocco (2007–2013)<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.fosterandpartners.com |first=Foster + Partners / |title=Anfa Place {{!}} Foster + Partners |url=https://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/anfa-place/ |access-date=2023-02-16 |website=www.fosterandpartners.com |language=en}}</ref><br />
* Faena House, [[Miami Beach, Florida|Miami Beach]], US<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.fosterandpartners.com |first=Foster + Partners / |title=Faena House {{!}} Foster + Partners |url=https://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/faena-house/ |access-date=2023-02-16 |website=www.fosterandpartners.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.faenahotelanduniverse.com/en/miami|title=Faena &#124; Miami|date=8 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208015844/http://www.faenahotelanduniverse.com/en/miami|archive-date=8 December 2012}}</ref><br />
* [[The Towers by Foster + Partners]], Miami, US (2016)<br />
* Arcoris Mont Kiara, Malaysia (projected 2016)<br />
* [[100 East 53rd Street]] (formerly 610 Lexington Avenue), New York City, US (2019)<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hughes|first1=C.J.|title=An Architect Gets Busy|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/27/realestate/norman-foster-enjoys-a-new-york-moment.html|work=The New York Times|date=25 July 2014}}</ref><br />
* [[50 United Nations Plaza]], New York City, US (2015)<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cityrealty.com/nyc/turtle-bay-united-nations/50-united-nations-plaza/review/54732 |newspaper=City Realty |title=Review of 50 United Nations Plaza, 50 UN Plaza between East 46th Street & East 47th Street |last=Horsely |first=Carter |access-date=1 July 2017}}</ref><br />
* Ocean Tower, Mumbai, India (projected 2022)<br />
* [[The Estate Makati]], [[Makati]], [[Philippines]] (projected 2023)<br />
<br />
===Current===<br />
* [[BBC Cymru Wales New Broadcasting House]], Cardiff, Wales<br />
* [[Amaravati]], India (under construction)<br />
* [[270 Park Avenue (2021–present)|270 Park Avenue redevelopment]], New York, United States (under construction)<br />
* [[Transamerica Pyramid]], San Francisco, United States (renovation)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Li |first1=Roland |title=S.F.'s Transamerica Pyramid is getting a $250 million redesign, the biggest in its 50-year history|url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/sf/article/The-Transamerica-Pyramid-is-getting-the-biggest-17021701.php|access-date=3 April 2022 |work=SF Chronicle |date=22 March 2022}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Selected works===<br />
<gallery mode="packed" heights="125"><br />
File:LSE large.jpg|The [[British Library of Political and Economic Science]]<br />
File:Hong Kong International Airport.jpg|The futuristic interior roof of [[Hong Kong International Airport]]<br />
File:Foster - Willis Faber and Dumas Headquarters Ipswich.jpg|The [[Willis Building (Ipswich)|Willis Faber and Dumas Headquarters]] in [[Ipswich]] was one of Foster's earliest commissions after founding [[Foster Associates]].<br />
File:British Museum Great Court roof.jpg|The [[tessellation|tessellated]] glass roof of the [[British Museum]]'s [[Queen Elizabeth II Great Court|Great Court]].<br />
File:London Wembley.jpg|The new [[Wembley Stadium]] in London: one of the most controversial projects that Foster + Partners have been involved in.<ref>International Herald Tribune {{cite web|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/03/31/sports/world.php|title=Roundup: Wembley Opening Delayed Until 2007|access-date=13 February 2009|date=1 April 2006|work=International Herald Tribune|archive-date=28 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428003209/https://www.nytimes.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
File:30 St Mary Axe, 'Gherkin'.JPG|[[30 St Mary Axe]], one of London's most popular new buildings.<ref>BBC News {{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3750102.stm|title=Building Prize for 'Icon Gherkin'|access-date=13 February 2009|date=16 October 2004|work=BBC News}}</ref><br />
File:Reichstag Berlin P10100333.JPG|The reconstruction of the [[Reichstag building]]<br />
File:Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts.jpg|[[Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts]]<br />
File:TateMilleniumStPauls GS.jpg|[[Millennium Bridge, London|Millennium Bridge, London]]<br />
File:HK HSBC Main Building 2008.jpg|[[HSBC Building (Hong Kong)|HSBC building in Hong Kong]]<br />
File:City Hall - geograph.org.uk - 1774997.jpg|[[City Hall, Southwark|London City Hall]]<br />
File:Bloomberg European Headquarters, London.jpg|[[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]] European Headquarters, London<br />
File:Aerial view of Apple Park dllu.jpg|[[Apple Park]] <br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
== Awards ==<br />
* 1998 [[RIBA Stirling Prize]] for ''Imperial War Museum''<br />
* 2000 [[Gold Medal (National Eisteddfod of Wales)|Welsh National Eisteddfod Gold Medal]] for the Great Glasshouse, [[National Botanic Garden of Wales]]<ref>[https://www.eisteddfod.org.uk/english/about-us/our-history/winners/gold-medal-for-architecture/ Gold Medal for Architecture] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729215002/http://www.eisteddfod.org.uk/english/about-us/our-history/winners/gold-medal-for-architecture/ |date=29 July 2014 }}, The National Eisteddfod of Wales.</ref><br />
* [[MIPIM AR Future Projects Award#2003|2003 MIPIM AR Future Projects Award, Grand Prix]] for ''Swiss Re''<br />
* 2004 [[RIBA Stirling Prize]] for ''Swiss Re''<br />
* [[RIBA European Award#2007|2007 RIBA European Award]] for ''Dresden Station Redevelopment''<br />
* [[RIBA International Award#2007|2007 RIBA International Award]] for ''Hearst Tower''<br />
* 2007 [[Aga Khan Award for Architecture]] for University of Technology Petronas<br />
* 2008 [[LEAF Award#2008|2008 LEAF Award]] for ''Beijing Airport Terminal 3''<br />
* 2009 [[RIBA European Award#2009|RIBA European Award]] for ''Zenith''<br />
* 2009 [[RIBA International Award#2009|2009 RIBA International Award]] for ''Beijing Airport Terminal 3''<br />
* In June 2011, The Index Tower was the recipient of the 2011 Best Tall Building Middle East & Africa award by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat<br />
* 2010 [[RIBA International Award]] for [[Winspear Opera House]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.e-architect.com/awards/riba-awards-2010|title=RIBA Awards 2010 – Buildings, Architects|date=15 January 2010|website=e-architect}}</ref><br />
* 2011 [[RIBA International Award]] for [[Masdar Institute]]<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.e-architect.com/awards/riba-international-awards-2011|title=RIBA International Awards 2011 Buildings|first=Adrian|last=Welch|date=19 May 2011|website=e-architect}}</ref><br />
* 2011 [[RIBA International Award]] for [[Boston Museum of Fine Arts]]<ref name="auto"/><br />
* 2013 [[RIBA International Award]] for ''Faena Aleph Residences''<ref>[http://www.architecture.com/NewsAndPress/News/RIBANews/News/2013/Winnersofthe2013RIBAInternationalAwardsawardsforarchitecturalexcellenceannounced.aspx 'Winners of the 2013 RIBA International Awards awards for architectural excellence announced.'] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130626190059/http://www.architecture.com/NewsAndPress/News/RIBANews/News/2013/Winnersofthe2013RIBAInternationalAwardsawardsforarchitecturalexcellenceannounced.aspx |date=26 June 2013 }}, ''Architecture.com''</ref><br />
* 2013 [[RIBA International Award]] [[Central Market Project]]<br />
* 2013 RIBA Award 7 More London [[More London]]<br />
* 2013 Best Bar, [[Restaurant & Bar Design Awards]] for ''Atrium Champagne Bar'', London, UK<br />
* 2014 [[RIBA International Award]] for ''Marseille Vieux Port''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.e-architect.com/awards/riba-awards-2014|title=RIBA Awards 2014, Winning Buildings|first=David|last=McManus|date=20 June 2014|website=e-architect}}</ref><br />
* 2016 [[RIBA International Award]] for ''Buenos Aires Ciudad Casa de Gobierno''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.architecture.com/awards-and-competitions-landing-page/awards/riba-international-awards/riba-international-prize-2016|title=RIBA International Prize 2016|website=www.architecture.com|access-date=20 July 2020|archive-date=4 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604170652/https://www.architecture.com/awards-and-competitions-landing-page/awards/riba-international-awards/riba-international-prize-2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
* 2017 [[RIBA National Award]] for ''Maggie's at the Robert Parfett Building''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.architecture.com/awards-and-competitions-landing-page/awards/riba-national-awards/riba-national-awards-2017|title=RIBA National Awards 2017|website=www.architecture.com}}</ref><br />
* 2018 RIBA Awards for International Excellence for Xiao Jing Wan University <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.architecture.com/awards-and-competitions-landing-page/awards/riba-international-awards/riba-international-awards-2018/2018/xiao-jing-wan-university|title=Xiao Jing Wan University|website=www.architecture.com}}</ref><br />
* 2018 [[Stirling Prize]] for [[Bloomberg London]], UK<br />
* World Winners [[Prix Versailles 2018]]<br />
<br />
==Criticism==<br />
In June 2008, ''[[The Guardian]]'' published an article highly critical of planned real estate development in a pristine seacoast area in [[Bulgaria]], which is currently under [[Natura 2000|EU environmental protection]]. The paper cited environmentalists' concerns over the impact of the planned 15,000-inhabitant resort facilities. The Bulgarian partner of the planned real estate development in Bulgaria's pristine seacoast area, Georgi Stanishev, is the brother of [[Sergey Stanishev|Sergei Stanishev]], who served as the Prime Minister of Bulgaria between 2005 and 2009 and is also the Leader of the Bulgarian Socialist Party.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/jul/14/greenbuilding.climatechange|title=Bulgarian eco town 'the biggest mistake of Norman Foster's career', say protesters|author=Kate Connolly | location=London|work=The Guardian|date=14 July 2008}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[List of architecture firms]]<br />
* [[List of architects]]<br />
* [[Spencer de Grey]]<br />
* [[Mouzhan Majidi]]<br />
* [[Richard Rogers]]<br />
* [[Roy Fleetwood]]<br />
* [[SkyCycle (proposed transport project)]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{commons category|Foster and Partners}}<br />
* [http://www.Fosterandpartners.com Foster + Partners Website]<br />
* {{archINFORM|arch|52696}}<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110524130514/http://www.gleeds.tv/index.cfm?video=597 Antoinette Nassopoulos, Foster + Partners 'Virgin Red Hot Design' talk](Video)<br />
* [http://www.archidust.com/Home/brand_details/Foster--Partners-488 Foster + Partners publications] at Archidust<br />
<br />
{{Stirling Prize winners}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
<!-- Don't add anything after this line unless you're drafting a disambiguation page or article to replace the redirect. --><br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Foster And Partners}}<br />
[[Category:Architecture firms based in London]]<br />
[[Category:Norman Foster, Baron Foster of Thames Bank]]<br />
[[Category:Foster and Partners buildings|•]]<br />
[[Category:Stirling Prize laureates]]<br />
[[Category:Welsh Eisteddfod Gold Medal winners]]<br />
[[Category:Design companies established in 1967]]<br />
[[Category:1967 establishments in England]]<br />
[[Category:3i Group companies]]<br />
[[Category:Compasso d'Oro Award recipients]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neena_Gill&diff=1232736689Neena Gill2024-07-05T10:02:19Z<p>AmgineIX: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|British politician}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=April 2017}}<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| image = Neena Gill, Member of the European Parliament, Belgium.jpg<br />
| imagesize = <br />
| alt =<br />
| caption =<br />
| honorific-prefix =<br />
| name = Neena Gill<br />
| honorific-suffix = {{Post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|CBE}}<br />
| party = [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]<br />
| constituency_MP = [[West Midlands (European Parliament constituency)|West Midlands]]<br />
| parliament = European<br />
| term_start = 1 July 2014<br />
| term_end = 31 January 2020<br />
| predecessor = [[Nikki Sinclaire]]<br />
| successor = ''Constituency abolished''<br />
| term_start1 = 10 June 1999<br />
| term_end1 = 4 June 2009<br />
| predecessor1 = ''Position established''<br />
| successor1 = [[Nikki Sinclaire]]<br />
| birth_place = [[Ludhiana]], [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]], India<br />
| residence = [[London]], England<br />
| death_date =<br />
| death_place =<br />
| nationality = British<br />
| partner =<br />
| relations =<br />
| spouse = {{marriage|John Towner|1982|2009|end=div}}<br />
| children = 1<br />
| alma_mater ={{ubl|[[Liverpool John Moores University]]|[[London Business School]]}}<br />
| signature =<br />
| website = [http://www.neenagillmep.eu www.neenagillmep.eu]<br />
| footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Neena Gill''', {{Post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|CBE}} is a British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician. She served as a [[Member of the European Parliament]] (MEP) for the [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]] first from 1999 to 2009, and then from 2014 to 2020.<br />
<br />
==Early life and career==<br />
Gill was born in [[Ludhiana]], [[Punjab, India]].<ref name=who/> She emigrated to the UK with her family when she was ten years old. Her father was a businessman.<ref name=politico>{{cite web|url=http://www.politico.eu/article/one-of-a-kind/|title=One of a kind|date=2 April 2003|publisher=Politico|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref> Gill's first job was working in a library at the age of 16.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu/articles/opinion/5-questions-neena-gill|title=5 questions with... Neena Gill|publisher=The Parliament Magazine|date=3 May 2017|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref> She graduated with a bachelor's degree in social studies from [[Liverpool John Moores University]] in 1979.<ref name=FT/> She was vice president of the students union.<ref name=CBE/> Gill later gained a postgraduate professional qualification from the [[Chartered Institute of Housing]] in 1984 and in 1996, she completed the senior executive programme at the [[London Business School]].<ref name=FT/><br />
<br />
After graduation, Gill became a trainee accountant but only worked for six weeks before leaving to become a housing officer at [[Ealing London Borough Council]].<ref name=CBE/> Aged 29, Gill became the chief executive of ASRA Group, making her the first female, first non-white and youngest chief executive of a UK [[housing association]].<ref name=politico/><ref name=CBE/> She then worked as the chief executive of Newlon Housing Group.<ref name=FT/><br />
<br />
==Political career==<br />
Prior to Labour's electoral success in 1997, Gill worked with members of Labour's shadow cabinet to help develop the party's social policy.<ref name=politico/> In 1999, she was elected as the first female Asian MEP in the [[European Parliament]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_politics/8259036.stm|title=Harman's office Thatcher U-turn|date=16 September 2009|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref> Representing the [[West Midlands (European Parliament constituency)|West Midlands]] between 1999 and 2009, Gill held various positions, including President of the Delegation for Relations with India and President of the Delegation for Relations with South Asia and SAARC countries. She was also a member of The Legal Affairs Committee and of the Budgets Committee.<br />
<br />
Gill was unsuccessful in her bid to be re-elected for a third term as MEP in 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/eu/5291344/European-elections-2009-West-Midlands-region.html|work=The Daily Telegraph|title=European elections 2009: West Midlands region|accessdate=17 September 2019|date=26 May 2009}}</ref> During her time outside of parliament, she worked as the vice president for corporate affairs (Europe and Asia Pacific) for software company [[SAS Institute|SAS]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://warwick.ac.uk/about/partnerships/europe/who/eab1/gill1/|publisher=University of Warwick|title=Neena Gill, Member of European Parliament for the West Midlands (Labour)|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wef.org.in/neena-gill/|title=Neena Gill|date=21 January 2017 |publisher=Women Economic Forum|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref><br />
[[File:Neena Gill.jpg|thumb|left|Gill in 2017 discussing Brexit and India]]<br />
<br />
In 2014, she was re-elected as one of two Labour MEPs (the other being [[Siôn Simon]]) for the West Midlands.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/eu-regions/E15000005|title=West Midlands|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref> During this term, she was a member of the Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs, special committee on tax rulings, financial crimes, tax evasion and avoidance, and part of the delegation for relations with India and the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/4533/NEENA_GILL/history/8#mep-card-content|title=8th parliamentary term|publisher=European Parliament|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref> She was particularly active on financial regulation and was the [[rapporteur]] for the 2015 European [[Money market fund|Money Market Funds]] (MMF) Regulation.<ref name=FT>{{cite news|title=Political animal stalks EU money funds|url=https://www.ft.com/content/0fa1f43c-6e7e-11e4-a65a-00144feabdc0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/0fa1f43c-6e7e-11e4-a65a-00144feabdc0 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|work=Financial Times|date=23 November 2014|last=Johnson|first=Steve|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 2017, Gill was one of two UK winners (the other being Conservative MP [[Priti Patel]]) of the [[Pravasi Bharatiya Samman]], the highest honour given to [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|NRIs]] by the Indian government.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Awards-2017|url=https://www.mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl/27911/Pravasi_Bharatiya_Samman_Awards2017|publisher=[[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs]]|accessdate=17 September 2019|date=9 January 2017}}</ref> In the same year, she was appointed [[Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] (CBE) in the [[2017 New Year Honours]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/581000/new-years-honours-2017-full-list-csv.csv/preview|title=New Year's Honours 2017: CSV|date=30 December 2016|accessdate=17 September 2019|publisher=gov.uk}}</ref> In July 2018, Gill became an honorary fellow of [[Liverpool John Moores University]].<ref name=CBE>{{cite web|url=https://www.ljmu.ac.uk/about-us/news/articles/2018/7/13/honorary-fellow-neena-gill|publisher=Liverpool John Moores University|date=13 July 2018|accessdate=17 September 2019|title=Honorary Fellow Neena Gill CBE}}</ref><br />
<br />
She was re-elected in the 2019 European parliamentary election as the sole Labour MEP for the West Midlands.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-48417494|title=European election 2019: Brexit Party tops West Midlands polls|publisher=BC News|date=27 May 2019|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref> Gill remained a member of the Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs. In September 2019, Gill joined the delegation for relations with Japan as Chair and the [[ACP-EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly]] as Vice-Chair and S&D Co-ordinator.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/4533/NEENA_GILL/history/9#mep-card-content|title=9th parliamentary term|publisher=European Parliament|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 2024, she was selected as the Labour Party candidate in the [[Bromsgrove (UK Parliament constituency)|Bromsgrove]] constituency at the [[2024 United Kingdom general election|2024 general election]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Labour's parliamentary candidate Neena Gill joins campaign trail in Bromsgrove |url=https://bromsgrovestandard.co.uk/news/labours-parliamentary-candidate-neena-gill-joins-campaign-trail-in-bromsgrove/ |website=Bromsgrove Standard |access-date=14 June 2024}}</ref> She came second in the contest, recieving 26.8% of the vote share.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Bromsgrove - General election results 2024 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/election/2024/uk/constituencies/E14001138 |access-date=2024-07-05 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Personal life==<br />
She married Dr. John Towner, an environmental consultant, in 1982 and they have one son. They divorced in 2009.<ref name=who>{{cite book|url=https://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-17141|title=Gill, Neena|publisher=UK Who's Who|doi=10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U17141 |isbn=978-0-19-954088-4 |accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref><ref name=politico/><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{commons category}}<br />
*[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/public/geoSearch/view.do?country=GB&partNumber=1&zone=West+Midlands&language=EN&id=4533 Profile at European Parliament website]<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gill, Neena}}<br />
[[Category:1956 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Liverpool John Moores University]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of London Business School]]<br />
[[Category:Labour Party (UK) MEPs]]<br />
[[Category:MEPs for England 1999–2004]]<br />
[[Category:MEPs for England 2004–2009]]<br />
[[Category:MEPs for England 2014–2019]]<br />
[[Category:MEPs for England 2019–2020]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century women MEPs for England]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century women MEPs for England]]<br />
[[Category:Politicians from Ludhiana]]<br />
[[Category:Indian emigrants to England]]<br />
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]<br />
[[Category:English people of Indian descent]]<br />
[[Category:English people of Punjabi descent]]<br />
[[Category:Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of Pravasi Bharatiya Samman]]<br />
[[Category:British people of Punjabi descent]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neena_Gill&diff=1232736579Neena Gill2024-07-05T10:01:22Z<p>AmgineIX: Added election results, cited bbc result tracker</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|British politician}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=April 2017}}<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| image = Neena Gill, Member of the European Parliament, Belgium.jpg<br />
| imagesize = <br />
| alt =<br />
| caption =<br />
| honorific-prefix =<br />
| name = Neena Gill<br />
| honorific-suffix = {{Post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|CBE}}<br />
| party = [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]<br />
| constituency_MP = [[West Midlands (European Parliament constituency)|West Midlands]]<br />
| parliament = European<br />
| term_start = 1 July 2014<br />
| term_end = 31 January 2020<br />
| predecessor = [[Nikki Sinclaire]]<br />
| successor = ''Constituency abolished''<br />
| term_start1 = 10 June 1999<br />
| term_end1 = 4 June 2009<br />
| predecessor1 = ''Position established''<br />
| successor1 = [[Nikki Sinclaire]]<br />
| birth_place = [[Ludhiana]], [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]], India<br />
| residence = [[London]], England<br />
| death_date =<br />
| death_place =<br />
| nationality = British<br />
| partner =<br />
| relations =<br />
| spouse = {{marriage|John Towner|1982|2009|end=div}}<br />
| children = 1<br />
| alma_mater ={{ubl|[[Liverpool John Moores University]]|[[London Business School]]}}<br />
| signature =<br />
| website = [http://www.neenagillmep.eu www.neenagillmep.eu]<br />
| footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Neena Gill''', {{Post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|CBE}} is a British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician. She served as a [[Member of the European Parliament]] (MEP) for the [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]] first from 1999 to 2009, and then from 2014 to 2020.<br />
<br />
==Early life and career==<br />
Gill was born in [[Ludhiana]], [[Punjab, India]].<ref name=who/> She emigrated to the UK with her family when she was ten years old. Her father was a businessman.<ref name=politico>{{cite web|url=http://www.politico.eu/article/one-of-a-kind/|title=One of a kind|date=2 April 2003|publisher=Politico|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref> Gill's first job was working in a library at the age of 16.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu/articles/opinion/5-questions-neena-gill|title=5 questions with... Neena Gill|publisher=The Parliament Magazine|date=3 May 2017|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref> She graduated with a bachelor's degree in social studies from [[Liverpool John Moores University]] in 1979.<ref name=FT/> She was vice president of the students union.<ref name=CBE/> Gill later gained a postgraduate professional qualification from the [[Chartered Institute of Housing]] in 1984 and in 1996, she completed the senior executive programme at the [[London Business School]].<ref name=FT/><br />
<br />
After graduation, Gill became a trainee accountant but only worked for six weeks before leaving to become a housing officer at [[Ealing London Borough Council]].<ref name=CBE/> Aged 29, Gill became the chief executive of ASRA Group, making her the first female, first non-white and youngest chief executive of a UK [[housing association]].<ref name=politico/><ref name=CBE/> She then worked as the chief executive of Newlon Housing Group.<ref name=FT/><br />
<br />
==Political career==<br />
Prior to Labour's electoral success in 1997, Gill worked with members of Labour's shadow cabinet to help develop the party's social policy.<ref name=politico/> In 1999, she was elected as the first female Asian MEP in the [[European Parliament]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_politics/8259036.stm|title=Harman's office Thatcher U-turn|date=16 September 2009|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref> Representing the [[West Midlands (European Parliament constituency)|West Midlands]] between 1999 and 2009, Gill held various positions, including President of the Delegation for Relations with India and President of the Delegation for Relations with South Asia and SAARC countries. She was also a member of The Legal Affairs Committee and of the Budgets Committee.<br />
<br />
Gill was unsuccessful in her bid to be re-elected for a third term as MEP in 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/eu/5291344/European-elections-2009-West-Midlands-region.html|work=The Daily Telegraph|title=European elections 2009: West Midlands region|accessdate=17 September 2019|date=26 May 2009}}</ref> During her time outside of parliament, she worked as the vice president for corporate affairs (Europe and Asia Pacific) for software company [[SAS Institute|SAS]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://warwick.ac.uk/about/partnerships/europe/who/eab1/gill1/|publisher=University of Warwick|title=Neena Gill, Member of European Parliament for the West Midlands (Labour)|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wef.org.in/neena-gill/|title=Neena Gill|date=21 January 2017 |publisher=Women Economic Forum|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref><br />
[[File:Neena Gill.jpg|thumb|left|Gill in 2017 discussing Brexit and India]]<br />
<br />
In 2014, she was re-elected as one of two Labour MEPs (the other being [[Siôn Simon]]) for the West Midlands.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/eu-regions/E15000005|title=West Midlands|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref> During this term, she was a member of the Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs, special committee on tax rulings, financial crimes, tax evasion and avoidance, and part of the delegation for relations with India and the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/4533/NEENA_GILL/history/8#mep-card-content|title=8th parliamentary term|publisher=European Parliament|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref> She was particularly active on financial regulation and was the [[rapporteur]] for the 2015 European [[Money market fund|Money Market Funds]] (MMF) Regulation.<ref name=FT>{{cite news|title=Political animal stalks EU money funds|url=https://www.ft.com/content/0fa1f43c-6e7e-11e4-a65a-00144feabdc0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/0fa1f43c-6e7e-11e4-a65a-00144feabdc0 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|work=Financial Times|date=23 November 2014|last=Johnson|first=Steve|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref><br />
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In 2017, Gill was one of two UK winners (the other being Conservative MP [[Priti Patel]]) of the [[Pravasi Bharatiya Samman]], the highest honour given to [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|NRIs]] by the Indian government.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Awards-2017|url=https://www.mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl/27911/Pravasi_Bharatiya_Samman_Awards2017|publisher=[[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs]]|accessdate=17 September 2019|date=9 January 2017}}</ref> In the same year, she was appointed [[Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] (CBE) in the [[2017 New Year Honours]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/581000/new-years-honours-2017-full-list-csv.csv/preview|title=New Year's Honours 2017: CSV|date=30 December 2016|accessdate=17 September 2019|publisher=gov.uk}}</ref> In July 2018, Gill became an honorary fellow of [[Liverpool John Moores University]].<ref name=CBE>{{cite web|url=https://www.ljmu.ac.uk/about-us/news/articles/2018/7/13/honorary-fellow-neena-gill|publisher=Liverpool John Moores University|date=13 July 2018|accessdate=17 September 2019|title=Honorary Fellow Neena Gill CBE}}</ref><br />
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She was re-elected in the 2019 European parliamentary election as the sole Labour MEP for the West Midlands.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-48417494|title=European election 2019: Brexit Party tops West Midlands polls|publisher=BC News|date=27 May 2019|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref> Gill remained a member of the Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs. In September 2019, Gill joined the delegation for relations with Japan as Chair and the [[ACP-EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly]] as Vice-Chair and S&D Co-ordinator.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/4533/NEENA_GILL/history/9#mep-card-content|title=9th parliamentary term|publisher=European Parliament|accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref><br />
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In 2024, she was selected as the Labour Party candidate in the [[Bromsgrove (UK Parliament constituency)|Bromsgrove]] constituency at the [[2024 United Kingdom general election|2024 general election]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Labour's parliamentary candidate Neena Gill joins campaign trail in Bromsgrove |url=https://bromsgrovestandard.co.uk/news/labours-parliamentary-candidate-neena-gill-joins-campaign-trail-in-bromsgrove/ |website=Bromsgrove Standard |access-date=14 June 2024}}</ref> She came second in the contest, recieving 28.6% of the vote share.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Bromsgrove - General election results 2024 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/election/2024/uk/constituencies/E14001138 |access-date=2024-07-05 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref><br />
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==Personal life==<br />
She married Dr. John Towner, an environmental consultant, in 1982 and they have one son. They divorced in 2009.<ref name=who>{{cite book|url=https://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-17141|title=Gill, Neena|publisher=UK Who's Who|doi=10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U17141 |isbn=978-0-19-954088-4 |accessdate=17 September 2019}}</ref><ref name=politico/><br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
{{commons category}}<br />
*[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/public/geoSearch/view.do?country=GB&partNumber=1&zone=West+Midlands&language=EN&id=4533 Profile at European Parliament website]<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Gill, Neena}}<br />
[[Category:1956 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Liverpool John Moores University]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of London Business School]]<br />
[[Category:Labour Party (UK) MEPs]]<br />
[[Category:MEPs for England 1999–2004]]<br />
[[Category:MEPs for England 2004–2009]]<br />
[[Category:MEPs for England 2014–2019]]<br />
[[Category:MEPs for England 2019–2020]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century women MEPs for England]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century women MEPs for England]]<br />
[[Category:Politicians from Ludhiana]]<br />
[[Category:Indian emigrants to England]]<br />
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]<br />
[[Category:English people of Indian descent]]<br />
[[Category:English people of Punjabi descent]]<br />
[[Category:Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of Pravasi Bharatiya Samman]]<br />
[[Category:British people of Punjabi descent]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Symphonic_Dances_(Rachmaninoff)&diff=1222561013Symphonic Dances (Rachmaninoff)2024-05-06T17:11:25Z<p>AmgineIX: Grammar fix</p>
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<div>{{Short description|1940 orchestral suite composed by Sergei Rachmaninoff}}<br />
{{italic title}}<br />
[[File:Sergei Rachmaninoff cph.3a40575.jpg|thumb|Sergei Rachmaninoff]]<br />
'''''Symphonic Dances''''', [[List of compositions by Sergei Rachmaninoff|Op. 45]], is an [[orchestral suite]] in three movements completed in October 1940 by Russian composer [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]]. It is his final major composition, and his only piece written in its entirety while living in the United States.<br />
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The work allowed him to indulge in a nostalgia for the Russia he had known, as much as he had done in the [[Symphony No. 3 (Rachmaninoff)|Symphony No. 3]],<ref>Maes, 272.</ref> as well as to effectively sum up his lifelong fascination with ecclesiastical chants. In the first dance, he [[Musical quotation|quotes]] the opening theme of his [[Symphony No. 1 (Rachmaninoff)|Symphony No. 1]], itself derived from motifs characteristic of Russian church music. In the finale he quotes both the ''[[Dies Irae]]'' and the chant "Blessed art thou, Lord" (''Blagosloven yesi, Gospodi'') from his ''[[All-Night Vigil (Rachmaninoff)|All-Night Vigil]]''.<ref name="ng716"/><br />
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==Background==<br />
Rachmaninoff composed the ''Symphonic Dances'' four years after his [[Symphony No. 3 (Rachmaninoff)|Third Symphony]], mostly at the Honeyman estate, "Orchard Point", in [[Centerport, New York]], overlooking [[Long Island Sound]]. Its original name was ''Fantastic Dances'', with movement titles of "Noon", "Twilight", and "Midnight".<ref name="har330">{{harvnb|Harrison|2006|p=330}}</ref> While the composer had written to conductor [[Eugene Ormandy]] in late August 1940 that the piece was finished and needed only to be orchestrated, the manuscript for the full score bears completion dates of September and October 1940.<ref name="har330"/> It was premiered by Ormandy and the [[Philadelphia Orchestra]], to whom it is dedicated, on January 3, 1941.<ref>Sullivan, Jack. Copyright 2014 The Carnegie Hall Corporation.</ref><br />
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The work is fully representative of the composer's later style with its curious, shifting harmonies, the almost [[Sergei Prokofiev|Prokofiev]]-like grotesquerie of the outer movements and the focus on individual instrumental tone colors throughout (highlighted by his use of an [[alto saxophone]] in the opening dance).<ref name="ng716">Norris, ''New Grove, 2nd ed.'', 716.</ref> The opening three-note motif, introduced quietly but soon reinforced by heavily staccato chords and responsible for much of the movement's rhythmic vitality, is reminiscent of the Queen of Shemakha's theme in [[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov|Rimsky-Korsakov]]'s opera ''[[The Golden Cockerel]]'',<ref name="Harrison, 331">{{harvnb|Harrison|2006|p=331}}</ref> the only music by another composer that he had taken out of Russia with him in 1917.<br />
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The ''Symphonic Dances'' combine energetic rhythmic sections, reminiscent of [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]]'s ''[[The Rite of Spring]]'', with some of the composer's lushest harmonies. The rhythmic vivacity, a characteristic of Rachmaninoff's late style, may have been further heightened here for two reasons. First, he had been encouraged by the success of his ''[[Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini]]'' as a ballet in 1939 and wanted to write something with which to follow it up.<ref name="har330"/> Second, he may have included material intended for a ballet titled ''The Scythians'', begun in 1914–15 but abandoned before he left Russia.<ref name="Harrison, 331"/> While no manuscript for the ballet is known to have survived, this does not make his [[Musical quotation|quoting]] the work inconceivable, given Rachmaninoff's remarkable memory. He could remember and play back accurately pieces he had heard years earlier, even those he had heard only once.<ref>{{harvnb|Schonberg|1985|pp=311–313}}</ref><br />
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The work is remarkable for its use of the [[alto saxophone]] as a solo instrument. Rachmaninoff was apparently advised as to its use by the American orchestrator and composer [[Robert Russell Bennett]]. The composition includes several quotations from Rachmaninoff's other works, and can be regarded as a summing-up of his entire career as a composer. The first dance ends with a modified quotation from his unfortunate [[Symphony No. 1 (Rachmaninoff)|First Symphony]] (1897), here nostalgically rendered in a major key. The ghostly second dance was called "dusk" in some sketches. The final dance is a kind of struggle between the ''[[Dies Irae]]'' theme, representing [[Death]], and a quotation from the ninth movement of his [[All-Night Vigil (Rachmaninoff)|''All-night Vigil'']] (1915), representing [[Resurrection]] (the lyrics of the ''All-night Vigil''{{'}}s ninth movement in fact narrate mourners' discovery of Christ's empty grave and the Risen Lord). The Resurrection theme proves victorious in the end (he wrote the word "[[Hallelujah]]" at this place in the score).<br />
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==Instrumentation==<br />
The work is scored for an orchestra of [[piccolo]], 2 [[flute]]s, 2 [[oboe]]s, [[cor anglais]], 2 [[clarinet]]s, [[bass clarinet]], [[alto saxophone]], 2 [[bassoon]]s, [[contrabassoon]], 4 [[horn (music)|horns]], 3 [[trumpet]]s, 3 [[trombone]]s, [[tuba]], [[timpani]], [[triangle (music)|triangle]], [[tambourine]], [[Snare drum|side drum]], [[cymbal]]s, [[bass drum]], [[Gong|tamtam]], [[xylophone]], [[glockenspiel]], [[tubular bell]]s, [[harp]], [[piano]], and [[string section|strings]].<br />
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==Movements==<br />
{{Ordered list|type=upper-roman<br />
| ''(Non) allegro'' (C minor – C major)<br />
:[[File:Orchesterwerke Romantik Themen.pdf|450px|page=564]]<br />
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| ''Andante con moto'' (Tempo di valse) (G minor)<br />
:[[File:Orchesterwerke Romantik Themen.pdf|450px|page=565]]<br />
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| ''Lento assai – Allegro vivace – Lento assai. Come prima – Allegro vivace'' (D minor – D major)<br />
:[[File:Orchesterwerke Romantik Themen.pdf|450px|page=566]]<br />
}}<br />
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==Arrangements==<br />
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===Two Pianos===<br />
Rachmaninoff wrote an arrangement for two pianos concurrently with the orchestral version. This arrangement was first performed by the composer with [[Vladimir Horowitz]] at a private party in Beverly Hills, California in August 1942.<ref>Plaskin, Glenn. Horowitz. William Morrow and Company. NY. 1983. page 223.</ref><br />
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The two piano arrangement was featured on the 2024 album "Rachmaninoff for Two" by Daniil Trifonov and Sergei Babayan.<br />
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===Ballet===<br />
The name ''Symphonic Dances'' suggests that the composition can be danced to. Rachmaninoff corresponded with choreographer [[Michel Fokine]] about possibly creating a ballet from the ''Dances''. He played the composition for Fokine on the piano; the choreographer responded enthusiastically.<ref>Fokine's letter to Rachmaninoff, dated 23 September 1940.</ref> Fokine's death in August 1942 put an end to any possible collaboration in this direction.<ref name="har330"/><br />
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In the 1980s, Joseph Albano choreographed the dances for the Albano Ballet in Hartford, Connecticut.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.courant.com/2014-07-31/entertainment/hc-albano-ballet-summer-production-20140731_1_dancers-charles-frink-albano-ballet-company|last=Howard|first=Sharma|title=Albano Ballet Performing Symphonic Dances One-Night Only|publisher=The Hartford Courant|date=July 31, 2014|accessdate=2016-06-06}}</ref> In 1991, Salvatore Aiello choreographed the ''Symphonic Dances'' for the North Carolina Dance Theater. [[Peter Martins]] did so in 1994 for the [[New York City Ballet]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/30/arts/dance-is-there-a-ballet-in-rachmaninoff-s-symphonic-dances.html?n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/Subjects/D/Dancing|title=Is There a Ballet In Rachmaninoff's Symphonic Dances?|last=Oestreich|first=James R.|work=The New York Times|date=January 30, 1994|accessdate=2015-05-10}}</ref> Alexei Ratmansky choreographed ''Symphonic Dances'' for Miami City Ballet in 2012.<ref>{{Cite news|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/14/arts/dance/at-miami-city-ballet-edward-villellas-tenets-live-on.html|title= Keeping Their Eyes on the Score|newspaper= The New York Times|date= 13 January 2014|last1= MacAulay|first1= Alastair}}</ref>[[Edwaard Liang]] did so in 2012 for the [[San Francisco Ballet]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfballet.org/tickets/production/program_notes?prodid=1737|last=Ossola|first=Cheryl A.|title=Program Notes - Program 5:The Fifth Season/Symphonic Dances (World Premiere)/Glass Pieces|publisher=[[San Francisco Ballet]]|date=May 9, 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110195928/http://www.sfballet.org/tickets/production/program_notes?prodid=1737|archivedate=2014-01-10|accessdate=2016-12-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/s-f-ballet-serves-a-splendid-neoclassical-mix/|last=Gereben|first=Janos|title=S.F. Ballet serves a splendid neoclassical mix|newspaper=[[The San Francisco Examiner]]|date=March 22, 2012|accessdate=2016-12-16}}</ref> [[Liam Scarlett]], as Artist In Residence<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.roh.org.uk/people/liam-scarlett|title=Liam Scarlett — People — Royal Opera House|website=www.roh.org.uk|access-date=2017-05-02}}</ref> choreographed the ''Symphonic Dances'' for [[The Royal Ballet]], performed as part of a Quad billing at the [[Royal Opera House]] in Covent Garden, London in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.roh.org.uk/productions/symphonic-dances-by-liam-scarlett?gclid=CODa2onc0dMCFQq3GwodKCQHkw|title=Symphonic Dances — Productions — Royal Opera House|website=www.roh.org.uk|access-date=2017-05-02}}</ref><br />
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===Two organs===<br />
There exists a transcription of the entire piece by French composer/performer [[Jean Guillou]], written for two organs.<ref>Guillou, Jean. ''Guillou Joue Guillou''. Universal Music France, 2010.</ref><br />
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===Piano solo===<br />
There exists an unpublished transcription of the entire piece by the late Israeli pianist/composer/arranger [[:he:יהלי וגמן|Yahli Wagman]], written between 1982-1986, for piano solo.{{Citation needed|reason=Where is the evidence that this transcription exists?|date=January 2020}} <br />
Pianist [[Inon Barnatan]] transcribed the work himself and recorded it in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/31/arts/music/inon-barnatan-rachmaninoff-symphonic-dances.html|title=Can a Piano Capture the Grandeur of Rachmaninoff’s Symphonic Music?|work=The New York Times|date=January 31, 2024|accessdate=2024-02-02}}</ref> There also exists a recording of Rachmaninoff playing through the piano reduction for [[Eugene Ormandy]], during which he sings, whistles and talks about how he thinks the Dances should be performed. Rachmaninoff played the first movement coda differently from the score; these minor changes were reproduced by the pianist [[Stephen Kovacevich]] when he performed the work with [[Martha Argerich]] at his 75th birthday concert at [[Wigmore Hall]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theartsdesk.com/node/76275/view|title=Theartsdesk Q&A: Pianist Stephen Kovacevich &#124; reviews, news & interviews &#124; the Arts Desk}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Recordings==<br />
<!--<br />
===Orchestral version===<br />
{| class="wikitable" border="1"; style="width:50em;<br />
!style="width:10%;"|Year<br />
!style="width:24%;"|Conductor<br />
!style="width:40%;"|Orchestra<br />
!style="width:26%;"|Label<br />
|-<br />
|{{center|1=1942}}<br />
|[[Dimitri Mitropoulos]]<br />
|[[New York Philharmonic Orchestra]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|{{center|1=1944-49}}<br />
|[[Nikolai Golovanov]]<br />
|[[USSR State Radio Symphony Orchestra]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|{{center|1=1963}}<br />
|[[Kirill Kondrashin]]<br />
|[[Moscow Philharmonic Orchestra]]<br />
|Melodiya<br />
|-<br />
|{{center|1=1992}}<br />
|[[Neeme Järvi]]<br />
|[[Philharmonia Orchestra]]<br />
|Chandos<br />
|-<br />
|{{center|1=1995}}<br />
|[[Yuri Temirkanov]]<br />
|[[St Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra]]<br />
|RCA<br />
|-<br />
|{{center|1=1999}}<br />
|[[Valery Polyansky]]<br />
|[[State Symphony Capella of Russia]]<br />
|Chandos<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
===Piano duo version===<br />
{| class="wikitable" border="1"; style="width:50em;<br />
!style="width:10%;"|Year<br />
!style="width:32%;"|Pianist<br />
!style="width:32%;"|Pianist<br />
!style="width:26%;"|Label<br />
|-<br />
|{{center|1=2009}}<br />
|[[Martha Argerich]]<br />
|[[Nelson Freire]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|{{center|1=2011}}<br />
|[[Martha Argerich]]<br />
|[[Nelson Goerner]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
--><br />
# [[Eugene Ormandy]], conducting the [[Philadelphia Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Dimitri Mitropoulos]], conducting the [[New York Philharmonic Orchestra]] (1942)<br />
# [[Nikolai Golovanov]], conducting the [[USSR State Radio Symphony Orchestra]], (1944 – 1st and 3rd mts, 1949 – 2nd mt)<br />
# [[Yevgeny Svetlanov]], conducting the [[State Academic Symphony Orchestra of the Russian Federation]]<br />
# [[Kirill Kondrashin]], conducting the [[Moscow Philharmonic Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Kirill Kondrashin]], conducting the [[Concertgebouworkest]] (Concertgebouw, 1976)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.discogs.com/Pyotr-Ilyich-Tchaikovsky-Sergei-Vasilyevich-Rachmaninoff-Kirill-Kondrashin-Royal-Concertgebouw-Orche/release/15231742|title=Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Sergei Vasilyevich Rachmaninoff – Kirill Kondrashin Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra (1994, CD)|website=[[Discogs]]}}</ref><br />
# [[Mariss Jansons]], conducting the [[St Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Yuri Temirkanov]], conducting the [[St Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra]]<br />
# [[André Previn]], conducting the [[London Symphony Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Vladimir Ashkenazy]], conducting the [[Concertgebouw Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Lorin Maazel]], conducting the [[Berliner Philharmoniker]]<br />
# [[Sergiu Comissiona]], conducting the [[Vancouver Symphony Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Eiji Oue]], conducting the [[Minnesota Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Predrag Gosta]], conducting the [[London Symphony Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Enrique Bátiz Campbell|Enrique Bátiz]], conducting the [[Royal Philharmonic Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Robert Spano]], conducting the [[Atlanta Symphony Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Donald Johanos]], conducting the [[Dallas Symphony Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Eugene Aynsley Goossens|Eugene Goossens]], conducting the [[London Symphony Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Sir Simon Rattle]], conducting the [[Berliner Philharmoniker]]<br />
# [[Martha Argerich]] & [[Nelson Goerner]], at Edinburgh International Festival 2011 (version for two pianos)<br />
# [http://www.twopianists.com/Artists/schumann.html Nina Schumann] & [http://www.twopianists.com/Artists/magalhaes.html Luis Magalhães], [http://www.twopianists.com/ TwoPianists Records] (Version for two pianos)<br />
# [[Valery Gergiev]], conducting the [[London Symphony Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Semyon Bychkov (conductor)|Semyon Bychkov]], conducting the [[WDR Symphony Orchestra Cologne]]<br />
# [[Valery Polyansky]], conducting the [[State Symphony Capella of Russia]]<br />
# [[Sir Charles Mackerras]], conducting the [[Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Erich Leinsdorf]], conducting the [[Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Leonard Slatkin]], conducting the [[Detroit Symphony Orchestra]]<br />
# [[Vladimir Ashkenazy]] & [[Andre Previn]], [[Decca Records]] (version for two pianos)<br />
# [[Martha Argerich]] & [[Nelson Freire]], at Salzburg Festival 2009 (version for two pianos)<br />
# [[Yannick Nézet-Séguin]], conducting the Philadelphia Orchestra, 2021<br />
# [[John Eliot Gardiner]], conducting the [[NDR Sinfonieorchester]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3f4MemMqTvQ | title=Rachmaninov: Symphonic dances op.45 (Gardiner, NDR) | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Norris, Gregory, ed. Stanley Sadie, ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'' (London: Macmillan, 1980), 20 vols. {{ISBN|0-333-23111-2}}.<br />
*{{cite book|last=Harrison|first=Max|year=2006|title=Rachmaninoff: Life, Works, Recordings|location=London|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|isbn=0-8264-9312-2}}<br />
*Maes, Francis, tr. Pomerans, Arnold J. and Erica Pomerans, ''A History of Russian Music: From ''Kamarinskaya ''to'' Babi Yar (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 2002). {{ISBN|0-520-21815-9}}.<br />
*{{cite book|last=Schonberg|first=Harold|author-link=Harold C. Schonberg|title=The Virtuosi: Classical Music's Great Performers From Paganini to Pavarotti|publisher=Vintage Books|year=1985|isbn=0-394-75532-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/virtuosiclassica0000scho}}<br />
* David Brown, Liner notes to Deutsche Grammophon recording conducted by Mikhail Pletnev<br />
* Liner notes to Reference Recordings recording conducted by Eiji Oue<br />
* [[Michael Steinberg (music critic)|Michael Steinberg]], San Francisco Symphony program notes, under External links<br />
* [[Robert Russell Bennett|Bennett, Robert Russell]]. George J. Ferencz, editor. ''The Broadway Sound: The Autobiography and Selected Essays of Robert Russell Bennett'' (University of Rochester Press, 1999) {{ISBN|1-58046-082-8}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.library.upenn.edu/exhibits/rbm/ormandy/sergei.html Ormandy and Rachmaninoff]<br />
* [http://music.ibiblio.org/pub/multimedia/pandora/vorbis/2_pianos/pan116a/index.html Recording on 2 Pianos at Pandora Records]<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/19990202224604/http://inkpot.com/classical/rachsymdances.html Rachmaninov and the Day of Wrath] inkpot.com<br />
* [http://www.sfsymphony.org/Watch-Listen-Learn/Read-Program-Notes/Program-Notes/RACHMANINOFF-Symphonic-Dances,-Opus-45.aspx San Francisco Symphony Program Notes by Michael Steinberg]<br />
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{{Sergei Rachmaninoff}}<br />
{{Portalbar|Classical Music}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Compositions by Sergei Rachmaninoff]]<br />
[[Category:Compositions for symphony orchestra]]<br />
[[Category:Orchestral suites]]<br />
[[Category:Compositions for two pianos]]<br />
[[Category:1940 compositions]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OPzS&diff=1219440091OPzS2024-04-17T19:30:25Z<p>AmgineIX: /* Features */</p>
<hr />
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2. Deep Discharge Capability: OPzS batteries are known for their deep discharge capabilities. They can be discharged to a significant extent without causing damage, making them suitable for applications where frequent discharging is required, such as in off-grid solar systems.<br />
<br />
3. High Durability: The tubular plate design, combined with the use of acid-immersed separators, contributes to the high durability and longer service life of OPzS batteries.<br />
<br />
4. Ventilation and Maintenance: OPzS batteries are typically vented batteries, meaning they have a built-in ventilation system. They also require regular maintenance, including topping up with distilled water, to ensure their proper functioning.<br />
<br />
5. Excellent Cycling Performance: These batteries are known for their excellent cycling performance, with a high number of charge and discharge cycles compared to some other battery types.<br />
<br />
6. Standby and Deep-Cycle Use: OPzS batteries are suitable for both standby applications (providing backup power in case of outages) and deep-cycle applications (repeated deep discharging and recharging).<br />
<br />
7. Common Use in Renewable Energy: They are often used in off-grid and grid-tied renewable energy systems, such as solar power installations and wind farms, due to their ability to handle irregular charging and discharging patterns.<br />
<br />
8. Capacity Range: OPzS batteries come in various capacities to meet different energy storage needs, and they can be connected in series and parallel to achieve the required voltage and capacity for specific applications.<br />
<br />
9. Safety Precautions: As with all lead-acid batteries, safety precautions should be taken when handling OPzS batteries. They contain sulfuric acid and should be handled carefully to avoid acid spills and contact.<br />
<br />
10. Recyclability: Like other lead-acid batteries, OPzS batteries are recyclable, and their lead components can be repurposed in new batteries.<br />
<br />
OPzS batteries are known for their reliability and longevity, making them a popular choice in applications where a robust and dependable energy storage solution is required. They are often compared to other types of lead-acid batteries, such as OPzV (Valve Regulated Lead Acid) batteries, which offer different characteristics and advantages. The choice between OPzS and OPzV batteries depends on the specific requirements of the application.<br />
<br />
==Features==<br />
OPzS batteries have a cell voltage of 2V and have to be connected in series to produce higher voltages. Also, they are differentiated from the other types of batteries by their upright and vertical orientation.<ref>{{cite web |title=OPzS and OPzV Batteries |url=https://www.solarkobo.com/post/opzs-and-opzv-batteries}}</ref> OPzS batteries also feature High Capacity, Long lifetime, Reduced Maintenance, Low Self-Discharging, Quick and simple acid level control, Economical water consumption, Appropriate dimensions and weight, and the lowest and constant maintenance current.<ref>{{cite web |title=OPzS Flooded Battery. |url=https://www.renergypower.com/opzs-flooded/}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Differences between OPzS and OPzV batteries==<br />
An OPzS battery is a [[Deep-cycle_battery#Flooded|flooded cell battery]], meaning the electrolyte (generally sulfuric acid) is in liquid form inside the cell. In contract, the electrolyte in an OPzV battery is in gel form. An OPzS battery is not sealed, and users occasionally need to add distilled water to the top of the battery to maintain the normal use of the battery. An OPzV battery is sealed, and does not need maintenance. <ref>{{cite web |title=What Is Difference Between OPzV And OPzS Battery? |url=https://www.velabattery.com/what-is-difference-between-opzv-and-opzs-battery/}}</ref> While OPzS and OPzV batteries are both types of the tubular-plated battery, they differ in the nature of their electrolytes. The acid electrolyte of an OPzS battery is a [[Deep-cycle_battery#Flooded|Flooded Lead Acid (FLA)]], and the OPzV is a [[VRLA battery|VRLA]]. Its electrolyte is made into gel by the addition of silica dust. Hence they are also referred to as "silicone batteries". Also, the OPzV is valve-regulated, sealed and thus, maintenance-free.<ref>{{cite web |title=OPzS and OPzV Batteries |url=https://www.solarkobo.com/post/opzs-and-opzv-batteries}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Specifications==<br />
Here's an example of the specs of an OPzS battery:<br />
<br />
APPLICATION<br />
Macro Cells<br />
Energy Storage<br />
Switchgear and Substation<br />
Microgrids<br />
Medical Standby Power<br />
<br />
TECHNOLOGY / CHEMISTRY<br />
Flooded lead acid<br />
<br />
CAPACITY (MIN) - EUROPE STANDARD<br />
216<br />
<br />
CAPACITY (MAX) - EUROPE STANDARD<br />
3360<br />
<br />
CAPACITY EUROPE STANDARD<br />
Ah / C10 / 1.8Vpc / 20&nbsp;°C<br />
<br />
CAPACITY (MIN) - US STANDARD<br />
217<br />
<br />
CAPACITY (MAX) - US STANDARD<br />
3543<br />
<br />
CAPACITY US STANDARD<br />
Ah / 8hr / 1.75Vpc / 77&nbsp;°F<br />
<br />
VOLTAGE (MIN)<br />
2<br />
<br />
VOLTAGE (MAX)<br />
2<br />
<br />
DESIGN<br />
Top terminal<br />
DIN sizes<ref>{{cite web |title=POWERSAFE® OPZS BATTERIES |url=https://www.enersys.com/en/products/batteries/powersafe/powersafe-opzs/}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Battery types]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lennox_Berkeley&diff=1218942308Lennox Berkeley2024-04-14T20:14:56Z<p>AmgineIX: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|English composer (1903–1989)}}<br />
{{EngvarB|date=July 2013}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}<br />
{{Lead too short|date=September 2022}}<br />
'''Sir Lennox Randal Francis Berkeley''' [[CBE]] (12 May 1903{{spaced ndash}}26 December 1989) was an English composer.<br />
<br />
== Biography ==<br />
<br />
Berkeley was born on 12 May 1903 in [[Oxford]], England, the younger child and only son of Aline Carla (1863–1935), daughter of [[James Charles Harris|Sir James Charles Harris]], former British consul in Monaco, and [[Royal Navy]] Captain Hastings George FitzHardinge Berkeley (1855–1934), the illegitimate and eldest son of George Lennox Rawdon Berkeley, the 7th [[Baron Berkeley|Earl of Berkeley]] (1827–1888).<ref name=":0">{{Cite ODNB|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-39902|title=Berkeley, Sir Lennox Randal Francis (1903–1989), composer|date=2004-09-23|volume=1|language=en|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/39902}}</ref> He attended the [[Dragon School]] in Oxford, going on to [[Gresham's School]], in [[Holt, Norfolk]] and [[St George's School, Harpenden|St George's School]] in [[Harpenden]], Hertfordshire. He studied French at [[Merton College, Oxford|Merton College]], Oxford, graduating with a fourth class degree in 1926. While at university he coxed the college [[Eight (rowing)|rowing eight]]. He became an honorary fellow of Merton College in 1974.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="MCreg">{{cite book|title=Merton College Register 1900–1964|date=1964|publisher=Basil Blackwell|editor1-last=Levens|editor1-first=R.G.C.|location=Oxford|page=149}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 1927, he went to Paris to study music with [[Nadia Boulanger]], and there became acquainted with [[Francis Poulenc]], [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Darius Milhaud]], [[Arthur Honegger]] and [[Albert Roussel]]. Berkeley also studied with [[Maurice Ravel]], often cited as a key influence in Berkeley's technical development as a composer.<br />
<br />
In 1936, he met [[Benjamin Britten]], also a former pupil of [[Gresham's School]], at the [[ISCM]] Festival in [[Barcelona]]. Berkeley fell in love with Britten, who appears to have been wary of entering a relationship, writing in his diary, "we have come to an agreement on that subject."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Oliver|first1=Michael|title=Benjamin Britten|date=1996|publisher=Phaidon|location=University of Michigan|isbn=9780714832777|page=60}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Journeying Boy: The Diaries of the Young Benjamin Britten 1928-1938|last = Evans|first = John|publisher = Faber and Faber|year = 2010|isbn = 9780571274642|pages = 366}}</ref> Nevertheless, the two composers shared a house for a year, living in the Old Mill at [[Snape, Suffolk|Snape]], Suffolk, which Britten had acquired in July 1937.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Journeying Boy: The Diaries of the Young Benjamin Britten 1928–1938|last = Evans|first = John|publisher = Faber and Faber|year = 2010|isbn = 9780571274642|pages = 494}}</ref> They subsequently enjoyed a long friendship and artistic association, [[Classical music written in collaboration|collaborating]] on a number of works; these included the suite of Catalan dances titled ''[[Mont Juic (suite)|Mont Juic]]'', and ''[[Variations on an Elizabethan Theme]]'' (the latter also with four other composers).<br />
<br />
He worked for the [[BBC]] during the [[Second World War]], where he met his future wife, Elizabeth Freda Bernstein (1923–2016) whom he married on 14 December 1946. Together they had three sons: their eldest son [[Michael Berkeley]], Baron Berkeley of Knighton, is also a composer, and their youngest son is the photographer [[Nick Berkeley]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>Peter Dickinson The Music of Lennox Berkeley – Page 77 2003 "Colin Horsley remembered Berkeley's time at the BBC because he was reputed to have kept manuscript paper under his desk and was obviously longing to get more time to compose. Since it was there that he met his wife it is no wonder ..."</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Scotland|first1=Tony|title=Lennox Berkeley and his Music (biography)|url=http://www.lennoxandfreda.com/biography/lennox_berkeley|access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>Death notice, ''The Times'', London, 25 February 2016, p.61</ref><br />
<br />
He wrote several piano works for the pianist [[Colin Horsley]], who commissioned the [[Trio for horn, violin, and piano (Berkeley)|Horn Trio]] and some piano pieces, and gave the first performances and/or made the premier recordings of a number of his works, including his third Piano Concerto (1958).<ref>Musical leader 1958 Page 21 "Lennox Berkeley launched his Third Piano Concerto with Colin Horsley, for whom the work was written, at the Royal Philharmonic Society's Festival Hall series recently"</ref><br />
<br />
He was Professor of Composition in the [[Royal Academy of Music]] from 1946 to 1968. His students included [[Richard Rodney Bennett]], [[David Bedford]], [[Adam Pounds]], [[Richard Stoker]], Clive Strutt, [[John Tavener]] and [[Brian Ferneyhough]]. Ferneyhough felt that he learned nothing from Berkeley because of the gap between their musical conceptions, remembering him as "a notably urbane and well-meaning presence" whose "Nadia Boulenger {{sic}} influenced gallic aesthetics were completely unable to deal with my compositional needs."<ref>[https://musicguy247.typepad.com/my-blog/2016/08/brian-ferneyhough-composer-professor-new-complexity-stamford-university.html Brian Ferneyhough – An interview with the English composer/professor who now resides in California. "I am always actively thinking of current activities."]. Musicguy 247</ref><br />
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1954 saw the premiere of his first opera, ''[[Nelson (opera)|Nelson]]'', at [[Sadler's Wells]]. He was knighted in 1974 and from 1977 to 1983 was President of the [[Cheltenham Festival]].<br />
<br />
He resided at 8 Warwick Avenue, London, from 1947 until his death in 1989. On 20 March 1990 a memorial service was held for him at [[Westminster Cathedral]], London.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
== Honours ==<br />
* '''1983''' : Member of the [[Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium]].<ref>Index biographique des membres et associés de l'Académie royale de Belgique (1769–2005)</ref><br />
<br />
==Musical style==<br />
<br />
Berkeley's earlier music is broadly [[Tonality|tonal]], influenced by the [[Neoclassicism (music)|neoclassical]] music of Stravinsky.<ref name=Stevens>{{cite thesis |type=PhD |last=Stevens |first=Douglas |date=2011 |title=Lennox Berkeley : a critical study of his music |publisher=University of Bristol}}</ref> Berkeley's contact and friendship with composers such as Ravel and Poulenc and his studies in Paris with Boulanger lend his music a 'French' quality, demonstrated by its "emphasis on melody, the lucid textures and a conciseness of expression".<ref name=MusicSales>{{cite web|last1=Rushton|first1=James|title=Lennox Berkeley – Five Short Pieces (1936)|url=http://www.musicsalesclassical.com/composer/work/12080|website=Music Sales Classical|access-date=29 September 2015}}</ref> He maintained a negative view of [[Atonality|atonal]] music at least up until 1948, when he wrote:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dickinson|first1=Peter|title=The music of Lennox Berkeley|date=2003|publisher=The Boydell Press|location=Woodbridge|isbn=9780851159362|page=161|edition=2nd}}</ref><br />
<br />
{{Blockquote|text=I have never been able to derive much satisfaction from atonal music. The absence of key makes [[modulation (music)|modulation]] an impossibility, and this, to my mind, causes monotony [...] I am not, of course, in favour of rigidly adhering to the old key-system, but some sort of tonal centre seems to me a necessity.}}<br />
<br />
However, from the mid-1950s, Berkeley apparently felt a need to revise his style of composition, later telling the Canadian composer, [[R. Murray Schafer]] that "it's natural for a composer to feel a need to enlarge his idiom."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dickinson|first1=Peter|title=Lennox Berkeley and friends : writings, letters and interviews|date=2012|publisher=Boydell Press|location=Woodbridge|isbn=9781843837855|page=9}}</ref> He started including [[tone rows]] and aspects of [[serial technique]] in his compositions around the time of the Concertino, op. 49 (1955) and the opera ''Ruth'' (1955-6). His shift in opinion was demonstrated in an interview with [[The Times]] in 1959:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dickinson|first1=ed. Peter|title=Lennox Berkeley and friends : writings, letters and interviews|date=2012|publisher=Boydell Press|location=Woodbridge|isbn=9781843837855|page=110}}</ref><br />
<br />
{{Blockquote|text=I'm not opposed to serial music; I've benefited from studying it, and I have sometimes found myself writing serial themes – although I don't elaborate on them according to strict serial principles, because I'm quite definitely a tonal composer. And there are some exceptions to the gospel of intellectualisation – I enjoyed listening to the record of Boulez's [[Le marteau sans maître]] very much, because there the timbres of the music were attractive in themselves.}}<br />
<br />
==Works==<br />
===Opera===<br />
* ''[[Nelson (opera)|Nelson]]'', (1951)<br />
* ''[[A Dinner Engagement]]'', Op. 45 (1954)<br />
* [[Ruth (opera)|''Ruth'']], Op. 50 (1955–6)<br />
* ''[[Castaway (opera)|Castaway]]'', Op. 68 (1967)<br />
* ''Faldon Park'', (1979–85). Incomplete.<br />
<br />
===Orchestral===<br />
* ''[[Mont Juic (suite)|Mont Juic]]'', suite of Catalan dances, Op. 9 (written jointly with [[Benjamin Britten]])<br />
* Serenade, for string orchestra (1938–9)<br />
* Symphony No. 1 (1936–40)<br />
* Divertimento (1943)<br />
* Piano Concerto in B-flat major, Op. 29 (1947–8)<br />
* Concerto for Two Pianos and Orchestra, Op. 30 (1948)<br />
* [[Symphony No. 2 (Berkeley)|Symphony No. 2]] (1958, revised 1976)<br />
* Symphony No. 3, in one movement (1968–9)<br />
* Sinfonia Concertante, for oboe and chamber orchestra (1972–3)<br />
* Voices of the Night, Op. 86 (1973)<br />
* Guitar Concerto, Op. 88<br />
* Symphony No. 4 (1977–8)<br />
<br />
===Choral===<br />
* ''A Festival Anthem'', Op. 21, No. 2 (1945)<br />
* ''Crux fidelis'', Op. 43, No. 1 (1955)<br />
* ''I sing of a maiden'' (1966)<br />
* ''Look up, sweet babe'', Op. 43, No. 2 (1955)<br />
* ''Missa Brevis'', Op. 57 (1960)<br />
* Mass for five voices, Op. 64 (1964)<br />
* ''Magnificat'' for chorus and orchestra, Op. 71 (1968)<br />
* Three Latin Motets, Op. 83, No. 1 (1972)<br />
* ''The Lord is my shepherd'', Op. 91, No. 1 (1975)<br />
* ''Magnificat'' and ''Nunc dimittis'' ("Chichester service"), Op. 99 (1980)<br />
<br />
===Solo vocal===<br />
* Five Housman Songs, Op. 14, No. 3<br />
* Four Poems of St Teresa of Ávila, Op. 27, for contralto and string orchestra (1947)<br />
* Three Greek Songs, Op. 38 (1953)<br />
* Five Poems by W. H. Auden, Op. 53<br />
<br />
===Chamber===<br />
* String Quartet No. 1, Op. 6 (1935)<br />
* String Quartet No. 2, Op. 15 (1941)<br />
* String Trio, Op. 19 (1943)<br />
* Sonata in D minor for viola and piano, Op. 22 (1945)<br />
* Introduction and Allegro, for solo violin (1949) (edited by [[Ivry Gitlis]])<ref>{{cite book|title=Introduction and Allegro for Solo Violin. .|date=21 April 2018|oclc = 498148650}}</ref><br />
* [[Trio for horn, violin, and piano (Berkeley)|Trio for horn, violin and piano]], Op. 44 (1952)<br />
* Sextet for clarinet, horn and string quartet, Op. 47 (1954)<ref>[http://www.musicweb-international.com/classrev/2008/May08/Rawsthorne_Berkeley_srcd256.htm Review Sextet] May 2008, quote: Berkeley wrote his three movement Sextet for Clarinet, Horn and String Quartet, Op. 47 in 1954 for the [[Melos Ensemble]].</ref><br />
* String Quartet No. 3, Op. 76 (1970)<br />
* Introduction and Allegro, for double bass and piano (1972) (for [[Rodney Slatford]])<br />
* Duo for cello and piano<br />
* Sonata Op. 97 for flute and piano<br />
* Sonatina Op. 13 for recorder and piano<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lennoxberkeley.org.uk/works.php?display=All+works&search=13|title=Works by Sir Lennox Berkeley (complete listing) (containing the keyword '13')|first=Thomas|last=Daly|website=lennoxberkeley.org.uk|access-date=21 April 2018}}</ref><br />
* Three Pieces for Solo Viola, WoO (Dedicated to Stephan Deák, discovered 2004.)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lennoxberkeley.org.uk/album.php?album_id=174|title=Three Pieces for Solo Viola|last1=Scotland|first1=Tony|first2=Terroni|last2=Raphael|publisher=Lennox Berkeley Society|access-date=20 October 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Piano===<br />
* Three Pieces, Op. 2 (1935)<br />
* Piano Sonata in A major, Op. 20 (1941–5)<br />
* Six Preludes, Op. 23 (1945)<br />
* Three Mazurkas, Op. 31 No. 1 (1939–49)<br />
<br />
===Guitar===<br />
* Quatre pièces pour la guitare (1928)<br />
* Sonatina, Op. 52, No. 1 (1957)<br />
* Theme and Variations, Op. 77 (1970)<br />
<br />
===Clarinet===<br />
*Three Pieces for Clarinet, (1939)<br />
<br />
=== Flute ===<br />
* Sonatina for Flute or Treble Recorder and Piano (1940)<br />
<br />
=== Violin ===<br />
* Sonatina for Violin and Piano in A, Op. 17 (1942)<br />
* Theme and Variations (1950)<br />
<br />
===Film and radio===<br />
*'''Film Scores:''' ''Sword of the Spirit'', December 1942 ''Out of Chaos'', January 1944, London Symphony orchestra ''[[Hotel Reserve]]'', June 1944, BBC Northern orchestra/Muir Mathieson ''[[The First Gentleman]]'', April 1948, Royal Philharmonic orchestra/Thomas Beecham, April 1948 ''Youth in Britain'', April 1958 *'''Radio Scores:''' Westminster Abbey, 1941, Section of Northern BBC orchestra, London, BBC, 7 September 1941 Yesterday and Today, 1943, Wireless Singers/Father J. B. Mc Elligott, Evesham, BBC, 19 April 1942 A Glutton for life, 1946, ad hoc orchestra/Lennox Berkeley, London BBC, 21 November 1946 The wall of Troy, 1946, ad hoc orchestra/Lennox Berkeley, London BBC, 21 November 1946 The Seraphina, 1956, Sinfonia of London/Lennox Berkeley, London BBC, 4 October 1956 Look back to Lyttletoun, 1957, English opera group orchestra, Ambrosian singers/ Norman del Mar, London, BBC, 8 July 1957<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Berkeley Ensemble]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
Scotland, Tony (2010). ''Lennox & Freda'' (1. publ ed.). Norwich: Michael Russell. {{ISBN | 9780859553193}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://www.chesternovello.com/Default.aspx?TabId=2431&State_2905=2&composerId_2905=109 Lennox Berkeley's homepage at Chester Music]<br />
* [http://www.lennoxberkeley.org.uk/ The Lennox Berkeley Society]<br />
* {{discogs artist|Lennox Berkeley}}<br />
* {{IMDb name|0075340}}<br />
* {{YouTube|woKDGuM6iRw|Performance of Duo for cello and piano (video)}}<br />
<br />
{{Lennox Berkeley}}<br />
{{Portal bar|Classical music|Opera|Biography|Music}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Berkeley, Lennox}}<br />
[[Category:1903 births]]<br />
[[Category:1989 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century classical composers]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century English composers]]<br />
[[Category:English classical composers]]<br />
[[Category:Musicians from Oxford]]<br />
[[Category:People educated at The Dragon School]]<br />
[[Category:People educated at Gresham's School]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Merton College, Oxford]]<br />
[[Category:Honorary Members of the Royal Philharmonic Society]]<br />
[[Category:Members of the Royal Academy of Belgium]]<br />
[[Category:Academics of the Royal Academy of Music]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Composers awarded knighthoods]]<br />
[[Category:Benjamin Britten]]<br />
[[Category:Oratorio composers]]<br />
[[Category:Berkeley family]]<br />
[[Category:Masters of the Worshipful Company of Musicians]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horoscope&diff=1218863141Horoscope2024-04-14T08:41:05Z<p>AmgineIX: Removed double spaces</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Astrological chart or diagram}}<br />
{{About|astrology|the Sheeba song|Horoscopes (song)}}<br />
{{More citations needed|date=July 2011}}<br />
{{astrology}}<br />
[[File:Natal Chart -- Adam.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A horoscope showing [[Cancer (astrology)|Cancer]] sun sign]]<br />
<br />
A '''horoscope''' (or other commonly used names for the horoscope in English include '''natal chart''', '''astrological chart''', '''astro-chart''', '''celestial map''', '''sky-map''', '''star-chart''', '''cosmogram''', '''vitasphere''', '''radical chart''', '''radix''', '''chart wheel''' or simply '''chart''') is an [[Astrology|astrological]] chart or diagram representing the positions of the [[Sun]], [[Moon]], [[planets]], [[astrological aspects]] and sensitive angles at the time of an event, such as the moment of a person's [[Childbirth|birth]]. The word horoscope is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''ōra'' and ''scopos'' meaning "time" and "observer" (''horoskopos'', pl. ''horoskopoi'', or "marker(s) of the hour"). It is claimed by proponents of astrology that a horoscope can be used as a method of [[divination]] regarding events relating to the point in time it represents, and it forms the basis of the [[Horoscopic astrology|horoscopic traditions]] of astrology, although practices surrounding astrology have been recognized as [[Pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] since the 18th century.<ref><br />
* {{cite book |last=Hanegraaff |first=Wouter J. |author-link=Wouter Hanegraaff |title=Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-19621-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=02bfnhO0H8sC&pg=171 |page=171 |access-date=2023-01-26 |archive-date=2023-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126022539/https://books.google.com/books?id=02bfnhO0H8sC&pg=171 |url-status=live }}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Long|first1=H. S.|date=2003|title=Astrology|editor1-last=Carson|editor1-first=Thomas|editor2-last=Cerrito|editor2-first=Joann|encyclopedia=[[New Catholic Encyclopedia]]|edition=2nd|publisher=Thomson/Gale|isbn=0-7876-4005-0|volume=1|pages=811–813|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/other-religious-beliefs-and-general-terms/miscellaneous-religion/astrology}} p. 811.<br />
* {{harvnb|Thagard|1978|p=229}}.</ref> Horoscope columns are often featured in print and online [[newspaper]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gourarie |first=Chava |date=2016-03-03 |title=Why are horoscopes and media a match? |url=https://www.cjr.org/analysis/horoscopes_astrology.php |access-date=2022-04-11 |website=[[Columbia Journalism Review]] |language=en |archive-date=2022-12-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206111347/https://www.cjr.org/analysis/horoscopes_astrology.php |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
In common usage, horoscope often refers to an [[astrologer]]'s interpretation, usually based on a system of solar [[Sun sign astrology]]; based strictly on the position of the Sun at the time of birth, or on the calendar significance of an event, as in [[Chinese astrology]]. In particular, many newspapers and magazines carry predictive columns, written in prose that may be written more for increasing readership than tied directly to the Sun or other aspects of the [[Solar System]], allegedly based on celestial influences in relation to the [[zodiac]]al placement of the Sun on the month of birth, cusp (two days before or after any particular sign, an overlap), or decant (the month divided into three ten-day periods) of the person's month of birth, identifying the individual's [[Sun sign]] or "star sign" based on the [[Sidereal and tropical astrology|tropical zodiac]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://people.howstuffworks.com/horoscope1.htm|title=How Horoscopes Work|date=29 January 2005|access-date=27 February 2008|archive-date=6 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506134517/http://people.howstuffworks.com/horoscope1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
In [[Hindu astrology]], birth charts are called [[kundali (astrology)|kundali]] which are claimed to be based on movement of stars and Moon. Auspicious events and rituals are started after checking the kundali of a person including the marriage in which the birth charts of the boy and girl are matched.<br />
<br />
There are no scientific studies that have shown support for the accuracy of horoscopes, and the methods used to make interpretations are considered to be examples of [[pseudoscience]].<ref name="Thagard">{{cite journal|last=Thagard|first=Paul R.|author-link=Paul Thagard| title=Why Astrology is a Pseudoscience|journal=Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association|year=1978 |volume=1|issue=1 |pages=223–234|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|url=https://www.uio.no/studier/emner/matnat/ifi/MNSES9100/v16/pensumliste/environmental-ethics/thagard-astrology.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.uio.no/studier/emner/matnat/ifi/MNSES9100/v16/pensumliste/environmental-ethics/thagard-astrology.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|jstor=192639|doi=10.1086/psaprocbienmeetp.1978.1.192639|s2cid=147050929}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Astrology|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/39971/astrology|access-date=2022-06-23|archive-date=2015-05-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508085117/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/39971/astrology|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="SandPSandAstroSoc">{{cite encyclopedia |author1=Sven Ove Hansson |author2=Edward N. Zalta |title=Science and Pseudo-Science |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pseudo-science/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=6 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="astrosociety.org">{{cite web |title=Astronomical Pseudo-Science: A Skeptic's Resource List |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific |url=http://www.astrosociety.org/education/resources/pseudobib.html |access-date=2015-12-06 |archive-date=2011-12-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111230053308/http://www.astrosociety.org/education/resources/pseudobib.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hartmann">{{cite journal |last=Hartmann |first=P. |author2=Reuter, M. |author3=Nyborga, H. |title=The relationship between date of birth and individual differences in personality and general intelligence: A large-scale study |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |date=May 2006 |volume=40 |issue=7 | pages=1349–1362 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.017 |quote=To optimise the chances of finding even remote relationships between date of birth and individual differences in personality and intelligence we further applied two different strategies. The first one was based on the common chronological concept of time (e.g. month of birth and season of birth). The second strategy was based on the (pseudo-scientific) concept of astrology (e.g. Sun Signs, The Elements, and astrological gender), as discussed in the book ''Astrology: Science or superstition?'' by Eysenck and Nias (1982).}}</ref>{{rp|1350}} In modern scientific framework no known interaction exists that could be responsible for the transmission of the alleged influence between a person and the position of stars in the sky at the moment of birth.<ref name=AsquithNSF>{{cite book |editor-first=Peter D. |editor-last=Asquith |title=Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, vol. 1 |year=1978 |publisher=Reidel u.a. |location=Dordrecht u.a. |isbn=978-0-917586-05-7 |url=http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/bnccde/PH29A/thagard.html |access-date=2015-12-06 |archive-date=2022-04-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424161123/https://www.cavehill.uwi.edu//bnccde/PH29A/thagard.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Vishveshwara>{{cite book |editor1-last=Bappu |editor1-first=M. K. V. |editor2=S. K. Biswas |editor3=D. C. V. Mallik |editor4=C. V. Vishveshwara |year=1989 |title=Cosmic Perspectives: Essays Dedicated to the Memory of M.K.V. Bappu |edition=1st |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-34354-2 |oclc=18519928}}</ref> In all tests completed, keeping strict methods to include a control group and proper blinding between experimenters and subjects, horoscopes have shown no effect beyond pure chance.<ref name=Carlson>{{cite journal |last=Carlson |first=Shawn |title=A double-blind test of astrology |journal=Nature |year=1985 |volume=318 |pages=419–425 |url=http://muller.lbl.gov/papers/Astrology-Carlson.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://muller.lbl.gov/papers/Astrology-Carlson.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |doi=10.1038/318419a0 |issue=6045 |bibcode = 1985Natur.318..419C|s2cid=5135208 }}</ref><ref name=Zarka>{{cite journal |last=Zarka |first=Philippe |title=Astronomy and astrology |journal=Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union |year=2011 |volume=5 |issue=S260 |pages=420–425 |doi=10.1017/S1743921311002602 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/890932 |bibcode=2011IAUS..260..420Z |doi-access=free |access-date=2019-09-12 |archive-date=2020-08-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818112236/https://zenodo.org/record/890932 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref><br />
* Assem, L. van (1993). The astrologer’s philosophy of life. Correlation, 12(1), p.52-54.<br />
* Cornelius, G. (1994). The Moment of Astrology. Penguin Books, Arkana.<br />
* Dean, G. (1985). Can astrology predict E and N? Correlation, 5(2), p.2-24.<br />
* Dean, G. (1987). Does astrology need to be true? Skeptical Inquirer, 11(2), p.166-184.<br />
* Dean, G. & Mather, A. (1994). Is the scientific approach relevant to astrology? Correlation, 13(1), p.11-18.<br />
* Nienhuys, J.W. (1991). Astrologie faalt in Indiana. Skepter, 4(2), p.26-27.</ref> Furthermore, some psychological tests have shown that it is possible to construct personality descriptions and foretelling generic enough to satisfy most members of a large audience simultaneously, referred to as the [[Forer effect|Forer or Barnum effect]].<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
The horoscope serves as a stylized map of the heavens over a specific location at a particular moment in time. In most applications the perspective is [[Geocentric model|geocentric]] ([[heliocentric astrology]] being one exception). The positions of the actual planets (including Sun and Moon) are placed in the chart, along with those of purely calculated factors such as the [[lunar node]]s, the [[House (astrology)|house]] cusps including the [[midheaven]] and the [[ascendant]], [[zodiac]] signs, fixed stars and the [[Arabian Parts|lots]]. Angular relationships between the planets themselves and other points, called [[astrological aspect|aspect]]s, are typically determined. The emphasis and interpretation of these factors vary with tradition. This means however the stars were placed at the time of birth for a person shows their characteristics and personality, including weakness.<br />
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==Etymology<!--'Horoscopy' redirects here-->==<br />
The [[Latin]] word ''horoscopus'', ultimately from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|ὡρόσκοπος}} "nativity, horoscope", "observer of the hour [of birth]", from {{lang|grc|ὥρα}} "time, hour" and {{lang|grc|σκόπος}} "observer, watcher". In [[Middle English]] texts from the 11th century, the word appears in the Latin form and is [[anglicisation|anglicized]] to horoscope in [[Early Modern English]]. The noun '''horoscopy'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> for "casting of horoscopes" has been in use since the 17th century ([[OED]]). In Greek, {{lang|grc|ὡρόσκοπος}} in the sense of "[[ascendant]]" – not only of the time of someone's birth, but more generally of any significant event – and {{lang|grc|ὡροσκοπία}} "observation of the ascendant" has been in use since [[Ptolemy]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ptolemy |first=Claudius |author-link=Ptolemy |title=[[Tetrabiblos]] |id=33, 75 |orig-year=c. 90–168}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Concepts in Western astrology==<br />
[[File:Astrological birth chart for Charles I, King of England Wellcome L0040329.jpg|thumb|Astrological birth chart for [[Charles I of England]]]]<br />
{{Main|Western astrology}}<br />
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* The native is the subject of the event (a birth, for example) being charted at a particular time and place, and is considered to be at the centre of the celestial sphere.<br />
* The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere onto which the zodiac, constellations and planets are projected, loosely based on the view of the sky above from Earth.<br />
* The plane of the equator is the plane of the Earth's [[equator]] projected into space.<br />
* The plane of the ecliptic is defined by the orbits of the Earth and the [[Sun (astrology)|Sun]]. For practical purposes, the plane of the equator and the plane of the [[ecliptic]] maintain a constant inclination to each other of approximately 23.5°.<br />
* The plane of the horizon is centred on the native, and is tangential to the Earth at that point. In a sphere whose radius is infinitely large, this plane may be treated as nearly equivalent to the parallel plane, with its centre at the Earth's centre. This greatly simplifies the geometry of the horoscope, but does not take into account that the native is in motion. Some writers on astrology have thus considered the effects of [[parallax]], but most would agree that (apart from that of the Moon) they are relatively minor.{{Citation needed|date=February 2008}} <br />
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===Angles===<br />
There are four primary angles in the horoscope which are thought to influence key areas and moments in a native's lifetime, or within a given day or time. These are, in order of power:<br />
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* First House ([[Ascendant]], East Angle, rising sign, or ASC/AC)<br />
* Tenth House ([[Midheaven]], Medi Coeli (midheaven), North Angle, MC)<br />
* Seventh House ([[Descendant (astrology)|Descendant]], West Angle, setting sign, DSC/DC)<br />
* Fourth House ([[Imum Coeli]] – South Angle, lower-heaven, IC)<br />
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The [[ascendant]] is the easternmost (or sunrise point) where the ecliptic and horizon intersect; the ascendant and the [[midheaven]] are considered the most important angles in the horoscope by the vast majority of astrologers. In most systems of house division, the ASC is the cusp of the 1st house and the MC is the cusp of the 10th house. <br />
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Generally, on an astrological chart, each of these four angles are roughly 90° from the next, forming a cross shape (two oppositions, 180° each, forming a 360° sphere). This cross formation is made up of the points of east-west, north-south, or 1st house-7th house, 10th house-4th house (give or take, based on speed of orbit and degree). A simplistic comparison would be a clock face, with the 1st house and 7th house being placed at 9 and 3 o'clock, and the 10th and 4th houses placed at 12 and 6 o'clock, respectively. The placement of the planetary ruler of the ascendant, called the [[Chart Ruler]], is also considered to be significant; The point in the west diametrically opposing the ascendant is called the descendant, normally the cusp of the 7th house; and the point opposing the MC is the cusp of the 4th house, the northernmost point of the chart, called the [[Imum Coeli]] or IC.<br />
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In creating a horoscope, the ascendant is traditionally placed at the "nine o'clock" position on the left-hand side of the chart wheel (though traditional rectangular chart formats need not follow this convention). During the course of a day, because of the Earth's rotation, the entire circle of the ecliptic will pass through the ascendant and will be advanced by about 1°. In an astrological chart, the ascendant progresses and changes zodiac signs roughly every two hours (give or take), advancing about one degree every five minutes. This movement provides us with the term "rising" sign, which is the sign of the zodiac "rising" over the eastern horizon at the moment of birth. This point is thought to affect how we are perceived by others, based on the zodiac sign on the ascendant at the time of birth. The point on the ecliptic that is 90° above the plane of the horizon at the time is called the Midheaven, or Medium Coeli (MC), placed at the "twelve o'clock position" effectively where the Sun would be if the birth time was midday. This area is thought to have greatest significance on one's career and public image.<br />
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===The Zodiac===<br />
[[File:Astro signs.svg|thumb|right|The [[astrological symbols]]/[[glyphs]] used in Western astrology to represent the [[astrological signs]] ([[Zodiac]])]]<br />
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{{Main|Zodiac}}<br />
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The Zodiac, or "circle of animals" is a zone or belt in space projected onto the celestial sphere through which, from our viewpoint, the planets move. A symbolic geometric construction around 16 degrees wide, it is divided into 12 signs, each of 30 degrees longitude (making 360 degrees, a full circle), with the ecliptic, the apparent path of the Sun, as its middle line.<ref name="oxford-def">{{cite web |title=zodiac |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/zodiac |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926223903/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/zodiac |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 26, 2016 |website=Oxford Dictionaries |access-date=19 September 2017}}</ref> The tropical zodiac used by most Western astrologers has its beginning at the exact moment that the Sun crosses the [[celestial equator]] and enters the zodiacal sign of [[Aries (astrology)|Aries]]. Some Western astrologers use the [[Sidereal astrology|sidereal zodiac]] favored by Indian ("Jyotish") astrologers, which is based more closely on actual positions of constellations in the heavens, as opposed to the tropical zodiac, which is a moveable format based on the seasons.<br />
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The tropical zodiac defines the vernal point (the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere) as the first degree of Aries, but the sidereal zodiac allows it to precess. Many people are confused regarding the difference between the sidereal zodiac and the tropical zodiac signs. Because of a "wobble" in the Earth's axis of rotation over a period of about 26,000 years (often called a "[[great year]]"), the rate at which the vernal equinox precesses in the heavens is approximately 0 deg, 0 min, 50.23 seconds a year, drifting by one degree every 72 years. [[Precession of the equinoxes]] thus occurs at a rate of roughly 5 arc minutes of a degree every 6 years. The tropical signs relate to the seasons and not the stars.<ref name="Rochberg">{{ cite journal | last=Rochberg | first=Francesca | author-link=Francesca Rochberg | date=1988 | title=Babylonian Horoscopes | series=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society | volume=88 | issue=1 | pages=i–164 | jstor=1006632 | doi=10.2307/1006632 | publisher=American Philosophical Society }}</ref> Here is an example: a person born on, say August 28, 2002, would come to understand that their Sun sign was in Virgo according to [[Western astrology]] (conventional Sun sign dates August 23, to September 22, of every year), but Sun on that same calendar date of the year 2002 was in the [[Leo (constellation)|constellation Leo]] (where it had been since August 10, 2002, and would remain until September 15, when it would then finally cross into Virgo).<br />
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The sidereal signs and the tropical signs are both geometrical conventions of 30° each, whereas the zodiacal constellations are pictorial representations of mythological figures projected onto the celestial sphere based on patterns of visible star groupings, none of which occupy precisely 30° of the ecliptic. So constellations and signs are not the same, although for historical reasons they might have the same names.<ref>{{cite web |last=Burk |first=Kevin |url=http://www.astrologycom.com/precession.html |title=Astrology on the Web: Stars and Signs |access-date=2011-10-11 |archive-date=2011-10-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019194236/http://www.astrologycom.com/precession.html |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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Some astrologers do not use the signs of the zodiac at all, focusing more instead on the [[astrological aspects]] and other features of the horoscope. The [[Sun (astrology)|sun sign]] is the sign of the zodiac in which the Sun is located for the native. This is the single astrological fact familiar to most people. If an event occurs at sunrise the ascendant and sun sign will be the same; other rising signs can then be estimated at two-hour intervals from there. A cusp is the boundary between two signs or houses. For some, the cusp includes a small portion of the two signs or houses under consideration.<br />
<br />
==Construction of a horoscope in Western astrology==<br />
To create a horoscope, an astrologer first has to ascertain the exact time and place of the subject's birth, or the initiation of an event. The local [[standard time]] (adjusting for any [[daylight saving time]] or [[History of time in the United States#War Time 1918 and 1942|war time]]) is then converted into [[Greenwich Mean Time]] or [[Universal Time]] at that same instant. The astrologer then has to convert this into the local [[sidereal time]] at birth in order to be able to calculate the [[ascendant]] and [[midheaven]]. The astrologer will next consult a set of tables called an [[ephemeris]], which lists the location of the Sun, Moon and [[Planets in astrology|planets]] for a particular year, date and sidereal time, with respect to the [[March equinox|northern hemisphere vernal equinox]] or the [[fixed star]]s (depending on which astrological system is being used). The astrologer then adds or subtracts the difference between the longitude of Greenwich and the longitude of the place in question to determine the true local mean time (LMT) at the place of birth to show where planets would be visible above the horizon at the precise time and place in question. Planets hidden from view beneath the Earth are also shown in the horoscope.<br />
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Using the above process, practitioners of astrology commonly construct a composite chart when two people meet and form a relationship. According to [[astrologer]]s, the composite chart will give clues as to the nature and function of the relationship.<br />
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The horoscope features 12 sectors around the circle of the [[ecliptic]], starting from the eastern horizon with the [[ascendant]] or rising sign. These 12 sectors are called the [[House (astrology)|houses]] and numerous systems for calculating these divisions exist. Tables of houses have been published since the 19th Century to make this otherwise demanding task easier.<br />
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===Houses===<br />
{{Main|House (astrology)}}<br />
[[Image:AstrologicalGlyphs-AsteroidsChaldean.jpg|thumb|right|The [[astrological symbols]]/[[glyphs]] used in Western astrology to represent the [[planets in astrology]]]]<br />
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The chart thus begins with a framework of 12 houses. Upon this the signs of the zodiac are superimposed. In the [[equal house system]] the cusp between any two houses will fall at the same degree for each of them: at 12° of Leo, the second house will begin at 12° of Virgo, the third at 12° Libra, and so on. In house systems that take into consideration the effects of the angle of intersection between the planes of the horizon and the ecliptic, the calculations are more complicated. For these calculations it is essential to know the latitude of the event. Tables are available for these calculations, but they are now commonly calculated by computer. Most astrology computer programs allow the user to choose from a variety of house systems.<ref>Hone, Margaret (1978). ''The Modern Text-Book of Astrology''. Revised edition (1995). England: L. N. Fowler & Co. {{ISBN|0852433573}} Pages 281-284.</ref><br />
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===Placements of the planets===<br />
{{Main|Planets in astrology}}<br />
Having established the relative positions of the signs in the houses, the astrologer positions the Sun, Moon, and planets at their proper celestial longitudes. Some astrologers also take note of minor planetary bodies, fixed stars, [[asteroid]]s (for example, [[2060 Chiron|Chiron]]) and other mathematically calculated points and angles such as the [[vertex (geometry)|vertex]], equatorial ascendant, etc. Many astrologers also use what are commonly referred to as [[Arabic parts]] (or [[Greece|Greek]] Lots), the most common of which is the [[Part of Fortune]] (Pars Fortunae).<br />
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===Aspects===<br />
To complete the horoscope the astrologer will consider the aspects or relative angles between pairs of planets. More exact aspects are considered more important. The difference between the exact aspect and the actual aspect is called the orb. Those generally recognized by the astrological community are [[Astrological aspect#Conjunction|Conjunction]] (0°), [[Astrological aspect#Opposition|Opposition]] (180°), [[Astrological aspect#Square|Square]] (90°), [[Astrological aspect#Trine|Trine]] (120°), [[Astrological aspect#Sextile|Sextile]] (60°), [[Astrological aspect#Octile|Semi-Square]] (45°), [[Astrological aspect|Sesquisquare]] (135°), and [[Astrological aspect#Quincunx|Quincunx]] (150°). Understandably these aspects are more significant when they are exact, but they are considered to function within an orb of influence, the size of which varies according to the importance of each aspect. Thus conjunctions are believed to operate with a larger orb than sextiles. Most modern astrologers use an orb of 8° or less for aspects involving the Sun, Moon, and Jupiter and smaller orbs for the other points. Some astrologers, such as practitioners of [[Cosmobiology]], and Uranian astrology, use minor aspects (15°, 22.5°, 67.5°, 72°, 75°, 105°, 112.5°, 157.5°, 165°) with much narrower orbs.<br />
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The major astrological system regarded universally is Vedic Hindu Astrology. As per this, all planets see just opposite i.e. 180 degree aspect. But Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn have special aspects. Mars sees the houses 4th and 8 too from its place in the horoscope, Saturn sees the houses 3 and 10 too from its place, and Jupiter sees 5 and 9 from its place in the horoscope i.e. the house in which they are posited in the lagna chart.<br />
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===Ascendant===<br />
The ascendant (ASC) is a point on the ecliptic that rises on the eastern horizon at sunrise and changes as the earth rotates on its axis. The ascendant is very important in astrological chart interpretation. It exerts more power than the Sun, Moon and planets because it infiltrates everything in the natal chart.<br />
The ascendant is the first point of energy in the natal chart and it represents the way we view life. The sign on the ascendant characterises our expression of "who we are" when dealing with others, and our initial action when dealing with day-to-day concerns. [[Longitude]] is necessary in order to determine the position of the [[Ascendant]] because horoscopes use local time. Having constructed the horoscope, the astrologer can begin the task of interpreting the chart. This interpretation depends upon which branch of horoscopic astrology is being used.<br />
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==Chinese horoscopes==<br />
[[File:Chinese_Zodiac_carvings_on_ceiling_of_Kushida_Shrine,_Fukuoka.jpg|thumb|right|The 12 [[Chinese zodiac]] animals]]<br />
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In [[Chinese astrology]], horoscopes are based on the symbolism of the [[Chinese zodiac]], a system of [[Chinese astrology#Wuxing|elements]] and [[Chinese calendar#12 animals|animals]] associated with each year according to a [[Sexagenary cycle]]. Chinese horoscopes often appear in [[Sun sign astrology|horoscope sections]] in newspapers and magazine alongside Western horoscopes.<br />
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==Criticism==<br />
Interest in horoscopes and the zodiac sign have been very popular throughout history and today. There are many faithful followers, from celebrities to the general public. With so many believers, and perhaps a personal connection to the horoscope or the zodiac, it can be difficult to accept that astrology is not grounded in scientific evidence and is a pseudoscience.<br />
<br />
===Psychological criticism===<br />
Natal birth charts, or zodiac signs, are often used to predict a person's personality traits. However, the use of natal birth charts to predict personality is not valid or reliable. In a [[double-blind]] study that tested the zodiac's reliability to predict personality, an astrologer had to match a person's zodiac sign to their [[California Psychological Inventory|CPI (California Psychological Inventory)]] result. The CPI is a reliable method to determine an individual's personality.<ref>{{Cite web |title=California Psychological Inventory (CPI) 434 Personality Test |url=https://www.psychometrics.com/assessments/cpi-434/ |access-date=2023-06-03 |website=Psychometrics Canada |archive-date=2023-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603065728/https://www.psychometrics.com/assessments/cpi-434/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It was found that the astrologers were not able to correctly match the zodiac sign to the CPI result beyond random assignment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carlson|first=S.|date=1983|title=Double-blind test of astrology.|url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt0b40b045/qt0b40b045.pdf?t=p0jvcs|journal=Nature|volume=318|issue=6045|pages=419–425|doi=10.1038/318419a0|bibcode=1985Natur.318..419C|s2cid=5135208|access-date=2020-05-21|archive-date=2021-10-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007170752/https://escholarship.org/content/qt0b40b045/qt0b40b045.pdf?t=p0jvcs|url-status=live}}</ref> This means that astrology is no more than a test of chance and it is not a reliable way to predict personality.<br />
<br />
Similarly, the zodiac sign can be used to create horoscopes that predict the events that will happen in an individual's life. However, like using the zodiac sign for personality traits, using it for horoscopes is also unreliable. One astrologer's prediction for a horoscope is typically completely unrelated to the prediction of another astrologer.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Fichten, C.S.|first=& Sunerton, B.|date=1983|title=Popular horoscopes and the "barnum effect"|journal=The Journal of Psychology|volume=114|issue=1 |pages=123–134|doi=10.1080/00223980.1983.9915405}}</ref> However, many people still believe their horoscope perfectly aligns with the events in their lives. There are some possible explanations for this. Horoscopes have vague wording and are based on typical everyday activities.<ref name=":0" /> Due to this, it is easier for people to relate to these claims and increase their belief that it is a real science. Also, a person's expectations typically lead them to bias the way they perceive information, so their expectations are confirmed. In a study, participant's horoscopes were paired with the events of their previous day. When the horoscopes were presented with the participant's zodiac sign, other participants were more likely to report that the horoscope matched the previous day's events compared to when their zodiac sign was not present.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Munro, G.D.|first=& Munro, J.E.|date=2000|title=Using daily horoscopes to demonstrate expectancy confirmation.|journal=Teaching of Psychology|volume=27|issue=2|pages=114–116|doi=10.1207/S15328023TOP2702_08|s2cid=145376059}}</ref> This shows how individuals will bias their perceptions based on the expectations. This makes horoscopes seem reliable, when they are not valid.<br />
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===Scientific criticism===<br />
Although it has its proponents, astrology has been rejected by the scientific community. Some horoscopes base their predictions on the "movement" of stars. However, this is inaccurate as stars actually do not move but appear to because the Earth rotates on its axis and orbits around the Sun. Furthermore, none of the answers given by astrology are actually based on science. According to American astronomer, the reason why people rely on horoscopes is explained by a psychological phenomenon known as "self-selection bias", which is the tendency of humans to look for interpretations or confirmations for what they already hope to be true.<ref>{{Cite book |doi = 10.1057/9780230280816_29|chapter = Selection Bias and Self-Selection|title = Microeconometrics|year = 2010|last1 = Heckman|first1 = James J.|pages = 242–266| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK | location=London |isbn = 978-0-230-23881-7}}</ref> Hence, the reason why astrology may seem like it works is because human brains are wired to look for patterns, even when none exists. Many practitioners of astrology claim that astrology is indeed a science however, despite many trial and experiments, the effectiveness and scientific evidence of astrology is still yet to be demonstrated. In conclusion, astrology has no verifiable mechanism behind it and astrologers follow no sort of scientific method in their process hence it cannot be classified as science.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://time.com/5315377/are-zodiac-signs-real-astrology-history/ | title=Where do Zodiac Signs Come From? Here's the True History Behind Your Horoscope | date=21 June 2018 | access-date=2020-03-23 | archive-date=2021-10-09 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009071534/https://time.com/5315377/are-zodiac-signs-real-astrology-history/ | url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
===Christian criticism===<br />
In [[Christianity]], many say that people should not use horoscopes or practice astrology in general, citing Deuteronomy 4:19, Deuteronomy 18:10-12, and Isaiah 47:13-14 from the [[Bible]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Addressing astrology and horoscopes |url=https://wels.net/faq/addressing-astrology-and-horoscopes/ |website=WELS |date=10 December 2019 |access-date=16 October 2020 |archive-date=17 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017022804/https://wels.net/faq/addressing-astrology-and-horoscopes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Evangelist and minister [[Billy Graham]] has said, "God did make the stars (as well as everything else in the universe), but he intended them to be a witness to his power and glory, not as a means to guide us or foretell the future."<ref>{{cite web |title=Billy Graham: Yes, God created the stars, but not as a means to predict the future |url=https://www.kansascity.com/living/liv-columns-blogs/billy-graham/article81156507.html |access-date=16 October 2020 |archive-date=18 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160618065432/http://www.kansascity.com/living/liv-columns-blogs/billy-graham/article81156507.html |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Forer Effect]]<br />
* [[Horology]]<br />
* [[Kundali (astrology)|Kundali]]<br />
* [[Synoptical astrology|Synoptical horoscope]]<br />
* [[Mars Effect]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
{{Pseudoscience}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Horoscopic astrology]]<br />
[[Category:Technical factors of astrology]]<br />
[[Category:Astrology]]<br />
[[Category:Pseudoscience]] <br />
[[Category:Superstitions]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elementary_arithmetic&diff=1218862612Elementary arithmetic2024-04-14T08:33:06Z<p>AmgineIX: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Numbers and the basic operations on them}}<br />
{{Multiple issues|<br />
{{More citations needed|date=May 2023}}<br />
{{Tone|date=May 2023}}<br />
}}<br />
[[File:Arithmetic symbols.svg|thumb|The symbols for elementary-level math operations. From top-left going clockwise: addition, division, multiplication, and subtraction.]]<br />
'''Elementary arithmetic''' is a branch of [[mathematics]] involving basic numerical operations, namely [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]], and [[Division (mathematics)|division]]. Due to the low level of [[abstraction]], broad range of application, and position as the foundation of all mathematics, elementary arithmetic is generally known as the first branch of [[mathematics]] taught in schools.{{r|mw|bmk}}<br />
<br />
==Digits==<br />
{{Main|Numerical digit}}<br />
[[Numerical digit|Digits]] are used to represent the value of [[Number|numbers]] in a [[numeral system]]. The most commonly used digits<ref>{{Cite web |title=numeral system {{!}} mathematics {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/numeral-system |access-date=2022-11-24 |website=www.britannica.com |at=Paragraph 2, sentence 4 |language=en |archive-date=2023-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810073412/https://www.britannica.com/science/numeral-system |url-status=live }}</ref> are the [[Arabic numerals]] 0 through 9. The [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system|Hindu-Arabic numeral system]] is the most commonly used numeral system, being a [[positional notation]] system used to represent numbers using these digits.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tillinghast-Raby |first1=Amory |title=A Number System Invented by Inuit Schoolchildren Will Make Its Silicon Valley Debut |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/author/amory-tillinghast-raby/ |website=Scientific American |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719170919/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-number-system-invented-by-inuit-schoolchildren-will-make-its-silicon-valley-debut1/ |archive-date=19 July 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, other systems are used, such as [[Kaktovik numerals]], commonly used in the [[Eskimo-Aleut]] languages of Alaska, Canada, and Greenland, which count with [[numerical base|base 20]].<br />
The [[Telefol language]] is known for using base 27, and computers are known for using [[Base 2|binary]] (base 2).<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 1, 2016 |title=Computer Language |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/computers-and-computing/computer-language#:~:text=Most%20computers%20work%20using%20a%20binary-coded%20language%20%28using%201s%20and%200s%29%20called%20machine%20code. |url-status=live |access-date=April 11, 2024 |website=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref><br />
Other non-positional number systems are occasionally used, such as [[Roman numerals]].<ref>{{cite book<br />
| author = ITL Education Solutions Limited<br />
| title = Introduction to Computer Science<br />
| year = 2011<br />
| publisher = Pearson Education India<br />
| isbn = 978-81-317-6030-7<br />
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CsNiKdmufvYC&pg=PA28<br />
| page = 28<br />
|language = en<br />
}}</ref> A disadvantage of non-positional systems is that there is generally a highest expressible number.<br />
<br />
==Successor function and ordering==<br />
In elementary arithmetic, the ''successor'' of a [[natural number]] (including [[zero]]) is the result of adding a value of one to that number. The ''predecessor'' of a natural number (excluding zero) is the result obtained by subtracting a value of one from that number. For example, the successor of zero is one and the predecessor of eleven is ten ('''<math>0+1=1</math>''' and '''<math>11-1=10</math>'''). Every natural number has a successor, and every natural number except the first (zero or 1) has a predecessor.{{r|ma}}<br />
<br />
The natural numbers have a [[Total order|total-ordering]]. If one number is greater than (<math>></math>) another number, then the latter is less than (<math><</math>) the former. For example, if three is less than eight (<math>3<8</math>), then eight is greater than three (<math>8>3</math>). The natural numbers are also [[Well-order|well-ordered]].<br />
<br />
==Counting==<br />
{{Main|Counting#Counting in mathematics}}<br />
Counting involves assigning a natural number to each object in a [[Set theory|set]], starting with one for the first object and increasing by one for each subsequent object. The number of objects in the set is the count, which is equal to the highest natural number assigned to an object in the set. This count is also known as the [[cardinality]] of the set. Some sets, known as [[enumerability|non-enumerable]] sets, cannot be ordered. For example, while it is possible to enumerate (order) the [[rational numbers]], the [[real numbers]] are non-enumerable.<br />
<br />
Counting can also be the process of tallying using [[tally marks]], the process of drawing a mark for each object in a set.<br />
<br />
Informally, two sets have the same cardinality if both of the sets' elements can be matched with one-to-one correspondence. As an example, 4 apples and 4 bananas have the same cardinality, as each apple can be matched to each banana with no fruit remaining. <br />
<br />
== Addition ==<br />
[[File:Addition with carry.png|thumb|alt=Diagram of addition with carry|Example of [[Carry (arithmetic)|addition with carry]]. The black numbers are the addends, the green number is the carry, and the blue number is the sum. In the rightmost digit, the addition of 9 and 7 is 16, carrying 1 into the next pair of the digit to the left, making its addition 1 + 5 + 2 = 8. Therefore, the addition of 59 + 27 gives the result 86.]]<br />
{{Main|Addition}}<br />
[[Addition]] is a mathematical operation that combines two or more numbers, called addends or summands, to produce a combined number, called the sum. The addition of two numbers is expressed using the plus sign (<math>+</math>).{{r|mpb}} It is performed according to the following rules:<br />
* The sum of two numbers is equal to the number obtained by adding their individual values.{{r|hall}}<br />
* The order in which the addends are added does not affect the sum. This is known as the [[commutative property]] of addition. For example, (a + b) and (b + a) will produce the same output.{{r|rosen|hall}}<br />
* The sum of two numbers is unique, meaning that there is only one correct answer for the sum of any given numbers.{{r|hall}}<br />
* Addition has an inverse operation, called subtraction, which can be used to find the difference between two or more numbers.<br />
<br />
Addition is used in a variety of contexts, including comparing quantities, joining quantities, and measuring.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 11, 2024 |title=What is addition? |url=https://www.splashlearn.com/math-vocabulary/addition/addition#:~:text=Conclusion,%2B'%20(plus%20sign). |url-status=live |access-date=April 11, 2024 |website=Splashlearn.com}}</ref> When the sum of a pair of digits results in a two-digit number, the "tens" digit is referred to as the "carry digit" in the addition algorithm.{{r|rf}} In elementary arithmetic, students typically learn to add [[Integer|whole numbers]], and may also learn about topics such as [[Negative number|negative numbers]] and [[Fraction|fractions]].<br />
<br />
==Subtraction==<br />
{{Main|Subtraction}}<br />
[[Subtraction]] is used to evaluate the difference between two numbers, where the minuend is the number being subtracted from, and the subtrahend is the number being subtracted. It is represented using the minus sign (<math>-</math>). The minus sign is also used to notate negative numbers, and these can be considered to be the number subtracted from 0.<br />
<br />
Subtraction is not commutative, which means that the order of the numbers can change the final value. <math>3-5</math> is not the same as <math>5-3</math>. In elementary arithmetic, the minuend is always larger than the subtrahend to produce a positive result. However, the [[absolute value]]s of <math>a-b</math> and <math>b-a</math> are the same (<math>|a-b|=|b-a|</math>).<br />
<br />
Subtraction is also used to separate, [[Combination|combine]] (e.g., find the size of a subset of a specific set), and find quantities in other contexts. For example, "Tom has 8 apples. He gives away 3 apples. How many is he left with?" represents separation, while "Tom has 8 apples. Three of the apples are green, and the rest are red. How many are red?" represents [[combination]]. In some cases, subtraction can also be used to find the total number of objects in a group, as in "Tom had some apples. Jane gave him 3 more apples, so now he has 8 apples. How many did he start with?"<br />
<br />
There are several methods to accomplish subtraction. The [[traditional mathematics]] method teaches elementary school students to subtract using methods suitable for hand calculation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Everyday Mathematics4 at Home |url=https://everydaymath.uchicago.edu/parents/4th-grade/em4-at-home/vocab/4-1-9-us-traditional-subtraction.html |website=Everyday Mathematics Online |access-date=December 26, 2022}}</ref> [[Reform mathematics]] is distinguished generally by the lack of preference for any specific technique, replaced by guiding 2<sup>nd</sup>-grade students to invent their own methods of computation, such as using properties of negative numbers in the case of [[Investigations in Numbers, Data, and Space|TERC]].<br />
<br />
American schools currently teach a method of subtraction using borrowing,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Subtraction Algorithms - Department of Mathematics at UTSA |url=https://mathresearch.utsa.edu/wiki/index.php?title=Subtraction_Algorithms |access-date=2024-04-01 |website=mathresearch.utsa.edu |language=en}}</ref> which had been known and published in textbooks prior to the method's wider adoption in American curricula. In the method of borrowing, a subtraction problem such as <math>86-39</math> can be solved by borrowing a 10 from the tens place to add to the ones place in order to facilitate the subtraction. For example, subtracting 9 from 6 involves borrowing a 10 from the tens place, making the problem into <math>70+16-39</math>. This is indicated by crossing out the 8, writing a 7 above it, and writing a 1 above the 6. These markings are called "crutches", which were invented by [[William A. Brownell]], who used them in a study in November 1937.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ross |first=Susan |title=Subtraction in the United States: An Historical Perspective |url=http://math.coe.uga.edu/tme/issues/v10n2/5ross.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811133911/http://math.coe.uga.edu/tme/issues/v10n2/5ross.pdf |archive-date=August 11, 2017 |access-date=June 25, 2019 |website=Microsoft Word - Issue 2 -9/23/}}</ref><br />
<br />
The Austrian method, also known as the additions method, is taught in certain European countries and employed by some American people from previous generations. In contrast to the previous method, no borrowing is used, although there are crutches that vary according to certain countries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Klapper |first=Paul |date=1916 |title=The Teaching of Arithmetic: A Manual for Teachers. pp. 177 |url=https://archive.org/details/teachingarithme00klapgoog/page/n190/mode/2up |access-date=2016-03-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=David Eugene |date=1913 |title=The Teaching of Arithmetic. pp. 77 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_A7NJAAAAIAAJ/page/n85/mode/2up |access-date=2016-03-11}}</ref> The method of addition involves augmenting the subtrahend, rather than reducing the minuend, as in the borrowing method. This transforms the previous problem into <math>(80+16)-(39+10)</math>. A small 1 is marked below the subtrahend digit as a reminder.<br />
<br />
=== Example ===<br />
Subtracting the numbers 792 and 308, starting with the ones column, 2 is smaller than 8. Using the borrowing method, 10 is borrowed from 90, reducing 90 to 80. Adding this 10 to 2 changes the problem to <math>12-8</math>, which is 4.<br />
<br />
{|cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2px<br />
|<br />
|Hundreds <br />
|Tens <br />
|'''''Ones'''''<br />
|-<br />
| || ||'''8'''||'''<sup>1</sup>2'''<br />
|-<br />
| ||7 ||<s>9</s> ||<s>2</s><br />
|-<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|− ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|3 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|0 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|8<br />
|-<br />
| || || ||4<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In the tens column, the difference between 80 and 0 is 80.<br />
<br />
{|cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2px<br />
|<br />
|Hundreds <br />
|'''''Tens''''' <br />
|Ones<br />
|-<br />
| || ||'''8'''||<sup>1</sup>'''2'''<br />
|-<br />
| ||7 ||<s>9</s> ||<s>2</s><br />
|-<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|− ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|3 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|0 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|8<br />
|-<br />
| || ||8||4<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In the hundreds column, the difference between 700 and 300 is 400.<br />
<br />
{|cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2px<br />
|<br />
|'''''Hundreds''''' <br />
|Tens <br />
|Ones<br />
|-<br />
| || ||'''8'''||<sup>1</sup>'''2'''<br />
|-<br />
| ||7 ||<s>9</s> ||<s>2</s><br />
|-<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|− ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|3 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|0 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|8<br />
|-<br />
| ||4||8||4<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The result:<br />
<br />
:'''<math>792 - 308 = 484</math>'''<br />
<br />
==Multiplication==<br />
{{Main|Multiplication}}[[Multiplication]] is a mathematical operation of repeated addition. When two numbers are multiplied, the resulting value is a product. The numbers being multiplied are called multiplicands and multipliers and are altogether known as factors. For example, if there are five bags, each containing three apples, and the apples from all five bags are placed into an empty bag, the empty bag will contain 15 apples. This can be expressed as "five times three equals fifteen", "five times three is fifteen" or "fifteen is the product of five and three".<br />
<br />
Multiplication is represented using the multiplication sign (×), the asterisk (*), parentheses (), or a dot (⋅). Therefore, the statement "five times three equals fifteen" can be written as "<math>5 \times 3 = 15</math>", "<math>5 \ast 3 = 15</math>", "<math>(5)(3) = 15</math>", or "<math>5 \cdot 3 = 15</math>". The multiplication sign is by far the most used symbol for multiplication{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}, while the asterisk notation is most commonly used in computer [[Programming language|programming languages]]. In [[algebra]], the multiplication symbol may be omitted; for example, <math>xy</math> represents <math>x \times y</math>.<br />
<br />
The order in which two numbers are multiplied does not affect the result. This is known as the commutative property of multiplication. The grouping of three or more numbers in parentheses also does not affect the result. This is known as the associative property of multiplication. <br />
<br />
In the multiplication algorithm, the "tens" digit of the product of a pair of digits is referred to as the "carry digit". To multiply a pair of digits using a table, one must locate the intersection of the row of the first digit and the column of the second digit, which will contain the product of the two digits. Most pairs of digits, when multiplied, result in two-digit numbers.<br />
<br />
=== Example of multiplication for a single-digit factor ===<br />
Multiplying 729 and 3, starting on the ones column, the product of 9 and 3 is 27. 7 is written under the ones column and 2 is written above the tens column as a carry digit.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2px"<br />
|<br />
|Hundreds <br />
|Tens <br />
|'''''Ones'''''<br />
|-<br />
| || ||'''2'''||<br />
|-<br />
| ||7 ||2 ||9<br />
|-<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|× ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"| ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"| ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|3<br />
|-<br />
| || || ||7<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The product of 2 and 3 is 6, and the carry digit adds 2 to 6, so 8 is written under the tens column.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2px"<br />
|<br />
|Hundreds <br />
|'''''Tens''''' <br />
|Ones<br />
|-<br />
| ||7 ||2 ||9<br />
|-<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|× ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"| ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"| ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|3<br />
|-<br />
| || ||8 ||7<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The product of 7 and 3 is 21, and since this is the last digit, 2 will not be written as a carry digit, but instead beside 1.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2px"<br />
|<br />
|'''''Hundreds''''' <br />
|Tens <br />
|Ones<br />
|-<br />
| || 7 || 2 || 9<br />
|-<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|× ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"| ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"| ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|3<br />
|-<br />
|2 ||1 ||8 ||7<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The result:<br />
:<math>3 \times 729 = 2187</math><br />
<br />
=== Example of multiplication for multiple-digit factors ===<br />
Multiplying 789 and 345, starting with the ones column, the product of 789 and 5 is 3945.<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2px"<br />
| ||7 ||8 ||9<br />
|-<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|× ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|3 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|4 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|5<br />
|-<br />
|3 ||9 ||4 ||5<br />
|}<br />
<br />
4 is in the tens digit. The multiplier is 40, not 4. The product of 789 and 40 is 31560.<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2px"<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
| ||7 ||8 ||9<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
| style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;" |× || style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;" |3 || style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;" |4 || style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;" |5<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|3 ||9 ||4 ||5<br />
|-<br />
|3<br />
|1 ||5 ||6 ||0 <br />
|}<br />
<br />
3 is in the hundreds digit. The multiplier is 300. The product of 789 and 300 is 236700.<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2px"<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ||7 ||8 ||9<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|× ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|3 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|4 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|5<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|3 ||9 ||4 ||5<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|3<br />
|1 ||5 ||6 ||0 <br />
|-<br />
|2<br />
|3<br />
|6 ||7 ||0 ||0 <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Adding all the products,<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2px"<br />
| || || || ||7 ||8 ||9<br />
|-<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|× ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"| ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"| ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"| ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|3 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|4 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|5<br />
|-<br />
| || || ||3 ||9 ||4 ||5<br />
|-<br />
| || ||3 ||1 ||5 ||6 ||0<br />
|-<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|+ ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|2 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|3 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|6 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|7 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|0 ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|0<br />
|-<br />
| ||2 ||7 ||2 ||2 ||0 ||5<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The result:<br />
<br />
<math>789 \times 345 = 272205</math><br />
==Division==<br />
{{Main|Division (mathematics)|Long division}}<br />
[[Division (mathematics)|Division]] is an arithmetic operation that is the inverse of [[multiplication]].<br />
<br />
Specifically, given a number ''a'' and a non-zero number ''b'', if another number ''c'' times ''b'' equals ''a'', that is <math>c \times b = a</math>, then ''a'' divided by ''b'' equals ''c''. <br />
<br />
That is: <math>\frac ab = c</math>. For instance, <math>\frac 63 = 2</math>.<br />
<br />
The number ''a'' is called the dividend, ''b'' the divisor, and ''c'' the quotient. [[Division by zero]] is considered impossible at an elementary arithmetic level, and is generally disregarded.<br />
<br />
Division can be shown by placing the ''dividend'' over the ''divisor'' with a horizontal line, also called a [[Vinculum (symbol)|vinculum]], between them. For example, ''a'' divided by ''b'' is written as:<br />
:<math>\frac ab</math><br />
This can be read verbally as "''a'' divided by ''b''" or "''a'' over ''b''". <br />
<br />
Another way to express division all on one line is to write the ''dividend'', then a [[Slash (punctuation)|slash]], then the ''divisor'', as follows:<br />
:<math>a/b</math><br />
This is the usual way to specify division in most computer [[programming language]]s.<br />
<br />
A handwritten or typographical variation uses a [[solidus (punctuation)|solidus]] (fraction slash) but elevates the dividend and lowers the divisor:<br />
<br />
:{{frac|''a''|''b''}}<br />
<br />
Any of these forms can be used to display a [[fraction (mathematics)|fraction]]. A ''common fraction'' is a division expression where both dividend and divisor are [[integer|number]]s (although typically called the ''numerator'' and ''denominator''), and there is no implication that the division needs to be evaluated further.<br />
<br />
A more basic way to show division is to use the [[obelus]] (÷) in this manner:<br />
:<math>a \div b.</math><br />
<br />
In some non-[[English language|English]]-speaking cultures{{Which|date=February 2024}}, "''a'' divided by ''b''" is written {{nowrap|''a'' : ''b''}}. However, in English usage, the [[colon (punctuation)|colon]] is restricted to the concept of [[ratio]]s ("''a'' is to ''b''").<br />
<br />
Two numbers can be divided on paper using the method of [[long division]]. An abbreviated version of long division, [[short division]], can be used for smaller divisors as well.<br />
<br />
A less systematic method involves the concept of [[Chunking (division)|chunking]], involving subtracting more multiples from the partial remainder at each stage.<br />
<br />
To divide by a fraction, one can simply multiply by the reciprocal (reversing the position of the top and bottom parts) of that fraction. For example:<br />
<br />
:<math>\textstyle{5 \div {1 \over 2} = 5 \times {2 \over 1} = 5 \times 2 = 10}</math><br />
<br />
:<math>\textstyle{{2 \over 3} \div {2 \over 5} = {2 \over 3} \times {5 \over 2} = {10 \over 6} = {5 \over 3}}</math><br />
<br />
=== Example ===<br />
Dividing 272 and 8, starting with the hundreds digit, 2 is not divisible by 8. Add 20 and 7 to get 27. The largest number that the divisor of 8 can be multiplied by without exceeding 27 is 3, so the digit 3 is written under the tens column to start constructing the quotient. Subtracting 24 (the product of 3 and 8) from 27 gives 3 as [[remainder]].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2px"<br />
| ||2 ||7 ||2<br />
|-<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|÷ ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"| ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"| ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|8<br />
|-<br />
| || ||3||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
8 is necessarily bigger than the remainder 3. Going to the ones digit to continue the division, the number is 2. Adding 30 and 2 gets 32, which is divisible by 8, and the quotient of 32 and 8 is 4. 4 is written under the ones column.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2px"<br />
| ||2 ||7 ||2<br />
|-<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|÷ ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"| ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"| ||style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;"|8<br />
|-<br />
| || ||3||4<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The result:<br />
:<math>272 \div 8 = 34</math><br />
<br />
==== Bus stop method ====<br />
Another method of dividing taught in some schools is the bus stop method, sometimes notated as<br />
<u>&nbsp;&nbsp;result&nbsp;&nbsp;</u><br />
(divisor) dividend<br />
<br />
The steps here are shown below, using the same example as above:<br />
<u> <span style="color: red;">0</span><span style="color: green;">3</span><span style="color: blue;">4</span> </u> (Explanations)<br />
8|272<br />
<u>0</u> ( 8 &times; <span style="color: red;">0</span> = 0)<br />
<span style="color: darkorange;">2</span>7 ( 2 - 0 = <span style="color: darkorange;">2</span>)<br />
<u>24</u> ( 8 &times; <span style="color: green;">3</span> = 24)<br />
<span style="color: darkcyan;">3</span>2 (27 - 24 = <span style="color: darkcyan;">3</span>)<br />
<u>32</u> ( 8 &times; <span style="color: blue;">4</span> = 32)<br />
0 (32 - 32 = 0)<br />
Conclusion:<br />
<br />
<math>272\div8=34</math><br />
<br />
==Educational standards==<br />
Elementary arithmetic is typically taught at the primary or secondary school levels and is governed by local educational standards. In the United States and Canada, there has been debate about the content and methods used to teach elementary arithmetic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Debate about Teaching style of Maths |url=https://edmontonjournal.com/news/local-news/the-great-canadian-math-debate-pt-6-math-prof-anna-stokke-responds-to-alberta-education |website=edmontonjournal.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Gollom |first=Mark |date=April 10, 2016 |title=Educators debate whether some math basics are 'a dead issue in the year 2016' |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/math-scores-students-canada-basics-discovery-1.3526188 }}</ref> One issue has been the use of calculators versus manual computation, with some arguing that, to promote mental arithmetic skills, calculator usage should be limited. Another debate has centered on the distinction between traditional and reform mathematics, with traditional methods often focusing more on basic computation skills and reform methods placing a greater emphasis on higher-level mathematical concepts such as algebra, statistics, and problem-solving.<br />
<br />
In the United States, the 1989 [[National Council of Teachers of Mathematics]] standards led to a shift in elementary school curricula that de-emphasized or omitted certain topics traditionally considered to be part of elementary arithmetic, in favor of a greater focus on college-level concepts such as [[algebra]] and [[statistics]]. This shift has been controversial, with some arguing that it has resulted in a lack of emphasis on basic computation skills that are important for success in later math classes.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Early numeracy]]<br />
*[[Elementary mathematics]]<br />
*[[Chunking (division)]]<br />
*[[Plus and minus signs]]<br />
*[[Peano axioms]]<br />
*[[Division by zero]]<br />
*[[Real number]]<br />
*[[Imaginary number]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|refs=<br />
<br />
<ref name="bmk">{{cite journal<br />
| last1 = Björklund | first1 = Camilla<br />
| last2 = Marton | first2 = Ference<br />
| last3 = Kullberg | first3 = Angelika<br />
| year = 2021<br />
| title = What is to be learnt? Critical aspects of elementary arithmetic skills<br />
| journal = Educational Studies in Mathematics<br />
| language = en<br />
| volume = 107 | issue = 2 | pages = 261–284<br />
| doi = 10.1007/s10649-021-10045-0<br />
| issn = 0013-1954<br />
| doi-access = free<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
<ref name="hall">{{cite book<br />
| last = Hall | first = F. M.<br />
| year = 1972<br />
| title = An Introduction to Abstract Algebra<br />
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qqs8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA171<br />
| page = 171<br />
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
<ref name="ma">{{cite book<br />
| last1 = Madden | first1 = Daniel J.<br />
| last2 = Aubrey | first2 = Jason A.<br />
| year = 2017<br />
| title = An Introduction to Proof through Real Analysis<br />
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6EkzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3<br />
| page = 3<br />
| publisher = John Wiley & Sons<br />
| isbn = 97811199314738<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
<ref name="mpb">{{cite book<br />
| last1 = Musser | first1 = Gary L.<br />
| last2 = Peterson | first2 = Blake E.<br />
| last3 = Burger | first3 = William F.<br />
| title = Mathematics for Elementary Teachers: A Contemporary Approach<br />
| year = 2013<br />
| publisher = John Wiley & Sons<br />
| isbn = 978-1-118-48700-6<br />
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8jh7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA87<br />
| page = 87<br />
|language = en<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
<ref name="mw">{{cite book<br />
| last1 = Mitchelmore | first1 = Michael C.<br />
| last2 = White | first2 = Paul<br />
| title = Abstraction in Mathematics Learning<br />
| year = 2012<br />
| url = https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_516<br />
| pages = 31–33<br />
| editor-last = Seel | editor-first = Norbert M.<br />
| place = Boston, MA<br />
| publisher = Springer US<br />
| language = en<br />
| doi = 10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_516<br />
| isbn = 978-1-4419-1428-6<br />
| url-status = live<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
<ref name="rf">{{cite book<br />
| last1 = Resnick | first1 = L. B.<br />
| last2 = Ford | first2= W. W.<br />
| title = Psychology of Mathematics for Instruction<br />
| year = 2012<br />
| publisher = Routledge<br />
| isbn = 978-1-136-55759-0<br />
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xj-j8pw2HN8C&pg=PA110<br />
| page = 110<br />
| language = en<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
<ref name="rosen">{{cite book<br />
| last = Rosen | first = Kenneth<br />
| year = 2013<br />
| title = Discrete Maths and Its Applications Global Edition<br />
| publisher = McGraw Hill<br />
| isbn = 978-0-07-131501-2<br />
}} See the [https://books.google.com/books?id=-oVvEAAAQBAJ&pg=SL1-PA1 Appendix I]. </ref><br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2863 "A Friendly Gift on the Science of Arithmetic"]{{Dead link|date=April 2024}} – an Arabic document from the 15th century that talks about basic arithmetic.<br />
<br />
{{Elementary arithmetic}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Elementary arithmetic| ]]<br />
[[Category:Mathematics education]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:AmgineIX&diff=1218861953User:AmgineIX2024-04-14T08:24:58Z<p>AmgineIX: ←Created page with 'Hello world :)'</p>
<hr />
<div>Hello world :)</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Starlink_in_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War&diff=1218859308Starlink in the Russo-Ukrainian War2024-04-14T07:50:24Z<p>AmgineIX: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Co-operation between Ukraine and Starlink}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2022}}<br />
{{Use American English|date=July 2022}}<br />
[[File:Wladimir and Vitali Klitschko with a Starlink user terminal.jpg|thumb|Kyiv Mayor [[Vitali Klitschko]] and his brother [[Wladimir Klitschko|Wladimir]] with delivered Starlink terminals during the [[Battle of Kyiv (2022)|Battle of Kyiv]] on March 15, 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kitsoft|title=Віталій Кличко: Пристрої глобальної супутникової системи Starlink уже в Києві|url=https://kyivcity.gov.ua/news/vitaliy_klichko_pristro_globalno_suputnikovo_sistemi_Starlink_uzhe_v_kiyevi/|access-date=2023-09-11|website=Офіційний портал КМДА - Головна|language=uk|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163331/https://kyivcity.gov.ua/news/vitaliy_klichko_pristro_globalno_suputnikovo_sistemi_Starlink_uzhe_v_kiyevi/|url-status=live}}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
In February 2022, two days after [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russia's full-scale invasion]], Ukraine requested American aerospace company [[SpaceX]] to activate their [[Starlink]] [[Satellite Internet access|satellite internet]] service in the country to replace [[Internet in Ukraine|internet]] and [[Telecommunications in Ukraine|communication]] networks degraded or destroyed during the war.<ref name="elon-musk-b2024184">[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/starlink-service-ukraine-elon-musk-b2024184.html Elon Musk says SpaceX's Starlink satellites active over Ukraine after request from embattled country's leaders] {{Webarchive|url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220227/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/starlink-service-ukraine-elon-musk-b2024184.html |date=February 27, 2022 }}, [[The Independent]] (26 February 2022)</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite news|date=2022-03-01|title=Elon Musk's Starlink arrives in Ukraine but what next?|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-60561162|url-status=live|access-date=2022-07-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709030211/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-60561162|archive-date=July 9, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite tweet|user= FedorovMykhailo |author-link= Mykhailo Fedorov |number= 1497543633293266944 |title= @elonmusk, while you try to colonize Mars — Russia try to occupy Ukraine! While your rockets successfully land from space — Russian rockets attack Ukrainian civil people! We ask you to provide Ukraine with Starlink stations and to address sane Russians to stand.}}</ref> Starlink has since been used by Ukrainian civilians, government and military.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite news|last=Sabbagh|first=Dan|date=2023-02-09|title=Fury in Ukraine as Elon Musk's SpaceX limits Starlink use for drones|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/09/zelenskiy-aide-takes-aim-at-curbs-on-ukraine-use-of-starlink-to-pilot-drones-elon-musk|access-date=2023-05-20|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=March 9, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309133527/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/09/zelenskiy-aide-takes-aim-at-curbs-on-ukraine-use-of-starlink-to-pilot-drones-elon-musk|url-status=live}}</ref> The satellite service has served for humanitarian purposes, as well as defense and attacks on Russian positions.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news |title=How Elon Musk's satellites have saved Ukraine and changed warfare |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2023/01/05/how-elon-musks-satellites-have-saved-ukraine-and-changed-warfare |access-date=2023-06-06 |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=September 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923091659/https://www.economist.com/briefing/2023/01/05/how-elon-musks-satellites-have-saved-ukraine-and-changed-warfare |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
Initially, SpaceX provided and funded Starlink services to Ukraine largely on their own.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|date=2022-04-06|title=SpaceX, USAID deliver 5,000 satellite internet terminals to Ukraine|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/spacex-usaid-deliver-5000-satellite-internet-terminals-ukraine-2022-04-06/|access-date=2023-06-06|archive-date=June 6, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606162248/https://www.reuters.com/technology/spacex-usaid-deliver-5000-satellite-internet-terminals-ukraine-2022-04-06/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{cite news|first1=Matthew|last1=Luxmoore|date=14 October 2022|title=Elon Musk said the cost of maintaining Starlink terminals in Ukraine is approaching $20 million a month and SpaceX can't fund the service indefinitely|language=en|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/elon-musk-says-spacex-cant-fund-ukraine-starlink-service-indefinitely-11665758917|access-date=14 October 2022|quote=Elon Musk said the cost of maintaining Starlink terminals in Ukraine is approaching $20 million a month and SpaceX can't fund the service indefinitely [...] President Volodymyr Zelensky took to Twitter to question Mr. Musk's allegiances|archive-date=October 14, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014170944/https://www.wsj.com/articles/elon-musk-says-spacex-cant-fund-ukraine-starlink-service-indefinitely-11665758917|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":16" /> {{As of|June 2023}} Starlink expenses for Ukraine are covered by the [[United States Department of Defense|US Department of Defense]] through a contract with SpaceX.<ref name=":10">{{Cite news|last1=Stone|first1=Mike|last2=Roulette|first2=Joey|date=2023-06-01|title=SpaceX's Starlink wins Pentagon contract for satellite services to Ukraine|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/pentagon-buys-starlink-ukraine-statement-2023-06-01/|access-date=2023-06-01|archive-date=June 1, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601190826/https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/pentagon-buys-starlink-ukraine-statement-2023-06-01/|url-status=live}}</ref> SpaceX executives have declined to extend Starlink availability to [[Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine]] like [[Russian occupation of Crimea|Crimea]].<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11" /> This was criticized by Ukraine as it prevented them from carrying out military operations in those areas.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":47">{{Cite web |last=Bajak |first=Frank |date=2023-02-09 |title=Musk deputy's words on Starlink 'weaponization' vex Ukraine |url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-elon-musk-spacex-technology-business-c79c81ff4e6a09f4a185e627dad858fa |access-date=2023-09-16 |website=AP News |language=en |archive-date=April 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428021116/https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-elon-musk-spacex-technology-business-c79c81ff4e6a09f4a185e627dad858fa |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite news|last=Borger|first=Julian|date=2023-09-07|title=Elon Musk ordered Starlink to be turned off during Ukraine offensive, book says|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/sep/07/elon-musk-ordered-starlink-turned-off-ukraine-offensive-biography|access-date=2023-09-09|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=September 13, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913024938/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/sep/07/elon-musk-ordered-starlink-turned-off-ukraine-offensive-biography|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
In Russia, the use of Starlink to attack Russian targets has been criticized by government officials. Russia's military has repeatedly tried to disrupt Starlink services in Ukraine<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|date=2022-05-09|title=Ілон Маск відреагував на погрози Рогозіна нібито через постачання Starlink українській армії|url=https://tech.liga.net/ua/other/novosti/ilon-mask-otreagiroval-na-ugrozy-rogozina-yakoby-iz-za-postavok-starlink-ukrainskoy-armii|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611061304/https://tech.liga.net/ua/other/novosti/ilon-mask-otreagiroval-na-ugrozy-rogozina-yakoby-iz-za-postavok-starlink-ukrainskoy-armii|archive-date=June 11, 2022|access-date=2022-07-12|website=LIGA|language=uk}}</ref><ref name=":10" /> and the Russian military has reportedly also used Starlink with smuggled terminals.<ref name=":60">{{Cite web |date=2024-02-12 |title=Ukraine says Russian forces obtaining Musk's Starlink via third countries |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukraines-military-intelligence-says-it-confirms-use-musks-starlink-by-russian-2024-02-11/ |access-date=2024-02-15 |website=Reuters}}</ref> <br />
<br />
Through his company SpaceX and division Starlink, [[Elon Musk]]'s involvement in the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]] has been significant, and met with concerns.<ref name=":21">{{Cite magazine|last=Farrow|first=Ronan|date=2023-08-21|title=Elon Musk's Shadow Rule|language=en-US|magazine=The New Yorker|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2023/08/28/elon-musks-shadow-rule|access-date=2023-09-09|issn=0028-792X|archive-date=September 16, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230916021605/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2023/08/28/elon-musks-shadow-rule|url-status=live}}</ref> <br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
[[Starlink]] is a branch of American aerospace company [[SpaceX]]. They operate a large [[Satellite internet constellation|satellite Internet constellation]] in [[Low Earth orbit|low-earth orbit]] consisting of thousands of satellites.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Grush|first1=Loren|date=15 February 2018|title=SpaceX is about to launch two of its space Internet satellites – the first of nearly 12,000|publisher=The Verge|url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/2/15/17016208/spacex-falcon-9-launch-starlink-microsat-2a-2b-paz-watch-live|url-status=live|access-date=16 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616184857/https://www.theverge.com/2018/2/15/17016208/spacex-falcon-9-launch-starlink-microsat-2a-2b-paz-watch-live|archive-date=16 June 2019}}</ref> Starlink satellites [[List of Starlink and Starshield launches|have been launched]] regularly since 2019.<ref name="spacex20190515">{{cite web|date=15 May 2019|title=Starlink Press Kit|url=https://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/starlink_press_kit.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515091900/https://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/starlink_press_kit.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2019|access-date=23 May 2019|website=spacex.com}}</ref> SpaceX had been negotiating to activate Starlink service in Ukraine a month and a half before the invasion, [[SpaceX]] President [[Gwynne Shotwell]] said.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Foust|first=Jeff|date=2022-03-08|title=SpaceX worked for weeks to begin Starlink service in Ukraine|url=https://spacenews.com/spacex-worked-for-weeks-to-begin-starlink-service-in-ukraine/|access-date=2023-09-10|website=SpaceNews|language=en-US}}</ref> According to her, SpaceX was waiting for formal approval when the invasion started.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
In February 2022, in the early days of the Russian invasion and amidst the [[Battle of Kyiv (2022)|Battle of Kyiv]], Russia was conducting [[Russian strikes against Ukrainian infrastructure (2022–present)|conventional offensives]] and [[2022 Ukraine cyberattacks|cyberattacks]] against Ukraine's communication infrastructure.<ref name=":21" /> On February 24, an hour before the Russian invasion, [[Viasat hack|cyberattacks outed]] the satellite Internet company [[Viasat (American company)|Viasat]] that provided communications to Ukraine.<ref name=":28">{{Cite web|last=Sheetz|first=Michael|date=2022-02-28|title=Viasat believes 'cyber event' is disrupting its satellite-internet service in Ukraine|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/28/ukraine-updates-viasat-says-cyber-event-disrupting-satellite-internet-service.html|access-date=2023-09-09|website=CNBC|language=en|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163332/https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/28/ukraine-updates-viasat-says-cyber-event-disrupting-satellite-internet-service.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In order to defend themselves and to maintain Internet connectivity during the war, Ukrainian officials deemed Starlink a potential solution.<ref name=":21" /> Unlike conventional satellite internet like [[Viasat (American company)|Viasat]], Starlink internet access works in a network fragmented into individual parts.<ref name=":28" /><ref name=":20">{{Cite web|last=Mosley|first=Tonya|date=August 23, 2023|title=Ronan Farrow says Elon Musk has become an 'arbiter' of the war in Ukraine|url=https://www.npr.org/2023/08/24/1195463008/ronan-farrow-says-elon-musk-has-become-an-arbiter-of-the-war-in-ukraine|access-date=September 9, 2023|website=www.npr.org|archive-date=September 8, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908183055/https://www.npr.org/2023/08/24/1195463008/ronan-farrow-says-elon-musk-has-become-an-arbiter-of-the-war-in-ukraine|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
Because Starlink uses the narrow beam of the [[Ku band|K<sub>u</sub>]] and [[Ka band|K<sub>a</sub> bands]], the Starlink antennas are physically small.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Team|first=ESD Editorial|date=2023-05-30|title=Ukraine's Favourite Dish|url=https://euro-sd.com/2023/05/articles/30035/ukraines-favourite-dish/|access-date=2023-09-10|website=euro-sd.com|language=en-US|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163332/https://euro-sd.com/2023/05/articles/30035/ukraines-favourite-dish/|url-status=live}}</ref> Any signal that intends to [[Radio jamming|jam]] Starlink needs a precise aim into the antenna.<ref name=":12" /> This requires the attacker to get close to Ukrainian troops, in visual range of the terminals.<ref name=":12" /> The data carried over the network is also [[End-to-end encryption|encrypted]], with software in the terminal programmed to block off signals without the encryption.<ref name=":12" /> If the Starlink antenna [[Beam steering|steers itself]] towards another Starlink satellite in view, it could point away from the jamming source.<ref name=":12" /> These properties prevent Starlink from being taken out by a single Russian attack.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":28" /><br />
<br />
On February 26, the Ukrainian government and Ukrainian minister [[Mykhailo Fedorov]] asked [[Elon Musk]] on [[Twitter]] to provide Starlink assistance to Ukraine.<ref name="Can Elon Musk's Starlink Keep Ukraine Online? – Reason – Isaac Reese reporting">{{cite web|last1=Reese|first1=Isaac|date=5 March 2022|title=Can Elon Musk's Starlink Keep Ukraine Online?|url=https://reason.com/video/2022/03/05/can-elon-musks-starlink-keep-ukraine-online/|access-date=14 March 2022|website=reason.com|publisher=Reason|archive-date=March 25, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325060536/https://reason.com/video/2022/03/05/can-elon-musks-starlink-keep-ukraine-online/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2022-04-29|title=Starlink в Україні: кому доступний інтернет від SpaceX та як ним користуватися|url=https://www.the-village.com.ua/village/city/how-it-works-city/325497-gid-po-starlink|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429153127/https://www.the-village.com.ua/village/city/how-it-works-city/325497-gid-po-starlink|archive-date=April 29, 2022|access-date=2022-07-12|website=The Village Україна}}</ref> Musk agreed, and SpaceX responded by activating country-wide service, with the first shipment of Starlink terminals arriving two days later on February 28.<ref name="Can Elon Musk's Starlink Keep Ukraine Online? – Reason – Isaac Reese reporting" /> SpaceX leadership considered Fedorov's request to be approval of their own prior requests made before the start of the war.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
Those Ukrainians involved in bringing Starlink to their country "originally overlooked the significance of [Elon Musk's] personal control" over vital communications.<ref name=":21" /><br />
<br />
== Civilian use ==<br />
[[File:Kupiansk after Russian occupation (2022-10-09) 12.jpg|thumb|361x361px|Starlink providing Internet to residents of [[Kupiansk]] after [[Battle of Kupiansk|the battle]] that ended in September 2022. There were still no communications, power and water supply in the city.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Як живе звільнений від окупантів Куп'янськ: фоторепортаж|url=https://www.rbc.ua/rus/news/k-zhive-zvilneniy-vid-okupantiv-kup-yansk-1665298505.html|access-date=2023-09-11|website=РБК-Украина|language=uk|archive-date=September 6, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906055357/https://www.rbc.ua/rus/news/k-zhive-zvilneniy-vid-okupantiv-kup-yansk-1665298505.html|url-status=live}}</ref>]]<br />
Starlink activated their service in Ukraine in February 2022 two days after it was requested to do so<ref>{{cite tweet|user= elonmusk|author-link= Elon Musk |number= 1497701484003213317 |title= Starlink service is now active in Ukraine. More terminals en route.}}</ref> waiving the usual monthly [[Subscription business model|subscription fee]] for the country.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Jin|first=Hyunjoo|date=2022-02-27|title=Musk says Starlink active in Ukraine as Russian invasion disrupts internet|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/musk-says-starlink-active-ukraine-russian-invasion-disrupts-internet-2022-02-27/|access-date=2023-09-12|archive-date=February 27, 2022|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220227/https://www.reuters.com/technology/musk-says-starlink-active-ukraine-russian-invasion-disrupts-internet-2022-02-27/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="kyInd20220903">{{cite news|last=Antoniuk|first=Daryna|date=3 September 2022|title=How Elon Musk's Starlink satellite internet keeps Ukraine online|work=[[Kyiv Independent]]|url=https://kyivindependent.com/tech/how-elon-musks-starlink-satellite-internet-keeps-ukraine-online|access-date=4 September 2022|archive-date=March 20, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320080834/https://kyivindependent.com/tech/how-elon-musks-starlink-satellite-internet-keeps-ukraine-online|url-status=live}}</ref> Starlink kits delivered to Ukraine included the outdoor-mounted circular or rectangular satellite [[Satellite dish|dish]].<ref name=":35">{{Cite news|last1=Trofimov|first1=Yaroslav|last2=Maidenberg|first2=Micah|last3=FitzGerald|first3=Drew|date=2022-07-16|title=Ukraine Leans on Elon Musk's Starlink in Fight Against Russia|language=en-US|work=Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/ukraine-leans-on-elon-musks-starlink-in-fight-against-russia-11657963804|access-date=2023-09-09|issn=0099-9660|archive-date=September 13, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913100935/https://www.wsj.com/articles/ukraine-leans-on-elon-musks-starlink-in-fight-against-russia-11657963804|url-status=live}}</ref> Detailed Starlink guides were shared online for Ukrainians after its arrival.<ref name=":0" /> Ukrainian regulators allowed Starlink to be used by anyone, including ordinary citizens and businesses.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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Civilians have no reason to use Starlink other than in emergency and damaged regions with no good internet coverage, because Starlink is expensive by Ukrainian standards.<ref name=":0" /> Despite this, Ukrainian officials have declared in 2023 that Starlink was now the core of their communication infrastructure.<ref name=":39">{{Cite news|last=Kim|first=Victoria|date=2023-09-08|title=Elon Musk Acknowledges Withholding Satellite Service to Thwart Ukrainian Attack|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/08/world/europe/elon-musk-starlink-ukraine.html|access-date=2023-09-10|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=September 14, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230914042937/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/08/world/europe/elon-musk-starlink-ukraine.html|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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Ukrainian civilians have relied on Starlink to contact the outside world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-03 |title=How Elon Musk's Starlink satellite internet keeps Ukraine online |url=https://kyivindependent.com/how-elon-musks-starlink-satellite-internet-keeps-ukraine-online/ |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=The Kyiv Independent |language=en |archive-date=June 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606202044/https://kyivindependent.com/how-elon-musks-starlink-satellite-internet-keeps-ukraine-online/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Starlink's personal [[Wi-Fi hotspot|connectivity hotspot]] has been said useful for [[Media portrayal of the Russo-Ukrainian War|journalists]], [[Ukrainian resistance during the Russian invasion of Ukraine|resistance groups]] and the elected government.<ref name=":14" /> Civilians in war-torn areas could gather in "points of invincibility", where they had access to internet provided by Starlink terminals, among a set of basic amenities such as water, electricity, heating and light.<ref>{{Cite web |first= |date=2022-11-24 |title=На Тернопільщині другий день працюють "Пункти Незламності" |url=https://oda.te.gov.ua/news/na-ternopilshchini-drugij-den-pracyuyut-punkti-nezlamnosti |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207102249/https://oda.te.gov.ua/news/na-ternopilshchini-drugij-den-pracyuyut-punkti-nezlamnosti |archive-date=2023-12-07 |website=oda.te.gov.ua}}</ref> Starlink dishes and associated terminals can also be rigged to run off a car battery in areas without electricity.<ref name=":11" /><br />
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By April 2022, Starlink was officially registered and the Ukrainian government relied on it for various communication needs.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":11" /> Starlink was used to transmit the President [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy|Zelenskyy]]'s broadcast<ref name=":11" /> and communication between [[Mobile phone industry in Ukraine|Ukrainian mobile operators]] back on,<ref name=":0" /> with telecom companies also receiving Starlink terminals for emergency connection.<ref name=":35" /> Ukrainian officials noted people would have had to wait several months for Internet to be restored otherwise.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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Starlink has been used to run parts of Ukrainian society like schools, hospitals<ref name=":20" /> (which received 600 terminals in a month from SpaceX<ref name=":0" />), the trains of [[Ukrainian Railways]],<ref name=":43">{{Cite web|date=2022-05-16|title=Втратити вежі й мільярди, отримати Starlink: як мобільні оператори повертають зв'язок|url=https://biz.liga.net/ua/ekonomika/telekom/interview/poteryat-bashni-i-milliardy-poluchit-starlink-kak-mobilnye-operatory-vozvraschayut-svyaz|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220619021155/https://biz.liga.net/ua/ekonomika/telekom/interview/poteryat-bashni-i-milliardy-poluchit-starlink-kak-mobilnye-operatory-vozvraschayut-svyaz|archive-date=June 19, 2022|access-date=2022-07-12|website=LIGA|language=uk}}</ref> operation of critical energy and telecommunications facilities, support of the [[Agriculture in Ukraine|sowing season]], planning evacuations and return of de-occupied territories to life.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Starlink intends to open representative office in Ukraine – Ukrainian minister|url=https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/economic/825427.html|access-date=2023-09-09|website=Interfax-Ukraine|language=en|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163331/https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/economic/825427.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":35" /> Most towns on Ukrainian front lines had at least one or two Starlink terminals in October 2022, on which civilians could connect to like a [[Municipal wireless network|public Wi-Fi network]].<ref name=":52">{{Cite web |title=Dispatch: How Elon Musk's Starlink Helps Connect Ukrainians on the Front Lines |url=https://www.wsj.com/video/series/on-the-news/dispatch-how-elon-musks-starlink-helps-connect-ukrainians-on-the-front-lines/5DE6AF3B-983A-4517-A98C-F6ABD7C39F2A |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=WSJ |language=en |archive-date=September 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927195217/https://www.wsj.com/video/series/on-the-news/dispatch-how-elon-musks-starlink-helps-connect-ukrainians-on-the-front-lines/5DE6AF3B-983A-4517-A98C-F6ABD7C39F2A |url-status=live }}</ref> 150,000 people were using the system every day in May 2022.<ref name=":11" /> Minister [[Mykhailo Fedorov|Fedorov]] remarked in 2023 that Starlink had saved lives by keeping the energy infrastructure running for doctors performing surgeries.<ref name=":47" /><br />
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By June, Starlink had helped restore mobile communication in the [[Kyiv Oblast]]<ref name=":43" /> and had been used to report on the worsening conditions inside the city in the [[siege of Mariupol]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite news|last=Schwirtz|first=Michael|date=2022-07-24|title=Last Stand at Azovstal: Inside the Siege That Shaped the Ukraine War|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/24/world/europe/ukraine-war-mariupol-azovstal.html|access-date=2022-10-15|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=September 26, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926071516/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/24/world/europe/ukraine-war-mariupol-azovstal.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|last=Landry|first=Carole|date=2022-07-25|title=Inside the Azovstal Siege|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/25/briefing/russia-ukraine-war-azovstal.html|access-date=2022-10-15|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=October 15, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015213203/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/25/briefing/russia-ukraine-war-azovstal.html|url-status=live}}</ref> At the time, Starlink was still the only means of secure civilian and military communications in cities like [[Battle of Lysychansk|Lysychansk]] and [[Battle of Sievierodonetsk (2022)|Severodonetsk]] which had not had phone coverage since April.<ref name=":35" /> There, civilians could connect with their families while soldiers could [[FaceTime]] their spouses from their base under-attack, using the service.<ref name=":35" /> Later in November 2022 during the [[liberation of Kherson]], Starlink also allowed phone and internet service to resume within a few days.<ref name=":11" /><br />
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== Military use by Ukraine ==<br />
Starlink was first requested during the [[Battle of Kyiv (2022)|Battle of Kyiv]] in early 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sheetz|first=Michael|date=2022-02-28|title=SpaceX shipment of Starlink satellite-internet dishes arrives in Ukraine, government official says|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/28/ukraine-updates-starlink-satellite-dishes.html|access-date=2023-09-09|website=CNBC|language=en|archive-date=September 13, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913211822/https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/28/ukraine-updates-starlink-satellite-dishes.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Starlink is free for the Ukrainian military,<ref name=":52" /> and since its activation, Starlink has been used to carry out military operations in Ukraine and is still in use on all front lines as of late 2023.<ref name=":32" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lyngaas |first=Josh Pennington,Sean |date=2023-09-10 |title=Starlink in use on 'all front lines,' Ukraine spy chief says, but wasn't active 'for time' over Crimea |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/10/europe/ukraine-starlink-not-active-crimea-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=CNN |language=en |archive-date=September 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927213132/https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/10/europe/ukraine-starlink-not-active-crimea-intl-hnk/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Starlink has been seen in use at numerous Ukrainian bases and been called "the essential [[Internet backbone|backbone of communication]]" on Ukrainian battlefields.<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":21" /> Most Ukrainian units have one Starlink terminal, which is sometimes camouflaged with cardboard or trash to avoid being spotted by Russian drones.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-18 |title=Україна диджиталізувала свої бойові сили на межі можливостей |url=https://zhar.org.ua/ukrayina-dydzhytalizuvala-svoyi-bojovi-syly-na-mezhi-mozhlyvostej/ |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=ГО "Жіночий Антикорупційний Рух" |language=uk |archive-date=September 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927185504/https://zhar.org.ua/ukrayina-dydzhytalizuvala-svoyi-bojovi-syly-na-mezhi-mozhlyvostej/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":49">{{Cite news |last1=Schechner |first1=Sam |last2=Michaels |first2=Daniel |date=2023-01-03 |title=Ukraine Has Digitized Its Fighting Forces on a Shoestring |language=en-US |work=Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/ukraine-has-digitized-its-fighting-forces-on-a-shoestring-11672741405 |access-date=2023-09-27 |issn=0099-9660 |archive-date=September 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927190221/https://www.wsj.com/articles/ukraine-has-digitized-its-fighting-forces-on-a-shoestring-11672741405 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2022, there was no official US legislative mechanism to authorize or restrain a military use of Starlink.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What Does Starlink's Participation in Ukrainian Defense Reveal About U.S. Space Policy?|url=https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/what-does-starlinks-participation-ukrainian-defense-reveal-about-us-space-policy|access-date=2023-09-10|website=Default|language=en|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163332/https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/what-does-starlinks-participation-ukrainian-defense-reveal-about-us-space-policy|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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In March 2022, SpaceX director of Starlink operations reported that Starlink kits allowed [[Armed Forces of Ukraine|Ukraine Armed Forces]] to continue operating theater command centers.<ref name=":50">{{Cite web |title=Хоч Ілон Маск і запевняє, що має благі наміри його позиція то допомагає, то шкодить Україні |url=https://speka.media/comu-ilon-mask-blokuje-signal-starlink-dlya-viiskovix-ta-yaka-iogo-rol-u-viini-p2867p |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=speka.media |language=uk |archive-date=September 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927185503/https://speka.media/comu-ilon-mask-blokuje-signal-starlink-dlya-viiskovix-ta-yaka-iogo-rol-u-viini-p2867p |url-status=live }}</ref> These kits were vital and needed, as Russia focused on attacking Ukrainian comms infrastructure. The same month, the company provided voice connections for a Ukrainian special operations brigade. Starlink was also used to connect the Ukrainian military to the [[Joint Special Operations Command|US Joint Special Operations Command]].<ref name=":50" /> The same month, two helicopters of [[Operation Air Corridor]] carried [[Special forces of Ukraine|Ukrainian Special Forces]] fighters, weaponry and the first Starlink terminal behind enemies lines to [[Siege of Mariupol|besieged Mariupol]].<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" /><br />
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Around that time, the Ukrainian military began to use Starlink to help connect and fly drones to attack Russian forces.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Parker |first=Charlie |title=Specialist Ukrainian drone unit picks off invading Russian forces as they sleep |language=en |newspaper=[[The Times]] |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/specialist-drone-unit-picks-off-invading-forces-as-they-sleep-zlx3dj7bb |url-status=live |access-date=2022-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509223039/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/specialist-drone-unit-picks-off-invading-forces-as-they-sleep-zlx3dj7bb |archive-date=May 9, 2022 |issn=0140-0460}}</ref> Starlink was also used to send back video to correct artillery fire.<ref name=":23" /> Starlink enabled mobile networks with encrypted [[Chat room|group chats]] connecting Ukrainian commanders to their soldiers on the battlefield.<ref name=":11" /> The soldiers upload real-time images of potential targets while the commanders decide where to strike.<ref name=":11" /> Soldiers have been seen retrieving Starlink terminals from damaged areas after missile attacks.<ref name=":49" /> Drone-reconnaissance unit commanders drove with a Starlink terminal attached on the roof of their car.<ref name=":51">{{Cite news |last=Luxmoore |first=Matthew |date=2023-02-10 |title=Soldiers in Ukraine Say Some Drones Affected After SpaceX Limits Starlink |language=en-US |work=Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/soldiers-in-ukraine-say-some-drones-affected-after-spacex-limits-starlink-321a9dd7 |access-date=2023-09-27 |issn=0099-9660 |archive-date=September 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927193539/https://www.wsj.com/articles/soldiers-in-ukraine-say-some-drones-affected-after-spacex-limits-starlink-321a9dd7 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ukrainian drone operators adapted strike drones in order to strap a Starlink terminal on them, coming up with new "[[life hack]]s" when the setup no longer worked.<ref name=":51" /> They suspected this use of the terminals could arise concerns from SpaceX.<ref name=":51" /><br />
[[File:UA Support Forces Starlink 01.jpg|thumb|294x294px|Support Forces of Ukraine soldier installing a Starlink terminal.]]In April and May 2022, Starlink had key telecommunications role in the [[Siege of Azovstal]], helping Ukrainian defenders to resist Russian troops in [[Mariupol]].<ref name=":3" /> Thousands of Ukrainian troops cut off in Mariupol were able to use Starlink to send and publish online photos and videos to the outside world, before they had to surrender in May.<ref name=":35" /> In May 2022, a Starlink-enabled Ukrainian Internet [[Application software|app]] was the key component of a successful new [[artillery]] fire coordination system.<ref>{{cite web |title=Krieg in der Ukraine: Die Erfolgsgeschichte der ukrainischen Artillerie |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pzAl29Gl9MA |website=[[YouTube]] |access-date=May 26, 2023 |archive-date=June 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220619184216/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pzAl29Gl9MA |url-status=live }}</ref> By June 2022, Starlink was used in various ways, such as enabling the connection between Ukrainian army commanders and spotters on the roof of buildings miles away.<ref name=":35" /> The password for Starlink terminals were written on infrastructure for easy access.<ref name=":35" /><br />
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In October 2022, Starlink services had to be requested by Ukrainian forces as new areas were liberated.<ref name=":23">{{cite news |last1=Marquardt |first1=Alex |date=13 October 2022 |title=Exclusive: Musk's SpaceX says it can no longer pay for critical satellite services in Ukraine, asks Pentagon to pick up the tab &#124; CNN Politics |newspaper=CNN |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/10/13/politics/elon-musk-spacex-starlink-ukraine/ |access-date=May 26, 2023 |archive-date=October 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024113222/https://edition.cnn.com/2022/10/13/politics/elon-musk-spacex-starlink-ukraine |url-status=live }}</ref> Ukrainian soldiers have reportedly praised Starlink, for reasons such as preventing their army from collapsing in disarray or the war from being lost.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":35" /><br />
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In March 2024, Ukraine's newly shown drone boat operated in the Black Sea while equipped with a Starlink terminal.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-06 |title=The Security Service of Ukraine showcased the service of the first sea baby drone |url=https://twitter.com/maria_drutska/status/1765375019922710533}}</ref><br />
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== Funding history ==<br />
Ukraine incurred minimal expenses for Starlink, as [[SpaceX]], [[the Pentagon]] and other countries and entities contributed to covering the costs.<ref name=":23" /> The satellite service was free for the Ukrainian military.<ref name=":52" /> The more expensive part of the costs is not the terminals but the ongoing connectivity.<ref name=":23" /> The terminals themselves cost $1500 and $2500 for the two models sent to Ukraine, more expensive than the consumer models on Starlink's website.<ref name=":23" /> Meanwhile, service in Ukraine is just $60 per month, cheaper than the usual monthly price above $90.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2023-06-14|title=How much do Starlink plans cost, and are they worth it?|url=https://www.androidauthority.com/starlink-plans-cost-3334636/|access-date=2023-09-09|website=Android Authority|language=en|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163332/https://www.androidauthority.com/starlink-plans-cost-3334636/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Starlink Internet Review 2023: Plans, Pricing, and Speeds|url=https://www.satelliteinternet.com/providers/starlink/|access-date=2023-09-10|website=SatelliteInternet.com|language=en-US|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163332/https://www.satelliteinternet.com/providers/starlink/|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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Early US support for Starlink came via the [[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]] which spent roughly $3 million on hardware and services in Ukraine, later than March 2022 according to [[Gwynne Shotwell|Shotwell]].<ref name=":24" /><ref name=":23" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sheetz |first=Michael |date=2022-03-22 |title=Elon Musk's SpaceX sent thousands of Starlink satellite internet dishes to Ukraine, company's president says |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/22/elon-musk-spacex-thousands-of-starlink-satellite-dishes-sent-to-ukraine.html |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=CNBC |language=en |archive-date=March 27, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327034400/https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/22/elon-musk-spacex-thousands-of-starlink-satellite-dishes-sent-to-ukraine.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The largest single contributor of terminals is Poland with payment for almost 9,000 individual terminals.<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":24" /> Other contributors include the UK, France, Germany, Czechia, NGOs and crowdfunding.<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":24" /><ref name=":23" /><ref name=":31">{{Cite web |title=Михайло Федоров: Зараз на кіберфронті у війні з Росією перевага на нашому боці |url=https://www.rbc.ua/rus/news/mihaylo-fedorov-zaraz-kiberfronti-viyni-rosieyu-1676222698.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163331/https://www.rbc.ua/rus/news/mihaylo-fedorov-zaraz-kiberfronti-viyni-rosieyu-1676222698.html |archive-date=September 18, 2023 |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=РБК-Украина |language=uk}}</ref> Some volunteers and foreign companies independently purchased Starlink equipment for Ukraine.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
By 6 April 2022, SpaceX had sent 5000 Starlink terminals. 3667 or 73% of those were donated by SpaceX, which also removed the monthly service fees, while [[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]] had purchased the balance of the terminals.<ref name=":4">{{cite web|author1=Office of Press Relations|date=5 April 2022|title=USAID SAFEGUARDS INTERNET ACCESS IN UKRAINE THROUGH PUBLIC-PRIVATE-PARTNERSHIP WITH SPACEX|url=https://www.usaid.gov/news-information/press-releases/apr-5-2022-usaid-safeguards-internet-access-ukraine-through-public-private|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405203009/https://www.usaid.gov/news-information/press-releases/apr-5-2022-usaid-safeguards-internet-access-ukraine-through-public-private|archive-date=5 April 2022|access-date=4 October 2022|website=USAID|publisher=US Government|language=en|quote=SpaceX donated 3,667 terminals and the internet service itself, and USAID purchased the additional 1,333 terminals}}</ref><ref name=":15" /> By mid August 2022, Ukraine internet service was being provided by more than 20,000 Starlink terminals.<ref name=":23" /> 85% of the 20,000 terminals in Ukraine were paid (sometimes partially) for by countries like the US or Poland, or other entities.<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":25">{{cite web |title=Elon Musk: SpaceX Has Spent $80M to Support Ukraine with Starlink |url=https://www.pcmag.com/news/elon-musk-spacex-has-spent-80m-to-support-ukraine-with-starlink#:~:text=A%20new%20controversy%20facing%20Elon%20Musk%20has%20caused,the%20company%E2%80%99s%20Starlink%20satellite%20internet%20service%20to%20Ukraine |access-date=May 26, 2023 |archive-date=June 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606221557/https://www.pcmag.com/news/elon-musk-spacex-has-spent-80m-to-support-ukraine-with-starlink#:~:text=A%20new%20controversy%20facing%20Elon%20Musk%20has%20caused,the%20company%E2%80%99s%20Starlink%20satellite%20internet%20service%20to%20Ukraine |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite news |date=8 April 2022 |title=U.S. quietly paying millions to send Starlink terminals to Ukraine, contrary to SpaceX claims |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/04/08/us-quietly-paying-millions-send-starlink-terminals-ukraine-contrary-spacexs-claims/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220410171933/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/04/08/us-quietly-paying-millions-send-starlink-terminals-ukraine-contrary-spacexs-claims/ |archive-date=10 April 2022}}</ref> Those entities also paid for about 30% of the Internet connectivity, which SpaceX says $4500 each month per unit for the most advanced service.<ref name=":23" /> At the time, the US had provided almost 1,700 terminals.<ref name=":23" /> The same month, Musk tweeted the operation had cost SpaceX $80 million and would exceed $100 million by the end of year.<ref name=":23" /><br />
<br />
By December 2022, Ukraine had secured additional funding for Starlink from several European countries, and a Ukrainian official stated that "all financial issues have been resolved."<ref name=":16">{{cite web |last1=Brodkin |first1=Jon |date=2022-12-20 |title=Ukraine to get 10,000 more Starlink antennas; funding problems are "resolved" |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2022/12/starlink-will-send-another-10000-satellite-terminals-to-ukraine/ |website=Ars Technica |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-date=May 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519175246/https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2022/12/starlink-will-send-another-10000-satellite-terminals-to-ukraine/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In early 2023, SpaceX made a deal with the US and European governments to pay for another 100,000 new satellite dishes to Ukraine.<ref name=":23" /> In February 2023, Ukrainian minister [[Mykhailo Fedorov]] called Musk "one of the biggest private donors of [Ukraine's] future victory," estimating SpaceX's contributions at the time as over $100 million.<ref name=":47" /><ref name=":31" /><br />
<br />
== Pentagon contracts ==<br />
In July 2022, Chief Commander of the Armed Forces of Ukraine [[Valerii Zaluzhnyi]] directly requested to Elon Musk 6,200 more Starlink terminals for the Ukrainian military and intelligence services and 500 per month going forward to offset the losses.<ref name=":23" /> SpaceX responded by asking Zaluzhniy to ask the Department of Defense.<ref name=":23" /> An outside consultant for SpaceX said the company "faced difficult decisions" and did not think SpaceX had the financial ability to provide any additional terminals or service requested by the Ukrainian General.<ref name=":23" /><br />
<br />
In September 2022, SpaceX wrote in a letter to [[the Pentagon]] "We are not in a position to further donate terminals to Ukraine, or fund the existing terminals for an indefinite period of time", asking the Pentagon to take over financing.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Pentagon will pay for SpaceX's Starlink in Ukraine months after Elon Musk complained and asked it to pick up the bill|url=https://www.businessinsider.in/science/space/news/the-pentagon-will-pay-for-spacexs-starlink-in-ukraine-months-after-elon-musk-complained-and-asked-it-to-pick-up-the-bill/articleshow/100706327.cms|access-date=2023-09-10|website=Business Insider|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163331/https://www.businessinsider.in/science/space/news/the-pentagon-will-pay-for-spacexs-starlink-in-ukraine-months-after-elon-musk-complained-and-asked-it-to-pick-up-the-bill/articleshow/100706327.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-10-14|title=Musk says SpaceX can no longer fund internet service Ukrainian military uses in war|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/musk-says-spacex-can-no-longer-fund-internet-service-ukrainian-military-uses-in-war|access-date=2023-06-06|website=PBS NewsHour|language=en-us|archive-date=June 6, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606160748/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/musk-says-spacex-can-no-longer-fund-internet-service-ukrainian-military-uses-in-war|url-status=live}}</ref> These costs totaled to $124 million for the remainder of 2022, and would reach almost $380 million for a full year according to the senior defense official.<ref name=":23" /> At the time, some senior defense officials at the Pentagon were worried Musk could turn off Starlink in Ukraine, which would have impacted the Ukrainians.<ref name=":21" /><br />
<br />
By October 2022, SpaceX said it had paid for about 70% of the service provided to Ukraine and claims to have offered that highest level – $4,500 a month – to all terminals in Ukraine, despite the majority only having signed on for the cheaper $500 per month service.<ref name=":23" /> Which CNN noted represented 1.3% of the service rate SpaceX said it needed the Pentagon to start paying.<ref name=":23" /> This was interpreted by CNN as an attempt by SpaceX to obtain government funding, or a disinterest in the war.<ref name=":23" /><br />
<br />
On October 14, 2022, Musk warned the service was costing Starlink $20 million per month and stated it could not go on indefinitely.<ref name=":17" /><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Metz|first1=Cade|last2=Vinograd|first2=Cassandra|last3=Cooper|first3=Helene|date=2022-10-14|title=Elon Musk says SpaceX can't fund internet service in Ukraine 'indefinitely,' stirring controversy.|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2022/10/14/world/russia-ukraine-war-news#elon-musk-starlink-internet-ukraine|access-date=2022-10-15|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=October 15, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015221739/https://www.nytimes.com/live/2022/10/14/world/russia-ukraine-war-news#elon-musk-starlink-internet-ukraine|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news|last=Metz|first=Cade|date=2022-10-15|title=Elon Musk Drops Threat to Halt Internet Service in Ukraine|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2022/10/15/world/russia-ukraine-war-news|access-date=2022-10-15|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=May 29, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529150537/https://www.nytimes.com/live/2022/10/15/world/russia-ukraine-war-news|url-status=live}}</ref> At that time, Shotwell had already begun discussions with the Pentagon to fund Starlink for Ukraine, independently from Elon Musk.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=2023-02-09 |title=Shotwell: Ukraine "weaponized" Starlink in war against Russia |url=https://spacenews.com/shotwell-ukraine-weaponized-starlink-in-war-against-russia/ |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-10-17 |title=Pentagon considers funding Musk's Starlink network for Ukraine - Politico |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/pentagon-considers-funding-starlink-ukraine-politico-2022-10-17/ |access-date=2023-09-17 |archive-date=September 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163332/https://www.reuters.com/world/pentagon-considers-funding-starlink-ukraine-politico-2022-10-17/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":41" /><br />
<br />
During the discussions between the Pentagon and SpaceX in October 2022, the Deputy Pentagon Press Secretary was asked about the invocation of the [[Defense Production Act of 1950|Defense Production Act]] against Starlink in Ukraine.<ref name=":41">{{Cite web |title=Sabrina Singh, Deputy Pentagon Press Secretary, Holds a Press Briefing |url=https://www.defense.gov/News/Transcripts/Transcript/Article/3189495/sabrina-singh-deputy-pentagon-press-secretary-holds-a-press-briefing/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230917152151/https://www.defense.gov/News/Transcripts/Transcript/Article/3189495/sabrina-singh-deputy-pentagon-press-secretary-holds-a-press-briefing/ |archive-date=2023-09-17 |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=U.S. Department of Defense |language=en-US}}</ref> This law allows the government to give orders to private companies for national defense, and take action to restrict hoarding of needed supplies.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What Is the Defense Production Act?|url=https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/what-defense-production-act|access-date=2023-09-10|website=Council on Foreign Relations|language=en|archive-date=September 13, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913110334/https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/what-defense-production-act|url-status=live}}</ref> The Defense secretary answered that she was not aware of this law being looked into being invoked for Starlink or any [[Communications satellite|SATCOM]] capability.<ref name=":41" /><br />
<br />
The Pentagon deal was then leaked in the press, while Musk was sharing a controversial [[Peace negotiations in the Russian invasion of Ukraine|Ukraine peace plan]].<ref name=":40">{{Cite web|last=Thorbecke|first=Catherine|date=2022-10-03|title='F--- off,' ambassador tells Elon Musk after unveiling Ukraine 'peace' plan {{!}} CNN Business|url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/10/03/tech/elon-musk-ukraine-russia-tweets/index.html|access-date=2023-09-10|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163333/https://www.cnn.com/2022/10/03/tech/elon-musk-ukraine-russia-tweets/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The situation garnered negative reactions in the medias, and a Ukrainian ambassador publicly told him to "fuck off".<ref name=":40" /> Musk then reconsidered the deal and tweeted on October 15 that SpaceX would continue to fund Starlink service in Ukraine for free.<ref name=":2" /> According to biographer [[Walter Isaacson]], Shotwell was livid at Musk's reversal, asserting "The Pentagon had a $145 million check ready to hand to me, literally."<ref name=":38">{{Cite web|last=Kay|first=Grace|title=SpaceX president was reportedly upset that Elon Musk kept financing Starlink in Ukraine before Pentagon deal: 'Elon succumbed to the bullshit on Twitter'|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-shotwell-mad-elon-musk-continued-financing-ukraine-starlink-report-2023-9|access-date=2023-09-10|website=Business Insider|language=en-US|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163331/https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-shotwell-mad-elon-musk-continued-financing-ukraine-starlink-report-2023-9|url-status=live}}</ref> Quoted by Isaacson, Shotwell stated "Elon succumbed to the bullshit on Twitter and to the haters at the Pentagon who leaked the story."<ref name=":38" /> Musk then added "Even though Starlink is still losing money & other companies are getting billions of taxpayer $, we’ll just keep funding Ukraine govt for free."<ref>{{Cite web|date=2023-09-08|title=Elon Musk says he denied Ukraine satellite request to avoid complicity in "major act of war" vs. Russia - CBS News|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/elon-musk-ukraine-russia-war-starlink-satellite-denied-major-act-of-war/|access-date=2023-09-10|website=www.cbsnews.com|language=en-US|archive-date=September 16, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230916073313/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/elon-musk-ukraine-russia-war-starlink-satellite-denied-major-act-of-war/|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
In late 2022, SpaceX announced [[SpaceX Starshield|Starshield]], a separate Starlink service designed for government entities and military agencies.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web |last=Erwin |first=Sandra |date=2023-01-19 |title=With Starshield, SpaceX readies for battle |url=https://spacenews.com/with-starshield-spacex-readies-for-battle/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{Cite web|title=SpaceX - Starshield|url=https://www.spacex.com/starshield/|access-date=2023-09-10|website=www.spacex.com|archive-date=December 14, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221214061704/https://www.spacex.com/starshield/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":34">{{Cite web |last=Sheetz |first=Michael |date=2022-12-05 |title=SpaceX unveils 'Starshield,' a military variation of Starlink satellites |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/12/05/spacex-unveils-starshield-a-military-variation-of-starlink-satellites.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928075321/https://www.cnbc.com/2022/12/05/spacex-unveils-starshield-a-military-variation-of-starlink-satellites.html |archive-date=September 28, 2023 |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12" /> Starshield enables the DoD to own or lease Starshield satellites for partners and allies.<ref name=":37" /> ''Cybernews'' remarked that Starshield was first announced in late 2022, when the war in Ukraine "revealed Starlink’s importance in modern warfare".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-22 |title=SpaceX's Starshield means Starlink has become a juggernaut |url=https://cybernews.com/tech/starshield-spacex-military-commitment-interview/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204101825/https://cybernews.com/tech/starshield-spacex-military-commitment-interview/ |archive-date=2023-12-04}}</ref> While Starlink had not been adapted for military use, Starshield has the usual requirements for mobile military systems like encryptions and anti-jam capabilities.<ref name=":12" /> The one-year Starshield contract was awarded on September 1, 2023.<ref name=":55">{{Cite web |last=Porter |first=Jon |date=2023-09-28 |title=SpaceX inks first Space Force deal for government-focused Starshield satellite network |url=https://www.theverge.com/2023/9/28/23894239/spacex-starshield-satellite-network-space-force-pentagon-deal |access-date=2024-01-05 |website=The Verge |language=en |archive-date=January 5, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105035954/https://www.theverge.com/2023/9/28/23894239/spacex-starshield-satellite-network-space-force-pentagon-deal |url-status=live }}</ref> The contract is expected to support 54 mission partners across the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Coast Guard.<ref name=":55" /> Elon Musk stated that "Starlink needs to be a civilian network, not to participate in combat. Starshield will be owned the US government and controlled the [[United States Space Force|US space force]]". This is the right order of things".<ref name=":55" /> <br />
<br />
In June 2023, the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] officialized a contract with Shotwell's SpaceX to buy Starlink satellite services for Ukraine.<ref name=":10" /> The deal includes the Pentagon buying 400-500 Starlink terminals for Ukraine, giving the Pentagon control of where Starlink works inside the country without fear of interruption.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Satariano|first1=Adam|last2=Reinhard|first2=Scott|last3=Metz|first3=Cade|last4=Frenkel|first4=Sheera|last5=Khurana|first5=Malika|date=2023-07-28|title=Elon Musk's Unmatched Power in the Stars|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/07/28/business/starlink.html|access-date=2023-09-12|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=July 30, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730123606/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/07/28/business/starlink.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The terms of services of the final contract were undisclosed for security issues.<ref name=":10" /> Following the contract, The Pentagon stated Starlink was a "vital layer in Ukraine's overall communications network" amidst "a range of global partners to ensure Ukraine has the capabilities they need."<ref name=":10" /><br />
<br />
== Restrictions ==<br />
[[File:Ukraine Starlink Coverage - black.png|thumb|411x411px|Approximate Starlink coverage of Ukraine as of September 2023, according to the official map on the Starlink website.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=Starlink Coverage Map|url=https://www.starlink.com/map|access-date=2023-09-11|website=Starlink|archive-date=September 14, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230914191159/https://www.starlink.com/map|url-status=live}}</ref> Areas along the Belarusian and Russian borders, [[Crimea]], and parts of the [[Donbas]] are not covered.<ref name=":22" />]]<br />
SpaceX has continued to restrict the use of Starlink Internet services outside the borders of Ukraine, including in [[Russian-occupied territories in Ukraine]].<ref name=":22" /> It has done so using [[Geo-fence|geofencing]], which consists in accurately limiting the availability of the service to only certain areas.<ref name=":39" /> SpaceX has also limited Ukraine's ability to use Starlink for military purposes such as drone control.<ref name=":36" /><br />
<br />
Ukrainian officials have acknowledged their over-reliance on Starlink but could not find an equivalent in terms of coverage or quality of service.<ref name=":39" /> A US Department of Defense official said in 2022 that other entities existed to provide communications on the battlefields in Ukraine as an alternative to Starlink.<ref name=":41" /> A contractual arrangement with SpaceX for Starlink in Ukraine, as well as [[SpaceX Starshield|Starshield]], a separate military-focused version of Starlink, seem to have been the solutions chosen by the DoD and SpaceX against the restrictions.<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":42" /><ref name=":37" /><br />
<br />
=== Motives ===<br />
SpaceX CEO Elon Musk has vowed against the use of his company's Starlink for the military.<ref name=":38" /> He has openly declared Starlink was not meant to be involved in wars, citing peaceful activities like entertainment or online school instead of [[Drone warfare|drone strikes]].<ref name=":38" /> [[Gwynne Shotwell]], President of SpaceX and Starlink, largely aligns to this viewpoint.<ref name=":9" /><br />
<br />
Starlink legal documents claim it is not for use in weaponry as a military use of Starlink brings it under US export control laws like the [[International Traffic in Arms Regulations]] (ITAR) or the [[Export Administration Regulations]] (EAR).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Starlink Terms of Service |url=https://www.starlink.com/legal/documents/DOC-1041-35650-61 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909210447/https://www.starlink.com/legal/documents/DOC-1041-35650-61 |archive-date=September 9, 2023 |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=Starlink |page=8. Compliance}}</ref><br />
<br />
On February 8, 2023 [[Gwynne Shotwell]], President of Starlink, announced that the company had taken measures to prevent the use of Starlink service to control [[combat drone]]s.<ref name=":8" /> [[SpaceX]] restricted the licensing of Starlink communication technology to exclude direct military use of Starlink on weapon systems, such as the Ukraine use of Starlink antennas on [[uncrewed surface vehicle]]s.<ref name="navalnews20230215">{{cite news |last=Sutton |first=HI |date=15 February 2023 |title=Starlink Limits Ukraine's Maritime Drones At Time Of New Russian Threat |work=Naval News |url=https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2023/02/starlink-limits-ukraines-maritime-drones-at-time-of-new-russian-threat/ |access-date=15 February 2023 |archive-date=February 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215103901/https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2023/02/starlink-limits-ukraines-maritime-drones-at-time-of-new-russian-threat/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The same month, Elon Musk reiterated on Twitter "We will not enable escalation of conflict that may lead to [[World War III|WW3]]".<ref name=":21" /><br />
<br />
Ukrainians commanders had previously hypothesized that SpaceX could not selectively disable Starlink terminals used for drone strikes, forcing SpaceX to either ignore the issue or to switch off all terminals and start negotiating with the Pentagon for a military contract.<ref name=":51" /><br />
<br />
Shotwell has stated that "Ukrainians have leveraged [Starlink] in ways that were unintentional and not part of any agreement", as the free service was intended for humanitarian and defense purposes such as "providing broadband internet to hospitals, banks and families affected by Russia's invasion".<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |author=A. O. L. Staff|title=SpaceX limits Starlink use in Ukraine, company president says |url=https://www.aol.com/news/spacex-limits-starlink-ukraine-company-122954605.html |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=www.aol.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite news |last=Roulette |first=Joey |date=2023-02-09 |title=SpaceX curbed Ukraine's use of Starlink internet for drones -company president |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/spacex-curbed-ukraines-use-starlink-internet-drones-company-president-2023-02-09/ |access-date=2023-02-09 |archive-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209032450/https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/spacex-curbed-ukraines-use-starlink-internet-drones-company-president-2023-02-09/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Shotwell explained that her company agreed with Ukraine's military using Starlink for communications but never intended to have them use it as a weapon.<ref name=":9" /> She added "But then they started putting them on f---ing drones trying to blow up Russian ships. I’m happy to donate services for ambulances and hospitals and mothers [...] But it’s wrong to pay for military drone strikes."<ref name=":20" /><br />
<br />
Shotwell's statement drew criticism from supporters and politicians of Ukraine such as President [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] and [[Mykhailo Podolyak]].<ref name=":47" /> A Ukrainian military official called her statement "strange" given that the country's use of Starlink as a combat tool is well-established.<ref name=":47" /> Podolyak commented that companies had to decide if they were "on the side of the right to freedom" or "on the Russian Federation's side and its 'right' to kill and seize territories".<ref name=":7">{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/09/zelenskiy-aide-takes-aim-at-curbs-on-ukraine-use-of-starlink-to-pilot-drones-elon-musk | title=Fury in Ukraine as Elon Musk's SpaceX limits Starlink use for drones | newspaper=The Guardian | date=February 9, 2023 | last1=Sabbagh | first1=Dan | access-date=May 20, 2023 | archive-date=March 9, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309133527/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/09/zelenskiy-aide-takes-aim-at-curbs-on-ukraine-use-of-starlink-to-pilot-drones-elon-musk | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":36">{{Cite news|date=2023-02-09|title=Ukraine war: Elon Musk's SpaceX firm bars Kyiv from using Starlink tech for drone control|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-64579267|access-date=2023-09-09|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163331/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-64579267|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== October 2022 outages ===<br />
Communications black-outs happened in October 2022 when Ukrainian soldiers moved into [[Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts|Russian-contested areas]] in Southern Ukraine.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /> Ukrainian forces reported major Starlink outages across the front line, resulting in "catastrophic" losses of communication.<ref name=":27" /> Starlink did not work very close or beyond the frontline into Russian-controlled territories, as well as in very recently regained areas whose liberation had not yet been made public.<ref name=":27">{{Cite news|last1=Srivastava|first1=Mehul|last2=Miller|first2=Christopher|last3=Olearchyk|first3=Roman|last4=Schwartz|first4=Felicia|date=2022-10-07|title=Ukrainian forces report Starlink outages during push against Russia|work=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/9a7b922b-2435-4ac7-acdb-0ec9a6dc8397|access-date=2023-09-09|archive-date=May 19, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519120112/https://www.ft.com/content/9a7b922b-2435-4ac7-acdb-0ec9a6dc8397|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":21" /><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Srivastava |first1=Mehul |last2=Miller |first2=Christopher |last3=Olearchyk |first3=Roman |last4=Schwartz |first4=Felicia |date=2022-10-07 |title=Ukrainian forces report Starlink outages during push against Russia |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/9a7b922b-2435-4ac7-acdb-0ec9a6dc8397 |access-date=2023-09-24 |archive-date=May 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519120112/https://www.ft.com/content/9a7b922b-2435-4ac7-acdb-0ec9a6dc8397 |url-status=live }}</ref> <br />
<br />
Ukrainian and American officials said this caused units to become isolated, commanders risking themselves to get in radio range of the front lines, higher operational costs and loss of lives.<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":20" /> Several Ukrainian officials criticizing Starlink, speaking of widespread connection failures.<ref name=":27" /> The loss of communications prevented the Ukrainian military to defend themselves and coordinate their attacks in those areas, and had to retreat as a result.<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":20" /> Outages were acute in [[Battle of Kherson|Kherson]] and [[Bombing of Zaporizhzhia (2022–present)|Zaporizhzhia]] and occurred also in [[Battle of Kharkiv (2022)|Kharkiv]] and the [[Battle of Donbas (2022)|Donbas]].<ref name=":27" /> Starlink still functioned in newly liberated territory east of [[Battle of Izium (2022)|Izyum]], in the southern Kherson region<ref name=":27" /> and for drone-reconnaissance around [[Battle of Bakhmut|Bakhmut]].<ref name=":51" /> Ukrainian forces suspected the connection failures were due to SpaceX trying to curb the use of Starlink terminals on strike drones, or changes in the way the Starlink [[Geo-fence|geofencing]] worked.<ref name=":51" /><ref name=":31" /><br />
<br />
''Naval News'' wrote that SpaceX restrictions of direct military use of Starlink could potentially shift the balance of power in the [[List of Black Sea incidents involving Russia and Ukraine|naval war in the Black Sea]].<ref name="navalnews20230215" /> Senior defense officials at [[the Pentagon]] tried to solve the problem in several meetings but were not used to not having leverage on a private entity.<ref name=":21" /> The Pentagon sought a contractual arrangement with [[SpaceX]] that would prevent the company from being able to cease Starlink services in Ukraine on their own.<ref name=":21" /> (see above: [[Starlink in the Russo-Ukrainian War#Pentagon contracts|§Pentagon contracts]])<br />
<br />
In February 2023, Fedorov reported "no problems with the operation of Starlink uplink terminals in Ukraine."<ref name=":31" /> A ministry official familiar with the situation said cities near the war's front lines found no indications of trouble with Starlink coverage.<ref name=":47" /><br />
<br />
== Crimean Starlink coverage request denial incident ==<br />
=== Incident ===<br />
In September 2022, a Ukrainian [[unmanned surface vehicle]] (USV) with a Starlink terminal attached to its stern washed up in the Crimean city of [[Sevastopol]].<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":33" /> The naval drone has been assumed to be for reconnaissance, but may have also appeared to carry munitions and act as a bomb.<ref name=":33">{{Cite web|last=Gault|first=Matthew|date=2022-09-26|title=Mysterious Sea Drone Surfaces in Crimea|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/xgy4q7/mysterious-sea-drone-surfaces-in-crimea|access-date=2023-09-10|website=Vice|language=en}}</ref> Several experts noted that the sensors on the front of the naval drone could be used as a [[Laser rangefinder|laser range finder]] to help in targeting.<ref name=":33" /> <br />
<br />
In September 2022, Ukrainian [[Unmanned surface vehicle|drone boats]] strapped with explosives were attempting a sneak attack the Russian fleet in Sevastopol using Starlink to guide them to target.<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":19" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Copp |first=Tara |date=2023-09-12 |title=Elon Musk blocking Starlink to stop Ukraine attack troubling for DoD |url=https://www.defensenews.com/news/your-military/2023/09/12/elon-musk-blocking-starlink-to-stop-ukraine-attack-troubling-for-dod/ |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Defense News |language=en |archive-date=December 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214010531/https://www.defensenews.com/news/your-military/2023/09/12/elon-musk-blocking-starlink-to-stop-ukraine-attack-troubling-for-dod/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This was the first time Ukraine attempted such an attack.<ref name=":56">{{Cite web |title=First surface vessel attack on Crimea failed as Musk turned off connection – UP |url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2024/01/1/7435389/ |access-date=2024-01-06 |website=Ukrainska Pravda |language=en |archive-date=January 6, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106130939/https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2024/01/1/7435389/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Ukraine requested Musk to enable Starlink up to Crimea.<ref name=":46" /><ref name=":19" /> Musk declined the request but did not disable any existing coverage.<ref name=":46" /> ''The Atlantic'' said that some drone boats lost connectivity and washed ashore without exploding.<ref name=":44">{{Cite web|last=Applebaum|first=Anne|date=2023-09-11|title=What Russia Got by Scaring Elon Musk|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2023/09/elon-musk-let-russia-scare-him/675282/|access-date=2023-09-12|website=The Atlantic|language=en|archive-date=September 16, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230916102808/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2023/09/elon-musk-let-russia-scare-him/675282/|url-status=live}}</ref> Brigadier General of the [[Security Service of Ukraine|Secret Service of Ukraine]] stated that most of the drones then sank in the sea or self-destructed on the way to the bay.<ref name=":57">{{Cite web |date=2024-01-01 |title=Ukrainska Pravda: Elon Musk shutting off Starlink communications disrupted Ukrainian attack on Russian navy |url=https://news.yahoo.com/ukrainska-pravda-elon-musk-shutting-215732057.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102002526/https://news.yahoo.com/ukrainska-pravda-elon-musk-shutting-215732057.html |archive-date=2024-01-02 |access-date=2024-01-06 |website=Yahoo News |language=en-US}}</ref> The Ukrainian team tried to return the vessels back to the base,<ref name=":56" /> but only two drone [boats] returned to the Ukrainian base undamaged.<ref name=":56" /><ref name=":44" /> Members of the team said the two vessels that came back provided invaluable information on communication, navigation, hull.<ref name=":56" /> <br />
<br />
One of the participant of the operation recalls "We were 70 kilometres away from the [[Russian frigate Admiral Makarov|Admiral Makarov frigate]]. Everyone was on edge, as we were going to attack it. And then, our communication was cut off. Elon Musk switched off Starlink, which we used to control the vessels."<ref name=":56" /> According to another participant in a bunker, "Fedorov tried to persuade him, but Musk did not listen. Our people also tried to resolve the situation through their channels, but the Americans said that it was a private company, and they couldn't put pressure on it."<ref name=":56" /> Ukrainian presidential adviser [[Mykhailo Podolyak|Podolyak]] responded that civilians and children were being killed as a result, adding that this was "the price of a cocktail of ignorance and big ego".<ref name=":39" /><br />
<br />
A military laboratory of the Ukrainian Security Service and Navy studied and took everything into account,<ref name=":56" /> and a month later in late October 2022, seven similar black naval drones were used to mount a [[2022 drone attack on the Sevastopol Naval Base|successful drone attack]] on the [[Sevastopol Naval Base|Sevastopol Naval base]] in Crimea, where the Russian [[Black Sea fleet]] is stationed.<ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ozberk|first=Tayfun|date=2023-08-23|title=Ukraine's new underwater drone Marichka breaks cover|url=https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2023/08/ukraines-new-underwater-drone-marichka-breaks-cover/|access-date=2023-09-12|website=Naval News|language=en-US|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163332/https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2023/08/ukraines-new-underwater-drone-marichka-breaks-cover/|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== 2023 reactions over Musk's decision ===<br />
A year later in September 2023, [[Walter Isaacson]] described in [[Elon Musk (Isaacson book)|his Elon Musk biography]] that the latter had "secretly" told his engineers to turn off Starlink coverage within 100 kilometers of the Crimean coast, however this claim was later retracted by Isaacson as a mistake.<ref name=":46">{{Cite web |last=Darcy |first=Oliver |date=2023-09-12 |title=An explosive Elon Musk biography is just hitting shelves. But the book's acclaimed author is already walking back a major claim {{!}} CNN Business |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/11/media/walter-isaacson-elon-musk-reliable-sources/index.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=CNN |language=en |archive-date=September 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922122628/https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/11/media/walter-isaacson-elon-musk-reliable-sources/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Capoot |first=Ashley |date=2023-09-09 |title=Elon Musk biographer moves to 'clarify' details about Ukraine and Starlink after backlash |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/09/09/elon-musk-biographer-moves-to-clarify-details-on-ukraine-starlink.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915164635/https://www.cnbc.com/2023/09/09/elon-musk-biographer-moves-to-clarify-details-on-ukraine-starlink.html |archive-date=September 15, 2023 |access-date=2023-09-14 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref> The biography claim prompted several allegations against Musk for deliberately disrupting the operation.<ref name=":57" /> <br />
<br />
In September 2023, following Musk's decision not to extend Starlink coverage to Crimea, the [[United States Senate Committee on Armed Services|Senate Armed Services Committee]] probed the situation as a national security matter, raising concerns over Musk's influence over the war as a private citizen.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-09-14 |title=Musk's Denial of Ukraine's Starlink Request Prompts Senate Probe |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-09-14/elon-musk-s-denial-of-ukraine-s-starlink-request-prompts-senate-query |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915161746/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-09-14/elon-musk-s-denial-of-ukraine-s-starlink-request-prompts-senate-query |archive-date=September 15, 2023 |access-date=2023-09-20 |work=Bloomberg.com |language=en}}</ref> The Senate Committee on Armed Services launched an investigation on Starlink operations in Ukraine, citing "serious national liability issues" that have been exposed, and with the goal to ensure that US national security interests are protected.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Erwin |first=Sandra |date=2023-09-14 |title=Senate Armed Services Committee to probe Starlink operations in Ukraine |url=https://spacenews.com/senate-armed-services-committee-to-probe-starlink-operations-in-ukraine/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref> US Secretary of State [[Antony Blinken]] said letting billionaires taking decisions for national partners and allies was "unacceptable" and he was going to dig into it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dem Congressman says he'll "dig into" Musk's role in Ukraine war |url=https://www.msnbc.com/weekends-with-alex-witt/watch/rep-crow-that-is-unacceptable-192652357511 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915205907/https://www.msnbc.com/weekends-with-alex-witt/watch/rep-crow-that-is-unacceptable-192652357511 |archive-date=September 15, 2023 |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=MSNBC.com |language=en}}</ref> <br />
<br />
Senator [[Elizabeth Warren]] called for an investigation on Elon Musk and Starlink in Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Macias |first=Amanda |date=2023-09-12 |title=Elizabeth Warren calls for an investigation into Musk and Starlink in Ukraine after biography claim |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/09/12/warren-calls-for-investigation-into-elon-musk-and-starlink-in-ukraine.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915223403/https://www.cnbc.com/2023/09/12/warren-calls-for-investigation-into-elon-musk-and-starlink-in-ukraine.html |archive-date=September 15, 2023 |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref> Following comments Musk made about Taiwan, Taiwanese Foreign Minister [[Joseph Wu]] tweeted "Hope Elon Musk can also ask the CCP to open X to its people. Perhaps he thinks banning it is a good policy, like turning off Starlink to thwart Ukraine's counterstrike against Russia."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Shan |first1=Lee Ying |title=Taiwan slams Elon Musk, says it's 'not for sale' nor part of China |date=September 14, 2023 |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/09/14/taiwan-slams-elon-musk-says-its-not-for-sale-nor-part-of-china.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915223326/https://www.cnbc.com/2023/09/14/taiwan-slams-elon-musk-says-its-not-for-sale-nor-part-of-china.html |archive-date=September 15, 2023 |access-date=16 September 2023 |publisher=CNBC}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Davidson |first1=Helen |title=Taiwan tells Elon Musk it is 'not for sale' after latest China comments |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/sep/14/taiwan-elon-musk-china-comments-response-all-in-summit-los-angeles |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915220349/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/sep/14/taiwan-elon-musk-china-comments-response-all-in-summit-los-angeles |archive-date=September 15, 2023 |access-date=16 September 2023 |newspaper=The Guardian|date=September 14, 2023 }}</ref> Russian President Vladimir Putin – whom Musk claimed to have personally spoken to, then later denied this<ref name=":45" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-10-12 |title=Elon Musk denies he spoke to Putin about Ukraine war |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-63225781 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015234326/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-63225781 |archive-date=October 15, 2022 |access-date=2023-09-12 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> – and other Russian officials showed appreciation for Musk following the Western media backlash over his denial of Ukraine's request to enable Starlink in Crimea for drone attacks on the Sevastopol Naval base.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-09-12 |title=Putin hails Elon Musk as an 'outstanding person' and businessman |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/putin-hails-elon-musk-an-outstanding-person-businessman-2023-09-12/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163331/https://www.reuters.com/world/putin-hails-elon-musk-an-outstanding-person-businessman-2023-09-12/ |archive-date=September 18, 2023 |access-date=2023-09-13 |work=Reuters |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6" /><br />
<br />
''The Washington Post'', which had published Isaacson's opinion piece, corrected that "after the publication of this adaptation, the author learned that his book mischaracterized the attempted attack by Ukrainian drones on the Russian fleet in Crimea. Musk had already disabled ("[[Geo-fence|geofenced]]") coverage within 100 km of the Crimean coast before the attack began, and when the Ukrainians discovered this, they asked him to activate the coverage, and he refused."<ref name=":342">{{Cite news |date=2023-09-07 |title=Opinion {{!}} 'How am I in this war?': The untold story of Elon Musk's support for Ukraine |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2023/09/07/elon-musk-starlink-ukraine-russia-invasion/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231001193625/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2023/09/07/elon-musk-starlink-ukraine-russia-invasion/ |archive-date=2023-10-01 |access-date=2023-09-09 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en}}</ref> ''The Guardian'' and ''CNN'' also added a footnote to correct the claim.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Borger |first=Julian |date=2023-09-07 |title=Elon Musk ordered Starlink to be turned off during Ukraine offensive, book says |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/sep/07/elon-musk-ordered-starlink-turned-off-ukraine-offensive-biography |access-date=2024-01-05 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=September 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913024938/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/sep/07/elon-musk-ordered-starlink-turned-off-ukraine-offensive-biography |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lyngaas |first=Sean |date=2023-09-07 |title='How am I in this war?': New Musk biography offers fresh details about the billionaire's Ukraine dilemma {{!}} CNN Politics |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/07/politics/elon-musk-biography-walter-isaacson-ukraine-starlink/index.html |access-date=2024-01-06 |website=CNN |language=en |archive-date=September 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913093807/https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/07/politics/elon-musk-biography-walter-isaacson-ukraine-starlink/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> <br />
<br />
Isaacson corrected his claim and clarified that Elon Musk said that the policy to not allow Starlink to be used for an attack on Crimea had been implemented earlier than the night of the Ukrainian attack, while Ukrainians did not know about it.<ref name=":46" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Brodkin |first=Jon |date=2023-09-07 |title=Musk refused Ukraine's request to enable Starlink for drone attack [Updated] |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2023/09/how-am-i-in-this-war-book-details-musks-doubts-on-starlink-in-ukraine/ |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us |archive-date=September 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926002849/https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2023/09/how-am-i-in-this-war-book-details-musks-doubts-on-starlink-in-ukraine/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Ukrainian general [[Kyrylo Budanov]] declared being "not sure that Elon Musk operated some mythical buttons and stopped the movement of some devices. This is my personal opinion. The fact that the Starlink systems did not work for a certain time near the Crimea, I can absolutely confirm, because we also used a certain technique. We immediately realized that there is simply no coverage there".<ref name=":53">{{Cite web |date=2023-09-10 |title=Буданов прокоментував скандал із відключенням Starlink для ЗСУ |url=https://glavcom.ua/country/incidents/budanov-prokomentuvav-skandal-iz-vidkljuchennjam-starlink-dlja-zsu-955439.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927202848/https://glavcom.ua/country/incidents/budanov-prokomentuvav-skandal-iz-vidkljuchennjam-starlink-dlja-zsu-955439.html |archive-date=2023-09-27 |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=Главком {{!}} Glavcom |language=uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Буданов прокоментував скандал з Маском та відключенням Starlink |url=https://www.unian.ua/war/budanov-prokomentuvav-skandal-z-maskom-ta-vidklyuchennyam-starlink-12388389.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230911020611/https://www.unian.ua/war/budanov-prokomentuvav-skandal-z-maskom-ta-vidklyuchennyam-starlink-12388389.html |archive-date=2023-09-11 |access-date=2024-01-05 |website=www.unian.ua |language=uk}}</ref><br />
<br />
Elon Musk said Ukraine's intent was to sink most of the Russian fleet.<ref name=":26" /> According to him, [[International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine|US Sanctions on Russia]] prevented Starlink from being turned on near Crimea without approval from the [[Presidency of Joe Biden|Biden administration]] such as a [[Powers of the president of the United States|permission from the US President]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-13 |title=Musk says he didn't turn on Starlink near Crimea due to US sanctions on Russia |url=https://kyivindependent.com/musk-says-he-didnt-turn-on-starlink-due-to-us-sanctions-on-russia/ |access-date=2023-09-18 |website=The Kyiv Independent |language=en |archive-date=September 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230914101046/https://kyivindependent.com/musk-says-he-didnt-turn-on-starlink-due-to-us-sanctions-on-russia/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":48">{{Cite news |last=Quinn |first=Allison |date=2023-09-13 |title=Musk on Starlink Scandal: Ukraine 'Not in Charge' of U.S. |language=en |work=The Daily Beast |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/elon-musk-on-starlink-scandal-ukraine-is-not-in-charge-of-us |access-date=2023-09-20 |archive-date=September 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920105746/https://www.thedailybeast.com/elon-musk-on-starlink-scandal-ukraine-is-not-in-charge-of-us |url-status=live }}</ref> Musk said that the sanctions include Crimea, and that [SpaceX] is not allowed to turn on the connection to a sanctioned country without explicit government approval.<ref name=":57" /> Musk added that if he had agreed to the Ukrainians' request without US government approval, SpaceX would be in a "major act of war and conflict escalation".<ref name=":23" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Teh |first=Cheryl |title=Elon Musk says Joe Biden and the US government are the ones to blame for the Crimea Starlink debacle, not him |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-joe-biden-us-government-responsible-for-starlink-debacle-2023-9 |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US |archive-date=September 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920055857/https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-joe-biden-us-government-responsible-for-starlink-debacle-2023-9 |url-status=live }}</ref> He also compared a successful hypothetical Ukrainian sinking of the Russian fleet to a "mini-[[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]]".<ref name=":26">{{Cite news |date=2023-09-08 |title=Musk says he refused Kyiv request for Starlink use in attack on Russia |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/musk-says-he-refused-kyiv-request-use-starlink-attack-russia-2023-09-08/ |access-date=2023-09-16 |archive-date=September 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915152008/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/musk-says-he-refused-kyiv-request-use-starlink-attack-russia-2023-09-08/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''The Atlantic'' claimed that a week later another Ukrainian attack using a different communications system did hit their targets in the port of Sevastopol, causing [[Deterrence theory|deterrence]] from the Russian Navy without escalation.<ref name=":44" /><br />
<br />
Musk had talked with [[Russian Ambassador to the United States|Russian ambassador to the US]] [[Anatoly Antonov]], who warned him an attack on Crimea [[Nuclear risk during the Russian invasion of Ukraine|would be met with a nuclear response]].<ref name=":44" /> To address concerns from DC, Musk explained in a call with [[Jake Sullivan|Biden's security adviser]] and the same US Russian ambassador, that he did not wish Starlink to be used offensively.<ref name=":29">{{Cite web|last=Lyngaas|first=Sean|date=2023-09-07|title=CNN Exclusive: 'How am I in this war?': New Musk biography offers fresh details about the billionaire's Ukraine dilemma {{!}} CNN Politics|url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/07/politics/elon-musk-biography-walter-isaacson-ukraine-starlink/index.html|access-date=2023-09-09|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=September 13, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913093807/https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/07/politics/elon-musk-biography-walter-isaacson-ukraine-starlink/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Musk told Pentagon officials that he spoke with [[Vladimir Putin]].<ref name=":45">{{Cite web|date=2023-08-22|title=Elon Musk spoke with Vladimir Putin directly, Pentagon official says|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/elon-musk-putin-colin-kahl-pentagon-ukraine-starlink-b2397109.html|access-date=2023-09-12|website=The Independent|language=en|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163332/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/elon-musk-putin-colin-kahl-pentagon-ukraine-starlink-b2397109.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Anne Applebaum]] wrote in ''The Atlantic'' that Musk's influence had been played by [[Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russian disinformation]], the latter having already been used in the Invasion of Ukraine as part of [[Russian information war against Ukraine|Russia's information war]].<ref name=":44" /><ref name="TSnyder_Guardian">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/sep/17/elon-musk-likes-to-think-he-saved-us-from-armageddon-hes-just-brought-it-closer|title=Elon Musk likes to think he saved us from Armageddon. He's just brought it closer|last=Snyder|first=Timothy|date=2023-09-17|website=The Guardian|access-date=2023-09-17|archive-date=September 17, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230917123408/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/sep/17/elon-musk-likes-to-think-he-saved-us-from-armageddon-hes-just-brought-it-closer|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to a space industry consultant, the controversy over Musk's decision to restrict Ukrainian forces’ access to Starlink in the disputed territory of Crimea appeared to underlie how the DoD wrote the contract with [[SpaceX Starshield|SpaceX's Starshield]] military satellite constellation, even though the details are largely unknown.<ref name="sn2023103022">[https://spacenews.com/spacex-providing-starlink-services-to-dod-under-unique-terms-and-conditions/ SpaceX providing Starlink services to DoD under 'unique terms and conditions'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213165258/https://spacenews.com/spacex-providing-starlink-services-to-dod-under-unique-terms-and-conditions/|date=13 December 2023}}, [[SpaceNews]], 3 October 2023.</ref><br />
<br />
== Russian response and use ==<br />
=== Countermeasures ===<br />
The intervention of Starlink in the Ukrainian War against Russian forces has put the satellite service at risk of not being allowed in the Russian market in the future.<ref name=":35" /> Russia has warned that Western commercial satellites used to help Ukraine could become a legitimate target for a retaliatory strike, describing such use of these satellites as provocative.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-10-27 |title=Russia warns West: We can target your commercial satellites |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-says-wests-commercial-satellites-could-be-targets-2022-10-27/ |access-date=2023-09-27 |archive-date=October 27, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027070217/https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-says-wests-commercial-satellites-could-be-targets-2022-10-27/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":54">{{Cite web |last=Brown |first=Tara |date=August 5, 2022 |title=Can Starlink satellites be lawfully targeted? |url=https://lieber.westpoint.edu/can-starlink-satellites-be-lawfully-targeted/ |access-date=September 28, 2023 |website=lieber.westpoint.edu |archive-date=September 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926003746/https://lieber.westpoint.edu/can-starlink-satellites-be-lawfully-targeted/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
Russia has tried to cut off and [[Radio jamming|jam]] internet services in Ukraine, including attempts to block Starlink in the region.<ref name=":10" /> [[2022 Ukraine cyberattacks|Russian cyberattacks]] against Starlink appear to have been ineffective compared to other satellite services.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":54" /> Reasons advanced include SpaceX's speed of response and Starlink engineers' ability to defeat Russian jamming.<ref name=":11" /> The director for electronic warfare at the [[United States Secretary of Defense|US Secretary of Defense]] described the speed of the software response he witnessed to one attack as "eye-watering".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Duffy |first=Kate |title=A top Pentagon official said SpaceX Starlink rapidly fought off a Russian jamming attack in Ukraine |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-starlink-pentagon-russian-jamming-attack-elon-musk-dave-tremper-2022-4 |access-date=2023-09-18 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US |archive-date=October 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005025622/https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-starlink-pentagon-russian-jamming-attack-elon-musk-dave-tremper-2022-4 |url-status=live }}</ref> One document from the [[2022–2023 Pentagon document leaks]] details how Russia has attempted to disrupt Starlink systems provided by SpaceX to Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Horton |first=Alex |date=April 18, 2023 |title=Russia unveils secretive weapon to target SpaceX's Starlink in Ukraine |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2023/04/18/discord-leaks-starlink-ukraine/ |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=April 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419005735/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2023/04/18/discord-leaks-starlink-ukraine/ |archive-date=19 April 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
In October 2022, amidst [[2022 Kharkiv counteroffensive|Ukrainian counteroffensives]] in the [[Battle of Donbas (2022–present)|Battle of Donbas]], Russian forces reportedly disrupted a Ukrainian Starlink system in the [[Battle of Soledar|Soledar]]-[[Battle of Bakhmut|Bakhmut]] area after they destroyed a [[Shortwave listening|shortwave repeater]].<ref>{{cite news|date=15 October 2022|title=RUSSIAN OFFENSIVE CAMPAIGN ASSESSMENT, OCTOBER 15|work=The Institute for the Study of War|url=https://understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-october-15|access-date=29 November 2022|archive-date=June 11, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230611003239/https://understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-october-15|url-status=live}}</ref> The same month, Starlink terminals were subject to Russian cyberattacks which were quickly prevented by hardening the service's software.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":10" /> In early May 2022, the Russian head of [[Roscosmos]] and politician [[Dmitry Rogozin]] said Elon Musk will be held responsible "as an adult" for having provided the [[Armed Forces of Ukraine]] with Starlink satellites.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":35" /><br />
<br />
On 18 January 2023, the Russian group "Co-ordinational Centre for the assistance of [[Novorossiya (confederation)|Novorossiya]]" posted photos of a [[List of aircraft losses during the Russo-Ukrainian War|captured Ukrainian reconnaissance drone]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ukraine Might Be Modifying Starlink Dishes to Mount On Drones - ExtremeTech |url=https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/342418-ukraine-might-be-modifying-starlink-dishes-to-mount-on-drones |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120121614/https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/342418-ukraine-might-be-modifying-starlink-dishes-to-mount-on-drones |archive-date=20 January 2023 |access-date=2023-01-29 |website=extremetech.com}}</ref> Upon disassembly, the group stated that a Starlink antenna was found attached to the device, along with a [[Raspberry Pi]] computer and a CubePilot module. With an integrated Starlink dish, the drone would have had internet access anywhere it could see open sky. That would allow it to be controlled from anywhere in the world with a satellite connection.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Peleschuk |first=Dan |date=2023-01-27 |title=Ukraine sets up drone assault units |language=en |publisher=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukraine-sets-up-drone-assault-units-2023-01-27/ |access-date=2023-01-29 |archive-date=August 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803211149/http://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukraine-sets-up-drone-assault-units-2023-01-27/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ukraine May Be Fitting Starlink Dishes on Drones to Fight Russia |url=https://www.pcmag.com/news/ukraine-may-be-fitting-starlink-dishes-on-aerial-drones-to-fight-russia |access-date=2023-01-29 |website=PCMAG |language=en |archive-date=December 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214010530/https://www.pcmag.com/news/ukraine-may-be-fitting-starlink-dishes-on-aerial-drones-to-fight-russia |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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In August 2023, during [[2023 Ukrainian counteroffensive|Ukraine's counteroffensive]], a [[Five Eyes]] report found that Russian hackers planted [[malware]]s designed to steal data to Starlink from the [[Android (operating system)|Android]] [[Tablet computer|tablets]] of Ukrainian soldiers.<ref name=":30">{{Cite web|last=Lyngaas|first=Sean|date=2023-08-31|title=Russian military hackers take aim at Ukrainian soldiers' battle plans, US and allies say {{!}} CNN Politics|url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/08/31/politics/military-hackers-russia-ukraine/index.html|access-date=2023-09-09|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918163332/https://www.cnn.com/2023/08/31/politics/military-hackers-russia-ukraine/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Security Service of Ukraine|Ukrainian Security Services]] said to have blocked some of the hacking attempts and conceded Russians had captured tablets on the battlefield and planted malwares on them.<ref name=":30" /><br />
<br />
=== Reported Starlink use ===<br />
Until 2023, the Russian military did not have access to a Starlink-like equivalent, giving the Ukrainian military an advantage.<ref name=":52" /><br />
<br />
In February 2024, Ukraine's Defence intelligence said to have confirmed the use of Starlink satellite communications by Russian forces in occupied areas of Ukraine.<ref name=":58">{{Cite web |last1=Kostenko |first1=Maria |last2=Cullen |first2=Simon |date=2024-02-11 |title=Ukraine claims Russian forces using Starlink internet service |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/02/11/europe/ukraine-russia-starlink-internet-intl/index.html |access-date=2024-02-11 |website=CNN |language=en |archive-date=February 11, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211195316/https://www.cnn.com/2024/02/11/europe/ukraine-russia-starlink-internet-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-13 |title=Ukraine says Russia buying Starlink terminals in 'Arab countries' |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukraines-military-intelligence-says-russia-buying-starlink-terminals-arab-2024-02-13/ |access-date=2024-02-15 |website=Reuters}}</ref> According to Ukrainian military, Russian troops had been communicating over the Starlink system for "quite a long time" and were now using thousands of Starlink terminals.<ref name=":61">{{Cite web |date=2024-02-19 |title=Russia using thousands of SpaceX Starlink terminals in Ukraine, WSJ says |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia-using-thousands-spacex-starlink-terminals-ukraine-wsj-says-2024-02-15/ |website=Reuters}}</ref> For instance, by [[83rd Guards Air Assault Brigade|Russia's 83rd Air Assault Brigade]] near [[Andriivka, Bakhmut Raion, Donetsk Oblast|Andriivka]] and [[Klishchiivka]] in the Donetsk.<ref name=":64">{{Cite news |date=2024-02-12 |title=Ukraine claims Russian forces using Musk's Starlink in occupied areas |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/feb/12/ukraine-accuses-russia-forces-using-elon-musk-starlink |access-date=2024-02-21 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=February 21, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240221065528/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/feb/12/ukraine-accuses-russia-forces-using-elon-musk-starlink |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":58" /><br />
<br />
Ukrainian media reported that Russian forces may have obtained the terminals via Dubai<ref name=":59">{{Cite web |title=Russia using Elon Musk's Starlink on Ukraine front line, says Kyiv |url=https://www.ft.com/content/e69c8c20-85a2-4e98-8b6f-46b92f42871b |access-date=2024-02-11 |website=www.ft.com |archive-date=February 11, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211161810/https://www.ft.com/content/e69c8c20-85a2-4e98-8b6f-46b92f42871b |url-status=live }}</ref> or from private Russian films that purchased them from intermediaries.<ref name=":61" /> SpaceX said that to the best of their knowledge, Starlink terminals had not been sold directly or indirectly to Russia.<ref name=":64" /> SpaceX said it does not do business with the Russian government or its military, and Starlink said that its service doesn't work in Russia.<ref name=":5822">{{Cite web |last1=Kostenko |first1=Maria |last2=Cullen |first2=Simon |date=2024-02-11 |title=Ukraine claims Russian forces using Starlink internet service |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/02/11/europe/ukraine-russia-starlink-internet-intl/index.html |access-date=2024-02-11 |website=CNN |language=en |archive-date=February 11, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211195316/https://www.cnn.com/2024/02/11/europe/ukraine-russia-starlink-internet-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> SpaceX responded that Starlink cannot be purchased, shipped to or operated in Dubai. Starlink has not authorized any third-party intermediaries to resell terminals in Dubai.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Security |first1=Ellie Cook |last2=Reporter |first2=Defense |date=2024-02-11 |title=Russia's use of Starlink "systemic" in Ukraine: Kyiv |url=https://www.newsweek.com/russia-starlink-ukraine-gur-elon-musk-1868839 |access-date=2024-02-11 |website=Newsweek |language=en |archive-date=February 11, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211142037/https://www.newsweek.com/russia-starlink-ukraine-gur-elon-musk-1868839 |url-status=live }}</ref> Starlink terminals used by a sanctioned or unauthorized party would be deactivated if confirmed.<ref name=":5832">{{Cite web |last1=Kostenko |first1=Maria |last2=Cullen |first2=Simon |date=2024-02-11 |title=Ukraine claims Russian forces using Starlink internet service |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/02/11/europe/ukraine-russia-starlink-internet-intl/index.html |access-date=2024-02-11 |website=CNN |language=en |archive-date=February 11, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211195316/https://www.cnn.com/2024/02/11/europe/ukraine-russia-starlink-internet-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Russia said Starlink was not certified in their country and accordingly could not be officially supplied in Russia and was not officially used there.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-12 |title=Kremlin denies its troops use Elon Musk's Starlink |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/kremlin-denies-its-troops-use-elon-musks-starlink-2024-02-12/ |website=Reuters}}</ref> Similarly to SpaceX's terminals, [[DJI]]'s drones are sold in Russia without the company knowing or agreeing with the sales.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Reporter |first=Micah McCartney China News |date=2024-02-29 |title=Starlink terminals sold in Russia despite Musk's denial |url=https://www.newsweek.com/chinese-retailer-caught-selling-starlink-terminals-russia-1874756 |access-date=2024-03-01 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
Ukraine Intelligence released a radio intercept of the occupiers discussing the possibility of purchasing Starlink terminals via an Arab country.<ref name=":62">{{Cite web |title=UAWire - Ukraine proposes a way for Musk to disconnect Russians from Starlink |url=https://www.uawire.org/ukraine-proposes-a-way-for-musk-to-disconnect-russians-from-starlink |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=www.uawire.org |archive-date=February 20, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220162004/https://www.uawire.org/ukraine-proposes-a-way-for-musk-to-disconnect-russians-from-starlink |url-status=live }}</ref> In Russia, private sellers trade Starlink terminals operating only near the Ukrainian border, and personal user accounts to the network are connected through Poland.<ref name=":62" /> The advertisements specify that the subscription fee starts at $100 per month and the terminal will have a home account already set up.<ref name=":62" /> Ukraine has tried to prevent Russia from coordinatinating attacks using Starlink.<ref name=":602">{{Cite web |date=2024-02-12 |title=Ukraine says Russian forces obtaining Musk's Starlink via third countries |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukraines-military-intelligence-says-it-confirms-use-musks-starlink-by-russian-2024-02-11/ |access-date=2024-02-15 |website=Reuters}}</ref> Videos from February 2024 showed Ukrainian drones destroying Russian Starlink terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ukrainian Drone Operators Showcase Destruction of russian Starlink Satellite Systems (Video) {{!}} Defense Express |url=https://en.defence-ua.com/news/ukrainian_drone_operators_showcase_destruction_of_russian_starlink_satellite_systems_video-9496.html |access-date=2024-02-15 |website=en.defence-ua.com |language=en |archive-date=February 15, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215191709/https://en.defence-ua.com/news/ukrainian_drone_operators_showcase_destruction_of_russian_starlink_satellite_systems_video-9496.html |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
Previously, Ukraine had contested Musk's decision to limit Starlink in Russian-occupied areas of Ukraine, because Ukraine wanted its forces to use Starlink for operations in those areas.<ref name=":5922">{{Cite web |title=Russia using Elon Musk's Starlink on Ukraine front line, says Kyiv |url=https://www.ft.com/content/e69c8c20-85a2-4e98-8b6f-46b92f42871b |access-date=2024-02-11 |website=www.ft.com |archive-date=February 11, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211161810/https://www.ft.com/content/e69c8c20-85a2-4e98-8b6f-46b92f42871b |url-status=live }}</ref> Later in February 2024, Ukraine complained that Ukrainians and Russians were now both using Starlink in Russian-controlled areas.<ref name=":5922"/> <br />
<br />
If SpaceX introduced geofencing to stop Starlink use by Russia on the front lines, nearby Ukrainian Starlink terminals could also be affected.<ref name=":5922"/> Ukraine confirmed it still needed the Starlink terminals to work in all areas because specific technologies are being used linked to the drones.<ref name=":63222">{{Cite web |date=2024-02-19 |title=Ukraine Seeking Action to Stop Russian Use of Starlink, Minister says |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2024-02-19/ukraine-seeking-action-to-stop-russian-use-of-starlink-minister-says |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=U.S.News |archive-date=February 20, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220164758/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2024-02-19/ukraine-seeking-action-to-stop-russian-use-of-starlink-minister-says |url-status=live }}</ref> Ukraine reassured that there are ways so that their Starlinks work but others do not, and that they were working on that with SpaceX.<ref name=":63">{{Cite web |date=2024-02-19 |title=Ukraine Seeking Action to Stop Russian Use of Starlink, Minister says |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2024-02-19/ukraine-seeking-action-to-stop-russian-use-of-starlink-minister-says |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=U.S.News |archive-date=February 20, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220164758/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2024-02-19/ukraine-seeking-action-to-stop-russian-use-of-starlink-minister-says |url-status=live }}</ref> On February 19, Ukraine communicated that they had found an algorithm, proposed it to SpaceX and were now working with SpaceX to disable Russian Starlink use.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-19 |title=Suspilne: Ukraine 'working with SpaceX' to disable Russia's use of Starlink on front lines, Minister says |url=https://kyivindependent.com/suspilne-ukraine-working-with-spacex-to-disable-russias-use-of-starlink-on-front-lines-minister-says/ |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=The Kyiv Independent |language=en |archive-date=February 20, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220022536/https://kyivindependent.com/suspilne-ukraine-working-with-spacex-to-disable-russias-use-of-starlink-on-front-lines-minister-says/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
== General reactions over Elon Musk ==<br />
The involvement of [[Elon Musk]] (founder of [[SpaceX]] and [[Starlink]]) in the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]] has been met with concerns.<ref name=":21" /> In late August 2023, [[Ronan Farrow]] remarked that "There was little precedent for a civilian becoming the arbiter of a war between nations while the government has no level of control over his decisions".<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /> His influence has been described as "more like [that of] a nation state than an individual".<ref name=":20" /> A Pentagon insider commented in 2022 that "Elon Musk hasn't been elected, no one decided to give him that power. He has it because of the technology and company he built".<ref name=":23" /><br />
== Supplies ==<br />
{{Dynamic list|multiple=no}}<br />
<br />
* The first shipment of Starlink terminals arrived on February 28, 2022, during the [[Battle of Kyiv (2022)|Battle of Kyiv]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-03-02|title=В Україні запрацював супутниковий інтернет від Ілона Маска – Starlink. Яка швидкість та чи становить це небезпеку — Forbes.ua|url=https://forbes.ua/inside/v-ukraini-zapratsyuvav-suputnikoviy-internet-vid-ilona-maska-starlink-yaka-shvidkist-ta-chi-stanovit-tse-nebezpeku-02032022-4054|access-date=2023-09-09|website=forbes.ua|language=uk|archive-date=March 11, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220311022343/https://forbes.ua/inside/v-ukraini-zapratsyuvav-suputnikoviy-internet-vid-ilona-maska-starlink-yaka-shvidkist-ta-chi-stanovit-tse-nebezpeku-02032022-4054|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
* 2,000 terminals were sent via Poland in the early days of the war. With 6,000 more terminals and dishes shipped a few days after.{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}}<br />
* By 6 April 2022, SpaceX had sent over 5000 Starlink terminals to Ukraine to allow Ukrainians access to the Starlink network.<ref>{{cite web|date=6 April 2022|title=U.S. Sends 5,000 SpaceX Starlink Internet Terminals to Ukraine|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-04-06/u-s-sends-5-000-spacex-starlink-internet-terminals-to-ukraine|access-date=8 April 2022|work=[[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]]|archive-date=May 2, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502000912/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-04-06/u-s-sends-5-000-spacex-starlink-internet-terminals-to-ukraine|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
* By June 2022, Musk said over 15,000 Starlink terminals had been sent to Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Duffy |first=Kate |title=Elon Musk says SpaceX has sent 15,000 Starlink internet kits to Ukraine over the past 3 months |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-spacex-sent-starlink-satellite-internet-terminals-ukraine-2022-6 |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US |archive-date=October 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005025621/https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-spacex-sent-starlink-satellite-internet-terminals-ukraine-2022-6 |url-status=live }}</ref> The same month, Ukraine received a new batch of antennae for Ukrainian intelligence units.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zaxid.net |title=Ілон Маск передав партію Starlink для українських розвідників |url=https://zaxid.net/ilon_mask_peredav_partiyu_starlink_dlya_ukrayinskih_rozvidnikiv_n1544391 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711224106/https://zaxid.net/ilon_mask_peredav_partiyu_starlink_dlya_ukrayinskih_rozvidnikiv_n1544391 |archive-date=July 11, 2022 |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=ZAXID.NET |date=June 12, 2022 |language=uk}}</ref><br />
* In July 2022, European countries had sent Starlink terminals to Ukraine from their own supplies.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Elon Musk's Starlink is keeping Ukrainians online when traditional Internet fails |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/03/19/elon-musk-ukraine-starlink/ |url-status=live |access-date=2022-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220604201537/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/03/19/elon-musk-ukraine-starlink/ |archive-date=June 4, 2022 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><br />
* By mid August 2022, Ukraine internet service was being provided by more than 20,000 Starlink terminals.<ref name=":23" /><br />
* In December 2022, SpaceX had sent 22,000 Starlink terminals to Ukraine since the war began.<ref name=":12" /><br />
* In February 2023, 10,000 Starlink terminals provided by the German government arrived in Ukraine.<ref name=":47" /><ref name=":31" /><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Space warfare]]<br />
* [[List of Starlink and Starshield launches]]<br />
* [[Russian–Ukrainian cyberwarfare|Russo–Ukrainian cyberwarfare]]<br />
* [[Corporate responses to the Russian invasion of Ukraine]]<br />
* [[List of military aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War]]<br />
* [[Rocket Cargo]], other SpaceX military contract<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
<br />
* [[c:Category:Starlink in Ukrainian military service|Category:Starlink in Ukrainian military service]] on Wikimedia Commons.<br />
{{2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|Reactions}}<br />
{{SpaceX}}<br />
{{Elon Musk}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Reactions to the Russian invasion of Ukraine in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Economic history of Ukraine]]<br />
[[Category:Development in Europe]]<br />
[[Category:SpaceX satellites]]<br />
[[Category:Internet in Ukraine]]<br />
[[Category:Space warfare]]<br />
[[Category:SpaceX military contracts]]<br />
[[Category:Military satellites]]<br />
[[Category:Russian–Ukrainian cyberwarfare]]<br />
[[Category:Telecommunications in Ukraine]]<br />
[[Category:Ukrainian responses to the Russian invasion of Ukraine]]</div>AmgineIXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_Physical_Society&diff=1218856610German Physical Society2024-04-14T07:17:26Z<p>AmgineIX: Removed space before punctuation</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Physics organisation in Germany}}<br />
{{Multiple issues|<br />
{{Advert|date=February 2024}}<br />
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{{Infobox organization<br />
| name = Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft e.V.<br />
| image = Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft Logo.svg<br />
| image_border = <br />
| size = 161x68px<br />
| caption = Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft<br />
| map = <br />
| msize = <br />
| mcaption = <br />
| abbreviation = DPG<br />
| motto = <br />
| formation = 1845<br />
| extinction = <br />
| type = Scientific<br />
| status = <br />
| purpose = Research<br />
| headquarters = <br />
| location = [[Germany]]<br />
| region_served = <br />
| membership = 52,220 (2022)<br />
| language = <br />
| leader_title = <br />
| key_people = [[Joachim Ullrich]] (<small>President</small>)<br />
| main_organ = <br />
| parent_organization = <br />
| affiliations = <br />
| num_staff = <br />
| num_volunteers = <br />
| budget = <br />
| website = http://www.dpg-physik.de/index.html<br />
| remarks = <br />
}}<br />
The '''German Physical Society''' (German: {{lang|de|Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft}}, '''DPG''') is the oldest organisation of physicists. The DPG's worldwide membership is cited as 52,220, as of 2022,<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.dpg-physik.de/ueber-uns/profil-und-selbstverstaendnis/zahlen-und-fakten?year=2022| title=Zahlen und Fakten }}</ref> making it one of the largest national physics societies in the world. The number of the DPG's members peaked in 2014, when it reached 63,000, but it has been decreasing since then. It holds an annual conference ({{lang|de|Jahrestagung}}) and multiple spring conferences ({{lang|de|Frühjahrstagungen}}), which are held at various locations and along topical subjects of given sections of the DPG.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.dpg-physik.de/ |publisher = DPG|title = Official Web site|language = de}}</ref><ref>Circa 1918 its membership was about 750 and in the 1930s about 1400. See Hentschel, 1996, Appendix A.</ref><br />
The DPG serves the fields of pure and applied physics. The main aims are to bring its members and all physicists living in Germany closer together, represent their entirety outwards, as well as foster the exchange of ideas between its members and foreign colleagues. The DPG binds itself and its members to advocate for freedom, tolerance, veracity and dignity in science and to be aware of the fact that the people working in science are responsible to a particularly high extent for the configuration of the overall human activity.<br />
<br />
==Conferences==<br />
The DPG itself does not carry out any research, but its conferences promote the sharing of information about the latest findings in the field of physics. The traditional spring meetings held by the DPG each year at venues across the country are among the largest physics conferences in Europe, attended by around 10,000 experts from Germany and abroad.<ref>Physik Journal 09/2011 S.99 ff – DPG Annual Report 2010</ref> Fostering young talent is another central concern of the DPG: its conferences provide a platform, particularly for younger scientists. The conferences provide students with opportunities to meet renowned scientists in person. The DPG also runs a nationwide network for physics students in the working group Young DPG. Female physicists have a forum of their own in the annual German Conference of Women in Physics. In partnership with the [[Bonn-Cologne Graduate School of Physics and Astronomy]] (BCGS), the DPG also provides a platform for students of the school to network with leaders in the field with the annual BCGS Weekend Seminar : a retreat with physics lectures across several areas including excursions and social events.<br />
<br />
==Awards and school projects==<br />
The DPG honours outstanding achievements in physics with awards of international repute. The highest awards which are presented by the DPG are the [[Max Planck Medal]] for work in theoretical physics, first awarded in 1929, and the [[Stern–Gerlach Medal]] for work in experimental physics, first awarded in 1933. Some awards, such as the [[Gustav Hertz Prize]] for Young Physicists, intend to foster young talent. Others are awarded by the DPG in cooperation with other organisations in Germany and abroad, such as the [[Max Born Medal and Prize]] or the [[Otto Hahn Prize]]. The [[Medal for Natural Science Journalism]] is awarded by the DPG to personalities who have made a special contribution to bringing scientific facts to the attention of the general public. In addition, the DPG awards prizes to school graduates throughout the country for outstanding achievements in physics.<ref>[http://www.dpg-physik.de/dpg/preise/index.html DPG] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429224743/http://www.dpg-physik.de/dpg/preise/index.html |date=2007-04-29 }} – Medals and Prizes</ref> It supports competitions for school students such as the {{lang|de|Jugend forscht}} (national research contest for young scientists), promotes innovative school projects and organises advanced training courses for teaching staff.<br />
<br />
=== Young Scientist Award for Socio- and Econophysics ===<br />
Since 2002, the {{lang|de|Fachverband Physik sozio-ökonomischer Systeme}} (Physics of Socio-Economic Systems Division) recognizes "outstanding original contributions that use physical methods to develop a better understanding of socio-economic problems".<ref name=RefAksoeYSA>{{cite web|title=Young Scientist Award for Socio- and Econophysics|url=https://www.dpg-physik.de/dpg/gliederung/fv/soe/YSA/preistraeger_YSA.html|publisher=Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft|access-date=15 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020052932/https://www.dpg-physik.de/dpg/gliederung/fv/soe/YSA/preistraeger_YSA.html|archive-date=20 October 2014}}</ref><br />
Awardees are Vittoria Colizza (2013), Arne Traulsen (2012), Santo Fortunato (2011), [[Dirk Brockmann]] (2010), [[Duncan Watts]] (2009), Fabrizio Lillo (2008), Katarzyna Sznajd-Weron (2007) for the [[Sznajd model]], Xavier Gabaix (2006), Reuven Cohen (2005), Illes Farkas (2004), Vasliki Plerou (2002) and Damien Challet (2002).<br />
<br />
==Publications==<br />
The DPG produces a range of various publications. The membership journal of the DPG {{lang|de|[[Physik Journal]]}} provides news reports from the DPG and about physics in general. Besides, the DPG joins forces with the British Institute of Physics to publish the electronic open access journal ''[[New Journal of Physics]]''. The articles published here have gone through a strict peer review in line with the stringent scientific quality standards propounded by the ''New Journal of Physics''. Moreover, the DPG also publishes its conference programme every year under the name {{lang|de|Verhandlungen der DPG}} (Programme Booklets for DPG Conferences), listing the abstracts of around 8,000 papers. And the web portal www.welt-der-physik.de, operated jointly by the DPG and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), provides much information about physics even for nonexperts.<br />
<br />
===Historical publications===<br />
Publications of the DPG have included:<ref name=autogenerated1 /><ref>Jungnickel, Volume 2, 1990, p. 421. See the listing for the German Physical Society.</ref><br />
* {{lang|de|[[Berichte der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft]]}}<br />
* {{lang|de|Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft}}<br />
* {{lang|de|[[Physikalische Blätter]]}} (continued as {{lang|de|Physik Journal}})<br />
* {{lang|de|Fortschritte der Physik}}<br />
* {{lang|de|Zeitschrift für Physik}} (continued as ''[[European Physical Journal]]'')<br />
<br />
From the time of its creation in 1845, the DPG published {{lang|de|Fortschritte der Physik}} and its {{lang|de|Verhandlungen}}, but by 1919, the {{lang|de|Verhandlungen}} had become too voluminous, so DPG chairman [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] formed a committee consisting of [[Albert Einstein]], [[Eugen Goldstein]], [[Fritz Haber]], [[Eugene (Eugen) Jahnke|E. Jahnke]], [[Karl Scheel]], and [[Wilhelm Westphal]], which recommended that a new journal, the {{lang|de|Zeitschrift für Physik}}, should be established for rapid publication of original research articles by established scientists without peer review; it began publication the following year. In 1975 {{lang|de|Zeitschrift für Physik}} was merged with ''[[Physics of Condensed Matter]]'' ({{ISSN|0340-2347}}). {{lang|de|Zeitschrift für Physik}} was published as a 4-part journal from 1920–1997 by [[Springer-Verlag]] under the auspices of the DPG. During the early 20th century, it was considered one of the most prestigious journals in physics, with its golden years coinciding with the golden years of [[quantum mechanics]].<ref>[http://www.epj.org/_pdf/epj_zfp_history.pdf Zeitschrift für Physik: A Historical Reminiscence] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324103629/http://www.epj.org/_pdf/epj_zfp_history.pdf |date=2012-03-24 }} at the EPJ website.</ref> <br />
It was the vehicle used by those with avant-garde views and the young generation of quantum physicists in the 1920s.<ref>Kragh, 1999, pp. 150–151.</ref><br />
<br />
==Physics and public relations==<br />
The DPG plays an active role in the dialogue between science and the general public with a range of popular scientific publications, [[physics outreach]], and public events. These activities also include the Highlights of Physics, an annual physics festival organised jointly by the DPG and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research. It is the largest festival of its kind in Germany with around 30,000 visitors every year.<ref>[http://www.physik-highlights.de/ Home<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
==Social discussions==<br />
The DPG engages in socio-political discussions by releasing press statements, carrying out studies, giving statements and attending parliamentary evenings. It deals with current issues such as fostering young talent, climate protection, energy supply or arms control through to science and cultural history issues. The DPG is particularly committed to equal opportunities for men and women and to promote women in natural sciences.<br />
<br />
==In Bonn and Berlin==<br />
The DPG office headed by the Chief Executive Bernhard Nunner is located in the {{lang|de|Physikzentrum Bad Honnef}} (physics conference centre in Bad Honnef), in the neighbourhood of the university and federal city of Bonn. The {{lang|de|Physikzentrum}} is not only a meeting place and discussion forum of outstanding significance for physics in Germany but also an international brand for the discipline of physics. Students and cutting-edge scientists through to Nobel Prize winners meet here to share their thoughts and ideas on a scientific level. Teaching staff also gladly come to Bad Honnef time and again to attend advanced training courses relating to pure physics and the didactic aspects of this discipline, in the seminars held by the DPG. The DPG is also present in Germany's capital, Berlin. It has been running the Magnus-Haus in Berlin since its reunification with the Physical Society of East Germany in 1990. This urban palace completed in 1760 – bearing the name of the natural scientist Gustav Magnus – has close links to the history of the DPG: it was the regular meeting place of scholars during the 19th century that eventually resulted in the Physical Society of Berlin being founded in 1845, which later became the DPG. Today it is a venue for meetings and lectures on physical and socio-political issues. The Magnus-Haus is also home to the DPG's historical archive.<br />
<br />
==Under National Socialism==<br />
The DPG was in opposition to [[Nazism|National Socialism's]] persecution of the [[Jews]] in general, and their promotion of {{lang|de|[[Deutsche Physik]]}}, in particular. On 7 April 1933, barely two months after [[Adolf Hitler]] came to power on 30 January 1933, the [[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service]], was passed; under this law, Jewish civil servants and regime opponents were removed from their jobs. These policies had significant effects on physics in Germany<ref>Beyerchen, 1977, pp. 40–50.</ref><ref>Kragh, 1999, 230–256.</ref> through significant qualitative and quantitative losses of physicists as a result of emigration and through political decisions overriding those based on academic and scientific considerations; 25% of the physicists holding academic positions in the period 1932–1933 were lost due to the policies.<ref>Beyerchen, 1977, p. 200. The losses in the physics community were significantly higher than the losses in the other natural sciences.</ref> The opposition, for example, the DPG not immediately dismissing Jews after passage of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, [[Max von Laue| Max von Laue's]] address at the opening of the 1933 physics convention in Würzburg, opposition to [[Johannes Stark]] exercising the {{lang|de|Führerprinzip}} in attempting to become the dictator of physics, and [[Carl Ramsauer| Carl Ramsauer's]] opposition to the politicization of education:<br />
<br />
*When the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service was passed in 1933, the DPG dragged its feet in the dismissal of Jews for more than five years. It was not until the end of 1938, on the initiation of Herbert Stuart and [[Wilhelm Orthmann]], that the DPG asked Jewish members to withdraw their membership.<ref name=autogenerated1>Hentschel, 1996, Appendix A; see the entry for the DPG.</ref><ref>[http://www.cx.unibe.ch/~khentsch/dpg38-39.html DPG] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070817090531/http://www.cx.unibe.ch/~khentsch/dpg38-39.html |date=2007-08-17 }} – Membership 1938 vs. 1939</ref><br />
*[[Max von Laue]], as chairman of the DPG, gave the opening address at the 1933 physics convention held in [[Würzburg]]. In it, he compared the persecution of [[Galileo]] and the oppression of his scientific views on the Solar theory of [[Copernicus]] to the then conflict and persecution over the theory of relativity by the proponents of {{lang|de|[[Deutsche Physik]]}}, against [[Albert Einstein|Einstein's]] [[theory of relativity]], labeled as “Jewish physics.”<ref>Max von Laue ''[http://www.iucr.org/iucr-top/publ/50YearsOfXrayDiffraction/von_laue.pdf My Development as a Physicist] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529042657/http://www.iucr.org/iucr-top/publ/50YearsOfXrayDiffraction/von_laue.pdf |date=2008-05-29 }}''. Von Laue’s speech is printed in the appendix.</ref><br />
*[[Johannes Stark]], a holder of the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]], was a proponent of {{lang|de|[[Deutsche Physik]]}}. Acting under the {{lang|de|[[Führerprinzip]]}}, Stark attempted to become “dictator of physics,” as part of a plan to reorganize and coordinate German scientific societies to National Socialist ideology and policies. These actions brought opposition from members of the DPG. For example, [[Max von Laue]], in 1933, blocked Stark's regular membership in the {{lang|de|[[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften]]}}.<ref>Hentschel, 1996, Appendix F; see the entry for Max von Laue.</ref> Furthermore, also in 1933, Stark, President of the {{lang|de|[[Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt|Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt]]}} (PTR),<ref>Stark was President of the PTR as of May 1933, and the DPG election was in September of that year.</ref> ran for president of the DPG against Karl Mey, the industrial physicist and head of [[Osram]]. Stark received only two votes! In retribution, Stark canceled the DPG's use of its rooms in the PTR, deleted PTR travel expenses for its personnel to attend DPG meetings, and forbade PTR personnel from lecturing at DPG meetings.<ref>Hoffmann, 2005, pp. 299 and 307.</ref><br />
*[[Carl Ramsauer]], president of the DPG 1940 to 1945, and his deputy, Wolfgang Finkelnburg, steered a relatively independent course from the party line of the National Socialists and against {{lang|de|[[Deutsche Physik]]}}, which was [[anti-Semitic]] and anti-theoretical physics, especially including modern physics, i.e., [[quantum mechanics]]. Early in 1942, as chairman of the DPG, Ramsauer, on Felix Klein's initiative and with the support of [[Ludwig Prandtl]], submitted a petition to Reich Minister [[Bernhard Rust]], at the {{lang|de|[[Reichserziehungsministerium]]}} (Reich Education Ministry). The petition, a letter and six attachments,<ref>Letter to Bernhard Rust, 20 January 1942. Document # 90 in Hentschel, 1996, pp. 278–281.<br />
*Attachment I: American Physics Outdoes German Physics. Document #91 in Hentschel, 1996, pp. 281–284.<br />
*Attachment II: Publications Against Modern Theoretical Physics. Cited in Hentschel, 1996, p. 279, but omitted from the anthology.<br />
*Attachment III: The Crucial Importance of Theoretical Physics and Particularly Modern Theoretical Physics. Cited in Hentschel, 1996, p. 280, but omitted from the anthology.<br />
*Attachment IV: Refuting Allegations that Modern Theoretical Physics is a Product of the Jewish Spirit. Document 92 in Hentschel, 1996, pp. 290–292.<br />
*Attachment V: Excerpt from an attachment to [[Ludwig Prandtl| Ludwig Prandtl’s]] letter to Reich Marshal [[Hermann Göring]], 28 April 1941. Cited in Hentschel, 1996, 280; see Document #85 in Hentschel, 1996, pp. 261- 266.<br />
*Attachment VI: The Munich Conciliation and Pacification Attempt. Document #93 in Hentschel, 1996, pp. 290 – 292.</ref> addressed the atrocious state of physics instruction in Germany, which Ramsauer concluded was the result of politicization of education.<ref>Hentschel, 1966, Appendix A; see the entry for the DPG.</ref><ref>Hentschel, 1966, Appendix F, see the entry for Carl Ramsauer.</ref><ref>Beyerchen, 1977, pp. 184–186.</ref><ref>Hoffmann, 2005, 306 – 314.</ref><br />
<br />
==Reunification==<br />
After the conclusion of [[World War II]], in 1946, von Laue initiated the founding of the {{lang|de|Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft}} in only the British Zone, as the [[Allied Control Council]] would not initially allow organizations across occupation zone boundaries. The DPG was eventually also reinstituted individually in the American and French sectors. These individually established organizations were united in West Germany in 1950, only after the formation of the [[Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]] on 23 May 1949. It was only after the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] that the DPG again fully unified across Germany.<ref>Hentschel, 1996, Appendix A; see the entry on the DPG.</ref><br />
<br />
==Presidents==<br />
[[File:Magnushaus Berlin 2008 April 16 Praesidenten der DPG.JPG|thumb|200px|Presidents of Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft from 1845 to 1945]]<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
*1845–47: [[Gustav Karl Wilhelm Hermann Karsten|Gustav Karsten]]<br />
*1847–78: [[Emil Du Bois-Reymond]]<br />
*1878–95: [[Hermann von Helmholtz]]<br />
*1895–97: [[Wilhelm von Bezold]]<br />
*1897–99: [[Emil Warburg]]<br />
*1899–1905: [[Emil Warburg]]<br />
*1905–06: [[Max Planck]]<br />
*1906: [[Paul Drude]]<br />
*1906–07: [[Max Planck]]<br />
*1907–08: [[Heinrich Rubens]]<br />
*1908–09: [[Max Planck]]<br />
*1909–10: [[Heinrich Rubens]]<br />
*1910–12: [[Ferdinand Kurlbaum]]<br />
*1912–14: [[Heinrich Rubens]]<br />
*1914–15: [[Fritz Haber]]<br />
*1915–16: [[Max Planck]]<br />
*1916–18: [[Albert Einstein]]<ref>Heilbron, 2000, p. 84.</ref><br />
*1918–19: [[Max Wien]]<br />
*1919–20: [[Arnold Sommerfeld]]<ref>Hentschel, 1996, Appendix F; see the entry for Arnold Sommerfeld.</ref><ref>Beyerchen, 1977, p. 107.</ref><br />
*1920–22: [[Wilhelm Wien]]<br />
*1922–24: [[Franz Himstedt]]<br />
*1924–25: [[Max Wien]]<br />
*1925–27: [[Friedrich Paschen]]<br />
*1927–29: [[Heinrich Konen]]<br />
*1929–31: [[Egon von Schweidler]]<br />
*1931–33: [[Max von Laue]]<br />
*1933–35: [[Karl Mey]]<br />
*1935–37: [[Jonathan Zenneck]]<br />
*1937–39: [[Peter Debye]]<br />
*1939–40: [[Jonathan Zenneck]]<br />
*1940–45: [[Carl Ramsauer]]<br />
*1950–51: [[Jonathan Zenneck]]<br />
*1952–54: [[Karl A. Wolf]]<br />
*1954: [[Richard Becker (physicist)|Richard Becker]]<br />
*1955: [[Karl A. Wolf]]<br />
*1956–57: [[Walter Gerlach]]<ref>Hentschel, 1966, Appendix F, see the entry for Walter Gerlach.</ref><br />
*1958–59: [[Ferdinand Trendelenburg]]<br />
*1960–61: [[Wilhelm Walcher]]<br />
*1962–63: [[Konrad Ruthardt]]<br />
*1964–65: [[Friedrich Bopp]]<br />
*1966–67: [[Wolfgang Finkelnburg]]<ref>Hentschel, 1996, Appendix F; see the entry for Wolfgang Finkelnburg.</ref><br />
*1968–69: [[Martin Kersten (physicist)|Martin Kersten]]<br />
*1970–71: [[Karl Ganzhorn]]<br />
*1972–73: [[Werner Buckel]]<br />
*1974–75: [[Otto Koch]]<br />
*1976–77: [[Hans-Joachim Queisser]]<br />
*1978–79: [[Heinrich Welker]]<br />
*1980–81: [[Horst Rollnik]]<br />
*1982–83: [[Hans-Joachim Schmidt-Tiedemann]]<br />
*1984–86: [[Joachim Treusch]]<br />
*1986: [[Joachim Trümper]]<br />
*1988–90: [[Otto G. Folberth]]<br />
*1990–92: [[Theo Mayer-Kuckuk]]<br />
*1992–94: [[Herwig Schopper]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Schopper |first=Herwig |title=From Science to Science Diplomacy |date=2024 |work=Herwig Schopper |pages=163–181 |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-51042-7_8 |access-date=2024-03-04 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-51042-7_8 |isbn=978-3-031-51041-0 |last2=Gillies |first2=James|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
*1994–96: [[Hans-Günter Danielmeyer]]<br />
*1996–98: [[Markus Schwoerer]]<br />
*1998–2000: [[Alexander Bradshaw]]<br />
*2000–02: [[Dirk Basting]]<br />
*2002–04: [[Roland Sauerbrey]]<br />
*2004–06: [[Knut Urban]]<br />
*2006–08: [[Eberhard Umbach]]<br />
*2008–10: [[Gerd Litfin]]<br />
*2010–12: [[Wolfgang Sandner]]<br />
*2012–14: [[Johanna Stachel]]<br />
*2014–16: [[Edward G. Krubasik]]<br />
*2016–18: [[Rolf-Dieter Heuer]]<br />
*2018–20: [[Dieter Meschede]]<ref>{{cite press release |date=8 March 2017 |title=Dieter Meschede to be President of the German Physical Society from 2018 to 2020 |url=https://www.dpg-physik.de/presse/pressemit/2017/dpg-pm-2017-06.html?lang=en& |location=[[Bad Honnef]] |publisher=Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft |access-date=8 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713001349/http://dpg-physik.de/presse/pressemit/2017/dpg-pm-2017-06.html?lang=en& |archive-date=13 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
*2020–22: [[Lutz Schröter]]<ref>{{cite press release |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Lutz Schröter new president of the German Physical Society |url=https://www.dpg-physik.de/veroeffentlichungen/aktuell/2020/lutz-schroeter-neuer-praesident-der-deutschen-physikalischen-gesellschaft?set_language=en |publisher=German Physical Society |date=30 March 2020 |access-date=25 September 2020}}</ref><br />
*2022–24: [[Joachim Ullrich]]<ref>{{cite press release |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Joachim Ullrich New President of the German Physical Society |url=https://www.dpg-physik.de/veroeffentlichungen/aktuell/2022/joachim-ullrich-neuer-praesident-der-deutschen-physikalischen-gesellschaft?set_language=en |publisher=German Physical Society |date=4 January 2022 |access-date=20 October 2023}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Lise Meitner Lectures]]<br />
*[[European Physical Society]]<br />
*[[Japan Society of Applied Physics]]<br />
*[[Institute of Physics]]<br />
*[[American Institute of Physics]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*Beyerchen, Alan D. ''Scientists Under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich'' (Yale, 1977) {{ISBN|0-300-01830-4}}<br />
*Heilbron, J. L. ''The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science'' (Harvard, 2000) {{ISBN|0-674-00439-6}}<br />
*Hentschel, Klaus, editor and Ann M. Hentschel, editorial assistant and Translator ''Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources'' (Birkhäuser, 1996) {{ISBN|0-8176-5312-0}}<br />
*Hoffmann, Dieter ''Between Autonomy and Accommodation: The German Physical Society during the Third Reich'', ''Physics in Perspective'' 7(3) 293–329 (2005)<br />
*[[Christa Jungnickel|Jungnickel, Christa]] and [[Russell McCormmach]]. ''[[Intellectual Mastery of Nature: Theoretical Physics from Ohm to Einstein]], Volume 2: The Now Mighty Theoretical Physics, 1870 to 1925.'' (University of Chicago Press, Paper cover, 1990) {{ISBN|0-226-41585-6}}<br />
*Kragh, Helge ''Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century'' (Princeton, 1999) {{ISBN|0-691-09552-3}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*{{Official website|http://www.dpg-physik.de}}<br />
* [https://www.dpg-physik.de/vereinigungen/fachuebergreifend/ak/akjdpg The Young DPG (jDPG)]<br />
* [https://www.dpg-physik.de/aktivitaeten-und-programme/tagungen The DPG meetings]<br />
* [https://www.dpg-physik.de/ueber-uns/physikzentrum-bad-honnef/bad-honnef-physics-schools Bad Honnef Physics Schools]<br />
{{European Physical Society}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:German Physical Society| ]]<br />
[[Category:Scientific organizations established in 1845]]<br />
[[Category:1845 establishments in Prussia]]<br />
[[Category:1899 establishments in Germany]]</div>AmgineIX