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List of Christmas dishes

2024-12-26T12:45:16Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|none}}
[[File:Agnolotti pavesi (4).JPG|thumb|A plate of dry Italian [[Pavese agnolotti]], with a Pavese stew-based sauce, a Christmas dish]]

This is a '''list of Christmas dishes''' by country.

== Albania and Kosovo ==
* [[Baklava]]
* Gjel deti me përshesh

== Andorra ==
* Sopa de Galets
* [[Trinxat]]

== American Samoa (U.S.), Samoa, Tonga and Tuvalu ==
* [[Roast pig|Puaa umu]]

== Argentina and Uruguay ==
{{see also|Argentine cuisine|Uruguayan cuisine}}
[[File:Vitello tonnato.jpg|thumb|[[Vitello tonnato]] is a popular Christmas dish in Argentina, where it is known as vitel toné. The [[Piedmont]]ese dish is valued during the summer for its cold serving temperature, and is the legacy of the large [[Italian Argentines|Italian immigration]] to the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://entremujeres.clarin.com/entremujeres/rincon-gourmet/vitel_tone-las_fiestas-navidad-ano_nuevo-mesa_navidena-recetas-rincon_gourmet_0_BJtuP9FwQg.html |title=Vitel toné: la receta de un clásico para las Fiestas |language=es |last1=Fumarola|first1=Leonardo |date=December 17, 2015 |publisher=Clarín.com |access-date=June 1, 2017}}</ref>]]
[[Panettone]] (known locally as ''pan dulce'') and [[turrón]] are the most popular Christmas sweets in Argentina regardless of [[socioeconomic status]], with 76% of Argentines choosing the former and 59% the latter in 2015.<ref name="elcronista"/> [[Mantecol]], a typical peanut dessert, is also popular, being favored by 49% of Argentines in the same survey.<ref name="kantar">{{cite web|url=https://www.kantarworldpanel.com/ar/Noticias/Que-dulces-no-pueden-faltar-en-estas-fiestas|title=¿Qué dulces no pueden faltar en estas fiestas?|date=December 23, 2016|publisher=Kantar Worldpanel|access-date=June 1, 2017|language=es|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018190700/https://www.kantarworldpanel.com/ar/Noticias/Que-dulces-no-pueden-faltar-en-estas-fiestas|archive-date=October 18, 2017}}</ref> [[Sparkling wine]]s, [[cider]]s and [[frizzante]]s concentrate most of their sales during Christmas season; sparkling wine is mostly consumed by small families with high and medium socioeconomic status living in [[Greater Buenos Aires]] and the country's largest cities, while cider and frizzantes are popular among lower classes and large families.<ref name="kantar"/>

* [[Vitello tonnato|Vitel toné]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://saborgourmet.com/receta-del-vitel-thone-de-argentina/|title=Receta del Vitel Thoné de Argentina|language=es|date=November 9, 2011|publisher=SaborGourmet.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105023012/http://saborgourmet.com/receta-del-vitel-thone-de-argentina/|archive-date=5 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://edant.clarin.com/suplementos/ollas/2005/06/16/o-00202.htm|title=Vitel toné|language=es|date=June 16, 2005|publisher=Clarín.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227003652/http://edant.clarin.com/suplementos/ollas/2005/06/16/o-00202.htm|archive-date=2012-12-27}}</ref><ref name=setenta />
* [[Turrón]]<ref name=setenta /><ref name=CA>{{cite web|url=http://www.cocinerosargentinos.com/?menu=informes&infid=93|title=Navidad y los excesos en las comidas|language=es|publisher=Cocineros Argentinos|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224105720/http://www.cocinerosargentinos.com/?menu=informes&infid=93|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref>
* [[Panettone|Pan dulce]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clarin.com/buena-vida/tendencias/abece-mejor-pan-dulce_0_831517080.html|title=El abecé del mejor pan dulce|language=es|date=December 19, 2012|publisher=Clarín.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227003138/http://www.clarin.com/buena-vida/tendencias/abece-mejor-pan-dulce_0_831517080.html|archive-date=27 December 2012}}</ref>
* [[Asado]] ([[beef]], [[chicken (food)|chicken]], [[calf (animal)|calf]], [[Lamb and mutton|lamb]], [[suckling pig]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clarin.com/sociedad/extranos-frente-asado-Navidad_0_620937968.html|title=Dos extraños al frente del asado de Navidad|language=es|date=January 3, 2012|publisher=Clarín.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224101411/http://www.clarin.com/sociedad/extranos-frente-asado-Navidad_0_620937968.html|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref name=Mo /><ref name=Calcule /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.larioja.com/v/20121226/rioja-logrono/comida-navidena-sabor-solidario-20121226.html|title=Comida navideña con sabor solidario|language=es|date=December 26, 2012|publisher=Larioja.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224112214/http://www.larioja.com/v/20121226/rioja-logrono/comida-navidena-sabor-solidario-20121226.html|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref>
* Clericó (or {{lang|es|clericot}}), a [[sangria]]-like beverage that combines wine with chopped fruit.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eltribuno.com/jujuy/nota/2012-12-10-23-14-0-la-carne-lo-mas-caro-del-menu-navideno|title=La carne lo más caro del menú navideño|date=December 10, 2012|access-date=December 24, 2017|language=es|work=[[El Tribuno]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226020723/https://www.eltribuno.com/jujuy/nota/2012-12-10-23-14-0-la-carne-lo-mas-caro-del-menu-navideno|archive-date=December 26, 2017}}</ref>
* [[Cider]] ([[Apple cider|apple]], pineapple) and [[sparkling wine]]<ref name=setenta /><ref name=Calcule>{{cite news|url=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1539257-calcule-cuanto-cuesta-su-canasta-navidena|title=Calcule cuánto cuesta su canasta navideña|newspaper=La Nación|language=es|date=December 21, 2012|publisher=Lanacion.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224004629/http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1539257-calcule-cuanto-cuesta-su-canasta-navidena|archive-date=24 December 2012}}</ref>
* [[Fruit cake|Budín]]<ref name=Mo>{{cite web|url=http://www.momarandu.com/amanoticias.php?a=7&b=0&c=127654|title=Canasta navideña cuesta $281 pesos según informe del ISEPCI|language=es|date=December 22, 2012|publisher=Momarandu.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224084729/http://www.momarandu.com/amanoticias.php?a=7&b=0&c=127654|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref name=Calcule />
* [[Salad]]s<ref name=setenta>{{cite web|url=http://www.clarin.com/sociedad/platos-tipicos-doble-calorias-cuestan_0_832716830.html|title=Juicio a la mesa de Navidad: los platos típicos tienen el doble de calorías y cuestan 70% más|language=es|date=December 21, 2012|publisher=Clarín.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224102153/http://www.clarin.com/sociedad/platos-tipicos-doble-calorias-cuestan_0_832716830.html|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref name=Mo />
** [[Olivier salad|Russian salad]]<ref name=Wei />
** [[Waldorf salad]]<ref name=setenta />
** [[Fruit salad]]<ref name=Mo />
* [[Pionono]]<ref name=setenta /><ref name=Wei>{{cite web|url=http://www.diariopopular.com.ar/notas/140514-mesa-navidena-cada-ano-el-mismo-dilema|title=Mesa navideña: cada año el mismo dilema|language=es|date=December 16, 2012|publisher=Diario Popular|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111073718/http://www.diariopopular.com.ar/notas/140514-mesa-navidena-cada-ano-el-mismo-dilema|archive-date=11 January 2013}}</ref>
* [[Matambre]]<ref name=Wei />
* [[Beef tongue|Lengua]] a la [[Vinaigrette|vinagreta]]<ref name=Wei /><ref name=miga>{{cite web|url=http://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/524427/economia/sandwich-miga-encarece-mesa-navidena.html|title=El sándwich de miga encarece la mesa navideña|language=es|date=December 9, 2012|publisher=La Gaceta|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224120131/http://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/524427/economia/sandwich-miga-encarece-mesa-navidena.html|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref>
* [[Garrapinyades|Garrapiñadas]], [[dried fruit]]s and [[comfit]]s<ref name=Mo /><ref name=Calcule /><ref name=miga /><ref name="elcronista"/>
*[[Mantecol]]<ref name=elcronista>{{cite web|url=https://www.cronista.com/negocios/Armar-la-mesa-de-Navidad-costara-hasta-un-37-mas-caro-que-hace-un-ano-20151215-0016.html|title=Armar la mesa de Navidad costará hasta un 37% más caro que hace un año|language=es|date=December 15, 2015|work=El Cronista|access-date=June 1, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510232037/https://www.cronista.com/negocios/Armar-la-mesa-de-Navidad-costara-hasta-un-37-mas-caro-que-hace-un-ano-20151215-0016.html|archive-date=May 10, 2018}}</ref>
* [[Sandwiches de miga]]<ref name=miga />
*[[Turkey meat|Pavita]]<ref name="elcronista"/>

== Australia ==
[[File:Candy-Cane-Classic.jpg|thumb|right|[[Candy Cane]] can be hung as edible decorations.]]
* [[White Christmas (food)|White Christmas]], a sweet slice made of [[copha]] and mixed fruit
* Cold [[ham]] and cold [[Turkey (food)|turkey]]<ref name="CultRecAu" />
* [[Seafood]] and [[salad]]s<ref name="CultRecAu" />
* [[Roasting|Roast]] [[Chicken (food)|chicken]], ham and turkey<ref name="CultRecAu">{{cite web|url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/christmas/ |title=Christmas season celebrations in Australia |access-date=2007-03-12 |publisher=Culture and Recreation.gov.au |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408180134/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/christmas/ |archive-date=2011-04-08 }}</ref>
* [[Stuffing]]<ref name="Santa recipe Australia">{{cite web |url=http://www.santas.net/recipes.htm |title=Santa's Net: Recipes |publisher=Santas.net |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228071953/http://www.santas.net/recipes.htm |archive-date=28 December 2011 }}</ref>
* [[Christmas cake]] or [[Christmas pudding]]<ref name="CultRecAu"/>
* [[Custard]]
* [[Gingerbread]] in Christmas shapes
* Christmas [[damper (food)|damper]] – in [[wreath]] or star shape, served with [[butter]], [[jam]], [[honey]] or [[golden syrup]]. Made in the [[Australian bush]] in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.santas.net/christmasdamper.htm |title=Christmas Damper from Australia |publisher=Santas.net |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129115620/http://www.santas.net/christmasdamper.htm |archive-date=29 November 2011 }}</ref>
* [[Confectionery|Lollies]], such as [[rocky road (dessert)|rocky road]]; [[rum ball]]s; [[candy cane]]s
* [[Champagne (wine)|Champagne]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://latrobetimes.blogs.latrobe.edu.au/2015/01/15/typical-aussie-christmas-top-5-things-you-didnt-know/|title=Typical Aussie Christmas - top 5 things you didn't know- La Trobe University international news|date=15 January 2015|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316024642/https://latrobetimes.blogs.latrobe.edu.au/2015/01/15/typical-aussie-christmas-top-5-things-you-didnt-know/|archive-date=16 March 2017}}</ref>
* [[Eggnog]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.luvaduck.com.au/recipes/view/egg-nog-for-christmas/43/|title=Recipe for Egg Nog for Christmas There is nothing that makes Christmas feel more special like a glass of egg nog!|website=Luv-a-Duck|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225095156/http://www.luvaduck.com.au/recipes/view/egg-nog-for-christmas/43/|archive-date=25 February 2017}}</ref>
* [[Trifle]]
* [[Pavlova (food)|Pavlova]]<ref name="Santa recipe Australia"/>
* [[Prawns]]
* [[Mince pie]]
* Christmas cookies

== Austria and Liechtenstein ==
* [[Bock]]
* [[Bratwurst]]
* [[Christmas carp]]
* Christmas goose
* [[Mulled wine|Glühwein]]
* [[Kaiserschmarrn]]
* [[Knödel]]
* [[Linzer torte]]
* Red cabbage
* [[Vanillekipferl]]

== Bangladesh ==
{{See also|Bengali cuisine|Bangladeshi cuisine}}
* [[Pitha]]
* [[Nankhatai]]
* [[Pilaf|Pulao]]
* Rôst
* [[Musallam]]
* Cha
* Homemade [[Christmas cake]]
* Shobji
* Mishti ([[List of Bangladeshi sweets and desserts|Bengali sweets]])
* [[Nakshi Pitha]]
* [[Chunga pitha]]
* Patishapta Pith
* [[Bhapa pitha]]
* Tel pitha

== Belarus ==
* [[Borscht]]
* [[Kutya]]

== Belgium ==
* [[Cougnou]] (with various like ''cougnolle''), sweet bread in the form of the [[infant Jesus]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crfneufvilles.org/themes/articles/article20_18.htm |title=Thème: Histoire de rond et de cougnou |language=fr |author=Florence Fadier-Rotsaert |access-date=2007-03-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070527083150/http://www.crfneufvilles.org/themes/articles/article20_18.htm |archive-date=2007-05-27 }}</ref>

== Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua ==
* [[Tamale]]s
* Ponche (Christmas fruit punch served hot with much fruit)
* [[Peafowl|pavo]] (turkey)
* [[Buñuelo]]s (fluffy sweet dessert made with corn with maple syrup)
* [[Chicken (food)|chicken]] (prepared with different stuffings and accompanied with various side dishes such as salads or rice)

== Bolivia and Peru ==
* [[Apple cider]]
* [[Buñuelo]]
* [[Chicken (food)|Roasted chicken]]
* Cuy Chactado
* [[Potato salad]]
* [[Roasting|Roast]] [[pork]]
* [[Roast turkey]]

== Brazil ==
* Lombo à Califórnia – [[pork loin]]s
* Rabanada – [[French toast]]
* Leitão assado – [[roasted piglet]]
* Peru – roast [[domesticated turkey|turkey]]
* [[Farofa]]
* Pavê – [[trifle]]
* [[Ham]]
* [[Bacalhau]] – codfish
* [[Brazil nut]]
* [[Arroz à grega]]
* [[Potato salad]]
* Salpicão – chicken salad with raisins
* [[Panettone]]
* [[Crème caramel]]
* [[Mousse]]
* [[Cider]]
* [[Grape juice]]
* [[Wine]]

== Canada ==
[[File:Ginger Bread House PC210088.JPG|thumb|right|Gingerbread house]]
* [[Bûche de Noël]]
* [[Butter tart]]s
* [[Candy cane]]s
* [[Christmas pudding]]
* [[Eggnog]]
* [[Fruitcake]]
* [[Mince pie]]
* [[Cranberry sauce]]
* [[Turkey meat|Roasted turkey]]
* [[Brussels Sprouts]]
* [[Mashed Potatoes]] and [[Gravy]]
* [[Shortbread]]
* [[Stuffing]] (also known as Trimming or Dressing)
* [[Trifle]]
* [[Tourtière]]
* Ragoût de Boulettes (Meatball Stew)
* Ragoût de Pattes de Cochon (Stewed Pig's Feet)
* Salted Beef (commonly known as [[Corned Beef]])
* [[Fish and Brewis]]
* [[Gingerbread]] cookies (or Ginger and Molasses cookies)
* [[Figgy duff (pudding)]]
* Christmas slush (made from a mixture of fruit juices, vodka, ginger ale, or lemon-lime soda)
* [[Roasted chestnut]]s
* [[Christmas cookies]]
* Snowball dessert (made with cocoa, rolled oats and coconut)
* [[Nanaimo Bar]]
* [[Mulled Wine]]
* [[Christmas Ham]]
* [[Tarte au sucre]]
* [[Hot chocolate]] (also known as "hot cocoa", in various flavours like peppermint, white chocolate, etc.)
* [[Gingerbread house]]
* [[Sweet potatoes]] or [[Yam (vegetable)|Yam]]
* Hot [[Apple cider]]
* Raw [[Caribou]], [[Seal meat]], and [[Muktuk]] (eaten in Nunuvut by the local Indigenous communities)
* [[Arctic char]] (raw or cooked)

== Chile ==
[[File:Pan de pascua chileno 2006.jpg|Pan de pascua|thumb]]
* [[Cola de mono]] – (literally, "monkey's tail") a Chilean Christmas beverage, with [[aguardiente]], [[milk]], [[coffee]], and flavoured with [[vanilla]] and [[clove]]s<ref>{{cite web|first=Missy|last=Wombat |url=http://www.recipezaar.com/Cola-de-Mono-Tail-of-the-Monkey-50828 |title=Cola De Mono (Tail of the Monkey) |publisher=Recipezaar.com |access-date=24 December 2011}}</ref>
* [[Pan de Pascua]] – Chilean Christmas [[sponge cake]] flavoured with cloves and with bits of [[candied fruit]]s, [[raisin]]s, [[walnut]]s and [[almond]]s.<ref>{{cite web |first=Marian |last=Blazes |url=http://southamericanfood.about.com/od/holidayrecipes/r/pandepascua.htm |title=Chilean Holiday Fruitcake – Pan de Pascua |publisher=southamericanfood.about.com |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127035842/http://southamericanfood.about.com/od/holidayrecipes/r/pandepascua.htm |archive-date=27 January 2012 }}</ref>
* [[Turkey (bird)|Roasted turkey]]
* [[Ponche a la romana]] – eggnog-style beverage made of champagne and pineapple-flavoured icecream.

== China and Taiwan ==
* [[Char siu]]
* [[Crispy fried chicken]]
* [[Crossing-the-bridge noodles]]
* [[Hotpot]]
* [[Jiaozi]]
* [[Lamian]]
* [[Peking duck]]

== Colombia ==
[[File:Buñuelos.JPG|thumb|Colombian Buñuelos]][[File:A plate of Colombian Natilla.JPG|thumb|Colombian natilla]]Colombian Christmas dishes are mostly sweets and desserts. Some of the most popular dishes include:
* [[Buñuelos]]
* [[Natilla]]
* [[Manjar blanco]]
* [[Hojaldres]]
* Brevas (Candied figs with cheese)
* [[Christmas cookies]]
* Sweet bread filled with fruits like raisins and raspberries.
* Lechona (rice baked inside a pig, with peas, the meat of the pig and other delicacies)
* Tamales
* Ponqué envinado (red wine cake)
* Turkey
* Pernil de Cerdo (pork leg, usually roasted)
* Potato salad
* Panettone

== Cuba ==
* Crema De Vie – Eggnog made with rum, lemon rind, and spices.
* Majarete – A pudding made with corn, cornstarch, milk, lemon rind, spices, and sugar
* [[Platillo Moros y Cristianos]]
* [[Lechon asado]]
* [[Turrón]]

== Czech Republic and Slovakia ==

[[File:Vanocni cukrovi 1.JPG|Christmas cookies (''vánoční cukroví'')|thumb|right]]
* ''Kapustnica'' – Christmas [[cabbage soup]]
* Fish soup
* [[Christmas carp]]
* [[Potato salad]] with [[mayonnaise]], [[hard-boiled egg]]s and boiled vegetables
* ''Kuba'' – [[groats]] and [[mushrooms]]
* Grilled white sausage
* Vánoční cukroví – [[Christmas cookies]]
* Christmas bread ([[vánočka]])
* Fruitcake
* [[Gingerbread]]

Before the Christmas holidays, many kinds of sweet biscuits are prepared. These sweet biscuits are then served during the whole Christmas period and exchanged among friends and neighbours. Also very popular are a preparation of small gingerbreads garnished by sugar icing.

== Denmark ==
[[File:Julemiddag.jpg|thumb|Danish Christmas meal]]
{{Main|Danish cuisine}}
* [[Æbleskiver]] – traditional Danish dough ball made in a special pan (a type of [[doughnut]] with no hole), sprinkled with [[powdered sugar]] and served with [[raspberry]] or [[strawberry]] [[jam]]
* Sylte – a form of [[head cheese]], a terrine or meat jelly made from pork, traditionally pig's head was used
* Julesild – spiced [[pickled herring]] often flavoured with Christmas spices such as [[cloves]] and [[allspice]]
* [[Potato#Cooking|Boiled whole potatoes]]
* Brun sovs ([[Gravy|brown sauce]]) – a traditional dark gravy, used to cover meat dishes like roasted pork and duck (''flæskesteg'', ''andesteg'') and the boiled potato
* Brunede kartofler – caramelised [[potato]]es
* Julebryg – [[Beer in Denmark#Julebryg|Christmas beer]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sdu.dk/E/new/food_and_drink.html |title=Danish food and drink |access-date=2007-03-12 |publisher=University of Southern Denmark |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070205222840/http://www.sdu.dk/E/new/food_and_drink.html  |archive-date = 2007-02-05}}</ref>
* [[Glögg|Gløgg]] – [[mulled wine|mulled]] red wine combined with spices, sugar, raisins and chopped almonds typically served warm
* [[Ris a la mande|Risalamande]] – [[rice pudding]]. A dish made from rice, whipped cream and almonds, served cold with [[cherry]] sauce (''kirsebærsauce'')<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sunblock99.org.uk/sb99/people/KGalsgaa/pudding.html |title=Rice pudding |access-date=2007-03-09 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060925144513/http://www.sunblock99.org.uk/sb99/people/KGalsgaa/pudding.html  |archive-date = 2006-09-25}}</ref><ref name=SourceWireCiE>{{cite web |url=http://www.sourcewire.com/releases/rel_display.php?relid=23663&hilite= |title=Christmas in Europe, Where's Santa? |publisher=SourceWire |date=2005-12-13 |access-date=2007-03-09 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927032444/http://www.sourcewire.com/releases/rel_display.php?relid=23663&hilite= |archive-date=2007-09-27 }}</ref>
* [[Flæskesteg]] – roast [[pork]] with cracklings
* Andesteg – [[Duck|roast duck]] with apple and prune stuffing
* Rødkål – [[red cabbage]] pickled, sweet-sour red cabbage served hot as a side dish
* Christmas cookies – Vaniljekranse, klejner, jødekager, pebernødder, honningkager, brunkager and finskbrød
* Konfekt, marzipan, caramelised fruits, nougat and chocolate-covered nuts
* Ground nuts

== Dominican Republic ==
* [[Croquette]]
* [[Empanada]]
* Ensalada Rusa – [[Olivier salad]] (Russian potato salad)
* Ensalada verde – iceberg lettuce, onions, cucumber, and tomatoes salad
* [[Moro de guandules con coco]] – rice with [[pigeon pea]]s and coconut milk
* [[Pasteles|Pasteles de hojas]] – Puerto Rican tamales
* [[Pastelon]] – casserole
* [[Pig roast]]
* Pollo al horno – [[chicken (food)|roasted chicken]]
* Telera – Dominican bread similar to Mexican [[sandwich roll]]s

Drinks:
* [[Anisette]] – anise-flavored liquor
* [[Guavaberry]] – a drink from the [[Lesser Antilles]] historic [[Saint Martin (island)|Saint Martin]] natives now a part of the Dominican Republics Christmas tradition
* [[Ponche crema]] – eggnog
* Jengibre – [[ginger tea]] with spices and lemon
* [[Mandarin orange|Mandarin]] Liqueur – Mandarin peels fermented with rum and sugar

Desserts:
* [[Buñuelos]] – fried cassava dough balls covered in spiced flavored syrup
* [[Turrón]] – honey and almond nougat. Tradition from Spain
* Vaniljekranse – Danish [[butter cookies]]
* Fruits and nuts – a variety of nuts, fresh, and dried fruit

== Estonia ==
* Hapukapsas
* Mulgi kapsad
* Piparkook
* Sült
* Verivorst

== Finland ==
{{Main|Cuisine of Finland}}
[[File:Karjalanpiirakka-20060227.jpg|thumb|A [[Karelian pasties|Karelian pasty]]]]
[[File:Vin chaud 2.jpg|thumb|[[Mulled wine]]]]

Christmas smorgasbord from Finland, "[[joulupöytä]]", (translated "Yule table"), a traditional display of Christmas food<ref name="thisisFINLAND">{{cite web|url=http://finland.fi/Public/default.aspx?contentid=180237|title=Christmas cookbook|access-date=2007-03-12|publisher=thisisFINLAND|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623235714/http://finland.fi/Public/default.aspx?contentid=180237|archive-date=2011-06-23}}</ref> served at Christmas in Finland, similar to the Swedish [[smörgåsbord]], including:
* [[Christmas ham]] with [[Mustard (condiment)|mustard]] (almost every family has one for Christmas)
* Freshly salted salmon (''[[gravlax]] graavilohi'') and whitefish ''graavisiika''
* Pickled [[herring]] in various forms (tomato, mustard, ''matjes'' or onion sauces)
* [[Rosolli]] (cold salad dish with diced beetroot, potato and carrot – some varieties also incorporate apple)
* [[Lutefisk]] and [[Béchamel sauce]]<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/>
* [[Freshwater whitefish|Whitefish]] and [[pikeperch]]
* Potato [[casserole]]<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/> ([[Sweetened potato casserole|sweetened]] or not, depending on preference)
* Boiled [[potato]]es
* Carrot [[casserole]]<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/>
* [[Rutabaga]] casserole (''lanttulaatikko'')<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/>
* Various [[sauce]]s
* Assortment of [[cheese]], most commonly (''[[leipäjuusto]]'') and Aura (''aura-juusto'')
* Christmas bread, usually sweet bread (''joululimppu'')
* [[Karelian pasties]], rice pasties, served with egg-butter (''karjalanpiirakka'')
Other meat dishes could be:
* [[Karelian hot pot]], traditional meat stew originating from the region of [[Karelia]] (''karjalanpaisti'')
Desserts:
* [[Rice pudding]] or rice porridge topped with cinnamon, sugar and cold milk or with mixed fruit soup (''riisipuuro'')
* Joulutorttu, traditionally a star-shaped piece of puff-pastry with prune marmalade in the middle
* [[Gingerbread]],<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/> sometimes in the form of a [[gingerbread house]] or [[gingerbread man]] (''piparkakut'')
* Mixed fruit soup or prune soup, [[kissel]] (''sekahedelmäkiisseli, luumukiisseli'')
Drinks:
* [[Glögg]] or [[mulled wine]] (''glögi'')
* Christmas beer (''jouluolut''); local manufacturers produce Christmas varieties<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ruoka.fi/juomat/jouluoluet-testissa|title=Jouluoluet testissä - Ruoka.fi|date=2012-11-29|website=Ruoka.fi|language=fi-FI|access-date=2016-05-06|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322055853/http://ruoka.fi/juomat/jouluoluet-testissa|archive-date=2015-03-22}}</ref>
* "Home beer" (non-alcoholic beer-like drink, similar to the Russian beverage [[kvass]]) (''kotikalja'')

== France and Monaco ==
[[File:Foie gras en cocotte.jpg|thumb|''Foie gras en cocotte'']]
* [[Oyster]]s<ref name="Expat"/>
* [[Foie gras]]<ref name="Expat">{{cite web |url=http://www.expatica.com/actual/article.asp?subchannel_id=61&story_id=35242 |title=French Christmas: It's all about the food |access-date=2007-03-12 |publisher=Expatica |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929115440/http://www.expatica.com/actual/article.asp?subchannel_id=61&story_id=35242 |archive-date=2007-09-29 }}</ref>
* [[Smoked salmon]]
* [[Scallops]]
* [[Champagne]]
* [[Crêpe]]s ([[Brittany]])<ref name="aboutcom">{{cite web|url=http://frenchfood.about.com/library/weekly/aa122002a.htm|title=French Food & Recipes|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060406090249/http://frenchfood.about.com/library/weekly/aa122002a.htm|archive-date=6 April 2006}}</ref>
* [[Chicken (food)|Chapon]] (roasted chicken)
* [[Turkey (food)|Dinde aux Marrons]] ([[chestnut]]-stuffed turkey)
* [[Ganzeltopf]] (goose) ([[Alsace]])<ref name="Expat"/>
* [[Roast goose|Goose]] ([[Normandy]])
* [[Bûche de Noël]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seriouseats.com/2008/12/jacques-torres-on-the-buche-de-noel.html|title=Jacques Torres on the Bûche de Noël|first=Serious|last=Eats|website=www.seriouseats.com|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225121630/http://www.seriouseats.com/2008/12/jacques-torres-on-the-buche-de-noel.html|archive-date=25 December 2016}}</ref>
* [[Kouglof]] (Alsace)
* [[Thirteen desserts]] ([[Provence]]):<ref name="Expat"/> The [[thirteen desserts]] are the traditional Christmas [[dessert]] in the [[France|French]] region of [[Provence]]. The [[Christmas]] supper ends with 13 dessert items, representing [[Jesus Christ]] and the 12 apostles. The desserts are traditionally set out Christmas Eve and remain on the table three days until December 27.<ref name="provenceweb">{{cite web |url=http://www.provenceweb.fr/e/mag/terroir/traditions/ukindex.htm |title=Christmas traditions in Provence |publisher=Provenceweb.fr |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204143801/http://www.provenceweb.fr/e/mag/terroir/traditions/ukindex.htm |archive-date=4 February 2012 }}</ref>
* [[Walnut]]
* [[Quince cheese]]<ref name="provenceweb"/>
* [[Almond]]
* [[Raisin]]
* [[Calisson]] of [[Aix-en-Provence]]
* [[Nougat]] blanc
* [[Nougat]] noir au miel
* [[Apple]]
* [[Pear]]
* [[Orange (fruit)|Orange]]
* [[Winter melon]]
* [[Fougasse (bread)|Fougasse]] (Provençal bread)

== Germany ==
[[File:Stollen-Dresdner Christstollen.jpg|thumb|A Christmas ''Stollen'']]
* [[Christstollen]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/Cakes/Stollen.htm |title=It's all Napoleon's Fault - The success story of the Aachen Printe |author=Klaus Stahl/Chris Cave |year=2006 |access-date=2008-01-06 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227055058/http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/Cakes/Stollen.htm |archive-date=2007-12-27 }}</ref> – Stollen is a fruitcake with bits of candied fruits, raisins, walnuts and almonds and spices such as cardamom and cinnamon; sprinkled with [[confectioners sugar]]. Often there's also a core of marzipan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://german.about.com/library/blrezepte02b.htm |title=German Christmas Recipes 2 |publisher=German.about.com |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104202802/http://german.about.com/library/blrezepte02b.htm |archive-date=4 January 2012 }}</ref>
* [[Pflaumentoffel]]
* [[Christmas carp]]
* [[Pfefferkuchenhaus]] – a gingerbread house decorated with candies, sweets and sugar icing (in reference to the gingerbread house of the fairy tale Hänsel and Gretel)
* [[Printen]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.goethe.de/ges/mol/thm/kad/en1917200.htm |title=History of Stollen, Dresden Stollen |first=Linda|last=Stradley |year=2004 |access-date=2007-03-09}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
* Oblaten [[Lebkuchen]]
* [[Springerle]]
* Weihnachtsplätzchen ([[Christmas cookies]])
* [[Roast goose]], often paired with [[Kartoffelklösse|kartoffelklosse]]
* [[Venison]] – e.g. meat of [[roe deer]] usually served with red cabbage, brussels sprout and [[Cranberry sauce|lingonberry sauce]]
* Herring salad – salad of pickled or [[soused herring]], beetroot, potatoes, apple
* Kartoffelsalat (potato salad) with Wurst (sausages) is traditionally eaten in northern Germany for supper on Christmas Eve
* [[Schäufele]] (a corned, smoked ham) usually served with potato salad in southern Germany for dinner on Christmas Eve
* [[Weisswurst]] – sausages with veal and bacon, usually flavored with parsley, lemon, mace, onions, ginger and cardamom
* [[Feuerzangenbowle]]
* [[Mulled wine|Glühwein]] (hot spiced wine)

== Greece and Cyprus ==
* [[Kourabiedes]]
* [[Melomakarono]]
* [[Diples]]
* [[Tsoureki#Christmas bread|Christopsomo]] (Christmas bread)
* Pork or [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Petropoulou|first=Maria|title=The 10 + 1 Delicacies To Taste In Greece During Christmas|url=https://greekcitytimes.com/2017/12/19/10-1-delicacies-taste-greece-christmas/|access-date=2020-12-14|website=Greek City Times|date=19 December 2017|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Greenland ==
* [[Kiviak]]

== Haiti ==

* Chicken Creole (Haitian stewed chicken)
* [[Djondjon#:~:text=Djondjon (also spelled djon djon,dishes, such as diri djondjon.|Djon Djon]]
* [[Pikliz]]

== Hong Kong and Macau ==
*[[Dim sum]]

== Hungary ==
[[File:kaposzta.jpg|thumb|right|''Töltött káposzta'']]
* [[Christmas carp]]
* [[Fish soup]] (''halászlé'') various recipes
* [[Stuffed cabbage]] (''töltött káposzta'')
* [[Roast goose]]
* [[Duck (food)|Roast duck]]
* Pastry roll filled with walnut or poppy seed (''bejgli'')
* Bread pudding with poppy seed (''mákos guba'' or ''bobájka'')
* [[Szaloncukor]]
* Cheesy Garlic Bread Sticks

== Iceland ==
[[File:Risalamande.jpg|thumb|right|''Möndlugrautur'']]

* Hamborgarhryggur – a smoked, cured pork roast.
* Lambalæri - heated or smoked sheep meat from a sheep's foot.
* [[Rock ptarmigan|Ptarmigan]] – gamebird in the grouse family
* [[Hangikjöt]]
* [[Turkey (bird)|Oven-roasted turkey]]
* Beverage combination of Malt and Appelsín.
* Jarðarberjagrautur
* Möndlugrautur – a Christmas [[rice pudding]] with an almond hidden inside (the same as the Swedish Julgröt)
* Caramelised potatoes
* Pickled [[red cabbage]]
* ''Smákökur'' – small cookies of various sorts
** Jólasúkkulaðibitakökur
** Loftkökur
** Mömmukökur
** Sörur
** Spesiur
** Gyðingakökur
** Piparkökur
** Marens Kornflexkökur
* [[Laufabrauð]] – round, very thin flat cakes with a diameter of about 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 inches), decorated with leaf-like, geometric patterns and fried briefly in hot fat or oil

== India and Pakistan ==
[[Indian Christians]] and [[Pakistani Christians]] in [[Indian subcontinent]] celebrate Christmas by enjoying several dishes, such as [[Allahabadi cake]], [[Candy canes]], Plum cakes etc. Some of the popular dishes eaten during [[Christmas]] in India and Pakistan are:

* [[Allahabadi cake]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/stoi/deep-focus/Cakewalk-in-Allahabad/articleshow/27391297.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220120808/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-12-15/deep-focus/45215736_1_cake-bakery-khari-baoli |url-status=live |archive-date=2013-12-20 |title=Cakewalk in Allahabad |date=2013-12-15 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2014-02-13}}</ref>
* [[Christmas cake]] – a type of [[fruit cake]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food/recipes/Getting-the-Christmas-cake-mix-right/articleshow/25893065.cms |title=Getting the Christmas cake mix right - Times Of India |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date=2013-12-14 |access-date=2014-02-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215025854/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food/recipes/Getting-the-Christmas-cake-mix-right/articleshow/25893065.cms |archive-date=2013-12-15 }}</ref>
* [[Mathri]] – a traditional flaky biscuit.
* [[Gulab Jamun]] – a traditional sweet prepared with khoa.
*Walnut fudge
* [[Jalebi]]
* [[Mince pie|Mincemeatpie]]
* [[Kheer]] – boiled rice cooked with milk, sugar, saffron and is garnished with nuts such as almonds and pistachios. It can also be made with barley.
* [[Chhena Poda]] – a dessert made with Chhena (cottage cheese) which is slightly roasted and soaked in sugar syrup. It is garnished with cashew nuts and served. Chhena Poda is popular in the Odisha state of India. It is eaten during the Christmas season but is available throughout the year.
*Ghee cookies
*[[Rose Cookies|Rose cookies]]
*Bolinhas de coco – a type of coconut cookies
* [[chocolates|Chocolate covered fruit]]
*[[Marzipan]]
* [[Dumplings]] – dumplings filled with Indian spices with a sweet or savoury filling.
* [[Tarts]]
*[[Nankhatai]]
* [[Gujia#Neureos|Neureos]] – a kind of dumpling made of [[semolina]], [[khoa]] and [[nutlet]].
* [[Roast chicken]]
*Dates roll- a type of Christmas cookies with [[Date palm|dates]]
* [[Bebinca]] – a dessert popular in Goa which is eaten during [[Christmas]] season.
* [[Biryani]]
* [[Stew]] – stews prepared with chicken, mutton, fish.
* [[Candy canes]]
*[[Kidyo|Cormolas]]
*Milk cream – milk fudge
*Chocolate candies
* [[Vindaloo]] – a spicy Goan curry with pork made during Christmas.
* [[Fruits]], such as [[apple]], [[Orange (fruit)|orange]], [[guava]].
* [[Mixed nuts]]
*[[Kidyo|Kulkuls]]
*[[Pilaf]]
*Duck curry
*[[Jujube (confectionery)|Jujubee]]
* [[Cupcakes]]
* [[Drinks]], such as [[cider]], [[ginger ale]], etc.

Church services are also held in churches throughout [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], in which Christmas dinners are held which include dishes such as [[Allahabadi cake]], [[candy canes]], [[Christmas cookies]].

The ''[[Koswad]]'' is a set of sweets and snacks prepared in the [[Christmastide]] by people of the [[Konkan region]]. South Indian states such as Kerala have traditions observed of home-brewed [[Indian wine|wine]], mostly grapes but sometimes other fruits as well like apple and rose apple; ethnic recipes of slow-cooked [[Kerala beef fry|beef fry]], rice and coconut [[Appam|Hoppers]], [[Kerala cuisine|lamb stew]], [[Indian Chinese cuisine|fried rice Indian]] and fusion style; desserts such as [[Falooda]], pastry, and a whole array of steamed, boiled or baked sweets, often with coconut, jaggery, sugar and spices such as cardamom and cloves ([[Achappam]], [[Murukku]], [[Tapioca chip]], [[Sukiyan]], [[Neyyappam]]).

== Indonesia ==
* [[Klappertaart]]<ref name="phinemo.com">{{cite web |url=https://phinemo.com/7-makanan-khas-natal-dari-daerah-di-indonesia/ |title=7 Makanan Khas Indonesia yang Disajikan Saat Natal Tiba |language=id |website=Phinemo|date=25 December 2017 }}</ref>
* [[Poffertjes]]<ref name="phinemo.com"/>
* [[Ayam rica-rica]]<ref name="phinemo.com"/>
* [[Lampet]]<ref name="phinemo.com"/>
* Kohu-kohu
* Kidney bean soup

== Iran ==
* [[Ash-e doogh]]
* [[Aush reshteh]]
* [[Baghali polo]]
* [[Chelow kebab]]
* [[Kafbikh]]
* [[Nan-o-kabab]]
* [[Tahchin]]

== Iraq ==
* [[Kleicha]]
* [[Masgouf]]
* [[Gheimeh|Qeema]]

== Ireland ==
* Christmas cake
* [[Christmas pudding]]
* [[Irish coffee]]
* [[Minced pie]]
* Sherry Trifle
* [[Spiced beef]] (traditionally served in Ireland and Northern Ireland)
* Roast turkey

== Israel ==
*[[Challah]]
*[[Latke]]
*[[Sufganiyah]]

== Italy ==
{{Main|Christmas in Italy}}
{{see also|Italian cuisine|List of Italian dishes}}
[[File:Panettone - Nicolettone 2017 - IMG 7085 (31752542285).jpg|thumb|[[Panettone]]]]
[[File:03 Cappelletti in brodo con Parmigiano Reggiano.jpg|thumb|[[Cappelletti (pasta)|Cappelletti]]]]
[[File:Abbacchio Pasquale.jpg|thumb|[[Abbacchio]]]]
[[File:Struffoli Napoletani.jpg|thumb|[[Struffoli]]]]

[[Christmas in Italy]] ({{langx|it|Natale}}, {{IPA|it|naˈtaːle|lang}}) begins on 8 December, with the [[Feast of the Immaculate Conception]], the day on which traditionally the [[Christmas tree]] is mounted and ends on 6 January, of the following year with the [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]] ({{langx|it|Epifania|links=no}}, {{IPA|it|epifaˈniːa|lang}}).<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=November 25, 2013|title=The Best Christmas Traditions in Italy|url=https://www.walksofitaly.com/blog/things-to-do/christmas-traditions-in-italy|access-date=January 26, 2021|website=Walks of Italy|language=en-GB}}</ref> According to tradition, the Christmas Eve dinner must not contain meat. A popular Christmas Day dish in [[Naples]] and in [[Southern Italy]] is {{Lang|it|[[capitone]]}}, which is a female eel. A traditional Christmas Day dish from [[Northern Italy]] is [[capon]] (gelded chicken). [[Abbacchio]] is more common in [[Central Italy]].<ref name="lacucinaitaliana">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=19 December 2020|title=La triade golosa del Natale italiano: cappone, abbacchio e capitone |url=https://www.lacucinaitaliana.it/storie/piatti-tipici/la-triade-golosa-del-natale-italiano-cappone-abbacchio-e-capitone|access-date=December 26, 2022|website=lacucinaitaliana.it |language=it}}</ref> The Christmas Day dinner traditionally consists by typical Italian Christmas dishes, such as [[abbacchio]], [[agnolini]], [[Cappelletti (pasta)|cappelletti]], [[Pavese agnolotti]], [[panettone]], [[pandoro]], [[torrone]], [[panforte]], [[struffoli]], [[mustacciuoli]], [[bisciola]], [[cavallucci]], [[veneziana]], [[pizzelle]], [[zelten]], or others, depending on the regional cuisine.<ref name="sicilianculture">{{cite web |url=http://www.sicilianculture.com/food/xmasfish.htm |title=Food: Italian Christmas Eve Fish Dinner |publisher=Sicilian Culture |date=December 25, 2002 |access-date=December 22, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120911142601/http://www.sicilianculture.com/food/xmasfish.htm |archive-date=September 11, 2012 }}</ref> Christmas on 25 December is celebrated with a family lunch, also consisting of different types of pasta and meat dishes, cheese and local sweets.

* [[Abbacchio]] (Central Italy).
* [[Agnolini]] (Mantua) – a type of egg-based [[Filled pasta|stuffed pasta]].
* [[Bisciola]] (Valtellina) – an [[artisan]]al Italian sweet leavened bread.
* [[Cappelletti (pasta)|Cappelletti]] (Emilia-Romagna and Marche) – a ring-shaped [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] [[stuffed pasta]] so called for the characteristic shape that resembles a hat (''cappello'' in [[Italian language|Italian]]).
* [[Capon]] (Northern Italy).
* [[Cavallucci]] (Siena) – a rich [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] Christmas pastry prepared with [[anise]], walnuts, [[candied fruit]]s, [[coriander]], and flour.
* [[Eel]] (Southern Italy).
* [[Pandoro]] (Verona)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lifeinitaly.com/christmas/panettone-pandoro|title=Panettone or Pandoro: An Italian Christmas Dilemma - Italy|website=www.lifeinitaly.com|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428170836/http://www.lifeinitaly.com/christmas/panettone-pandoro|archive-date=28 April 2017}}</ref> – a sweet originally from [[Verona]]. Pandoro is today the most consumed Italian Christmas dessert together with [[panettone]].<ref name="FJ">{{cite web|url=https://www.focusjunior.it/news/chi-ha-inventato-il-pandoro/|title=Chi ha inventato il pandoro?|date=15 December 2020 |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref>
* [[Panforte]] (Tuscany)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turismo.intoscana.it/site/en/local-products/Christmas-in-the-kitchen-Tuscan-delicacies-on-the-table/|title=Christmas in the kitchen: Tuscan delicacies on the table - turismo.intoscana.it|website=www.turismo.intoscana.it|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016215353/http://www.turismo.intoscana.it/site/en/local-products/Christmas-in-the-kitchen-Tuscan-delicacies-on-the-table/|archive-date=16 October 2016}}</ref> – a traditional chewy [[Italy|Italian]] [[dessert]] containing fruits and nuts.
* [[Panettone]] (Milan)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theworldwidegourmet.com/?action=occasionitem_show&id=15&lg=en |title=Christmas in Italy |publisher=The Worldwide Gourmet |access-date=2007-03-09 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070920210743/http://www.theworldwidegourmet.com/?action=occasionitem_show&id=15&lg=en |archive-date=2007-09-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://lifestyle.iafrica.com/festive/291083.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070114001534/http://lifestyle.iafrica.com/festive/291083.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 January 2007 |title=The legend of Panettone |first=Nicole |last=Martiche |date=16 November 2006 |access-date=2007-03-09 }}</ref> – a type of [[List of sweet breads|sweet bread]] and [[fruitcake]], originally from [[Milan]], usually prepared and enjoyed for [[Christmas]] and [[New Year]] in [[Western Europe|Western]], [[Southern Europe|Southern]], and [[Southeast Europe|Southeastern Europe]], as well as in [[South America]], [[Eritrea]],<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.madote.com/2016/01/christmas-in-eritrea.html | title=Christmas in Eritrea}}</ref> [[Australia]], the [[United States]] and [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ansa.it/canale_terraegusto/notizie/prodotti_tipici/2017/12/04/negli-usa-tutti-pazzi-per-il-panettone-e-boom-vendite_b653dfb9-ec37-43c9-99bd-345a4abf1af0.html |title= Negli Usa tutti pazzi per il panettone, è boom vendite |language=it |website=Ansa|date= 4 December 2017 }}</ref>
* [[Pavese agnolotti]] (Oltrepò pavese) – a type of egg-based [[Filled pasta|stuffed pasta]] of the [[Lombard cuisine]] served hot or warm.
* [[Pizzelle]] (Ortona) – an [[Italy|Italian]] waffle [[cookie]]s made from [[flour]], [[egg (food)|eggs]], [[sugar]], [[butter]] or [[vegetable oil]], and flavoring (usually [[anise]] or [[anisette]], less commonly [[vanilla]] or [[zest (ingredient)|lemon zest]]).
* [[Prosecco]] (Veneto)<ref name="browsingitaly.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.browsingitaly.com/italian-food-and-drinks/wine/christmas-italy-means-bollicine/1213/|title=Christmas in Italy means...bollicine! - BrowsingItaly|date=26 November 2013|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022223638/http://www.browsingitaly.com/italian-food-and-drinks/wine/christmas-italy-means-bollicine/1213/|archive-date=22 October 2016}}</ref>
* [[Mustacciuoli]] (Naples) – a dessert having a soft, spicy, cake-like interior covered in [[chocolate]].
* [[Spumante]] (Piedmont)<ref name="browsingitaly.com"/>
* [[Struffoli]] (Naples) – a type of deep-fried dough.
* [[Torrone]] (Northern Italy) – a sweet containing whole hazelnuts, almonds and pistachios or only have nut meal added to the nougat.
* [[Veneziana]] (Milan) – a sweet covered with sugar grains or almond icing.
* [[Zelten]] (Trentino) – a sweet prepared using rye flour, wheat flour, dried and candied fruits, orange zest, and various spices.

==Jamaica==
* Christmas (fruit) cake or [[black cake]] – a heavy fruit cake made with dried fruit, wine and rum.
* [[Roselle (plant)|Sorrel]] – often served to guests with Christmas cake; Sorrel is made from the same sepals as Latin American drink "Jamaica," but is more concentrated and usually flavored with ginger. Adding rum is traditional at Christmas time.
* [[Curry goat]]
* [[Rice and peas]] – a Sunday staple, at Christmas dinner is usually made with green (fresh) gungo (pigeon) peas instead of dried kidney beans or other dried legumes.
* [[Christmas ham]]
* [[Chicken (food)|Chicken]]
* Pine and ginger

== Japan ==
* Christmas cake – the Japanese style Christmas cake is often a white cream cake, [[sponge cake]] frosted with whipped cream, topped with strawberries and with a chocolate plate that says [[Merry Christmas]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kahle|first=Lynn R. |author2=Chʻung-hyŏn Kim |title=Creating Images and the Psychology of Marketing Communication|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|page=48|isbn=0-8058-5216-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNSeRruUoJMC&q=japanese+christmas+cake&pg=PA48}}</ref> [[Yule log (cake)|Yule Logs]] are also available.
* Christmas cookies - A Christmas sugar cookie's main ingredients are sugar, flour, butter, eggs, vanilla, and baking powder. Sugar cookies may be formed by hand, dropped, or rolled and cut into shapes. They are commonly decorated with additional sugar, icing, Christmas sprinkles. Decorative shapes and figures can be cut into the rolled-out dough using a cookie cutter.
* Christmas cupcakes
* [[Crème caramel]] [[pudding]] in [[Japan]] - a crème caramel ubiquitous in Japanese convenience stores under the name custard pudding. Made with eggs, sugar and milk, sometimes served with whipped cream and a cherry on top.
* [[French fries]]
* [[Fruit]] [[parfait]] - Made by boiling cream, egg, sugar and syrup to create layers differentiated by the inclusion of such ingredients as corn flakes and vanilla ice cream. Topped with melon, banana, peach, orange, apple, kiwi, cherries and strawberries and whipped cream.
* [[Gingerbread house]]
* [[Ice cream]]
* [[KFC]] [[fried chicken]] – turkey as a dish is virtually unknown in Japan<ref name="Intro to Christmas Traditions">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A7951656|title=An Introduction to Christmas Traditions|date=2005-12-23|publisher=BBC|access-date=2010-12-24|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101103043910/http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A7951656|archive-date=2010-11-03}}</ref> and the popularity of KFC's fried chicken at Christmas is such that orders are placed as much as two months in advance.<ref name="All Japan wants">{{cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2010/12/20/all-japan-wants-for-christmas-is-kentucky-fried-chicken.html|title=All Japan Wants for Christmas is Kentucky Fried Chicken|last=Whipp|first=Lindsay|date=2010-12-20|publisher=[[Financial Times]]|access-date=2010-12-24|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012173158/http://www.cnbc.com/id/40759547|archive-date=2012-10-12}}</ref>
* [[Nabemono]]
* Poached egg [[salad]]
* Shōyu [[ramen]]
* [[Tamagoyaki]] - Japanese [[Omelette]]
* [[Yakiniku]]

== Korea ==
* [[Budae-jjigae]]
* [[Korean barbecue|Gogigui]]
* [[Korean royal cuisine]]
* [[Makgeolli]]

== Latvia ==
* Jāņu skābs
* Piparkūkas

== Lithuania ==
* [[Twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper]] – twelve dishes representing the twelve Apostles or twelve months of the year – plays the main role in Lithuanian Christmas tradition. The traditional dishes are served on December 24.
** [[Poppy milk]] (''aguonų pienas'')
** [[Slizikai]] ( or kūčiukai) – slightly sweet small pastries made from [[yeast|leavened]] dough and poppy seed
** Auselės (Deep fried dumplings)
** [[Herring]] with [[carrot]]s (''silkė su morkomis'')
** Herring with [[mushroom]]s (''silkė su grybais'')
** [[Cranberry]] [[Kissel]] - thickened and sweetened juice normally served warm

== Malaysia and Singapore ==
* [[Bolo Rei]] – a type of cake
* [[Candy cane]]s
* [[Christmas cake]]
* [[Christmas pudding]]
* [[Chap chye]] – a vegetable stew
* [[Devil's curry]] – from the Eurasian tradition
* [[Egg salad]]
* [[Hotpot|Steamboat]] – a hotpot dish for communal
* [[Jiaozi]]
* [[Kue semprong]]
* [[Pineapple tart]]
* [[Semur (Indonesian stew)|Semur]]
* [[Vindaloo]] – a spicy Goan curry made usually with pork

== Malta ==

* [[Panettone]] – from the Italian tradition
* [[Fruitcake]] – from British influence
* Christmas/[[Yule log (cake)]] – a log (similar to a tree's) that is made from chocolate and candied fruits
* [[Mince Pies]] – from British influence
* [[Timpana]] – traditionally served as a starter
* Roast Turkey – from British influence

== Mexico ==
[[File:Roast chicken.jpg|thumb|right|Christmas roast]]
* Meat
** Roasted [[Turkey (food)|turkey]] – stuffed, roasted turkey served with gravy.
** [[Glazed ham]] – ham glazed with honey or sugar dressed with cherries and pineapples.
** [[Jamón]] (Spanish Dry-Cured Ham)
** [[Suckling pig|Lechon]]
** [[Seafood]]
*** [[Bacalao (cuisine)|Bacalao]] – cod Basque style. Traditionally eaten in the central and southern states of Mexico.
*** [[Shrimp]] – cocktail or prepared in Torrejas (dried shrimp pancakes)
*** [[Octopus]] – cocktail
*** [[Crab]]
* Stews
** [[Menudo (soup)|Menudo]] – a Christmas morning tradition in northwestern states, Menudo is a tripe and hominy soup. Menudo is often prepared the night before (Christmas Eve) as its cooking time can take up to 5 hours.
** [[Pozole]] – hominy soup with added pork
* Salads and other side dishes
** [[Tamale]]s – can sometimes replace the traditional turkey or Bacalao with romeritos, particularly in northern and southern parts of Mexico.
** Ensalada Navideña – Christmas salad with apples, raisins, pecans, and marshmallows.
** Ensalada de Noche Buena – Christmas Eve salad
** Ensalada Rusa – potato salad, particularly popular in northern states.
** [[Romeritos]] – also a Christmas tradition of the central region, romeritos are small green leaves similar to rosemary mixed generally with mole and potatoes.
* Sweets
** [[Buñuelo]] – fried sweet pastry
** [[Capirotada]] – bread pudding
** [[Turrón]]
** [[Cocada]] – coconut candy
** Volteado de piña – pineapple upside-down cake. Turned-over cake with cherries and pineapples.
** Carlota de Chocolate – cake
** [[Mantecado]]s and [[polvorón|polvorones]] – crumbly cakes
** [[Marzipan]], almond cakes
** [[Pan dulce]] – sweet rolls
** [[Churros]]
* Fresh Fruit
** [[Tejocote]]s
** [[Guayaba]]s
** ''Caña de azucar'' - [[Sugarcane|Sugar cane]]
* Drinks
** [[Champurrado]] – thick hot chocolate
** [[Chocolate]] – [[hot chocolate]]
** [[Cider|Cidra]] – [[apple cider]]
** [[Atole]] – corn based drink
** [[Rompope]] – similar to [[eggnog]]
** [[Ponche Navideño]] – a hot, sweet drink made with [[apple]]s, [[Sugarcane|sugar cane]], [[prune]]s and [[Crataegus mexicana|tejocote]]s. For grown-ups, ponche is never complete without its "piquete" – either [[tequila]] or [[rum]]

== Netherlands ==
* [[Banket (pastry)|Banket]]
* [[Mandarin orange]]
* [[Marzipan]]
* [[Mixed spice]]
* [[Mulled wine]]
* [[Oliebol]] (more widely considered as a New Years' classic)
* [[Speculaas]]
* [[Kerstkransjes]]
* [[Rollade]]

== New Zealand ==
[[File:Christmas pavlova.jpg|thumb|right|A homemade Christmas pavlova decorated with [[pomegranate]] seeds and [[Chantilly cream]].]]

* [[Cherry|Cherries]]
* [[Christmas Pudding|Christmas pudding]]
* Christmas [[mince pie]]s
* [[Ham]]
* [[Lamb and mutton|Lamb]]
* [[Candy|Lollies]] (candy) such as candy canes
* [[Pavlova (food)|Pavlova]]
* [[Potato salad]]
* [[Seafood]]
* [[Strawberry|Strawberries]]
* [[Trifle]]
* [[Wine]]

== Norway ==
[[File:Freshly baked gingerbread - Christmas 2004.jpg|thumb|Scandinavian-style gingerbread]]
* [[Akevitt]] – [[Akvavit]], a spirit flavored with spices like caraway and aniseed
* [[Gløgg]] – [[mulled wine]]
* Julepølse – pork [[sausage]] made with powdered [[ginger]], [[clove]]s, [[mustard seed]]s and [[nutmeg]]. Served steamed or roasted.
* [[Pinnekjøtt]] – salted, dried, and sometimes smoked lamb's ribs which are rehydrated and then steamed, traditionally over [[birch]] branches
* [[Pork ribs|Svineribbe]] – [[pork belly]] roasted whole with the skin on. Usually served with red or pickled [[cabbage]], [[gravy]] and boiled [[potato]]es.
* [[Rice pudding|Risgrøt]] – Christmas rice porridge with an [[almond]] hidden inside
* [[Julebrus]] – Norwegian [[soft drink]], usually with a festive label on the bottle. It is brewed by most Norwegian [[Brewery|breweries]], as a Christmas drink for minors.
* [[Julekake]] – Norwegian yeast cake with dried fruits and spices
* Sosisser – small Christmas [[sausage]]s
* Medisterkaker – large meatballs made from a mix of pork meat and pork fat
* Raudkål/Rødkål – sweet and sour [[red cabbage]], as a side dish
* Kålrabistappe/Kålrotstappe – Purée of [[rutabaga]], as a side dish
* Peparkake/Pepperkake – [[gingerbread]]-like spice cookies flavoured with [[black pepper]]
* [[Lussekatter]] – St. Lucia Buns with [[saffron]]
* [[Multekrem]] – a dessert consisting of [[Cloudberry|cloudberries]] and [[whipped cream]]
* [[Riskrem]] – [[Risalamande]]

== Palestine ==
*[[Knafeh]]
*[[Maqluba]]
*[[Mujaddara]]
*[[Warbat]]
*[[Zalabiyeh]]

== Panama ==

* [[Arroz con Pollo]]
* [[Tamales]]
* [[Ham]]
* [[Turkey (food)|Turkey]]
* [[Grapes]]
* [[Fruit cake]]
* [[Egg nog]]
* [[Potato salad]]
* Pan de Rosca
* Pan Bon
* [[Spaghetti]]

== Paraguay ==
* [[Apple cider]]
* Beef tongue sometimes covered in [[vinaigrette]]
* [[Cider]]
* Clericó (citric alcoholic drink made out of a mix of fruits and wine)
* [[Chicken (food)|Roasted chicken]]
* [[Potato salad]]
* [[Roasting|Roast]] [[pork]]
* [[Sopa paraguaya]]

== Philippines ==
{{See also|Christmas Eve#Philippines}}
[[File:Traditional Filipino cuisine.jpg|thumb|Typical traditional ''noche buena'' meal in the [[Philippines]], with a [[lechon|lechón]] as the centerpiece]]
[[File:Large bibinka.jpg|right|thumb|Large ''bibingka'' from the Philippines]]
* [[Adobo (Filipino cuisine)|Adobo]]
* [[Almondigas]] ([[meatball]]s)
* [[Arroz valenciana]]
* [[Bibingka]] – traditional dessert made with [[rice flour]], [[sugar]], [[clarified butter]] and [[coconut milk]]; baked in layers and topped with butter and sugar.<ref name="culturefront"/>
* [[Biko (food)|Biko]]
* [[Buko salad]] ([[young coconut]] salad)
* [[Caldereta]]
* [[Callos]]
* ''Castañas'' ([[roasted chestnuts]])
* [[Champorado]]
* [[Chicken galantina]]
* [[Chicken pastel]]
* [[Churro]]
* [[Crema de fruta]]
* [[Embutido (Filipino cuisine)|Embutido]]
* [[Fruitcake]]
* [[Fruit salad]]
* [[Filipino spaghetti]]
* [[Ham]]<ref name="yuletide fusion">{{cite news|url=http://showbizandstyle.inquirer.net/lifestyle/lifestyle/view_article.php?article_id=108428|title=Yuletide fusion of flavors|last=Burgos|first=Rowena|date=2007-12-23|publisher=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|access-date=2008-12-06|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222153626/http://showbizandstyle.inquirer.net/lifestyle/lifestyle/view_article.php?article_id=108428|archive-date=2008-02-22}}</ref>
* [[Hamonado]]
* [[Inihaw]]
* [[Kinutil]]
* [[Leche flan]]
* [[Suckling pig|Lechon]]
* [[Lengua estofado]]
* [[Lumpia]]
* [[Mango float]]
* [[Macaroni salad]]
* [[Mechado]]
* [[Dulce de membrillo|Membrilyo]]
* [[Menudo (stew)|Menudo]]
* [[Morcón (Filipino cuisine)|Morcon]]
* [[Paelya]]
* [[Pancit]]
* [[Puto bumbong]] – a purple-coloured Filipino dessert made of [[sweet rice]] cooked in hollow bamboo tubes placed on a special steamer-cooker. When cooked, they are spread with [[margarine]] and sprinkled with [[sugar]] and [[grated coconut]].<ref name="culturefront">{{cite news|url=http://www.mb.com.ph/issues/2007/12/09/TSTE20071209110674.html|title=Culturefront: Christmas Culinary Traditions (Part 1)|last=Galang|first=Diana A.|date=2007-12-09|publisher=[[Manila Bulletin]]|access-date=2008-12-06}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
* Queso de bola ([[edam cheese]])<ref name="yuletide fusion"/>
* Relyenong bangus (stuffed milkfish)
* [[Sapin-sapin]]
* [[suman (food)|Suman]]
* [[Tsokolate]]
* [[Turon (food)|Turon]]
* [[Ube halaya]]

== Poland ==
On 24 December, Christmas Eve, twelve dishes are served as a reminder of the [[Apostles in the New Testament|Twelve Apostles]]. Polish people often do not eat meat on this day; instead, they choose from a variety of fish and vegetable dishes. The meal begins when the first star is seen.

[[File:Uszka-aasica.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Barszcz]] with [[Uszka]]]]
[[File:Bejgli1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Makowiec (pastry)|Makowiec]]]]
* [[Borscht|Barszcz]] ([[beetroot]] soup) with [[uszka]] (small dumplings) - a classic Polish Christmas starter.
* [[Pierogi]] with [[sauerkraut]] and forest [[mushrooms]]; filled with [[cottage cheese]] and [[potato]]es
* Zupa rybna – [[fish soup]]
* [[Żurek]] – [[soup]] made of soured [[rye]] [[flour]] and [[meat]]
* Zupa grzybowa – [[mushroom]] soup made of various forest mushrooms
* [[Bigos]] – savory [[stew]] of [[cabbage]] and [[meat]]
* [[Kompot]] – traditional drink a light, refreshing drink most often made of dried or fresh fruit boiled in water with sugar and left to cool and infuse.
* [[Gołąbki]] – [[cabbage]] rolls
* Pieczarki marynowane – [[marinated mushrooms]]
* Kartofle gotowane – simple boiled [[potato]]es sprinkled with [[parsley]] or [[dill]]
* [[Kulebiak]] – with [[fish]] or [[cabbage]] and wild [[mushroom]]s filling
* Ryba smażona or ryba po grecku – [[fried fish]] laid under layers of fried shredded [[carrot]]s, [[onion]]s, root [[celery]] and [[leek]]
* [[Sałatka jarzynowa]] – salad made with boiled [[potato]]es and carrots with fresh peas, sweetcorn, dill cucumber, and boiled egg, mixed with mayonnaise.
* [[Łamaniec]] – type of flat and rather hard pancake that is soaked in warm milk with poppy seeds. Eaten in eastern regions such as around * [[Białystok]]
* [[Poppy seed roll|Makowiec]] – poppy seed roll

== Portugal ==
[[File:Bolo Rei.jpg|thumb|''Bolo-Rei'']]
* [[Bacalhau]] – codfish
* Cabrito assado – roasted goat
* Borrego assado – roasted lamb
* Polvo cozido – boiled octopus
* [[Polvo à lagareiro]] - dish based on [[octopus]], [[olive oil]], [[potatoes]] (''batatas a murro''), ''[[grelos]]'' and [[garlic]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Polvo à Lagareiro, história e receita |url=https://ncultura.pt/polvo-a-lagareiro-historia-e-receita/ |publisher=ncultura.pt |access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Polvo à Lagareiro, uma das receitas mais típicas de Portugal | date=12 January 2018 |url=http://iberismos.com/polvo-a-lagareiro-uma-das-receitas-mais-tipicas-de-portugal/?lang=pt-pt |publisher=iberismos.com |access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Polvo à Lagareiro |url=https://tastebraga.com/comida/polvo-a-lagareiro/ |publisher=tastebraga.com |access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref>
* [[Carne de Vinha d' Alhos]] – mainly served in [[Madeira]] – pork dish
* [[Bolo de mel]] – mainly served in [[Madeira]] - Cake made with molasses
* [[Bolo Rei]] (king cake) – a beautifully decorated fluffy fruitcake
* Bolo-Rei escangalhado (broken king cake) – it is like the first one, but has also cinnamon and chilacayote jam (doce de gila)
* Bolo-Rainha (queen cake) – similar to Bolo-Rei, but with only nuts, raisins and almonds
* Bolo-Rei de chocolate – it is like the Bolo-Rei, but has less (or no) fruit, nuts, chilacayote jam and many chocolate chips
* Broa castelar – a small, soft and thin cake made of sweet potato and orange
* Fatias douradas – slices of pan bread, soaked in egg with sugar, fried and sprinkled with powdered sugar and cinnamon
* [[Rabanadas]] – they are like fatias douradas, but made with common bread
* Aletria – composed of pasta, milk, butter, sugar, eggs, lemon peel, cinnamon powder and salt
* Formigos – a delicious dessert made with sugar, eggs, pieces of bread, almonds, port wine and cinnamon powder
* [[Filhós]] / Filhozes / Filhoses – depending on the region, they may be thin or fluffy pieces of a fried dough made of eggs, honey, orange, lemon, flour and anise, sprinkled - or not with icing sugar
* Coscorões – thin squares of a fried orange flavoured dough
* Azevias de grão, batata-doce ou gila – deep fried thin dough pastries filled with a delicious cream made of chickpea, sweet potato or chilacayote, powdered with sugar and cinnamon
* Tarte de amêndoa – almond pie
* Tronco de Natal – Christmas log – a Swiss roll, resembling a tree's trunk, filled with chocolate cream, decorated with chocolate and mini – 2 cm Christmas trees
* Lampreia de ovos – a sweet made of eggs, well decorated
* Sonhos – an orange flavoured fried yeast dough, powdered with icing sugar
* Velhoses – they are like the sonhos, but made with pumpkin
* Bolo de Natal – Christmas cake
* Pudim de Natal – Christmas pudding, similar to flan
* Vinho quente – mulled wine made with boiled wine, egg yolk, sugar and cinnamon
* Turkey – on the island of Terceira, turkey has recently taken over as the traditional Christmas dish over Bacalhau, due to the influence of American culture on the island, home to the United States Air Force's 65th Air Base Wing.

== Puerto Rico (U.S.) ==
* [[Arroz con gandules]] – yellow-rice, pigeon peas, [[olive]]s, [[caper]]s, pieces of pork, spices and sofrito cooked in the same pot.
* [[Escabeche]] – pickled green bananas or cassava and chicken gizzards.
* [[Macaroni salad]] – with canned tuna and peppers.
* [[Morcilla]] – blood sausage.
* [[Pasteles]] – Puerto Rican tamle made from milk, broth, root vegetables, squash, green banana, plantain dough, stuffed with meat, and wrapped in banana leaves.
* [[Hallaca]] – tamale made from grated cassava and stuffed with meat wrapped in banana leaves.
* [[Pastelón]] – sweet [[Plantain (cooking)|plantain]] "[[lasagna]]".
* [[Pig roast]] – Puerto Rico is famous for their pig roast. It is also a part (along with arroz con gandules) of their national dish.
* [[Potato salad]] – most commonly made with apples, [[chorizo]] and hard-boiled [[egg (food)|egg]]s. Potatoes are sometimes replaced with [[cassava]].

Drinks:
* Bilí – [[Spanish lime]]s or cherries fermented in rum with spices, brown sugar, citrus peels, bay leaves, avocado leaves, often cucumber, ginger, and coconut shells.
* [[Coquito]] – spiced coconut eggnog.
* Coquito de guayaba - spiced [[guava]] eggnog with cream cheese or coconut milk added.
* [[Piña colada]]
* Rum punch – rum, orange liqueur, grenadine, ginger ale, grapefruit juice served with fruit, lemon and lime slices.
* La Danza – champagne with passion fruit juice, orange liqueur, lime juice, lemon juice, and strawberry juice.

Dessert:
* [[Rice pudding#Latin America and the Caribbean|Arroz con dulce]] – Spiced coconut and raisin rice pudding.
* [[Bread pudding]] – soaked in coconut milk and served with a guava rum sauce.
* Dulce de cassabanana – [[musk cucumber]] cooked in syrup topped with walnuts and sour cream on the side.
* [[Dulce de papaya]] con queso – Fermented green [[papaya]] with spices and sugar syrup served with ausubal cheese or fresh white cheese.
* Flancocho – [[Crème caramel]] with a layer of cream cheese and Puerto Rican style [[spongecake]] underneath.
* [[Majarete]] – rice and coconut custard. Made with coconut cream, [[marshmallow]]s, milk, [[rice flour]], sugar, vanilla and sour orange leaves with cinnamon served on top.
* [[Rum cake]]
* [[Tembleque]] – a [[pudding]] made with cornstarch, coconut cream, sugar, milk, orange blossom water and [[coconut milk]].
* [[Turrón]] – Sesame brittle or almond brittle.
*Mantecaditos – Puerto Rican shortbread cookies. Made with shortening, [[coconut butter]], flour, [[almond meal|almond flour]], vanilla, nutmeg and almond extract. They are usually filled with guava jam or pineapple jam in the middle.
*[[Natilla]] – Milk, coconut cream and egg yolk custard made with additional cinnamon, cornstarch, sugar, vanilla, lemon zest and orange blossom water. Served in individual ramekins with cinnamon sprinkled on top.

== Romania ==
[[File:Cozonac-cu-nuca-103.jpg|thumb|Cozonac]]Romanian Christmas foods are mostly pork-based dishes.<ref name="Romanian Christmas foods">{{cite news|url=https://sodelicious.recipes/food-culture/christmas-foods-in-romania/|title=Christmas Foods and Festive Traditions in Romania|last=Vulpescu|first=Cristina|date=2019-12-18|publisher=SoDelicious.Recipes|access-date=2020-06-22}}</ref> Five days before Christmas, Romanians are celebrating the Ignat Day, a religious holy day dedicated to the Holy Martyr [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius Theophorus]], associated with a practice that takes place especially on villages scattered around the country: the ritual of slaughtering the pigs. And they are using everything from the pigs: from their blood to their ears. Five days later their tables are filled not only with generous pork roasts but also with:
* [[Aspic|Piftie]] – [[Aspic|pork jelly]], made only with pork meat, vegetables and garlic
* Lebăr – liver sausages, a local variety of [[liverwurst]]
* Caltaboș – sausages made from organs
* Cârnaţi – pork-based [[sausage]]s
* Sângerete – [[blood sausage]]s
* Tobă – [[head cheese]] made from various cuttings of pork, liver boiled, diced and "packed" in pork stomach like a [[salami]]
* Sarmale – rolls of cabbage pickled in brine and filled with meat and rice (see [[sarma (food)|sarma]])
* [[Salată de boeuf]] – a more recent dish, but highly popular, this type of salad uses boiled vegetables and meat (beef, poultry, even ham). It can include potatoes, carrots, pickled red peppers and cucumbers, egg whites bits. Everything is mixed together with mayonnaise and mustard.
*[[Cozonac]], the Romanian equivalent of [[panettone]] or [[List of sweet breads|sweet bread]].
* Strong spirits: [[Palinka]], [[Rachiu]], [[Ţuică]]

== Russia ==
* [[Borscht]]
* [[Kutya]]

==San Marino==
[[File:Bustrengo.jpg|thumb|[[Bustrengo]]]]
* [[Bustrengo]]

== Serbia and Montenegro ==
{{Main|Serbian cuisine|Montenegrin cuisine}}
* [[Česnica]] – Christmas soda bread with a silver coin to bring health and good luck baked in the bread.
* [[Koljivo]] – boiled wheat which is used liturgically in the Eastern Orthodox and Greek Catholic Churches.
* [[Fish soup|Riblja čorba]] for Christmas Eve

== South Africa ==
Christmas is in the summer in South Africa, so many summer fruits such as watermelon and cantaloupes are enjoyed at this time. Popular desserts include trifle, melktert and peppermint crisp tart. Many people in South Africa hold [[Regional variations of barbecue|Braai]] barbecues for Christmas or New Year's Day.
*[[Beef tongue]]
*[[Gammon (meat)|Gammon]]
*[[Potato salad]]
*[[Garden Salad]]
*[[Turducken]]
*[[Turkey (bird)|Turkey]]
*[[Braaivleis]]
*[[Boerewors]]
*[[Potjiekos]]
*[[Breyani]]
*[[Bobotie]]
*[[Meatballs]]
*[[Fried chicken]]
*[[Trifle]]
*[[Fruitcake]]
*[[Mince Pies]] Influenced by British tradition, mince pies filled with dried fruits and spices are enjoyed over the holidays.
*[[Christmas pudding]]
*[[Ice cream]]
*[[Melktert]]
*[[Peppermint crisp tart]] – fridge tart made with peppermint crisp, caramel treat and tennis biscuits
*[[Yogurt tart]] – fridge tart
*[[Cookies]]
*[[Hertzoggie]]s
*[[Lamington]]s
*[[Watermelon]]
*[[Melon]]
*[[Mango]]
*[[Pineapple]]
*[[Strawberries]]
* [[Peanuts]]
* Lollies such as [[candy canes]]

== Spain ==
* [[Jamón]], [[jamón ibérico]] (Spanish dry-cured ham).
* Fish: oven gilt-head [[bream]], oven [[sea bass]], [[Eel|elvers]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=What are Angulas (Spanish Baby Eels)? |url=https://www.thespruceeats.com/what-are-angulas-3083602 |access-date=2022-12-31 |website=The Spruce Eats |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Seafood]]: [[Langostino]]s ([[Prawn|king prawn]]), [[Shrimp]], [[Lobster]], [[Crab]].
* Meat: Roasted [[Turkey (food)|turkey]], [[Lamb and mutton|Roasted lamb]].
*Sweets: [[File:Turrón de Alicante (Casa Mira).jpg|thumb|Turrón]]
** [[Turrón]]
** [[Yemas de Santa Teresa|Yema]] – egg-based dessert
** [[Mantecado]]s and [[polvorón|polvorones]] – crumbly cakes
** [[Marzipan]] – almond cakes
** [[King cake]] known as [[roscón de Reyes]] in Spanish and [[tortell]] in Catalan.
** ''[[Aragonese cuisine|Frutas de Aragón]]'' - a [[confit]] of fruit covered in chocolate
** ''Peladillas'' - sugared almonds
** [[Churros]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mamasbox.net/spanish-christmas-food/|title=The definitive guide to Spanish Christmas food, in 20 delicious & easy recipes|access-date=2015-12-10|author=Mama's Box - Online Spanish food Shop|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211180445/https://mamasbox.net/spanish-christmas-food/|archive-date=2015-12-11}}</ref>

== Sri Lanka ==
* [[Congee|Kanji]]
* [[Lamprais]]
* [[Pol Pani]]

== Sweden ==
[[File:Julbord.jpg|400px|thumb|Julbord Christmas dinner in Sweden]]

* [[Julebord|Julbord]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ninasmat.se/recept/sidor/jul.htm |title=Julmat - Allt som tillhör ett gott julbord en riktig god julmiddag |publisher=Ninasmat.se |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110212017/http://www.ninasmat.se/recept/sidor/jul.htm |archive-date=10 January 2012 }}</ref> - Christmas [[Smörgåsbord|smorgasbord]] ("Christmas table"), a catch-all term for all the dishes served during Christmas Eve:
** [[Köttbullar]] – Swedish [[meatball]]s
** [[Julskinka]] – Christmas ham
** Dopp i grytan ("dipping in the kettle") – dipping bread slices in the ham broth after boiling the Christmas ham.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.matklubben.se/matprat/jul_och_nyaar_2/tips_paa_recept_paa_dopp-i-grytan_2667.html |title=Tips på recept på Dopp-i-grytan |publisher=Matklubben.se |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320113945/http://www.matklubben.se/matprat/jul_och_nyaar_2/tips_paa_recept_paa_dopp-i-grytan_2667.html |archive-date=20 March 2012 }}</ref>
** [[Prinskorv]] – small hot dog sausages
** [[Fläskkorv]] – big pork sausage
** [[Isterband]] – smoked fresh pork sausage
** [[Revbensspjäll]] – spare ribs
** Inlagd sill – pickled [[herring]] (usually of different types)
** [[Gravad lax]] – [[lox]]
** [[Janssons frestelse]] ("Jansson's temptation") – warm, scalloped potato [[casserole]] with "ansjovis" (a type of swedish spiced and pickled [[european sprat]]), not to be confused with [[Anchovies as food|anchovies]].
** [[Vörtlimpa]] – Swedish [[rye bread]] with grated [[Orange (fruit)|orange]] peel made for Christmas, with or without raisins.
** [[Knäckebröd]] – dry crisp bread
** [[Rödkål]] – sweet and sour red cabbage, as a side dish
** Grönkål – sweet and sour [[kale]] as a side dish
** Brunkål ("brown cabbage") – cabbage flavoured with syrup, hence the name
** Rödbetor – sliced [[beet]] root
** An array of cheeses – [[bondost]], [[herrgårdsost]], [[prästost]], [[brunost|mesost]] (hard [[goat milk cheese]])
* [[Lutfisk]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ica.se/FrontServlet?s=mat_recept&state=recept&receptid=3451 |title=Lutfisk med senapssås |publisher=Ica.se |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219031514/http://www.ica.se/FrontServlet?s=mat_recept&state=recept&receptid=3451 |archive-date=19 February 2008 }}</ref> – lye-fish (whitefish) that has been boiled served with white gravy
* [[Julmust]] – a traditional, very sweet, [[stout]]-like, Christmas [[soft drink]], originally intended as an alternative to [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] beverage called Mumma
* [[Glögg]] – [[mulled wine]]
* [[Knäck]] or '''Christmas butterscotch''' – Christmas [[toffee]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=2054&artikel=525935|title=Christmas Butterscotch (Knäck)|newspaper=Sveriges Radio|language=en|date=21 December 2004|access-date=25 December 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226073830/http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=2054&artikel=525935|archive-date=26 December 2017}}</ref>
* Pepparkakor ([[gingerbread]]) – brown cookies flavoured with a variety of traditional Christmas spices
* Julost – Christmas cheese
* Julgröt – Christmas [[rice pudding]] with an [[almond]] hidden inside
* [[Lussekatter]] – [[Saint Lucy]] saffron buns
* [[Limpa bread]] – orange and rye spice bread

== Switzerland ==
* [[Springerle|Anisbrötli]]
* [[Basler Läckerli]]
* [[Kürtőskalács|Baumstriezel]]
* Cardon argenté épineux genevois
* [[Fondue]]
* [[Stutenkerl|Grittibänz]]
* [[Lebkuchen]]
* {{Interlanguage link|Mailänderli|de}}
* [[Pain d'épices]]
* [[Panettone]]
* {{Interlanguage link|Spitzbube|de}}
* [[Tirggel]]

== Thailand ==
* [[Khao khluk kapi]]
* [[Pad see ew]]
* [[Pad thai]]
* [[Tom yum]]

== Trinidad and Tobago ==
In Trinidad and Tobago traditional meals consists of generous helpings of baked ham, pastelles, black fruit cake, sweet breads, along with traditional drinks such as sorrel, ginger beer, and ponche de crème. The ham is the main item on the Christmas menu with sorrel to accompany it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nalis.gov.tt/Research/SubjectGuide/Christmas/tabid/251/Default.aspx?PageContentID=377|title=CHRISTMAS IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO|access-date=2015-10-20|author=National Library of Trinidad and Tobago|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151112112644/http://www.nalis.gov.tt/Research/SubjectGuide/Christmas/tabid/251/Default.aspx?PageContentID=377|archive-date=2015-11-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nalis.gov.tt/Resources/Subject-Guide/Christmas#tabposition_24255 |title=CHRISTMAS RECIPES |website=nalis.gov.tt}}</ref>
*[[Christmas ham]]
*[[Sorrel]]
*Pastelles also known as [[Hallacas]]
*Ponche de crème – a version of [[eggnog]]
*[[Black cake]]

== Ukraine ==
Orthodox and Roman Catholic Christians in Ukraine traditionally have two Christmas dinners. The first is a Lent Dinner, it is held on January 6 and should consist of meatless dishes. The second is a Christmas Festive dinner held on January 7, when the meat dishes and alcohol are already allowed on the table. The dinner normally has 12 dishes which represent Jesus's 12 disciples. Both Christmas dinners traditionally include a number of authentic Ukrainian dishes, which have over thousand-year history and date back to pagan times.

* [[Kutia]]
* [[Uzvar]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ukrainian-recipes.com/tag/uzvar|title=Uzvar - Ukrainian recipes - for a tasty life|website=Ukrainian recipes - for a tasty life|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109183230/http://ukrainian-recipes.com/tag/uzvar|archive-date=2018-01-09}}</ref>
* [[Varenyky]]
* [[Borshch]]
* [[Deruny]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://v.img.com.ua/nxs112/b/600x500/0/88/0d00aa3700b3730748823ac6b40e0880.jpg |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-01-09 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109235338/http://v.img.com.ua/nxs112/b/600x500/0/88/0d00aa3700b3730748823ac6b40e0880.jpg |archive-date=2018-01-09 }}</ref>
* [[Pampushky]]
* [[Holubtsi]]
* [[Poppy seed roll|Makivnyk]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpggAAAAMAAJ&q=Poppy+seed+roll+ukraine+christmas |title=Ukrainian Christmas: Traditions, Folk Customs, and Recipes|access-date=2023-07-25 |last1=Vaughn |first1=Mary Ann Woloch |date=1982 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4TJjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP5 |title=Ukrainian Recipes
|access-date=2023-07-25 |author=Katy Lyons |date=8 March 2022
}}</ref>

== United Kingdom ==
{{Main|British cuisine}}
[[File:Christmas pudding.JPG|thumb|right|Christmas pudding]]

In the United Kingdom, what is now regarded as the traditional meal consists of roast turkey with [[cranberry sauce]], served with roast potatoes and parsnips and other vegetables, followed by [[Christmas pudding]], a heavy steamed pudding made with [[dried fruit]], suet, and very little flour. Other roast meats may be served, and in the nineteenth century the traditional roast was goose. The same carries over to Ireland with some variations.

* [[Beef Wellington]] (alternative main course)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goodtoknow.co.uk/recipes/164868/Gordon-Ramsay-s-beef-Wellington|title=Gordon Ramsay's beef Wellington|website=goodtoknow|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503093801/http://www.goodtoknow.co.uk/recipes/164868/Gordon-Ramsay-s-beef-Wellington|archive-date=3 May 2017}}</ref>
* [[Brandy butter]]
* [[Bread sauce]]
* [[Brussels sprout]]s<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/texte/xmas.htm |title=Christmas in Britain |access-date=2007-03-09 |first=Ulrike |last=Schroedter |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321050635/http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/texte/xmas.htm |archive-date=2007-03-21 }}</ref>
* [[Candy canes]]
* [[Bûche de Noël|Chocolate yule log]]
* [[Christmas cake]]
* [[Christmas ham]] (usually a honey or marmalade glazed roast or boiled gammon joint)
* [[Christmas pudding]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1706169.stm |title=Christmas food shopping uncovered |access-date=2007-03-12 |work=BBC News |date=2001-12-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223024530/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1706169.stm |archive-date=2008-12-23 }}</ref>
* [[Cranberry sauce]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/2728/cranberry-sauce|title=Cranberry sauce|website=BBC Good Food|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221172839/http://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/2728/cranberry-sauce|archive-date=21 December 2016}}</ref>
* [[Devils on horseback]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://realfood.tesco.com/recipes/easy-devils-on-horseback.html|title=Easy devils on horseback - Tesco Real Food|website=Tesco Real Food|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223060448/https://realfood.tesco.com/recipes/easy-devils-on-horseback.html|archive-date=23 December 2016}}</ref>
* [[Dundee cake]] (traditional Scottish fruit cake)
* [[Gingerbread]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/christmas_gingerbread_84244|title=Christmas gingerbread men|website=BBC Food|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322072117/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/christmas_gingerbread_84244|archive-date=22 March 2017}}</ref>
* [[Mince pie]]s<ref name="BBC News"/>
* [[Mulled wine]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maryberry.co.uk/recipes/christmas/christmas-mulled-wine|title=Mary Berry|website=www.maryberry.co.uk|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510123750/http://www.maryberry.co.uk/recipes/christmas/christmas-mulled-wine|archive-date=10 May 2017}}</ref>
* [[Nut roast]] (a popular vegetarian alternative)
* [[File:Pigs in Blankets (11630904144).jpg|thumb|Pigs in blankets]][[Pigs in blankets]] ([[Chipolata]] sausages wrapped in bacon)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lee |first1=Jeremy |date=26 November 2017 |title=The great Christmas taste test 2017 |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/nov/26/christmas-taste-test-2017-chocolate-cheese-pies-cakes-puddings-salmon |access-date=4 January 2018}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2021-12-02 |title=Everything you want to know about pigs in blankets |url=https://erudus.com/editorial/the-food-agenda/everything-about-pigs-in-blankets |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=Erudus}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Thompson |first=Rachel |date=2018-12-24 |title=I ate 100 different 'pigs in blankets' at a sausage party and it was painfully delicious |url=https://mashable.com/article/pigs-in-blanket-sausage-party |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=Mashable |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Neild |first1=Barry |date=14 December 2013 |title=Turkey, pigs in blankets, even sprouts… but no Christmas pudding, thanks |work=The Observer |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/dec/14/christmas-pudding-off-this-years-menu |access-date=4 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Classic pigs in blankets |url=https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/classic-pigs-blankets |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=BBC Good Food |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Turkey (food)|Roast turkey]]<ref name="BBC News">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/breakfast/4523490.stm |title=Christmas? What a waste! |access-date=2007-03-09 |work=BBC News |date=2005-12-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223223006/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/breakfast/4523490.stm |archive-date=2008-12-23 }}</ref>
* Roasted [[chestnuts]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/roastchestnuts_68084|title=Roast chestnuts|website=BBC Food|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516034541/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/roastchestnuts_68084|archive-date=16 May 2017}}</ref>
* [[Duck (food)|Roast duck]]
* [[Roast goose]]
* [[Common pheasant|Roast pheasant]]
* [[Spiced beef]] (traditionally served in Ireland and Northern Ireland)
* [[Trifle]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2012/dec/18/how-to-eat-trifle|title=How to eat: trifle|first=Tony|last=Naylor|date=18 December 2012|website=the Guardian|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017100940/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2012/dec/18/how-to-eat-trifle|archive-date=17 October 2016}}</ref>
* [[Tunis Cake]]
* [[King cake#United Kingdom|Twelfth Night Cake]] (traditionally eaten on the final day of Christmas)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/stowe/recipes/twelfth-night-cake|title=Twelfth Night cake|website=National Trust|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021075033/https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/stowe/recipes/twelfth-night-cake|archive-date=21 October 2016}}</ref>

== United States ==
[[File:Thanksgiving Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|Roast turkey]]
[[File:Julskinka.JPG|thumb|[[Christmas ham]]]]
* [[Apple cider]]
* [[Boiled custard]]
* [[Candy cane]]s
* [[Champagne (wine)|Champagne]], or [[sparkling apple cider]]
* [[Fudge|Chocolate fudge]]
* [[Christmas cookies]]
* [[Cranberry sauce]]
* [[Eggnog]]
* [[Fish]] as part of the [[Feast of the Seven Fishes]]
* [[Fruitcake]]
* [[Gingerbread]], often in the form of a [[gingerbread house]] or [[gingerbread man]]
* [[Christmas ham]]
* [[Hawaiian bread]]
* [[Hot buttered rum (drink)|Hot buttered rum]]
* [[Hot chocolate]]
* [[Mashed potatoes]]
* [[Mixed nuts]], [[chestnuts]], dried [[figs]], dried [[Date (fruit)|dates]]
* [[Oyster stew]], composed of oysters simmered in cream or milk and butter.
* [[Persimmon pudding]]
* [[Pie]]
** [[Apple pie]]
** [[Pecan pie]]
** [[Pumpkin pie]]
** [[Sweet potato pie]]
* Yams/sweet potato casserole (with marshmallow)
* [[Red velvet cake]]
* [[Russian tea cake]]s
* [[Tom and Jerry (mixed drink)|Tom and Jerry]]
* Roast [[Turkey (food)|turkey]], less often roast [[duck (food)|duck]], [[goose]], [[chicken]] or [[pheasant]]
* [[Stuffing]], also known as dressing, particularly in the southern U.S.
See also: [[Thanksgiving dinner|Thanksgiving]] (the dishes tend to be similar)

== Venezuela ==
[[File:Hallaca at La Casa de Pedro.jpg|thumb|right|Hallaca]]
* [[Hallaca]] – rectangle-shaped meal made of [[maize]], filled with beef, pork, chicken, olives, raisins and caper, and wrapped in plantain leaves and boiled to cook.
* [[Pan de jamón]] – ham-filled bread with olives and raisins and often sliced cheese.
* Dulce de lechosa – dessert made of cooked sliced unripe papaya in reduced sugar syrup
* Ensalada de gallina – salad made of potato, carrot, apple and shredded chicken (hen usually home or locally raised as opposed to store bought chicken)
* [[Pernil]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elboricua.com/pernil_RChef.html |title=Pernil (Roast Pork) |publisher=The Rican Chef |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228140714/http://www.elboricua.com/pernil_RChef.html |archive-date=28 December 2011 }}</ref> – commonly referred to as roast pork

== Vietnam ==
* [[Bò 7 món]]
* [[Bún thịt nướng]]
* [[Canh chua]]
* [[Chả giò]]
* [[Congee|Cháo]]
* [[Gỏi cuốn]]
* [[Hotpot|Lẩu]]
* [[Pho]]
* [[Roast chicken|Thịt gà nướng]]
* [[Vietnamese tea]]

== See also ==
* [[Christmas dinner]]
* {{portal-inline|Food}}
* {{portal-inline|Holidays}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Prone to spam|date=September 2012}}


{{Christmas}}
{{Lists of prepared foods}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Christmas Dishes}}
[[Category:Christmas food|*]]
[[Category:Lists of foods]]
[[Category:World cuisine]]
[[Category:Cuisine-related lists]]
[[Category:Christmas-related lists|Dishes]]

List of Christmas dishes

2024-12-26T12:44:22Z

Amherst99: /* Sweden */

{{Short description|none}}
[[File:Agnolotti pavesi (4).JPG|thumb|A plate of dry Italian [[Pavese agnolotti]], with a Pavese stew-based sauce, a Christmas dish]]

This is a '''list of Christmas dishes''' by country.

== Albania and Kosovo ==
* [[Baklava]]
* Gjel deti me përshesh

== Andorra ==
* Sopa de Galets
* [[Trinxat]]

== American Samoa (U.S.), Samoa, Tonga and Tuvalu ==
* [[Roast pig|Puaa umu]]

== Argentina and Uruguay ==
{{see also|Argentine cuisine|Uruguayan cuisine}}
[[File:Vitello tonnato.jpg|thumb|[[Vitello tonnato]] is a popular Christmas dish in Argentina, where it is known as vitel toné. The [[Piedmont]]ese dish is valued during the summer for its cold serving temperature, and is the legacy of the large [[Italian Argentines|Italian immigration]] to the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://entremujeres.clarin.com/entremujeres/rincon-gourmet/vitel_tone-las_fiestas-navidad-ano_nuevo-mesa_navidena-recetas-rincon_gourmet_0_BJtuP9FwQg.html |title=Vitel toné: la receta de un clásico para las Fiestas |language=es |last1=Fumarola|first1=Leonardo |date=December 17, 2015 |publisher=Clarín.com |access-date=June 1, 2017}}</ref>]]
[[Panettone]] (known locally as ''pan dulce'') and [[turrón]] are the most popular Christmas sweets in Argentina regardless of [[socioeconomic status]], with 76% of Argentines choosing the former and 59% the latter in 2015.<ref name="elcronista"/> [[Mantecol]], a typical peanut dessert, is also popular, being favored by 49% of Argentines in the same survey.<ref name="kantar">{{cite web|url=https://www.kantarworldpanel.com/ar/Noticias/Que-dulces-no-pueden-faltar-en-estas-fiestas|title=¿Qué dulces no pueden faltar en estas fiestas?|date=December 23, 2016|publisher=Kantar Worldpanel|access-date=June 1, 2017|language=es|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018190700/https://www.kantarworldpanel.com/ar/Noticias/Que-dulces-no-pueden-faltar-en-estas-fiestas|archive-date=October 18, 2017}}</ref> [[Sparkling wine]]s, [[cider]]s and [[frizzante]]s concentrate most of their sales during Christmas season; sparkling wine is mostly consumed by small families with high and medium socioeconomic status living in [[Greater Buenos Aires]] and the country's largest cities, while cider and frizzantes are popular among lower classes and large families.<ref name="kantar"/>

* [[Vitello tonnato|Vitel toné]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://saborgourmet.com/receta-del-vitel-thone-de-argentina/|title=Receta del Vitel Thoné de Argentina|language=es|date=November 9, 2011|publisher=SaborGourmet.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105023012/http://saborgourmet.com/receta-del-vitel-thone-de-argentina/|archive-date=5 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://edant.clarin.com/suplementos/ollas/2005/06/16/o-00202.htm|title=Vitel toné|language=es|date=June 16, 2005|publisher=Clarín.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227003652/http://edant.clarin.com/suplementos/ollas/2005/06/16/o-00202.htm|archive-date=2012-12-27}}</ref><ref name=setenta />
* [[Turrón]]<ref name=setenta /><ref name=CA>{{cite web|url=http://www.cocinerosargentinos.com/?menu=informes&infid=93|title=Navidad y los excesos en las comidas|language=es|publisher=Cocineros Argentinos|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224105720/http://www.cocinerosargentinos.com/?menu=informes&infid=93|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref>
* [[Panettone|Pan dulce]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clarin.com/buena-vida/tendencias/abece-mejor-pan-dulce_0_831517080.html|title=El abecé del mejor pan dulce|language=es|date=December 19, 2012|publisher=Clarín.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227003138/http://www.clarin.com/buena-vida/tendencias/abece-mejor-pan-dulce_0_831517080.html|archive-date=27 December 2012}}</ref>
* [[Asado]] ([[beef]], [[chicken (food)|chicken]], [[calf (animal)|calf]], [[Lamb and mutton|lamb]], [[suckling pig]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clarin.com/sociedad/extranos-frente-asado-Navidad_0_620937968.html|title=Dos extraños al frente del asado de Navidad|language=es|date=January 3, 2012|publisher=Clarín.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224101411/http://www.clarin.com/sociedad/extranos-frente-asado-Navidad_0_620937968.html|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref name=Mo /><ref name=Calcule /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.larioja.com/v/20121226/rioja-logrono/comida-navidena-sabor-solidario-20121226.html|title=Comida navideña con sabor solidario|language=es|date=December 26, 2012|publisher=Larioja.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224112214/http://www.larioja.com/v/20121226/rioja-logrono/comida-navidena-sabor-solidario-20121226.html|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref>
* Clericó (or {{lang|es|clericot}}), a [[sangria]]-like beverage that combines wine with chopped fruit.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eltribuno.com/jujuy/nota/2012-12-10-23-14-0-la-carne-lo-mas-caro-del-menu-navideno|title=La carne lo más caro del menú navideño|date=December 10, 2012|access-date=December 24, 2017|language=es|work=[[El Tribuno]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226020723/https://www.eltribuno.com/jujuy/nota/2012-12-10-23-14-0-la-carne-lo-mas-caro-del-menu-navideno|archive-date=December 26, 2017}}</ref>
* [[Cider]] ([[Apple cider|apple]], pineapple) and [[sparkling wine]]<ref name=setenta /><ref name=Calcule>{{cite news|url=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1539257-calcule-cuanto-cuesta-su-canasta-navidena|title=Calcule cuánto cuesta su canasta navideña|newspaper=La Nación|language=es|date=December 21, 2012|publisher=Lanacion.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224004629/http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1539257-calcule-cuanto-cuesta-su-canasta-navidena|archive-date=24 December 2012}}</ref>
* [[Fruit cake|Budín]]<ref name=Mo>{{cite web|url=http://www.momarandu.com/amanoticias.php?a=7&b=0&c=127654|title=Canasta navideña cuesta $281 pesos según informe del ISEPCI|language=es|date=December 22, 2012|publisher=Momarandu.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224084729/http://www.momarandu.com/amanoticias.php?a=7&b=0&c=127654|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref name=Calcule />
* [[Salad]]s<ref name=setenta>{{cite web|url=http://www.clarin.com/sociedad/platos-tipicos-doble-calorias-cuestan_0_832716830.html|title=Juicio a la mesa de Navidad: los platos típicos tienen el doble de calorías y cuestan 70% más|language=es|date=December 21, 2012|publisher=Clarín.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224102153/http://www.clarin.com/sociedad/platos-tipicos-doble-calorias-cuestan_0_832716830.html|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref name=Mo />
** [[Olivier salad|Russian salad]]<ref name=Wei />
** [[Waldorf salad]]<ref name=setenta />
** [[Fruit salad]]<ref name=Mo />
* [[Pionono]]<ref name=setenta /><ref name=Wei>{{cite web|url=http://www.diariopopular.com.ar/notas/140514-mesa-navidena-cada-ano-el-mismo-dilema|title=Mesa navideña: cada año el mismo dilema|language=es|date=December 16, 2012|publisher=Diario Popular|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111073718/http://www.diariopopular.com.ar/notas/140514-mesa-navidena-cada-ano-el-mismo-dilema|archive-date=11 January 2013}}</ref>
* [[Matambre]]<ref name=Wei />
* [[Beef tongue|Lengua]] a la [[Vinaigrette|vinagreta]]<ref name=Wei /><ref name=miga>{{cite web|url=http://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/524427/economia/sandwich-miga-encarece-mesa-navidena.html|title=El sándwich de miga encarece la mesa navideña|language=es|date=December 9, 2012|publisher=La Gaceta|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224120131/http://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/524427/economia/sandwich-miga-encarece-mesa-navidena.html|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref>
* [[Garrapinyades|Garrapiñadas]], [[dried fruit]]s and [[comfit]]s<ref name=Mo /><ref name=Calcule /><ref name=miga /><ref name="elcronista"/>
*[[Mantecol]]<ref name=elcronista>{{cite web|url=https://www.cronista.com/negocios/Armar-la-mesa-de-Navidad-costara-hasta-un-37-mas-caro-que-hace-un-ano-20151215-0016.html|title=Armar la mesa de Navidad costará hasta un 37% más caro que hace un año|language=es|date=December 15, 2015|work=El Cronista|access-date=June 1, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510232037/https://www.cronista.com/negocios/Armar-la-mesa-de-Navidad-costara-hasta-un-37-mas-caro-que-hace-un-ano-20151215-0016.html|archive-date=May 10, 2018}}</ref>
* [[Sandwiches de miga]]<ref name=miga />
*[[Turkey meat|Pavita]]<ref name="elcronista"/>

== Australia ==
[[File:Candy-Cane-Classic.jpg|thumb|right|[[Candy Cane]] can be hung as edible decorations.]]
* [[White Christmas (food)|White Christmas]], a sweet slice made of [[copha]] and mixed fruit
* Cold [[ham]] and cold [[Turkey (food)|turkey]]<ref name="CultRecAu" />
* [[Seafood]] and [[salad]]s<ref name="CultRecAu" />
* [[Roasting|Roast]] [[Chicken (food)|chicken]], ham and turkey<ref name="CultRecAu">{{cite web|url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/christmas/ |title=Christmas season celebrations in Australia |access-date=2007-03-12 |publisher=Culture and Recreation.gov.au |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408180134/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/christmas/ |archive-date=2011-04-08 }}</ref>
* [[Stuffing]]<ref name="Santa recipe Australia">{{cite web |url=http://www.santas.net/recipes.htm |title=Santa's Net: Recipes |publisher=Santas.net |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228071953/http://www.santas.net/recipes.htm |archive-date=28 December 2011 }}</ref>
* [[Christmas cake]] or [[Christmas pudding]]<ref name="CultRecAu"/>
* [[Custard]]
* [[Gingerbread]] in Christmas shapes
* Christmas [[damper (food)|damper]] – in [[wreath]] or star shape, served with [[butter]], [[jam]], [[honey]] or [[golden syrup]]. Made in the [[Australian bush]] in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.santas.net/christmasdamper.htm |title=Christmas Damper from Australia |publisher=Santas.net |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129115620/http://www.santas.net/christmasdamper.htm |archive-date=29 November 2011 }}</ref>
* [[Confectionery|Lollies]], such as [[rocky road (dessert)|rocky road]]; [[rum ball]]s; [[candy cane]]s
* [[Champagne (wine)|Champagne]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://latrobetimes.blogs.latrobe.edu.au/2015/01/15/typical-aussie-christmas-top-5-things-you-didnt-know/|title=Typical Aussie Christmas - top 5 things you didn't know- La Trobe University international news|date=15 January 2015|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316024642/https://latrobetimes.blogs.latrobe.edu.au/2015/01/15/typical-aussie-christmas-top-5-things-you-didnt-know/|archive-date=16 March 2017}}</ref>
* [[Eggnog]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.luvaduck.com.au/recipes/view/egg-nog-for-christmas/43/|title=Recipe for Egg Nog for Christmas There is nothing that makes Christmas feel more special like a glass of egg nog!|website=Luv-a-Duck|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225095156/http://www.luvaduck.com.au/recipes/view/egg-nog-for-christmas/43/|archive-date=25 February 2017}}</ref>
* [[Trifle]]
* [[Pavlova (food)|Pavlova]]<ref name="Santa recipe Australia"/>
* [[Prawns]]
* [[Mince pie]]
* Christmas cookies

== Austria and Liechtenstein ==
* [[Bock]]
* [[Bratwurst]]
* [[Christmas carp]]
* Christmas goose
* [[Mulled wine|Glühwein]]
* [[Kaiserschmarrn]]
* [[Knödel]]
* [[Linzer torte]]
* Red cabbage
* [[Vanillekipferl]]

== Bangladesh ==
{{See also|Bengali cuisine|Bangladeshi cuisine}}
* [[Pitha]]
* [[Nankhatai]]
* [[Pilaf|Pulao]]
* Rôst
* [[Musallam]]
* Cha
* Homemade [[Christmas cake]]
* Shobji
* Mishti ([[List of Bangladeshi sweets and desserts|Bengali sweets]])
* [[Nakshi Pitha]]
* [[Chunga pitha]]
* Patishapta Pith
* [[Bhapa pitha]]
* Tel pitha

== Belarus ==
* [[Borscht]]
* [[Kutya]]

== Belgium ==
* [[Cougnou]] (with various like ''cougnolle''), sweet bread in the form of the [[infant Jesus]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crfneufvilles.org/themes/articles/article20_18.htm |title=Thème: Histoire de rond et de cougnou |language=fr |author=Florence Fadier-Rotsaert |access-date=2007-03-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070527083150/http://www.crfneufvilles.org/themes/articles/article20_18.htm |archive-date=2007-05-27 }}</ref>

== Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua ==
* [[Tamale]]s
* Ponche (Christmas fruit punch served hot with much fruit)
* [[Peafowl|pavo]] (turkey)
* [[Buñuelo]]s (fluffy sweet dessert made with corn with maple syrup)
* [[Chicken (food)|chicken]] (prepared with different stuffings and accompanied with various side dishes such as salads or rice)

== Bolivia and Peru ==
* [[Apple cider]]
* [[Buñuelo]]
* [[Chicken (food)|Roasted chicken]]
* Cuy Chactado
* [[Potato salad]]
* [[Roasting|Roast]] [[pork]]
* [[Roast turkey]]

== Brazil ==
* Lombo à Califórnia – [[pork loin]]s
* Rabanada – [[French toast]]
* Leitão assado – [[roasted piglet]]
* Peru – roast [[domesticated turkey|turkey]]
* [[Farofa]]
* Pavê – [[trifle]]
* [[Ham]]
* [[Bacalhau]] – codfish
* [[Brazil nut]]
* [[Arroz à grega]]
* [[Potato salad]]
* Salpicão – chicken salad with raisins
* [[Panettone]]
* [[Crème caramel]]
* [[Mousse]]
* [[Cider]]
* [[Grape juice]]
* [[Wine]]

== Canada ==
[[File:Ginger Bread House PC210088.JPG|thumb|right|Gingerbread house]]
* [[Bûche de Noël]]
* [[Butter tart]]s
* [[Candy cane]]s
* [[Christmas pudding]]
* [[Eggnog]]
* [[Fruitcake]]
* [[Mince pie]]
* [[Cranberry sauce]]
* [[Turkey meat|Roasted turkey]]
* [[Brussels Sprouts]]
* [[Mashed Potatoes]] and [[Gravy]]
* [[Shortbread]]
* [[Stuffing]] (also known as Trimming or Dressing)
* [[Trifle]]
* [[Tourtière]]
* Ragoût de Boulettes (Meatball Stew)
* Ragoût de Pattes de Cochon (Stewed Pig's Feet)
* Salted Beef (commonly known as [[Corned Beef]])
* [[Fish and Brewis]]
* [[Gingerbread]] cookies (or Ginger and Molasses cookies)
* [[Figgy duff (pudding)]]
* Christmas slush (made from a mixture of fruit juices, vodka, ginger ale, or lemon-lime soda)
* [[Roasted chestnut]]s
* [[Christmas cookies]]
* Snowball dessert (made with cocoa, rolled oats and coconut)
* [[Nanaimo Bar]]
* [[Mulled Wine]]
* [[Christmas Ham]]
* [[Tarte au sucre]]
* [[Hot chocolate]] (also known as "hot cocoa", in various flavours like peppermint, white chocolate, etc.)
* [[Gingerbread house]]
* [[Sweet potatoes]] or [[Yam (vegetable)|Yam]]
* Hot [[Apple cider]]
* Raw [[Caribou]], [[Seal meat]], and [[Muktuk]] (eaten in Nunuvut by the local Indigenous communities)
* [[Arctic char]] (raw or cooked)

== Chile ==
[[File:Pan de pascua chileno 2006.jpg|Pan de pascua|thumb]]
* [[Cola de mono]] – (literally, "monkey's tail") a Chilean Christmas beverage, with [[aguardiente]], [[milk]], [[coffee]], and flavoured with [[vanilla]] and [[clove]]s<ref>{{cite web|first=Missy|last=Wombat |url=http://www.recipezaar.com/Cola-de-Mono-Tail-of-the-Monkey-50828 |title=Cola De Mono (Tail of the Monkey) |publisher=Recipezaar.com |access-date=24 December 2011}}</ref>
* [[Pan de Pascua]] – Chilean Christmas [[sponge cake]] flavoured with cloves and with bits of [[candied fruit]]s, [[raisin]]s, [[walnut]]s and [[almond]]s.<ref>{{cite web |first=Marian |last=Blazes |url=http://southamericanfood.about.com/od/holidayrecipes/r/pandepascua.htm |title=Chilean Holiday Fruitcake – Pan de Pascua |publisher=southamericanfood.about.com |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127035842/http://southamericanfood.about.com/od/holidayrecipes/r/pandepascua.htm |archive-date=27 January 2012 }}</ref>
* [[Turkey (bird)|Roasted turkey]]
* [[Ponche a la romana]] – eggnog-style beverage made of champagne and pineapple-flavoured icecream.

== China and Taiwan ==
* [[Char siu]]
* [[Crispy fried chicken]]
* [[Crossing-the-bridge noodles]]
* [[Hotpot]]
* [[Jiaozi]]
* [[Lamian]]
* [[Peking duck]]

== Colombia ==
[[File:Buñuelos.JPG|thumb|Colombian Buñuelos]][[File:A plate of Colombian Natilla.JPG|thumb|Colombian natilla]]Colombian Christmas dishes are mostly sweets and desserts. Some of the most popular dishes include:
* [[Buñuelos]]
* [[Natilla]]
* [[Manjar blanco]]
* [[Hojaldres]]
* Brevas (Candied figs with cheese)
* [[Christmas cookies]]
* Sweet bread filled with fruits like raisins and raspberries.
* Lechona (rice baked inside a pig, with peas, the meat of the pig and other delicacies)
* Tamales
* Ponqué envinado (red wine cake)
* Turkey
* Pernil de Cerdo (pork leg, usually roasted)
* Potato salad
* Panettone

== Cuba ==
* Crema De Vie – Eggnog made with rum, lemon rind, and spices.
* Majarete – A pudding made with corn, cornstarch, milk, lemon rind, spices, and sugar
* [[Platillo Moros y Cristianos]]
* [[Lechon asado]]
* [[Turrón]]

== Czech Republic and Slovakia ==

[[File:Vanocni cukrovi 1.JPG|Christmas cookies (''vánoční cukroví'')|thumb|right]]
* ''Kapustnica'' – Christmas [[cabbage soup]]
* Fish soup
* [[Christmas carp]]
* [[Potato salad]] with [[mayonnaise]], [[hard-boiled egg]]s and boiled vegetables
* ''Kuba'' – [[groats]] and [[mushrooms]]
* Grilled white sausage
* Vánoční cukroví – [[Christmas cookies]]
* Christmas bread ([[vánočka]])
* Fruitcake
* [[Gingerbread]]

Before the Christmas holidays, many kinds of sweet biscuits are prepared. These sweet biscuits are then served during the whole Christmas period and exchanged among friends and neighbours. Also very popular are a preparation of small gingerbreads garnished by sugar icing.

== Denmark ==
[[File:Julemiddag.jpg|thumb|Danish Christmas meal]]
{{Main|Danish cuisine}}
* [[Æbleskiver]] – traditional Danish dough ball made in a special pan (a type of [[doughnut]] with no hole), sprinkled with [[powdered sugar]] and served with [[raspberry]] or [[strawberry]] [[jam]]
* Sylte – a form of [[head cheese]], a terrine or meat jelly made from pork, traditionally pig's head was used
* Julesild – spiced [[pickled herring]] often flavoured with Christmas spices such as [[cloves]] and [[allspice]]
* [[Potato#Cooking|Boiled whole potatoes]]
* Brun sovs ([[Gravy|brown sauce]]) – a traditional dark gravy, used to cover meat dishes like roasted pork and duck (''flæskesteg'', ''andesteg'') and the boiled potato
* Brunede kartofler – caramelised [[potato]]es
* Julebryg – [[Beer in Denmark#Julebryg|Christmas beer]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sdu.dk/E/new/food_and_drink.html |title=Danish food and drink |access-date=2007-03-12 |publisher=University of Southern Denmark |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070205222840/http://www.sdu.dk/E/new/food_and_drink.html  |archive-date = 2007-02-05}}</ref>
* [[Glögg|Gløgg]] – [[mulled wine|mulled]] red wine combined with spices, sugar, raisins and chopped almonds typically served warm
* [[Ris a la mande|Risalamande]] – [[rice pudding]]. A dish made from rice, whipped cream and almonds, served cold with [[cherry]] sauce (''kirsebærsauce'')<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sunblock99.org.uk/sb99/people/KGalsgaa/pudding.html |title=Rice pudding |access-date=2007-03-09 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060925144513/http://www.sunblock99.org.uk/sb99/people/KGalsgaa/pudding.html  |archive-date = 2006-09-25}}</ref><ref name=SourceWireCiE>{{cite web |url=http://www.sourcewire.com/releases/rel_display.php?relid=23663&hilite= |title=Christmas in Europe, Where's Santa? |publisher=SourceWire |date=2005-12-13 |access-date=2007-03-09 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927032444/http://www.sourcewire.com/releases/rel_display.php?relid=23663&hilite= |archive-date=2007-09-27 }}</ref>
* [[Flæskesteg]] – roast [[pork]] with cracklings
* Andesteg – [[Duck|roast duck]] with apple and prune stuffing
* Rødkål – [[red cabbage]] pickled, sweet-sour red cabbage served hot as a side dish
* Christmas cookies – Vaniljekranse, klejner, jødekager, pebernødder, honningkager, brunkager and finskbrød
* Konfekt, marzipan, caramelised fruits, nougat and chocolate-covered nuts
* Ground nuts

== Dominican Republic ==
* [[Croquette]]
* [[Empanada]]
* Ensalada Rusa – [[Olivier salad]] (Russian potato salad)
* Ensalada verde – iceberg lettuce, onions, cucumber, and tomatoes salad
* [[Moro de guandules con coco]] – rice with [[pigeon pea]]s and coconut milk
* [[Pasteles|Pasteles de hojas]] – Puerto Rican tamales
* [[Pastelon]] – casserole
* [[Pig roast]]
* Pollo al horno – [[chicken (food)|roasted chicken]]
* Telera – Dominican bread similar to Mexican [[sandwich roll]]s

Drinks:
* [[Anisette]] – anise-flavored liquor
* [[Guavaberry]] – a drink from the [[Lesser Antilles]] historic [[Saint Martin (island)|Saint Martin]] natives now a part of the Dominican Republics Christmas tradition
* [[Ponche crema]] – eggnog
* Jengibre – [[ginger tea]] with spices and lemon
* [[Mandarin orange|Mandarin]] Liqueur – Mandarin peels fermented with rum and sugar

Desserts:
* [[Buñuelos]] – fried cassava dough balls covered in spiced flavored syrup
* [[Turrón]] – honey and almond nougat. Tradition from Spain
* Vaniljekranse – Danish [[butter cookies]]
* Fruits and nuts – a variety of nuts, fresh, and dried fruit

== Estonia ==
* Hapukapsas
* Mulgi kapsad
* Piparkook
* Sült
* Verivorst

== Finland ==
{{Main|Cuisine of Finland}}
[[File:Karjalanpiirakka-20060227.jpg|thumb|A [[Karelian pasties|Karelian pasty]]]]
[[File:Vin chaud 2.jpg|thumb|[[Mulled wine]]]]

Christmas smorgasbord from Finland, "[[joulupöytä]]", (translated "Yule table"), a traditional display of Christmas food<ref name="thisisFINLAND">{{cite web|url=http://finland.fi/Public/default.aspx?contentid=180237|title=Christmas cookbook|access-date=2007-03-12|publisher=thisisFINLAND|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623235714/http://finland.fi/Public/default.aspx?contentid=180237|archive-date=2011-06-23}}</ref> served at Christmas in Finland, similar to the Swedish [[smörgåsbord]], including:
* [[Christmas ham]] with [[Mustard (condiment)|mustard]] (almost every family has one for Christmas)
* Freshly salted salmon (''[[gravlax]] graavilohi'') and whitefish ''graavisiika''
* Pickled [[herring]] in various forms (tomato, mustard, ''matjes'' or onion sauces)
* [[Rosolli]] (cold salad dish with diced beetroot, potato and carrot – some varieties also incorporate apple)
* [[Lutefisk]] and [[Béchamel sauce]]<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/>
* [[Freshwater whitefish|Whitefish]] and [[pikeperch]]
* Potato [[casserole]]<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/> ([[Sweetened potato casserole|sweetened]] or not, depending on preference)
* Boiled [[potato]]es
* Carrot [[casserole]]<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/>
* [[Rutabaga]] casserole (''lanttulaatikko'')<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/>
* Various [[sauce]]s
* Assortment of [[cheese]], most commonly (''[[leipäjuusto]]'') and Aura (''aura-juusto'')
* Christmas bread, usually sweet bread (''joululimppu'')
* [[Karelian pasties]], rice pasties, served with egg-butter (''karjalanpiirakka'')
Other meat dishes could be:
* [[Karelian hot pot]], traditional meat stew originating from the region of [[Karelia]] (''karjalanpaisti'')
Desserts:
* [[Rice pudding]] or rice porridge topped with cinnamon, sugar and cold milk or with mixed fruit soup (''riisipuuro'')
* Joulutorttu, traditionally a star-shaped piece of puff-pastry with prune marmalade in the middle
* [[Gingerbread]],<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/> sometimes in the form of a [[gingerbread house]] or [[gingerbread man]] (''piparkakut'')
* Mixed fruit soup or prune soup, [[kissel]] (''sekahedelmäkiisseli, luumukiisseli'')
Drinks:
* [[Glögg]] or [[mulled wine]] (''glögi'')
* Christmas beer (''jouluolut''); local manufacturers produce Christmas varieties<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ruoka.fi/juomat/jouluoluet-testissa|title=Jouluoluet testissä - Ruoka.fi|date=2012-11-29|website=Ruoka.fi|language=fi-FI|access-date=2016-05-06|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322055853/http://ruoka.fi/juomat/jouluoluet-testissa|archive-date=2015-03-22}}</ref>
* "Home beer" (non-alcoholic beer-like drink, similar to the Russian beverage [[kvass]]) (''kotikalja'')

== France and Monaco ==
[[File:Foie gras en cocotte.jpg|thumb|''Foie gras en cocotte'']]
* [[Oyster]]s<ref name="Expat"/>
* [[Foie gras]]<ref name="Expat">{{cite web |url=http://www.expatica.com/actual/article.asp?subchannel_id=61&story_id=35242 |title=French Christmas: It's all about the food |access-date=2007-03-12 |publisher=Expatica |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929115440/http://www.expatica.com/actual/article.asp?subchannel_id=61&story_id=35242 |archive-date=2007-09-29 }}</ref>
* [[Smoked salmon]]
* [[Scallops]]
* [[Champagne]]
* [[Crêpe]]s ([[Brittany]])<ref name="aboutcom">{{cite web|url=http://frenchfood.about.com/library/weekly/aa122002a.htm|title=French Food & Recipes|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060406090249/http://frenchfood.about.com/library/weekly/aa122002a.htm|archive-date=6 April 2006}}</ref>
* [[Chicken (food)|Chapon]] (roasted chicken)
* [[Turkey (food)|Dinde aux Marrons]] ([[chestnut]]-stuffed turkey)
* [[Ganzeltopf]] (goose) ([[Alsace]])<ref name="Expat"/>
* [[Roast goose|Goose]] ([[Normandy]])
* [[Bûche de Noël]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seriouseats.com/2008/12/jacques-torres-on-the-buche-de-noel.html|title=Jacques Torres on the Bûche de Noël|first=Serious|last=Eats|website=www.seriouseats.com|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225121630/http://www.seriouseats.com/2008/12/jacques-torres-on-the-buche-de-noel.html|archive-date=25 December 2016}}</ref>
* [[Kouglof]] (Alsace)
* [[Thirteen desserts]] ([[Provence]]):<ref name="Expat"/> The [[thirteen desserts]] are the traditional Christmas [[dessert]] in the [[France|French]] region of [[Provence]]. The [[Christmas]] supper ends with 13 dessert items, representing [[Jesus Christ]] and the 12 apostles. The desserts are traditionally set out Christmas Eve and remain on the table three days until December 27.<ref name="provenceweb">{{cite web |url=http://www.provenceweb.fr/e/mag/terroir/traditions/ukindex.htm |title=Christmas traditions in Provence |publisher=Provenceweb.fr |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204143801/http://www.provenceweb.fr/e/mag/terroir/traditions/ukindex.htm |archive-date=4 February 2012 }}</ref>
* [[Walnut]]
* [[Quince cheese]]<ref name="provenceweb"/>
* [[Almond]]
* [[Raisin]]
* [[Calisson]] of [[Aix-en-Provence]]
* [[Nougat]] blanc
* [[Nougat]] noir au miel
* [[Apple]]
* [[Pear]]
* [[Orange (fruit)|Orange]]
* [[Winter melon]]
* [[Fougasse (bread)|Fougasse]] (Provençal bread)

== Germany ==
[[File:Stollen-Dresdner Christstollen.jpg|thumb|A Christmas ''Stollen'']]
* [[Christstollen]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/Cakes/Stollen.htm |title=It's all Napoleon's Fault - The success story of the Aachen Printe |author=Klaus Stahl/Chris Cave |year=2006 |access-date=2008-01-06 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227055058/http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/Cakes/Stollen.htm |archive-date=2007-12-27 }}</ref> – Stollen is a fruitcake with bits of candied fruits, raisins, walnuts and almonds and spices such as cardamom and cinnamon; sprinkled with [[confectioners sugar]]. Often there's also a core of marzipan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://german.about.com/library/blrezepte02b.htm |title=German Christmas Recipes 2 |publisher=German.about.com |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104202802/http://german.about.com/library/blrezepte02b.htm |archive-date=4 January 2012 }}</ref>
* [[Pflaumentoffel]]
* [[Christmas carp]]
* [[Pfefferkuchenhaus]] – a gingerbread house decorated with candies, sweets and sugar icing (in reference to the gingerbread house of the fairy tale Hänsel and Gretel)
* [[Printen]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.goethe.de/ges/mol/thm/kad/en1917200.htm |title=History of Stollen, Dresden Stollen |first=Linda|last=Stradley |year=2004 |access-date=2007-03-09}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
* Oblaten [[Lebkuchen]]
* [[Springerle]]
* Weihnachtsplätzchen ([[Christmas cookies]])
* [[Roast goose]], often paired with [[Kartoffelklösse|kartoffelklosse]]
* [[Venison]] – e.g. meat of [[roe deer]] usually served with red cabbage, brussels sprout and [[Cranberry sauce|lingonberry sauce]]
* Herring salad – salad of pickled or [[soused herring]], beetroot, potatoes, apple
* Kartoffelsalat (potato salad) with Wurst (sausages) is traditionally eaten in northern Germany for supper on Christmas Eve
* [[Schäufele]] (a corned, smoked ham) usually served with potato salad in southern Germany for dinner on Christmas Eve
* [[Weisswurst]] – sausages with veal and bacon, usually flavored with parsley, lemon, mace, onions, ginger and cardamom
* [[Feuerzangenbowle]]
* [[Mulled wine|Glühwein]] (hot spiced wine)

== Greece and Cyprus ==
* [[Kourabiedes]]
* [[Melomakarono]]
* [[Diples]]
* [[Tsoureki#Christmas bread|Christopsomo]] (Christmas bread)
* Pork or [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Petropoulou|first=Maria|title=The 10 + 1 Delicacies To Taste In Greece During Christmas|url=https://greekcitytimes.com/2017/12/19/10-1-delicacies-taste-greece-christmas/|access-date=2020-12-14|website=Greek City Times|date=19 December 2017|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Greenland ==
* [[Kiviak]]

== Haiti ==

* Chicken Creole (Haitian stewed chicken)
* [[Djondjon#:~:text=Djondjon (also spelled djon djon,dishes, such as diri djondjon.|Djon Djon]]
* [[Pikliz]]

== Hong Kong and Macau ==
*[[Dim sum]]

== Hungary ==
[[File:kaposzta.jpg|thumb|right|''Töltött káposzta'']]
* [[Christmas carp]]
* [[Fish soup]] (''halászlé'') various recipes
* [[Stuffed cabbage]] (''töltött káposzta'')
* [[Roast goose]]
* [[Duck (food)|Roast duck]]
* Pastry roll filled with walnut or poppy seed (''bejgli'')
* Bread pudding with poppy seed (''mákos guba'' or ''bobájka'')
* [[Szaloncukor]]
* Cheesy Garlic Bread Sticks

== Iceland ==
[[File:Risalamande.jpg|thumb|right|''Möndlugrautur'']]

* Hamborgarhryggur – a smoked, cured pork roast.
* Lambalæri - heated or smoked sheep meat from a sheep's foot.
* [[Rock ptarmigan|Ptarmigan]] – gamebird in the grouse family
* [[Hangikjöt]]
* [[Turkey (bird)|Oven-roasted turkey]]
* Beverage combination of Malt and Appelsín.
* Jarðarberjagrautur
* Möndlugrautur – a Christmas [[rice pudding]] with an almond hidden inside (the same as the Swedish Julgröt)
* Caramelised potatoes
* Pickled [[red cabbage]]
* ''Smákökur'' – small cookies of various sorts
** Jólasúkkulaðibitakökur
** Loftkökur
** Mömmukökur
** Sörur
** Spesiur
** Gyðingakökur
** Piparkökur
** Marens Kornflexkökur
* [[Laufabrauð]] – round, very thin flat cakes with a diameter of about 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 inches), decorated with leaf-like, geometric patterns and fried briefly in hot fat or oil

== India and Pakistan ==
[[Indian Christians]] and [[Pakistani Christians]] in [[Indian subcontinent]] celebrate Christmas by enjoying several dishes, such as [[Allahabadi cake]], [[Candy canes]], Plum cakes etc. Some of the popular dishes eaten during [[Christmas]] in India and Pakistan are:

* [[Allahabadi cake]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/stoi/deep-focus/Cakewalk-in-Allahabad/articleshow/27391297.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220120808/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-12-15/deep-focus/45215736_1_cake-bakery-khari-baoli |url-status=live |archive-date=2013-12-20 |title=Cakewalk in Allahabad |date=2013-12-15 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2014-02-13}}</ref>
* [[Christmas cake]] – a type of [[fruit cake]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food/recipes/Getting-the-Christmas-cake-mix-right/articleshow/25893065.cms |title=Getting the Christmas cake mix right - Times Of India |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date=2013-12-14 |access-date=2014-02-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215025854/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food/recipes/Getting-the-Christmas-cake-mix-right/articleshow/25893065.cms |archive-date=2013-12-15 }}</ref>
* [[Mathri]] – a traditional flaky biscuit.
* [[Gulab Jamun]] – a traditional sweet prepared with khoa.
*Walnut fudge
* [[Jalebi]]
* [[Mince pie|Mincemeatpie]]
* [[Kheer]] – boiled rice cooked with milk, sugar, saffron and is garnished with nuts such as almonds and pistachios. It can also be made with barley.
* [[Chhena Poda]] – a dessert made with Chhena (cottage cheese) which is slightly roasted and soaked in sugar syrup. It is garnished with cashew nuts and served. Chhena Poda is popular in the Odisha state of India. It is eaten during the Christmas season but is available throughout the year.
*Ghee cookies
*[[Rose Cookies|Rose cookies]]
*Bolinhas de coco – a type of coconut cookies
* [[chocolates|Chocolate covered fruit]]
*[[Marzipan]]
* [[Dumplings]] – dumplings filled with Indian spices with a sweet or savoury filling.
* [[Tarts]]
*[[Nankhatai]]
* [[Gujia#Neureos|Neureos]] – a kind of dumpling made of [[semolina]], [[khoa]] and [[nutlet]].
* [[Roast chicken]]
*Dates roll- a type of Christmas cookies with [[Date palm|dates]]
* [[Bebinca]] – a dessert popular in Goa which is eaten during [[Christmas]] season.
* [[Biryani]]
* [[Stew]] – stews prepared with chicken, mutton, fish.
* [[Candy canes]]
*[[Kidyo|Cormolas]]
*Milk cream – milk fudge
*Chocolate candies
* [[Vindaloo]] – a spicy Goan curry with pork made during Christmas.
* [[Fruits]], such as [[apple]], [[Orange (fruit)|orange]], [[guava]].
* [[Mixed nuts]]
*[[Kidyo|Kulkuls]]
*[[Pilaf]]
*Duck curry
*[[Jujube (confectionery)|Jujubee]]
* [[Cupcakes]]
* [[Drinks]], such as [[cider]], [[ginger ale]], etc.

Church services are also held in churches throughout [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], in which Christmas dinners are held which include dishes such as [[Allahabadi cake]], [[candy canes]], [[Christmas cookies]].

The ''[[Koswad]]'' is a set of sweets and snacks prepared in the [[Christmastide]] by people of the [[Konkan region]]. South Indian states such as Kerala have traditions observed of home-brewed [[Indian wine|wine]], mostly grapes but sometimes other fruits as well like apple and rose apple; ethnic recipes of slow-cooked [[Kerala beef fry|beef fry]], rice and coconut [[Appam|Hoppers]], [[Kerala cuisine|lamb stew]], [[Indian Chinese cuisine|fried rice Indian]] and fusion style; desserts such as [[Falooda]], pastry, and a whole array of steamed, boiled or baked sweets, often with coconut, jaggery, sugar and spices such as cardamom and cloves ([[Achappam]], [[Murukku]], [[Tapioca chip]], [[Sukiyan]], [[Neyyappam]]).

== Indonesia ==
* [[Klappertaart]]<ref name="phinemo.com">{{cite web |url=https://phinemo.com/7-makanan-khas-natal-dari-daerah-di-indonesia/ |title=7 Makanan Khas Indonesia yang Disajikan Saat Natal Tiba |language=id |website=Phinemo|date=25 December 2017 }}</ref>
* [[Poffertjes]]<ref name="phinemo.com"/>
* [[Ayam rica-rica]]<ref name="phinemo.com"/>
* [[Lampet]]<ref name="phinemo.com"/>
* Kohu-kohu
* Kidney bean soup

== Iran ==
* [[Ash-e doogh]]
* [[Aush reshteh]]
* [[Baghali polo]]
* [[Chelow kebab]]
* [[Kafbikh]]
* [[Nan-o-kabab]]
* [[Tahchin]]

== Iraq ==
* [[Kleicha]]
* [[Masgouf]]
* [[Gheimeh|Qeema]]

== Ireland ==
* Christmas cake
* [[Christmas pudding]]
* [[Irish coffee]]
* [[Minced pie]]
* Sherry Trifle
* [[Spiced beef]] (traditionally served in Ireland and Northern Ireland)
* Roast turkey

== Israel ==
*[[Challah]]
*[[Latke]]
*[[Sufganiyah]]

== Italy ==
{{Main|Christmas in Italy}}
{{see also|Italian cuisine|List of Italian dishes}}
[[File:Panettone - Nicolettone 2017 - IMG 7085 (31752542285).jpg|thumb|[[Panettone]]]]
[[File:03 Cappelletti in brodo con Parmigiano Reggiano.jpg|thumb|[[Cappelletti (pasta)|Cappelletti]]]]
[[File:Abbacchio Pasquale.jpg|thumb|[[Abbacchio]]]]
[[File:Struffoli Napoletani.jpg|thumb|[[Struffoli]]]]

[[Christmas in Italy]] ({{langx|it|Natale}}, {{IPA|it|naˈtaːle|lang}}) begins on 8 December, with the [[Feast of the Immaculate Conception]], the day on which traditionally the [[Christmas tree]] is mounted and ends on 6 January, of the following year with the [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]] ({{langx|it|Epifania|links=no}}, {{IPA|it|epifaˈniːa|lang}}).<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=November 25, 2013|title=The Best Christmas Traditions in Italy|url=https://www.walksofitaly.com/blog/things-to-do/christmas-traditions-in-italy|access-date=January 26, 2021|website=Walks of Italy|language=en-GB}}</ref> According to tradition, the Christmas Eve dinner must not contain meat. A popular Christmas Day dish in [[Naples]] and in [[Southern Italy]] is {{Lang|it|[[capitone]]}}, which is a female eel. A traditional Christmas Day dish from [[Northern Italy]] is [[capon]] (gelded chicken). [[Abbacchio]] is more common in [[Central Italy]].<ref name="lacucinaitaliana">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=19 December 2020|title=La triade golosa del Natale italiano: cappone, abbacchio e capitone |url=https://www.lacucinaitaliana.it/storie/piatti-tipici/la-triade-golosa-del-natale-italiano-cappone-abbacchio-e-capitone|access-date=December 26, 2022|website=lacucinaitaliana.it |language=it}}</ref> The Christmas Day dinner traditionally consists by typical Italian Christmas dishes, such as [[abbacchio]], [[agnolini]], [[Cappelletti (pasta)|cappelletti]], [[Pavese agnolotti]], [[panettone]], [[pandoro]], [[torrone]], [[panforte]], [[struffoli]], [[mustacciuoli]], [[bisciola]], [[cavallucci]], [[veneziana]], [[pizzelle]], [[zelten]], or others, depending on the regional cuisine.<ref name="sicilianculture">{{cite web |url=http://www.sicilianculture.com/food/xmasfish.htm |title=Food: Italian Christmas Eve Fish Dinner |publisher=Sicilian Culture |date=December 25, 2002 |access-date=December 22, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120911142601/http://www.sicilianculture.com/food/xmasfish.htm |archive-date=September 11, 2012 }}</ref> Christmas on 25 December is celebrated with a family lunch, also consisting of different types of pasta and meat dishes, cheese and local sweets.

* [[Abbacchio]] (Central Italy).
* [[Agnolini]] (Mantua) – a type of egg-based [[Filled pasta|stuffed pasta]].
* [[Bisciola]] (Valtellina) – an [[artisan]]al Italian sweet leavened bread.
* [[Cappelletti (pasta)|Cappelletti]] (Emilia-Romagna and Marche) – a ring-shaped [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] [[stuffed pasta]] so called for the characteristic shape that resembles a hat (''cappello'' in [[Italian language|Italian]]).
* [[Capon]] (Northern Italy).
* [[Cavallucci]] (Siena) – a rich [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] Christmas pastry prepared with [[anise]], walnuts, [[candied fruit]]s, [[coriander]], and flour.
* [[Eel]] (Southern Italy).
* [[Pandoro]] (Verona)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lifeinitaly.com/christmas/panettone-pandoro|title=Panettone or Pandoro: An Italian Christmas Dilemma - Italy|website=www.lifeinitaly.com|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428170836/http://www.lifeinitaly.com/christmas/panettone-pandoro|archive-date=28 April 2017}}</ref> – a sweet originally from [[Verona]]. Pandoro is today the most consumed Italian Christmas dessert together with [[panettone]].<ref name="FJ">{{cite web|url=https://www.focusjunior.it/news/chi-ha-inventato-il-pandoro/|title=Chi ha inventato il pandoro?|date=15 December 2020 |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref>
* [[Panforte]] (Tuscany)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turismo.intoscana.it/site/en/local-products/Christmas-in-the-kitchen-Tuscan-delicacies-on-the-table/|title=Christmas in the kitchen: Tuscan delicacies on the table - turismo.intoscana.it|website=www.turismo.intoscana.it|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016215353/http://www.turismo.intoscana.it/site/en/local-products/Christmas-in-the-kitchen-Tuscan-delicacies-on-the-table/|archive-date=16 October 2016}}</ref> – a traditional chewy [[Italy|Italian]] [[dessert]] containing fruits and nuts.
* [[Panettone]] (Milan)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theworldwidegourmet.com/?action=occasionitem_show&id=15&lg=en |title=Christmas in Italy |publisher=The Worldwide Gourmet |access-date=2007-03-09 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070920210743/http://www.theworldwidegourmet.com/?action=occasionitem_show&id=15&lg=en |archive-date=2007-09-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://lifestyle.iafrica.com/festive/291083.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070114001534/http://lifestyle.iafrica.com/festive/291083.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 January 2007 |title=The legend of Panettone |first=Nicole |last=Martiche |date=16 November 2006 |access-date=2007-03-09 }}</ref> – a type of [[List of sweet breads|sweet bread]] and [[fruitcake]], originally from [[Milan]], usually prepared and enjoyed for [[Christmas]] and [[New Year]] in [[Western Europe|Western]], [[Southern Europe|Southern]], and [[Southeast Europe|Southeastern Europe]], as well as in [[South America]], [[Eritrea]],<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.madote.com/2016/01/christmas-in-eritrea.html | title=Christmas in Eritrea}}</ref> [[Australia]], the [[United States]] and [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ansa.it/canale_terraegusto/notizie/prodotti_tipici/2017/12/04/negli-usa-tutti-pazzi-per-il-panettone-e-boom-vendite_b653dfb9-ec37-43c9-99bd-345a4abf1af0.html |title= Negli Usa tutti pazzi per il panettone, è boom vendite |language=it |website=Ansa|date= 4 December 2017 }}</ref>
* [[Pavese agnolotti]] (Oltrepò pavese) – a type of egg-based [[Filled pasta|stuffed pasta]] of the [[Lombard cuisine]] served hot or warm.
* [[Pizzelle]] (Ortona) – an [[Italy|Italian]] waffle [[cookie]]s made from [[flour]], [[egg (food)|eggs]], [[sugar]], [[butter]] or [[vegetable oil]], and flavoring (usually [[anise]] or [[anisette]], less commonly [[vanilla]] or [[zest (ingredient)|lemon zest]]).
* [[Prosecco]] (Veneto)<ref name="browsingitaly.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.browsingitaly.com/italian-food-and-drinks/wine/christmas-italy-means-bollicine/1213/|title=Christmas in Italy means...bollicine! - BrowsingItaly|date=26 November 2013|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022223638/http://www.browsingitaly.com/italian-food-and-drinks/wine/christmas-italy-means-bollicine/1213/|archive-date=22 October 2016}}</ref>
* [[Mustacciuoli]] (Naples) – a dessert having a soft, spicy, cake-like interior covered in [[chocolate]].
* [[Spumante]] (Piedmont)<ref name="browsingitaly.com"/>
* [[Struffoli]] (Naples) – a type of deep-fried dough.
* [[Torrone]] (Northern Italy) – a sweet containing whole hazelnuts, almonds and pistachios or only have nut meal added to the nougat.
* [[Veneziana]] (Milan) – a sweet covered with sugar grains or almond icing.
* [[Zelten]] (Trentino) – a sweet prepared using rye flour, wheat flour, dried and candied fruits, orange zest, and various spices.

==Jamaica==
* Christmas (fruit) cake or [[black cake]] – a heavy fruit cake made with dried fruit, wine and rum.
* [[Roselle (plant)|Sorrel]] – often served to guests with Christmas cake; Sorrel is made from the same sepals as Latin American drink "Jamaica," but is more concentrated and usually flavored with ginger. Adding rum is traditional at Christmas time.
* [[Curry goat]]
* [[Rice and peas]] – a Sunday staple, at Christmas dinner is usually made with green (fresh) gungo (pigeon) peas instead of dried kidney beans or other dried legumes.
* [[Christmas ham]]
* [[Chicken (food)|Chicken]]
* Pine and ginger

== Japan ==
* Christmas cake – the Japanese style Christmas cake is often a white cream cake, [[sponge cake]] frosted with whipped cream, topped with strawberries and with a chocolate plate that says [[Merry Christmas]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kahle|first=Lynn R. |author2=Chʻung-hyŏn Kim |title=Creating Images and the Psychology of Marketing Communication|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|page=48|isbn=0-8058-5216-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNSeRruUoJMC&q=japanese+christmas+cake&pg=PA48}}</ref> [[Yule log (cake)|Yule Logs]] are also available.
* Christmas cookies - A Christmas sugar cookie's main ingredients are sugar, flour, butter, eggs, vanilla, and baking powder. Sugar cookies may be formed by hand, dropped, or rolled and cut into shapes. They are commonly decorated with additional sugar, icing, Christmas sprinkles. Decorative shapes and figures can be cut into the rolled-out dough using a cookie cutter.
* Christmas cupcakes
* [[Crème caramel]] [[pudding]] in [[Japan]] - a crème caramel ubiquitous in Japanese convenience stores under the name custard pudding. Made with eggs, sugar and milk, sometimes served with whipped cream and a cherry on top.
* [[French fries]]
* [[Fruit]] [[parfait]] - Made by boiling cream, egg, sugar and syrup to create layers differentiated by the inclusion of such ingredients as corn flakes and vanilla ice cream. Topped with melon, banana, peach, orange, apple, kiwi, cherries and strawberries and whipped cream.
* [[Gingerbread house]]
* [[Ice cream]]
* [[KFC]] [[fried chicken]] – turkey as a dish is virtually unknown in Japan<ref name="Intro to Christmas Traditions">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A7951656|title=An Introduction to Christmas Traditions|date=2005-12-23|publisher=BBC|access-date=2010-12-24|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101103043910/http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A7951656|archive-date=2010-11-03}}</ref> and the popularity of KFC's fried chicken at Christmas is such that orders are placed as much as two months in advance.<ref name="All Japan wants">{{cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2010/12/20/all-japan-wants-for-christmas-is-kentucky-fried-chicken.html|title=All Japan Wants for Christmas is Kentucky Fried Chicken|last=Whipp|first=Lindsay|date=2010-12-20|publisher=[[Financial Times]]|access-date=2010-12-24|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012173158/http://www.cnbc.com/id/40759547|archive-date=2012-10-12}}</ref>
* [[Nabemono]]
* Poached egg [[salad]]
* Shōyu [[ramen]]
* [[Tamagoyaki]] - Japanese [[Omelette]]
* [[Yakiniku]]

== Korea ==
* [[Budae-jjigae]]
* [[Korean barbecue|Gogigui]]
* [[Korean royal cuisine]]
* [[Makgeolli]]

== Latvia ==
* Jāņu skābs
* Piparkūkas

== Lithuania ==
* [[Twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper]] – twelve dishes representing the twelve Apostles or twelve months of the year – plays the main role in Lithuanian Christmas tradition. The traditional dishes are served on December 24.
** [[Poppy milk]] (''aguonų pienas'')
** [[Slizikai]] ( or kūčiukai) – slightly sweet small pastries made from [[yeast|leavened]] dough and poppy seed
** Auselės (Deep fried dumplings)
** [[Herring]] with [[carrot]]s (''silkė su morkomis'')
** Herring with [[mushroom]]s (''silkė su grybais'')
** [[Cranberry]] [[Kissel]] - thickened and sweetened juice normally served warm

== Malaysia and Singapore ==
* [[Bolo Rei]] – a type of cake
* [[Candy cane]]s
* [[Christmas cake]]
* [[Christmas pudding]]
* [[Chap chye]] – a vegetable stew
* [[Devil's curry]] – from the Eurasian tradition
* [[Egg salad]]
* [[Hotpot|Steamboat]] – a hotpot dish for communal
* [[Jiaozi]]
* [[Kue semprong]]
* [[Pineapple tart]]
* [[Semur (Indonesian stew)|Semur]]
* [[Vindaloo]] – a spicy Goan curry made usually with pork

== Malta ==

* [[Panettone]] – from the Italian tradition
* [[Fruitcake]] – from British influence
* Christmas/[[Yule log (cake)]] – a log (similar to a tree's) that is made from chocolate and candied fruits
* [[Mince Pies]] – from British influence
* [[Timpana]] – traditionally served as a starter
* Roast Turkey – from British influence

== Mexico ==
[[File:Roast chicken.jpg|thumb|right|Christmas roast]]
* Meat
** Roasted [[Turkey (food)|turkey]] – stuffed, roasted turkey served with gravy.
** [[Glazed ham]] – ham glazed with honey or sugar dressed with cherries and pineapples.
** [[Jamón]] (Spanish Dry-Cured Ham)
** [[Suckling pig|Lechon]]
** [[Seafood]]
*** [[Bacalao (cuisine)|Bacalao]] – cod Basque style. Traditionally eaten in the central and southern states of Mexico.
*** [[Shrimp]] – cocktail or prepared in Torrejas (dried shrimp pancakes)
*** [[Octopus]] – cocktail
*** [[Crab]]
* Stews
** [[Menudo (soup)|Menudo]] – a Christmas morning tradition in northwestern states, Menudo is a tripe and hominy soup. Menudo is often prepared the night before (Christmas Eve) as its cooking time can take up to 5 hours.
** [[Pozole]] – hominy soup with added pork
* Salads and other side dishes
** [[Tamale]]s – can sometimes replace the traditional turkey or Bacalao with romeritos, particularly in northern and southern parts of Mexico.
** Ensalada Navideña – Christmas salad with apples, raisins, pecans, and marshmallows.
** Ensalada de Noche Buena – Christmas Eve salad
** Ensalada Rusa – potato salad, particularly popular in northern states.
** [[Romeritos]] – also a Christmas tradition of the central region, romeritos are small green leaves similar to rosemary mixed generally with mole and potatoes.
* Sweets
** [[Buñuelo]] – fried sweet pastry
** [[Capirotada]] – bread pudding
** [[Turrón]]
** [[Cocada]] – coconut candy
** Volteado de piña – pineapple upside-down cake. Turned-over cake with cherries and pineapples.
** Carlota de Chocolate – cake
** [[Mantecado]]s and [[polvorón|polvorones]] – crumbly cakes
** [[Marzipan]], almond cakes
** [[Pan dulce]] – sweet rolls
** [[Churros]]
* Fresh Fruit
** [[Tejocote]]s
** [[Guayaba]]s
** ''Caña de azucar'' - [[Sugarcane|Sugar cane]]
* Drinks
** [[Champurrado]] – thick hot chocolate
** [[Chocolate]] – [[hot chocolate]]
** [[Cider|Cidra]] – [[apple cider]]
** [[Atole]] – corn based drink
** [[Rompope]] – similar to [[eggnog]]
** [[Ponche Navideño]] – a hot, sweet drink made with [[apple]]s, [[Sugarcane|sugar cane]], [[prune]]s and [[Crataegus mexicana|tejocote]]s. For grown-ups, ponche is never complete without its "piquete" – either [[tequila]] or [[rum]]

== Netherlands ==
* [[Banket (pastry)|Banket]]
* [[Mandarin orange]]
* [[Marzipan]]
* [[Mixed spice]]
* [[Mulled wine]]
* [[Oliebol]] (more widely considered as a New Years' classic)
* [[Speculaas]]
* [[Kerstkransjes]]
* [[Rollade]]

== New Zealand ==
[[File:Christmas pavlova.jpg|thumb|right|A homemade Christmas pavlova decorated with [[pomegranate]] seeds and [[Chantilly cream]].]]

* [[Cherry|Cherries]]
* [[Christmas Pudding|Christmas pudding]]
* Christmas [[mince pie]]s
* [[Ham]]
* [[Lamb and mutton|Lamb]]
* [[Candy|Lollies]] (candy) such as candy canes
* [[Pavlova (food)|Pavlova]]
* [[Potato salad]]
* [[Seafood]]
* [[Strawberry|Strawberries]]
* [[Trifle]]
* [[Wine]]

== Norway ==
[[File:Freshly baked gingerbread - Christmas 2004.jpg|thumb|Scandinavian-style gingerbread]]
* [[Akevitt]] – [[Akvavit]], a spirit flavored with spices like caraway and aniseed
* [[Gløgg]] – [[mulled wine]]
* Julepølse – pork [[sausage]] made with powdered [[ginger]], [[clove]]s, [[mustard seed]]s and [[nutmeg]]. Served steamed or roasted.
* [[Pinnekjøtt]] – salted, dried, and sometimes smoked lamb's ribs which are rehydrated and then steamed, traditionally over [[birch]] branches
* [[Pork ribs|Svineribbe]] – [[pork belly]] roasted whole with the skin on. Usually served with red or pickled [[cabbage]], [[gravy]] and boiled [[potato]]es.
* [[Rice pudding|Risgrøt]] – Christmas rice porridge with an [[almond]] hidden inside
* [[Julebrus]] – Norwegian [[soft drink]], usually with a festive label on the bottle. It is brewed by most Norwegian [[Brewery|breweries]], as a Christmas drink for minors.
* [[Julekake]] – Norwegian yeast cake with dried fruits and spices
* Sosisser – small Christmas [[sausage]]s
* Medisterkaker – large meatballs made from a mix of pork meat and pork fat
* Raudkål/Rødkål – sweet and sour [[red cabbage]], as a side dish
* Kålrabistappe/Kålrotstappe – Purée of [[rutabaga]], as a side dish
* Peparkake/Pepperkake – [[gingerbread]]-like spice cookies flavoured with [[black pepper]]
* [[Lussekatter]] – St. Lucia Buns with [[saffron]]
* [[Multekrem]] – a dessert consisting of [[Cloudberry|cloudberries]] and [[whipped cream]]
* [[Riskrem]] – [[Risalamande]]

== Palestine ==
*[[Knafeh]]
*[[Maqluba]]
*[[Mujaddara]]
*[[Warbat]]
*[[Zalabiyeh]]

== Panama ==

* [[Arroz con Pollo]]
* [[Tamales]]
* [[Ham]]
* [[Turkey (food)|Turkey]]
* [[Grapes]]
* [[Fruit cake]]
* [[Egg nog]]
* [[Potato salad]]
* Pan de Rosca
* Pan Bon
* [[Spaghetti]]

== Paraguay ==
* [[Apple cider]]
* Beef tongue sometimes covered in [[vinaigrette]]
* [[Cider]]
* Clericó (citric alcoholic drink made out of a mix of fruits and wine)
* [[Chicken (food)|Roasted chicken]]
* [[Potato salad]]
* [[Roasting|Roast]] [[pork]]
* [[Sopa paraguaya]]

== Philippines ==
{{See also|Christmas Eve#Philippines}}
[[File:Traditional Filipino cuisine.jpg|thumb|Typical traditional ''noche buena'' meal in the [[Philippines]], with a [[lechon|lechón]] as the centerpiece]]
[[File:Large bibinka.jpg|right|thumb|Large ''bibingka'' from the Philippines]]
* [[Adobo (Filipino cuisine)|Adobo]]
* [[Almondigas]] ([[meatball]]s)
* [[Arroz valenciana]]
* [[Bibingka]] – traditional dessert made with [[rice flour]], [[sugar]], [[clarified butter]] and [[coconut milk]]; baked in layers and topped with butter and sugar.<ref name="culturefront"/>
* [[Biko (food)|Biko]]
* [[Buko salad]] ([[young coconut]] salad)
* [[Caldereta]]
* [[Callos]]
* ''Castañas'' ([[roasted chestnuts]])
* [[Champorado]]
* [[Chicken galantina]]
* [[Chicken pastel]]
* [[Churro]]
* [[Crema de fruta]]
* [[Embutido (Filipino cuisine)|Embutido]]
* [[Fruitcake]]
* [[Fruit salad]]
* [[Filipino spaghetti]]
* [[Ham]]<ref name="yuletide fusion">{{cite news|url=http://showbizandstyle.inquirer.net/lifestyle/lifestyle/view_article.php?article_id=108428|title=Yuletide fusion of flavors|last=Burgos|first=Rowena|date=2007-12-23|publisher=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|access-date=2008-12-06|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222153626/http://showbizandstyle.inquirer.net/lifestyle/lifestyle/view_article.php?article_id=108428|archive-date=2008-02-22}}</ref>
* [[Hamonado]]
* [[Inihaw]]
* [[Kinutil]]
* [[Leche flan]]
* [[Suckling pig|Lechon]]
* [[Lengua estofado]]
* [[Lumpia]]
* [[Mango float]]
* [[Macaroni salad]]
* [[Mechado]]
* [[Dulce de membrillo|Membrilyo]]
* [[Menudo (stew)|Menudo]]
* [[Morcón (Filipino cuisine)|Morcon]]
* [[Paelya]]
* [[Pancit]]
* [[Puto bumbong]] – a purple-coloured Filipino dessert made of [[sweet rice]] cooked in hollow bamboo tubes placed on a special steamer-cooker. When cooked, they are spread with [[margarine]] and sprinkled with [[sugar]] and [[grated coconut]].<ref name="culturefront">{{cite news|url=http://www.mb.com.ph/issues/2007/12/09/TSTE20071209110674.html|title=Culturefront: Christmas Culinary Traditions (Part 1)|last=Galang|first=Diana A.|date=2007-12-09|publisher=[[Manila Bulletin]]|access-date=2008-12-06}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
* Queso de bola ([[edam cheese]])<ref name="yuletide fusion"/>
* Relyenong bangus (stuffed milkfish)
* [[Sapin-sapin]]
* [[suman (food)|Suman]]
* [[Tsokolate]]
* [[Turon (food)|Turon]]
* [[Ube halaya]]

== Poland ==
On 24 December, Christmas Eve, twelve dishes are served as a reminder of the [[Apostles in the New Testament|Twelve Apostles]]. Polish people often do not eat meat on this day; instead, they choose from a variety of fish and vegetable dishes. The meal begins when the first star is seen.

[[File:Uszka-aasica.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Barszcz]] with [[Uszka]]]]
[[File:Bejgli1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Makowiec (pastry)|Makowiec]]]]
* [[Borscht|Barszcz]] ([[beetroot]] soup) with [[uszka]] (small dumplings) - a classic Polish Christmas starter.
* [[Pierogi]] with [[sauerkraut]] and forest [[mushrooms]]; filled with [[cottage cheese]] and [[potato]]es
* Zupa rybna – [[fish soup]]
* [[Żurek]] – [[soup]] made of soured [[rye]] [[flour]] and [[meat]]
* Zupa grzybowa – [[mushroom]] soup made of various forest mushrooms
* [[Bigos]] – savory [[stew]] of [[cabbage]] and [[meat]]
* [[Kompot]] – traditional drink a light, refreshing drink most often made of dried or fresh fruit boiled in water with sugar and left to cool and infuse.
* [[Gołąbki]] – [[cabbage]] rolls
* Pieczarki marynowane – [[marinated mushrooms]]
* Kartofle gotowane – simple boiled [[potato]]es sprinkled with [[parsley]] or [[dill]]
* [[Kulebiak]] – with [[fish]] or [[cabbage]] and wild [[mushroom]]s filling
* Ryba smażona or ryba po grecku – [[fried fish]] laid under layers of fried shredded [[carrot]]s, [[onion]]s, root [[celery]] and [[leek]]
* [[Sałatka jarzynowa]] – salad made with boiled [[potato]]es and carrots with fresh peas, sweetcorn, dill cucumber, and boiled egg, mixed with mayonnaise.
* [[Łamaniec]] – type of flat and rather hard pancake that is soaked in warm milk with poppy seeds. Eaten in eastern regions such as around * [[Białystok]]
* [[Poppy seed roll|Makowiec]] – poppy seed roll

== Portugal ==
[[File:Bolo Rei.jpg|thumb|''Bolo-Rei'']]
* [[Bacalhau]] – codfish
* Cabrito assado – roasted goat
* Borrego assado – roasted lamb
* Polvo cozido – boiled octopus
* [[Polvo à lagareiro]] - dish based on [[octopus]], [[olive oil]], [[potatoes]] (''batatas a murro''), ''[[grelos]]'' and [[garlic]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Polvo à Lagareiro, história e receita |url=https://ncultura.pt/polvo-a-lagareiro-historia-e-receita/ |publisher=ncultura.pt |access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Polvo à Lagareiro, uma das receitas mais típicas de Portugal | date=12 January 2018 |url=http://iberismos.com/polvo-a-lagareiro-uma-das-receitas-mais-tipicas-de-portugal/?lang=pt-pt |publisher=iberismos.com |access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Polvo à Lagareiro |url=https://tastebraga.com/comida/polvo-a-lagareiro/ |publisher=tastebraga.com |access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref>
* [[Carne de Vinha d' Alhos]] – mainly served in [[Madeira]] – pork dish
* [[Bolo de mel]] – mainly served in [[Madeira]] - Cake made with molasses
* [[Bolo Rei]] (king cake) – a beautifully decorated fluffy fruitcake
* Bolo-Rei escangalhado (broken king cake) – it is like the first one, but has also cinnamon and chilacayote jam (doce de gila)
* Bolo-Rainha (queen cake) – similar to Bolo-Rei, but with only nuts, raisins and almonds
* Bolo-Rei de chocolate – it is like the Bolo-Rei, but has less (or no) fruit, nuts, chilacayote jam and many chocolate chips
* Broa castelar – a small, soft and thin cake made of sweet potato and orange
* Fatias douradas – slices of pan bread, soaked in egg with sugar, fried and sprinkled with powdered sugar and cinnamon
* [[Rabanadas]] – they are like fatias douradas, but made with common bread
* Aletria – composed of pasta, milk, butter, sugar, eggs, lemon peel, cinnamon powder and salt
* Formigos – a delicious dessert made with sugar, eggs, pieces of bread, almonds, port wine and cinnamon powder
* [[Filhós]] / Filhozes / Filhoses – depending on the region, they may be thin or fluffy pieces of a fried dough made of eggs, honey, orange, lemon, flour and anise, sprinkled - or not with icing sugar
* Coscorões – thin squares of a fried orange flavoured dough
* Azevias de grão, batata-doce ou gila – deep fried thin dough pastries filled with a delicious cream made of chickpea, sweet potato or chilacayote, powdered with sugar and cinnamon
* Tarte de amêndoa – almond pie
* Tronco de Natal – Christmas log – a Swiss roll, resembling a tree's trunk, filled with chocolate cream, decorated with chocolate and mini – 2 cm Christmas trees
* Lampreia de ovos – a sweet made of eggs, well decorated
* Sonhos – an orange flavoured fried yeast dough, powdered with icing sugar
* Velhoses – they are like the sonhos, but made with pumpkin
* Bolo de Natal – Christmas cake
* Pudim de Natal – Christmas pudding, similar to flan
* Vinho quente – mulled wine made with boiled wine, egg yolk, sugar and cinnamon
* Turkey – on the island of Terceira, turkey has recently taken over as the traditional Christmas dish over Bacalhau, due to the influence of American culture on the island, home to the United States Air Force's 65th Air Base Wing.

== Puerto Rico (U.S.) ==
* [[Arroz con gandules]] – yellow-rice, pigeon peas, [[olive]]s, [[caper]]s, pieces of pork, spices and sofrito cooked in the same pot.
* [[Escabeche]] – pickled green bananas or cassava and chicken gizzards.
* [[Macaroni salad]] – with canned tuna and peppers.
* [[Morcilla]] – blood sausage.
* [[Pasteles]] – Puerto Rican tamle made from milk, broth, root vegetables, squash, green banana, plantain dough, stuffed with meat, and wrapped in banana leaves.
* [[Hallaca]] – tamale made from grated cassava and stuffed with meat wrapped in banana leaves.
* [[Pastelón]] – sweet [[Plantain (cooking)|plantain]] "[[lasagna]]".
* [[Pig roast]] – Puerto Rico is famous for their pig roast. It is also a part (along with arroz con gandules) of their national dish.
* [[Potato salad]] – most commonly made with apples, [[chorizo]] and hard-boiled [[egg (food)|egg]]s. Potatoes are sometimes replaced with [[cassava]].

Drinks:
* Bilí – [[Spanish lime]]s or cherries fermented in rum with spices, brown sugar, citrus peels, bay leaves, avocado leaves, often cucumber, ginger, and coconut shells.
* [[Coquito]] – spiced coconut eggnog.
* Coquito de guayaba - spiced [[guava]] eggnog with cream cheese or coconut milk added.
* [[Piña colada]]
* Rum punch – rum, orange liqueur, grenadine, ginger ale, grapefruit juice served with fruit, lemon and lime slices.
* La Danza – champagne with passion fruit juice, orange liqueur, lime juice, lemon juice, and strawberry juice.

Dessert:
* [[Rice pudding#Latin America and the Caribbean|Arroz con dulce]] – Spiced coconut and raisin rice pudding.
* [[Bread pudding]] – soaked in coconut milk and served with a guava rum sauce.
* Dulce de cassabanana – [[musk cucumber]] cooked in syrup topped with walnuts and sour cream on the side.
* [[Dulce de papaya]] con queso – Fermented green [[papaya]] with spices and sugar syrup served with ausubal cheese or fresh white cheese.
* Flancocho – [[Crème caramel]] with a layer of cream cheese and Puerto Rican style [[spongecake]] underneath.
* [[Majarete]] – rice and coconut custard. Made with coconut cream, [[marshmallow]]s, milk, [[rice flour]], sugar, vanilla and sour orange leaves with cinnamon served on top.
* [[Rum cake]]
* [[Tembleque]] – a [[pudding]] made with cornstarch, coconut cream, sugar, milk, orange blossom water and [[coconut milk]].
* [[Turrón]] – Sesame brittle or almond brittle.
*Mantecaditos – Puerto Rican shortbread cookies. Made with shortening, [[coconut butter]], flour, [[almond meal|almond flour]], vanilla, nutmeg and almond extract. They are usually filled with guava jam or pineapple jam in the middle.
*[[Natilla]] – Milk, coconut cream and egg yolk custard made with additional cinnamon, cornstarch, sugar, vanilla, lemon zest and orange blossom water. Served in individual ramekins with cinnamon sprinkled on top.

== Romania ==
[[File:Cozonac-cu-nuca-103.jpg|thumb|Cozonac]]Romanian Christmas foods are mostly pork-based dishes.<ref name="Romanian Christmas foods">{{cite news|url=https://sodelicious.recipes/food-culture/christmas-foods-in-romania/|title=Christmas Foods and Festive Traditions in Romania|last=Vulpescu|first=Cristina|date=2019-12-18|publisher=SoDelicious.Recipes|access-date=2020-06-22}}</ref> Five days before Christmas, Romanians are celebrating the Ignat Day, a religious holy day dedicated to the Holy Martyr [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius Theophorus]], associated with a practice that takes place especially on villages scattered around the country: the ritual of slaughtering the pigs. And they are using everything from the pigs: from their blood to their ears. Five days later their tables are filled not only with generous pork roasts but also with:
* [[Aspic|Piftie]] – [[Aspic|pork jelly]], made only with pork meat, vegetables and garlic
* Lebăr – liver sausages, a local variety of [[liverwurst]]
* Caltaboș – sausages made from organs
* Cârnaţi – pork-based [[sausage]]s
* Sângerete – [[blood sausage]]s
* Tobă – [[head cheese]] made from various cuttings of pork, liver boiled, diced and "packed" in pork stomach like a [[salami]]
* Sarmale – rolls of cabbage pickled in brine and filled with meat and rice (see [[sarma (food)|sarma]])
* [[Salată de boeuf]] – a more recent dish, but highly popular, this type of salad uses boiled vegetables and meat (beef, poultry, even ham). It can include potatoes, carrots, pickled red peppers and cucumbers, egg whites bits. Everything is mixed together with mayonnaise and mustard.
*[[Cozonac]], the Romanian equivalent of [[panettone]] or [[List of sweet breads|sweet bread]].
* Strong spirits: [[Palinka]], [[Rachiu]], [[Ţuică]]

== Russia ==
* [[Borscht]]
* [[Kutya]]

==San Marino==
[[File:Bustrengo.jpg|thumb|[[Bustrengo]]]]
* [[Bustrengo]]

== Serbia and Montenegro ==
{{Main|Serbian cuisine|Montenegrin cuisine}}
* [[Česnica]] – Christmas soda bread with a silver coin to bring health and good luck baked in the bread.
* [[Koljivo]] – boiled wheat which is used liturgically in the Eastern Orthodox and Greek Catholic Churches.
* [[Fish soup|Riblja čorba]] for Christmas Eve

== South Africa ==
Christmas is in the summer in South Africa, so many summer fruits such as watermelon and cantaloupes are enjoyed at this time. Popular desserts include trifle, melktert and peppermint crisp tart. Many people in South Africa hold [[Regional variations of barbecue|Braai]] barbecues for Christmas or New Year's Day.
*[[Beef tongue]]
*[[Gammon (meat)|Gammon]]
*[[Potato salad]]
*[[Garden Salad]]
*[[Turducken]]
*[[Turkey (bird)|Turkey]]
*[[Braaivleis]]
*[[Boerewors]]
*[[Potjiekos]]
*[[Breyani]]
*[[Bobotie]]
*[[Meatballs]]
*[[Fried chicken]]
*[[Trifle]]
*[[Fruitcake]]
*[[Mince Pies]] Influenced by British tradition, mince pies filled with dried fruits and spices are enjoyed over the holidays.
*[[Christmas pudding]]
*[[Ice cream]]
*[[Melktert]]
*[[Peppermint crisp tart]] – fridge tart made with peppermint crisp, caramel treat and tennis biscuits
*[[Yogurt tart]] – fridge tart
*[[Cookies]]
*[[Hertzoggie]]s
*[[Lamington]]s
*[[Watermelon]]
*[[Melon]]
*[[Mango]]
*[[Pineapple]]
*[[Strawberries]]
* [[Peanuts]]
* Lollies such as [[candy canes]]

== Spain ==
* [[Jamón]], [[jamón ibérico]] (Spanish dry-cured ham).
* Fish: oven gilt-head [[bream]], oven [[sea bass]], [[Eel|elvers]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=What are Angulas (Spanish Baby Eels)? |url=https://www.thespruceeats.com/what-are-angulas-3083602 |access-date=2022-12-31 |website=The Spruce Eats |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Seafood]]: [[Langostino]]s ([[Prawn|king prawn]]), [[Shrimp]], [[Lobster]], [[Crab]].
* Meat: Roasted [[Turkey (food)|turkey]], [[Lamb and mutton|Roasted lamb]].
*Sweets: [[File:Turrón de Alicante (Casa Mira).jpg|thumb|Turrón]]
** [[Turrón]]
** [[Yemas de Santa Teresa|Yema]] – egg-based dessert
** [[Mantecado]]s and [[polvorón|polvorones]] – crumbly cakes
** [[Marzipan]] – almond cakes
** [[King cake]] known as [[roscón de Reyes]] in Spanish and [[tortell]] in Catalan.
** ''[[Aragonese cuisine|Frutas de Aragón]]'' - a [[confit]] of fruit covered in chocolate
** ''Peladillas'' - sugared almonds
** [[Churros]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mamasbox.net/spanish-christmas-food/|title=The definitive guide to Spanish Christmas food, in 20 delicious & easy recipes|access-date=2015-12-10|author=Mama's Box - Online Spanish food Shop|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211180445/https://mamasbox.net/spanish-christmas-food/|archive-date=2015-12-11}}</ref>

== Sri Lanka ==
* [[Congee|Kanji]]
* [[Lamprais]]
* [[Pol Pani]]

== Sweden ==
[[File:Julbord.jpg|400px|thumb|Julbord Christmas dinner in Sweden]]

* [[Julebord|Julbord]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ninasmat.se/recept/sidor/jul.htm |title=Julmat - Allt som tillhör ett gott julbord en riktig god julmiddag |publisher=Ninasmat.se |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110212017/http://www.ninasmat.se/recept/sidor/jul.htm |archive-date=10 January 2012 }}</ref> - Christmas [[Smörgåsbord|smorgasbord]] ("Christmas table"), a catch-all term for all the dishes served during Christmas Eve:
** [[Köttbullar]] – Swedish [[meatball]]s
** [[Julskinka]] – Christmas ham
** Dopp i grytan ("dipping in the kettle") – dipping bread slices in the ham broth after boiling the Christmas ham.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.matklubben.se/matprat/jul_och_nyaar_2/tips_paa_recept_paa_dopp-i-grytan_2667.html |title=Tips på recept på Dopp-i-grytan |publisher=Matklubben.se |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320113945/http://www.matklubben.se/matprat/jul_och_nyaar_2/tips_paa_recept_paa_dopp-i-grytan_2667.html |archive-date=20 March 2012 }}</ref>
** [[Prinskorv]] – small hot dog sausages
** [[Fläskkorv]] – big pork sausage
** [[Isterband]] – smoked fresh pork sausage
** [[Revbensspjäll]] – spare ribs
** Inlagd sill – pickled [[herring]] (usually of different types)
** [[Gravad lax]] – [[lox]]
** [[Janssons frestelse]] ("Jansson's temptation") – warm, scalloped potato [[casserole]] with "ansjovis" (a type of swedish spiced and pickled [[european sprat]]), not to be confused with [[Anchovies as food|anchovies]].
** [[Vörtlimpa]] – Swedish [[rye bread]] with grated [[Orange (fruit)|orange]] peel made for Christmas, with or without raisins.
** [[Knäckebröd]] – dry crisp bread
** [[Rödkål]] – sweet and sour red cabbage, as a side dish
** Grönkål – sweet and sour [[kale]] as a side dish
** Brunkål ("brown cabbage") – cabbage flavoured with syrup hence the name
** Rödbetor – sliced [[beet]] root
** An array of cheeses – [[bondost]], [[herrgårdsost]], [[prästost]], [[brunost|mesost]] (hard [[goat milk cheese]])
* [[Lutfisk]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ica.se/FrontServlet?s=mat_recept&state=recept&receptid=3451 |title=Lutfisk med senapssås |publisher=Ica.se |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219031514/http://www.ica.se/FrontServlet?s=mat_recept&state=recept&receptid=3451 |archive-date=19 February 2008 }}</ref> – lye-fish (whitefish) that has been boiled served with white gravy
* [[Julmust]] – a traditional, very sweet, [[stout]]-like, Christmas [[soft drink]], originally intended as an alternative to [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] beverage called Mumma
* [[Glögg]] – [[mulled wine]]
* [[Knäck]] or '''Christmas butterscotch''' – Christmas [[toffee]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=2054&artikel=525935|title=Christmas Butterscotch (Knäck)|newspaper=Sveriges Radio|language=en|date=21 December 2004|access-date=25 December 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226073830/http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=2054&artikel=525935|archive-date=26 December 2017}}</ref>
* Pepparkakor ([[gingerbread]]) – brown cookies flavoured with a variety of traditional Christmas spices
* Julost – Christmas cheese
* Julgröt – Christmas [[rice pudding]] with an [[almond]] hidden inside
* [[Lussekatter]] – [[Saint Lucy]] saffron buns
* [[Limpa bread]] – orange and rye spice bread

== Switzerland ==
* [[Springerle|Anisbrötli]]
* [[Basler Läckerli]]
* [[Kürtőskalács|Baumstriezel]]
* Cardon argenté épineux genevois
* [[Fondue]]
* [[Stutenkerl|Grittibänz]]
* [[Lebkuchen]]
* {{Interlanguage link|Mailänderli|de}}
* [[Pain d'épices]]
* [[Panettone]]
* {{Interlanguage link|Spitzbube|de}}
* [[Tirggel]]

== Thailand ==
* [[Khao khluk kapi]]
* [[Pad see ew]]
* [[Pad thai]]
* [[Tom yum]]

== Trinidad and Tobago ==
In Trinidad and Tobago traditional meals consists of generous helpings of baked ham, pastelles, black fruit cake, sweet breads, along with traditional drinks such as sorrel, ginger beer, and ponche de crème. The ham is the main item on the Christmas menu with sorrel to accompany it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nalis.gov.tt/Research/SubjectGuide/Christmas/tabid/251/Default.aspx?PageContentID=377|title=CHRISTMAS IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO|access-date=2015-10-20|author=National Library of Trinidad and Tobago|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151112112644/http://www.nalis.gov.tt/Research/SubjectGuide/Christmas/tabid/251/Default.aspx?PageContentID=377|archive-date=2015-11-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nalis.gov.tt/Resources/Subject-Guide/Christmas#tabposition_24255 |title=CHRISTMAS RECIPES |website=nalis.gov.tt}}</ref>
*[[Christmas ham]]
*[[Sorrel]]
*Pastelles also known as [[Hallacas]]
*Ponche de crème – a version of [[eggnog]]
*[[Black cake]]

== Ukraine ==
Orthodox and Roman Catholic Christians in Ukraine traditionally have two Christmas dinners. The first is a Lent Dinner, it is held on January 6 and should consist of meatless dishes. The second is a Christmas Festive dinner held on January 7, when the meat dishes and alcohol are already allowed on the table. The dinner normally has 12 dishes which represent Jesus's 12 disciples. Both Christmas dinners traditionally include a number of authentic Ukrainian dishes, which have over thousand-year history and date back to pagan times.

* [[Kutia]]
* [[Uzvar]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ukrainian-recipes.com/tag/uzvar|title=Uzvar - Ukrainian recipes - for a tasty life|website=Ukrainian recipes - for a tasty life|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109183230/http://ukrainian-recipes.com/tag/uzvar|archive-date=2018-01-09}}</ref>
* [[Varenyky]]
* [[Borshch]]
* [[Deruny]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://v.img.com.ua/nxs112/b/600x500/0/88/0d00aa3700b3730748823ac6b40e0880.jpg |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-01-09 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109235338/http://v.img.com.ua/nxs112/b/600x500/0/88/0d00aa3700b3730748823ac6b40e0880.jpg |archive-date=2018-01-09 }}</ref>
* [[Pampushky]]
* [[Holubtsi]]
* [[Poppy seed roll|Makivnyk]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpggAAAAMAAJ&q=Poppy+seed+roll+ukraine+christmas |title=Ukrainian Christmas: Traditions, Folk Customs, and Recipes|access-date=2023-07-25 |last1=Vaughn |first1=Mary Ann Woloch |date=1982 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4TJjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP5 |title=Ukrainian Recipes
|access-date=2023-07-25 |author=Katy Lyons |date=8 March 2022
}}</ref>

== United Kingdom ==
{{Main|British cuisine}}
[[File:Christmas pudding.JPG|thumb|right|Christmas pudding]]

In the United Kingdom, what is now regarded as the traditional meal consists of roast turkey with [[cranberry sauce]], served with roast potatoes and parsnips and other vegetables, followed by [[Christmas pudding]], a heavy steamed pudding made with [[dried fruit]], suet, and very little flour. Other roast meats may be served, and in the nineteenth century the traditional roast was goose. The same carries over to Ireland with some variations.

* [[Beef Wellington]] (alternative main course)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goodtoknow.co.uk/recipes/164868/Gordon-Ramsay-s-beef-Wellington|title=Gordon Ramsay's beef Wellington|website=goodtoknow|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503093801/http://www.goodtoknow.co.uk/recipes/164868/Gordon-Ramsay-s-beef-Wellington|archive-date=3 May 2017}}</ref>
* [[Brandy butter]]
* [[Bread sauce]]
* [[Brussels sprout]]s<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/texte/xmas.htm |title=Christmas in Britain |access-date=2007-03-09 |first=Ulrike |last=Schroedter |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321050635/http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/texte/xmas.htm |archive-date=2007-03-21 }}</ref>
* [[Candy canes]]
* [[Bûche de Noël|Chocolate yule log]]
* [[Christmas cake]]
* [[Christmas ham]] (usually a honey or marmalade glazed roast or boiled gammon joint)
* [[Christmas pudding]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1706169.stm |title=Christmas food shopping uncovered |access-date=2007-03-12 |work=BBC News |date=2001-12-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223024530/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1706169.stm |archive-date=2008-12-23 }}</ref>
* [[Cranberry sauce]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/2728/cranberry-sauce|title=Cranberry sauce|website=BBC Good Food|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221172839/http://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/2728/cranberry-sauce|archive-date=21 December 2016}}</ref>
* [[Devils on horseback]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://realfood.tesco.com/recipes/easy-devils-on-horseback.html|title=Easy devils on horseback - Tesco Real Food|website=Tesco Real Food|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223060448/https://realfood.tesco.com/recipes/easy-devils-on-horseback.html|archive-date=23 December 2016}}</ref>
* [[Dundee cake]] (traditional Scottish fruit cake)
* [[Gingerbread]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/christmas_gingerbread_84244|title=Christmas gingerbread men|website=BBC Food|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322072117/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/christmas_gingerbread_84244|archive-date=22 March 2017}}</ref>
* [[Mince pie]]s<ref name="BBC News"/>
* [[Mulled wine]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maryberry.co.uk/recipes/christmas/christmas-mulled-wine|title=Mary Berry|website=www.maryberry.co.uk|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510123750/http://www.maryberry.co.uk/recipes/christmas/christmas-mulled-wine|archive-date=10 May 2017}}</ref>
* [[Nut roast]] (a popular vegetarian alternative)
* [[File:Pigs in Blankets (11630904144).jpg|thumb|Pigs in blankets]][[Pigs in blankets]] ([[Chipolata]] sausages wrapped in bacon)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lee |first1=Jeremy |date=26 November 2017 |title=The great Christmas taste test 2017 |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/nov/26/christmas-taste-test-2017-chocolate-cheese-pies-cakes-puddings-salmon |access-date=4 January 2018}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2021-12-02 |title=Everything you want to know about pigs in blankets |url=https://erudus.com/editorial/the-food-agenda/everything-about-pigs-in-blankets |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=Erudus}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Thompson |first=Rachel |date=2018-12-24 |title=I ate 100 different 'pigs in blankets' at a sausage party and it was painfully delicious |url=https://mashable.com/article/pigs-in-blanket-sausage-party |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=Mashable |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Neild |first1=Barry |date=14 December 2013 |title=Turkey, pigs in blankets, even sprouts… but no Christmas pudding, thanks |work=The Observer |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/dec/14/christmas-pudding-off-this-years-menu |access-date=4 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Classic pigs in blankets |url=https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/classic-pigs-blankets |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=BBC Good Food |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Turkey (food)|Roast turkey]]<ref name="BBC News">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/breakfast/4523490.stm |title=Christmas? What a waste! |access-date=2007-03-09 |work=BBC News |date=2005-12-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223223006/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/breakfast/4523490.stm |archive-date=2008-12-23 }}</ref>
* Roasted [[chestnuts]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/roastchestnuts_68084|title=Roast chestnuts|website=BBC Food|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516034541/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/roastchestnuts_68084|archive-date=16 May 2017}}</ref>
* [[Duck (food)|Roast duck]]
* [[Roast goose]]
* [[Common pheasant|Roast pheasant]]
* [[Spiced beef]] (traditionally served in Ireland and Northern Ireland)
* [[Trifle]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2012/dec/18/how-to-eat-trifle|title=How to eat: trifle|first=Tony|last=Naylor|date=18 December 2012|website=the Guardian|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017100940/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2012/dec/18/how-to-eat-trifle|archive-date=17 October 2016}}</ref>
* [[Tunis Cake]]
* [[King cake#United Kingdom|Twelfth Night Cake]] (traditionally eaten on the final day of Christmas)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/stowe/recipes/twelfth-night-cake|title=Twelfth Night cake|website=National Trust|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021075033/https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/stowe/recipes/twelfth-night-cake|archive-date=21 October 2016}}</ref>

== United States ==
[[File:Thanksgiving Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|Roast turkey]]
[[File:Julskinka.JPG|thumb|[[Christmas ham]]]]
* [[Apple cider]]
* [[Boiled custard]]
* [[Candy cane]]s
* [[Champagne (wine)|Champagne]], or [[sparkling apple cider]]
* [[Fudge|Chocolate fudge]]
* [[Christmas cookies]]
* [[Cranberry sauce]]
* [[Eggnog]]
* [[Fish]] as part of the [[Feast of the Seven Fishes]]
* [[Fruitcake]]
* [[Gingerbread]], often in the form of a [[gingerbread house]] or [[gingerbread man]]
* [[Christmas ham]]
* [[Hawaiian bread]]
* [[Hot buttered rum (drink)|Hot buttered rum]]
* [[Hot chocolate]]
* [[Mashed potatoes]]
* [[Mixed nuts]], [[chestnuts]], dried [[figs]], dried [[Date (fruit)|dates]]
* [[Oyster stew]], composed of oysters simmered in cream or milk and butter.
* [[Persimmon pudding]]
* [[Pie]]
** [[Apple pie]]
** [[Pecan pie]]
** [[Pumpkin pie]]
** [[Sweet potato pie]]
* Yams/sweet potato casserole (with marshmallow)
* [[Red velvet cake]]
* [[Russian tea cake]]s
* [[Tom and Jerry (mixed drink)|Tom and Jerry]]
* Roast [[Turkey (food)|turkey]], less often roast [[duck (food)|duck]], [[goose]], [[chicken]] or [[pheasant]]
* [[Stuffing]], also known as dressing, particularly in the southern U.S.
See also: [[Thanksgiving dinner|Thanksgiving]] (the dishes tend to be similar)

== Venezuela ==
[[File:Hallaca at La Casa de Pedro.jpg|thumb|right|Hallaca]]
* [[Hallaca]] – rectangle-shaped meal made of [[maize]], filled with beef, pork, chicken, olives, raisins and caper, and wrapped in plantain leaves and boiled to cook.
* [[Pan de jamón]] – ham-filled bread with olives and raisins and often sliced cheese.
* Dulce de lechosa – dessert made of cooked sliced unripe papaya in reduced sugar syrup
* Ensalada de gallina – salad made of potato, carrot, apple and shredded chicken (hen usually home or locally raised as opposed to store bought chicken)
* [[Pernil]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elboricua.com/pernil_RChef.html |title=Pernil (Roast Pork) |publisher=The Rican Chef |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228140714/http://www.elboricua.com/pernil_RChef.html |archive-date=28 December 2011 }}</ref> – commonly referred to as roast pork

== Vietnam ==
* [[Bò 7 món]]
* [[Bún thịt nướng]]
* [[Canh chua]]
* [[Chả giò]]
* [[Congee|Cháo]]
* [[Gỏi cuốn]]
* [[Hotpot|Lẩu]]
* [[Pho]]
* [[Roast chicken|Thịt gà nướng]]
* [[Vietnamese tea]]

== See also ==
* [[Christmas dinner]]
* {{portal-inline|Food}}
* {{portal-inline|Holidays}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Prone to spam|date=September 2012}}


{{Christmas}}
{{Lists of prepared foods}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Christmas Dishes}}
[[Category:Christmas food|*]]
[[Category:Lists of foods]]
[[Category:World cuisine]]
[[Category:Cuisine-related lists]]
[[Category:Christmas-related lists|Dishes]]

List of Christmas dishes

2024-12-26T12:41:35Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|none}}
[[File:Agnolotti pavesi (4).JPG|thumb|A plate of dry Italian [[Pavese agnolotti]], with a Pavese stew-based sauce, a Christmas dish]]

This is a '''list of Christmas dishes''' by country.

== Albania and Kosovo ==
* [[Baklava]]
* Gjel deti me përshesh

== Andorra ==
* Sopa de Galets
* [[Trinxat]]

== American Samoa (U.S.), Samoa, Tonga and Tuvalu ==
* [[Roast pig|Puaa umu]]

== Argentina and Uruguay ==
{{see also|Argentine cuisine|Uruguayan cuisine}}
[[File:Vitello tonnato.jpg|thumb|[[Vitello tonnato]] is a popular Christmas dish in Argentina, where it is known as vitel toné. The [[Piedmont]]ese dish is valued during the summer for its cold serving temperature, and is the legacy of the large [[Italian Argentines|Italian immigration]] to the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://entremujeres.clarin.com/entremujeres/rincon-gourmet/vitel_tone-las_fiestas-navidad-ano_nuevo-mesa_navidena-recetas-rincon_gourmet_0_BJtuP9FwQg.html |title=Vitel toné: la receta de un clásico para las Fiestas |language=es |last1=Fumarola|first1=Leonardo |date=December 17, 2015 |publisher=Clarín.com |access-date=June 1, 2017}}</ref>]]
[[Panettone]] (known locally as ''pan dulce'') and [[turrón]] are the most popular Christmas sweets in Argentina regardless of [[socioeconomic status]], with 76% of Argentines choosing the former and 59% the latter in 2015.<ref name="elcronista"/> [[Mantecol]], a typical peanut dessert, is also popular, being favored by 49% of Argentines in the same survey.<ref name="kantar">{{cite web|url=https://www.kantarworldpanel.com/ar/Noticias/Que-dulces-no-pueden-faltar-en-estas-fiestas|title=¿Qué dulces no pueden faltar en estas fiestas?|date=December 23, 2016|publisher=Kantar Worldpanel|access-date=June 1, 2017|language=es|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018190700/https://www.kantarworldpanel.com/ar/Noticias/Que-dulces-no-pueden-faltar-en-estas-fiestas|archive-date=October 18, 2017}}</ref> [[Sparkling wine]]s, [[cider]]s and [[frizzante]]s concentrate most of their sales during Christmas season; sparkling wine is mostly consumed by small families with high and medium socioeconomic status living in [[Greater Buenos Aires]] and the country's largest cities, while cider and frizzantes are popular among lower classes and large families.<ref name="kantar"/>

* [[Vitello tonnato|Vitel toné]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://saborgourmet.com/receta-del-vitel-thone-de-argentina/|title=Receta del Vitel Thoné de Argentina|language=es|date=November 9, 2011|publisher=SaborGourmet.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105023012/http://saborgourmet.com/receta-del-vitel-thone-de-argentina/|archive-date=5 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://edant.clarin.com/suplementos/ollas/2005/06/16/o-00202.htm|title=Vitel toné|language=es|date=June 16, 2005|publisher=Clarín.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227003652/http://edant.clarin.com/suplementos/ollas/2005/06/16/o-00202.htm|archive-date=2012-12-27}}</ref><ref name=setenta />
* [[Turrón]]<ref name=setenta /><ref name=CA>{{cite web|url=http://www.cocinerosargentinos.com/?menu=informes&infid=93|title=Navidad y los excesos en las comidas|language=es|publisher=Cocineros Argentinos|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224105720/http://www.cocinerosargentinos.com/?menu=informes&infid=93|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref>
* [[Panettone|Pan dulce]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clarin.com/buena-vida/tendencias/abece-mejor-pan-dulce_0_831517080.html|title=El abecé del mejor pan dulce|language=es|date=December 19, 2012|publisher=Clarín.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227003138/http://www.clarin.com/buena-vida/tendencias/abece-mejor-pan-dulce_0_831517080.html|archive-date=27 December 2012}}</ref>
* [[Asado]] ([[beef]], [[chicken (food)|chicken]], [[calf (animal)|calf]], [[Lamb and mutton|lamb]], [[suckling pig]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clarin.com/sociedad/extranos-frente-asado-Navidad_0_620937968.html|title=Dos extraños al frente del asado de Navidad|language=es|date=January 3, 2012|publisher=Clarín.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224101411/http://www.clarin.com/sociedad/extranos-frente-asado-Navidad_0_620937968.html|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref name=Mo /><ref name=Calcule /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.larioja.com/v/20121226/rioja-logrono/comida-navidena-sabor-solidario-20121226.html|title=Comida navideña con sabor solidario|language=es|date=December 26, 2012|publisher=Larioja.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224112214/http://www.larioja.com/v/20121226/rioja-logrono/comida-navidena-sabor-solidario-20121226.html|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref>
* Clericó (or {{lang|es|clericot}}), a [[sangria]]-like beverage that combines wine with chopped fruit.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eltribuno.com/jujuy/nota/2012-12-10-23-14-0-la-carne-lo-mas-caro-del-menu-navideno|title=La carne lo más caro del menú navideño|date=December 10, 2012|access-date=December 24, 2017|language=es|work=[[El Tribuno]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226020723/https://www.eltribuno.com/jujuy/nota/2012-12-10-23-14-0-la-carne-lo-mas-caro-del-menu-navideno|archive-date=December 26, 2017}}</ref>
* [[Cider]] ([[Apple cider|apple]], pineapple) and [[sparkling wine]]<ref name=setenta /><ref name=Calcule>{{cite news|url=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1539257-calcule-cuanto-cuesta-su-canasta-navidena|title=Calcule cuánto cuesta su canasta navideña|newspaper=La Nación|language=es|date=December 21, 2012|publisher=Lanacion.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224004629/http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1539257-calcule-cuanto-cuesta-su-canasta-navidena|archive-date=24 December 2012}}</ref>
* [[Fruit cake|Budín]]<ref name=Mo>{{cite web|url=http://www.momarandu.com/amanoticias.php?a=7&b=0&c=127654|title=Canasta navideña cuesta $281 pesos según informe del ISEPCI|language=es|date=December 22, 2012|publisher=Momarandu.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224084729/http://www.momarandu.com/amanoticias.php?a=7&b=0&c=127654|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref name=Calcule />
* [[Salad]]s<ref name=setenta>{{cite web|url=http://www.clarin.com/sociedad/platos-tipicos-doble-calorias-cuestan_0_832716830.html|title=Juicio a la mesa de Navidad: los platos típicos tienen el doble de calorías y cuestan 70% más|language=es|date=December 21, 2012|publisher=Clarín.com|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224102153/http://www.clarin.com/sociedad/platos-tipicos-doble-calorias-cuestan_0_832716830.html|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref name=Mo />
** [[Olivier salad|Russian salad]]<ref name=Wei />
** [[Waldorf salad]]<ref name=setenta />
** [[Fruit salad]]<ref name=Mo />
* [[Pionono]]<ref name=setenta /><ref name=Wei>{{cite web|url=http://www.diariopopular.com.ar/notas/140514-mesa-navidena-cada-ano-el-mismo-dilema|title=Mesa navideña: cada año el mismo dilema|language=es|date=December 16, 2012|publisher=Diario Popular|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111073718/http://www.diariopopular.com.ar/notas/140514-mesa-navidena-cada-ano-el-mismo-dilema|archive-date=11 January 2013}}</ref>
* [[Matambre]]<ref name=Wei />
* [[Beef tongue|Lengua]] a la [[Vinaigrette|vinagreta]]<ref name=Wei /><ref name=miga>{{cite web|url=http://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/524427/economia/sandwich-miga-encarece-mesa-navidena.html|title=El sándwich de miga encarece la mesa navideña|language=es|date=December 9, 2012|publisher=La Gaceta|access-date=25 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224120131/http://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/524427/economia/sandwich-miga-encarece-mesa-navidena.html|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref>
* [[Garrapinyades|Garrapiñadas]], [[dried fruit]]s and [[comfit]]s<ref name=Mo /><ref name=Calcule /><ref name=miga /><ref name="elcronista"/>
*[[Mantecol]]<ref name=elcronista>{{cite web|url=https://www.cronista.com/negocios/Armar-la-mesa-de-Navidad-costara-hasta-un-37-mas-caro-que-hace-un-ano-20151215-0016.html|title=Armar la mesa de Navidad costará hasta un 37% más caro que hace un año|language=es|date=December 15, 2015|work=El Cronista|access-date=June 1, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510232037/https://www.cronista.com/negocios/Armar-la-mesa-de-Navidad-costara-hasta-un-37-mas-caro-que-hace-un-ano-20151215-0016.html|archive-date=May 10, 2018}}</ref>
* [[Sandwiches de miga]]<ref name=miga />
*[[Turkey meat|Pavita]]<ref name="elcronista"/>

== Australia ==
[[File:Candy-Cane-Classic.jpg|thumb|right|[[Candy Cane]] can be hung as edible decorations.]]
* [[White Christmas (food)|White Christmas]], a sweet slice made of [[copha]] and mixed fruit
* Cold [[ham]] and cold [[Turkey (food)|turkey]]<ref name="CultRecAu" />
* [[Seafood]] and [[salad]]s<ref name="CultRecAu" />
* [[Roasting|Roast]] [[Chicken (food)|chicken]], ham and turkey<ref name="CultRecAu">{{cite web|url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/christmas/ |title=Christmas season celebrations in Australia |access-date=2007-03-12 |publisher=Culture and Recreation.gov.au |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408180134/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/christmas/ |archive-date=2011-04-08 }}</ref>
* [[Stuffing]]<ref name="Santa recipe Australia">{{cite web |url=http://www.santas.net/recipes.htm |title=Santa's Net: Recipes |publisher=Santas.net |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228071953/http://www.santas.net/recipes.htm |archive-date=28 December 2011 }}</ref>
* [[Christmas cake]] or [[Christmas pudding]]<ref name="CultRecAu"/>
* [[Custard]]
* [[Gingerbread]] in Christmas shapes
* Christmas [[damper (food)|damper]] – in [[wreath]] or star shape, served with [[butter]], [[jam]], [[honey]] or [[golden syrup]]. Made in the [[Australian bush]] in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.santas.net/christmasdamper.htm |title=Christmas Damper from Australia |publisher=Santas.net |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129115620/http://www.santas.net/christmasdamper.htm |archive-date=29 November 2011 }}</ref>
* [[Confectionery|Lollies]], such as [[rocky road (dessert)|rocky road]]; [[rum ball]]s; [[candy cane]]s
* [[Champagne (wine)|Champagne]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://latrobetimes.blogs.latrobe.edu.au/2015/01/15/typical-aussie-christmas-top-5-things-you-didnt-know/|title=Typical Aussie Christmas - top 5 things you didn't know- La Trobe University international news|date=15 January 2015|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316024642/https://latrobetimes.blogs.latrobe.edu.au/2015/01/15/typical-aussie-christmas-top-5-things-you-didnt-know/|archive-date=16 March 2017}}</ref>
* [[Eggnog]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.luvaduck.com.au/recipes/view/egg-nog-for-christmas/43/|title=Recipe for Egg Nog for Christmas There is nothing that makes Christmas feel more special like a glass of egg nog!|website=Luv-a-Duck|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225095156/http://www.luvaduck.com.au/recipes/view/egg-nog-for-christmas/43/|archive-date=25 February 2017}}</ref>
* [[Trifle]]
* [[Pavlova (food)|Pavlova]]<ref name="Santa recipe Australia"/>
* [[Prawns]]
* [[Mince pie]]
* Christmas cookies

== Austria and Liechtenstein ==
* [[Bock]]
* [[Bratwurst]]
* [[Christmas carp]]
* Christmas goose
* [[Mulled wine|Glühwein]]
* [[Kaiserschmarrn]]
* [[Knödel]]
* [[Linzer torte]]
* Red cabbage
* [[Vanillekipferl]]

== Bangladesh ==
{{See also|Bengali cuisine|Bangladeshi cuisine}}
* [[Pitha]]
* [[Nankhatai]]
* [[Pilaf|Pulao]]
* Rôst
* [[Musallam]]
* Cha
* Homemade [[Christmas cake]]
* Shobji
* Mishti ([[List of Bangladeshi sweets and desserts|Bengali sweets]])
* [[Nakshi Pitha]]
* [[Chunga pitha]]
* Patishapta Pith
* [[Bhapa pitha]]
* Tel pitha

== Belarus ==
* [[Borscht]]
* [[Kutya]]

== Belgium ==
* [[Cougnou]] (with various like ''cougnolle''), sweet bread in the form of the [[infant Jesus]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crfneufvilles.org/themes/articles/article20_18.htm |title=Thème: Histoire de rond et de cougnou |language=fr |author=Florence Fadier-Rotsaert |access-date=2007-03-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070527083150/http://www.crfneufvilles.org/themes/articles/article20_18.htm |archive-date=2007-05-27 }}</ref>

== Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua ==
* [[Tamale]]s
* Ponche (Christmas fruit punch served hot with much fruit)
* [[Peafowl|pavo]] (turkey)
* [[Buñuelo]]s (fluffy sweet dessert made with corn with maple syrup)
* [[Chicken (food)|chicken]] (prepared with different stuffings and accompanied with various side dishes such as salads or rice)

== Bolivia and Peru ==
* [[Apple cider]]
* [[Buñuelo]]
* [[Chicken (food)|Roasted chicken]]
* Cuy Chactado
* [[Potato salad]]
* [[Roasting|Roast]] [[pork]]
* [[Roast turkey]]

== Brazil ==
* Lombo à Califórnia – [[pork loin]]s
* Rabanada – [[French toast]]
* Leitão assado – [[roasted piglet]]
* Peru – roast [[domesticated turkey|turkey]]
* [[Farofa]]
* Pavê – [[trifle]]
* [[Ham]]
* [[Bacalhau]] – codfish
* [[Brazil nut]]
* [[Arroz à grega]]
* [[Potato salad]]
* Salpicão – chicken salad with raisins
* [[Panettone]]
* [[Crème caramel]]
* [[Mousse]]
* [[Cider]]
* [[Grape juice]]
* [[Wine]]

== Canada ==
[[File:Ginger Bread House PC210088.JPG|thumb|right|Gingerbread house]]
* [[Bûche de Noël]]
* [[Butter tart]]s
* [[Candy cane]]s
* [[Christmas pudding]]
* [[Eggnog]]
* [[Fruitcake]]
* [[Mince pie]]
* [[Cranberry sauce]]
* [[Turkey meat|Roasted turkey]]
* [[Brussels Sprouts]]
* [[Mashed Potatoes]] and [[Gravy]]
* [[Shortbread]]
* [[Stuffing]] (also known as Trimming or Dressing)
* [[Trifle]]
* [[Tourtière]]
* Ragoût de Boulettes (Meatball Stew)
* Ragoût de Pattes de Cochon (Stewed Pig's Feet)
* Salted Beef (commonly known as [[Corned Beef]])
* [[Fish and Brewis]]
* [[Gingerbread]] cookies (or Ginger and Molasses cookies)
* [[Figgy duff (pudding)]]
* Christmas slush (made from a mixture of fruit juices, vodka, ginger ale, or lemon-lime soda)
* [[Roasted chestnut]]s
* [[Christmas cookies]]
* Snowball dessert (made with cocoa, rolled oats and coconut)
* [[Nanaimo Bar]]
* [[Mulled Wine]]
* [[Christmas Ham]]
* [[Tarte au sucre]]
* [[Hot chocolate]] (also known as "hot cocoa", in various flavours like peppermint, white chocolate, etc.)
* [[Gingerbread house]]
* [[Sweet potatoes]] or [[Yam (vegetable)|Yam]]
* Hot [[Apple cider]]
* Raw [[Caribou]], [[Seal meat]], and [[Muktuk]] (eaten in Nunuvut by the local Indigenous communities)
* [[Arctic char]] (raw or cooked)

== Chile ==
[[File:Pan de pascua chileno 2006.jpg|Pan de pascua|thumb]]
* [[Cola de mono]] – (literally, "monkey's tail") a Chilean Christmas beverage, with [[aguardiente]], [[milk]], [[coffee]], and flavoured with [[vanilla]] and [[clove]]s<ref>{{cite web|first=Missy|last=Wombat |url=http://www.recipezaar.com/Cola-de-Mono-Tail-of-the-Monkey-50828 |title=Cola De Mono (Tail of the Monkey) |publisher=Recipezaar.com |access-date=24 December 2011}}</ref>
* [[Pan de Pascua]] – Chilean Christmas [[sponge cake]] flavoured with cloves and with bits of [[candied fruit]]s, [[raisin]]s, [[walnut]]s and [[almond]]s.<ref>{{cite web |first=Marian |last=Blazes |url=http://southamericanfood.about.com/od/holidayrecipes/r/pandepascua.htm |title=Chilean Holiday Fruitcake – Pan de Pascua |publisher=southamericanfood.about.com |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127035842/http://southamericanfood.about.com/od/holidayrecipes/r/pandepascua.htm |archive-date=27 January 2012 }}</ref>
* [[Turkey (bird)|Roasted turkey]]
* [[Ponche a la romana]] – eggnog-style beverage made of champagne and pineapple-flavoured icecream.

== China and Taiwan ==
* [[Char siu]]
* [[Crispy fried chicken]]
* [[Crossing-the-bridge noodles]]
* [[Hotpot]]
* [[Jiaozi]]
* [[Lamian]]
* [[Peking duck]]

== Colombia ==
[[File:Buñuelos.JPG|thumb|Colombian Buñuelos]][[File:A plate of Colombian Natilla.JPG|thumb|Colombian natilla]]Colombian Christmas dishes are mostly sweets and desserts. Some of the most popular dishes include:
* [[Buñuelos]]
* [[Natilla]]
* [[Manjar blanco]]
* [[Hojaldres]]
* Brevas (Candied figs with cheese)
* [[Christmas cookies]]
* Sweet bread filled with fruits like raisins and raspberries.
* Lechona (rice baked inside a pig, with peas, the meat of the pig and other delicacies)
* Tamales
* Ponqué envinado (red wine cake)
* Turkey
* Pernil de Cerdo (pork leg, usually roasted)
* Potato salad
* Panettone

== Cuba ==
* Crema De Vie – Eggnog made with rum, lemon rind, and spices.
* Majarete – A pudding made with corn, cornstarch, milk, lemon rind, spices, and sugar
* [[Platillo Moros y Cristianos]]
* [[Lechon asado]]
* [[Turrón]]

== Czech Republic and Slovakia ==

[[File:Vanocni cukrovi 1.JPG|Christmas cookies (''vánoční cukroví'')|thumb|right]]
* ''Kapustnica'' – Christmas [[cabbage soup]]
* Fish soup
* [[Christmas carp]]
* [[Potato salad]] with [[mayonnaise]], [[hard-boiled egg]]s and boiled vegetables
* ''Kuba'' – [[groats]] and [[mushrooms]]
* Grilled white sausage
* Vánoční cukroví – [[Christmas cookies]]
* Christmas bread ([[vánočka]])
* Fruitcake
* [[Gingerbread]]

Before the Christmas holidays, many kinds of sweet biscuits are prepared. These sweet biscuits are then served during the whole Christmas period and exchanged among friends and neighbours. Also very popular are a preparation of small gingerbreads garnished by sugar icing.

== Denmark ==
[[File:Julemiddag.jpg|thumb|Danish Christmas meal]]
{{Main|Danish cuisine}}
* [[Æbleskiver]] – traditional Danish dough ball made in a special pan (a type of [[doughnut]] with no hole), sprinkled with [[powdered sugar]] and served with [[raspberry]] or [[strawberry]] [[jam]]
* Sylte – a form of [[head cheese]], a terrine or meat jelly made from pork, traditionally pig's head was used
* Julesild – spiced [[pickled herring]] often flavoured with Christmas spices such as [[cloves]] and [[allspice]]
* [[Potato#Cooking|Boiled whole potatoes]]
* Brun sovs ([[Gravy|brown sauce]]) – a traditional dark gravy, used to cover meat dishes like roasted pork and duck (''flæskesteg'', ''andesteg'') and the boiled potato
* Brunede kartofler – caramelised [[potato]]es
* Julebryg – [[Beer in Denmark#Julebryg|Christmas beer]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sdu.dk/E/new/food_and_drink.html |title=Danish food and drink |access-date=2007-03-12 |publisher=University of Southern Denmark |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070205222840/http://www.sdu.dk/E/new/food_and_drink.html  |archive-date = 2007-02-05}}</ref>
* [[Glögg|Gløgg]] – [[mulled wine|mulled]] red wine combined with spices, sugar, raisins and chopped almonds typically served warm
* [[Ris a la mande|Risalamande]] – [[rice pudding]]. A dish made from rice, whipped cream and almonds, served cold with [[cherry]] sauce (''kirsebærsauce'')<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sunblock99.org.uk/sb99/people/KGalsgaa/pudding.html |title=Rice pudding |access-date=2007-03-09 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060925144513/http://www.sunblock99.org.uk/sb99/people/KGalsgaa/pudding.html  |archive-date = 2006-09-25}}</ref><ref name=SourceWireCiE>{{cite web |url=http://www.sourcewire.com/releases/rel_display.php?relid=23663&hilite= |title=Christmas in Europe, Where's Santa? |publisher=SourceWire |date=2005-12-13 |access-date=2007-03-09 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927032444/http://www.sourcewire.com/releases/rel_display.php?relid=23663&hilite= |archive-date=2007-09-27 }}</ref>
* [[Flæskesteg]] – roast [[pork]] with cracklings
* Andesteg – [[Duck|roast duck]] with apple and prune stuffing
* Rødkål – [[red cabbage]] pickled, sweet-sour red cabbage served hot as a side dish
* Christmas cookies – Vaniljekranse, klejner, jødekager, pebernødder, honningkager, brunkager and finskbrød
* Konfekt, marzipan, caramelised fruits, nougat and chocolate-covered nuts
* Ground nuts

== Dominican Republic ==
* [[Croquette]]
* [[Empanada]]
* Ensalada Rusa – [[Olivier salad]] (Russian potato salad)
* Ensalada verde – iceberg lettuce, onions, cucumber, and tomatoes salad
* [[Moro de guandules con coco]] – rice with [[pigeon pea]]s and coconut milk
* [[Pasteles|Pasteles de hojas]] – Puerto Rican tamales
* [[Pastelon]] – casserole
* [[Pig roast]]
* Pollo al horno – [[chicken (food)|roasted chicken]]
* Telera – Dominican bread similar to Mexican [[sandwich roll]]s

Drinks:
* [[Anisette]] – anise-flavored liquor
* [[Guavaberry]] – a drink from the [[Lesser Antilles]] historic [[Saint Martin (island)|Saint Martin]] natives now a part of the Dominican Republics Christmas tradition
* [[Ponche crema]] – eggnog
* Jengibre – [[ginger tea]] with spices and lemon
* [[Mandarin orange|Mandarin]] Liqueur – Mandarin peels fermented with rum and sugar

Desserts:
* [[Buñuelos]] – fried cassava dough balls covered in spiced flavored syrup
* [[Turrón]] – honey and almond nougat. Tradition from Spain
* Vaniljekranse – Danish [[butter cookies]]
* Fruits and nuts – a variety of nuts, fresh, and dried fruit

== Estonia ==
* Hapukapsas
* Mulgi kapsad
* Piparkook
* Sült
* Verivorst

== Finland ==
{{Main|Cuisine of Finland}}
[[File:Karjalanpiirakka-20060227.jpg|thumb|A [[Karelian pasties|Karelian pasty]]]]
[[File:Vin chaud 2.jpg|thumb|[[Mulled wine]]]]

Christmas smorgasbord from Finland, "[[joulupöytä]]", (translated "Yule table"), a traditional display of Christmas food<ref name="thisisFINLAND">{{cite web|url=http://finland.fi/Public/default.aspx?contentid=180237|title=Christmas cookbook|access-date=2007-03-12|publisher=thisisFINLAND|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623235714/http://finland.fi/Public/default.aspx?contentid=180237|archive-date=2011-06-23}}</ref> served at Christmas in Finland, similar to the Swedish [[smörgåsbord]], including:
* [[Christmas ham]] with [[Mustard (condiment)|mustard]] (almost every family has one for Christmas)
* Freshly salted salmon (''[[gravlax]] graavilohi'') and whitefish ''graavisiika''
* Pickled [[herring]] in various forms (tomato, mustard, ''matjes'' or onion sauces)
* [[Rosolli]] (cold salad dish with diced beetroot, potato and carrot – some varieties also incorporate apple)
* [[Lutefisk]] and [[Béchamel sauce]]<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/>
* [[Freshwater whitefish|Whitefish]] and [[pikeperch]]
* Potato [[casserole]]<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/> ([[Sweetened potato casserole|sweetened]] or not, depending on preference)
* Boiled [[potato]]es
* Carrot [[casserole]]<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/>
* [[Rutabaga]] casserole (''lanttulaatikko'')<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/>
* Various [[sauce]]s
* Assortment of [[cheese]], most commonly (''[[leipäjuusto]]'') and Aura (''aura-juusto'')
* Christmas bread, usually sweet bread (''joululimppu'')
* [[Karelian pasties]], rice pasties, served with egg-butter (''karjalanpiirakka'')
Other meat dishes could be:
* [[Karelian hot pot]], traditional meat stew originating from the region of [[Karelia]] (''karjalanpaisti'')
Desserts:
* [[Rice pudding]] or rice porridge topped with cinnamon, sugar and cold milk or with mixed fruit soup (''riisipuuro'')
* Joulutorttu, traditionally a star-shaped piece of puff-pastry with prune marmalade in the middle
* [[Gingerbread]],<ref name="thisisFINLAND"/> sometimes in the form of a [[gingerbread house]] or [[gingerbread man]] (''piparkakut'')
* Mixed fruit soup or prune soup, [[kissel]] (''sekahedelmäkiisseli, luumukiisseli'')
Drinks:
* [[Glögg]] or [[mulled wine]] (''glögi'')
* Christmas beer (''jouluolut''); local manufacturers produce Christmas varieties<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ruoka.fi/juomat/jouluoluet-testissa|title=Jouluoluet testissä - Ruoka.fi|date=2012-11-29|website=Ruoka.fi|language=fi-FI|access-date=2016-05-06|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322055853/http://ruoka.fi/juomat/jouluoluet-testissa|archive-date=2015-03-22}}</ref>
* "Home beer" (non-alcoholic beer-like drink, similar to the Russian beverage [[kvass]]) (''kotikalja'')

== France and Monaco ==
[[File:Foie gras en cocotte.jpg|thumb|''Foie gras en cocotte'']]
* [[Oyster]]s<ref name="Expat"/>
* [[Foie gras]]<ref name="Expat">{{cite web |url=http://www.expatica.com/actual/article.asp?subchannel_id=61&story_id=35242 |title=French Christmas: It's all about the food |access-date=2007-03-12 |publisher=Expatica |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929115440/http://www.expatica.com/actual/article.asp?subchannel_id=61&story_id=35242 |archive-date=2007-09-29 }}</ref>
* [[Smoked salmon]]
* [[Scallops]]
* [[Champagne]]
* [[Crêpe]]s ([[Brittany]])<ref name="aboutcom">{{cite web|url=http://frenchfood.about.com/library/weekly/aa122002a.htm|title=French Food & Recipes|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060406090249/http://frenchfood.about.com/library/weekly/aa122002a.htm|archive-date=6 April 2006}}</ref>
* [[Chicken (food)|Chapon]] (roasted chicken)
* [[Turkey (food)|Dinde aux Marrons]] ([[chestnut]]-stuffed turkey)
* [[Ganzeltopf]] (goose) ([[Alsace]])<ref name="Expat"/>
* [[Roast goose|Goose]] ([[Normandy]])
* [[Bûche de Noël]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seriouseats.com/2008/12/jacques-torres-on-the-buche-de-noel.html|title=Jacques Torres on the Bûche de Noël|first=Serious|last=Eats|website=www.seriouseats.com|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225121630/http://www.seriouseats.com/2008/12/jacques-torres-on-the-buche-de-noel.html|archive-date=25 December 2016}}</ref>
* [[Kouglof]] (Alsace)
* [[Thirteen desserts]] ([[Provence]]):<ref name="Expat"/> The [[thirteen desserts]] are the traditional Christmas [[dessert]] in the [[France|French]] region of [[Provence]]. The [[Christmas]] supper ends with 13 dessert items, representing [[Jesus Christ]] and the 12 apostles. The desserts are traditionally set out Christmas Eve and remain on the table three days until December 27.<ref name="provenceweb">{{cite web |url=http://www.provenceweb.fr/e/mag/terroir/traditions/ukindex.htm |title=Christmas traditions in Provence |publisher=Provenceweb.fr |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204143801/http://www.provenceweb.fr/e/mag/terroir/traditions/ukindex.htm |archive-date=4 February 2012 }}</ref>
* [[Walnut]]
* [[Quince cheese]]<ref name="provenceweb"/>
* [[Almond]]
* [[Raisin]]
* [[Calisson]] of [[Aix-en-Provence]]
* [[Nougat]] blanc
* [[Nougat]] noir au miel
* [[Apple]]
* [[Pear]]
* [[Orange (fruit)|Orange]]
* [[Winter melon]]
* [[Fougasse (bread)|Fougasse]] (Provençal bread)

== Germany ==
[[File:Stollen-Dresdner Christstollen.jpg|thumb|A Christmas ''Stollen'']]
* [[Christstollen]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/Cakes/Stollen.htm |title=It's all Napoleon's Fault - The success story of the Aachen Printe |author=Klaus Stahl/Chris Cave |year=2006 |access-date=2008-01-06 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227055058/http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/Cakes/Stollen.htm |archive-date=2007-12-27 }}</ref> – Stollen is a fruitcake with bits of candied fruits, raisins, walnuts and almonds and spices such as cardamom and cinnamon; sprinkled with [[confectioners sugar]]. Often there's also a core of marzipan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://german.about.com/library/blrezepte02b.htm |title=German Christmas Recipes 2 |publisher=German.about.com |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104202802/http://german.about.com/library/blrezepte02b.htm |archive-date=4 January 2012 }}</ref>
* [[Pflaumentoffel]]
* [[Christmas carp]]
* [[Pfefferkuchenhaus]] – a gingerbread house decorated with candies, sweets and sugar icing (in reference to the gingerbread house of the fairy tale Hänsel and Gretel)
* [[Printen]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.goethe.de/ges/mol/thm/kad/en1917200.htm |title=History of Stollen, Dresden Stollen |first=Linda|last=Stradley |year=2004 |access-date=2007-03-09}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
* Oblaten [[Lebkuchen]]
* [[Springerle]]
* Weihnachtsplätzchen ([[Christmas cookies]])
* [[Roast goose]], often paired with [[Kartoffelklösse|kartoffelklosse]]
* [[Venison]] – e.g. meat of [[roe deer]] usually served with red cabbage, brussels sprout and [[Cranberry sauce|lingonberry sauce]]
* Herring salad – salad of pickled or [[soused herring]], beetroot, potatoes, apple
* Kartoffelsalat (potato salad) with Wurst (sausages) is traditionally eaten in northern Germany for supper on Christmas Eve
* [[Schäufele]] (a corned, smoked ham) usually served with potato salad in southern Germany for dinner on Christmas Eve
* [[Weisswurst]] – sausages with veal and bacon, usually flavored with parsley, lemon, mace, onions, ginger and cardamom
* [[Feuerzangenbowle]]
* [[Mulled wine|Glühwein]] (hot spiced wine)

== Greece and Cyprus ==
* [[Kourabiedes]]
* [[Melomakarono]]
* [[Diples]]
* [[Tsoureki#Christmas bread|Christopsomo]] (Christmas bread)
* Pork or [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Petropoulou|first=Maria|title=The 10 + 1 Delicacies To Taste In Greece During Christmas|url=https://greekcitytimes.com/2017/12/19/10-1-delicacies-taste-greece-christmas/|access-date=2020-12-14|website=Greek City Times|date=19 December 2017|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Greenland ==
* [[Kiviak]]

== Haiti ==

* Chicken Creole (Haitian stewed chicken)
* [[Djondjon#:~:text=Djondjon (also spelled djon djon,dishes, such as diri djondjon.|Djon Djon]]
* [[Pikliz]]

== Hong Kong and Macau ==
*[[Dim sum]]

== Hungary ==
[[File:kaposzta.jpg|thumb|right|''Töltött káposzta'']]
* [[Christmas carp]]
* [[Fish soup]] (''halászlé'') various recipes
* [[Stuffed cabbage]] (''töltött káposzta'')
* [[Roast goose]]
* [[Duck (food)|Roast duck]]
* Pastry roll filled with walnut or poppy seed (''bejgli'')
* Bread pudding with poppy seed (''mákos guba'' or ''bobájka'')
* [[Szaloncukor]]
* Cheesy Garlic Bread Sticks

== Iceland ==
[[File:Risalamande.jpg|thumb|right|''Möndlugrautur'']]

* Hamborgarhryggur – a smoked, cured pork roast.
* Lambalæri - heated or smoked sheep meat from a sheep's foot.
* [[Rock ptarmigan|Ptarmigan]] – gamebird in the grouse family
* [[Hangikjöt]]
* [[Turkey (bird)|Oven-roasted turkey]]
* Beverage combination of Malt and Appelsín.
* Jarðarberjagrautur
* Möndlugrautur – a Christmas [[rice pudding]] with an almond hidden inside (the same as the Swedish Julgröt)
* Caramelised potatoes
* Pickled [[red cabbage]]
* ''Smákökur'' – small cookies of various sorts
** Jólasúkkulaðibitakökur
** Loftkökur
** Mömmukökur
** Sörur
** Spesiur
** Gyðingakökur
** Piparkökur
** Marens Kornflexkökur
* [[Laufabrauð]] – round, very thin flat cakes with a diameter of about 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 inches), decorated with leaf-like, geometric patterns and fried briefly in hot fat or oil

== India and Pakistan ==
[[Indian Christians]] and [[Pakistani Christians]] in [[Indian subcontinent]] celebrate Christmas by enjoying several dishes, such as [[Allahabadi cake]], [[Candy canes]], Plum cakes etc. Some of the popular dishes eaten during [[Christmas]] in India and Pakistan are:

* [[Allahabadi cake]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/stoi/deep-focus/Cakewalk-in-Allahabad/articleshow/27391297.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220120808/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-12-15/deep-focus/45215736_1_cake-bakery-khari-baoli |url-status=live |archive-date=2013-12-20 |title=Cakewalk in Allahabad |date=2013-12-15 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2014-02-13}}</ref>
* [[Christmas cake]] – a type of [[fruit cake]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food/recipes/Getting-the-Christmas-cake-mix-right/articleshow/25893065.cms |title=Getting the Christmas cake mix right - Times Of India |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date=2013-12-14 |access-date=2014-02-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215025854/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food/recipes/Getting-the-Christmas-cake-mix-right/articleshow/25893065.cms |archive-date=2013-12-15 }}</ref>
* [[Mathri]] – a traditional flaky biscuit.
* [[Gulab Jamun]] – a traditional sweet prepared with khoa.
*Walnut fudge
* [[Jalebi]]
* [[Mince pie|Mincemeatpie]]
* [[Kheer]] – boiled rice cooked with milk, sugar, saffron and is garnished with nuts such as almonds and pistachios. It can also be made with barley.
* [[Chhena Poda]] – a dessert made with Chhena (cottage cheese) which is slightly roasted and soaked in sugar syrup. It is garnished with cashew nuts and served. Chhena Poda is popular in the Odisha state of India. It is eaten during the Christmas season but is available throughout the year.
*Ghee cookies
*[[Rose Cookies|Rose cookies]]
*Bolinhas de coco – a type of coconut cookies
* [[chocolates|Chocolate covered fruit]]
*[[Marzipan]]
* [[Dumplings]] – dumplings filled with Indian spices with a sweet or savoury filling.
* [[Tarts]]
*[[Nankhatai]]
* [[Gujia#Neureos|Neureos]] – a kind of dumpling made of [[semolina]], [[khoa]] and [[nutlet]].
* [[Roast chicken]]
*Dates roll- a type of Christmas cookies with [[Date palm|dates]]
* [[Bebinca]] – a dessert popular in Goa which is eaten during [[Christmas]] season.
* [[Biryani]]
* [[Stew]] – stews prepared with chicken, mutton, fish.
* [[Candy canes]]
*[[Kidyo|Cormolas]]
*Milk cream – milk fudge
*Chocolate candies
* [[Vindaloo]] – a spicy Goan curry with pork made during Christmas.
* [[Fruits]], such as [[apple]], [[Orange (fruit)|orange]], [[guava]].
* [[Mixed nuts]]
*[[Kidyo|Kulkuls]]
*[[Pilaf]]
*Duck curry
*[[Jujube (confectionery)|Jujubee]]
* [[Cupcakes]]
* [[Drinks]], such as [[cider]], [[ginger ale]], etc.

Church services are also held in churches throughout [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], in which Christmas dinners are held which include dishes such as [[Allahabadi cake]], [[candy canes]], [[Christmas cookies]].

The ''[[Koswad]]'' is a set of sweets and snacks prepared in the [[Christmastide]] by people of the [[Konkan region]]. South Indian states such as Kerala have traditions observed of home-brewed [[Indian wine|wine]], mostly grapes but sometimes other fruits as well like apple and rose apple; ethnic recipes of slow-cooked [[Kerala beef fry|beef fry]], rice and coconut [[Appam|Hoppers]], [[Kerala cuisine|lamb stew]], [[Indian Chinese cuisine|fried rice Indian]] and fusion style; desserts such as [[Falooda]], pastry, and a whole array of steamed, boiled or baked sweets, often with coconut, jaggery, sugar and spices such as cardamom and cloves ([[Achappam]], [[Murukku]], [[Tapioca chip]], [[Sukiyan]], [[Neyyappam]]).

== Indonesia ==
* [[Klappertaart]]<ref name="phinemo.com">{{cite web |url=https://phinemo.com/7-makanan-khas-natal-dari-daerah-di-indonesia/ |title=7 Makanan Khas Indonesia yang Disajikan Saat Natal Tiba |language=id |website=Phinemo|date=25 December 2017 }}</ref>
* [[Poffertjes]]<ref name="phinemo.com"/>
* [[Ayam rica-rica]]<ref name="phinemo.com"/>
* [[Lampet]]<ref name="phinemo.com"/>
* Kohu-kohu
* Kidney bean soup

== Iran ==
* [[Ash-e doogh]]
* [[Aush reshteh]]
* [[Baghali polo]]
* [[Chelow kebab]]
* [[Kafbikh]]
* [[Nan-o-kabab]]
* [[Tahchin]]

== Iraq ==
* [[Kleicha]]
* [[Masgouf]]
* [[Gheimeh|Qeema]]

== Ireland ==
* Christmas cake
* [[Christmas pudding]]
* [[Irish coffee]]
* [[Minced pie]]
* Sherry Trifle
* [[Spiced beef]] (traditionally served in Ireland and Northern Ireland)
* Roast turkey

== Israel ==
*[[Challah]]
*[[Latke]]
*[[Sufganiyah]]

== Italy ==
{{Main|Christmas in Italy}}
{{see also|Italian cuisine|List of Italian dishes}}
[[File:Panettone - Nicolettone 2017 - IMG 7085 (31752542285).jpg|thumb|[[Panettone]]]]
[[File:03 Cappelletti in brodo con Parmigiano Reggiano.jpg|thumb|[[Cappelletti (pasta)|Cappelletti]]]]
[[File:Abbacchio Pasquale.jpg|thumb|[[Abbacchio]]]]
[[File:Struffoli Napoletani.jpg|thumb|[[Struffoli]]]]

[[Christmas in Italy]] ({{langx|it|Natale}}, {{IPA|it|naˈtaːle|lang}}) begins on 8 December, with the [[Feast of the Immaculate Conception]], the day on which traditionally the [[Christmas tree]] is mounted and ends on 6 January, of the following year with the [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]] ({{langx|it|Epifania|links=no}}, {{IPA|it|epifaˈniːa|lang}}).<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=November 25, 2013|title=The Best Christmas Traditions in Italy|url=https://www.walksofitaly.com/blog/things-to-do/christmas-traditions-in-italy|access-date=January 26, 2021|website=Walks of Italy|language=en-GB}}</ref> According to tradition, the Christmas Eve dinner must not contain meat. A popular Christmas Day dish in [[Naples]] and in [[Southern Italy]] is {{Lang|it|[[capitone]]}}, which is a female eel. A traditional Christmas Day dish from [[Northern Italy]] is [[capon]] (gelded chicken). [[Abbacchio]] is more common in [[Central Italy]].<ref name="lacucinaitaliana">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=19 December 2020|title=La triade golosa del Natale italiano: cappone, abbacchio e capitone |url=https://www.lacucinaitaliana.it/storie/piatti-tipici/la-triade-golosa-del-natale-italiano-cappone-abbacchio-e-capitone|access-date=December 26, 2022|website=lacucinaitaliana.it |language=it}}</ref> The Christmas Day dinner traditionally consists by typical Italian Christmas dishes, such as [[abbacchio]], [[agnolini]], [[Cappelletti (pasta)|cappelletti]], [[Pavese agnolotti]], [[panettone]], [[pandoro]], [[torrone]], [[panforte]], [[struffoli]], [[mustacciuoli]], [[bisciola]], [[cavallucci]], [[veneziana]], [[pizzelle]], [[zelten]], or others, depending on the regional cuisine.<ref name="sicilianculture">{{cite web |url=http://www.sicilianculture.com/food/xmasfish.htm |title=Food: Italian Christmas Eve Fish Dinner |publisher=Sicilian Culture |date=December 25, 2002 |access-date=December 22, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120911142601/http://www.sicilianculture.com/food/xmasfish.htm |archive-date=September 11, 2012 }}</ref> Christmas on 25 December is celebrated with a family lunch, also consisting of different types of pasta and meat dishes, cheese and local sweets.

* [[Abbacchio]] (Central Italy).
* [[Agnolini]] (Mantua) – a type of egg-based [[Filled pasta|stuffed pasta]].
* [[Bisciola]] (Valtellina) – an [[artisan]]al Italian sweet leavened bread.
* [[Cappelletti (pasta)|Cappelletti]] (Emilia-Romagna and Marche) – a ring-shaped [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] [[stuffed pasta]] so called for the characteristic shape that resembles a hat (''cappello'' in [[Italian language|Italian]]).
* [[Capon]] (Northern Italy).
* [[Cavallucci]] (Siena) – a rich [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] Christmas pastry prepared with [[anise]], walnuts, [[candied fruit]]s, [[coriander]], and flour.
* [[Eel]] (Southern Italy).
* [[Pandoro]] (Verona)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lifeinitaly.com/christmas/panettone-pandoro|title=Panettone or Pandoro: An Italian Christmas Dilemma - Italy|website=www.lifeinitaly.com|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428170836/http://www.lifeinitaly.com/christmas/panettone-pandoro|archive-date=28 April 2017}}</ref> – a sweet originally from [[Verona]]. Pandoro is today the most consumed Italian Christmas dessert together with [[panettone]].<ref name="FJ">{{cite web|url=https://www.focusjunior.it/news/chi-ha-inventato-il-pandoro/|title=Chi ha inventato il pandoro?|date=15 December 2020 |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref>
* [[Panforte]] (Tuscany)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turismo.intoscana.it/site/en/local-products/Christmas-in-the-kitchen-Tuscan-delicacies-on-the-table/|title=Christmas in the kitchen: Tuscan delicacies on the table - turismo.intoscana.it|website=www.turismo.intoscana.it|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016215353/http://www.turismo.intoscana.it/site/en/local-products/Christmas-in-the-kitchen-Tuscan-delicacies-on-the-table/|archive-date=16 October 2016}}</ref> – a traditional chewy [[Italy|Italian]] [[dessert]] containing fruits and nuts.
* [[Panettone]] (Milan)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theworldwidegourmet.com/?action=occasionitem_show&id=15&lg=en |title=Christmas in Italy |publisher=The Worldwide Gourmet |access-date=2007-03-09 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070920210743/http://www.theworldwidegourmet.com/?action=occasionitem_show&id=15&lg=en |archive-date=2007-09-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://lifestyle.iafrica.com/festive/291083.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070114001534/http://lifestyle.iafrica.com/festive/291083.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 January 2007 |title=The legend of Panettone |first=Nicole |last=Martiche |date=16 November 2006 |access-date=2007-03-09 }}</ref> – a type of [[List of sweet breads|sweet bread]] and [[fruitcake]], originally from [[Milan]], usually prepared and enjoyed for [[Christmas]] and [[New Year]] in [[Western Europe|Western]], [[Southern Europe|Southern]], and [[Southeast Europe|Southeastern Europe]], as well as in [[South America]], [[Eritrea]],<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.madote.com/2016/01/christmas-in-eritrea.html | title=Christmas in Eritrea}}</ref> [[Australia]], the [[United States]] and [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ansa.it/canale_terraegusto/notizie/prodotti_tipici/2017/12/04/negli-usa-tutti-pazzi-per-il-panettone-e-boom-vendite_b653dfb9-ec37-43c9-99bd-345a4abf1af0.html |title= Negli Usa tutti pazzi per il panettone, è boom vendite |language=it |website=Ansa|date= 4 December 2017 }}</ref>
* [[Pavese agnolotti]] (Oltrepò pavese) – a type of egg-based [[Filled pasta|stuffed pasta]] of the [[Lombard cuisine]] served hot or warm.
* [[Pizzelle]] (Ortona) – an [[Italy|Italian]] waffle [[cookie]]s made from [[flour]], [[egg (food)|eggs]], [[sugar]], [[butter]] or [[vegetable oil]], and flavoring (usually [[anise]] or [[anisette]], less commonly [[vanilla]] or [[zest (ingredient)|lemon zest]]).
* [[Prosecco]] (Veneto)<ref name="browsingitaly.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.browsingitaly.com/italian-food-and-drinks/wine/christmas-italy-means-bollicine/1213/|title=Christmas in Italy means...bollicine! - BrowsingItaly|date=26 November 2013|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022223638/http://www.browsingitaly.com/italian-food-and-drinks/wine/christmas-italy-means-bollicine/1213/|archive-date=22 October 2016}}</ref>
* [[Mustacciuoli]] (Naples) – a dessert having a soft, spicy, cake-like interior covered in [[chocolate]].
* [[Spumante]] (Piedmont)<ref name="browsingitaly.com"/>
* [[Struffoli]] (Naples) – a type of deep-fried dough.
* [[Torrone]] (Northern Italy) – a sweet containing whole hazelnuts, almonds and pistachios or only have nut meal added to the nougat.
* [[Veneziana]] (Milan) – a sweet covered with sugar grains or almond icing.
* [[Zelten]] (Trentino) – a sweet prepared using rye flour, wheat flour, dried and candied fruits, orange zest, and various spices.

==Jamaica==
* Christmas (fruit) cake or [[black cake]] – a heavy fruit cake made with dried fruit, wine and rum.
* [[Roselle (plant)|Sorrel]] – often served to guests with Christmas cake; Sorrel is made from the same sepals as Latin American drink "Jamaica," but is more concentrated and usually flavored with ginger. Adding rum is traditional at Christmas time.
* [[Curry goat]]
* [[Rice and peas]] – a Sunday staple, at Christmas dinner is usually made with green (fresh) gungo (pigeon) peas instead of dried kidney beans or other dried legumes.
* [[Christmas ham]]
* [[Chicken (food)|Chicken]]
* Pine and ginger

== Japan ==
* Christmas cake – the Japanese style Christmas cake is often a white cream cake, [[sponge cake]] frosted with whipped cream, topped with strawberries and with a chocolate plate that says [[Merry Christmas]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kahle|first=Lynn R. |author2=Chʻung-hyŏn Kim |title=Creating Images and the Psychology of Marketing Communication|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|page=48|isbn=0-8058-5216-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNSeRruUoJMC&q=japanese+christmas+cake&pg=PA48}}</ref> [[Yule log (cake)|Yule Logs]] are also available.
* Christmas cookies - A Christmas sugar cookie's main ingredients are sugar, flour, butter, eggs, vanilla, and baking powder. Sugar cookies may be formed by hand, dropped, or rolled and cut into shapes. They are commonly decorated with additional sugar, icing, Christmas sprinkles. Decorative shapes and figures can be cut into the rolled-out dough using a cookie cutter.
* Christmas cupcakes
* [[Crème caramel]] [[pudding]] in [[Japan]] - a crème caramel ubiquitous in Japanese convenience stores under the name custard pudding. Made with eggs, sugar and milk, sometimes served with whipped cream and a cherry on top.
* [[French fries]]
* [[Fruit]] [[parfait]] - Made by boiling cream, egg, sugar and syrup to create layers differentiated by the inclusion of such ingredients as corn flakes and vanilla ice cream. Topped with melon, banana, peach, orange, apple, kiwi, cherries and strawberries and whipped cream.
* [[Gingerbread house]]
* [[Ice cream]]
* [[KFC]] [[fried chicken]] – turkey as a dish is virtually unknown in Japan<ref name="Intro to Christmas Traditions">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A7951656|title=An Introduction to Christmas Traditions|date=2005-12-23|publisher=BBC|access-date=2010-12-24|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101103043910/http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A7951656|archive-date=2010-11-03}}</ref> and the popularity of KFC's fried chicken at Christmas is such that orders are placed as much as two months in advance.<ref name="All Japan wants">{{cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2010/12/20/all-japan-wants-for-christmas-is-kentucky-fried-chicken.html|title=All Japan Wants for Christmas is Kentucky Fried Chicken|last=Whipp|first=Lindsay|date=2010-12-20|publisher=[[Financial Times]]|access-date=2010-12-24|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012173158/http://www.cnbc.com/id/40759547|archive-date=2012-10-12}}</ref>
* [[Nabemono]]
* Poached egg [[salad]]
* Shōyu [[ramen]]
* [[Tamagoyaki]] - Japanese [[Omelette]]
* [[Yakiniku]]

== Korea ==
* [[Budae-jjigae]]
* [[Korean barbecue|Gogigui]]
* [[Korean royal cuisine]]
* [[Makgeolli]]

== Latvia ==
* Jāņu skābs
* Piparkūkas

== Lithuania ==
* [[Twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper]] – twelve dishes representing the twelve Apostles or twelve months of the year – plays the main role in Lithuanian Christmas tradition. The traditional dishes are served on December 24.
** [[Poppy milk]] (''aguonų pienas'')
** [[Slizikai]] ( or kūčiukai) – slightly sweet small pastries made from [[yeast|leavened]] dough and poppy seed
** Auselės (Deep fried dumplings)
** [[Herring]] with [[carrot]]s (''silkė su morkomis'')
** Herring with [[mushroom]]s (''silkė su grybais'')
** [[Cranberry]] [[Kissel]] - thickened and sweetened juice normally served warm

== Malaysia and Singapore ==
* [[Bolo Rei]] – a type of cake
* [[Candy cane]]s
* [[Christmas cake]]
* [[Christmas pudding]]
* [[Chap chye]] – a vegetable stew
* [[Devil's curry]] – from the Eurasian tradition
* [[Egg salad]]
* [[Hotpot|Steamboat]] – a hotpot dish for communal
* [[Jiaozi]]
* [[Kue semprong]]
* [[Pineapple tart]]
* [[Semur (Indonesian stew)|Semur]]
* [[Vindaloo]] – a spicy Goan curry made usually with pork

== Malta ==

* [[Panettone]] – from the Italian tradition
* [[Fruitcake]] – from British influence
* Christmas/[[Yule log (cake)]] – a log (similar to a tree's) that is made from chocolate and candied fruits
* [[Mince Pies]] – from British influence
* [[Timpana]] – traditionally served as a starter
* Roast Turkey – from British influence

== Mexico ==
[[File:Roast chicken.jpg|thumb|right|Christmas roast]]
* Meat
** Roasted [[Turkey (food)|turkey]] – stuffed, roasted turkey served with gravy.
** [[Glazed ham]] – ham glazed with honey or sugar dressed with cherries and pineapples.
** [[Jamón]] (Spanish Dry-Cured Ham)
** [[Suckling pig|Lechon]]
** [[Seafood]]
*** [[Bacalao (cuisine)|Bacalao]] – cod Basque style. Traditionally eaten in the central and southern states of Mexico.
*** [[Shrimp]] – cocktail or prepared in Torrejas (dried shrimp pancakes)
*** [[Octopus]] – cocktail
*** [[Crab]]
* Stews
** [[Menudo (soup)|Menudo]] – a Christmas morning tradition in northwestern states, Menudo is a tripe and hominy soup. Menudo is often prepared the night before (Christmas Eve) as its cooking time can take up to 5 hours.
** [[Pozole]] – hominy soup with added pork
* Salads and other side dishes
** [[Tamale]]s – can sometimes replace the traditional turkey or Bacalao with romeritos, particularly in northern and southern parts of Mexico.
** Ensalada Navideña – Christmas salad with apples, raisins, pecans, and marshmallows.
** Ensalada de Noche Buena – Christmas Eve salad
** Ensalada Rusa – potato salad, particularly popular in northern states.
** [[Romeritos]] – also a Christmas tradition of the central region, romeritos are small green leaves similar to rosemary mixed generally with mole and potatoes.
* Sweets
** [[Buñuelo]] – fried sweet pastry
** [[Capirotada]] – bread pudding
** [[Turrón]]
** [[Cocada]] – coconut candy
** Volteado de piña – pineapple upside-down cake. Turned-over cake with cherries and pineapples.
** Carlota de Chocolate – cake
** [[Mantecado]]s and [[polvorón|polvorones]] – crumbly cakes
** [[Marzipan]], almond cakes
** [[Pan dulce]] – sweet rolls
** [[Churros]]
* Fresh Fruit
** [[Tejocote]]s
** [[Guayaba]]s
** ''Caña de azucar'' - [[Sugarcane|Sugar cane]]
* Drinks
** [[Champurrado]] – thick hot chocolate
** [[Chocolate]] – [[hot chocolate]]
** [[Cider|Cidra]] – [[apple cider]]
** [[Atole]] – corn based drink
** [[Rompope]] – similar to [[eggnog]]
** [[Ponche Navideño]] – a hot, sweet drink made with [[apple]]s, [[Sugarcane|sugar cane]], [[prune]]s and [[Crataegus mexicana|tejocote]]s. For grown-ups, ponche is never complete without its "piquete" – either [[tequila]] or [[rum]]

== Netherlands ==
* [[Banket (pastry)|Banket]]
* [[Mandarin orange]]
* [[Marzipan]]
* [[Mixed spice]]
* [[Mulled wine]]
* [[Oliebol]] (more widely considered as a New Years' classic)
* [[Speculaas]]
* [[Kerstkransjes]]
* [[Rollade]]

== New Zealand ==
[[File:Christmas pavlova.jpg|thumb|right|A homemade Christmas pavlova decorated with [[pomegranate]] seeds and [[Chantilly cream]].]]

* [[Cherry|Cherries]]
* [[Christmas Pudding|Christmas pudding]]
* Christmas [[mince pie]]s
* [[Ham]]
* [[Lamb and mutton|Lamb]]
* [[Candy|Lollies]] (candy) such as candy canes
* [[Pavlova (food)|Pavlova]]
* [[Potato salad]]
* [[Seafood]]
* [[Strawberry|Strawberries]]
* [[Trifle]]
* [[Wine]]

== Norway ==
[[File:Freshly baked gingerbread - Christmas 2004.jpg|thumb|Scandinavian-style gingerbread]]
* [[Akevitt]] – [[Akvavit]], a spirit flavored with spices like caraway and aniseed
* [[Gløgg]] – [[mulled wine]]
* Julepølse – pork [[sausage]] made with powdered [[ginger]], [[clove]]s, [[mustard seed]]s and [[nutmeg]]. Served steamed or roasted.
* [[Pinnekjøtt]] – salted, dried, and sometimes smoked lamb's ribs which are rehydrated and then steamed, traditionally over [[birch]] branches
* [[Pork ribs|Svineribbe]] – [[pork belly]] roasted whole with the skin on. Usually served with red or pickled [[cabbage]], [[gravy]] and boiled [[potato]]es.
* [[Rice pudding|Risgrøt]] – Christmas rice porridge with an [[almond]] hidden inside
* [[Julebrus]] – Norwegian [[soft drink]], usually with a festive label on the bottle. It is brewed by most Norwegian [[Brewery|breweries]], as a Christmas drink for minors.
* [[Julekake]] – Norwegian yeast cake with dried fruits and spices
* Sosisser – small Christmas [[sausage]]s
* Medisterkaker – large meatballs made from a mix of pork meat and pork fat
* Raudkål/Rødkål – sweet and sour [[red cabbage]], as a side dish
* Kålrabistappe/Kålrotstappe – Purée of [[rutabaga]], as a side dish
* Peparkake/Pepperkake – [[gingerbread]]-like spice cookies flavoured with [[black pepper]]
* [[Lussekatter]] – St. Lucia Buns with [[saffron]]
* [[Multekrem]] – a dessert consisting of [[Cloudberry|cloudberries]] and [[whipped cream]]
* [[Riskrem]] – [[Risalamande]]

== Palestine ==
*[[Knafeh]]
*[[Maqluba]]
*[[Mujaddara]]
*[[Warbat]]
*[[Zalabiyeh]]

== Panama ==

* [[Arroz con Pollo]]
* [[Tamales]]
* [[Ham]]
* [[Turkey (food)|Turkey]]
* [[Grapes]]
* [[Fruit cake]]
* [[Egg nog]]
* [[Potato salad]]
* Pan de Rosca
* Pan Bon
* [[Spaghetti]]

== Paraguay ==
* [[Apple cider]]
* Beef tongue sometimes covered in [[vinaigrette]]
* [[Cider]]
* Clericó (citric alcoholic drink made out of a mix of fruits and wine)
* [[Chicken (food)|Roasted chicken]]
* [[Potato salad]]
* [[Roasting|Roast]] [[pork]]
* [[Sopa paraguaya]]

== Philippines ==
{{See also|Christmas Eve#Philippines}}
[[File:Traditional Filipino cuisine.jpg|thumb|Typical traditional ''noche buena'' meal in the [[Philippines]], with a [[lechon|lechón]] as the centerpiece]]
[[File:Large bibinka.jpg|right|thumb|Large ''bibingka'' from the Philippines]]
* [[Adobo (Filipino cuisine)|Adobo]]
* [[Almondigas]] ([[meatball]]s)
* [[Arroz valenciana]]
* [[Bibingka]] – traditional dessert made with [[rice flour]], [[sugar]], [[clarified butter]] and [[coconut milk]]; baked in layers and topped with butter and sugar.<ref name="culturefront"/>
* [[Biko (food)|Biko]]
* [[Buko salad]] ([[young coconut]] salad)
* [[Caldereta]]
* [[Callos]]
* ''Castañas'' ([[roasted chestnuts]])
* [[Champorado]]
* [[Chicken galantina]]
* [[Chicken pastel]]
* [[Churro]]
* [[Crema de fruta]]
* [[Embutido (Filipino cuisine)|Embutido]]
* [[Fruitcake]]
* [[Fruit salad]]
* [[Filipino spaghetti]]
* [[Ham]]<ref name="yuletide fusion">{{cite news|url=http://showbizandstyle.inquirer.net/lifestyle/lifestyle/view_article.php?article_id=108428|title=Yuletide fusion of flavors|last=Burgos|first=Rowena|date=2007-12-23|publisher=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|access-date=2008-12-06|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222153626/http://showbizandstyle.inquirer.net/lifestyle/lifestyle/view_article.php?article_id=108428|archive-date=2008-02-22}}</ref>
* [[Hamonado]]
* [[Inihaw]]
* [[Kinutil]]
* [[Leche flan]]
* [[Suckling pig|Lechon]]
* [[Lengua estofado]]
* [[Lumpia]]
* [[Mango float]]
* [[Macaroni salad]]
* [[Mechado]]
* [[Dulce de membrillo|Membrilyo]]
* [[Menudo (stew)|Menudo]]
* [[Morcón (Filipino cuisine)|Morcon]]
* [[Paelya]]
* [[Pancit]]
* [[Puto bumbong]] – a purple-coloured Filipino dessert made of [[sweet rice]] cooked in hollow bamboo tubes placed on a special steamer-cooker. When cooked, they are spread with [[margarine]] and sprinkled with [[sugar]] and [[grated coconut]].<ref name="culturefront">{{cite news|url=http://www.mb.com.ph/issues/2007/12/09/TSTE20071209110674.html|title=Culturefront: Christmas Culinary Traditions (Part 1)|last=Galang|first=Diana A.|date=2007-12-09|publisher=[[Manila Bulletin]]|access-date=2008-12-06}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
* Queso de bola ([[edam cheese]])<ref name="yuletide fusion"/>
* Relyenong bangus (stuffed milkfish)
* [[Sapin-sapin]]
* [[suman (food)|Suman]]
* [[Tsokolate]]
* [[Turon (food)|Turon]]
* [[Ube halaya]]

== Poland ==
On 24 December, Christmas Eve, twelve dishes are served as a reminder of the [[Apostles in the New Testament|Twelve Apostles]]. Polish people often do not eat meat on this day; instead, they choose from a variety of fish and vegetable dishes. The meal begins when the first star is seen.

[[File:Uszka-aasica.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Barszcz]] with [[Uszka]]]]
[[File:Bejgli1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Makowiec (pastry)|Makowiec]]]]
* [[Borscht|Barszcz]] ([[beetroot]] soup) with [[uszka]] (small dumplings) - a classic Polish Christmas starter.
* [[Pierogi]] with [[sauerkraut]] and forest [[mushrooms]]; filled with [[cottage cheese]] and [[potato]]es
* Zupa rybna – [[fish soup]]
* [[Żurek]] – [[soup]] made of soured [[rye]] [[flour]] and [[meat]]
* Zupa grzybowa – [[mushroom]] soup made of various forest mushrooms
* [[Bigos]] – savory [[stew]] of [[cabbage]] and [[meat]]
* [[Kompot]] – traditional drink a light, refreshing drink most often made of dried or fresh fruit boiled in water with sugar and left to cool and infuse.
* [[Gołąbki]] – [[cabbage]] rolls
* Pieczarki marynowane – [[marinated mushrooms]]
* Kartofle gotowane – simple boiled [[potato]]es sprinkled with [[parsley]] or [[dill]]
* [[Kulebiak]] – with [[fish]] or [[cabbage]] and wild [[mushroom]]s filling
* Ryba smażona or ryba po grecku – [[fried fish]] laid under layers of fried shredded [[carrot]]s, [[onion]]s, root [[celery]] and [[leek]]
* [[Sałatka jarzynowa]] – salad made with boiled [[potato]]es and carrots with fresh peas, sweetcorn, dill cucumber, and boiled egg, mixed with mayonnaise.
* [[Łamaniec]] – type of flat and rather hard pancake that is soaked in warm milk with poppy seeds. Eaten in eastern regions such as around * [[Białystok]]
* [[Poppy seed roll|Makowiec]] – poppy seed roll

== Portugal ==
[[File:Bolo Rei.jpg|thumb|''Bolo-Rei'']]
* [[Bacalhau]] – codfish
* Cabrito assado – roasted goat
* Borrego assado – roasted lamb
* Polvo cozido – boiled octopus
* [[Polvo à lagareiro]] - dish based on [[octopus]], [[olive oil]], [[potatoes]] (''batatas a murro''), ''[[grelos]]'' and [[garlic]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Polvo à Lagareiro, história e receita |url=https://ncultura.pt/polvo-a-lagareiro-historia-e-receita/ |publisher=ncultura.pt |access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Polvo à Lagareiro, uma das receitas mais típicas de Portugal | date=12 January 2018 |url=http://iberismos.com/polvo-a-lagareiro-uma-das-receitas-mais-tipicas-de-portugal/?lang=pt-pt |publisher=iberismos.com |access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Polvo à Lagareiro |url=https://tastebraga.com/comida/polvo-a-lagareiro/ |publisher=tastebraga.com |access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref>
* [[Carne de Vinha d' Alhos]] – mainly served in [[Madeira]] – pork dish
* [[Bolo de mel]] – mainly served in [[Madeira]] - Cake made with molasses
* [[Bolo Rei]] (king cake) – a beautifully decorated fluffy fruitcake
* Bolo-Rei escangalhado (broken king cake) – it is like the first one, but has also cinnamon and chilacayote jam (doce de gila)
* Bolo-Rainha (queen cake) – similar to Bolo-Rei, but with only nuts, raisins and almonds
* Bolo-Rei de chocolate – it is like the Bolo-Rei, but has less (or no) fruit, nuts, chilacayote jam and many chocolate chips
* Broa castelar – a small, soft and thin cake made of sweet potato and orange
* Fatias douradas – slices of pan bread, soaked in egg with sugar, fried and sprinkled with powdered sugar and cinnamon
* [[Rabanadas]] – they are like fatias douradas, but made with common bread
* Aletria – composed of pasta, milk, butter, sugar, eggs, lemon peel, cinnamon powder and salt
* Formigos – a delicious dessert made with sugar, eggs, pieces of bread, almonds, port wine and cinnamon powder
* [[Filhós]] / Filhozes / Filhoses – depending on the region, they may be thin or fluffy pieces of a fried dough made of eggs, honey, orange, lemon, flour and anise, sprinkled - or not with icing sugar
* Coscorões – thin squares of a fried orange flavoured dough
* Azevias de grão, batata-doce ou gila – deep fried thin dough pastries filled with a delicious cream made of chickpea, sweet potato or chilacayote, powdered with sugar and cinnamon
* Tarte de amêndoa – almond pie
* Tronco de Natal – Christmas log – a Swiss roll, resembling a tree's trunk, filled with chocolate cream, decorated with chocolate and mini – 2 cm Christmas trees
* Lampreia de ovos – a sweet made of eggs, well decorated
* Sonhos – an orange flavoured fried yeast dough, powdered with icing sugar
* Velhoses – they are like the sonhos, but made with pumpkin
* Bolo de Natal – Christmas cake
* Pudim de Natal – Christmas pudding, similar to flan
* Vinho quente – mulled wine made with boiled wine, egg yolk, sugar and cinnamon
* Turkey – on the island of Terceira, turkey has recently taken over as the traditional Christmas dish over Bacalhau, due to the influence of American culture on the island, home to the United States Air Force's 65th Air Base Wing.

== Puerto Rico (U.S.) ==
* [[Arroz con gandules]] – yellow-rice, pigeon peas, [[olive]]s, [[caper]]s, pieces of pork, spices and sofrito cooked in the same pot.
* [[Escabeche]] – pickled green bananas or cassava and chicken gizzards.
* [[Macaroni salad]] – with canned tuna and peppers.
* [[Morcilla]] – blood sausage.
* [[Pasteles]] – Puerto Rican tamle made from milk, broth, root vegetables, squash, green banana, plantain dough, stuffed with meat, and wrapped in banana leaves.
* [[Hallaca]] – tamale made from grated cassava and stuffed with meat wrapped in banana leaves.
* [[Pastelón]] – sweet [[Plantain (cooking)|plantain]] "[[lasagna]]".
* [[Pig roast]] – Puerto Rico is famous for their pig roast. It is also a part (along with arroz con gandules) of their national dish.
* [[Potato salad]] – most commonly made with apples, [[chorizo]] and hard-boiled [[egg (food)|egg]]s. Potatoes are sometimes replaced with [[cassava]].

Drinks:
* Bilí – [[Spanish lime]]s or cherries fermented in rum with spices, brown sugar, citrus peels, bay leaves, avocado leaves, often cucumber, ginger, and coconut shells.
* [[Coquito]] – spiced coconut eggnog.
* Coquito de guayaba - spiced [[guava]] eggnog with cream cheese or coconut milk added.
* [[Piña colada]]
* Rum punch – rum, orange liqueur, grenadine, ginger ale, grapefruit juice served with fruit, lemon and lime slices.
* La Danza – champagne with passion fruit juice, orange liqueur, lime juice, lemon juice, and strawberry juice.

Dessert:
* [[Rice pudding#Latin America and the Caribbean|Arroz con dulce]] – Spiced coconut and raisin rice pudding.
* [[Bread pudding]] – soaked in coconut milk and served with a guava rum sauce.
* Dulce de cassabanana – [[musk cucumber]] cooked in syrup topped with walnuts and sour cream on the side.
* [[Dulce de papaya]] con queso – Fermented green [[papaya]] with spices and sugar syrup served with ausubal cheese or fresh white cheese.
* Flancocho – [[Crème caramel]] with a layer of cream cheese and Puerto Rican style [[spongecake]] underneath.
* [[Majarete]] – rice and coconut custard. Made with coconut cream, [[marshmallow]]s, milk, [[rice flour]], sugar, vanilla and sour orange leaves with cinnamon served on top.
* [[Rum cake]]
* [[Tembleque]] – a [[pudding]] made with cornstarch, coconut cream, sugar, milk, orange blossom water and [[coconut milk]].
* [[Turrón]] – Sesame brittle or almond brittle.
*Mantecaditos – Puerto Rican shortbread cookies. Made with shortening, [[coconut butter]], flour, [[almond meal|almond flour]], vanilla, nutmeg and almond extract. They are usually filled with guava jam or pineapple jam in the middle.
*[[Natilla]] – Milk, coconut cream and egg yolk custard made with additional cinnamon, cornstarch, sugar, vanilla, lemon zest and orange blossom water. Served in individual ramekins with cinnamon sprinkled on top.

== Romania ==
[[File:Cozonac-cu-nuca-103.jpg|thumb|Cozonac]]Romanian Christmas foods are mostly pork-based dishes.<ref name="Romanian Christmas foods">{{cite news|url=https://sodelicious.recipes/food-culture/christmas-foods-in-romania/|title=Christmas Foods and Festive Traditions in Romania|last=Vulpescu|first=Cristina|date=2019-12-18|publisher=SoDelicious.Recipes|access-date=2020-06-22}}</ref> Five days before Christmas, Romanians are celebrating the Ignat Day, a religious holy day dedicated to the Holy Martyr [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius Theophorus]], associated with a practice that takes place especially on villages scattered around the country: the ritual of slaughtering the pigs. And they are using everything from the pigs: from their blood to their ears. Five days later their tables are filled not only with generous pork roasts but also with:
* [[Aspic|Piftie]] – [[Aspic|pork jelly]], made only with pork meat, vegetables and garlic
* Lebăr – liver sausages, a local variety of [[liverwurst]]
* Caltaboș – sausages made from organs
* Cârnaţi – pork-based [[sausage]]s
* Sângerete – [[blood sausage]]s
* Tobă – [[head cheese]] made from various cuttings of pork, liver boiled, diced and "packed" in pork stomach like a [[salami]]
* Sarmale – rolls of cabbage pickled in brine and filled with meat and rice (see [[sarma (food)|sarma]])
* [[Salată de boeuf]] – a more recent dish, but highly popular, this type of salad uses boiled vegetables and meat (beef, poultry, even ham). It can include potatoes, carrots, pickled red peppers and cucumbers, egg whites bits. Everything is mixed together with mayonnaise and mustard.
*[[Cozonac]], the Romanian equivalent of [[panettone]] or [[List of sweet breads|sweet bread]].
* Strong spirits: [[Palinka]], [[Rachiu]], [[Ţuică]]

== Russia ==
* [[Borscht]]
* [[Kutya]]

==San Marino==
[[File:Bustrengo.jpg|thumb|[[Bustrengo]]]]
* [[Bustrengo]]

== Serbia and Montenegro ==
{{Main|Serbian cuisine|Montenegrin cuisine}}
* [[Česnica]] – Christmas soda bread with a silver coin to bring health and good luck baked in the bread.
* [[Koljivo]] – boiled wheat which is used liturgically in the Eastern Orthodox and Greek Catholic Churches.
* [[Fish soup|Riblja čorba]] for Christmas Eve

== South Africa ==
Christmas is in the summer in South Africa, so many summer fruits such as watermelon and cantaloupes are enjoyed at this time. Popular desserts include trifle, melktert and peppermint crisp tart. Many people in South Africa hold [[Regional variations of barbecue|Braai]] barbecues for Christmas or New Year's Day.
*[[Beef tongue]]
*[[Gammon (meat)|Gammon]]
*[[Potato salad]]
*[[Garden Salad]]
*[[Turducken]]
*[[Turkey (bird)|Turkey]]
*[[Braaivleis]]
*[[Boerewors]]
*[[Potjiekos]]
*[[Breyani]]
*[[Bobotie]]
*[[Meatballs]]
*[[Fried chicken]]
*[[Trifle]]
*[[Fruitcake]]
*[[Mince Pies]] Influenced by British tradition, mince pies filled with dried fruits and spices are enjoyed over the holidays.
*[[Christmas pudding]]
*[[Ice cream]]
*[[Melktert]]
*[[Peppermint crisp tart]] – fridge tart made with peppermint crisp, caramel treat and tennis biscuits
*[[Yogurt tart]] – fridge tart
*[[Cookies]]
*[[Hertzoggie]]s
*[[Lamington]]s
*[[Watermelon]]
*[[Melon]]
*[[Mango]]
*[[Pineapple]]
*[[Strawberries]]
* [[Peanuts]]
* Lollies such as [[candy canes]]

== Spain ==
* [[Jamón]], [[jamón ibérico]] (Spanish dry-cured ham).
* Fish: oven gilt-head [[bream]], oven [[sea bass]], [[Eel|elvers]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=What are Angulas (Spanish Baby Eels)? |url=https://www.thespruceeats.com/what-are-angulas-3083602 |access-date=2022-12-31 |website=The Spruce Eats |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Seafood]]: [[Langostino]]s ([[Prawn|king prawn]]), [[Shrimp]], [[Lobster]], [[Crab]].
* Meat: Roasted [[Turkey (food)|turkey]], [[Lamb and mutton|Roasted lamb]].
*Sweets: [[File:Turrón de Alicante (Casa Mira).jpg|thumb|Turrón]]
** [[Turrón]]
** [[Yemas de Santa Teresa|Yema]] – egg-based dessert
** [[Mantecado]]s and [[polvorón|polvorones]] – crumbly cakes
** [[Marzipan]] – almond cakes
** [[King cake]] known as [[roscón de Reyes]] in Spanish and [[tortell]] in Catalan.
** ''[[Aragonese cuisine|Frutas de Aragón]]'' - a [[confit]] of fruit covered in chocolate
** ''Peladillas'' - sugared almonds
** [[Churros]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mamasbox.net/spanish-christmas-food/|title=The definitive guide to Spanish Christmas food, in 20 delicious & easy recipes|access-date=2015-12-10|author=Mama's Box - Online Spanish food Shop|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211180445/https://mamasbox.net/spanish-christmas-food/|archive-date=2015-12-11}}</ref>

== Sri Lanka ==
* [[Congee|Kanji]]
* [[Lamprais]]
* [[Pol Pani]]

== Sweden ==
[[File:Julbord.jpg|400px|thumb|Julbord Christmas dinner in Sweden]]

* [[Julebord|Julbord]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ninasmat.se/recept/sidor/jul.htm |title=Julmat - Allt som tillhör ett gott julbord en riktig god julmiddag |publisher=Ninasmat.se |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110212017/http://www.ninasmat.se/recept/sidor/jul.htm |archive-date=10 January 2012 }}</ref> - Christmas [[Smörgåsbord|smorgasbord]] ("Christmas table"), a catch-all term for all the dishes served during Christmas Eve:
** [[Köttbullar]] – Swedish [[meatball]]s
** [[Julskinka]] – Christmas ham
** Dopp i grytan ("dipping in the kettle") – dipping bread slices in the ham broth after boiling the Christmas ham.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.matklubben.se/matprat/jul_och_nyaar_2/tips_paa_recept_paa_dopp-i-grytan_2667.html |title=Tips på recept på Dopp-i-grytan |publisher=Matklubben.se |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320113945/http://www.matklubben.se/matprat/jul_och_nyaar_2/tips_paa_recept_paa_dopp-i-grytan_2667.html |archive-date=20 March 2012 }}</ref>
** [[Prinskorv]] – small hot dog sausages
** [[Fläskkorv]] – big pork sausage
** [[Isterband]] – smoked fresh pork sausage
** [[Revbensspjäll]] – spare ribs
** Inlagd sill – pickled [[herring]] (usually of different types)
** [[Gravad lax]] – [[lox]]
** [[Janssons frestelse]] ("Jansson's Temptation") – warm, scalloped potato [[casserole]] with "ansjovis" (a type of swedish spiced and pickled [[european sprat]]), not to be confused with [[Anchovies as food|anchovies]].
** [[Vörtlimpa]] – Swedish [[rye bread]] with grated [[Orange (fruit)|orange]] peel made for Christmas, with or without raisins.
** [[Knäckebröd]] – dry crisp bread
** [[Rödkål]] – sweet and sour red cabbage, as a side dish
** Grönkål – sweet and sour [[kale]] as a side dish
** Brunkål ("brown cabbage") – cabbage flavoured with syrup hence the name
** Rödbetor – sliced [[beet]] root
** An array of cheeses – [[bondost]], [[herrgårdsost]], [[prästost]], [[brunost|mesost]] (hard [[goat milk cheese]])
* [[Lutfisk]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ica.se/FrontServlet?s=mat_recept&state=recept&receptid=3451 |title=Lutfisk med senapssås |publisher=Ica.se |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219031514/http://www.ica.se/FrontServlet?s=mat_recept&state=recept&receptid=3451 |archive-date=19 February 2008 }}</ref> – lye-fish (whitefish) that has been boiled served with white gravy
* [[Julmust]] – a traditional, very sweet, [[stout]]-like, Christmas [[soft drink]], originally intended as an alternative to [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] beverage called Mumma
* [[Glögg]] – [[mulled wine]]
* [[Knäck]] or '''Christmas Butterscotch''' – Christmas [[toffee]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=2054&artikel=525935|title=Christmas Butterscotch (Knäck)|newspaper=Sveriges Radio|language=en|date=21 December 2004|access-date=25 December 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226073830/http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=2054&artikel=525935|archive-date=26 December 2017}}</ref>
* Pepparkakor ([[Gingerbread]]) – brown cookies flavoured with a variety of traditional Christmas spices
* Julost – Christmas cheese
* Julgröt – Christmas [[rice pudding]] with an [[almond]] hidden inside
* [[Lussekatter]] – [[Saint Lucy]] saffron buns
* [[Limpa bread]] – orange and rye spice bread

== Switzerland ==
* [[Springerle|Anisbrötli]]
* [[Basler Läckerli]]
* [[Kürtőskalács|Baumstriezel]]
* Cardon argenté épineux genevois
* [[Fondue]]
* [[Stutenkerl|Grittibänz]]
* [[Lebkuchen]]
* {{Interlanguage link|Mailänderli|de}}
* [[Pain d'épices]]
* [[Panettone]]
* {{Interlanguage link|Spitzbube|de}}
* [[Tirggel]]

== Thailand ==
* [[Khao khluk kapi]]
* [[Pad see ew]]
* [[Pad thai]]
* [[Tom yum]]

== Trinidad and Tobago ==
In Trinidad and Tobago traditional meals consists of generous helpings of baked ham, pastelles, black fruit cake, sweet breads, along with traditional drinks such as sorrel, ginger beer, and ponche de crème. The ham is the main item on the Christmas menu with sorrel to accompany it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nalis.gov.tt/Research/SubjectGuide/Christmas/tabid/251/Default.aspx?PageContentID=377|title=CHRISTMAS IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO|access-date=2015-10-20|author=National Library of Trinidad and Tobago|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151112112644/http://www.nalis.gov.tt/Research/SubjectGuide/Christmas/tabid/251/Default.aspx?PageContentID=377|archive-date=2015-11-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nalis.gov.tt/Resources/Subject-Guide/Christmas#tabposition_24255 |title=CHRISTMAS RECIPES |website=nalis.gov.tt}}</ref>
*[[Christmas ham]]
*[[Sorrel]]
*Pastelles also known as [[Hallacas]]
*Ponche de crème – a version of [[eggnog]]
*[[Black cake]]

== Ukraine ==
Orthodox and Roman Catholic Christians in Ukraine traditionally have two Christmas dinners. The first is a Lent Dinner, it is held on January 6 and should consist of meatless dishes. The second is a Christmas Festive dinner held on January 7, when the meat dishes and alcohol are already allowed on the table. The dinner normally has 12 dishes which represent Jesus's 12 disciples. Both Christmas dinners traditionally include a number of authentic Ukrainian dishes, which have over thousand-year history and date back to pagan times.

* [[Kutia]]
* [[Uzvar]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ukrainian-recipes.com/tag/uzvar|title=Uzvar - Ukrainian recipes - for a tasty life|website=Ukrainian recipes - for a tasty life|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109183230/http://ukrainian-recipes.com/tag/uzvar|archive-date=2018-01-09}}</ref>
* [[Varenyky]]
* [[Borshch]]
* [[Deruny]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://v.img.com.ua/nxs112/b/600x500/0/88/0d00aa3700b3730748823ac6b40e0880.jpg |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-01-09 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109235338/http://v.img.com.ua/nxs112/b/600x500/0/88/0d00aa3700b3730748823ac6b40e0880.jpg |archive-date=2018-01-09 }}</ref>
* [[Pampushky]]
* [[Holubtsi]]
* [[Poppy seed roll|Makivnyk]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpggAAAAMAAJ&q=Poppy+seed+roll+ukraine+christmas |title=Ukrainian Christmas: Traditions, Folk Customs, and Recipes|access-date=2023-07-25 |last1=Vaughn |first1=Mary Ann Woloch |date=1982 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4TJjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP5 |title=Ukrainian Recipes
|access-date=2023-07-25 |author=Katy Lyons |date=8 March 2022
}}</ref>

== United Kingdom ==
{{Main|British cuisine}}
[[File:Christmas pudding.JPG|thumb|right|Christmas pudding]]

In the United Kingdom, what is now regarded as the traditional meal consists of roast turkey with [[cranberry sauce]], served with roast potatoes and parsnips and other vegetables, followed by [[Christmas pudding]], a heavy steamed pudding made with [[dried fruit]], suet, and very little flour. Other roast meats may be served, and in the nineteenth century the traditional roast was goose. The same carries over to Ireland with some variations.

* [[Beef Wellington]] (alternative main course)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goodtoknow.co.uk/recipes/164868/Gordon-Ramsay-s-beef-Wellington|title=Gordon Ramsay's beef Wellington|website=goodtoknow|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503093801/http://www.goodtoknow.co.uk/recipes/164868/Gordon-Ramsay-s-beef-Wellington|archive-date=3 May 2017}}</ref>
* [[Brandy butter]]
* [[Bread sauce]]
* [[Brussels sprout]]s<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/texte/xmas.htm |title=Christmas in Britain |access-date=2007-03-09 |first=Ulrike |last=Schroedter |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321050635/http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/texte/xmas.htm |archive-date=2007-03-21 }}</ref>
* [[Candy canes]]
* [[Bûche de Noël|Chocolate yule log]]
* [[Christmas cake]]
* [[Christmas ham]] (usually a honey or marmalade glazed roast or boiled gammon joint)
* [[Christmas pudding]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1706169.stm |title=Christmas food shopping uncovered |access-date=2007-03-12 |work=BBC News |date=2001-12-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223024530/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1706169.stm |archive-date=2008-12-23 }}</ref>
* [[Cranberry sauce]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/2728/cranberry-sauce|title=Cranberry sauce|website=BBC Good Food|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221172839/http://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/2728/cranberry-sauce|archive-date=21 December 2016}}</ref>
* [[Devils on horseback]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://realfood.tesco.com/recipes/easy-devils-on-horseback.html|title=Easy devils on horseback - Tesco Real Food|website=Tesco Real Food|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223060448/https://realfood.tesco.com/recipes/easy-devils-on-horseback.html|archive-date=23 December 2016}}</ref>
* [[Dundee cake]] (traditional Scottish fruit cake)
* [[Gingerbread]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/christmas_gingerbread_84244|title=Christmas gingerbread men|website=BBC Food|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322072117/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/christmas_gingerbread_84244|archive-date=22 March 2017}}</ref>
* [[Mince pie]]s<ref name="BBC News"/>
* [[Mulled wine]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maryberry.co.uk/recipes/christmas/christmas-mulled-wine|title=Mary Berry|website=www.maryberry.co.uk|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510123750/http://www.maryberry.co.uk/recipes/christmas/christmas-mulled-wine|archive-date=10 May 2017}}</ref>
* [[Nut roast]] (a popular vegetarian alternative)
* [[File:Pigs in Blankets (11630904144).jpg|thumb|Pigs in blankets]][[Pigs in blankets]] ([[Chipolata]] sausages wrapped in bacon)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lee |first1=Jeremy |date=26 November 2017 |title=The great Christmas taste test 2017 |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/nov/26/christmas-taste-test-2017-chocolate-cheese-pies-cakes-puddings-salmon |access-date=4 January 2018}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2021-12-02 |title=Everything you want to know about pigs in blankets |url=https://erudus.com/editorial/the-food-agenda/everything-about-pigs-in-blankets |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=Erudus}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Thompson |first=Rachel |date=2018-12-24 |title=I ate 100 different 'pigs in blankets' at a sausage party and it was painfully delicious |url=https://mashable.com/article/pigs-in-blanket-sausage-party |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=Mashable |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Neild |first1=Barry |date=14 December 2013 |title=Turkey, pigs in blankets, even sprouts… but no Christmas pudding, thanks |work=The Observer |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/dec/14/christmas-pudding-off-this-years-menu |access-date=4 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Classic pigs in blankets |url=https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/classic-pigs-blankets |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=BBC Good Food |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Turkey (food)|Roast turkey]]<ref name="BBC News">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/breakfast/4523490.stm |title=Christmas? What a waste! |access-date=2007-03-09 |work=BBC News |date=2005-12-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223223006/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/breakfast/4523490.stm |archive-date=2008-12-23 }}</ref>
* Roasted [[chestnuts]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/roastchestnuts_68084|title=Roast chestnuts|website=BBC Food|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516034541/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/roastchestnuts_68084|archive-date=16 May 2017}}</ref>
* [[Duck (food)|Roast duck]]
* [[Roast goose]]
* [[Common pheasant|Roast pheasant]]
* [[Spiced beef]] (traditionally served in Ireland and Northern Ireland)
* [[Trifle]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2012/dec/18/how-to-eat-trifle|title=How to eat: trifle|first=Tony|last=Naylor|date=18 December 2012|website=the Guardian|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017100940/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2012/dec/18/how-to-eat-trifle|archive-date=17 October 2016}}</ref>
* [[Tunis Cake]]
* [[King cake#United Kingdom|Twelfth Night Cake]] (traditionally eaten on the final day of Christmas)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/stowe/recipes/twelfth-night-cake|title=Twelfth Night cake|website=National Trust|access-date=2 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021075033/https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/stowe/recipes/twelfth-night-cake|archive-date=21 October 2016}}</ref>

== United States ==
[[File:Thanksgiving Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|Roast turkey]]
[[File:Julskinka.JPG|thumb|[[Christmas ham]]]]
* [[Apple cider]]
* [[Boiled custard]]
* [[Candy cane]]s
* [[Champagne (wine)|Champagne]], or [[sparkling apple cider]]
* [[Fudge|Chocolate fudge]]
* [[Christmas cookies]]
* [[Cranberry sauce]]
* [[Eggnog]]
* [[Fish]] as part of the [[Feast of the Seven Fishes]]
* [[Fruitcake]]
* [[Gingerbread]], often in the form of a [[gingerbread house]] or [[gingerbread man]]
* [[Christmas ham]]
* [[Hawaiian bread]]
* [[Hot buttered rum (drink)|Hot buttered rum]]
* [[Hot chocolate]]
* [[Mashed potatoes]]
* [[Mixed nuts]], [[chestnuts]], dried [[figs]], dried [[Date (fruit)|dates]]
* [[Oyster stew]], composed of oysters simmered in cream or milk and butter.
* [[Persimmon pudding]]
* [[Pie]]
** [[Apple pie]]
** [[Pecan pie]]
** [[Pumpkin pie]]
** [[Sweet potato pie]]
* Yams/sweet potato casserole (with marshmallow)
* [[Red velvet cake]]
* [[Russian tea cake]]s
* [[Tom and Jerry (mixed drink)|Tom and Jerry]]
* Roast [[Turkey (food)|turkey]], less often roast [[duck (food)|duck]], [[goose]], [[chicken]] or [[pheasant]]
* [[Stuffing]], also known as dressing, particularly in the southern U.S.
See also: [[Thanksgiving dinner|Thanksgiving]] (the dishes tend to be similar)

== Venezuela ==
[[File:Hallaca at La Casa de Pedro.jpg|thumb|right|Hallaca]]
* [[Hallaca]] – rectangle-shaped meal made of [[maize]], filled with beef, pork, chicken, olives, raisins and caper, and wrapped in plantain leaves and boiled to cook.
* [[Pan de jamón]] – ham-filled bread with olives and raisins and often sliced cheese.
* Dulce de lechosa – dessert made of cooked sliced unripe papaya in reduced sugar syrup
* Ensalada de gallina – salad made of potato, carrot, apple and shredded chicken (hen usually home or locally raised as opposed to store bought chicken)
* [[Pernil]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elboricua.com/pernil_RChef.html |title=Pernil (Roast Pork) |publisher=The Rican Chef |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228140714/http://www.elboricua.com/pernil_RChef.html |archive-date=28 December 2011 }}</ref> – commonly referred to as roast pork

== Vietnam ==
* [[Bò 7 món]]
* [[Bún thịt nướng]]
* [[Canh chua]]
* [[Chả giò]]
* [[Congee|Cháo]]
* [[Gỏi cuốn]]
* [[Hotpot|Lẩu]]
* [[Pho]]
* [[Roast chicken|Thịt gà nướng]]
* [[Vietnamese tea]]

== See also ==
* [[Christmas dinner]]
* {{portal-inline|Food}}
* {{portal-inline|Holidays}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Prone to spam|date=September 2012}}


{{Christmas}}
{{Lists of prepared foods}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Christmas Dishes}}
[[Category:Christmas food|*]]
[[Category:Lists of foods]]
[[Category:World cuisine]]
[[Category:Cuisine-related lists]]
[[Category:Christmas-related lists|Dishes]]

Feast of the Seven Fishes

2024-12-25T08:49:21Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Italian-American Christmas Eve celebration}}
{{About|the Italian-American celebration|the film|Feast of the Seven Fishes (film)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}

The '''Feast of the Seven Fishes''' ({{langx|it|Festa dei sette pesci}}) is an [[Italian Americans|Italian American]] celebration of [[Christmas Eve]] with dishes of fish and other [[seafood]].<ref name=surf>{{cite news |author=Melissa Clark |title=Surf's Up on Christmas Eve. Feasting on Fish to the Seventh Degree |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/18/dining/surfs-up-on-christmas-eve.html |quote=It's a Southern Italian (and now Italian-American) custom in which a grand meal of at least seven different kinds of seafood is served before midnight Mass The fish part comes from the Catholic practice of abstaining from meat on Christmas Eve, while the number may refer to the seven sacraments. |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=16 December 2013 |access-date=2013-12-30 |author-link= Melissa Clark}}</ref><ref name=claiborne>{{cite news |author=Craig Claiborne |title=A Seven-Course Feast of Fish |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/16/garden/a-seven-course-feast-of-fish.html |quote=It is a Christmas Eve ritual handed down from mother to son. Every year, [[Ed Giobbi]], the artist and cookbook author, serves a holiday feast of seven fish dishes (seven for the seven sacraments). Each dish is cooked in a different manner – broiled, fried, baked and so on – or uses a different main ingredient. There is generally a fish or seafood salad and, inevitably, pasta served with a seafood sauce. ... |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=16 December 1987 |access-date=2013-12-30 |author-link= Craig Claiborne}}</ref> Christmas Eve is a vigil or fasting day, and the abundance of seafood reflects the observance of abstinence from meat until the feast of Christmas Day itself.<ref name="surf" /><ref name=marchetti>{{cite web |last1=Marchetti |first1=Domenica |date=25 December 2012 |title=Feast of the Seven Fishes: only in America |url=http://www.americanfoodroots.com/features/feast-of-seven-fishes/ |access-date=27 August 2013 |website=American Food Roots}}</ref>

==Origins and tradition==
The Feast of the Seven Fishes derives its name from seven different seafood dishes that are typically served during this celebration. The tradition stems from the [[Roman Catholic]] observance of [[Fasting and abstinence in the Roman Catholic Church|abstaining]] from eating meat on the eve of a feast day.<ref name="surf" /> As no meat or animal fat could be used on such days, observant Catholics would instead eat fish (typically fried in oil). It is unclear when or where the term "Feast of the Seven Fishes" was popularized. Nick Vadala, writing for ''[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]'', found the newspaper's oldest reference to the feast in a 1983 article.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vadala|first=Nick|date=December 13, 2021|title=Where to eat the Feast of the Seven Fishes in the Philadelphia area|url=https://www.inquirer.com/food/feast-seven-fishes-philadelphia-restaurants.html|access-date=2021-12-17|website=Philadelphia Inquirer|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-12-19|title=7 Facts About the Feast of the Seven Fishes|url=https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/567912/the-feast-of-the-seven-fishes-facts|access-date=2021-12-17|website=mentalfloss.com|language=en}}</ref>

The meal includes seven or more fishes that are considered traditional. "Seven fishes" as a concept or name is unknown in Italy.<ref name="marchetti"/> In some Italian-American families, there is no count of the number of fish dishes. A well-known dish is [[baccalà]] (salted cod fish). Fried [[Smelt (fish)|smelt]]s, [[calamari]], and other types of seafood have been incorporated into the Christmas Eve dinner over the years.

The number seven may come from the seven [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church]], or the [[seven hills of Rome]], or some other source. There is no general agreement on its meaning.<ref name="surf" /><ref name="claiborne" />

==Typical feast==
The meal's components may include some combination of [[anchovies as food|anchovies]], [[Merlangius merlangus|whiting]], [[Lobster meat|lobster]], [[Sardines as food|sardines]], [[baccalà]] (dried salt [[Cod as food|cod]]), [[smelt (fish)|smelt]]s, [[Eel as food|eels]], [[Squid as food|squid]], [[Octopus as food|octopus]], [[Shrimp and prawn as food|shrimp]], [[Mussel#As food|mussel]]s and [[clam]]s.<ref name=claiborne/> The menu may also include pasta, vegetables, baked goods and wine.

===Popular dishes===
[[File:Feast of the Seven Fishes 11 (6517353129).jpg|thumb|Cannoli served at the Feast of the Seven Fishes]]
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Baccalà]] with pasta, as a salad, or fried
*Baked [[Cod as food|cod]]
*[[Clams casino]]
*[[Cod]] [[fish balls]] in [[tomato sauce]]
*[[Coryphaena|Dolphinfish]]
*Deep fried [[calamari]]
*Deep fried cod
*Deep fried fish/[[Shrimp and prawn as food|shrimp]]
*Deep fried [[scallop]]s
*Fried [[Smelt (fish)|smelt]]s
*''Insalata di mare'' (seafood salad)
*Linguine with [[Anchovies as food|anchovy]], [[clam]], [[Lobster meat|lobster]], [[Tuna as food|tuna]], or [[Crab meat|crab]] sauce
*Marinated or fried [[Eel (food)|eel]]
*[[Octopus as food|Octopus]] salad
*[[Oyster]] shooters
*[[Puttanesca]] with [[Anchovies as food|anchovies]]
*[[Scungilli]] salad
*[[Shrimp cocktail]]
*Stuffed [[calamari]] in tomato sauce
*Stuffed-baked lobsters
*Stuffed-baked [[quahogs]]
*[[Merlangius merlangus|Whiting]]
{{colend}}

==In popular culture==
*The graphic novel ''Feast of the Seven Fishes'', written by Robert Tinnell (2005; {{ISBN|0976928809}}), has been made into a feature film also titled ''[[Feast of the Seven Fishes (film)|Feast of the Seven Fishes]]'', featuring [[Skyler Gisondo]] and [[Madison Iseman]], released 15 November 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7846056/|title=Feast of the Seven Fishes|date=1 November 2018|via=www.imdb.com}}</ref>
*''[[Iron Chef Showdown]]'' had the feast of the seven fishes as a secret ingredient.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://foodsided.com/2017/12/07/iron-chef-showdown-recap-italian-themed-holidays-reign-supreme/|title=Iron Chef Showdown recap: Italian themed holidays reign supreme|date=7 December 2017|website=foodsided.com}}</ref>
*''[[The Bear (TV series)|The Bear]]'', season 2, Episode 6: the Berzatto family meet for a Feast of the Seven Fishes: a traumatic, dysfunctional flashback where they argue at one point over the ambiguous origins of the feast — and where one guest brings an eighth fish dish, thrown out because it could ostensibly bring bad luck. The fishes also end up as a final dish for The Bear.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt14452776/episodes/?season=2|title=The Bear(TV Series 2022- ) - Episode list - IMDb|date=13 September 2023|via=www.imdb.com}}</ref>
*''If You Give Me Seven Fishes'' a song written and performed by artist [[Tony Trov]] in the style of [[Louis Prima]] was released on Spotify, Apple Music and Youtube in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Newall |first=Mike |date=2023-12-07 |title=South Fellini’s hilarious new Christmas song is a ode to the Feast of Seven Fishes |url=https://www.inquirer.com/food/south-fellini-holiday-song-seven-fishes-20231207.html |access-date=2023-12-19 |website= |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=DeLuca |first=Dan |date=2023-12-11 |title=All the best new Christmas songs not sung by the Eagles. (Plus some of those, too) |url=https://www.inquirer.com/entertainment/music/christmas-music-brenda-leemariah-carey-cher-phoebe-bridgers-boygenius-playlist-20231211.html |access-date=2023-12-19 |website= |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Italian-American cuisine]]
* [[List of Christmas dishes]]
* [[List of dining events]]
* [[Twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper]], a similar meal in Central and Eastern European Catholic culture

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002072821/http://www.sevenfishesblog.com/ |title=Feast of the Seven Fishes blog |date=2 October 2017 }}
*[http://www.thefoodtable.com/christmas-eve-fish-dinner.html Christmas Eve Fish Dinner] at thefoodtable.com
*[http://www.italiansrus.com/articles/7fishes.htm Christmas Eve Dinner] at italiansrus.com
*[http://pensierimeridionali.blogspot.com/2021/11/il-cenone-dei-13-o-7-pesci-feast-of-13.html The feast of the 7 (or 13) fishes (Italian and English)]

{{Christmas}}

{{Portal bar|Christianity|Food|Holidays}}
[[Category:Christmas meals and feasts]]
[[Category:Italian-American cuisine]]
[[Category:Italian-American culture in New York City]]
[[Category:Fish as food]]
[[Category:Christmas in the United States]]

Yakut language

2024-12-24T13:59:10Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Siberian Turkic language}}
{{Distinguish|Yokuts language|Saka language|Yakutia}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Yakut
| altname = Sakha
| nativename = {{lang|sah|саха тыла,}} {{transl|sah|saxa tıla}}
| pronunciation = {{IPA-all|saχa tɯla|}}
| states = [[Russia]]
| region = [[Sakha Republic|Yakutia]], [[Magadan Oblast]], [[Amur Oblast]], [[Krasnoyarsk Krai]] ([[Evenkiysky District]])
| ethnicity = [[Yakuts]]
| speakers = c. 450,000
| date =
| ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sakha-language|title=Sakha language|publisher=Britannica}}</ref>
| refname = Yakut
| familycolor = Altaic
| fam1 = [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]
| fam2 = [[Common Turkic languages|Common Turkic]]
| fam3 = [[Siberian Turkic languages|Siberian Turkic]]
| fam4 = Northern Siberian
| script = [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] ([[Yakut scripts|formerly Latin and Cyrillic-based]])
| nation = {{Flag|Russia}}
*{{Flag|Yakutia}}
| iso2 = sah
| iso3 = sah
| glotto = yaku1245
| glottorefname = Sakha
| map = Yakut and Dolgan languages.png
| mapcaption = {{legend|#000080|Sakha language}}
{{legend|#015A01|[[Dolgan language]]}}
| notice = IPA
| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Yakut is classified as Vulnerable by the [[UNESCO]] [[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]}}}}
}}
'''Yakut''' ({{IPAc-en|j|ə|ˈ|k|uː|t}} {{respell|yə|KOOT}}),<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Yakut}}</ref> also known as '''Yakutian''', '''Sakha''', '''Saqa''' or '''Saxa''' ({{langx|sah|саха тыла|link=no}}), is a [[Turkic languages|Turkic language]] belonging to [[Siberian Turkic languages|Siberian Turkic branch]] and spoken by around 450,000 native speakers, primarily the ethnic [[Yakuts]] and one of the official languages of [[Sakha Republic|Sakha (Yakutia)]], a federal republic in the [[Russian Federation]].

The Yakut language differs from all other Turkic languages in the presence of a layer of vocabulary of unclear origin (possibly [[Paleosiberian languages|Paleo-Siberian]]). There is also a large number of words of [[Mongolic languages|Mongolian]] origin related to ancient borrowings, as well as numerous recent borrowings from [[Russian language|Russian]]. Like other Turkic languages and their ancestor [[Proto-Turkic language|Proto-Turkic]], Yakut is an [[agglutinative language]] and features [[vowel harmony]].

==Classification==
Yakut is a member of the [[Siberian Turkic languages|Northeastern Common Turkic family]] of languages, which also includes [[Shor language|Shor]], [[Tuvan language|Tuvan]] and [[Dolgan language|Dolgan]]. Like most [[Turkic languages]], Yakut has [[vowel harmony]], is [[Agglutinative language|agglutinative]] and has no [[grammatical gender]]. Word order is usually [[subject–object–verb]]. Yakut has been influenced by [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] and [[Mongolian languages]].{{sfn|Forsyth|1994|loc=p.56: "Their language...Turkic in its vocabulary and grammar, shows the influence of both Tungus and Mongolian."}}

Historically, Yakut left the community of [[Common Turkic]] speakers relatively early.{{sfn|Johanson|2021|pp=20,24}} Due to this, it diverges in many ways from other Turkic languages and mutual intelligibility between Yakut and other Turkic languages is low{{sfn|Stachowski|Menz|1998}} and many cognate words are hard to notice when heard. Nevertheless, Yakut contains many features which are important for the reconstruction of [[Proto-Turkic language|Proto-Turkic]], such as the preservation of long vowels.{{sfn|Johanson|2021|p=19}} Despite all the aberrant features of Sakha (i.e. Yakut), it is still considered to belong to Common Turkic (in contrast to [[Chuvash language|Chuvash]]).

==Geographic distribution==
Yakut is spoken mainly in the [[Sakha Republic]]. It is also used by ethnic Yakuts in [[Khabarovsk Region]] and a small diaspora in other parts of the [[Russian Federation]], [[Turkey]], and other parts of the world. [[Dolgan language|Dolgan]], a close relative of Yakut, which formerly was considered by some a dialect of Yakut,{{sfn|Antonov|1997}} is spoken by [[Dolgans]] in [[Krasnoyarsk Region]]. Yakut is widely used as a [[lingua franca]] by other ethnic minorities in the [[Sakha Republic]] – more [[Dolgans]], [[Evenks]], [[Evens]] and [[Yukagirs]] speak Yakut than their own languages. About 8% of the people of other ethnicities than Yakut living in Sakha claimed knowledge of the Yakut language during the [[2002 Russian Census|2002 census]].<ref>Russian Census 2002. [http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_04_06.xls 6. Владение языками (кроме русского) населением отдельных национальностей по республикам, автономной области и автономным округам Российской Федерации] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104083616/http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_04_06.xls |date=2006-11-04 }} (''Knowledge of languages other than Russian by the population of republics, autonomous oblast and autonomous districts'') {{in lang|ru}}</ref>

==Phonology==

{{See also|#Orthography}}

===Consonants===
Yakut has the following consonants [[phonemes]],{{sfn|Pakendorf|Stapert|2020}} where the [[International phonetic alphabet|IPA]] value is provided in slashes '//' and the native script value is provided in bold followed by the romanization in parentheses.

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Consonant phonemes of Yakut
! colspan=2|
! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/ [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]/ [[Uvular consonant|uvular]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPAslink|m}} '''м''' (''m'')
| {{IPAslink|n̪|n}} '''н''' (''n'')
| {{IPAslink|ɲ}} '''нь''' (''ń'')
| {{IPAslink|ŋ}} '''ҥ''' (''ŋ'')
|
|-
! rowspan=2| [[Plosive]] / [[Affricate]]
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPAslink|p}} '''п''' (''p'')
| {{IPAslink|t̪|t}} '''т''' (''t'')
|  {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}} '''ч''' (''č'')
| {{IPAslink|k}} '''к''' (''k'')
|
|-
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| {{IPAslink|b}} '''б''' (''b'')
| {{IPAslink|d̪|d}} '''д''' (''d'')
|  {{IPAslink|d͡ʑ}} '''дь''' (''ǰ'')
| {{IPAslink|ɡ}} '''г''' (''g'')
|
|-
! rowspan=2| [[Fricative]]
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
|
| {{IPAslink|s}} '''с''' (''s'')
|
| {{IPAslink|χ}} '''х''' (''x'')
| {{IPAslink|h}} '''һ''' (''h'')
|-
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
|
|
|
| {{IPAslink|ʁ}} '''ҕ''' (''ɣ'')
|
|-
! rowspan=2| [[Approximant]]
! {{small|plain}}
|
| {{IPAslink|l}} '''л''' (''l'')
| {{IPAslink|j}} '''й''' (''y'')
|
|
|-
! {{small|[[nasalization|nasalized]]}}
|
|
| {{IPAslink|ȷ̃}} '''й''' (''ỹ'')
|
|
|-
! colspan=2| [[Flap consonant|Flap]]
|
| {{IPAslink|ɾ}} '''р''' (''r'')
|
|
|
|}

* {{IPA|/n, t, d/}} are [[Laminal consonant|laminal]] [[Denti-alveolar consonant|denti-alveolar]] {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|n̪}}, {{IPAplink|t̪}}, {{IPAplink|d̪}}]}}, whereas {{IPA|/s, l, ɾ/}} are [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]] {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|s}}, {{IPAplink|l}}, {{IPAplink|ɾ}}]}}.
* The nasal glide {{IPA|/ȷ̃/}} is not distinguished from {{IPA|/j/}} in the orthography, where both are written as {{angbr|й}}. Thus '''айыы''' can be ''ayïï'' {{IPA |[ajɯː]}} 'deed, creation, work' or ''aỹïï'' {{IPA |[aȷ̃ɯː]}} 'sin, transgression.'{{sfn|Krueger|1962|p=67}} The nasal glide {{IPA|/ȷ̃/}} has a very restricted distribution, appearing in very few words.{{sfn|Pakendorf|Stapert|2020|p=432}}
* {{IPA|/ɾ/}} is pronounced as a flap {{IPAslink|ɾ}} between vowels, e.g. '''орон''' (''oron'') {{IPA|[oɾon]}} 'place', and as a trill at the end of words, e.g. '''тур''' (''tur'') {{IPA|[tur]}} 'stand'.{{sfn|Krueger|1962|pp=68-9}}{{sfn|Kharitonov|1947|p=63}}
** {{IPA|/ɾ/}} does not occur at the beginning of words in native Yakut words; borrowed Russian words with onset {{IPA|/ɾ/}} are usually rendered with an epenthetic vowel, e.g. Russian '''рама''' (''rama'') > Yakut '''араама''' (''araama'') 'frame'.

Yakut is in many ways phonologically unique among the [[Turkic languages]]. Yakut and the closely related [[Dolgan language]] are the only Turkic languages without [[Sibilant#Tongue shape|hushing sibilants]]. Additionally, no known Turkic languages other than Yakut and [[Khorasani Turkic language|Khorasani Turkic]] have the palatal nasal {{IPAslink|ɲ}}.

==== Consonant assimilation ====

Consonants at morpheme boundaries undergo extensive [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilation]], both progressive and regressive.{{sfn|Kharitonov|1947|p=64}}{{sfn|Stachowski|Menz|1998|p=420}} All suffixes possess numerous [[allomorphs]]. For suffixes which begin with a consonant, the surface form of the consonant is conditioned on the stem-final segment. There are four such [[Phoneme#Neutralization and archiphonemes|archiphonemic]] consonants: ''G'', ''B'', ''T'', and ''L''. Examples of each are provided in the following table for the suffixes ''-GIt'' (second-person plural possessive suffix, ''oɣoɣut'' 'your [pl.] child'), ''-BIt'' (first-person plural possessive suffix, ''oɣobut'', 'our child'), ''-TA'' ([[partitive case]] suffix, ''{{transl|sah|tiiste}}'' 'some teeth'), ''-LArA'' (third-person plural possessive suffix, ''oɣoloro'' 'their child'). Note that the alternation in the vowels is governed by vowel harmony (see [[Vowel harmony|the main article]] and [[#Vowel harmony|the below section]]).

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Yakut consonant assimilation in suffixes
|-
! rowspan="2"|Consonant archiphoneme
! colspan="7" | Immediately preceding sound (example)
|-
! High vowel i, u, ï, ü (''kihi'')
! Low vowel a, e, o, ö (''oɣo'')
! {{IPA|/l/}} (''uol'')
! {{IPA|/j,ɾ/}} (''kötör'')
! Voiceless consonants (''tiis'')
! {{IPA|/χ/}} (''ïnaχ'')
! Nasal (''oron'')
|-
! G ''-GIt''
| {{IPAblink|g}} ''kihigit''
| {{IPAblink|ɣ}} ''oɣoɣut''
| {{IPAblink|g}} ''uolgut''
| {{IPAblink|g}} ''kötörgüt''
| {{IPAblink|k}} ''tiiskit''
| {{IPAblink|χ}} ''ïnaχχït''
| {{IPAblink|ŋ}} ''oroŋŋut''{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Regressive velarization.}}
|-
! B ''-BIt''
| {{IPAblink|b}} ''kihibit''
| {{IPAblink|b}} ''oɣobut''
| {{IPAblink|b}} ''uolbut''
| {{IPAblink|b}} ''kötörbüt''
| {{IPAblink|p}} ''tiispit''
| {{IPAblink|p}} ''ïnaχpït''
| {{IPAblink|m}} ''orommut''{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Regressive labialization.}}
|-
! T ''-TA''
| {{IPAblink|t}} ''kihite''
| {{IPAblink|t}} ''oɣoto''
| {{IPAblink|l}} ''uolla''
| {{IPAblink|d}} ''kötördö''
| {{IPAblink|t}} ''tiiste''
| {{IPAblink|t}} ''ïnaχta''
| {{IPAblink|n}} ''oronnut''
|-
! L ''-LArA''
| {{IPAblink|l}} ''kihilere''
| {{IPAblink|l}} ''oɣoloro''
| {{IPAblink|l}} ''uollara''
| {{IPAblink|d}} ''kötördörö''
| {{IPAblink|t}} ''tiistere''
| {{IPAblink|t}} ''ïnaχtara''
| {{IPAblink|n}} ''oronnoro''
|-
!
| 'person'
| 'child'
| 'boy'
| 'bird'
| 'tooth'
| 'cow'
| 'bed'
|}

{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

There is an additional regular [[morphophonological]] pattern for {{IPAblink|t}}-final stems: they assimilate in [[place of articulation]] with an immediately following labial or velar. For example ''at'' 'horse' > ''akkït'' 'your [pl.] horse', > ''appït'' 'our horse'.

==== Debuccalization ====

Yakut initial '''s-''' corresponds to initial '''h-''' in Dolgan and played an important operative rule in the development of proto-Yakut, ultimately resulting in initial '''Ø-''' < '''*h-''' < '''*s-''' (example: Dolgan '''h'''uoq and Yakut '''s'''uox, both meaning "not").{{Clarify|date=March 2022|Historical debuccalization is the same in both, the synchronic patterns in the reflex to PT *y (>s) are what differs between Dolgan and Yakut}} The historical change of ''*s'' > ''h'', known as [[debuccalization]], is a common sound-change across the world's languages, being characteristic of such languages as Greek and Indo-Iranian in their development from Proto-Indo-European, as well as such Turkic languages as Bashkir, e.g. '''höt''' 'milk' < '''*süt'''.<ref>[http://www.livingtongues.org/docs/yakut_historical_phonology.pdf Ubrjatova, E. I. 1960 Opyt sravnitel'nogo izuc˙enija fonetic˙eskix osobennostej naselenija nekotoryx rajonov Jakutskoj ASSR. Moscow. 1985. Jazyk noril'skix dolgan. Novosibirsk: "Nauka" SO. In Tungusic Languages 2 (2): 1–32. Historical Aspects of Yakut (Saxa) Phonology. Gregory D. S. Anderson. University of Chicago.]</ref> [[Debuccalization]] of /s/ to /h/ is also found as a [[diachronic]] change from [[Proto-Celtic]] to [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]], and has actually become a ''[[synchronic analysis|synchronic]]'' grammaticalised feature called [[lenition]] in the related [[Goidelic]] languages ([[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic|Scottish]], and [[Manx language|Manx]]).

Debuccalization is also an active phonological process in modern Yakut. Intervocalically the phoneme {{IPAslink|s}} becomes {{IPAblink|h}}. For example the /s/ in '''кыыс''' (''kïïs'') 'girl' becomes [h] between vowels:{{sfn|Johanson|2021|p=36}}

{{interlinear|lang=sah|number=a.
| kïï'''s''' > kïï'''h'''-ïm
| girl > girl-POSS.1SG
| 'girl; daughter' > 'my daughter'
}}

===Vowels===

Yakut has twenty phonemic vowels: eight short vowels, eight long vowels,{{refn|group=lower-alpha|The long vowel phonemes /eː/, /ɔː/, and /øː/ appear in very few words and are thus considered [[marginal phonemes]].{{sfn|Johanson|2021|p=283}}}} and four diphthongs. The following table give broad transcriptions for each vowel phoneme,{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Note that these vowels are extremely broad. Narrower transcriptions{{sfnm|1a1=Pakendorf|1a2=Stapert|1y=2020|1p=433|2a1=Anderson|2y=1998}} transcribe the high back non-front vowel '''ы''' as central {{IPAslink|ɨ}}. The front non-high unrounded open vowel in '''э''', '''ээ''', and '''иэ''' are more accurately {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, {{IPA|[ɛː]}}, {{IPA|[iɛ]}}, respectively.}} as well as the native script bold and romanization in italics:

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Vowel phonemes of Yakut
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
!{{small|unrounded}} || {{small|rounded}}
!{{small|unrounded}} || {{small|rounded}}
|-
!rowspan="2" | [[Close vowel|Close]]
!{{small|short}}
|{{IPAslink|i}} '''и''' (''i'')
|{{IPAslink|y}} '''ү''' (''ü'')
|{{IPAslink|ɯ}} '''ы''' (''ï''{{refn|group=lower-alpha|'''ы''' is occasionally Romanized as ''y'',{{sfnm|1a1=Vinokurova|1y=2005|2a1=Baker|2a2=Vinokurova|2y=2010}} consistent with the [[BGN/PCGN romanization of Russian|BGN/PCGN romanization of Russian Cyrillic]]. Turkologists and Altaicists tend to transcribe the vowel as ''ï'',{{sfnm|1a1=Robbeets|1a2=Savalyev|1y=2020|1p=lxxxii|2a1=Johanson|2y=2021|3a1=Krueger|3y=1962|4a1=Stachowski|4a2=Menz|4y=1998}} or as ''ɨ''.{{sfn|Anderson|1998}}}})
|{{IPAslink|u}} '''у''' (''u'')
|-
!{{small|long}}{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Some authors romanize long vowels with a macron (e.g. /iː/ ''ī'', /yː/ ''ǖ''){{sfn|Stachowski|Menz|1998}} or with a colon (e.g. /iː/ ''i:''/''iː'', /yː/, ''ü:''/''üː'').<ref>{{harvnb|Pakendorf|2007}}; {{harvnb|Pakendorf|Stapert|2020}}</ref>}}
|{{IPAslink|iː}} '''ии ''' (''ii'')
|{{IPAslink|yː}} '''үү''' (''üü'')
|{{IPAslink|ɯː}} '''ыы''' (''ïï'')
|{{IPAslink|uː}} '''уу''' (''uu'')
|-
!colspan="2" | [[Diphthong]]
|{{IPA|/ie/}} '''иэ ''' (''ie'')
|{{IPA|/yø/}} '''үө''' (''üö'')
|{{IPA|/ɯa/}} '''ыа''' (''ïa'')
|{{IPA|/uɔ/}} '''уо''' (''uo'')
|-
!rowspan="2" | [[Open vowel|Open]]
!{{small|short}}
|{{IPAslink|e}} '''э''' (''e'')
|{{IPAslink|ø}} '''ө''' (''ö'')
|{{IPAslink|a}} '''а''' (''a'')
|{{IPAslink|ɔ}} '''о''' (''o'')
|-
!{{small|long}}
|{{IPAslink|eː}} '''ээ''' (''ee'')
|{{IPAslink|øː}} '''өө''' (''öö'')
|{{IPAslink|aː}} '''аа''' (''aa'')
|{{IPAslink|ɔː}} '''оо''' (''oo'')
|}
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==== Vowel harmony ====

Like other [[Vowel harmony#Turkic languages|Turkic languages]], a characteristic feature of Yakut is [[vowel harmony|progressive vowel harmony]]. Most root words obey vowel harmony, for example in '''кэлин''' (''kelin'') 'back', all the vowels are front and unrounded. Yakut's vowel harmony in suffixes is the most complex system in the Turkic family.{{sfn|Johanson|2021|p=315}} Vowel harmony is an [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] process where vowels in one syllable take on certain features of vowels in the preceding syllable. In Yakut, subsequent vowels all take on [[Vowel#Acoustics|frontness]] and all non-low vowels take on [[lip rounding]] of preceding syllables' vowels.{{sfnm|Krueger|1962|1pp=48-9|2a1=Stachowski|2a2=Menz|2y=1998|2p=419}} There are two main rules of vowel harmony:

# Frontness/backness harmony:
## Front vowels are always followed by front vowels.
## Back vowels are always followed by back vowels.
# Rounding harmony:
## Unrounded vowels are always followed by unrounded vowels.
## Close rounded vowels always occur after close rounded vowels.
## Open unrounded vowels '''do not''' assimilate in rounding with close rounded vowels.

The quality of the diphthongs /ie, ïa, uo, üö/ for the purposes of vowel harmony is determined by the first segment in the diphthong. Taken together, these rules mean that the pattern of subsequent syllables in Yakut is entirely predictable, and all words will follow the following pattern:{{sfn|Johanson|2021|p=316}} Like the [[#Consonant_assimilation|consonant assimilation]] rules above, suffixes display numerous allomorphs determined by the stem they attach to. There are two [[Phoneme#Neutralization and archiphonemes|archiphoneme vowels]] ''I'' (an underlyingly high vowel) and ''A'' (an underlyingly low vowel).

<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Yakut vowel harmony
|-
! Category
! Final vowel in stem
! Suffix vowels
|-
! Unrounded, back
| a, aa, ï, ïï, ïa
| a, aa, ï, ïï, ïa
|-
! Unrounded, front
| e, ee, i, ii, ie
| e, ee, i, ii, ie
|-
! Rounded back
| u, uu, uo
| a, aa, u, uu, uo
|-
! Rounded, front, close
| ü, üü, üö
| e, ee, ü, üü, üö
|-
! Rounded, back
| o, oo
| o, oo, u, uu, uo
|-
! Rounded, open, low
| ö, öö
| ö, öö, ü, üü, üö
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Vowel harmony of archiphonemic vowels
|-
! rowspan="4"|Archiphonemic vowel
! colspan="6"|Preceding vowel
|-
! colspan="3"|Front
! colspan="3"|Back
|-
! rowspan="2"|unrounded (''i, ii, ie, e, ee'')
! colspan="2"|rounded
! rowspan="2"|unrounded (''ï, ïï, ïa, a, aa'')
! colspan="2"|rounded
|-
! high (''ü, üü, üö'')
! low (''ö, öö'')
! high (''u, uu, uo'')
! low (''o, oo'')
|-
! I
| i
| colspan="2"| ü
| ï
| colspan="2"|u
|-
! A
| colspan="2"|e
| ö
| colspan="2"|a
| o
|}
</div>

Examples of ''I'' can be seen in the first-person singular possessive agreement suffix ''-(I)m'':{{refn|''-(I)m'' indicates that this suffix appears as ''-m'' in vowel-final words (e.g. ''oɣo'' 'child' > ''oɣo'''m''''' 'my child'.}} as in (a):

{|
|
{{Interlinear|lang=sah|number=a.
| aat-'''ïm'''
| name-POSS.1SG
| 'my name'
}}
|
{{Interlinear|lang=sah
| et-'''im'''
| meat-POSS.1SG
| 'my meat'
}}
|
{{Interlinear|lang=sah
| uol-'''um'''
| son-POSS.1SG
| 'my son'
}}
|
{{Interlinear|lang=sah
| üüt-'''üm'''
| milk-POSS.1SG
| 'my milk'
}}
|}

The underlyingly low vowel phoneme ''A'' is represented through the third-person singular agreement suffix ''-(t)A''{{refn|Consonants in parentheses indicate that the suffix loses the consonant in consonant-final words, e.g. ''uol'' 'son' > ''uol'''a''''' 'his/her son.'}} in (b):

{|
|
{{Interlinear|lang=sah|number=b.
| aɣa-'''ta'''
| father-POSS.3SG
| 'his/her father'
}}
|
{{Interlinear|lang=sah
| iỹe-'''te'''
| mother-POSS.3SG
| 'his/her mother'
}}
|
{{Interlinear|lang=sah
| oɣo-'''to'''
| child-POSS.3SG
| 'his/her child'
}}
|
{{Interlinear|lang=sah
| töbö-'''tö'''
| top-POSS.3SG
| 'his/her top'
}}
|
{{Interlinear|lang=sah
| uol-'''a'''
| son-POSS.3SG
| 'his/her son'
}}
|}

==Orthography==
{{Main|Yakut scripts}}

After three earlier phases of development, Yakut is currently written using the [[Cyrillic script]]: the modern Yakut alphabet, established in 1939 by the [[Soviet Union]], consists of all the [[Russian alphabet|Russian]] characters with five additional letters for [[phonemes]] not present in Russian: '''Ҕҕ, Ҥҥ, Өө, Һһ, Үү''', as follows:

{| style="font-family:Arial Unicode MS; font-size:1.4em; border-color:#000000; border-width:1px; border-style:solid; border-collapse:collapse; background-color:#F8F8EF"
|+ {{small|Yakut Cyrillic alphabet ('''Сахалыы сурук-бичик''', ''Saxalïï suruk-bičik'')}}
|-
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | А а
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Б б
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | В в
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Г г
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҕ ҕ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Д д
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Дь дь
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Е е
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ё ё
|-
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ж ж
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | З з
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | И и
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Й й
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | К к
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Л л
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | М м
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Н н
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҥ ҥ
|-
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Нь нь
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | О о
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ө ө
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | П п
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Р р
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | С с
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Һ һ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Т т
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | У у
|-
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ү ү
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ф ф
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Х х
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ц ц
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ч ч
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ш ш
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Щ щ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ъ ъ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ы ы
|-
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ь ь
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Э э
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ю ю
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Я я
|}

{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+ class="nowrap"| Yakut alphabet, letter names, [[International_phonetic_alphabet|IPA]] values
|-
! scope="row"| {{small|Letter}}
| А
| Б
| В
| Г
| Ҕ
| Д
| Дь
| Е
| Ё
| Ж
| З
| И
| Й
| К
| Л
| М
| Н
| Ҥ
| Нь
| О
| Ө
| П
| Р
| С
| Һ
| Т
| У
| Ү
| Ф
| Х
| Ц
| Ч
| Ш
| Щ
| Ъ
| Ы
| Ь
| Э
| Ю
| Я
|-
! scope="row"| {{small|Name}}
| а
| бэ
| вэ
| гэ
| ҕэ
| дэ
| дьэ
| е
| ё
| жэ
| зэ
| и
| ый
| кы
| эл
| эм
| эн
| ҥэ
| ньэ
| о
| ө
| пэ
| эр
| эс
| һэ
| тэ
| у
| ү
| эф
| хэ
| цэ
| че
| ша
| ща
| {{refn|group=lower-alpha|кытаанах бэлиэ}}
| ы
| {{refn|group=lower-alpha|сымнатар бэлиэ.}}
| э
| ю
| я
|-
! scope="row"| {{small|IPA}}
| {{IPAslink|a}}
| {{IPAslink|b}}
| {{IPAslink|v}}
| {{IPAslink|g}}
| {{IPAslink|ɣ}}
| {{IPAslink|d}}
| {{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}}
| {{IPA|/(j)e/}}
| {{IPA|/jo/}}
| {{IPAslink|ʒ}}
| {{IPAslink|z}}
| {{IPAslink|i}}
| {{IPAslink|j}}, {{IPAslink|ȷ̃}}
| {{IPAslink|k}}
| {{IPAslink|l}}
| {{IPAslink|m}}
| {{IPAslink|n}}
| {{IPAslink|ŋ}}
| {{IPAslink|ɲ}}
| {{IPAslink|ɔ}}
| {{IPAslink|ø}}
| {{IPAslink|p}}
| {{IPAslink|ɾ}}
| {{IPAslink|s}}
| {{IPAslink|h}}
| {{IPAslink|t}}
| {{IPAslink|u}}
| {{IPAslink|y}}
| {{IPAslink|f}}
| {{IPAslink|χ}}
| {{IPAslink|t͡s}}
| {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}
| {{IPAslink|ʃ}}
| {{IPAslink|ɕː}}
| {{IPA|/◌.j/}}
| {{IPAslink|ɯ}}
| {{IPAslink|◌ʲ}}
| {{IPAslink|e}}
| {{IPA|/ju/}}
| {{IPA|/ja/}}
|-
|colspan="41"|{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
|}

[[Long vowels]] are represented through the doubling of vowels, e.g. '''үүт''' (''üüt'') /{{IPA-link|yːt}}/ 'milk,' a practice that many scholars follow in Romanizations of the language.{{sfn|Krueger|1962}}{{sfn|Vinokurova|2005}}{{sfn|Petrova|2011}}

The full Yakut alphabet contains letters for consonant phonemes not present in native words (and thus not indicated in the phonology tables above): the letters '''В''' {{IPAslink|v}}, '''Е''' /{{IPA|(j)e}}/, '''Ё''' /{{IPA|jo}}|/, '''Ж''' {{IPAslink|ʒ}}, '''З''' {{IPAslink|z}}, '''Ф''' {{IPAslink|f}}, '''Ц''' {{IPAslink|t͡s}}, '''Ш''' {{IPAslink|ʃ}}, '''Щ''' {{IPAslink|ɕː}}, '''[[Ъ]]''', '''Ю''' /{{IPA|ju}}/, '''Я''' /{{IPA|ja}}/ are used exclusively in Russian loanwords. In addition, in native Yakut words, the [[soft sign]] {{angbr|Ь}} is used exclusively in the digraphs {{angbr|дь}} and {{angbr|нь}}.

===Transliteration===

There are numerous conventions for the Romanization of Yakut. Bibliographic sources and libraries typically use the [[ALA-LC_romanization| ALA-LC]] Romanization tables for non-Slavic languages in Cyrillic script.<ref name="ALA romanization">{{cite web |title=Non-Slavic languages (in Cyrillic Script) |website=[[Library of Congress]] |url=https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/nonslav.pdf |access-date=31 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103195111/https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/nonslav.pdf|archive-date=November 3, 2021}}</ref> Linguists often employ [[Turkology|Turkological]] standards for transliteration,<ref>{{harvnb|Krueger|1962}}; {{harvnb|Stachowski|Menz|1998}}; {{harvnb|Johanson|2021}}; {{harvnb|Menz|Monastyrev|2022}}</ref> or a mixture of Turkological standards and the [[International_phonetic_alphabet|IPA]].{{sfn|Anderson|1998}} In addition, others employ [[Turkish orthography]].{{sfn|Kirişçioğlu|1999}} Comparison of some of these systems can be seen in the following:

{{fs interlinear|lang=sah|number=(a)
| дьон
| /d͡ʒon/
| people
| 'people'<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sakhatyla.ru/translate?q=%D0%B4%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BD | title=дьон | author= | website=sakhatyla.ru | access-date=April 2, 2022 }}</ref>}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=sah|number=(b)
| айыы
| /ajɯː/
| creation
| 'creation'<ref>{{cite web| url= https://sakhatyla.ru/translate?q=%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B%D1%8B| title=айыы| website=sakhatyla.ru| access-date=April 2, 2022}}</ref>}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=sah|number=(c)
| бу ыт аттааҕар түргэнник сүүрэр
| /bu ɯt at.taːɣar tyrgɛn.nɪk syːrɛr/
| DEM dog horse-COMP fast-ADV run-PRES
| 'This dog runs faster than a horse'{{sfn|Krueger|1962|p=89}}}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=sah|number=(d)
| эһэ бөрөтөөҕөр күүстээх
| /ɛhɛ bøɾøtøːɣør kyːstɛːχ/
| bear wolf-COMP strong-have
| 'A bear is stronger than a wolf'{{sfn|Krueger|1962|p=89}}}}

{| class=wikitable
|+ Comparison of different conventions for transcribing Yakut
|-
! colspan="2"| || дьон || айыы || бу || ыт || аттааҕар || түргэнник || сүүрэр || эһэ || бөрөтөөҕөр || күүстээх
|-
! colspan="2"| IPA
| /{{IPA|d͡ʒon}}/ || /{{IPA|ajɯː}}/ || /{{IPA|bu}}/ || /{{IPA|ɯt}}/ || /{{IPA|at.taːɣar}}/ || /{{IPA|tyrgɛn.nɪk}}/ || /{{IPA|syːrɛr}}/ || /{{IPA|ɛhɛ}}/ || /{{IPA|bøɾøtøːɣør}}/ || /{{IPA|kyːstɛːχ}}/
|-
! rowspan="3" | {{small|Turkological}}
! [[John_Krueger|Krueger]]
| ǰon || ajıı || bu || ıt || attaaɣar || türgennik || süürer || ehe || böröötööɣör || küüsteeχ
|-
! {{small|[[Lars_Johanson|Johanson]]}}
| ǰon || ayï: || bu || ït || atta:ɣar || türgännik || sü:rär || ähä || börötö:ɣör || kü:stä:χ
|-
! {{small|Robbeets & Savalyev}}
| ʤon || ïyïː || bu || ït || attaːɣar || türgennik || süːrer || ehe || börötöːɣör || kü:steːχ
|-
! colspan="2" | [[ALA-LC_romanization|ALA-LC]]<ref name="ALA romanization"/>
| d'on || aĭyy || bu || yt || attaaghar || tu̇rgennik || su̇u̇rer || eḣe || bȯrȯtȯȯghȯr || ku̇u̇steekh
|-
! colspan="2" | KNAB<ref>{{Cite web|date=August 2019|title=Romanization|url= https://www.eki.ee/knab/lat/kblsah.pdf}}</ref>
| djon ||ajy: || bu || yt || atta:ǧar || türgennik || sü:rer || eḩe || börötö:ǧör || kü:ste:h
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Turkish orthography]]
| con || ayıı || bu || ıt || attaağar || türgennik || süürer || ehe || börötööğör || küüsteex
|}



==Grammar==

===Syntax===
The typical word order can be summarized as [[subject (grammar)|subject]] – [[adverb]] – [[object (grammar)|object]] – [[verb]]; [[Possession (linguistics)|possessor]] – [[Possession (linguistics)|possessed]]; [[adjective]] – [[noun]].

===Pronouns===
Personal pronouns in Yakut distinguish between first, second, and third persons and singular and plural number.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=2 |
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! colspan=2 | 1st person
| {{lang|sah|мин}} ({{transl|sah|min}})
| {{lang|sah|биһиги}} ({{transl|sah|bihigi}})
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd person
| {{lang|sah|эн}} ({{transl|sah|en}})
| {{lang|sah|эһиги}} ({{transl|sah|ehigi}})
|-
! rowspan=2 | 3rd person
!human
| {{lang|sah|кини{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Cognate with [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''kendi'' (self)}}}} ({{transl|sah|kini}})
| {{lang|sah|кинилэр}} ({{transl|sah|kiniler}})
|-
!non-human
| {{lang|sah|ол}} ({{transl|sah|ol}})
| {{lang|sah|олор}} ({{transl|sah|olor}})
|}

{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

Although nouns have no [[grammatical gender|gender]], the [[pronoun]] system [[Animacy|distinguishes]] between human and non-human in the third person, using {{lang|sah|кини}} ({{transl|sah|kini}}, 'he/she') to refer to human beings and {{lang|sah|ол}} ({{transl|sah|ol}}, 'it') to refer to all other things.<ref>{{cite book | author=Kirişçioğlu, M. Fatih | title=Saha (Yakut) Türkçesi Grameri | location=Ankara | publisher=Türk Dil Kurumu | year=1999 |isbn=975-16-0587-3}}</ref>

===Grammatical number===
Nouns have plural and singular forms. The plural is formed with the suffix /-LAr/, which may surface as '''-лар''' (''-lar''), '''-лэр''' (''-ler''), '''-лөр''' (''-lör''), '''-лор''' (''-lor''), '''-тар''' (''-tar''), '''-тэр''' (''-ter''), '''-төр''' (''-tör''), '''-тор''' (''-tor''), '''-дар''' (''-dar''), '''-дэр''' (''-der''), '''-дөр''' (''-dör''), '''-дор''' (''-dor''), '''-нар''' (''-nar''), '''-нэр''' (''-ner''), '''-нөр''' (''-nör''), or '''{{nowrap|-нор}}''' (''{{nowrap|-nor}}''), depending on the preceding consonants and vowels. The plural is used only when referring to a number of things collectively, not when specifying an amount. Nouns have no [[grammatical gender|gender]].
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Final sound basics !! Plural affix options !! Examples
|-
| Vowels, {{IPA|/l/}} ||''-lar, -ler, -lor, -lör''  || ''kïïllar'' 'beasts', ''eheler'' 'bears', ''oɣolor'' 'children', ''börölör'' 'wolves'
|-
| {{IPA|/k, p, s, t, χ/}} || ''-tar, -ter, -tor, -tör'' || ''attar'' 'horses', ''külükter'' 'shadows', ''ottor'', 'herbs', ''bölöxtör'' 'groups'
|-
| {{IPA|/y, r/}} || ''-dar, -der, -dor, -dör'' || ''baaydar'' 'rich people', ''ederder'' 'young people'{{refn|group=lower-alpha|''baydar'' 'rich people' and ''ederder'' 'young' people are examples of predicative adjectives (i.e. ''baay'' 'rich', ''eder'' 'young') being pluralized}} ''xotoydor'' 'eagles', ''kötördör'' 'birds'
|-
| {{IPA|/m, n, ŋ/}} ||''-nar, -ner, -nor, -nör''  || ''kïïmnar'' 'sparks', ''ilimner'' 'fishing nets', ''oronnor'' 'beds', ''bödöŋnör'' 'large ones'
|}

{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

There is a parallel construction with plural suffix ''{{nowrap|-ттАр}}'', which can even be added to adjectives e.g.
*'''{{lang|sah|уол}}''' ({{transl|sah|uol}}) 'boy; son' > '''{{lang|sah|уолаттар}}''' ({{transl|sah|uolattar}}),
*'''{{lang|sah|эр}}''' 'man' > '''{{lang|sah|эрэттэр}}''' or folkloric '''{{lang|sah|эрэн}}''' (cf. Uzbek folkloric ''{{lang|uz|eran}}'')
*'''{{lang|sah|хотун}}''' 'noblewoman' > '''{{lang|sah|хотуттар}}''' or '''хотут'''
*'''{{lang|sah|тойон}}''' 'commander' > '''{{lang|sah|тойоттор}}''' or '''{{lang|sah|тойот}}'''
* '''{{lang|sah|оҕонньор}}''' 'old man, husband' > '''оҕонньоттор'''
*'''кэм''' 'time' > '''кэммит'''
*'''дьон''' 'people' > '''дьоммут'''
*'''ойун''' 'shaman' > '''ойууттар'''
*'''доҕор''' 'friend' > '''доҕоттор'''
*'''күөл''' 'lake' > '''күөлэттэр'''
*'''хоһуун''' 'hard-working' > '''хоһууттар'''
*'''буур''' 'male' (of deer and elk) > '''буураттар''' ('male deers')
*'''{{lang|sah|кыыс}}''' ({{transl|sah|kïïs}}) 'girl; daughter' > '''{{lang|sah|кыргыттар}}''' ({{transl|sah|kïrgïttar}}) (standard, [[suppletion|suppletive]]) or '''кыыстар''' (dialectal, regular).
The word ''кыргыттар'', disregarding the composite ''{{nowrap|-(ы)ттар}}'' plural suffix, has cognates in numerous Turkic languages, such as [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] (''{{lang|uz|qirqin}}'' 'bondwoman'), [[Bashkir language|Bashkir]], Tatar, Kyrgyz (''кыз-кыркын'' 'girls'), Chuvash (''{{lang|cv|хӑрхӑм}}''), Turkmen (''gyrnak'') and extinct Qarakhanid, Khwarezmian and Chaghatay.

===Nominal inflection (cases)===
Only Sakha (Yakut) has a rich case system that differs markedly from all the other [[Siberian Turkic languages]]. It has retained the ancient comitative case from [[Old Turkic]] (due to strong influence from [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]) while in other [[Turkic languages]], the old comitative has become an instrumental case. However, in Sakha language the Old Turkic locative case has come to denote partitive case, thus leaving no case form for the function of locative. Instead, locative, dative and allative cases are realized through Common Turkic dative suffix: {{interlinear|lang=sah|indent=2|Норуокка "хайа хаппыыстата" диэн аатынан биллэр хайа'''ҕа''' үүнэр үүнээйи.|A plant known among locals as "mountain cabbage" that grows on a mountain.}} where ''-ҕа'' is dative and ''хайаҕа'' literally means "to the mountain". Furthermore, (in addition to locative,) genitive and [[Equative case|equative]] cases are lost as well. Yakut has eight [[grammatical case]]s: [[Nominative case|nominative]] (unmarked), [[Accusative case|accusative]] ''-(n)I'', [[Dative case|dative]] ''-GA'', [[Partitive case|partitive]] ''-TA'', [[Ablative case|ablative]] ''-(t)tan'', [[Instrumental case|instrumental]] ''-(I)nAn'', [[Comitative case|comitative]] ''-LIIn'', and [[Comparative case|comparative]] ''-TAAɣAr''.<ref>{{harvnb|Krueger|1962}}; {{harvnb|Stachowski|Menz|1998}}; {{harvnb|Vinokurova|2005}}</ref> Examples of these are shown in the following table for a vowel-final stem {{transl|sah|eye}} (of Mongolian origin) 'peace' and a consonant-final stem {{transl|sah|uot}} 'fire':

{|class="wikitable"
!
! {{transl|sah|eye}} 'peace'
! {{transl|sah|uot}} 'fire'
|-
! Nominative
| {{transl|sah|eye}}
| {{transl|sah|uot}}
|-
! Accusative
| {{transl|sah|eye'''ni'''}}
| {{transl|sah|uot'''u'''}}
|-
! Dative
| {{transl|sah|eye'''ɣe'''}}
| {{transl|sah|uok'''ka'''}}
|-
! Partitive{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Sakha partitive suffix is believed by some linguists to be an innovation stemming from the influence of Evenki which led the Old Turkic locative suffix to assume partitive function in Sakha; no other Turkic language has partitive suffix save for [[Khalaj language|Khalaj]] and (nearly-extinct) [[Tofa language|Tofa]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVA3biex3FMC&dq=khalaj+partitive&pg=PA205|title=Argument Structure and Grammatical Relations|page=205|isbn=9789027274717 |last1=Suihkonen |first1=Pirkko |last2=Comrie |first2=Bernard |last3=Solovyev |first3=Valery |date=18 July 2012 |publisher=John Benjamins }}</ref> Sakha partitive is similar to the corresponding [[Finnish language|Finnish]] partitive case.<ref>{{cite book|title=Syntactic architecture and its consequences III|page=54|isbn=9783985540044 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xn8wEAAAQBAJ&dq=partitive+sakha&pg=PA53 |last1=Bárány |first1=András |last2=Biberauer |first2=Theresa |last3=Douglas |first3=Jamie |last4=Vikner |first4=Sten |date=28 May 2021 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand }}</ref>}}
| {{transl|sah|eye'''te'''}}
| {{transl|sah|uot'''ta'''}}
|-
! Ablative{{refn|group=lower-alpha|The Ablative suffix appears as ''-TAn'' following a consonant and ''-TTAn'' following a vowel. Clear examples of the former are {{transl|sah|ox}} 'arrow' → {{transl|sah|ox'''ton'''}} 'from an/the arrow', {{transl|sah|oxtor'''ton'''}} 'from (the) arrows'.}}
| {{transl|sah|eye'''tten'''}}
| {{transl|sah|uot'''tan'''}}
|-
! Instrumental
| {{transl|sah|eye'''nen'''}}
| {{transl|sah|uot'''unan'''}}
|-
! Comitative
| {{transl|sah|eye'''liin'''}}
| {{transl|sah|uot'''tuun'''}}
|-
! Comparative{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Sakha is the only language within the Turkic family to have comparative case.}}
| {{transl|sah|eye'''teeɣer'''}}
| {{transl|sah|uot'''taaɣar'''}}
|}

{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

The partitive object case indicates that just a part of an object is affected, e.g.:

{{Interlinear|lang=sah|indent=2
| Uː-'''ta''' is!
| water-PTV drink-IMP.2SG
| Drink '''some''' water!
}}

The corresponding expression below with the object in the accusative denotes wholeness:

{{Interlinear|lang=sah|indent=2
| Uː-'''nu''' is!
| water-ACC. drink-IMP.2SG
| Drink '''[all]''' the water!
}}
The partitive is only used in imperative or necessitative expressions, e.g.

{{Interlinear|lang=sah|indent=2
| Uː-ta a-γal-ϊaχ-χa naːda.
| water-PT bring-PRO-DAT necessary.
| One has to bring some water.
}}
Note the word naːda is borrowed from Russian надо (must).

A notable detail about Yakut case is the absence of the [[Genitive case|genitive]],{{sfnm|1a1=Krueger|1y=1962|2a1=Stachowski|2a2=Menz|2y=1998|3a1=Baker|3a2=Vinokurova|3y=2010|4a1=Johanson|4y=2021}} a feature which some argue is due to historical contact with [[Evenki language|Evenki]] (a [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic language]]), the language with which Sakha (i.e. Yakut) was in most intensive contact.{{sfn|Pakendorf|2007}} Possessors are unmarked, with the possessive relationship only being realized on the possessed noun itself either through the [[possessive suffix]]{{sfn|Baker|Vinokurova|2010}} (if the subject is a pronoun) or through partitive case suffix (if the subject is any other nominal). For example, in (a) the first-person pronoun subjects are not marked for genitive case; neither do full nominal subjects (possessors) receive any marking, as shown in (b):

{{Interlinear|lang=sah|number=a.
|min oɣo-m / bihigi oɣo-but
|1SG.NOM child-POSS.1SG / 1PL.NOM child-POSS.1PL
| 'my son' / 'our child'
}}

{{Interlinear|lang=sah|number=b.
| Masha aɣa-ta
| Masha.NOM father-PTV.3SG
| 'Masha's father'
}}

===Verbal inflection===
====Tenses====
E. I. Korkina (1970) enumerates following tenses: present-future tense, future tense and eight forms of past tense (including imperfect). Sakha imperfect has two forms: analytic and synthetic. Both forms are based on the aorist suffix ''{{nowrap|-Ar}}'', common to all Turkic languages. The synthetic form, despite expressing a past aspect, lacks the Common Turkic past suffix, which is very unusual for a Turkic language. This is considered by some to be another influence from Even, a Tungusic language. Example:
{{interlinear|indent=2|Биһиги иннибитинэ бу кыбартыыраҕа оҕолоох ыал олорбутт'''ар'''.|Before us, a family with children '''used to''' live here.}}

====Imperative====
Sakha, under Evenki/Even contact influence, has developed a distinction in imperative: immediate imperative ("do now!") and future/remote imperative ("do later!").{{ref|cite web|url=https://hal.univ-lyon2.fr/hal-02889684v1/document |title=Sakha and Dolgan, the North Siberian Turkic languages|page=24}}

{|class="wikitable"
!
! Positive
! Negative
|-
! Immediate
| -∅/-(I)ŋ
| -ma-∅/-ma-(I)ŋ
|-
! Remote
| -A:r/-A:r-(I)ŋ
| -(I)m-A:r/-(I)m-A:r-(I)ŋ
|-
|}

Immediate imperative example:

{{interlinear|lang=sah|indent=2| Николай Атласов алаадьыны буһарыы туһунан кэпсиирин '''истиҥ'''|'''Listen''' to Nikolay Atlasov’s talk about preparing [[oladyi]].}}

====Denominal verbs====
Common Turkic has denominal suffix ''{{nowrap|-LA}}'', used to create verbs from nouns (i.e. Uzbek ''tish'''la'''='' 'to bite' from ''tish'' 'tooth'). The suffix is also present in Sakha (in various shapes, due to vowel harmony), but Sakha takes it a step further: theoretically verbs can be created from any noun by attaching to that noun the denominal suffix:

{{interlinear|lang=sah|indent=2|Арай биирдэ, теннис'''тии''' туран, хараҕым ааһан иһэр кыыска хатана түспүтэ.|Once upon a time, while playing tennis, my eyes caught a sight of a girl passing by.}}

where the word for “playing tennis” (теннистии) is derived from ''теннис'''тээ''''', “to play tennis”, created by attaching the suffix ''{{nowrap|-тээ}}''.

====Converbs====
Sakha converbs end in ''-(A)n'' as opposed to Common Turkic ''-(I)B''. They express simultaneous and sequential action and are also used with auxiliary verbs, preceding them:
{{interlinear|lang=sah|indent=2|Күлүгүн кытта охсуһ'''ан''' таҕыстыҥ|You continuously fought with his shadow.}}
Simultaneous and sequential actions are expressed through the converbial suffix ''{{nowrap|-а(н)}}'':
{{interlinear|lang=sah|indent=2|Самаан сайын бүт'''эн''', айылҕа барахсан уһун улук уутугар оҥостордуу от-мас хагдарыйан күөх солко симэҕин ыһыктар күһүҥҥү тымныы салгыннаах, сиппэрэҥ күннэр тураллар|Summer '''having''' past, very cold and sleety days of autumn arise wherein the mother nature dresses in robe made green by plants growing in shallow waters.}}

{{interlinear|lang=sah|indent=2|Кэл''эн'' иһэллэр, итириктэр|'''After coming''', they drink, (and) get drunk.}}

===Questions===
The Sakha yes–no question marker is enclitic ''duo'' or ''du:'', whereas almost all other Turkic languages use markers of the type ''-mI'', compare:

{{fs interlinear|lang=sah|indent=2
| Күөрэгэй ырыатын истэҕин '''дуо'''?
| kyœregej ïrïa-tï-n ist-e-ɣin {{=}}'''duo'''?
| lark-NOM song-3SG.POSS-ACC hear-PRS-2SG {{=}}Q
| Do you hear the song of larks?
}}

and the same sentence in [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] (note the question suffix '''-mi''' in contrast to Sakha):

{{interlinear|lang=uzb|indent=2
| ''To’rg’ay jirini eshit(a)yapsan'''mi'''?''
}}

Question words in Yakut remain in-situ; they do not [[Wh-movement|move]] to the front of the sentence. Sample question words include: {{lang|sah|туох}} ({{transl|sah|tuox}}) 'what', {{lang|sah|ким}} ({{transl|sah|kim}}) 'who', {{lang|sah|хайдах}} ({{transl|sah|xajdax}}) 'how', {{lang|sah|хас}} ({{transl|sah|xas}}) 'how much; how many', {{lang|sah|ханна}} ({{transl|sah|xanna}}) 'where', and {{lang|sah|ханнык}} ({{transl|sah|xannïk}}) 'which'.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Interrogative pronouns in Sakha {{ref|cite web|url=https://hal.univ-lyon2.fr/hal-02889684v1/document |title=Sakha and Dolgan, the North Siberian Turkic languages|page=15}}
|-
! Pronoun !! Translation
|-
| ким || who
|-
| туох || what
|-
| хаһан || when
|-
| ханна || where
|-
| хайдах || how
|-
| хас || how many
|-
| төһө || how much
|-
| хайа || which, how
|-
| хайаа= || do what?
|-
|}

===Ordinal numbers===
Ordinals are formed by appending ''{{nowrap|-үс}}'' to numerals:

{{interlinear|indent=2|Казань - дойдубут үһ'''үс''' тэбэр сүрэҕэ|Qazan - the '''third''' beating heart of our country}}

===Rusisms===
Together with having a considerable number of Russian loanwords, Sakha language features [[Russianism|Russisms]] in colloquial speech. Example:

{{interlinear|indent=2|lang=sah|Курууса жарылабын.|I am frying a chicken}}

Each word in the sentence above is a loan from Russian.

==Vocabulary==
The vocabulary of Sakha is made up of 29 percent loanwords which are mainly from Russian (17%), Mongolic (10.5%), and Evenki (1%) with the other 0.5% of words coming from other languages or being of unknown origin. The loans from Mongolic are do not appear to be recognizably from any specific Mongolic Language though a few have been traced the [[Buryat language|Buryat]] and [[Khalkha Mongolian|Khalkha]]. They are widely dispersed through various categories of words with words relating to the home and law having the most Mongolic loans. Russian loans on the contrary are much more widespread but less evenly dispersed though various types of words. Words relating to the modern world, clothing, and the home have the most Russian influence.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Haspelmath |first1=Martin |title=Loanwords in the worlds languages A comprehensive handbook |last2=Tadmor |first2=Uri |date=2009 |publisher=[[De Gruyter Mouton]] |isbn=978-3-11-021843-5 |pages=506–508 |language=en}}</ref>

{{Unreferenced section|date=November 2024}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2"| Yakut
! colspan="2"|[[Tuvan language|Tuvan]]
! rowspan="2"|[[Turkish language|Turkish]]
! rowspan="2"|[[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]
! rowspan="2"| English
! rowspan="2"|[[Classical Mongolian language|Classical Mongolian]]
|-
! Cyrillic
! Latin
! Cyrillic
! Latin
|-
|аччыктааһын
|aččïktahïn
| аштаар
| aštaar
|açlık
|ochlik
|hunger
|ölüsgüleŋ ᠥᠯᠥᠰᠬᠦᠯᠡᠩ
|-
|аччык
|aččïk
| аш
| aš
|aç
|och
|hungry
|
|-
|аат
|aat
| ат
| at
|at
|ot
|name
|
|-
|балык
|balïk
|балык
|balïk
|balık
|baliq
|fish
|
|-
|балыксыт
|balïksït
| балыкчы
| balïkčï
|balıkçı
|baliqchi
|fisherman
|jiğasuçi ᠵᠢᠭᠠᠰᠤᠴᠢ
|-
|yy
|uu
|суг
| sug
|su
|suv
|water
|usu ᠤᠰᠤ
|-
|тимир
|timir
|демир
|demir
|demir
|temir
|iron
|temür ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠷ
|-
|күөл
|küöl
|хөл
|khöl
|göl
|ko‘l
|lake
|na'ur ᠨᠠᠭᠤᠷ
|-
|атах
|atax
|
|adaḳ
|ayak
|oyoq
|foot
|
|-
|мурун
|murun
|думчук
|dumčuk
|burun
|burun
|nose
|
|-
|баттах
|battax
|дүк
| dük
|saç
|soch
|hair
|üsü ᠦᠰᠦ
|-
|илии
|ilii
|хол
|khol
|el
|ilik, qo‘l
|hand
|
|-
|күн
|kün
|хүн
|khün
|gün
|kun
|day, sun
|
|-
|муус
|muus
|дош
|doš
|buz
|muz
|ice
|mösü ᠮᠥᠰᠥ
|-
|ыт
|ït
|ыт
|ït
|it
|it
|dog
|
|-
|сүрэх
|sürex
|чүрек
|čürek
|yürek
|yurak
|heart
|jirüke ᠵᠢᠷᠦᠬᠡ
|-
|сарсын
|sarsïn
|даарта, эртен
| daarta, erten
|yarın
|ertaga
|tomorrow
|
|-
|бүгүн
|bügün
|бөгүн
|bögün
|bugün
|bugun
|today
|
|-
|былыт
|bïlït
|булут
|bulut
|bulut
|bulut
|cloud
|
|-
|хаар
|xaar
|хар
|khar
|kar
|qor
|snow
|
|-
|хаан
|xaan
|хан
| khan
|kan
|qon
|blood
|
|-
|эт
|et
|эът
|èt
|et
|et
|meat
|
|-
|тиис
|tiis
|диш
|tiš
|diş
|tish
|tooth
|
|-
|ат
|at
|аът
|àt
|at
|ot
|horse
|
|-
|таас
|taas
|даш
|daš
|taş
|tosh
|stone
|
|-
|үүт
|üüt
|сүт
|süt
|süt
|sut
|milk
|sün ᠰᠦᠨ
|-
|ынах
|ïnax
|инек
|inek
|inek
|inak, sigir
|cow
|
|-
|хара
|xara
|кара
|kara
|kara
|qora
|black
|qar-a ᠬᠠᠷ᠎ᠠ
|-
|сыттык
|sïttïk
|сыртык
|sïrtïk
|yastık
|yostiq
|pillow
|
|-
|быһах
|bïhax
| бижек
| bižek
|bıçak
|pichoq
|knife
|
|-
|бытык
|bïtïk
|
|
|bıyık
|miyiq, mo‘ylov
|mustache
|
|-
|кыс, кыһын
|kïs, kïhïn
|кыш
|kïš
|kış, kışın
|qish
|winter
|
|-
|туус
|tuus
|дус
|dus
|tuz
|tuz
|salt
|
|-
|тыл
|tïl
|дыл
|dïl
|dil
|til
|tongue, language
|kele ᠬᠡᠯᠡ
|-
|cаха тылa
|saxa tïla
|Саха дыл, Якут дыл
|Sakha dïl, Yakut dïl
|saha dili, sahaca
|yoqut tili, yoqutcha
|Yakut language
|
|-
|кыыс
|kïïs
|кыс
|kïs
|kız
|qiz
|girl, daughter
|
|-
|уол
|uol
|оол, оглу
|ool, oglu
|oğul, oğlan
|o‘g‘il
|son, boy
|
|-
|үөрэтээччи
|üöreteečči
|башкы
| baškï
|öğretici, öğretmen
|o‘qituvchi
|teacher
|
|-
|үөрэнээччи
|üöreneečči
|өөреникчи
|öörenikči
|öğrenci, talebe
|o‘quvchi, talaba
|student
|
|-
|уһун
|uhun
|узун
|uzun
|uzun
|uzun
|long, tall
|
|-
|кулгаах
|kulgaax
|кулак
|kulak
|kulak
|quloq
|ear
|
|-
|сыл
|sïl
|чыл, хар
|čïl, khar
|yıl
|yil
|year
|jil ᠵᠢᠯ
|-
|киһи
|kihi
|кижи
|kiži
|kişi
|kishi
|human, man
|kümün ᠬᠥᠮᠦᠨ
|-
|суол
|suol
|орук
|oruk
|yol
|yo‘l
|road, way
|
|-
|асчыт
|asčït
|белеткээр
|beletkeer
|aşçı
|oshchi, oshpaz
|cook
|
|-
|тараах
|taraax
|дыргак
|dïrgak
|tarak
|taroq
|comb
|
|-
|орто
|orto
|орта
|orta
|orta
|o‘rta
|middle
|
|-
|күн ортото
|kün ortoto
|дүш, дүъш, дүъште
|düš, dǜš, dǜšte
|gün ortası
|kun o‘rtasi, tush
|midday, noon
|
|-
|күл
|kül
|хүлүмзүрүүр
|khülümzürüür
|gülmek
|kulmoq, kulumsiramoq
|to laugh; to smile
|
|-
|өл
|öl
|өлүр
|ölür
|ölmek
|o‘lmoq
|to die
|
|-
|ис
|is
|ижер
|ižer
|içmek
|ichmoq
|to drink
|
|-
|бил
|bil
|билир
|bilir
|bilmek
|bilmoq
|to know
|
|-
|көр
|kör
|көөр (көр-)
|köör (kör-)
|görmek
|ko‘rmoq
|to see
|qara ᠬᠠᠷᠠ
|-
|үөрэн
|üören
|өөренир
| öörenir
|öğrenmek
|o‘rganmoq
|to learn
|
|-
|үөрэт
|üöret
|өөредир
|ööredir
|öğretmek
|o‘rgatmoq
|to teach
|
|-
|ытыр
|ïtïr
|ызырар
|ïzïrar
|ısırmak
|tishlamoq
|to bite
|
|-
|хас
|xas
|казар
|kazar
|kazmak
|qozmoq, qazmoq
|to dig
|
|-
|тик
|tik
|даараар
|daaraar
|dikiş dikmek, dikmek
|tikmoq
|to sew
|
|-
|кэл
|kel
|келир
|kelir
|gelmek
|kelmoq
|to come
|
|-
|салаа
|salaa
|чылгаар
|čïlgaar
|yalamak
|yalamoq
|to lick
|
|-
|тараа
|taraa
|
|
|taramak
|taramoq
|to comb
|
|-
|биэр
|bier
|бээр
|beer
|vermek
|bermoq
|to give
|
|-
|бул
|bul
|тывар
|tïvar
|bulmak
|topmoq
|to find
|
|-
|диэ
|die
| дe-, дi-
| de-, di-
|demek
|demoq, aytmoq
|to say
|
|-
|киир
|kiir
|кирер
|kirer
|girmek
|kirmoq
|to enter
|
|-
|иһит
|ihit
|дыңнаар
| dïŋnaar
|işitmek
|eshitmoq, tinglamoq
|to hear
|
|-
|ас
|as
|ажар
|ažar
|açmak
|ochmoq
|to open
|
|-
|тут
|tut
|тудар
|tudar
|tutmak
|tutmoq
|to hold
|
|-
|ый
|ïy
|ай
|ay
|ay
|oy
|moon
|
|-
|ыйытыы
|ïyïtïï
|айтырыг
|aytïrïg
|soru
|savol
|question
|
|-
|кыайыы
|kïayïï
|тиилелге
|tiilelge
|zafer
|yutuq, g‘alaba
|victory
|
|}



===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
![[Old Turkic]]
![[Turkish language|Turkish]]
![[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]
! [[Tuvan language|Tuvan]]
!Yakut
![[English language|English]]
|-
|bir
|bir
|bir
|bir
|biir
|one
|-
|eki
|iki
|ikki
| iyi
|ikki
|two
|-
|üç
|üç
|uch
| üş
|üs
|three
|-
|tört
|dört
|tŏrt
|dört
|tüört
|four
|-
|beş
|beş
|besh
|beş
|bies
|five
|-
|altı
|altı
|olti
|aldı
|alta
|six
|-
|yeti
|yedi
|yetti
|çedi
|sette
|seven
|-
|sekiz
|sekiz
|sakkiz
|ses
|aɣïs
|eight
|-
|tokuz
|dokuz
|tŏqqiz
|tos
|toɣus
|nine
|-
|on
|on
|ŏn
|on
|uon
|ten
|}

==Oral and written literature==

The Yakut have a tradition of oral epic in their language called Олоҥхо ("[[Olonkho]]"), traditionally performed by skilled performers. The subject matter is based on Yakut mythology and legends. Versions of many Olonkho poems have been written down and translated since the 19th century, but only a very few older performers of the oral Olonkho tradition are still alive. They have begun a program to teach young people to sing this in their language and revive it, though in a modified form.<ref>Robin Harris. 2012. ''Sitting "under the mouth": decline and revitalization in the Sakha epic tradition "Olonkho"''. Doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia.</ref>

The first printing in Yakut was a part of a book by [[Nicolaas Witsen]] published in 1692 in [[Amsterdam]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sakhamemory.ru/ShowArticle.aspx?ArticleID=6&CategoryID=54|title=Предпосылки возникновения якутской книги|publisher=Память Якутии|access-date=2014-10-29}}</ref>

In 2005, Marianne Beerle-Moor, director of the [[Institute for Bible Translation|Institute for Bible Translation, Russia/CIS]], was awarded the Order of Civil Valour by the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) for the translation of the [[New Testament]] into Yakut.<ref>{{cite web |title=People |url=http://ibtrussia.org/en/persons |publisher=[[Institute for Bible Translation|Institute for Bible Translation, Russia/CIS]] |access-date=5 October 2016}}</ref>

Probably the first-ever Islamic book written in Sakha language was published in 2012 by an ethnic Sakha convert, entitled "Билсиҥ: Ислам" ("Get to know: Islam").<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dumrf.ru/common/regnews/4355?ysclid=lt1uci4ram439953413 | title=В Якутии издали книгу об исламе на языке саха }}</ref> The cover page illustrates the Congregational Mosque of Yakutsk. This short book (consisting of 52 pages) is intended to be a condensed introduction to the fundamentals of Islam in Sakha. When describing prayer, the book features an (apparently) ethnic Sakha boy performing prayer.

== Examples ==
Article 1 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights (with footnotes on etymologies of some words):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Novgorodov's alphabet 1920–1929. ([[Latin alphabet]]/[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
| {{lang|sah-Latn|зɔn barɯta beje sꭣltatɯgar ꭣnna bɯra:bɯgar teŋ bꭣlan tꭢry:ller. kiniler barɯ ꭢrkꭢ:n ꭢjdꭢ:q, sꭣbasta:q bꭣlan tꭢry:ller, ꭣnna beje bejeleriger tɯlga ki:riniges bɯhɯ:lara dɔʃɔrdɔhu: tɯ:nna:q bꭣlꭣqta:q.}}
|-
| [[Latin alphabet]] 1929–1939. ([[Yañalif]])
| {{lang|sah-Latn|Çon вarьta вeje suoltatьgar uonna вьraaвьgar teꞑ вuolan tɵryyller. Kiniler вarь ɵrkɵn ɵjdɵɵq, suoвastaaq вuolan tɵryyller, uonna вeje вejeleriger tьlga kiiriniges вьhььlara doƣordohuu tььnnaaq вuoluoqtaaq.}}
|-
| Modern [[Cyrillic]] 1939–present.
| {{lang|sah-Cyrl|Дьон{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Borrowed from Mongolian зон.}} барыта бэйэ{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Borrowed from Evenki.}} суолтатыгар уонна быраабыгар{{refn|group=lower-alpha|The root of the word, быраап, is derived from Russian право.}} тэҥ буолан төрүүллэр. Кинилэр бары өркөн өйдөөх, суобастаах{{refn|group=lower-alpha|The root of this loanword, суобас, is from Russian совесть - conscience.}} буолан төрүүллэр, уонна бэйэ бэйэлэригэр тылга кииринигэс быһыылара доҕордоһуу{{refn|group=lower-alpha|From ''доҕор'' 'friend', of Mongolic origin.}} тыыннаах буолуохтаах.}}
|-
| Romanization
| {{transl|sah|J̌on barïta beye suoltatïgar uonna bïraabïgar teŋ buolan törüüller. Kiniler barï örkön öydööx, suobastaax buolan törüüller, uonna beye beyeleriger tïlga kiiriniges bïsïïlara doɣordohuu tïïnnax buoluoxtaax.}}
|-
|Romanization with [[Common Turkic alphabet]]
|{{transl|sah|Con barıta beye suoltatıgar uonna bırâbıgar teñ buolan törüüller. Kiniler barı örkön öydööx, suobastâx buolan törüüller, uonna beye beyeleriger tılga kîriniges bıhıılara doğorhû tıınnâx buoluoxtâx.}}
|-
| English
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
|}

{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Russia|Languages}}
*[[Yakuts]]
*[[Dolgan language]]
*[[Semyon Novgorodov]] – the inventor of the first [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]-based Yakut alphabet

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=Gregory D. S. |year=1998 |title=Historical Aspects of Yakut (Saxa) Phonology |journal=Turkic Languages |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=1–32}}
* {{Cite book |last=Antonov |first=N. K. |title=Yazyki mira (seriya knig) |publisher=Indrik (izdatelstvo) |year=1997 |isbn=5-85759-061-2 |editor-last=Tenshev |editor-first=E. R. |pages=513–524 |lang=ru}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=Mark C |last2=Vinokurova |first2=Nadya |year=2010 |title=Two modalities of case assignment: case in Sakha |journal=Natural Language and Linguistic Theory |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=593–642|doi=10.1007/s11049-010-9105-1 |s2cid=18614663 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Forsyth |first=James |title=A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521477710}}
* {{Cite book |last=Johanson |first=Lars |title=Turkic |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2021 |location=Cambridge |pages=20, 24}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kharitonov |first=L. N. |title=Samouchitel' jakutskogo jazyka |publisher=Jakutskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo |year=1947 |lang=ru}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kirişçioğlu |first=M. Fatih |title=Saha (Yakut) Türkçesi Grameri |publisher=Türk Dil Kurumu |year=1999 |isbn=975-16-0587-3 |location=Ankara |lang=tr}}
* {{Cite book |last=Krueger |first=John R. |title=Yakut Manual |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1962 |location=Bloomington}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Menz |first1=Astrid |title=The Turkic Languages |edition=Second |last2=Monastyrev |first2=Vladimir |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-415-73856-9 |editor-last=Johanson |editor-first=Lars |pages=444–59 |chapter=Yakut |doi=10.4324/9781003243809 |editor-last2=Csató |editor-first2=Éva Á. |s2cid=243795171}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Robbeets |first1=Martine |title=The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages |last2=Savalyev |first2=Alexander |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |editor-last=Robbeets |editor-first=Martine |pages=lii-lxxxii |chapter=Romanization Conventions |editor-last2=Savalyev |editor-first2=Alexander}}
* {{Cite thesis |last=Pakendorf |first=Brigitte |author-link=Brigitte Pakendorf|title=Contact in the prehistory of the Sakha (Yakuts): Linguistic and genetic perspectives |publisher=Universiteit Leiden |year=2007}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Pakendorf |first1=Brigitte |title=The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages |last2=Stapert |first2=Eugénie |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-880462-8 |editor-last=Robbeets |editor-first=Martine |pages=430–45 |chapter=Sakha and Dolgan, the North Siberian Turkic Languages |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198804628.003.0027 |editor-last2=Savalyev |editor-first2=Alexander}}
* {{Cite thesis |last=Petrova |first=Nyurguyana |title=Lexicon and Clause-Linkage Properties of the Converbal Constructions in Sakha (Yakut) |publisher=University of Buffalo |year=2011}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Stachowski |first1=Marek |title=The Turkic Languages |last2=Menz |first2=Astrid |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |editor-last=Johanson |editor-first=Lars |chapter=Yakut |editor-last2=Csató |editor-first2=Éva Á.}}

* {{Cite book |title=Grammatika sovremennogo jakutskogo literaturnogo jazyka |publisher=Nauka |year=1980 |editor-last=Ubryatova |editor-first=E.I. |location=Moscow}}
* {{Cite thesis |last=Vinokurova |first=Nadezhda |title=Lexical Categories and Argument Structure: A study with reference to Sakha |publisher=Universiteit Utrecht |year=2005}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links |auto=1
|wikt=Category:Yakut language
|commons=Category:Sakha language
|b=The Sakha language
|voy=Sakha phrasebook
|d=Q34299
|s=sah:
|q=sah:
|iw=sah
}}
{{incubator|sah|wiktionary}}
{{incubator|sah|wikinews}}

===Language-related===
*[http://wold.clld.org/vocabulary/19 Yakut Vocabulary List] (from the World Loanword Database)
*[http://sakha.yakut.iakoute.free.fr/index_uk.php Yakut thematic vocabulary lists]
*[http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Yakut.html]
*{{cite web| url=http://www.uni-bonn.de/~uzsylm/mongol/mongol_sakha.html| title=Comparison of Yakut and Mongolian vocabulary|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205230834/https://www.uni-bonn.de/~uzsylm/mongol/mongol_sakha.html| archive-date=February 5, 2008}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080105123729/http://www.uni-bonn.de/~uzsylm/sakha/bib/ Yakut texts with Russian translations] in the [[Internet Archive]] – heroic poetry, fairy tales, legends, proverbs, etc.
*[http://sakhalyy.helios-nw.ru/ Sakhalyy suruk] – Yakut Unicode fonts and Keyboard Layouts for PC
*[http://sakhatyla.ru Sakhatyla.ru] – On-line Yakut–Russian, Russian–Yakut dictionary
*[https://turkic.elegantlexicon.com/Sakha%20dictionary.pdf Yakut–English Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402213809/https://turkic.elegantlexicon.com/Sakha%20dictionary.pdf| date=April 2, 2022}}
*[https://www.translitteration.com/transliteration/en/yakut/bgn-pcgn/ BGN/PCGN romanization tool for Yakut]
*[http://doydu.sakhaopenworld.org/modules/debaser/genre.php?genreid=13 Sakha Open World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619045928/http://doydu.sakhaopenworld.org/modules/debaser/genre.php?genreid=13 |date=2006-06-19 }} – MP3's of Sakha Radio

===Content in Yakut===
*[http://doydu.sakhaopenworld.org/ Sakha Open World – Орто Дойду] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922080409/http://doydu.sakhaopenworld.org/ |date=2017-09-22 }} – A platform to promote the Yakut Language on the web; News, Lyrics, Music, Fonts, Forum, VideoNews (in Yakut, [[Unicode]])
*[http://www.baayaga.narod.ru Baayaga village website] – news and stories about and by the people of Baayaga (in Yakut)
*[http://www.kyym.ru Kyym.ru] – site of Yakut newspaper
*[https://www.youtube.com/c/NVKSAKHA НВК Саха (''NVK Sakha'')] Yakut language news channel on YouTube
{{Turkic languages}}
{{Languages of Russia}}
{{Turkic topics}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sakha language| ]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Siberian Turkic languages]]
[[Category:Vowel-harmony languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Russia]]
[[Category:Turkic languages]]
[[Category:Subject–object–verb languages]]

Katabasis

2024-12-16T20:35:24Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Journey into the underworld in literature}}
{{for multi|the Antarctic wind|Katabatic wind|other uses}}
[[File:Alessandro Allori - Odysseus questions the seer Tiresias.jpg|thumb|upright=1.34|[[Odysseus]] consults the soul of the prophet [[Tiresias]] in his katabasis during Book 11 of ''[[The Odyssey]].'']]

A '''katabasis''' or '''catabasis''' ({{langx|grc|{{wikt-lang|grc|κατάβασις}}|{{grc-transl|κατάβασις}}|descent}}; {{etymology||''{{wikt-lang|grc|κατὰ}}'' ({{grc-transl|κατὰ}})|down||''{{wikt-lang|grc|βαίνω}}'' ({{grc-transl|βαίνω}})|go}}) is a journey to the [[underworld]]. Its original sense is usually associated with [[Greek mythology]] and [[classical mythology]] more broadly, where the protagonist visits the [[Greek underworld]], also known as Hades. The term is also used in a broad sense of any journey to the realm of the dead in other mythological and religious traditions. A katabasis is similar to a ''[[nekyia]]'' or necromancy, where one experiences a vision of the underworld or its inhabitants; a ''nekyia'' does not generally involve a physical visit, however. One of the most famous examples is that of [[Odysseus]], who performs something on the border of a ''nekyia'' and a katabasis in book 11 of the ''[[Odyssey]]''; he visits the border of the realms before calling the dead to him using a blood rite, with it being disputed whether he was at the highest realm of the underworld or the lowest edge of the living world where he performed this.

==Overview==
The trip to the underworld is a [[mytheme]] of [[comparative mythology]] found in a diverse number of religions from around the world.{{sfn|Serrano|1999|pp=129–179}} The [[hero]] or upper-world deity journeys to the [[underworld]] or to the land of the dead and returns. The nature of the [[quest]] differs; sometimes an object or the rescue of a loved one is sought, while in other stories knowledge and secret revelations is the goal. The ability to enter the realm of the dead while still alive, and to return, is proof of the classical hero's exceptional status as more than mortal. A deity who returns from the underworld demonstrates [[Eschatology|eschatological]] themes such as the cyclical nature of time and existence, or the defeat of death and the possibility of [[immortality]].<ref>{{harvnb|Leeming|2005|p=98}}; {{harvnb|Edmonds III|2004|loc=''passim''}}; {{harvnb|Collins|Fishbane|1995|loc=''passim''}}; and {{harvnb|Louden|2011|pp=197–221}}</ref>

A katabasis is arguably a specific type of the famous [[Hero's journey]]. In the Hero's journey, the hero travels to a forbidden, unknown realm; a katabasis is when that place is specifically the underworld. Pilar Serrano uses the term to encompass brief or chronic stays in the underworld as well, such as those of [[Lazarus of Bethany|Lazarus]], and [[Castor and Pollux]].{{sfn|Serrano|1999|pp=129–179}}

A katabasis is in general followed by an ''[[wikt:anabasis|anabasis]]'' (a going up) to distinguish itself from death; very rarely does a living hero decide to stay in the Underworld forever.

Famous examples of katabases in [[Greek mythology]] include [[Orpheus]], who enters the underworld in order to bring [[Eurydice]] back to the world of the living, and [[Odysseus]], who seeks to consult with the prophet [[Tiresias]] for knowledge. In [[Roman mythology]], [[Aeneas]] seeks out his father [[Anchises]] to learn of prophecies of his fate and that of the [[Roman Empire]].


==The ''Odyssey''==
In the 11th book of the ''Odyssey'', Odysseus follows the advice of Circe to consult Tiresias in [[Greek underworld|Hades]], the land of the dead.{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=10: 504 – 11: 50}} Odysseus sets out an offering of honey, milk, wine, water, and barley before slaughtering two sheep to add fresh blood to the meal. The souls of many then appear to him. The first to appear to Odysseus is [[Elpenor]], his crew member who died prior to leaving Circe's island. Elpenor asks Odysseus to give him a proper burial, and Odysseus agrees.{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=11: 51–83}} The next to appear to Odysseus is his mother, [[Anticlea]]. As Odysseus has been away fighting the Trojan War for nearly 20 years, he is surprised and saddened by the sight of her soul.{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=11: 84–89}}

[[Tiresias]], the soul whom Odysseus came to see, next appears to him. Tiresias gives him several pieces of information concerning his ''[[nostos]]'' (homecoming) and his life after. Tiresias details [[Poseidon]]'s anger at Odysseus' blinding of [[Polyphemus|Polyphemos]] (and the coming troubles as a consequence), warns Odysseus not to eat the livestock of the god [[Helios]], and prophesies Odysseus' return home to [[Homer's Ithaca|Ithaca]] and his eventual death at sea at an old age.{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=11: 90–137}} After Tiresias instructs Odysseus to allow the spirits he wants to talk to drink the sacrificial blood he used to find Tiresias, he is again given the chance to see his mother, and she tells him of the suffering of his family as they await his return home.{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=11: 145–224}} As his mother leaves, Odysseus is then visited by a string of souls of past queens. He first sees [[Tyro]], the mother of [[Pelias]] and [[Neleus]] by Poseidon.{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=11: 235–259}}

He next talks to [[Antiope (mother of Amphion)|Antiope]], the mother of [[Amphion and Zethus]] (the founders of Thebes) by [[Zeus]].{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=11: 260–265}} Then, he is visited by [[Alcmene]], the mother of [[Heracles]] by Zeus, and Heracle's wife [[Megara (mythology)|Megara]].{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=11: 266–270}} He is also visited by [[Jocasta|Epicaste]], the mother of Oedipus, and [[Chloris]], the queen of [[Pylos]].{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=11: 271–285}} Odysseus is then visited by [[Leda (mythology)|Leda]], the mother of [[Castor and Pollux|Castor and Polydeuces]] and [[Iphimedeia]], mother of the [[Aloadae]] by Poseidon.{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=11: 298–320}} Odysseus then sees a list of women whom he only briefly mentions: [[Phaedra (mythology)|Phaedra]], [[Procris]], [[Ariadne]], Maera, [[Clymene (mythology)|Clymene]], and [[Eriphyle]], all also lovers of gods or heroes.{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=11: 321–332}} Next to visit Odysseus is [[Agamemnon]], the king of [[Mycenae]]. Agamemnon tells Odysseus of his death by his wife, [[Clytemnestra]], and her lover [[Aegisthus]]. He warns Odysseus to return to Ithaca in secret and be wary of his own wife.{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=11: 385–461}}

Odysseus then encounters [[Achilles]], who asks after the well-being of his father Peleus and his son [[Neoptolemus]]. Odysseus reassures Achilles of his son's bravery in fighting the Trojans.{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=11: 466–540}} Odysseus then begins seeing figures of dead souls who do not talk directly to him: [[Ajax the Great|Ajax]], [[Minos]], [[Orion (mythology)|Orion]], [[Tityos]], [[Tantalus]], and [[Sisyphus]].{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=11: 550–600}} Odysseus ends his visit with Heracles, who asks about Odysseus' intention in Hades. Odysseus begins to get fearful as he waits for more heroes and leaves.{{sfn|Homer|1975|loc=11: 601–640}}

==The ''Aeneid''==
[[File:Scene from Virgil's Aeneid; the Cumaean Sibyl leads Aeneas t Wellcome V0042049.jpg|thumb|The [[Cumaean Sibyl]] leads [[Aeneas]] to the [[Underworld]] for his katabasis in the ''[[Aeneid]].'']]

The ''katabasis'' of [[Virgil]]'s ''Aeneid'' occurs in book 6 of the epic. Unlike Odysseus, Aeneas seeks to enter the Underworld, rather than bring the spirits of the dead to him through sacrifice. He begins his journey with a visit to the [[Cumaean Sibyl]] (a priestess of Apollo) and asks for her assistance to journey to the Underworld and visit his father.{{sfn|Virgil|2007|loc=6: 1–124}} The priestess tells him to find the [[The Golden Bough (mythology)|Golden Bough]], and if the branch breaks off in his hands, he is fated to go to the Underworld. She also tells Aeneas to bury his dead friend and prepare cattle for sacrifice.{{sfn|Virgil|2007|loc=6: 125–155}} When Aeneas reaches the forest to find the golden branch, he is guided by birds to the tree, and the branch breaks into his hand. The branch, however, does not easily break off as the Sibyl said would happen to a person fated to go to the Underworld – the branch is described as "''cunctantem''" ("hesitant"). The implications of this have been debated by scholars – some arguing that it means that Aeneas is not as heroic as he needs to be, others arguing that Aeneas has not yet fulfilled his destiny, and several arguing that he is still a hero, with this section added purely for drama. Aeneas buries Misenus and he and the Sibyl prepare a sacrifice to enter the Underworld.{{sfn|Virgil|2007|loc=6: 176–267}}

Aeneas first encounters several beings and monsters as he enters: Sorrows, Heartaches, Diseases, Senility, Terror, Hunger, Evil, Crime, Poverty, Death, Hard Labor, Sleep, Evil Pleasures of Mind, War, Family Vengeance, Mad Civil Strife, [[Scylla]], [[Hecatoncheires|Briareus]], the [[Lernaean Hydra|Hydra]], the [[Chimera (mythology)|Chimaera]], the [[Gorgon]]s, the [[Harpy|Harpies]], and [[Cerberus]].{{sfn|Virgil|2007|loc=6: 268–294}} Next, Aeneas encounters [[Charon (mythology)|Charon]], the ferryman who leads souls into the Underworld, and the mass of people who are unburied.{{sfn|Virgil|2007|loc=6: 295–332}} His first conversation is with [[Palinurus]], a man of his crew who fell overboard and died on their journey. Palinurus begs Aeneas to bury him so he can enter the Underworld.{{sfn|Virgil|2007|loc=6: 337–383}} The Sibyl convinces Charon to carry them across the river Styx in exchange for the golden bough.{{sfn|Virgil|2007|loc=6: 384–416}} Aeneas encounters Minos pronouncing judgment on souls and the souls that died for love: [[Phaedra (mythology)|Phaedra]], [[Procris]], [[Eriphyle]], [[Evadne]], [[Pasiphaë|Pasiphae]], [[Laodamia of Phylace|Laodamia]], [[Caeneus]], and [[Dido]].{{sfn|Virgil|2007|loc=6: 426–451}} Next, Aeneas sees heroes of battle: [[Tydeus]], Parthenopaeus, [[Adrastus]], [[Glaucus (soldier)|Glaucus]], [[Medon (mythology)|Medon]], Thersilochus, [[Polybotes|Polyboetes]], Idaeus, [[Agamemnon]], and [[Deiphobus]].{{sfn|Virgil|2007|loc=6: 477–534}} The Sibyl then leads Aeneas to [[Elysium]], the place for the blessed. On the way, they pass the place for tortured souls and the Sibyl describes some of the tortured's fates. [[Tityos]] has his liver eaten by a vulture daily. [[Pirithous]] and [[Ixion]] have a rock constantly hanging over them at all times. Many others face the punishment of moving rocks, being stretched, and being tied to wheels.{{sfn|Virgil|2007|loc=6: 548–636}} The two then enter the Estates of the Blessed, where they see a utopian land where heroes and good people reside. There, Aeneas finds his father, who tells him of the rich history of Rome to come.{{sfn|Virgil|2007|loc=6: 637–901}}

==The ''Metamorphoses''==
In [[Ovid]]'s poetic collection of mythological stories, he includes accounts of ''katabasis'' as well. In book 4, he includes an account of Juno's descent to Hades to bring her perceived justice to Ino.{{sfn|Ovid|2010|loc=4: 432–479|p=}} Ovid describes Juno's path to the underworld, noting Cerberus' presence.{{sfn|Ovid|2010|loc=4: 594–617}} Juno seeks the Furies (Tisiphone, Megara, and [[Alecto]]) to destroy the house of [[Cadmus]], namely Ino and her husband [[Athamas]]. While in the underworld, Juno passes several souls who are being punished in Hades. Hades is also a person, and he needs to get rid of those souls because he needs them to fully recover ([[Tantalus]], [[Sisyphus]], [[Ixion]], and the [[Daughters of Danaus|Belides]]).{{sfn|Ovid|2010|loc=4: 624–634}} When the Furies agree to Juno's request, she happily returns to the heavens, where she is purified by Iris.{{sfn|Ovid|2010|loc=4: 649–659}}

[[File:Orpheus & Euridice.jpg|thumb|Orpheus travels out of the Underworld followed by the shade of his wife, Eurydice]]

The next major ''katabasis'' in the ''Metamorphoses'' occurs in book 5 by [[Proserpina]], the daughter of [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]], who is kidnapped by [[Dīs Pater|Dis]]. As Proserpina is picking flowers, Pluto falls in love with her and decides to grab her and take her to the underworld in his chariot. Worried about her now-missing daughter, Ceres becomes distraught and searches for Proserpina.{{sfn|Ovid|2010|loc=5: 552–615}}

When Ceres discovers the kidnapping, she goes to [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jove]] to attempt to get Proserpina back. He agrees that she should be returned as long as Proserpina has not touched any food in the underworld. However, she has eaten pomegranate seeds, and cannot be returned to Ceres.{{sfn|Ovid|2010|loc=5: 658–712}} To ensure compromise between Ceres and Dis, Jove divides the year into halves and commands that Proserpina must spend equal parts of the year between her mother and her husband. From that point on, Proserpina makes annual trips to the underworld, spending half the year there.{{sfn|Ovid|2010|loc=5: 739–746}}

Ovid also briefly mentions the ''katabasis'' of Hercules in book 7. Ovid is telling the etiological story of [[Medea]]'s poison for [[Theseus]]. When Hercules traveled to the Underworld to capture Cerberus as one of his [[Labours of Hercules|12 Labours]], Cerberus spread white foam from his mouths, which grew poisonous plants.{{sfn|Ovid|2010|loc=7: 575–595}}

The ''katabasis'' of [[Orpheus]] in book 10 is the last major inclusion of the theme by Ovid in the ''Metamorphoses''. Orpheus is distraught by the death of his wife, [[Eurydice]]. He enters the Underworld through the Spartan Gates and visits Dis and Proserpina to beg for the return of his bride. Overcome by the heartfelt song of Orpheus, Proserpina calls Eurydice to leave with her husband–on the condition that he does not look back until he reaches the exit. When he looks back, his wife disappears, and he is pained by grief for her death a second time.{{sfn|Ovid|2010|loc=10: 1–110}}

==Other examples in religious and mythological literature==
[[File:FredericLeighton-TheReturnofPerspephone(1891).jpg|thumb|upright|''The return of Persephone'', by [[Frederic Leighton]] (1891)]]

'''Mesopotamian mythology'''
* [[Enkidu]], in the Sumerian text ''[[Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld]]'' and in the final tablet of the Standard Babylonian ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]''
* [[Inanna]]/[[Ishtar]], in an attempt to overthrow her sister, [[Ereshkigal]], queen of the netherworld
* [[Nergal]], to make amends for disrespecting [[Ereshkigal]]

'''Ancient Egyptian mythology'''
* The Magician Meryre in ''Papyrus Vandier'' (Posener, 1985)
* [[Setne Khamwas and Si-Osire]], although this story originates from [[Hellenistic Egypt]] which mixed in Greek traditions as well

'''Greek mythology and Roman mythology'''
* [[Adonis]] is mourned and then recovered by his consort [[Aphrodite]]
* The god [[Dionysus]], to rescue [[Semele]] from Hades,<ref>{{harvnb|Graves|p=27 k}} cites [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] ''[[Pausanias (geographer)#Work|Description of Greece]]'' [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/pausanias-bk2.html 2.31.2]</ref> and again in his role as [[The Frogs|patron of the theater]]
** [[Zagreus]], who was sometimes interpreted as [[Dionysus]] and/or the Egyptian god [[Osiris]]
* [[Heracles]] during his 12th labor, on which occasion he also rescued [[Theseus]]
* [[Heracles]], to rescue [[Alcestis]] from Hades
* [[Orpheus]], to rescue [[Eurydice]] from Hades
* [[Cupid and Psyche|Psyche]]
* [[Pelops]], son of [[Tantalus]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |title=Tantalus |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Tantalus/ |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Odysseus]]
* [[Aeneas]], to speak to his father in the ''[[Aeneid]]''
* [[Theseus]] and [[Pirithous]] try to abduct [[Persephone]]; they fail, and only Theseus is rescued by [[Heracles]]
[[File:Nava Jetavana Temple - Shravasti - 010 Devadatta sinks into the Ground (9241742601).jpg|thumb|[[Devadatta]] pulled into [[Avici]] after various transgressions against the [[Buddha]]]]
* [[Persephone]], in a [[Dying-and-rising god|cyclic patterns of death-and-rebirth]]

'''Hinduism'''
* [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]]: [[Ushas]] (dawn) is liberated from the [[Vala (Vedic)|Vala]] by [[Indra]]
* Emperor [[Yudhishthira]] descends into [[Naraka (Hinduism)|Naraka]]

'''Buddhism'''
*[[Avalokiteśvara]]'s descent into a Hell-like region after taking on the bad karma of her executioner in pity
*[[Kṣitigarbha]]
*[[Phra Malai]], a [[bhikkhu|monk]] who travels to Hell to teach its denizens
*Several episodes of people, including [[Devadatta]], who are dragged alive into hell after committing misdeeds against the [[Buddha]]
*[[Mulian Rescues His Mother|Moginlin]], who attempts to rescue his mother from starvation in the underworld

'''Christianity'''
* [[Saint Peter|Peter]] in the [[Apocalypse of Peter]]
* Thomas in the [[Apocalypse of Thomas]]
* Jesus in the ''[[Pistis Sophia]]''
* Paul in the [[Apocalypse of Paul]]
* [[Jesus]], during the [[Harrowing of Hell]], described in the [[Gospel of Nicodemus]]
* [[Dante Alighieri]] as protagonist of his own poem, the ''[[Divine Comedy]]''

'''Islam'''
* Prophet [[Muhammad]] in the ''[[Isra and Mi'raj|Israʾ and Miʿraj]]'' and ''[[Liber scalae Machometi]]''

'''Mandaeism'''
* [[Hibil Ziwa]]'s descent into the [[World of Darkness (Mandaeism)|World of Darkness]] as he conquers [[Ruha]]

'''Norse religion and Finnish mythology'''
* [[Odin]]
* [[Baldr]]
* [[Hermóðr]]
* [[Helreið Brynhildar]]
* [[Lemminkäinen]]'s rescue from [[Tuonela]] by his mother
* [[Väinämöinen]]'s and other wizards several trips to [[Tuonela]]

'''[[Welsh mythology]]'''
* [[Pwyll]]'s descent into [[Annwn]] in the Welsh ''[[Mabinogion]]''
* [[Preiddeu Annwfn]], [[King Arthur]]'s expedition to [[Annwn|Annwfn]] as recounted in the ''[[Book of Taliesin]]''

'''Other'''
* [[Japanese mythology]]: [[Izanagi]] and [[Izanami-no-Mikoto|Izanami]] in [[Yomi]]
* [[Maya mythology]]: the [[Maya Hero Twins]]
* [[Ohlone mythology]] (Native American): [[Ohlone mythology#Chochenyo (Kaknu fights Body of Stone)|Kaknu fights Body of Stone]]
* [[Yoruba religion]]: [[Obatala]], the [[dying-and-rising god]] of [[Ife|Ifẹ̀]], the Yoruba cultural centre
* Religion of the [[Mongols]]: [[Epic of King Gesar|King Gesar]] launches an invasion into the realm of [[Erlik]] to save soul of his mother
* Religion of the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]]: [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]] hero Bolot, who goes underground under the rule of [[Erlik]] to find the source as a result of supernatural events

==See also==
* [[Apotheosis]], a sometimes-related mythological trope, in which the mortal subject becomes divine. Many katabatic figures (including Hercules, Dionysus, and Jesus Christ) also undergo apotheosis
* [[Dying-and-rising god]], a mythological trope in which a god dies and then returns from the Afterlife and/or is reborn, sometimes cyclically. Examples include Dionysus, Persephone, Ishtar, and Jesus Christ.

==References==
{{Reflist|24em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{citation |editor-last=Collins |editor-first=John J. |editor2-last=Fishbane |editor2-first=Michae l|year=1995 |title=Death, Ecstasy, and Other Worldly Journeys |publisher=State University of New York }}
*{{citation |last=Edmonds III |first=Radcliffe G. |year=2004 |title=Myths of the Underworld Journey: Plato, Aristophanes, and the 'Orphic' Gold Tablets |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
*{{Citation |last=Freccero |first=John |title=The Poetics of Conversion|year=1988|publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0674192265 |pages=108}}
*{{citation|last=Graves |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Graves |title=[[The Greek Myths]] |page=27. ''k''}}{{full citation needed|date=February 2017}}
*{{citation|author=Homer |title=The Odyssey of Homer |translator-first=Richmond |translator-last=Lattimore |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Row |year=1975}}
*{{citation |last=Leeming |first=David |year=2005 |title=The Oxford Companion to World Mythology |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=98 |edition=online}}
*{{citation |last=Louden |first=Bruce |year=2011|chapter=Catabasis, Consultation, and the Vision: Odyssey 11, I Samuel 28, Gilgamesh 12, Aeneid 6, Plato's Allegory of the Cave, and the Book of Revelation |title=Homer's Odyssey and the Near East |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{citation |author=Ovid |title=Metamorphoses |translator-first=Charles |translator-last=Martin |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2010}}
*{{citation |last=Serrano |first=Pilar González |year=1999 |chapter-url=http://www.ucm.es/info/seic/online/catabasis.htm |chapter=Catábasis y resurrección |title=Espacio, Tiempo y Forma, Serie II: Historia Antigua |volume=12 |pages=129–179 |location=Madrid}}
* {{citation |author=Virgil |title=Aeneid |translator-first=Frederick |translator-last=Ahl |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007}}

==Further reading==
* Rachel Falconer, ''Hell in Contemporary Literature: Western Descent Narratives since 1945'', EUP, 2005. On modern examples of katabases, or descents to Hell.
* {{cite book |last1=Herrero de Jáuregui |first1=Miguel |title=Catábasis: el viaje infernal en la Antigüedad |date=2023 |publisher=Alianza editorial |location=Madrid |isbn=9788411482080}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Katabasis| ]]
[[Category:Epic poetry]]
[[Category:Rhetoric]]

Child auction

2024-12-16T20:29:42Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Historical form of poor care}}
{{Auction}}
'''Child auction''' ({{langx|sv|barnauktion}}, {{langx|fi|huutolaisuus}}) was a historical practice in [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]] during the 19th and early 20th centuries, in which orphan and poor children were boarded out in [[auction]]s. The name ''auction'', however, does not refer to actual slave auctions, as the children in these auctions were never actually bought in a legal sense, but the name has become the common name for the practice.

The children were handed over to the person asking least money from the authorities to provide for the child. The compensation was determined in descending [[English auction]]s, where the children were present. The lowest bidder became the child's foster parent and was compensated with an annual amount equal to the bid. The foster parents provided the child with housing, upbringing and education, but the children were often used for [[child labour]].<ref name=lundberg>{{cite journal |last=Lundberg |first=Sofia|date= 2000 |title=Child Auctions in Nineteenth Century Sweden: An Analysis of Price Differences |jstor=146326|journal= The Journal of Human Resources |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=279–298 |doi=10.2307/146326 }}</ref> Especially in the Finnish countryside, children sold at auction usually lived in very poor conditions and were mistreated.<ref name=lindgren>{{cite web|url=http://www.studio55.fi/hyvinvointi/article/tiesitko-taman-vaietun-asian-historiasta-suomessa-myytiin-lapsia-orjiksi/134256|title=Tiesitkö tämän vaietun asian historiasta? Suomessa myytiin lapsia orjiksi|author=Lindgren, Tuuli|publisher=MTV3|date=14 September 2011|access-date=14 March 2017|language=fi}}</ref>

Child auctions were [[1918 års fattigvårdslag|prohibited in Sweden in 1918]]<ref name=lundberg/> and in Finland in 1923.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kansanuutiset.fi/artikkeli/2472270-huutolaislapset-saavat-aanensa-takaisin|title=Huutolaislapset saavat äänensä takaisin|author=Leppälä, Anni-Helena|publisher=Kansan Uutiset|date=20 February 2011|access-date=14 March 2017|language=fi}}</ref> However, auctions were still organized in Finland until the late 1930s. The last known child auction was held in 1935.<ref name=lindgren/> Some of the children were still living with their foster parents in the 1940s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tyovaenperinne.fi/tyovaentutkimus/2004/g_nurmi.html|title=Elämää huutolaisina. Elämäkerrallinen tutkimus kahden huutolaislapsen elämästä|author=Nurmi, Terhi|publisher=Library of the Labour Movement|date=2004|access-date=14 March 2017|language=fi}}</ref>

Among the notable people who were sold in child auctions are the Swedish politician [[Fredrik Vilhelm Thorsson]], who later became the [[Minister for Finance (Sweden)|Minister for Finance]] of Sweden,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ne.se/uppslagsverk/encyklopedi/l%C3%A5ng/fredrik-vilhelm-thorsson|title=Fredrik Vilhelm Thorsson|publisher=Nationalencyklopedin|access-date=14 March 2017|language=sv}}</ref> Swedish school founder [[Hanna Lindmark]],<ref>Ewonne Winblad: Frälst, förmögen, förskingrad, Stockholm, Bonniers förlag 2008</ref> Finnish politicians [[Eino Kujanpää]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eduskunta.fi/FI/kansanedustajat/Sivut/910822.aspx|title=Eino Kujanpää|publisher=Parliament of Finland|access-date=14 March 2017|language=fi}}</ref> [[Jukka Lankila]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eduskunta.fi/FI/kansanedustajat/Sivut/910890.aspx|title=Jukka Lankila|publisher=Parliament of Finland|access-date=14 March 2017|language=fi}}</ref> and [[Vasili Suosaari]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eduskunta.fi/FI/kansanedustajat/Sivut/911563.aspx |title= Vasili Suosaari |publisher=Parliament of Finland|lang=fi|access-date=26 October 2022}}</ref> and Finnish author [[Joel Lehtonen]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ts.fi/kulttuuri/43478|title=Luottamusta kansalliseen renessanssiin|author=Grönholm, Jouko|publisher=Turun Sanomat|date=10 April 2009|access-date=14 March 2017|language=fi}}</ref>

Similar practices were also carried out in other European countries, like the ''[[Verdingkinder]]'' institution in [[Switzerland]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29765623|title=Switzerland's shame: The children used as cheap farm labour|author=Puri, Kavita|publisher=BBC News|date=29 October 2014|access-date=14 March 2017}}</ref>

== See also ==
* {{annotated link|Fattigauktion}}
* {{annotated link|Rotegång}}

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Social history of Sweden]]
[[Category:Social history of Finland]]
[[Category:Forced labour]]
[[Category:Child labour]]
[[Category:Governmental auctions]]
[[Category:Human commodity auctions]]
{{Sweden-hist-stub}}
{{Finland-hist-stub}}

Fattigauktion

2024-12-16T20:27:55Z

Amherst99:

{{short description|19th century Swedish "poor auctions"}}
{{Auction}}
{{italic title}}
'''{{Lang|sv|Fattigauktion}}''' ('poor auction'), was a historical practice within Swedish [[poor relief]] during the 19th century, in which [[Pauperism|paupers]] were [[auction]]ed off to a bidder among the [[parish]]ioners willing to house them in exchange for the lowest amount of money for their keep from the parish poor care board.

In accordance with the ''[[1847 års fattigvårdförordning|Poor Relief Regulation 1847]]'', every parish was responsible for the support of the poor within their parish, a help financed by every member of the parish through the church fund, and distributed and organized through the poor care board. Paupers were divided in two classes. The first class consisted of a pauper unable to support themselves, usually meaning old people, orphans, and the physically or mentally disabled. The second class consisted of people being temporarily supported by poor relief.

The paupers of the first class were, according to law, to be placed in a poor house, an orphanage or a hospital. In reality, however, many parishes in the country side neglected to build such institutions within their parish because of the costs. The law stipulated, that if there was not a poor house in the parish, then the parish poor care board was, by law, responsible for providing economic support for the pauper and must pay for food, clothing, housing, medical care and funeral. Because of this, the {{lang|sv|fattigauktion}} became a preferred choice for a parish wishing to save money.

Every year, a plate was placed in the church stating the paupers of the first class. The last Sunday before Christmas, the "auction" was held in the community house after church service. The parish poor care board held an auction of the first class paupers to the members of the parish, who were to make bids for them. Despite the name, this was not an actual auction, nor were the paupers actually bought. The bidders made a "bid" stating what amount of money they would demand from the poor care board in exchange for taking care of the pauper for a period of one year. As the parish poor care board wished to save money, the person making the lowest "bid" won the auction. As the bidders had the support of the law to demand that the pauper contributed with chores in the household to their ability, the bidders could acquire cheap work force through this custom. When one year was up, the pauper (unless he or she was able to support themselves by then), was auctioned off again.

The {{lang|sv|fattigauktion}} was related to the traditional practice of {{lang|sv|[[rotegång]]}}. {{lang|sv|Rotegång}}, however, had been banned for children in 1847, so the {{lang|sv|fattigauktion}} became especially common for children, while {{lang|sv|rotegång}} were often used for adult paupers. The practice was condemned as humiliating and abusing, and there were reports of abuse, especially of pauper children, who were auctioned off and used as slave labor for the lowest cost possible. Legally, neither the {{lang|sv|fattigauktion}} nor the {{lang|sv|rotegång}} were a part of the official poor care law, but neither was it forbidden, and it continued as a common practice in rural parishes which did not have a poor house, as late as the early 20th century.

{{lang|sv|Fattigauktion}}, as well as a number of other outdated practices within poor care such as {{lang|sv|rotegång}} and [[poor house]]s, was abolished by the reformed [[1918 års fattigvårdslag|Poor Law of 1918]].

==See also==
* [[Welfare in Sweden]]
* [[Child auction]]

==Footnotes==
{{no footnotes|date=January 2018}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
* https://www.pitea.se/bokhyllan/Broschyrer-externt/Centralarkivet/broschyrer/slavhandel_valgorenhet.pdf
* http://engelholmiana.ifokus.se/discussions/4d713674b9cb46222704e1e8-fattigauktion
* http://www.hembygdshistoria.se/kullens/kullabygd/gamlajonstorp.htm
* J. Simelii: Humanitas, Volym 1–2, 1896
* Otto Lundström, Bygden kring Gideälven och Husån: Samlingar till Grundsunda, Gideå och Björna socknars beskrivning, Grundsunda hembygdsförening, 1966
* Sven Ulric Palme: Hundra år under kommunalförfattningarna 1862-1962: en minnesskrift utgiven av Svenska landskommunernas förbund, Svenska landstingsförbundet [och] Svenska stadsförbundet, Trykt hos Godvil, 1962
* Kurt Sjöström: Socialpolitiken: i ett historiskt perspektiv, Arbetarkultur, 1984
* Jonas Gipe : Burträsk: en sockenkrönika fram till omkring 1870, 1955
* Pargasbygdens historia. På uppdrag av Pargas landskommun och Pargas köping, 1967

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fattigauktion}}
[[Category:Social history of Sweden]]
[[Category:Forced labour by country]]
[[Category:Labour in Sweden]]
[[Category:19th century in Sweden]]
[[Category:1918 disestablishments in Sweden]]
[[Category:Human commodity auctions]]
[[Category:Governmental auctions]]

Rotegång

2024-12-16T20:23:47Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Historical care for the poor in Sweden}}
'''{{Lang|sv|Rotegång}}''' ('walk the parish') or {{Lang|sv|kringgång}} ('walk around') was a historical form of care for the poor in the [[history of Sweden]] to support the very poorest in the peasant community.

{{Lang|sv|Rotegång}} was practiced in the Swedish countryside already in the Middle Ages to care for those of the community destitute who could not work. In 1296, it was mentioned in the [[Law of Uppland]] that a community pauper had the right to be given shelter in the households of the parish for 24 hours each.<ref>Hadenius, Stig, Nilsson, Torbjörn & Åselius, Gunnar, Sveriges historia: vad varje svensk bör veta, Bonnier Alba, Stockholm, 1996</ref> This method was a phenomenon of the countryside, as the city paupers were normally given shelter in the poor houses from at least circa 1300 onward.<ref>Hadenius, Stig, Nilsson, Torbjörn & Åselius, Gunnar, Sveriges historia: vad varje svensk bör veta, Bonnier Alba, Stockholm, 1996</ref>

Those of the destitute {{Lang|sv|fattighjon}} (pauper) who could not be placed in a ''[[backstuga]]'' or in a [[poor house]], which did not always exist in rural communities, were referred to the ''{{Lang|sv|rotegång}}''. The households of a parish were traditionally divided into {{Lang|sv|rote}}s: normally, one {{Lang|sv|rote}} of the village contained six households. Each {{Lang|sv|rote}} was given responsibility for one pauper each, who were then shifted between them according to a schedule. Normally, the pauper stayed in each household for one week at a time. The pauper was assigned a {{Lang|sv|fattigklubba}} ('poor club') or {{Lang|sv|fattigbricka}} ('poor badge') of wood as a sign of their status, where the schedule was described. They were expected to contribute with what they could in exchange for food, care and housing.

Closely related to the ''{{Lang|sv|rotegång}}'' was the ''[[fattigauktion]]'' ('poor auction'), where paupers (often orphans but also adults), were auctioned off to interested households willing to house them more for a year, which differed from ''{{Lang|sv|rotegång}}''. The people participating in the 'auction' did not actually buy the pauper; however, their 'bid' was the money they demanded from the parish poor care to house them and so those who offered to take care of the poor for the lowest amount won. The pauper auctions were a somewhat later phenomenon, which eventually became more common than ''{{Lang|sv|rotegång}}'', in particular since ''{{Lang|sv|rotegång}}'' was abolished for children by the ''[[1847 års fattigvårdförordning]]''.<ref>Sven Ulric Palme: Hundra år under kommunalförfattningarna 1862-1962: en minnesskrift utgiven av Svenska landskommunernas förbund, Svenska landstingsförbundet [och] Svenska stadsförbundet, Trykt hos Godvil, 1962</ref>

In the reformed [[1918 års fattigvårdslag|Poor Law of 1918]], ''{{Lang|sv|rotegång}}'' as well as {{Lang|sv|fattigvårdsauktion}} and [[child auction]] were abolished along with the [[poor house]]s.

==See also==
* [[Welfare in Sweden]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* Nordisk Familjebok, 1923

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rotegang}}
[[Category:Social history of Sweden]]
[[Category:Forced labour by country]]
[[Category:Labour in Sweden]]

Backstugusittare

2024-12-16T20:19:51Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Historical Swedish demographic term}}
A '''backstugusittare''' ({{lit|hill cottage sitter}}) is a historical term of a certain category of the country side population in the [[history of Sweden]]. It referred to the inhabitants of a [[backstuga]] (hill cottage), who lived on common land or the land of someone else and did not engage in any farming.

In contrast to the somewhat similar [[torp (architecture)|torp]]are, backstugusittare did not use any land and lived on the charity of the landowner or, if they lived on common land, on the charity of the village. They may grow some potatoes for their own use and have some smaller animals but normally only enough to eat themselves. That category of people were normally among the very poorest of the village community and supported themselves on odd jobs, some handicrafts and charity.

The phenomenon is confirmed from the early 17th-century. After the land reform of 1827, during which the farmers moved out from the villages and occupied land previously left for the [[torp (architecture)|torp]]are, the category grew larger, as the torpare were often given no other choice than to become backstugusittare. However, during the 19th-century, it also became more common for successful village craftsmen to live temporarily in the [[backstuga]] merely to save money, which somewhat raised the status of backstugusittare.

==References==
* Herman Juhlin-Dannfelt, Lantmannens uppslagsbok (1923)

{{Sweden-hist-stub}}
[[Category:Social history of Sweden]]
[[Category:Agriculture in Sweden]]
[[Category:History of agriculture]]

Stalinism

2024-12-12T11:57:41Z

Amherst99:

{{short description|Political and economic policies implemented by Joseph Stalin}}
{{about|the means of governing and policies implemented by Joseph Stalin|the political philosophy developed by Stalin|Marxism–Leninism|other uses|Stalinism (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-sock|small=yes}}
{{use Canadian English|date=September 2020}}
{{use mdy dates|date=December 2019}}
[[File:Stalin 1945.jpg|thumb|[[Joseph Stalin]], after whom Stalinism is named]]
{{Stalinism sidebar}}
<noinclude>{{Joseph Stalin series|expanded=Political ideology}}</noinclude>

'''Stalinism''' ({{Langx|ru|сталинизм}}, {{transl|ru|stalinizm}}) is the [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kershaw |first1=Ian |last2=Lewin |first2=Moshe |title=Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison |date=28 April 1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56521-9 |pages=88–89 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_tmGaItZ0tsC&q=stalinism+totalitarianism |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Baratieri |first1=Daniela |last2=Edele |first2=Mark |last3=Finaldi |first3=Giuseppe |title=Totalitarian Dictatorship: New Histories |date=8 October 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-04396-4 |pages=1–50 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CRpGAQAAQBAJ&dq=stalinism+totalitarian&pg=PT17 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Stalin: A Political Biography">{{cite book |last1=Deutscher |first1=Isaac |title=Stalin: A Political Biography |date=1967 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-14-020757-6 |page=ix |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oa4eAAAAMAAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+stalin |language=en}}</ref> means of governing and [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] policies implemented in the [[Soviet Union]] (USSR) from [[History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)|1924 to 1953]] by [[dictator]] [[Joseph Stalin]] and in [[Satellite state#Post-World War II|Soviet satellite states]] between 1944 and 1953. Stalin had previously made a career as a [[gangster]] and [[robber]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Montefiore |first1=Simon Sebag |title=Young Stalin |date=27 May 2010 |publisher=Orion |isbn=978-0-297-86384-7 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WnPKRK0zNVcC&q=joseph+stalin+gangster |language=en}}</ref> working to fund revolutionary activities, before eventually becoming [[General Secretary of the Soviet Union]]. Stalinism included the creation of a [[Rule of man|one man]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Krieger |first1=Joel |title=The Oxford Companion to Comparative Politics |date=2013 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-973859-5 |page=414 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r-dMAgAAQBAJ&dq=stalinism+one+man+rule&pg=RA1-PA414 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gill |first1=Graeme |last2=Gill |first2=Graeme J. |title=The Origins of the Stalinist Political System |date=18 July 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52936-5 |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dV_Gufwx31UC&dq=stalinism+one+man+rule&pg=PA14 |language=en}}</ref> totalitarian [[police state]], rapid [[Industrialization in the Soviet Union|industrialization]], the theory of [[socialism in one country]] (until 1939), forced [[Collective farming|collectivization of agriculture]], [[intensification of the class struggle under socialism|intensification of class conflict]], a [[Joseph Stalin's cult of personality|cult of personality]],<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Deutscher |author-first=Isaac |author-link=Isaac Deutscher |date=1961 |url=https://archive.org/details/stalinpoliticalb00deut/page/n7 |pages=7–9 |title=Stalin: A Political Biography |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-500273-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-last=Plamper |author-first=Jan |author-link=Jan Plamper |date=17 January 2012 |title=The Stalin Cult: A Study in the Alchemy of Power |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-16952-2}}</ref> and subordination of the interests of foreign [[Communist party|communist parties]] to those of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], which Stalinism deemed the leading [[Vanguardism|vanguard party]] of [[communist revolution]] at the time.<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Bottomore |author-first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Bottomore |date=1991 |title=A Dictionary of Marxist Thought |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |pages=54 |isbn=978-0-631-18082-1}}</ref> After Stalin's death and the [[Khrushchev Thaw]], a period of [[de-Stalinization]] began in the 1950s and 1960s, which caused the influence of Stalin's ideology to begin to wane in the USSR.

Stalin's regime forcibly purged society of what it saw as threats to itself and its brand of communism (so-called "[[Enemy of the people|enemies of the people]]"), which included [[Soviet dissidents|political dissidents]], non-Soviet nationalists, the [[bourgeoisie]], better-off peasants ("[[kulak]]s"),{{sfn|Kotkin|1997|p=71, 81, 307}} and those of the [[working class]] who demonstrated "[[counter-revolutionary]]" sympathies.<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Rossman |author-first=Jeffrey |date=2005 |title=Worker Resistance Under Stalin: Class and Revolution on the Shop Floor |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-01926-1}}</ref> This resulted in mass [[Political repression|repression]] of such people and [[Family members of traitors to the Motherland|their families]], including mass arrests, [[show trial]]s, executions, and imprisonment in [[Forced labor in the Soviet Union|forced labor]] camps known as [[gulag]]s.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Pons |editor-first1=Silvo |editor-last2=Service |editor-first2=Robert |editor-link2=Robert Service (historian) |date=2012 |title=A Dictionary of 20th Century Communism |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=307 |isbn=978-0-691-15429-9}}</ref> The most notorious examples were the [[Great Purge]] and the [[Dekulakization]] campaign. Stalinism was also marked by militant atheism, mass [[Soviet anti-religious legislation|anti-religious persecution]],<ref name="service">{{cite book|author-last1=Service |author-first1=Robert |author-link1=Robert Service (historian) |date=2007 |title=Comrades!: A History of World Communism |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages=3–6 |isbn=978-0-674-04699-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Greeley |editor-first1=Andrew |editor-link1=Andrew Greeley |title=Religion in Europe at the End of the Second Millennium: A Sociological Profile |publisher=Routledge|date=2009 |pages=89 |isbn=978-0-7658-0821-9}}</ref> and [[ethnic cleansing]] through [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|forced deportations]].<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Pons |editor-first1=Silvo |editor-last2=Service |editor-first2=Robert |editor-link2=Robert Service (historian) |date=2012 |title=A Dictionary of 20th Century Communism |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=308–310 |isbn=978-0-691-15429-9}}</ref> Some historians, such as [[Robert Service (historian)|Robert Service]], have blamed Stalinist policies, particularly collectivization, for causing [[famine]]s such as the [[Holodomor]].<ref name="service" /> Other historians and scholars disagree on Stalinism's role.<ref>{{cite thesis |author-last=Sawicky |author-first=Nicholas D. |date=20 December 2013 |url=https://digitalcommons.brockport.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1318&context=ehd_theses |title=The Holodomor: Genocide and National Identity |type=Education and Human Development Master's Theses |publisher=The College at Brockport: State University of New York |access-date=6 October 2020 |via=Digital Commons |quote=Scholars also disagree over what role the Soviet Union played in the tragedy. Some scholars point to Stalin as the mastermind behind the famine, due to his hatred of Ukrainians (Hosking, 1987). Others assert that Stalin did not actively cause the famine, but he knew about it and did nothing to stop it (Moore, 2012). Still other scholars argue that the famine was just an effect of the Soviet Union's push for rapid industrialization and a by-product of that was the destruction of the peasant way of life (Fischer, 1935). The final school of thought argues that the Holodomor was caused by factors beyond the control of the Soviet Union and Stalin took measures to reduce the effects of the famine on the Ukrainian people (Davies & Wheatcroft, 2006). |archive-date=February 6, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206042729/https://digitalcommons.brockport.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1318&context=ehd_theses |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Officially designed to accelerate development toward [[communism]], the need for [[industrialization in the Soviet Union]] was emphasized because the Soviet Union had previously fallen behind economically compared to Western countries and also because socialist society needed industry to face the challenges posed by internal and external enemies of communism.{{sfn|Kotkin|1997|p=70-71}} Rapid industrialization was accompanied by mass collectivization of agriculture and rapid [[urbanization]], which converted many small villages into [[industrial cities]].{{sfn|Kotkin|1997|p=70-79}} To accelerate industrialization's development, Stalin imported materials, ideas, expertise, and workers from western Europe and the United States,<ref>{{cite book|author-last1=De Basily |author-first1=N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WkcrDwAAQBAJ |title=Russia Under Soviet Rule: Twenty Years of Bolshevik Experiment |year=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-61717-8 |series=Routledge Library Editions: Early Western Responses to Soviet Russia |location=Abingdon, Oxon |quote=... vast sums were spent on importing foreign technical 'ideas' and on securing the services of alien experts. Foreign countries, again – American and Germany in particular – lent the U.S.S.R. active aid in drafting the plans for all the undertakings to be constructed. They supplied the Soviet Union with tens of thousands of engineers, mechanics, and supervisors. During the first Five-Year Plan, not a single plant was erected, nor was a new industry launched without the direct help of foreigners working on the spot. Without the importation of Western European and American objects, ideas, and men, the 'miracle in the East' would not have been realized, or, at least, not in so short a time. |access-date=3 November 2017 |orig-year=1938}}</ref> pragmatically setting up [[joint-venture]] contracts with major American [[private enterprise]]s such as the [[Ford Motor Company]], which, under state supervision, assisted in developing the basis of the industry of the [[Soviet economy]] from the late 1920s to the 1930s. After the American private enterprises had completed their tasks, Soviet [[State-owned enterprise|state enterprises]] took over.

== History ==
{{further|History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)|Rise of Joseph Stalin}}
Stalinism is used to describe the period during which [[Joseph Stalin]] was the [[List of leaders of the Soviet Union|leader]] of the Soviet Union while serving as [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]] of the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] from 1922 to his death on 5 March 1953.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/communism "Communism"]. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online''. Retrieved 4 February 2020.</ref> It was a development of [[Leninism]],{{Sfn|Montefiore|2007|p=352}} and while Stalin avoided using the term "Marxism-Leninism-Stalinism", he allowed others to do so.{{Sfn|Service|2004|p=357}} Following Lenin's death, Stalin contributed to the theoretical debates within the Communist Party, namely by developing the idea of "[[Socialism in One Country]]". This concept was intricately linked to factional struggles within the party, particularly against Trotsky.{{Sfn|Sandle|1999|pp=208–209}} He first developed the idea in December 1924 and elaborated upon in his writings of 1925–26.{{Sfn|Sandle|1999|p=209}}

Stalin's doctrine held that socialism could be completed in Russia but that its final victory could not be guaranteed because of the threat from capitalist intervention. For this reason, he retained the Leninist view that world revolution was still a necessity to ensure the ultimate victory of socialism.{{Sfn|Sandle|1999|p=209}} Although retaining the Marxist belief that the state would wither away as socialism transformed into pure communism, he believed that the Soviet state would remain until the final defeat of international capitalism.{{Sfn|Sandle|1999|p=261}} This concept synthesised Marxist and Leninist ideas with nationalist ideals,{{Sfn|Sandle|1999|p=211}} and served to discredit Trotsky—who promoted the idea of "[[permanent revolution]]"—by presenting the latter as a defeatist with little faith in Russian workers' abilities to construct socialism.{{Sfn|Sandle|1999|p=210}}

=== Etymology ===
The term ''Stalinism'' came into prominence during the mid-1930s when [[Lazar Kaganovich]], a Soviet politician and associate of Stalin, reportedly declared: "Let's replace Long Live [[Leninism]] with Long Live Stalinism!"{{sfn|Montefiore|2004|p=164}} Stalin dismissed this as excessive and contributing to a [[cult of personality]] he thought might later be used against him by the same people who praised him excessively, one of those being Khrushchev—a prominent user of the term during Stalin's life who was later responsible for de-Stalinization and the beginning of the Khrushchev Thaw era.{{sfn|Montefiore|2004|p=164}}

== Stalinist policies ==
[[File:Lenin and stalin crop.jpg|thumb|left|[[Photo manipulation|Modified photo]] intended to show [[Vladimir Lenin]] with Stalin in the early 1920s<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gilbert|first1=Felix|author-link1=Felix Gilbert|last2=Large|first2=David Clay|title=The End of the European Era: 1890 to the Present|edition= 6th|year=2008|page=213|publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]]|location=New York City|isbn=978-0-393-93040-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Jones|first1=Jonathan|author-link1=Jonathan Jones (journalist)|title=The fake photographs that predate Photoshop|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2012/aug/29/fake-photography-before-photoshop|access-date=27 August 2016|work=The Guardian|date=29 August 2012|quote=In a 1949 portrait, the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin is seen as a young man with Lenin. Stalin and Lenin were close friends, judging from this photograph. But it is doctored, of course. Two portraits have been sutured to sentimentalise Stalin's life and closeness to Lenin.}}</ref>]]
[[File:Stalin birthday2.jpg|thumb|left|Members of the [[Chinese Communist Party]] celebrating Stalin's birthday in 1949]]
Some historians view Stalinism as a reflection of the ideologies of [[Leninism]] and [[Marxism]], but some argue that it is separate from the [[Socialism|socialist]] ideals it stemmed from. After a political struggle that culminated in the defeat of the [[Nikolai Bukharin|Bukharinists]] (the "Party's [[Right Opposition|Right Tendency]]"), Stalinism was free to shape policy without opposition, ushering in an era of harsh [[totalitarianism]] that worked toward rapid [[industrialization]] regardless of the human cost.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Soviet Experiment: Russia, the USSR, and the Successor States|url=https://archive.org/details/sovietexperiment00suny|url-access=registration|last=Suny|first=Ronald|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|location=New York, New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sovietexperiment00suny/page/221 221]}}</ref>

From 1917 to 1924, though often appearing united, Stalin, [[Vladimir Lenin]], and [[Leon Trotsky]] had discernible ideological differences. In his dispute with Trotsky, Stalin de-emphasized the role of workers in advanced [[capitalist countries]] (e.g., he considered the [[Working class in the United States|U.S. working class]] "bourgeoisified" [[labor aristocracy]]).

All other [[October Revolution]] 1917 [[Bolshevik]] leaders regarded their revolution more or less as just the beginning, with Russia as the springboard on the road toward worldwide revolution. Stalin introduced the idea of [[socialism in one country]] by the autumn of 1924, a theory standing in sharp contrast to Trotsky's [[permanent revolution]] and all earlier socialistic theses. The revolution did not spread outside Russia as Lenin had assumed it soon would. The revolution had not succeeded even within other former territories of the [[Russian Empire]]―such as [[Poland]], [[Finland]], [[Lithuania]], [[Latvia]], and [[Estonia]]. On the contrary, these countries had returned to [[capitalist]] [[bourgeois]] rule.<ref>On Finland, Poland etc., Deutscher, chapter 6 "Stalin during the Civil War", (p. 148 in the Swedish 1980 printing)</ref>

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|bgcolor=|quote=He is an unprincipled intriguer, who subordinates everything to the preservation of his own power. He changes his theory according to whom he needs to get rid of.|source=Bukharin on Stalin's theoretical position, 1928.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sakwa |first1=Richard |title=The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union |date=17 August 2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-80602-7 |page=165 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CJ6IAgAAQBAJ&dq=bukharin+he+changes+his+theory+according+to+whom+he+needs+to+get+rid+of&pg=PA165 |language=en}}</ref>}}

Despite this, by the autumn of 1924, Stalin's notion of socialism in [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] was initially considered next to [[blasphemy]] by other [[13th Politburo of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)|Politburo members]], including [[Zinoviev]] and [[Kamenev]] to the intellectual left; [[Alexei Rykov|Rykov]], [[Nikolai Bukharin|Bukharin]], and [[Mikhail Tomsky|Tomsky]] to the pragmatic right; and the powerful Trotsky, who belonged to no side but his own. None would even consider Stalin's concept a potential addition to communist ideology. Stalin's socialism in one country doctrine could not be imposed until he had come close to being the Soviet Union's [[Autocracy|autocratic ruler]] around 1929. Bukharin and the [[Right Opposition]] expressed their support for imposing Stalin's ideas, as Trotsky had been exiled, and Zinoviev and Kamenev had been expelled from the party.<ref>[[Isaac Deutscher|Deutscher, Isaac]]. [1949] 1961. "The General Secretary." Pp. 221–29 in ''Stalin, A Political Biography'' (2nd ed.).</ref> In a 1936 interview with journalist [[Roy W. Howard]], Stalin articulated his rejection of [[world revolution]] and said, "We never had such plans and intentions" and "The export of revolution is nonsense".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vyshinsky |first1=Andrey Yanuaryevich |title=Speeches Delivered at the Fifth Session of the General Assembly of the United Nations, September–October, 1950 |date=1950 |publisher=Information Bulletin of the Embassy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics |page=76 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VM1AQAAIAAJ&dq=Stalin+we+ever+had+such+plans+and+intentions&pg=PA76 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Volkogonov |first1=Dmitriĭ Antonovich |title=Autopsy for an Empire: The Seven Leaders who Built the Soviet Regime |date=1998 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-83420-7 |page=125 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5XlHA_75YwC&dq=Stalin+we+ever+had+such+plans+and+intentions&pg=PA125 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotkin |first1=Stephen |title=Stalin. Vol II, Waiting for Hitler, 1928–1941 |date=2017 |publisher=London : Allen Lane |isbn=978-0-7139-9945-7 |page=125 |url=https://archive.org/details/stalinvoliiwaiti0000kotk/page/287/mode/1up}}</ref>

=== Proletarian state ===
Traditional communist thought holds that the state will gradually "[[Withering away of the state|wither away]]" as the implementation of socialism reduces class distinction. But Stalin argued that the [[Dictatorship of the proletariat|proletarian state]] (as opposed to the [[Capitalist state|bourgeois state]]) must become stronger before it can wither away. In Stalin's view, [[counter-revolutionary]] elements will attempt to derail the transition to [[Communist society|full communism]], and the state must be powerful enough to defeat them. For this reason, [[Communist state|communist regimes]] influenced by Stalin are [[totalitarian]].<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Stalinism Stalinism]." ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. [1998] 2020.</ref> Other leftists, such as [[Anarcho-communism|anarcho-communists]], have criticized the [[party-state]] of the Stalin-era Soviet Union, accusing it of being bureaucratic and calling it a [[Reformism|reformist]] [[social democracy]] rather than a form of revolutionary communism.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Price |first=Wayne |title=The Abolition of the State |url=https://mirror.anarhija.net/usa.anarchistlibraries.net/mirror/w/wp/wayne-price-the-abolition-of-the-state.a4.pdf |access-date=2 March 2022}}</ref>

[[Sheng Shicai]], a Chinese [[warlord]] with Communist leanings, invited Soviet intervention and allowed Stalinist rule to extend to [[Xinjiang]] province in the 1930s. In 1937, Sheng conducted a purge similar to the [[Great Purge]], imprisoning, torturing, and killing about 100,000 people, many of them [[Uyghurs]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&q=warlords+and+muslims|title=Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949|author=Andrew D. W. Forbes|year=1986|publisher=CUP Archive|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=978-0-521-25514-1|page=151|access-date=December 31, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&pg=PA57|title=Oasis Identities: Uyghur Nationalism Along China's Silk Road|last1=Rudelson|first1=Justin Jon|last2=Rudelson|first2=Justin Ben-Adam|last3=Ben-Adam|first3=Justin|date=1997|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-10786-0|language=en}}</ref>

=== Ideological repression and censorship ===
{{Main|August Uprising|Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan|Stalinist repressions in Mongolia| Dekulakization|Doctors' plot| Anti-cosmopolitan campaign|Industrial Party Trial|Sharashka| Night of the Murdered Poets|UPTI Affair|Wrecking (Soviet Union)|1931 Menshevik Trial|Pavlovian session|Law of Spikelets|Blacklisting (Soviet policy)|Shakhty Trial|Korets–Landau leaflet}}
{{Quote box
|quote='''Cybernetics''': a reactionary pseudoscience that appeared in the U.S.A. after World War II and also spread through other capitalist countries. Cybernetics clearly reflects one of the basic features of the bourgeois worldview—its inhumanity, striving to transform workers into an extension of the machine, into a tool of production, and an instrument of war. At the same time, for cybernetics an imperialistic utopia is characteristic—replacing living, thinking man, fighting for his interests, by a machine, both in industry and in war. The instigators of a new world war use cybernetics in their dirty, practical affairs.
|source="Cybernetics" in the ''Short Philosophical Dictionary'', 1954<ref>Quoted in {{harvnb|Peters|2012|p=150}}. From {{cite book |editor1-first=Mark M. |editor1-last=Rosenthal |editor2-first=Pavel F. |editor2-last=Iudin |title=Kratkii filosofskii slovar |trans-title=Short Philosophical Dictionary |edition=4th |location=Moscow |publisher=Gospolitizdat |date=1954 |pages=236–237 }}</ref>
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Under Stalin, repression was extended to academic scholarship, the natural sciences,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Service |first1=Robert |title=Stalin: A Biography |date=2005 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01697-2 |page=307 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hSWK6Dh4wRgC&dq=stalin+repression+natural+science&pg=PA307 |language=en}}</ref> and literary fields.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kemp-Welch |first1=A. |title=Stalin and the Literary Intelligentsia, 1928–39 |date=27 July 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-21447-1 |page=222 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P-y-DAAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+repression+natural+science&pg=PA222 |language=en}}</ref> In particular, Einstein's [[theory of relativity]] was subject to public denunciation, many of his ideas were rejected on ideological grounds<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vucinich |first1=Alexander |title=Einstein and Soviet Ideology |date=2001 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4209-2 |pages=1-15, 90-120|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_-lAYZzP1UC |language=en}}</ref> and condemned as "bourgeois idealism" in the Stalin era.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=Robert Vincent |title=Russia, the Roots of Confrontation |date=1985 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-77966-2 |page=181 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yhjO-9aB0nwC&dq=stalin+einstein+bourgeois+idealism+theory+of+relativity&pg=PA181 |language=en}}</ref>

A policy of ideological repression impacted various disciplinary fields such as [[genetics]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stanchevici |first1=Dmitri |title=Stalinist Genetics: The Constitutional Rhetoric of T. D. Lysenko |date=2 March 2017 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-351-86445-9 |page=9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qCUlDwAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+genetics+repression&pg=PA9 |language=en}}</ref> [[cybernetics]],<ref name="Univ of North Carolina Press">{{cite book |last1=Zubok |first1=Vladislav M. |title=A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev |date=1 February 2009 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-9905-2 |page=166 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3j2VJj1hs1EC |language=en}}</ref> [[biology]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Riehl |first1=Nikolaus |last2=Seitz |first2=Frederick |title=Stalin's Captive: Nikolaus Riehl and the Soviet Race for the Bomb |date=1996 |publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation |isbn=978-0-8412-3310-2 |page=199 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RycjxBr15NAC&dq=stalin+genetics+repression&pg=PA199 |language=en}}</ref> [[Marxism and Problems of Linguistics|linguistics]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Selig S. |title=India: The Most Dangerous Decades |date=8 December 2015 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-7780-5 |page=149 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jbWCgAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+linguistics+repression&pg=PA149 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerovitch |first1=Slava |title=From Newspeak to Cyberspeak: A History of Soviet Cybernetics |date=17 September 2004 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-57225-5 |pages=41–42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QirR7QYPFZQC&dq=stalin+linguistics+repression&pg=PA41 |language=en}}</ref> [[physics]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krylov |first1=Anna I. |title=The Peril of Politicizing Science |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters |date=10 June 2021 |volume=12 |issue=22 |pages=5371–5376 |doi=10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c01475 |pmid=34107688 |s2cid=235392946 |language=en |issn=1948-7185|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[sociology]],<ref name=eaw8-9>Elizabeth Ann Weinberg, ''The Development of Sociology in the Soviet Union'', Taylor & Francis, 1974, {{ISBN|0-7100-7876-5}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=RXwOAAAAQAAJ&q=sociology+disappeared&pg=PA8 Google Print, pp. 8–9]</ref> [[psychology]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ings |first1=Simon |title=Stalin and the Scientists: A History of Triumph and Tragedy, 1905–1953 |date=21 February 2017 |publisher=Open Road + Grove/Atlantic |isbn=978-0-8021-8986-8 |pages=1–528 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OYz1DAAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+Pedology+banned&pg=PT64 |language=en}}</ref> [[pedology]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ings |first1=Simon |title=Stalin and the Scientists: A History of Triumph and Tragedy, 1905–1953 |date=21 February 2017 |publisher=Open Road + Grove/Atlantic |isbn=978-0-8021-8986-8 |pages=1–528 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OYz1DAAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+Pedology+banned&pg=PT64 |language=en}}</ref> [[mathematical logic]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Avron |first1=Arnon |last2=Dershowitz |first2=Nachum |last3=Rabinovich |first3=Alexander |title=Pillars of Computer Science: Essays Dedicated to Boris (Boaz) Trakhtenbrot on the Occasion of His 85th Birthday |date=8 February 2008 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-78126-4 |page=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GFX2qiLuRAMC&dq=stalin+repression+mathematics&pg=PA2 |language=en}}</ref> [[economics]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gregory |first1=Paul R. |last2=Stuart |first2=Robert C. |title=Soviet Economic Structure and Performance |date=1974 |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-042509-8 |page=324 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JyiTAAAAIAAJ&q=stalin+repression+mathematics |language=en}}</ref> and [[statistics]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Salsburg |first1=David |title=The Lady Tasting Tea: How Statistics Revolutionized Science in the Twentieth Century |date=May 2002 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-8050-7134-4 |pages=147–149 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ej9xytYdkyAC |language=en}}</ref>

[[Pseudoscientific]] theories of [[Trofim Lysenko]] were favoured over other scientific disciplines during the Stalin era.<ref name="Univ of North Carolina Press" /> Soviet scientists were forced to denounce any work that contradicted Lysenko.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wrinch |first1=Pamela N. |title=Science and Politics in the U.S.S.R.: The Genetics Debate |journal=World Politics |date=1951 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=486–519 |doi=10.2307/2008893 |jstor=2008893 |s2cid=146284128 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2008893 |issn=0043-8871}}</ref> Over 3,000 biologists were imprisoned, fired,<ref name=":2">{{cite book| last1 = Birstein| first1 = Vadim J.| title = The Perversion Of Knowledge: The True Story Of Soviet Science| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2XqEAAAAQBAJ| publisher = Perseus Books Group| date = 2013| page = | isbn = 978-0-7867-5186-0| access-date = 2016-06-30| quote = Academician Schmalhausen, Professors Formozov and Sabinin, and 3,000 other biologists, victims of the August 1948 Session, lost their professional jobs because of their integrity and moral principles [...]}}</ref> or executed for attempting to oppose Lysenkoism and genetic research was effectively destroyed until the death of Stalin in 1953.<ref name="Soyfer Nature" /><ref name=":3">{{cite book |last1=Soĭfer |first1=Valeriĭ. |title=Lysenko and The Tragedy of Soviet Science |date=1994 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=New Brunswick, N.J. |isbn=978-0-8135-2087-2}}</ref> Due to the ideological influence of [[Lysenkoism]], crop yields in the USSR declined.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |title=The Scourge of Soviet Science |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-scourge-of-soviet-science-1466192179 |website=[[Wall Street Journal]] |date=June 17, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Swedin |first=Eric G. |title=Science in the Contemporary World : An Encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencecontempor00swed |url-access=limited |date=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, California |isbn=978-1-85109-524-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sciencecontempor00swed/page/n181 168], 280}}</ref><ref name="Soyfer Nature">{{cite journal |last=Soyfer |first=Valery N. |author-link=Valery Soyfer |title=The Consequences of Political Dictatorship for Russian Science |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |date=1 September 2001 |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=723–729 |doi=10.1038/35088598 |pmid=11533721 |s2cid=46277758 }}</ref>

Orthodoxy was enforced in the [[cultural sphere]]. Prior to Stalin's rule, literary, religious and national representatives had some level of autonomy in the 1920s but these groups were later rigorously repressed during the Stalinist era.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Derek |title=Censorship: A World Encyclopedia |date=1 December 2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-79864-1 |page=2083 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gDqsCQAAQBAJ&q=stalin+mass+censorshipI&pg=PA2092 |language=en}}</ref> [[Socialist realism]] was imposed in artistic production and other creative industries such as [[music]], [[film]] along with [[sports]] were subject to extreme levels of political control.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Derek |title=Censorship: A World Encyclopedia |date=1 December 2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-79864-1 |page=2083 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gDqsCQAAQBAJ&q=stalin+mass+censorshipI&pg=PA2092 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Historical negationism|Historical falsification]] of political events such as the October Revolution and the Brest-Litovsk Treaty became a distinctive element of Stalin's regime. A notable example is the 1938 publication, [[History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks): Short Course|''History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)'']],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Suny |first1=Ronald Grigor |title=Stalin, Falsifier in Chief: E. H. Carr and the Perils of Historical Research Introduction |journal=Revolutionary Russia |date=2 January 2022 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=11–14 |doi=10.1080/09546545.2022.2065740 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09546545.2022.2065740 |language=en |issn=0954-6545}}</ref> in which the history of the governing party was significantly altered and revised including the importance of the leading figures during the Bolshevik revolution. Retrospectively, Lenin's primary associates such as Zinoviev, Trotsky, [[Radek]] and Bukharin were presented as "vacillating", "opportunists" and "foreign spies" whereas Stalin was depicted as the chief discipline during the revolution. However, in reality, Stalin was considered a relatively unknown figure with secondary importance at the time of the event.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bailey |first1=Sydney D. |title=Stalin's Falsification of History: The Case of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty |journal=The Russian Review |date=1955 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=24–35 |doi=10.2307/126074 |jstor=126074 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/126074 |issn=0036-0341}}</ref>

In his book, ''[[The Stalin School of Falsification]]'', Leon Trotsky argued that the Stalinist faction routinely distorted political events, forged a theoretical basis for irreconcilable concepts such as the notion of "Socialism in One Country" and misrepresented the views of opponents through an array of employed historians alongside economists to justify policy manoeuvering and safeguarding its own set of material interests.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trotsky |first1=Leon |title=The Stalin School of Falsification |date=13 January 2019 |publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing |isbn=978-1-78912-348-7 |pages=vii-89 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PF2LDwAAQBAJ&q=stalin+school |language=en}}</ref> He cited a range of historical documents such as private letters, telegrams, party speeches, meeting [[minutes]], and suppressed texts such as [[Lenin's Testament]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trotsky |first1=Leon |title=The Stalin School of Falsification |date=13 January 2019 |publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing |isbn=978-1-78912-348-7 |pages=vii-89 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PF2LDwAAQBAJ&q=stalin+school |language=en}}</ref> British historian [[Orlando Figes]] argued that "The urge to silence Trotsky, and all criticism of the Politburo, was in itself a crucial factor in Stalin's rise to power".<ref>{{cite book |last=Figes |first=Orlando |title=A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924 |pages=802 |publisher=[[Pimlico]] |date=1997}}</ref>

Cinematic productions served to foster the cult of personality around Stalin with adherents to the party line receiving [[USSR State Prize|Stalin prizes]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nicholas |first1=Sian |last2=O'Malley |first2=Tom |last3=Williams |first3=Kevin |title=Reconstructing the Past: History in the Mass Media 1890–2005 |date=13 September 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-99684-2 |pages=42–43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-bjaAAAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+film+directors+cult+of+personality&pg=PA42 |language=en}}</ref> Although, film directors and their assistants were still liable to mass arrests during the Great Terror.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nicholas |first1=Sian |last2=O'Malley |first2=Tom |last3=Williams |first3=Kevin |title=Reconstructing the Past: History in the Mass Media 1890–2005 |date=13 September 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-99684-2 |pages=42–43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-bjaAAAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+film+directors+cult+of+personality&pg=PA42 |language=en}}</ref>
Censorship of films contributed to a [[mythology|mythologizing]] of history as seen with the films ''First Cavalry Army'' (1941) and ''[[The Defense of Tsaritsyn|Defence of Tsaritsyn]]'' (1942) in which Stalin was glorified as a central figure to the [[October Revolution]]. Conversely, the roles of other Soviet figures such as Lenin and Trotsky were diminished or misrepresented.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nicholas |first1=Sian |last2=O'Malley |first2=Tom |last3=Williams |first3=Kevin |title=Reconstructing the Past: History in the Mass Media 1890–2005 |date=13 September 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-99684-2 |pages=42–43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-bjaAAAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+film+directors+cult+of+personality&pg=PA42 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Cult of personality ===
{{Main|Joseph Stalin's cult of personality|The Fall of Berlin (film)|The Unforgettable Year 1919| The Battle of Stalingrad (film)|The Third Blow}}
[[File:Poster of Azerbaijan 1938. Constitutions.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Soviet Azerbaijan]] poster featuring an enlarged Stalin with workers]]

In the aftermath of the succession struggle, in which Stalin had defeated both [[Left Opposition|Left]] and [[Right Opposition]], a cult of Stalin had materialised.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Sheila |title=The Shortest History of the Soviet Union |date=6 February 2023 |publisher=Pan Macmillan |isbn=978-93-90742-78-3 |page=116 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2KynEAAAQBAJ&q=Sheila+Fitzpatrick.+A+Brief+History+of+the+Soviet+Union+%3D+Sheila+Fitzpatrick.+The+Shortest+History+of+the+Soviet+Union. |language=en}}</ref> From 1929 until 1953, there was a proliferation of [[architecture]], [[statues]], [[posters]], [[banners]] and [[iconography]] featuring Stalin in which he was increasingly identified with the state and seen as an emblem of Marxism.<ref name="Introduction">{{cite journal |last1=Pisch |first1=Anita |title=Introduction |journal=The Personality Cult of Stalin in Soviet Posters, 1929–1953 |date=2016 |pages=1–48 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1crzp.6 |publisher=ANU Press|jstor=j.ctt1q1crzp.6 |isbn=978-1-76046-062-4 }}</ref> In July 1930, a state decree instructed 200 artists to prepare propaganda posters for the Five Year Plans and collectivsation measures.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pisch |first1=Anita |title=The personality cult of Stalin in Soviet posters, 1929–1953 |date=2016 |publisher=ANU Press |isbn=978-1-76046-062-4 |pages=87–190 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1crzp.8 |chapter=The rise of the Stalin personality cult|jstor=j.ctt1q1crzp.8 }}</ref> Historian Anita Pisch drew specific focus to the various manifestations of the personality cult in which Stalin was associated with the "Father", "Saviour" and "Warrior" cultural archetypes with the latter imagery having gained ascendency during the [[Soviet Union in World War II|Great Patrotic War]] and [[Cold War]].<ref name="Introduction" />

[[File:PomnikStalina-Praga1.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Stalin Monument (Prague)|Stalin's monument]] in Prague]]

Some scholars have argued that Stalin took an active involvement with the construction of the cult of personality<ref>{{cite book |last1=Saxonberg |first1=Steven |title=Transitions and Non-Transitions from Communism: Regime Survival in China, Cuba, North Korea, and Vietnam |date=14 February 2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02388-8 |page=111 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zQw-RWxrPSUC&dq=stalin+built+a+cult+around+himself&pg=PA111 |language=en}}</ref> with writers such as [[Isaac Deutscher]] and Erik van Ree noting that Stalin had absorbed elements from the cult of Tsars, Orthodox Christianity and highlighting specific acts such as [[Death and state funeral of Vladimir Lenin|Lenin's embalming]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ree |first1=Erik van |title=The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin: A Study in Twentieth Century Revolutionary Patriotism |date=27 August 2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-78604-5 |pages=1–384 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tLZy9dhBsPgC&dq=stalin+lenin+embalmed+cult+of+personality&pg=PT191 |language=en}}</ref> Yet, other scholars have drawn on primary accounts from Stalin's associates such as [[Vyacheslav Molotov|Molotov]] which suggested he took a more critical and ambivalent attitude towards his cult of personality.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Sarah |last2=Harris |first2=James |title=Stalin's World: Dictating the Soviet Order |date=14 October 2014 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-18281-1 |page=134 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQiSBAAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+cult+of+personality+molotov&pg=PA134 |language=en}}</ref>

The cult of personality served to legitimate Stalin's authority, establish continuity with Lenin as his "discipline, student and mentee" in the view of his wider followers.<ref name="Introduction" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Stone |first1=Dan |title=The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History |date=17 May 2012 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-956098-1 |page=465 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PHD3TsVlqKAC&dq=stalin+cult+of+personality+legitimise&pg=PA465 |language=en}}</ref> His successor, [[Nikita Khrushchev]], would later denounce the cult of personality around Stalin as contradictory to Leninist principles and party discourse.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Claeys |first1=Gregory |title=Encyclopedia of Modern Political Thought (set) |date=20 August 2013 |publisher=CQ Press |isbn=978-1-5063-0836-4 |page=162 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1qjlCAAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+cult+of+personality+legitimise&pg=PA162 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Class-based violence ===
Stalin blamed the [[kulak]]s for inciting [[reactionary#20th century|reactionary]] violence against the people during the implementation of [[Collective farming|agricultural collectivization]].<ref>Zuehlke, Jeffrey. 2006. ''Joseph Stalin''. [[Twenty-First Century Books]]. p. 63.</ref> In response, the state, under Stalin's leadership, initiated a violent campaign against them. This kind of campaign was later known as ''[[classicide]]'',<ref>[[Jacques Sémelin|Sémelin, Jacques]], and [[Stanley Hoffmann|Stanley Hoffman]]. 2007. ''Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide''. New York: [[Columbia University Press]]. p. 37.</ref> though several international legislatures have passed resolutions declaring the campaign a genocide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://holodomormuseum.org.ua/en/recognition-of-holodomor-as-genocide-in-the-world/|title=Worldwide Recognition of the Holodomor as Genocide|date=October 18, 2019}}</ref> Some historians dispute that these social-class actions constitute genocide.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Davies|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4s1lCwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14|title=The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia Volume 5: The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture 1931–1933|last2=Wheatcroft|first2=Stephen|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|year=2009|isbn=978-0-230-27397-9|page=xiv|author-link1=Robert William Davies|author-link2=Stephen G. Wheatcroft|access-date=September 20, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Tauger |first=Mark B. |url=https://carlbeckpapers.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/cbp/article/download/89/90 |title=Natural Disaster and Human Actions in the Soviet Famine of 1931–1933 |journal=The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies |issue=1506 |year=2001 |pages=1–65 |issn=2163-839X |doi=10.5195/CBP.2001.89 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612213128/https://carlbeckpapers.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/cbp/article/download/89/90 |archive-date=12 June 2017 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2000/03/the-future-did-not-work/378081/ |title=The Future Did Not Work |last=Getty |first=J. Arch|author-link=J. Arch Getty |date=2000 |website=[[The Atlantic]] |access-date=September 20, 2020}}</ref>

=== Purges and executions ===
{{Main|Great Purge|Case of the Anti-Soviet "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites"|Case of the Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization|Sandarmokh|1937 mass execution of Belarusians|Vinnytsia massacre|1941 Red Army Purge|Leningrad case| Polish Operation of the NKVD|Katyn massacre|Case of the Union of Liberation of Belarus|NKVD prisoner massacres|Estonian Operation of the NKVD|Metro-Vickers Affair|Latvian Operation of the NKVD|Stalin's shooting lists|Finnish Operation of the NKVD}}
{{multiple image|align=right|direction=horizontal|width=100|image1=Execute 346 Berias letter to Politburo.jpg|caption1=|image2=Execute 346 Stalins resolution.jpg|caption2=|image3=Execute 346 Politburo passes.jpg|footer=Left: [[Lavrenty Beria]]'s January 1940 letter to Stalin asking permission to execute 346 "[[Enemy of the people|enemies of the Communist Party and of the Soviet authorities]]" who conducted "counter-revolutionary, right-Trotskyite plotting and spying activities" Middle: Stalin's handwriting: "за" (support) Right: the [[Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Politburo]]'s decision is signed by Stalin}}
As head of the [[Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], Stalin consolidated nearly absolute power in the 1930s with a Great Purge of the party that claimed to expel "opportunists" and "counter-revolutionary infiltrators".<ref name="Figes">[[Orlando Figes|Figes, Orlando]]. 2007. ''The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia''. {{ISBN|0-8050-7461-9}}.</ref>{{sfn|Gellately|2007}} Those targeted by the purge were often expelled from the party; more severe measures ranged from banishment to the [[Gulag#Formation and expansion under Stalin|Gulag labor camps]] to execution after trials held by [[NKVD troika]]s.<ref name="Figes" /><ref>[[Ian Kershaw|Kershaw, Ian]], and [[Moshe Lewin]]. 1997. ''Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison''. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-521-56521-9}}. p. 300.</ref><ref>[[Leo Kuper|Kuper, Leo]]. 1982. ''Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century''. [[Yale University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-300-03120-3}}.</ref>

In the 1930s, Stalin became increasingly worried about Leningrad party head [[Sergei Kirov]]'s growing popularity. At the [[17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)|1934 Party Congress]], where the vote for the new Central Committee was held, Kirov received only three negative votes (the fewest of any candidate), while Stalin received over 100.{{sfn|Brackman|2001|p=204}}<ref group="lower-roman">An exact number of negative votes is unknown. In his memoirs, [[Anastas Mikoyan]] writes that out of 1,225 delegates, around 270 voted against Stalin and that the official number of negative votes was given as three, with the rest of ballots destroyed. Following [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s "[[On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences|Secret Speech]]" in 1956, a commission of the central committee investigated the votes and found that 267 ballots were missing.</ref> After Kirov's assassination, which Stalin may have orchestrated, Stalin invented a detailed scheme to implicate opposition leaders in the murder, including Trotsky, [[Lev Kamenev]], and [[Grigory Zinoviev]].{{sfn|Brackman|2001|pp=205–206}} Thereafter, the investigations and trials expanded.{{sfn|Brackman|2001|p=207}} Stalin passed a new law on "terrorist organizations and terrorist acts" that were to be investigated for no more than ten days, with no prosecution, defense attorneys, or appeals, followed by a sentence to be imposed "quickly."{{sfn|Overy|2004|p=182}} Stalin's Politburo also issued directives on quotas for mass arrests and executions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harris |first1=James |title=The Anatomy of Terror: Political Violence under Stalin |date=11 July 2013 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-965566-3 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8190eftcnDwC&dq=Stalin+quotas+police&pg=PA15 |language=en}}</ref> Under Stalin, the [[death penalty]] was extended to adolescents as young as 12 years old in 1935.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mccauley |first1=Martin |title=Stalin and Stalinism: Revised 3rd Edition |date=13 September 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-86369-4 |page=49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ7dAAAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+death+penalty+12+years+old&pg=PA49 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wright |first1=Patrick |title=Iron Curtain: From Stage to Cold War |date=28 October 2009 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-162284-7 |page=342 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ps5wZUFnE7IC&dq=stalin+death+penalty+12+years+old&pg=PA342 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Boobbyer|2000|p=160}}

After that, several trials, known as the [[Moscow Trials]], were held, but the procedures were replicated throughout the country. [[Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)|Article 58]] of the legal code, which listed prohibited [[Anti-Sovietism|anti-Soviet activities]] as a counter-revolutionary crime, was applied most broadly.{{sfn|Tucker|1992|p=456}} Many alleged anti-Soviet pretexts were used to brand individuals as "enemies of the people", starting the cycle of public persecution, often proceeding to interrogation, torture, and deportation, if not death. The Russian word [[:wikt:troika|''troika'']] thereby gained a new meaning: a quick, simplified trial by a committee of three subordinated to the NKVD troika—with sentencing carried out within 24 hours.{{sfn|Overy|2004|p=182}} Stalin's hand-picked [[executioner]] [[Vasili Blokhin]] was entrusted with carrying out some of the high-profile executions in this period.<ref>[[Timothy Snyder|Snyder, Timothy]]. ''Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin.'' [[Basic Books]], 2010. {{ISBN|0-465-00239-0}} p. 137.</ref>{{multiple image
| align = left
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| caption2 = [[Nikolai Yezhov]], shown walking with Stalin in the top photo from the 1930s, was killed in 1940 and following his execution was edited out of the photo by Soviet censors<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newseum.org/berlinwall/commissar_vanishes/vanishes.htm|title=Newseum: The Commissar Vanishes|access-date=July 19, 2008|archive-date=June 11, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611034558/http://www.newseum.org/berlinwall/commissar_vanishes/vanishes.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> (such retouching was a common occurrence during Stalin's rule)
}}

Many military leaders were convicted of treason, and a large-scale purge of [[Red Army]] officers followed.<ref group="lower-roman">The scale of Stalin's purge of [[Red Army]] officers was exceptional—90% of all generals and 80% of all colonels were killed. This included three out of five Marshals; 13 out of 15 Army commanders; 57 of 85 Corps commanders; 110 of 195 divisional commanders; and 220 of 406 brigade commanders, as well as all commanders of military districts.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

Carell, P. [1964] 1974. ''Hitler's War on Russia: The Story of the German Defeat in the East'' (first Indian ed.), translated by [[Ewald Osers|E. Osers]]. Delhi: B.I. Publications. p. 195.</ref> The repression of many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led Trotsky to claim that a "river of blood" separated Stalin's regime from Lenin's.<ref>[[Robert C. Tucker|Tucker, Robert C.]] 1999. ''Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation'', (''[[American Council of Learned Societies]] Planning Group on Comparative Communist'' Studies). [[Transaction Publishers]]. {{ISBN|0-7658-0483-2}}. p. 5.</ref> In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, where he had lived in exile since January 1937. This eliminated the last of Stalin's opponents among the former Party leadership.{{sfn|Overy|2004|p=338}}

[[Mass operations of the NKVD]] also targeted "national contingents" (foreign ethnicities) such as [[Polish people|Poles]], [[ethnic Germans]], and [[Koreans]]. A total of 350,000 (144,000 of them Poles) were arrested and 247,157 (110,000 Poles) were executed.{{sfn|Montefiore|2004}}{{Page needed|date=December 2016}} Many Americans who had emigrated to the Soviet Union during the worst of the [[Great Depression]] were executed, while others were sent to prison camps or gulags.<ref>Tzouliadis, Tim. August 2, 2008.) "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_7537000/7537585.stm Nightmare in the workers paradise]." [[BBC]].</ref><ref>Tzouliadis, Tim. 2008. ''The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia''. [[Penguin Press]], {{ISBN|1-59420-168-4}}.</ref> Concurrent with the purges, efforts were made to rewrite the history in Soviet textbooks and other propaganda materials. Notable people executed by [[NKVD]] were removed from the texts and photographs as though they had never existed.

In light of revelations from Soviet archives, historians now estimate that nearly 700,000 people (353,074 in 1937 and 328,612 in 1938) were executed in the course of the terror,<ref>{{cite book|editor=McLoughlin, Barry|editor2=McDermott, Kevin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8yorTJl1QEoC&pg=PA141|title=Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|year=2002|isbn=978-1-4039-0119-4|page=141}}</ref> the great mass of them ordinary Soviet citizens: workers, peasants, homemakers, teachers, priests, musicians, soldiers, pensioners, ballerinas, and beggars.<ref>{{cite book|editor=McLoughlin, Barry|editor2=McDermott, Kevin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8yorTJl1QEoC&pg=PA6|title=Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|year=2002|isbn=978-1-4039-0119-4|page=6}}</ref><ref name=":1">Kuromiya, Hiroaki. 2007. ''The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s.'' [[Yale University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-300-12389-2}}.</ref>{{Rp|4}} Scholars estimate the total death toll for the Great Purge (1936–1938) including fatalities attributed to imprisonment to be roughly 700,000-1.2 million.<ref>{{Citation |title=Introduction: the Great Purges as history |date=1985 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511572616.002 |work=Origins of the Great Purges |pages=1–9 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511572616.002 |isbn=978-0-521-25921-7 |access-date=2021-12-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Homkes|first=Brett|date=2004|title=Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Purge|url=https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=mcnair|journal=McNair Scholars Journal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ellman |first1=Michael |title=Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |date=2002 |volume=54 |issue=7 |pages=1151–1172 |doi=10.1080/0966813022000017177 |jstor=826310 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/826310 |issn=0966-8136}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shearer |first1=David R. |title=Stalin and War, 1918–1953: Patterns of Repression, Mobilization, and External Threat |date=11 September 2023 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-00-095544-6 |page=vii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CCHMEAAAQBAJ&dq=great+purge+1.2+million&pg=PR7 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nelson |first1=Todd H. |title=Bringing Stalin Back In: Memory Politics and the Creation of a Useable Past in Putin's Russia |date=16 October 2019 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-9153-9 |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oJGyDwAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+great+purge+1.2+million&pg=PA7 |language=en}}</ref> Many of the executed were interred in [[Mass graves from Soviet mass executions|mass graves]], with some significant killing and burial sites being [[Bykivnia]], [[Kurapaty]], and [[Butovo firing range|Butovo]].<ref>[[Timothy Snyder|Snyder, Timothy]] (2010) ''Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin.'' [[Basic Books]], {{ISBN|0-465-00239-0}} p. 101.</ref>
Some Western experts believe the evidence released from the Soviet archives is understated, incomplete or unreliable.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Rosefielde, Stephen|url=http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/RSF-New_Evidence.pdf|title=Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings, Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s|journal=Europe-Asia Studies|volume= 48|issue= 6|year= 1996|doi=10.1080/09668139608412393|page=959}}</ref><ref>[http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/CNQ-Comments_WCR.pdf Comment on Wheatcroft] by [[Robert Conquest]], 1999.</ref><ref>Pipes, Richard (2003) ''Communism: A History (Modern Library Chronicles)'', p. 67. {{ISBN|0-8129-6864-6}}.</ref>{{sfn|Applebaum|2003|p=584}}<ref>{{cite journal|author=Keep, John|year=1997|doi=10.4000/chs.1014|journal= Crime, Histoire & Sociétés|title=Recent Writing on Stalin's Gulag: An Overview|pages=91–112|volume= 1|issue=2|doi-access=free}}</ref> Conversely, historian [[Stephen G. Wheatcroft]], who spent much of his career researching the archives, contends that, before the collapse of the Soviet Union and the opening of the archives for historical research, "our understanding of the scale and the nature of Soviet repression has been extremely poor" and that some specialists who wish to maintain earlier high estimates of the Stalinist death toll are "finding it difficult to adapt to the new circumstances when the archives are open and when there are plenty of irrefutable data" and instead "hang on to their old [[Sovietologist|Sovietological]] methods with round-about calculations based on odd statements from emigres and other informants who are supposed to have superior knowledge."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wheatcroft|first=S. G.|author-link=Stephen G. Wheatcroft|year=1996|title=The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45|url=http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-German_Soviet.pdf|journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]]|volume=48|issue=8|pages=1319–53|doi=10.1080/09668139608412415|jstor=152781}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Wheatcroft, S. G.|s2cid=205667754|year=2000|title=The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conquest|url=http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-Comments_KEP_CNQ.pdf|journal=Europe-Asia Studies|volume=52|issue=6|pages=1143–59|doi=10.1080/09668130050143860|pmid=19326595}}</ref>

Stalin personally signed 357 [[proscription]] lists in 1937 and 1938 that condemned 40,000 people to execution, about 90% of whom are confirmed to have been shot.<ref name="Ellman">{{cite journal|author=Ellman, Michael|s2cid=53655536|year=2007|title=Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited|url=http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/famine/ellman1933.pdf|journal=Europe-Asia Studies|volume=59|issue=4|pages=663–93|doi=10.1080/09668130701291899|access-date=April 6, 2014|archive-date=October 14, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014232729/http://www1.fee.uva.nl/pp/mjellman/|url-status=dead}}</ref> While reviewing one such list, he reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years? No one. Who remembers the names now of the [[boyar]]s [[Ivan the Terrible]] got rid of? No one."<ref>[[Dmitri Volkogonov|Volkogonov, Dmitri]]. 1991. ''Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy''. New York. p. 210. {{ISBN|0-7615-0718-3}}.</ref> In addition, Stalin dispatched a contingent of NKVD operatives to [[Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolia]], established a Mongolian version of the NKVD ''troika'', and unleashed a [[Stalinist repressions in Mongolia|bloody purge]] in which tens of thousands were executed as "Japanese spies", as Mongolian ruler [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] closely followed Stalin's lead.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|2}} Stalin had ordered for 100,000 [[Buddhist]] [[lama]]s in Mongolia to be liquidated but the political leader [[Peljidiin Genden]] resisted the order.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baabar |first1=Bat-Ėrdėniĭn |title=History of Mongolia |date=1999 |publisher=Monsudar Pub. |isbn=978-99929-0-038-3 |page=322 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXxxAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotkin |first1=Stephen |last2=Elleman |first2=Bruce Allen |title=Mongolia in the Twentieth Century |date=12 February 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-46010-7 |page=112 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FWmmBgAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+100,000+order+mongolia&pg=PA112 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dashpu̇rėv |first1=Danzankhorloogiĭn |last2=Soni |first2=Sharad Kumar |title=Reign of Terror in Mongolia, 1920–1990 |date=1992 |publisher=South Asian Publishers |isbn=978-1-881318-15-6 |page=44 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aw4cAAAAIAAJ&q=stalin+100,000+order+mongolia |language=en}}</ref>

Under Stalinist influence in the [[Mongolian People's Republic]], an estimated 17,000 monks were killed, official figures show.<ref name="reuters">{{cite news |last=Thomas |first=Natalie |date=2018-06-04 |title=Young monks lead revival of Buddhism in Mongolia after years of repression. |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-mongolia-monks-idUKKCN1J104O |work=Reuters. |access-date=2023-07-06}}</ref> Stalinist forces also oversaw purges of anti-Stalinist elements among the Spanish Republican insurgents, including the [[Trotskyist]] allied [[POUM]] faction and [[anarchist]] groups, during the [[Spanish Civil War]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sakwa |first1=Richard |title=Soviet Politics: In Perspective |date=12 November 2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-90996-4 |page=43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQSiM2vPO54C&dq=spanish+civil+war+stalin+purged+nin&pg=PA43 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Whitehead |first1=Jonathan |title=The End of the Spanish Civil War: Alicante 1939 |date=4 April 2024 |publisher=Pen and Sword History |isbn=978-1-399-06395-1 |page=81 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7aLsEAAAQBAJ&dq=andreu+nin+stalin+purges&pg=PA81 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Service |first1=Robert |title=Comrades!: A History of World Communism |date=2007 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02530-1 |page=212 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Frgm5QodnFoC&dq=andreu+nin+stalin+purged&pg=PA211 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kocho-Williams |first1=Alastair |title=Russia's International Relations in the Twentieth Century |date=4 January 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-15747-9 |page=60 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu2kOJbrCuMC&dq=spanish+civil+war+stalin+purged+nin&pg=PA61 |language=en}}</ref>

During the 1930s and 1940s, the Soviet leadership sent NKVD squads into other countries to murder defectors and opponents of the Soviet regime. Victims of such plots included Trotsky, [[Yevhen Konovalets]], [[Ignace Poretsky]], Rudolf Klement, [[Alexander Kutepov]], [[Evgeny Miller]], and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification ([[POUM]]) leadership in Catalonia (e.g., [[Andreu Nin Pérez|Andréu Nin Pérez]]).<ref>{{cite journal|author=Ellman, Michael|s2cid=13880089|year=2005|url=http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/famine/ellman.pdf|title=The Role of Leadership Perceptions and of Intent in the Soviet Famine of 1931–1934|journal=Europe-Asia Studies|page=826|volume=57|issue=6|doi=10.1080/09668130500199392|access-date=April 6, 2014|archive-date=February 27, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227181110/http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/famine/ellman.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Joseph Berger-Barzilai]], co-founder of the [[Communist Party of Palestine]], spent twenty five years in Stalin's prisons and concentrations camps after the purges in 1937.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deutscher |first1=Isaac |title=The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky |date=5 January 2015 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78168-721-5 |page=1443|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wasserstein |first1=Bernard |title=On the Eve: The Jews of Europe Before the Second World War |date=May 2012 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-4165-9427-7 |page=395 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HJSQZJKHX_8C&dq=Joseph+Berger-Barzilai+purge&pg=PA395 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Deportations ===
{{Main|Population transfer in the Soviet Union|Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union|Deportation of the Balkars|Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush|Deportation of the Meskhetian Turks|Deportation of the Crimean Tatars|Deportation of the Karachays|Deportation of the Kalmyks|}}

Shortly before, during, and immediately after [[World War II]], Stalin conducted a series of [[Forced settlements in the Soviet Union|deportations]] that profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union. [[Separatism]], resistance to Soviet rule, and collaboration with the [[Operation Barbarossa|invading Germans]] were the official reasons for the deportations. Individual circumstances of those spending time in [[German-occupied Europe|German-occupied territories]] were not examined. After the brief [[Battle of the Caucasus|Nazi occupation of the Caucasus]], the entire population of five of the small highland peoples and the [[Crimean Tatars]]—more than a million people in total—were deported without notice or any opportunity to take their possessions.{{sfn|Bullock|1962|pp=904–906}}

As a result of Stalin's lack of trust in the loyalty of particular ethnicities, groups such as the [[Koryo-saram|Soviet Koreans]], [[Volga Germans]], Crimean Tatars, [[Chechens]], and many Poles, were forcibly moved out of strategic areas and relocated to places in the central Soviet Union, especially [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic|Kazakhstan]]. By some estimates, hundreds of thousands of deportees may have died en route.{{sfn|Boobbyer|2000|p=130}} It is estimated that between 1941 and 1949, nearly 3.3 million people{{sfn|Boobbyer|2000|p=130}}<ref>Pohl, Otto, ''Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949'', {{ISBN|0-313-30921-3}}.</ref> were deported to [[Siberia]] and the Central Asian republics. By some estimates, up to 43% of the resettled population died of diseases and malnutrition.<ref>{{cite web|title=Soviet Transit, Camp, and Deportation Death Rates|url=http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/USSR.TAB1B.GIF|access-date=June 25, 2010}}</ref>

According to official Soviet estimates, more than 14 million people passed through the gulags from 1929 to 1953, with a further 7 to 8 million deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union (including entire nationalities in several cases).<ref>{{cite journal|author=Conquest, Robert |title=Victims of Stalinism: A Comment|journal=Europe-Asia Studies|volume=49|issue=7|year=1997|pages=1317–1319|quote=We are all inclined to accept the Zemskov totals (even if not as complete) with their 14 million intake to Gulag 'camps' alone, to which must be added 4–5 million going to Gulag 'colonies', to say nothing of the 3.5 million already in, or sent to, 'labour settlements'. However taken, these are surely 'high' figures.|doi=10.1080/09668139708412501}}</ref> The emergent scholarly consensus is that from 1930 to 1953, around 1.5 to 1.7 million perished in the gulag system.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Wheatcroft, Stephen G.|year=1999|title=Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word|url=http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-Secret_Police.pdf|journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]]|volume=51|issue=2|pages=315–345|doi=10.1080/09668139999056|author-link=Stephen G. Wheatcroft}}</ref><ref>[[Steven Rosefielde|Rosefielde, Steven]]. 2009. ''Red Holocaust.'' [[Routledge]], 2009. {{ISBN|0-415-77757-7}}. pg. 67: "[M]ore complete archival data increases camp deaths by 19.4 percent to 1,258,537"; pg 77: "The best archivally based estimate of Gulag excess deaths at present is 1.6 million from 1929 to 1953."</ref><ref>[[Dan Healey|Healey, Dan]]. 2018. "[https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/ou_press/golfo-alexopoulos-illness-and-inhumanity-in-stalin-s-gulag-i363rKPYOp Golfo Alexopoulos. 'Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag']" (review). ''[[The American Historical Review|American Historical Review]]'' 123(3):1049–51. {{doi|10.1093/ahr/123.3.1049}}.</ref> In February 1956, [[Nikita Khrushchev]] condemned the deportations as a violation of Leninism and reversed most of them, although it was not until 1991 that the Tatars, [[Meskheti]]ans, and Volga Germans were allowed to return ''en masse'' to their homelands.

=== Economic policy ===
{{Main|Collectivization in the Soviet Union|Holodomor|Kazakh famine of 1930–1933|Industrialization in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:GolodomorKharkiv.jpg|thumb|Starved peasants on a street in [[Kharkiv]] during the [[Soviet famine of 1932–1933]]]]
At the start of the 1930s, Stalin launched a wave of radical economic policies that completely overhauled the industrial and agricultural face of the Soviet Union. This became known as the [[Great Turn]] as Russia turned away from the [[Mixed economy|mixed-economic]] type [[New Economic Policy]] (NEP) and adopted a [[planned economy]]. Lenin implemented the NEP to ensure the survival of the [[socialist state]] following seven years of war ([[World War I]], 1914–1917, and the subsequent [[Russian Civil War|Civil War]], 1917–1921) and rebuilt Soviet production to its 1913 levels. But Russia still lagged far behind the West, and Stalin and the majority of the Communist Party felt the NEP not only to be compromising communist ideals but also not delivering satisfactory economic performance or creating the envisaged socialist society.

According to historian [[Sheila Fitzpatrick]], the scholarly consensus was that Stalin appropriated the position of the [[Left Opposition]] on such matters as [[industrialisation]] and [[collectivisation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Sheila |title=The Old Man |journal=London Review of Books |date=22 April 2010 |volume=32 |issue=8 |url=https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v32/n08/sheila-fitzpatrick/the-old-man |language=en |issn=0260-9592}}</ref> Trotsky maintained that the disproportions and imbalances which became characteristic of Stalinist planning in the 1930s such as the underdeveloped [[consumption (economics)|consumer base]] along with the priority focus on [[heavy industry]] were due to a number of avoidable problems. He argued that the industrial drive had been enacted under more severe circumstances, several years later and in a less rational manner than originally conceived by the Left Opposition.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deutscher |first1=Isaac |title=The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky |date=5 January 2015 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78168-721-5 |page=1141|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet |language=en}}</ref>

[[Fredric Jameson]] has said that "Stalinism was…a success and fulfilled its historic mission, socially as well as economically" given that it "modernized the Soviet Union, transforming a peasant society into an industrial state with a literate population and a remarkable scientific superstructure."<ref>[[Fredric Jameson]]. ''Marxism Beyond Marxism'' (1996). p. 43. {{ISBN|0-415-91442-6}}.</ref> [[Robert Conquest]] disputes that conclusion, writing, "Russia had already been fourth to fifth among industrial economies before World War I", and that Russian industrial advances could have been achieved without collectivization, famine, or terror. According to Conquest, the industrial successes were far less than claimed, and the Soviet-style industrialization was "an anti-innovative dead-end."<ref name="reflections">[[Robert Conquest]]. ''Reflections on a Ravaged Century'' (2000). p. 101. {{ISBN|0-393-04818-7}}.</ref> [[Stephen Kotkin]] said those who argue collectivization was necessary are "dead wrong", writing that it "only seemed necessary within the straitjacket of Communist ideology and its repudiation of capitalism. And economically, collectivization failed to deliver." Kotkin further claimed that it decreased harvests instead of increasing them, as peasants tended to resist heavy taxes by producing fewer goods, caring only about their own subsistence.{{sfn|Kotkin|2014|p=724–725}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fitzpatrick |first=Sheila |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28293091 |title=Stalin's peasants : resistance and survival in the Russian village after collectivization |date=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-506982-X |location=New York |oclc=28293091}}</ref>{{Rp|page=5}}

According to several Western historians,<ref>[http://www.historyplace.com/worldhistory/genocide/stalin.htm "Genocide in the 20th century"]. History Place.</ref> Stalinist agricultural policies were a key factor in the [[Soviet famine of 1930–1933]]; some scholars believe that [[Holodomor]], which started near the end of 1932, was when the famine turned into an instrument of genocide; the Ukrainian government now recognizes it as such. Some scholars dispute the intentionality of the famine.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Davies|first1=Robert|author-link1=Robert William Davies|last2=Wheatcroft|first2=Stephen|author-link2=Stephen G. Wheatcroft|title=The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia Volume 5: The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture 1931–1933|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4s1lCwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14|year=2009|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-0-230-27397-9|page=xiv}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Tauger |first=Mark B. |url=https://carlbeckpapers.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/cbp/article/download/89/90 |title=Natural Disaster and Human Actions in the Soviet Famine of 1931–1933 |journal=The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies |issue=1506 |year=2001 |pages=1–65 |issn=2163-839X |doi=10.5195/CBP.2001.89 |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612213128/https://carlbeckpapers.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/cbp/article/download/89/90 |archive-date=12 June 2017 |df=dmy-all|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Social issues ===
The Stalinist era was largely regressive on social issues. Despite a brief period of decriminalization under Lenin, the 1934 Criminal Code re-criminalized homosexuality.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-11-10 |title=1917 Russian Revolution: The gay community's brief window of freedom |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41737330 |access-date=2023-05-29}}</ref> Abortion was made illegal again in 1936<ref>{{Cite web |title=When Soviet Women Won the Right to Abortion (For the Second Time) |url=https://jacobin.com/2020/03/soviet-women-abortion-ussr-history-health-care/ |access-date=2023-05-29 |website=jacobin.com |language=en-US}}</ref> after controversial debate among citizens,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-08-31 |title=Letters to the Editor on the Draft Abortion Law |url=https://soviethistory.msu.edu/1936-2/abolition-of-legal-abortion/abolition-of-legal-abortion-texts/abolition-of-legal-abortion/ |access-date=2023-05-29 |website=Seventeen Moments in Soviet History |language=en-US}}</ref> and women's issues were largely ignored.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mamonova |first=Tatyana |title=Women and Russia: Feminist Writings from the Soviet Union |location=Oxford |publisher=Basil Blackwell Publisher |year=1984 |isbn=0-631-13889-7}}</ref>

== Relationship to Leninism ==
{{further|Leninism after 1924}}
Stalin considered the political and economic system under his rule to be [[Marxism–Leninism]], which he considered the only legitimate successor of [[Marxism]] and [[Leninism]]. The [[historiography]] of Stalin is diverse, with many different aspects of continuity and discontinuity between the regimes Stalin and Lenin proposed. Some historians, such as [[Richard Pipes]], consider Stalinism the natural consequence of Leninism: Stalin "faithfully implemented Lenin's domestic and foreign policy programs."<ref>{{cite book |first=Richard|last=Pipes|title=Three Whys of the Russian Revolution|pages=83–4}}</ref> [[Robert Service (historian)|Robert Service]] writes that "institutionally and ideologically Lenin laid the foundations for a Stalin [...] but the passage from Leninism to the worse terrors of Stalinism was not smooth and inevitable."<ref>{{cite journal|title=Lenin: Individual and Politics in the October Revolution|journal=Modern History Review|volume=2|year=1990|number=1|pages=16–19}}</ref> Likewise, historian and Stalin biographer [[Edvard Radzinsky]] believes that Stalin was a genuine follower of Lenin, exactly as he claimed.<ref name="Radzinsky">[[Edvard Radzinsky]] ''Stalin: The First In-depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives'', Anchor, (1997) {{ISBN|0-385-47954-9}}.</ref> Another Stalin biographer, [[Stephen Kotkin]], wrote that "his violence was not the product of his subconscious but of the Bolshevik engagement with Marxist–Leninist ideology."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/11/understanding-stalin/380786/|title=Understanding Stalin|website=The Atlantic|date=2014-10-14|access-date=2015-04-04|author=Anne Applebaum}}</ref>
[[File:Ves mir budet nash.jpg|thumb|A poster of the Stalinist era with the inscription "The whole world will be ours!"]]

[[Dmitri Volkogonov]], who wrote biographies of both Lenin and Stalin, wrote that during the 1960s through 1980s, an official patriotic Soviet [[de-Stalinized]] view of the Lenin–Stalin relationship (during the [[Khrushchev Thaw]] and later) was that the overly [[autocratic]] Stalin had distorted the Leninism of the wise ''[[Grandparent|dedushka]]'' Lenin. But Volkogonov also lamented that this view eventually dissolved for those like him who had the scales fall from their eyes immediately before and after the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]]. After researching the biographies in the Soviet archives, he came to the same conclusion as Radzinsky and Kotkin (that Lenin had built a culture of violent autocratic totalitarianism of which Stalinism was a logical extension).

Proponents of [[Continuity of government|continuity]] cite a variety of contributory factors, such as that Lenin, not Stalin, introduced the [[Red Terror]] with its hostage-taking and [[internment camps]], and that Lenin developed the infamous [[Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)|Article 58]] and established the autocratic system in the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]].<ref name="Pipes">{{cite book|first=Richard|last=Pipes|title=Communism: A History|url=https://archive.org/details/communismhistory00pipe|url-access=registration|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8129-6864-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/communismhistory00pipe/page/n90 73]–74|publisher=Random House Publishing }}</ref> They also note that Lenin put a [[Ban on factions in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|ban on factions within the Russian Communist Party]] and introduced the [[one-party state]] in 1921—a move that enabled Stalin to get rid of his rivals easily after Lenin's death and cite [[Felix Dzerzhinsky]], who, during the [[Bolshevik]] struggle against opponents in the [[Russian Civil War]], exclaimed: "We stand for organized terror—this should be frankly stated."<ref>George Leggett, ''The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police''.</ref>

Opponents of this view include [[revisionist historians]] and many [[Post–Cold War era|post–Cold War]] and otherwise [[dissident Soviet]] historians, including [[Roy Medvedev]], who argues that although "one could list the various measures carried out by Stalin that were actually a continuation of anti-democratic trends and measures implemented under Lenin…in so many ways, Stalin acted, not in line with Lenin's clear instructions, but in defiance of them."<ref>Roy Medvedev, ''Leninism and Western Socialism'', Verso, 1981.</ref> In doing so, some historians have tried to distance Stalinism from Leninism to undermine the totalitarian view that Stalin's methods were inherent in communism from the start.<ref>Moshe Lewin, ''Lenin's Last Testament'', University of Michigan Press, 2005.</ref> Other revisionist historians such as [[Orlando Figes]], while critical of the Soviet era, acknowledge that Lenin actively sought to counter Stalin's growing influence, allying with Trotsky in 1922–23, opposing Stalin on [[foreign trade]], and proposing party reforms including the democratization of the [[Central Committee]] and recruitment of 50-100 ordinary workers into the party's lower organs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Figes |first1=Orlando |title=A people's tragedy : a history of the Russian Revolution |date=1997 |publisher=New York, NY : Viking |isbn=978-0-670-85916-0 |pages=796–801 |url=https://archive.org/details/peoplestragedyhi00fige/page/796/mode/2up}}</ref>

Critics include anti-Stalinist communists such as Trotsky, who pointed out that Lenin attempted to persuade the Communist Party to remove Stalin from his post as its [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]].Trotsky also argued that he and Lenin had intended to lift the ban on the [[List of political parties in the Soviet Union|opposition parties]] such as the [[Mensheviks]] and [[Socialist Revolutionaries]] as soon as the economic and social conditions of [[Soviet Russia]] had improved.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book |last1=Deutscher |first1=Isaac |title=The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky |date=5 January 2015 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78168-721-5 |pages=528 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet |language=en}}</ref> [[Lenin's Testament]], the document containing this order, was suppressed after Lenin's death. Various historians have cited Lenin's proposal to appoint Trotsky as a [[Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union|Vice-chairman of the Soviet Union]] as evidence that he intended Trotsky to be his successor as head of government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danilov |first1=Victor |last2=Porter |first2=Cathy |title=We Are Starting to Learn about Trotsky |journal=History Workshop |date=1990 |issue=29 |pages=136–146 |jstor=4288968 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4288968 |issn=0309-2984}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=Robert V. |title=The Rise and Fall of Communism in Russia |date=1 October 2008 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-13493-3 |page=438 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=27JGzAoMLjoC&dq=Victor+Danilov+Trotsky&pg=PA438 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Watson |first1=Derek |title=Molotov and Soviet Government: Sovnarkom, 1930–41 |date=27 July 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-24848-3 |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xhm_DAAAQBAJ&dq=Trotsky+chairman+rykov&pg=PA25 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Deutscher |first1=Isaac |title=The prophet unarmed: Trotsky, 1921–1929 |date=1965 |publisher=New York, Vintage Books |isbn=978-0-394-70747-1 |page=135 |url=https://archive.org/details/prophetunarmed00isaa/page/134/mode/2up?q=promote+rykov+}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dziewanowski |first1=M. K. |title=Russia in the twentieth century |date=2003 |publisher=Upper Saddle River, N.J. : Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-097852-3 |page=162 |url=https://archive.org/details/russiaintwentiet0000dzie/page/162/mode/1up?view=theater}}</ref> In his biography of Trotsky, British historian [[Isaac Deutscher]] writes that, faced with the evidence, "only the blind and the deaf could be unaware of the contrast between Stalinism and Leninism."<ref>{{cite book|first=Isaac|last=Deutscher|title=Trotsky: The Prophet Unarmed|url=https://archive.org/details/prophetunarmedtr0000unse_c1b0|url-access=registration|year=1959|pages=[https://archive.org/details/prophetunarmedtr0000unse_c1b0/page/n497 464]–5}}</ref> Similarly, historian [[Moshe Lewin]] writes, "The Soviet regime underwent a long period of 'Stalinism,' which in its basic features was diametrically opposed to the recommendations of [Lenin's] testament".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lewin |first1=Moshe |title=Lenin's Last Struggle |date=4 May 2005 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-03052-1 |page=136 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iheBbViwVksC |language=en}}</ref> French historian [[Pierre Broue]] disputes the historical assessments of the early Soviet Union by modern historians such as Dmitri Volkogonov, which Broue argues falsely equate [[Leninism]], Stalinism and [[Trotskyism]] to present the notion of ideological continuity and reinforce the position of [[anti-communism|counter-communism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Broue. |first1=Pierre |title=Trotsky: a biographer's problems. In The Trotsky reappraisal. Brotherstone, Terence; Dukes, Paul,(eds) |date=1992 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-0317-6 |pages=19, 20}}</ref>

Some scholars have attributed the establishment of the one-party system in the Soviet Union to the wartime conditions imposed on Lenin's government;<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rogovin |first1=Vadim Zakharovich |title=Was There an Alternative? Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years |date=2021 |publisher=Mehring Books |isbn=978-1-893638-97-6 |pages=13–14 |language=en}}</ref> others have highlighted the initial attempts to form a coalition government with the [[Left Socialist-Revolutionaries|Left Socialist Revolutionaries]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Carr |first1=Edward Hallett |title=The Bolshevik revolution 1917–1923. Vol. 1 |date=1977 |publisher=Penguin books |isbn=978-0-14-020749-1 |pages=111–112 |edition=Reprinted}}</ref> According to historian [[Marcel Liebman]], Lenin's wartime measures such as banning opposition parties was prompted by the fact that several political parties either [[left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks|took up arms]] against the new [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet government]], participated in sabotage, [[Collaborationism|collaborated]] with the deposed [[absolute monarchy|Tsarists]], or made [[Assassination attempts on Vladimir Lenin|assassination attempts against Lenin]] and other Bolshevik leaders.<ref name="Leninism Under Lenin">{{cite book |last1=Liebman |first1=Marcel |title=Leninism Under Lenin |date=1985 |publisher=Merlin Press |isbn=978-0-85036-261-9 |pages=1–348 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQjzAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> Liebman also argues that the banning of parties under Lenin did not have the same repressive character as later bans enforced by Stalin's regime.<ref name="Leninism Under Lenin" /> Several scholars have highlighted the socially progressive nature of Lenin's policies, such as [[Universal access to education|universal education]], [[universal healthcare|healthcare]], and [[Women in Russia|equal rights for women]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Katherine H. |last2=Keene |first2=Michael L. |title=After the Vote Was Won: The Later Achievements of Fifteen Suffragists |date=10 January 2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5647-5 |page=109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyaxYvSG6gAC&dq=lenin+universal+literacy+after+the+vote+was+won&pg=PA109 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugri͡umov |first1=Aleksandr Leontʹevich |title=Lenin's Plan for Building Socialism in the USSR, 1917–1925 |date=1976 |publisher=Novosti Press Agency Publishing House |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXknAQAAMAAJ&q=lenin+universal+literacy |language=en}}</ref> Conversely, Stalin's regime reversed Lenin's policies on social matters such as [[gender equality|sexual equality]], legal restrictions on [[marriage]], rights of sexual minorities, and [[abortion|protective legislation]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Meade |first1=Teresa A. |author-link=Teresa Meade |last2=Wiesner-Hanks |first2=Merry E. |title=A Companion to Gender History |date=15 April 2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-69282-0 |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtQP5why918C&dq=stalin+criminalize+abortion+religion+nationalism&pg=PA197 |language=en}}</ref> Historian [[Robert Vincent Daniels]] also views the Stalinist period as a counterrevolution in Soviet cultural life that revived [[Soviet patriotism|patriotic propaganda]], the Tsarist programme of [[Russification]] and traditional, [[military ranks]] that Lenin had criticized as expressions of "Great Russian chauvinism".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=Robert V. |title=The End of the Communist Revolution |date=November 2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-92607-7 |pages=90–94 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKeJAgAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+abortion+criminalised&pg=PA94 |language=en}}</ref> Daniels also regards Stalinism as an abrupt break with the Leninist period in terms of economic policies in which a deliberated, scientific system of [[economic planning]] that featured former [[Menshevik]] [[economists]] at [[Gosplan]] was replaced by a hasty version of planning with unrealistic targets, bureaucractic waste, [[Bottleneck (production)|bottlenecks]] and [[shortages]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=Robert V. |title=The End of the Communist Revolution |date=November 2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-92607-7 |pages=90–92 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKeJAgAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+abortion+criminalised&pg=PA94 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:First edition of Krushchev's "Secret Speech".jpg|thumb|180px|''O kulcie jednostki i jego następstwach'', Warsaw, March 1956, first edition of the Secret Speech, published for the inner use in the [[PUWP]].]]
In his "[[On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences|Secret Speech]]", delivered in 1956, [[Nikita Khrushchev]], Stalin's successor, argued that Stalin's regime differed profusely from the leadership of Lenin. He was critical of the [[Joseph Stalin's cult of personality|cult of the individual]] constructed around Stalin whereas Lenin stressed "the role of the people as the creator of history".<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book |last1=Khrushchev |first1=Nikita Sergeevich |title=The Crimes Of The Stalin Era, Special Report To The 20th Congress Of The Communist Party Of The Soviet Union. |date=1956 |pages=1–65 |url=https://archive.org/details/TheCrimesOfTheStalinEraSpecialReportToThe20thCongressOfTheCommunistPartyOfTheSovietUnion.}}</ref> He also emphasized that Lenin favored a [[collective leadership]] that relied on personal persuasion and recommended Stalin's removal as General Secretary. Khrushchev contrasted this with Stalin's "despotism", which required absolute submission to his position, and highlighted that many of the people later annihilated as "enemies of the party ... had worked with Lenin during his life".<ref name="archive.org" /> He also contrasted the "severe methods" Lenin used in the "most necessary cases" as a "struggle for survival" during the Civil War with the extreme methods and mass repressions Stalin used even when the revolution was "already victorious".<ref name="archive.org" /> In his memoirs, Khrushchev argued that his widespread purges of the "most advanced nucleus of people" among the [[Old Bolsheviks]] and leading figures in the [[military]] and [[Science and technology in the Soviet Union|scientific]] fields had "undoubtedly" weakened the nation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Khrushchev |first1=Nikita Sergeevich |last2=Khrushchev |first2=Serge_ |title=Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev |date=2004 |publisher=Penn State Press |isbn=978-0-271-02861-3 |page=156 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uv1zv4FZhFUC&dq=stalin+weaken+soviet+union+old+bolsheviks&pg=PT170 |language=en}}</ref> According to Stalin's secretary, [[Boris Bazhanov]], Stalin was jubilant over Lenin's death while "publicly putting on the mask of grief".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kuromiya |first1=Hiroaki |title=Stalin |date=16 August 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-86780-7 |page=60 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRV4AAAAQBAJ&dq=Stalin+swearing+Lenin+testament&pg=PA59 |language=en}}</ref>

Some Marxist theoreticians have disputed the view that Stalin's dictatorship was a natural outgrowth of the Bolsheviks' actions, as Stalin eliminated most of the original central committee members from 1917.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Grant |first1=Alex |title=Top 10 lies about the Bolshevik Revolution |url=https://www.marxist.com/top-10-lies-about-the-bolshevik-revolution-part-one.htm |website=In Defence of Marxism |language=en-gb |date=1 November 2017}}</ref> [[George Novack]] stressed the Bolsheviks' initial efforts to form a government with the [[Left Socialist Revolutionaries]] and bring other parties such as the Mensheviks into political legality.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Novack |first1=George |title=Democracy and Revolution |date=1971 |publisher=Pathfinder |isbn=978-0-87348-192-2 |pages=307–347 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bLMgAQAAIAAJ |language=en}}</ref> [[Tony Cliff]] argued the Bolshevik-Left Socialist Revolutionary coalition government dissolved the Constituent Assembly for several reasons. They cited the outdated voter rolls, which did not acknowledge the split among the Socialist Revolutionary party, and the assembly's conflict with the [[All-Russian Congress of Soviets|Congress of the Soviets]] as an alternative democratic structure.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cliff |first1=Tony |title=Revolution Besieged. The Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly) |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1978/lenin3/ch03.html |website=www.marxists.org}}</ref>

A similar analysis is present in more recent works, such as those of Graeme Gill, who argues that Stalinism was "not a natural flow-on of earlier developments; [it formed a] sharp break resulting from conscious decisions by leading political actors."{{sfn|Gill|1998}} But Gill adds that "difficulties with the use of the term reflect problems with the concept of Stalinism itself. The major difficulty is a lack of agreement about what should constitute Stalinism."{{sfn|Gill|1998|p=1}} Revisionist historians such as [[Sheila Fitzpatrick]] have criticized the focus on the upper levels of society and the use of Cold War concepts such as [[totalitarianism]], which have obscured the reality of the system.<ref>{{cite book|title=Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared|last1=Geyer|first1=Michael|author1-link=Michael Geyer|last2=Fitzpatrick|first2=Sheila|author2-link=Sheila Fitzpatrick|year=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-72397-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3wzDPQAACAAJ|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511802652}}</ref>

Russian historian [[Vadim Rogovin]] writes, "Under Lenin, the freedom to express a real variety of opinions existed in the party, and in carrying out political decisions, consideration was given to the positions of not only the majority, but a minority in the party". He compared this practice with subsequent leadership blocs, which violated party tradition, ignored opponents' proposals, and expelled the [[Left Opposition|Opposition]] from the party on falsified charges, culminating in the [[Moscow Trials]] of 1936–1938. According to Rogovin, 80-90% of the members of the Central Committee elected at the [[6th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)|Sixth]] through the [[17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)|Seventeenth Congresses]] were killed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rogovin |first1=Vadim Z |title=Was There an Alternative? 1923–1927: Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years |date=2021 |publisher=Mehring Books |isbn=978-1-893638-96-9 |pages=494–495 |language=en}}</ref> The Right and Left Opposition have been held by some scholars as representing political alternatives to Stalinism despite their shared beliefs in Leninism due to their policy platforms which were at variance with Stalin. This ranged from areas related to [[socialist economics|economics]], [[foreign policy]] and [[cultural]] matters.<ref>"While Trotsky was strongly biased toward industrial development, there is little basis to suppose that he would have adopted Stalin’s forcible collectivization, slapdash economic planning, anti expert campaigns, or cultural know-nothingism. Neither Trotsky nor Bukharin would have pursued anything like Stalin’s pseudo-revolutionary “[[third period]]” foreign policy and his connivance in the advent of [[Hitler]], another product of his political manoeuvring against the Bukharinists."{{cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=Robert V. |title=The Rise and Fall of Communism in Russia |date=1 October 2008 |publisher=Yale University Press |page=396 |isbn=978-0-300-13493-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=27JGzAoMLjoC |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Day |first1=Richard B. |title=The Blackmail of the Single Alternative: Bukharin, Trotsky and Perestrojka |journal=Studies in Soviet Thought |date=1990 |volume=40 |issue=1/3 |pages=159–188 |doi=10.1007/BF00818977 |jstor=20100543 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20100543 |issn=0039-3797}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
{{Main|Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin|Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Saxlmuzeum.jpg|upright|thumb|Stalin statue in front of the [[Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori]]]]
[[File:Yalta Conference (Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin) (B&W).jpg|thumb|left|British prime minister [[Winston Churchill]], United States president [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and Stalin, the Big Three Allied leaders during World War II at the Yalta Conference in February 1945]]
In Western [[historiography]], Stalin is considered one of the worst and most notorious figures in modern history.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dunn |first1=Dennis J. |title=Caught Between Roosevelt & Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow |date=1 January 1998 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |isbn=978-0-8131-7074-9 |pages=6, 271 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC&pg=PR3 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Creveld |first1=Martin van |title=The Rise and Decline of the State |date=26 August 1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-65629-0 |page=402 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FdhnbrZJ3ZQC&dq=joseph+stalin+%C2%A0one+of+the+worst+dictators%C2%A0&pg=PA402 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Jeremy E. |title=Visual Histories of Occupation: A Transcultural Dialogue |date=28 January 2021 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-350-14220-6 |page=239 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=baIyEAAAQBAJ&dq=joseph+stalin+%C2%A0one+of+the+worst+dictators+of+the+20th+century%C2%A0&pg=PA239 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Service |first1=Robert |title=Stalin: A Biography |date=2005 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01697-2 |page=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hSWK6Dh4wRgC&q=Stalin+notorious+figures |language=en}}</ref> Biographer and historian [[Isaac Deutscher]] highlighted the [[totalitarian]] character of Stalinism and its suppression of "[[socialism|socialist]] inspiration".<ref name="Stalin: A Political Biography" />

Several scholars have derided Stalinism for fostering [[anti-intellectual]], [[antisemitic]] and [[chauvinistic]] attitudes within the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tismaneanu |first1=Vladimir |title=Stalinism Revisited: The Establishment of Communist Regimes in East-Central Europe |date=10 November 2009 |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=978-963-386-678-8 |page=29 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vqLeEAAAQBAJ&dq=Stalinism+anti+intellectualism+anti+westernism&pg=PA29 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Fürst |first1=Juliane |title=Stalin's Last Generation: Soviet Post-War Youth and the Emergence of Mature Socialism |date=30 September 2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-957506-0 |page=94 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCEUDAAAQBAJ&dq=Stalinism+anti+intellectualism&pg=PA94 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Critical Companion to Contemporary Marxism |date=31 December 2007 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-2360-7 |page=339 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3wOwCQAAQBAJ&dq=Stalinism+anti+intellectualism&pg=PA339 |language=en}}</ref> According to Marxist philosopher [[Helena Sheehan]], his philosophical legacy is almost universally rated negatively with most Soviet sources considering his influence to have negatively impacted the creative development of Soviet philosophy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sheehan |first1=Helena |title=Marxism and the Philosophy of Science: A Critical History |date=23 January 2018 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78663-428-3 |page=230 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dG_nDwAAQBAJ&dq=most+soviet+philosophers+today+reject+stalin&pg=PT340 |language=en}}</ref> Sheehan discussed omissions in his views on dialectics and noted that most Soviet philosophers rejected his characterization of [[Hegel]]'s philosophy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sheehan |first1=Helena |title=Marxism and the Philosophy of Science: A Critical History |date=23 January 2018 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78663-428-3 |page=230 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dG_nDwAAQBAJ&dq=most+soviet+philosophers+today+reject+stalin&pg=PT340 |language=en}}</ref>

Pierre du Bois argues that the cult of personality around Stalin was elaborately constructed to legitimize his rule. Many deliberate distortions and falsehoods were used.<ref>Pierre du Bois, "Stalin – Genesis of a Myth," ''Survey. A Journal of East & West Studies'' 28#1 (1984) pp. 166–181. See abstract in {{cite book|author1=David R. Egan|author2=Melinda A. Egan|title=Joseph Stalin: An Annotated Bibliography of English-Language Periodical Literature to 2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C_7Xh2euykoC&pg=PA157|year=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=157|isbn=978-0-8108-6671-3}}</ref> The Kremlin refused access to archival records that might reveal the truth, and critical documents were destroyed. Photographs were altered and documents were invented.<ref>Carol Strong and Matt Killingsworth, "Stalin the Charismatic Leader?: Explaining the 'Cult of Personality' as a legitimation technique." ''Politics, Religion & Ideology'' 12.4 (2011): 391–411.</ref> People who knew Stalin were forced to provide "official" accounts to meet the ideological demands of the cult, especially as Stalin presented it in 1938 in ''Short Course on the History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)'', which became the official history.<ref>N. N. Maslov, "Short Course of the History of the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)—An Encyclopedia of Stalin's Personality Cult". ''Soviet Studies in History'' 28.3 (1989): 41–68.</ref> Historian [[David L. Hoffmann]] sums up the consensus of scholars: "The Stalin cult was a central element of Stalinism, and as such, it was one of the most salient features of Soviet rule. [...] Many scholars of Stalinism cite the cult as integral to Stalin's power or as evidence of Stalin's megalomania."<ref>[[David L. Hoffmann]], "The Stalin Cult' ''The Historian'' (2013) 75#4 p. 909.</ref>

But after Stalin died in 1953, Khrushchev repudiated his policies and condemned his [[cult of personality]] in his [[Secret Speech]] to the [[Twentieth Party Congress]] in 1956, instituting [[de-Stalinization]] and relative [[liberalization]], within the same political framework. Consequently, the world's communist parties that previously adhered to Stalinism, except the [[German Democratic Republic]] and the [[Socialist Republic of Romania]], abandoned it and, to a greater or lesser degree, adopted Khrushchev's positions. The [[Chinese Communist Party]] chose to split from the Soviet Union, resulting in the [[Sino-Soviet split]].

=== Maoism and Hoxhaism ===
[[Mao Zedong]] famously declared that Stalin was 70% good and 30% bad. [[Maoism|Maoists]] criticized Stalin chiefly for his view that bourgeois influence within the Soviet Union was primarily a result of external forces, to the almost complete exclusion of internal forces, and his view that class contradictions ended after the basic construction of socialism. Mao also criticized Stalin's cult of personality and the excesses of the great purge. But Maoists praised Stalin for leading the Soviet Union and the international proletariat, defeating fascism in Germany, and his [[anti-revisionism]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Mao's Evaluations of Stalin|url=http://www.massline.org/SingleSpark/Stalin/StalinMaoEval.htm|access-date=August 3, 2014|website=MassLine}}</ref>

Taking the side of the [[Chinese Communist Party]] in the [[Sino-Soviet split]], the [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania]] remained committed, at least theoretically, to its brand of Stalinism ([[Hoxhaism]]) for decades under the leadership of [[Enver Hoxha]]. Despite their initial cooperation against "[[Revisionism (Marxism)|revisionism]]", Hoxha denounced Mao as a revisionist, along with almost every other self-identified communist organization worldwide, resulting in the [[Sino-Albanian split]]. This effectively isolated Albania from the rest of the world, as Hoxha was hostile to both the pro-American and pro-Soviet spheres of influence and the Non-Aligned Movement under the leadership of [[Josip Broz Tito]], whom Hoxha had also previously denounced.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hoxha |first=Enver Halil |title=The Titoites |url=http://www.marx2mao.com/Other/TT82NB.html |access-date=2023-01-14 |website=From Marx to Mao |page=501}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title= Imperialism and the Revolution |date=1979 |first1=Enver |last1=Hoxha |chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works/imp_rev/imp_ch1.htm |chapter=I - The Strategy of Imperialism and Modern Revisionism |access-date=2023-01-14 |via=Marxists Internet Archive }}</ref>

=== Trotskyism ===
{{Main|Trotskyism|Anti-Stalinist Left|The Stalin School of Falsification|Stalin: An Appraisal of the Man and His Influence}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R15068, Leo Dawidowitsch Trotzki.jpg|thumb|[[Leon Trotsky]] was the leader of the [[Left Opposition]] which advocated for an alternative set of policies to Stalin.]]

[[Leon Trotsky]] always viewed Stalin as the "candidate for grave-digger of our party and the revolution" during the succession struggle.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rogovin |first1=Vadim Zakharovich |title=Was There an Alternative? Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years |date=2021 |publisher=Mehring Books |isbn=978-1-893638-97-6 |page=431 |language=en}}</ref> American historian [[Robert Vincent Daniels]] viewed Trotsky and the Left Opposition as a critical alternative to the Stalin-Bukharin majority in a number of areas. Daniels stated that the Left Opposition would have prioritised industrialisation but never contemplated the "[[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|violent uprooting]]" employed by Stalin and contrasted most directly with Stalinism on the issue of [[Soviet democracy|party democratization and bureaucratization]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=Robert V. |title=The Rise and Fall of Communism in Russia |date=1 October 2008 |publisher=Yale University Press |page=195 |isbn=978-0-300-13493-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=27JGzAoMLjoC |language=en}}</ref> Trotsky also opposed the policy of forced collectivisation under Stalin and favoured a [[volunteering|voluntary]], gradual approach towards [[collective farming|agricultural production]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beilharz |first1=Peter |title=Trotsky, Trotskyism and the Transition to Socialism |date=19 November 2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-00-070651-2 |pages=1–206 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lfe-DwAAQBAJ&dq=trotsky+widely+acknowledged+collectivisation&pg=PT196 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rubenstein |first1=Joshua |title=Leon Trotsky : a revolutionary's life |date=2011 |publisher=New Haven : Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-13724-8 |page=161 |url=https://archive.org/details/leontrotskyrevol0000rube/page/160/mode/2up?q=forced+collectivization}}</ref> with greater tolerance for the rights of Soviet Ukrainians.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deutscher |first1=Isaac |title=The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky |date=5 January 2015 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78168-721-5 |page=637 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Leon Trotsky: Problem of the Ukraine (1939) |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1939/04/ukraine.html |website=www.marxists.org}}</ref>

[[Trotskyists]] argue that the [[Stalinist Soviet Union]] was neither [[socialist]] nor [[communist]] but a [[bureaucratized]] [[degenerated workers' state]]—that is, a non-capitalist state in which exploitation is controlled by a ruling [[caste]] that, although not owning the [[means of production]] and not constituting a [[social class]] in its own right, accrues benefits and privileges at the working class's expense. Trotsky believed that the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] must be spread all over the globe's working class, the [[proletarians]], for world revolution. But after the failure of the revolution in Germany, Stalin reasoned that industrializing and consolidating Bolshevism in Russia would best serve the proletariat in the long run. The dispute did not end until Trotsky was murdered in his Mexican villa in 1940 by Stalinist assassin [[Ramón Mercader]].<ref name=RefFariaStatistics>{{cite web |last=Faria|first=MA|title=Stalin, Communists, and Fatal Statistics|url=http://www.haciendapublishing.com/articles/stalin-communists-and-fatal-statistics|access-date=September 5, 2012|date=January 8, 2012}}</ref> [[Max Shachtman]], a principal Trotskyist theorist in the U.S., argued that the Soviet Union had evolved from a degenerated worker's state to a new [[mode of production]] called ''[[bureaucratic collectivism]]'', whereby [[orthodox Trotskyists]] considered the Soviet Union an ally gone astray. Shachtman and his followers thus argued for the formation of a [[Third Camp]] opposed to the [[Eastern Bloc|Soviet]] and [[Western Bloc|capitalist]] blocs equally. By the mid-20th century, Shachtman and many of his associates, such as [[Social Democrats, USA]], identified as [[social democrats]] rather than Trotskyists, while some ultimately abandoned socialism altogether and embraced [[neoconservatism]]. In the U.K., [[Tony Cliff]] independently developed a critique of [[state capitalism]] that resembled Shachtman's in some respects but retained a commitment to [[revolutionary communism]].<ref>Cliff, Tony (1948). [http://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1948/xx/burcoll.htm "The Theory of Bureaucratic Collectivism: A Critique"]. In Cliff, Tony (1988) [1974]. ''State Capitalism in Russia''. London: Bookmarks pp. 333–353. {{ISBN|9780906224441}}. Retrieved 23 April 2020.</ref> Similarly, American Trotskyist [[David North (socialist)|David North]] drew attention to the fact that the generation of bureaucrats that rose to power under Stalin's tutelage presided over the Soviet Union's [[Stagnation of the Soviet Union|stagnation]] and [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|breakdown]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=North |first1=David |title=In Defense of Leon Trotsky |date=2010 |publisher=Mehring Books |isbn=978-1-893638-05-1 |pages=172–173 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVqvouA22IkC |language=en}}</ref>

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|bgcolor=|quote=At a time when hundreds of thousands and millions of workers, especially in Germany, are departing from Communism, in part to fascism and in the main into the camp of indifferentism, thousands and tens of thousands of Social Democratic workers, under the impact of the self-same defeat, are evolving into the left, to the side of Communism. There cannot, however, even be talk of their accepting the hopelessly discredited Stalinist leadership.|source=—Trotsky's writings on Stalinism and fascism in 1933<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trotsky |first1=Leon |title=The Struggle Against Fascism in Germany |date=1971 |publisher=Pathfinder Press |isbn=978-0-87348-136-6 |pages=555–556 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nH5KwgEACAAJ |language=en}}</ref>}}

Trotskyist historian [[Vadim Rogovin]] believed Stalinism had "discredited the idea of socialism in the eyes of millions of people throughout the world". Rogovin also argued that the [[Left Opposition]], led by Trotsky, was a political movement that "offered a real alternative to Stalinism, and that to crush this movement was the primary function of the Stalinist terror".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rogovin |first1=Vadim Zakharovich |title=Was There an Alternative? Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years |date=2021 |publisher=Mehring Books |isbn=978-1-893638-97-6 |pages=1–2 |language=en}}</ref> According to Rogovin, Stalin had destroyed thousands of foreign communists capable of leading socialist change in their respective, countries. He cited 600 active [[Bulgarian Communist Party|Bulgarian]] communists who perished in his prison camps along with the thousands of German communists whom Stalin handed over to the [[Gestapo]] after the signing of the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact|German-Soviet pact]]. Rogovin further noted that 16 members of the [[Central Committee]] of the [[Communist Party of Germany|German Communist Party]] became victims of Stalinist terror. Repressive measures were also enforced upon the [[Hungarian Communist Party|Hungarian]], [[Yugoslav Communist Party|Yugoslav]] and other [[Communist Party of Poland|Polish Communist]] parties.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rogovin |first1=Vadim Zakharovich |title=Was There an Alternative? Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years |date=2021 |publisher=Mehring Books |isbn=978-1-893638-97-6 |pages=380 |language=en}}</ref> British historian Terence Brotherstone argued that the Stalin era had a profound effect on those attracted to Trotsky's ideas. Brotherstone described figures who emerged from the [[Marxist-Leninism|Stalinist]] parties as miseducated, which he said helped to block the development of Marxism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brotherstone |first1=Terence |title=Trotsky's future. Brotherstone, Terence; Dukes, Paul,(eds) |date=1992 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-0317-6 |page=238}}</ref>

=== Other interpretations ===
[[File:GULag 2 Museum Moscow Russia.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gulag]] Museum in Moscow, founded in 2001 by historian [[Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko]]]]
Some historians and writers, such as [[Dietrich Schwanitz]],<ref>Schwanitz, Dietrich. ''Bildung. Alles, was man wissen muss'': "At the same time, Stalin was a kind of monstrous reincarnation of Peter the Great. Under his tyranny, Russia transformed into a country of [[industrial slave]]s, and the gigantic empire was gifted with a network of working camps, the ''[[Gulag Archipelago]]''."</ref> draw parallels between Stalinism and the economic policy of [[Tsar]] [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]]; Schwanitz in particular views Stalin as "a monstrous reincarnation" of him. Both men wanted Russia to leave the western European states far behind in terms of development. Some reviewers have considered Stalinism a form of "[[red fascism]]".<ref>{{cite book |last= Fried |first= Richard M.|title= Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-19-504361-7|page=50}}</ref> [[Fascist]] regimes ideologically opposed the Soviet Union, but some regarded Stalinism favorably for evolving [[Bolshevism]] into a form of fascism. [[Benito Mussolini]] saw Stalinism as having transformed Soviet Bolshevism into a [[Pan-Slavism|Slavic]] fascism.<ref>MacGregor Knox. Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Italy's Last War. pp. 63–64.</ref>

British historian [[Michael Ellman]] writes that mass deaths from famines are not a "uniquely Stalinist evil", noting that famines and droughts have been a [[Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union|common occurrence]] in [[History of Russia|Russian history]], including the [[Russian famine of 1921–22]], which occurred before Stalin came to power. He also notes that famines were widespread worldwide in the 19th and 20th centuries in countries such as India, Ireland, Russia and China. Ellman compares the Stalinist regime's behavior vis-à-vis the [[Holodomor]] to that of the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] (toward [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Ireland]] and [[Bengal famine of 1943|India]]) and the [[Group of Eight|G8]] in contemporary times, arguing that the G8 "are guilty of mass manslaughter or mass deaths from criminal negligence because of their not taking obvious measures to reduce mass deaths" and that Stalin's "behaviour was no worse than that of many rulers in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries".<ref>Ellman, Michael (November 2002). [http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/ELM-Repression_Statistics.pdf "Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments"]. ''Europe-Asia Studies''. Taylor & Francis. '''54''' (7): 1152–1172. {{doi|10.1080/0966813022000017177}}. {{JSTOR|826310}}.</ref>

[[File:День памяти российских немцев, 28 августа 2011. Возложение цветов.jpg|thumb|right|Memorial to the victims of political repression in the USSR, in [[St. Petersburg]], made of a boulder from the [[Solovetsky Islands]]]]

[[David L. Hoffmann]] questions whether Stalinist practices of state violence derive from socialist ideology. Placing Stalinism in an international context, he argues that many forms of state interventionism the Stalinist government used, including social cataloguing, surveillance and concentration camps, predate the Soviet regime and originated outside of Russia. He further argues that technologies of social intervention developed in conjunction with the work of 19th-century European reformers and greatly expanded during World War I, when state actors in all the combatant countries dramatically increased efforts to mobilize and control their populations. According to Hoffman, the Soviet state was born at this moment of total war and institutionalized state intervention practices as permanent features.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hoffmann |first1=David |title=Cultivating the Masses: Modern State Practices and Soviet Socialism, 1914–1939 |date=2011 |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, New York |isbn=978-0-8014-4629-0 |pages=6–10}}</ref>

In ''The Mortal Danger: Misconceptions about Soviet Russia and the Threat to America'', anti-communist and Soviet dissident [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] argues that the use of the term ''Stalinism'' hides the inevitable effects of communism as a whole on human liberty. He writes that the concept of Stalinism was developed after 1956 by Western intellectuals to keep the communist ideal alive. But "Stalinism" was used as early as 1937, when Trotsky wrote his pamphlet ''Stalinism and Bolshevism''.<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1937/08/stalinism.htm "Leon Trotsky: Stalinism and Bolshevism (1937)"]. Marxists.org, 28 August 1937. Retrieved 12 July 2013.</ref>

In two ''[[The Guardian|Guardian]]'' articles in 2002 and 2006, British journalist [[Seumas Milne]] wrote that the impact of the [[Post–Cold War era|post–Cold War]] narrative that Stalin and Hitler were twin evils, equating communism's evils with those of [[Nazism]], "has been to relativize the unique crimes of Nazism, bury those of colonialism and feed the idea that any attempt at radical social change will always lead to suffering, killing and failure."<ref>Milne, Seumas (12 September 2002). [http://m.guardian.co.uk/education/2002/sep/12/highereducation.historyandhistoryofart "The battle for history"]. ''The Guardian''. Retrieved 7 October 2020.</ref><ref>Milne, Seumas (16 February 2006). [https://www.theguardian.com/Columnists/Column/0,,1710891,00.html "Communism may be dead, but clearly not dead enough"]. ''The Guardian''. Retrieved 18 April 2020.</ref>

According to historian [[Eric D. Weitz]], 60% of German exiles in the Soviet Union had been liquidated during the Stalinist terror and a higher proportion of the KPD Politburo membership had died in the Soviet Union than in Nazi Germany. Weitz also noted that hundreds of German citizens, most of them Communists, were handed over to the Gestapo by Stalin's administration.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Weitz |first1=Eric D. |title=Creating German Communism, 1890–1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State |date=13 April 2021 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-22812-9 |page=280 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOgSEAAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+handed+over+german+communists+gestapo&pg=PA280 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Public opinion ===
{{Main|Neo-Stalinism}}

In modern Russia, public opinion of Stalin and the former Soviet Union has [[Nostalgia for the Soviet Union|improved in recent years]].<ref>{{cite news|title=In Russia, nostalgia for Soviet Union and positive feelings about Stalin|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/06/29/in-russia-nostalgia-for-soviet-union-and-positive-feelings-about-stalin/|access-date=23 July 2018|work=[[Pew Research Center]]|date=June 29, 2017}}</ref> Levada Center had found that favorability of the Stalinist era has increased from 18% in 1996 to 40% in 2016 which had coincided with his rehabilitation by the Putin government for the purpose of social [[patriotism]] and [[militarisation]] efforts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kolesnikov |first1=Andrei |title=A Past That Divides: Russia's New Official History |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2017/10/05/past-that-divides-russia-s-new-official-history-pub-73304#_ednref3}}</ref> According to a 2015 [[Levada Center]] poll, 34% of respondents (up from 28% in 2007) say that leading the Soviet people to victory in [[World War II]] was such an outstanding achievement that it outweighed Stalin's mistakes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stalin|date=April 6, 2015 |url=https://www.levada.ru/en/2015/04/06/stalin/|access-date=2021-02-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> A 2019 Levada Center poll showed that support for Stalin, whom many Russians saw as the victor in the [[Great Patriotic War]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Joseph Stalin: Why so many Russians like the Soviet dictator |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-47975704 |work=BBC News |date=18 April 2019}}</ref> reached a record high in the [[Post-Soviet states|post-Soviet era]], with 51% regarding him as a positive figure and 70% saying his reign was good for the country.<ref>{{cite news |last= Arkhipov|first=Ilya|date=April 16, 2019|title=Russian Support for Stalin Surges to Record High, Poll Says|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-16/russian-support-for-soviet-tyrant-stalin-hits-record-poll-shows|work=Bloomberg |access-date=May 2, 2019 }}</ref>

[[Lev Gudkov]], a sociologist at the [[Levada Center]], said, "Vladimir Putin's Russia of 2012 needs symbols of authority and national strength, however controversial they may be, to validate the newly authoritarian political order. Stalin, a despotic leader responsible for mass bloodshed but also still identified with wartime victory and national unity, fits this need for symbols that reinforce the current political ideology."<ref name="moscowtimes" />

Some positive sentiments can also be found elsewhere in the former Soviet Union. A 2012 survey commissioned by the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace|Carnegie Endowment]] found 38% of [[Armenia]]ns concurring that their country "will always have need of a leader like Stalin".<ref name="moscowtimes">"[https://themoscowtimes.com/articles/poll-finds-stalins-popularity-high-21998 Poll Finds Stalin's Popularity High] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320024227/https://themoscowtimes.com/articles/poll-finds-stalins-popularity-high-21998 |date=20 March 2017 }}". ''[[The Moscow Times]]''. 2 March 2013.</ref><ref>"[http://carnegieeurope.eu/2013/03/01/stalin-puzzle-deciphering-post-soviet-public-opinion-pub-51075 The Stalin Puzzle: Deciphering Post-Soviet Public Opinion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402134541/http://carnegieeurope.eu/2013/03/01/stalin-puzzle-deciphering-post-soviet-public-opinion-pub-51075 |date=2 April 2017 }}". [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]. 1 March 2013.</ref> A 2013 survey by [[Tbilisi State University|Tbilisi University]] found 45% of [[Georgia (country)|Georgians]] expressing "a positive attitude" toward Stalin.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-21656615 |title=Georgia divided over Stalin 'local hero' status in Gori |website=BBC News |date=5 March 2013 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719183921/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-21656615 |archive-date=19 July 2018 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{cols|colwidth=32em}}
*[[Anti-Stalinist left]]
*[[Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union]]
*[[Cybernetics in the Soviet Union]]
*[[Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism]]
*[[Foreign interventions by the Soviet Union]]
*''[[Everyday Stalinism]]''
*''[[Leningrad Affair]]''
*''[[Juche]]''
*[[Human rights in the Soviet Union]]
*[[Mass killings under communist regimes]]
*[[Political views of Joseph Stalin]]
*[[Soviet Empire]]
*[[Hoxhaism]]
*''[[Stalin's Peasants]]''
*''[[Stalinisme : la politique soviétique pendant la deuxième guerre mondiale]]''
*[[Stalin Society]]
*[[Stalinist architecture]]
*[[State socialism]]
*[[Socialism in one country]]
*''[[The Stalinist Legacy]]''
{{colend}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== Notes ===
{{reflist|group=lower-roman}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Applebaum|first=Anne|author-link=Anne Applebaum|title=[[Gulag: A History]]|publisher=Doubleday|year=2003|isbn=978-0-7679-0056-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Boobbyer|first=Phillip|title=The Stalin Era|publisher=Routledge|year=2000|isbn=978-0-415-18298-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Brackman|first=Roman|title=The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life|publisher=Frank Cass Publishers|year=2001|isbn=978-0-7146-5050-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Bullock|first=Alan|author-link=Alan Bullock|title=Hitler: A Study in Tyranny|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|isbn=978-0-14-013564-0|year=1962}}
* {{cite book|last=Conquest|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Conquest|title=[[Stalin: Breaker of Nations]]|publisher=Penguin Random House|location=New York|date=1991}}
* {{cite book|last=Davies|first=Sarah|author-link=Sarah Davies (historian)|year=1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTGgOwH_mwgC|title=Popular Opinion in Stalin's Russia: Terror, Propaganda and Dissent, 1934–1941|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-56676-6}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Davies|editor-first1=Sarah|editor-last2=Harris|editor-first2=James|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LXo-0FUpZccC|title=Stalin: A New History|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-44663-1}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Davies|editor-first1=Sarah|editor-last2=Harris|editor-first2=James|year=2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQiSBAAAQBAJ|title=Stalin's World: Dictating the Soviet Order|location=New Haven|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-18281-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Fitzpatrick|first=Sheila|author-link=Sheila Fitzpatrick|year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YlBvcNMlr4EC|title=Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village After Collectivization|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-510459-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Fitzpatrick|first=Sheila|year=2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3M8DwAAQBAJ|title=Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-505001-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Gellately|year=2007|author-link=Robert Gellately|title=Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe|publisher=Knopf|isbn=978-1-4000-4005-6|first=Robert}}
* {{cite book|last=Getty|first=J. Arch|author-link=J. Arch Getty|year=1987|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5zx54LB-A4C|title=Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933–1938|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-33570-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Getty|first=J. Arch|year=1993|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NWYvGYcxCjYC|title=Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-44670-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Getty|first=J. Arch|year=2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RaYzAAAAQBAJ|title=Practicing Stalinism: Bolsheviks, Boyars, and the Persistence of Tradition|location=New Haven|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-16929-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Gill|first=Graeme J.|title=Stalinism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Pt35DCU580C|access-date=1 October 2010|year=1998|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-17764-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Kotkin |first=Stephen |author-link=Stephen Kotkin |title=[[Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928]] |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Random House |location=New York |isbn=978-0-14-312786-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Kotkin |first=Stephen |title=[[Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929–1941]] |date=2017 |publisher=Penguin Random House |location=New York}}
* {{cite book|author-last=Kotkin |author-first=Stephen |author-link=Stephen Kotkin |date=1997 |title=Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism As a Civilization |edition=1st |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20823-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Montefiore|first=Simon Sebag|author-link=Simon Sebag Montefiore|title=Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar|publisher=Knopf|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4000-4230-2|url=https://archive.org/details/stalincourtofred00mont}}
* {{cite book|last=Overy|first=Richard J.|author-link=Richard Overy|title=The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2004|isbn=978-0-393-02030-4|url=https://archive.org/details/dictators00rich}}
* {{cite journal |first=Benjamin |last=Peters |title=Normalizing Soviet Cybernetics |journal=Information & Culture |volume=47 |issue=2 |date=2012 |pages=145–175 |doi=10.1353/lac.2012.0009 |jstor=43737425 |s2cid=144363003 }}
* {{cite book|last=Tucker|first=Robert C.|author-link=Robert C. Tucker|title=Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1928–1941|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=1992|isbn=978-0-393-30869-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/stalininpowerrev00tuck}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Main|Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union}}
'''Books'''
* [[Alan Bullock|Bullock, Alan]]. 1998. ''Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives'' (2nd ed.). Fontana Press.
* Campeanu, Pavel. 2016. ''Origins of Stalinism: From Leninist Revolution to Stalinist Society''. Routledge.
* [[Robert Conquest|Conquest, Robert]]. 2008. ''The Great Terror: A Reassessment'' (40th anniversary ed.). Oxford University Press.
* [[Isaac Deutscher|Deutscher, Isaac]]. 1967. ''[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.463015 Stalin: A Political Biography]'' (2nd edition). Oxford House.
* Dobrenko, Evgeny. 2020. ''Late Stalinism'' (Yale University Press, 2020).
* Edele, Mark, ed. 2020. ''Debates on Stalinism: An introduction'' (Manchester University Press, 2020).
* [[Orlando Figes|Figes, Orlando]]. 2008. ''[[The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia]]''. Picador.
* Groys, Boris. 2014. ''The total art of Stalinism: Avant-Garde, aesthetic dictatorship, and beyond''. Verso Books.
* Hasselmann, Anne E. 2021. "Memory Makers of the Great Patriotic War: Curator Agency and Visitor Participation in Soviet War Museums during Stalinism." ''Journal of Educational Media, Memory, and Society'' 13.1 (2021): 13–32.
* [[David L. Hoffmann|Hoffmann, David L.]] 2008. ''Stalinism: The Essential Readings''. John Wiley & Sons.
* Hoffmann, David L. 2018. ''The Stalinist Era''. Cambridge University Press.
* [[Stephen Kotkin|Kotkin, Stephen]]. 1997. ''Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a civilization''. University of California Press.
* McCauley, Martin. 2019 ''Stalin and Stalinism'' (Routledge, 2019).
* Ree, Erik Van. 2002. ''The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin, A Study in Twentieth-century Revolutionary Patriotism''. RoutledgeCurzon.
* Ryan, James, and Susan Grant, eds. 2020. ''Revisioning Stalin and Stalinism: Complexities, Contradictions, and Controversies'' (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020).
* Sharlet, Robert. 2017. ''Stalinism and Soviet legal culture'' (Routledge, 2017).
* [[Vladimir Tismăneanu|Tismăneanu, Vladimir]]. 2003. ''Stalinism for All Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism''. [[University of California Press]].
* [[Robert C. Tucker|Tucker, Robert C.]], ed. 2017. ''Stalinism: essays in historical interpretation.'' Routledge.
* Valiakhmetov, Albert, et al. 2018. "History And Historians In The Era Of Stalinism: A Review Of Modern Russian Historiography." ''National Academy of Managerial Staff of Culture and Arts Herald'' 1 (2018). [http://journals.uran.ua/visnyknakkkim/article/download/178164/178189 online]
* Velikanova, Olga. 2018. ''Mass Political Culture Under Stalinism: Popular Discussion of the Soviet Constitution of 1936'' (Springer, 2018).
* Wood, Alan. 2004. ''Stalin and Stalinism'' (2nd ed.). [[Routledge]].

'''Scholarly articles '''
* Alexander, Kuzminykh. 2019. "The internal affairs agencies of the Soviet State in the period of Stalinism in the context of Russian historiography." ''Historia provinciae–the journal of regional history'' 3.1 (2019). [https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/18046214 online]
* Barnett, Vincent. 2006. [https://doi.org/10.1080/09668130600601982 Understanding Stalinism: The 'Orwellian Discrepancy' and the 'Rational Choice Dictator']. ''[[Europe-Asia Studies]]'', ''58''(3), 457–466.
* Edele, Mark. 2020. "New perspectives on Stalinism?: A conclusion." in ''Debates on Stalinism'' (Manchester University Press, 2020) pp. 270–281.
* Gill, Graeme. 2019. "Stalinism and Executive Power: Formal and Informal Contours of Stalinism." ''Europe-Asia Studies'' 71.6 (2019): 994–1012.
* Kamp, Marianne, and Russell Zanca. 2017. "Recollections of collectivization in Uzbekistan: Stalinism and local activism." ''Central Asian Survey'' 36.1 (2017): 55–72. [https://www.academia.edu/download/49354142/RecollectionsofCollectivization.pdf online]{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* Kuzio, Taras. 2017. "Stalinism and Russian and Ukrainian national identities." ''Communist and Post-Communist Studies'' 50.4 (2017): 289–302.
* Lewin, Moshe. 2017. "The social background of Stalinism." in ''Stalinism'' (Routledge, 2017. 111–136).
* Mishler, Paul C. 2018. "Is the Term 'Stalinism' Valid and Useful for Marxist Analysis?." ''Science & Society'' 82.4 (2018): 555–567.
* Musiał, Filip. 2019. "Stalinism in Poland." ''The Person and the Challenges: Journal of Theology, Education, Canon Law and Social Studies Inspired by Pope John Paul II'' 9.2 (2019): 9–23. [http://czasopisma.upjp2.edu.pl/thepersonandthechallenges/article/download/3446/3346 online]
* Nelson, Todd H. 2015. "History as ideology: The portrayal of Stalinism and the Great Patriotic War in contemporary Russian high school textbooks." ''Post-Soviet Affairs'', ''31''(1), 37–65.
* Nikiforov, S. A., et al. "Cultural revolution of Stalinism in its regional context." ''International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology'' 9.11 (2018): 1229–1241' impact on schooling
* Wheatcroft, Stephen G. "Soviet statistics under Stalinism: Reliability and distortions in grain and population statistics." ''Europe-Asia Studies'' 71.6 (2019): 1013–1035.
* Winkler, Martina. 2017. "[https://muse.jhu.edu/article/666023/ Children, Childhood, and Stalinism]." ''[[Kritika (journal)|Kritika]]'' ''18''(3), 628–637.
* Zawadzka, Anna. 2019. "Stalinism the Polish Way." ''Studia Litteraria et Historica'' 8 (2019): 1–6. [https://ispan.waw.pl/journals/index.php/slh/article/viewFile/slh.2186/5679 online]
* Zysiak, Agata. 2019. "Stalinism and Revolution in Universities. Democratization of Higher Education from Above, 1947–1956." ''Studia Litteraria et Historica'' 8 (2019): 1–17. [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/64a0/8ba796ce297f518dc38bc78b8bdabb6ac95b.pdf online]

'''Primary sources'''
* Stalin, Joseph. [1924] 1975. ''[[Foundations of Leninism]]''. [[Foreign Languages Press]].
* Stalin, Joseph (1951). [http://marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1951/economic-problems/index.htm ''Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR'']. Foreign Languages Press.

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/index.htm "Stalin Reference Archive"]. [http://www.marxists.org/ Marxists Internet Archive]. Retrieved 11 May 2005.
* [https://spartacus-educational.com/RUSstalin.htm "Joseph Stalin"]. Spartacus Educational.
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/stalin_joseph.shtml Joseph Stalin: National hero or cold-blooded murderer?]. [[BBC]] Teach (resources for school teachers).

{{Joseph Stalin}}
{{authoritarian types of rule}}
{{Soviet Union topics}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Stalinism| ]]
[[Category:Anti-capitalism]]
[[Category:Anti-fascism]]
[[Category:Anti-revisionism]]
[[Category:Authoritarianism]]
[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Economy of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Eponymous political ideologies]]
[[Category:Leninism]]
[[Category:Marxism–Leninism]]
[[Category:Politics of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Totalitarianism]]
[[Category:Totalitarian ideologies]]
[[Category:Types of socialism]]
[[Category:Marxism]]

Oskar Backlund

2024-12-10T20:59:32Z

Amherst99: /* Family */

{{short description|Swedish-Russian astronomer (1846–1916)}}
[[File:Oskar Backlund.jpg|thumb|Oskar Backlund in 1900]]
'''Johan Oskar Backlund''' (28 April 1846 – 29 August 1916) was a [[Sweden|Swedish]]-[[Russia]]n [[astronomer]]. His name is sometimes given as '''Jöns Oskar Backlund''', however even contemporary Swedish sources give "Johan". In [[Russia]], where he spent his entire career, he is known as '''Oskar Andreevich Baklund''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Оскар Андреевич Баклунд). Russian sources sometimes give his dates of birth and death as 16 April 1846 and 16 August 1916, since Russia still used the [[Julian calendar]] at the time.

==Life==
He was born in Länghem, in [[Västergötland]], [[Sweden]] and graduated from [[Uppsala University]] in 1872. After getting his doctorate in 1875,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers |last=Hockey |first=Thomas |year=2009 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-387-31022-0 |access-date=August 22, 2012 |url=http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/chapterdbid/58097.html}}</ref> he emigrated to Russia in 1876. He worked at [[Dorpat Observatory]], in today's [[Tartu]], [[Estonia]], and then in 1879 worked at [[Pulkovo Observatory]], becoming director of the observatory from 1895 until his death.

He specialized in [[celestial mechanics]], and notably worked on calculating the orbit of [[Comet Encke]], taking into account the perturbations of various planets. He used observations of Comet Encke to try estimate the mass of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]. Russian sources sometimes referred to the comet as Comet Encke-Backlund. He also carried out [[geodesy|geodesic]] studies in [[Spitzbergen]] from 1898 to 1900. He became a member of the [[Saint Petersburg]] Academy of Sciences in 1883, member of the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]] in 1897 and [[Fellow of the Royal Society]] in 1911. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1914.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780-2010: Chapter B|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf|publisher=[[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]|access-date=28 April 2011}}</ref>

==Family==
He was married to Ulrika Catharina Widebeck. Their daughter [[Elsa Celsing]] became a well-known artist, and their son [[Helge Gotrik Backlund]] (3 September 1878–1958) was a geologist and explorer.

==Honors==
'''Awards'''
*[[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] (1909)
*[[Bruce Medal]] (1914)
'''Named after him'''
*The crater [[Backlund (crater)|Backlund]] on the [[Moon]]
*[[Asteroid]] [[856 Backlunda]]
*[[Backlundtoppen]], a mountain in [[Olav V Land]] at [[Spitsbergen]], [[Svalbard]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://placenames.npolar.no/stadnamn/Backlundtoppen |title=Backlundtoppen (Svalbard) |publisher=[[Norwegian Polar Institute]] |access-date=7 November 2013}}</ref><ref name=nfl>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Norsk Fjelleksikon|title=Backlundtoppen|editor-first=Per Roger |editor-last=Lauritzen |editor-link=Per Roger Lauritzen |year=2009 |publisher=Friluftsforlaget |location=Arendal |language=no |isbn=978-82-91-49547-7}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Backlund/index.html Bruce Medal page]
*[http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/PASP./0026//0000015.000.html Awarding of Bruce Medal]
*[http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0069//0000324.000.html Awarding of RAS gold medal]
*[https://runeberg.org/sbh/backlujo.html Backlund, Johan Oskar (Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon)] in [[Project Runeberg]] (in Swedish)
*[https://runeberg.org/sbh/a0056.html I:56 (Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon)] in Project Runeberg (in Swedish)
*[https://runeberg.org/sbh/b0795.html II:795 (Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon)] in Project Runeberg (in Swedish)
*https://www.genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=234324
===Obituaries===
*[http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AN.../0203//0000137.000.html AN '''203''' (1916) 235/236] (in German)
*[http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0077//0000310.000.html MNRAS '''77''' (1916) 310]
*[http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/Obs../0040//0000128.000.html Obs '''40''' (1917) 128–131]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Backlund, Oskar}}
[[Category:1846 births]]
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[[Category:Uppsala University alumni]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Foreign members of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Bruce Medal]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:Full members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Tartu]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Lalande Prize]]
[[Category:Privy Councillor (Russian Empire)]]
[[Category:20th-century Swedish astronomers]]
[[Category:Swedish emigrants]]
[[Category:Immigrants to the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Astronomers from the Russian Empire]]

Nils Christoffer Dunér

2024-12-10T20:59:05Z

Amherst99: /* External links */

{{Short description|Swedish astronomer (1839–1914)}}
{{Infobox scientist
|name = Nils Christoffer Dunér
|image = Nils Dunér H8D 1909.jpg
|image_size = 150px
|caption = Nils Christoffer Dunér (1909)
|birth_date = 21 May 1839
|birth_place = [[Billeberga]], [[Malmöhus län]]
|death_date = {{d-da|10 November 1914|21 May 1839}}
|death_place = [[Stockholm]]
|residence =
|citizenship =
|nationality = [[Sweden|Swedish]]
|ethnicity =
|field = [[astronomy]]
|work_institutions = [[Uppsala University]]
|alma_mater = [[Lund University]]
|doctoral_advisor =
|doctoral_students =
|known_for =
|influences =
|influenced =
|prizes = [[Rumford Medal]] in 1892
|religion =
}}
'''Nils Christoffer Dunér''' ([[Billeberga]], [[Malmöhus län]] 21 May 1839 – [[Stockholm]] 10 November 1914) was a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[astronomer]]. His parents were Nils Dunér and Petronella (née Schlyter).<ref>{{cite book |title=The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers |last=Hockey |first=Thomas |year=2009 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-387-31022-0 |accessdate=August 22, 2012 |url=http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/chapterdbid/58392.html}}</ref>

Dunér received his doctorate from [[Lund University]] in 1862, was observer at the observatory there from 1864 and Professor of Astronomy at [[Uppsala University]] from 1888.

He was awarded the [[Lalande Prize|''Prix Lalande'']] in 1887<ref>{{cite journal|title=Paris. Academy of Sciences, December 26, 1887|journal=Nature|date=5 January 1888|volume=37|issue=949|pages=239–240|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-skKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA240|doi=10.1038/037239a0 |bibcode=1888Natur..37..239.|doi-access=free|last1=Lockyer|first1=Sir Norman}}</ref> and the [[Rumford Medal]] in 1892. The crater [[Dunér (crater)|Dunér]] on the [[Moon]] is named after him. At [[Svalbard]], [[Dunérfjellet]] on [[Svenskøya]], [[Dunérbukta]] in [[Sabine Land]], and [[Kapp Dunér]], the western point of [[Bear Island (Norway)|Bjørnøya]], are named after him.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://placenames.npolar.no/stadnamn/Dunérfjellet|title=Dunérfjellet (Svalbard) |publisher=[[Norwegian Polar Institute]] |accessdate=4 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://placenames.npolar.no/stadnamn/Dunérbukta|title=Dunérbukta (Svalbard) |publisher=[[Norwegian Polar Institute]] |accessdate=4 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://placenames.npolar.no/stadnamn/Kapp_Dunér|title=Kapp Dunér (Svalbard) |publisher=[[Norwegian Polar Institute]] |accessdate=4 June 2014}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.astro.uu.se/history/duner.html Nils Dunér (1839–1914)]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Duner, Nils Christoffer}}
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[[Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Lalande Prize]]
[[Category:Knights of the Order of Charles XIII]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala]]

{{Sweden-scientist-stub}}
{{Europe-astronomer-stub}}

Tarmo Oja

2024-12-10T20:55:18Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Swedish astronomer (1934–2024)}}
'''Tarmo Oja''' (21 December 1934 – 18 November 2024) was an Estonian-born Swedish professor in [[astronomy]] at [[Uppsala University]] who studied [[Galaxy|galactic]] structure and [[variable star]]s. He was the director at the Swedish [[Kvistaberg Station]] of the [[Uppsala Observatory]] from 1970 until his retirement in 1999.

As a senior professor he continued his observations (work) at the observatory at Kvistaberg until the spring of 2006, when he moved (back) to Uppsala together with his wife Silvi. Oja died on 18 November 2024, at the age of 89.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dödsannonser - Sök efter dödsannonser på familjesidan.se |url=https://www.familjesidan.se/cases/8daa8faf-c16b-4c71-8c04-6efc4a7ede66/funeral-notices |access-date=2024-12-04 |website=www.familjesidan.se}}</ref>

== Awards and honors ==
*In 2001, Estonian President [[Lennart Meri]] awarded Oja the [[Order of the White Star]] V Class for his contribution to science.
*The asteroid [[5080 Oja]], discovered at the Kvistaberg Station, was named in his honor in 1992.<ref name="5080-Oja" />

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="5080-Oja">{{cite web
|title = 5080 Oja (1976 EB)
|work = Minor Planet Center
|url = https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=5080
|accessdate = 20 March 2018}}</ref>

}} 

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oja, Tarmo}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:2024 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Swedish astronomers]]
[[Category:Estonian astronomers]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Uppsala University]]
[[Category:Estonian emigrants to Sweden]]
[[Category:Academics from Tallinn]]
[[Category:Estonian World War II refugees]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Star, 5th Class]]

{{Sweden-scientist-stub}}
{{Europe-astronomer-stub}}

{{Estonia-academic-bio-stub}}

Tarmo Oja

2024-12-10T20:53:56Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Swedish astronomer (1934–2024)}}
'''Tarmo Oja''' (21 December 1934 – 18 November 2024) was an Estonian-born Swedish professor in [[astronomy]] at [[Uppsala University]]<ref>[http://katalog.uu.se/empInfo/?languageId=1&id=XX443 Uppsala University directory: Tarmo Oja], accessed 2010-05-13</ref> who studied [[Galaxy|galactic]] structure and [[variable star]]s. He was the director at the Swedish [[Kvistaberg Station]] of the [[Uppsala Observatory]] from 1970 until his retirement in 1999.

As a senior professor he continued his observations (work) at the observatory at Kvistaberg until the spring of 2006, when he moved (back) to Uppsala together with his wife Silvi. Oja died on 18 November 2024, at the age of 89.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dödsannonser - Sök efter dödsannonser på familjesidan.se |url=https://www.familjesidan.se/cases/8daa8faf-c16b-4c71-8c04-6efc4a7ede66/funeral-notices |access-date=2024-12-04 |website=www.familjesidan.se}}</ref>

== Awards and honors ==
*In 2001, Estonian President [[Lennart Meri]] awarded Oja the [[Order of the White Star]] V Class for his contribution to science.
*The asteroid [[5080 Oja]], discovered at the Kvistaberg Station, was named in his honor in 1992.<ref name="5080-Oja" />

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="5080-Oja">{{cite web
|title = 5080 Oja (1976 EB)
|work = Minor Planet Center
|url = https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=5080
|accessdate = 20 March 2018}}</ref>

}} 

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oja, Tarmo}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
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[[Category:20th-century Swedish astronomers]]
[[Category:Estonian astronomers]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Uppsala University]]
[[Category:Estonian emigrants to Sweden]]
[[Category:Academics from Tallinn]]
[[Category:Estonian World War II refugees]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Star, 5th Class]]

{{Sweden-scientist-stub}}
{{Europe-astronomer-stub}}

{{Estonia-academic-bio-stub}}

Tarmo Oja

2024-12-10T20:53:36Z

Amherst99: /* Awards and honors */

{{Short description|Swedish astronomer (1934–2024)}}
'''Tarmo Oja''' (21 December 1934 – 18 November 2024) was an Estonian-born Swedish professor in [[astronomy]] at [[Uppsala University]]<ref>[http://katalog.uu.se/empInfo/?languageId=1&id=XX443 Uppsala University directory: Tarmo Oja], accessed 2010-05-13</ref> who studied [[Galaxy|galactic]] structure and [[variable star]]s. He was the director at the Swedish [[Kvistaberg Station]] of the [[Uppsala Observatory]] from 1970 until his retirement in 1999.

As a senior professor he continued his observations (work) at the observatory at Kvistaberg until the spring of 2006, when he moved (back) to Uppsala together with his wife Silvi. Oja died on 18 November 2024, at the age of 89.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dödsannonser - Sök efter dödsannonser på familjesidan.se |url=https://www.familjesidan.se/cases/8daa8faf-c16b-4c71-8c04-6efc4a7ede66/funeral-notices |access-date=2024-12-04 |website=www.familjesidan.se}}</ref>

== Awards and honors ==
*In 2001, Estonian President [[Lennart Meri]] awarded Oja the [[Order of the White Star]] V Class for his contribution to science. *The asteroid [[5080 Oja]], discovered at the Kvistaberg Station, was named in his honor in 1992.<ref name="5080-Oja" />

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="5080-Oja">{{cite web
|title = 5080 Oja (1976 EB)
|work = Minor Planet Center
|url = https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=5080
|accessdate = 20 March 2018}}</ref>

}} 

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oja, Tarmo}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:2024 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Swedish astronomers]]
[[Category:Estonian astronomers]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Uppsala University]]
[[Category:Estonian emigrants to Sweden]]
[[Category:Academics from Tallinn]]
[[Category:Estonian World War II refugees]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Star, 5th Class]]

{{Sweden-scientist-stub}}
{{Europe-astronomer-stub}}

{{Estonia-academic-bio-stub}}

Karl Parts

2024-12-07T22:20:49Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Estonian military commander}}
{{More footnotes|date=January 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox military person
| name = Karl Parts
| birth_date = {{birth date|1886|7|15|df=y}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1941|9|1|1886|7|15|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Palupera Parish]], [[Estonia]]
| death_place = [[Kirov, Kirov Oblast|Kirov]], [[Soviet Union]]
| image = Karl Parts1.jpg
| caption =
| nickname =
| allegiance = {{flag|Estonia}}
| branch = [[Estonia]]
| serviceyears = 1914–1917 [[Imperial Russian Army]] 1918–1925 [[Military of Estonia|Estonian Army]]
| rank = [[Colonel]]
| unit = [[Estonian Army]]
| battles = [[World War I]] [[Estonian War of Independence]]
| awards = [[Cross of Liberty (Estonia)|Cross of Liberty]]
| laterwork = Farmer
}}
'''Karl Parts''' [[Cross of Liberty (Estonia)|VR I/1, VR II/2, VR II/3]] (15 July 1886 in [[Palupera Parish]], [[Estonia]] – 1 September 1941 in [[Kirov, Kirov Oblast|Kirov]], [[Soviet Union]]) was an Estonian military commander during the [[Estonian War of Independence]].

In 1915, he graduated from [[Petergof|Peterhof]] Military School, and participated in [[World War I]]. In July 1917, Parts joined the Estonian national units. During the [[German occupation of Estonia during World War I|German occupation]] in 1918, he organized the underground [[Estonian Defence League]]. In the [[Estonian War of Independence|Estonian Liberation War]], Karl Parts led and organized the [[armoured train]]s, and in December 1918, became the commander of the Armoured Trains Division. He commanded in the biggest armoured conflict of war that resulted in the capture of [[Pskov]].{{clarify|date=June 2021}} After the war, Parts served as commander of the Armoured Trains Brigade from 1921 to 1923, and later as inspector. He actively participated in defeating the [[Estonian coup attempt of 1924|1924 coup attempt]]. In 1925, he retired and became a farmer. In 1940, Soviet occupation authorities arrested Parts, and he was shot in imprisonment the year after. Six weeks before his death, a Soviet [[destruction battalions]] doused his son Emil-Mauritius (1912–1941) with acid and killed him.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Laar |first1=Mart |author1-link=Mart Laar |title=War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944–1956 |date=1992 |publisher=The Compass Press |location=Washington, DC |page=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Madisson |first1=Tiit |author1-link=Tiit Madisson |title=Lihula õppetund: Maailma Uue Korra loomine Eestis : ajaloo ümbertegemine ja rahvusluse mahasurumine |date=2005 |publisher=Kirjastus OÜ Ortwil |location=Lihula |page=24}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Estonian War of Independence]]
*[[Freikorps in the Baltic]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{refbegin}}
* [[Ülo Kaevats]] et al. 2000. ''Eesti entsüklopeedia 14''. Tallinn: Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus, {{ISBN|978-9985-70-064-8}}
{{refend}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parts, Karl}}
[[Category:1886 births]]
[[Category:1941 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Elva Parish]]
[[Category:People from Kreis Dorpat]]
[[Category:Members of the Estonian Provincial Assembly]]
[[Category:Military personnel of the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Russian military personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:Estonian military personnel of the Estonian War of Independence]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Cross of Liberty (Estonia)]]
[[Category:Estonian people executed by the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:People who died in the Gulag]]

{{Estonia-mil-bio-stub}}

Demi-brigade

2024-12-07T20:39:55Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Military formation}}
{{ref improve|date=February 2013}}
[[Image:General, Officer d'Legere, Soldat d'Ligne.jpg|thumb|Officer and soldiers of a ''demi-brigade'' of the [[French Revolutionary Army]]]]

A '''''demi-brigade''''' ({{langx|en|half-brigade}}) is a military formation used by the [[French Army]] since the [[French Revolutionary Wars]]. The ''demi-brigade'' amalgamated the various [[infantry]] organizations of the French [[French Revolutionary Army|Revolutionary infantry]] into a single unit. Each one was headed by a [[chef de brigade]].

The term "''demi-brigade''" was chosen to avoid the [[feudal]] ''[[ancien régime]]'' connotations of the term "''[[régiment]]''". [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]] ordered the term to be abandoned in 1803, and the ''demi-brigades'' were renamed "''régiments''". The term was reused by certain later units in the French army, such as the [[13th Demi-Brigade of the Foreign Legion]], the only permanent demi-brigade in the modern [[French Army]].

== Background ==

The French [[Legislative Assembly (France)|Legislative Assembly]] voted to declare war on [[Austria]] on 20 April 1792, and [[Prussia]] joined the war against France. [[Campaigns of 1792 in the French Revolutionary Wars|1792]] ended well for France, having conquered the [[Austrian Netherlands]] ([[Belgium]]) and parts of [[Germany]]. However, by early 1793, having [[guillotine]]d [[Louis XVI of France]] on 21 January, France found itself at war with a [[First Coalition|coalition]] including [[Great Britain]], the German States, the [[Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia]], and [[Spain]] in addition to Austria and Prussia.

By [[Campaigns of 1793 in the French Revolutionary Wars|mid-1793]], France had lost all the conquests of 1792, was fighting on multiple fronts, and threatened with invasion. In an effort to reverse the setbacks, France took a number of measures. In late August 1793, instigated by [[Lazare Carnot]], France introduced the ''[[levée en masse]]'', a mass [[conscription]] of young unmarried men. Also in late August, a law was passed to amalgamate the infantry, which saw the formation of ''Demi-brigades'', a concept that would be made permanent in 1794, when the first demi-brigades were raised under the Revolutionary Army.

One division was made up of three brigades and one brigade was made up of 3 demi-brigades, each made up of 3 battalions and the headquarters unit.

== Demi-brigade ==


The main problem faced by the French Revolution infantry was a lack of unity. The Army included three main types of infantry, all with different uniforms, organizations, equipment, and rates of pay:
#regular infantry inherited from the old Royal regiments of the King, relatively well trained and equipped, dressed in white uniforms and wearing [[tarleton helmet]]s
#[[National Guard (France)|national guard]] units, less well-trained or equipped, with blue uniforms
#''fédéré'' volunteer battalions, poorly trained and equipped, with no uniform other than a red [[phrygian cap]] and a [[cockade of France]]
The variations between units created logistical problems, and animosity (due to different rates of pay) among units.

The purpose of the ''Demi-brigade'' was to blend all three formations into a single unit, with identical equipment, organization, pay, and uniforms. A ''Demi-brigade'' consisted of three infantry battalions: one battalion of regulars (from old Royal regiments), and two battalions of either volunteers or national guards. Each battalion had the same organization of one company of [[grenadiers]] (heavy infantry) and eight companies of [[fusiliers]] (regular infantry). On paper, a ''Demi-brigade'' would have 2,437 men and four six-[[pound (mass)|pound]]er [[cannon]]s.

The ''[[levée en masse]]'' had swelled the ranks of the French army, so by August 1794 over a million men (1,075,000) were under arms.<ref>''Blanning. p.120-121. Desertion was a problem; the active strength is estimated at 800,000''</ref> The Demi-brigade created a streamlined and simple method of organizing the infantry. Due to the current war situation, ''Demi-brigades'' were not formed until early 1794. Separate Demi-brigades were organised as [[line infantry]] (''Demi-brigade de Bataille'', 1792–96 and ''Demi-brigade d'Infanterie de Ligne'', 1796–1803) and [[light infantry]] (''Demi-brigade d'Infanterie Légère''); all lacked uniformity in either weapons or equipment. As the French Revolutionary Wars progressed, demi-brigades were issued with specific coloured uniform jackets.

By late 1794, France had completed the re-conquest of the Austrian Netherlands and Rhineland of Germany. The Demi-brigade survived the transition of the French government to the [[French Directory]] in 1795, the ending of the First Coalition in 1797 after Napoleon's successful campaigns in Italy, renewed conflict with a [[Second Coalition]], and Napoleon seizing power in 1799 to create the [[French Consulate]].

==End of the Revolutionary Demi-brigades==
Peace was restored under the [[Treaty of Amiens]] in 1802, and [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]] ordered the reinstatement of the historic term "''régiment''" in 1803. The ''Demi-brigades'' were renamed as [[regiment]]s.

The term has been revived for various French Army units since the Napoleonic period. Perhaps the most famous unit to be termed a ''Demi-Brigade'' is the [[13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade]], the only permanent demi-brigade in the modern [[French Army]].

== Demi-brigades in Poland ==
In the [[Second Polish Republic]], demi-brigades ({{langx|pl|Półbrygady}}) were organized in the ranks of [[Border Protection Corps]] (in 1927) and [[Polish National Defense|National Defence]] units (from 1937).

== Notes ==
<references/>

== References ==
*[[Blanning, T. C. W.]], ''The French Revolutionary Wars, 1787-1802''. Arnold, 1996.
*Connelly, Owen. ''The Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon, 1792-1815''. Routledge, 2006.
*Crowdy, Terry. ''French Revolutionary Infantry, 1789–1802''. London: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2004. {{ISBN|1-84176-660-7}}

[[Category:Republican military units and formations of France in the French Revolutionary Wars|*]]
[[Category:Military units and formations of France]]
[[Category:Military history of France]]

Ministry of Education and Research (Estonia)

2024-12-07T18:36:16Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|none}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=May 2016}}
{{expand Estonian|date=August 2023|topic=gov}}
}}

{{Infobox government agency
| name = Ministry of Education and Research
| seal =
| logo = File:0 haridusmin 3lovi eng pms.svg
| formed =
| jurisdiction = [[Government of Estonia]]
| headquarters = Munga 18 50088 [[Tartu]], [[Estonia]]
| employees =
| budget = 1.03 bln € [[Euros|EUR]] (2023)
| minister1_name = [[Kristina Kallas]]
| minister1_pfo = [[Minister of Education and Research (Estonia)|Minister of Education and Research]]
| chief1_name =
| chief1_position =
| chief2_name =
| chief2_position =
| chief3_name =
| chief3_position =
| chief4_name =
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| chief5_name =
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| chief8_position =
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| parent_department =
| child1_agency =
| website = {{Official website}}
}}
{{Politics of Estonia}}
The '''Ministry of Education and Research''' ({{langx|et|Haridus- ja Teadusministeerium}}) is a government ministry of [[Estonia]], responsible for the planning and carrying out education, research, youth, and language policies, developing the national curricula and other educational standards and performing state supervision over the compliance of national curricula and other educational standards and educational institutions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://hm.ee/en|title=Ministry of Education and Research|publisher=Estonian Government}}</ref> Its head office is in [[Tartu]] and it also maintains offices in the capital, [[Tallinn]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hm.ee/en/contact|title=Contacts - Estonian Ministry of Education and Research|website=www.hm.ee}}</ref> The current [[Minister of Education and Research (Estonia)|Minister of Education and Research]] is [[Kristina Kallas]].

==See also==
*[[Minister of Education and Research (Estonia)|Minister of Education and Research]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Government ministries of Estonia|Education and Research]]

{{Estonia-poli-stub}}

Mandatory Swedish

2024-12-07T14:43:40Z

Amherst99:

{{short description|Compulsory teaching of the Swedish language in Finnish schools}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Refimprove|date=April 2016}}
{{Neutrality|date=June 2024|reason=The article has an anti-mandatory Swedish POV.}}
}}
{{Swedish language sidebar}}

[[Swedish language|Swedish]] is a mandatory school subject in [[Finland]] for [[Finnish language|Finnish]]-speaking pupils in the last four years of [[Education in Finland|primary education]] (grades from 6 to 9). In elementary school, there are two Swedish lessons a week, and by the fall of 2024, the number will increase to three.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.iltalehti.fi/politiikka/a/89f1b998-0271-4cad-a94f-6c68fe8a7cf7 | title=Hallitus päätti: Lisää ruotsia peruskouluun }}</ref> The linguistically nationalist Finnish Swedish People's Party would like to increase the number of compulsory Swedish lessons by more than 50 %, make Swedish compulsory again in matriculation essays and remove the obligation for Swedish-speaking civil servants to know how to speak Finnish properly. The party also demands that Finnish taxpayers' money be used to pay for a campaign in Sweden, Norway and Denmark to attract people to study in Swedish-speaking educational institutions in Finland.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://sfp.fi/fi/politiikka/paatokset-ja-poliittiset-ohjelmat/ruotsalaisen-eduskuntaryhman-toimenpideohjelmaa-kaksikielisyyden-vahvistamiseksi-suomessa/ | title=Ruotsalaisen eduskuntaryhmän toimenpideohjelmaa kaksikielisyyden vahvistamiseksi Suomessa }}</ref>
This ''other domestic language'' is also mandatory in [[high school]]s (''lukio'', ''gymnasium''), [[vocational school]]s (''ammattikoulu'', ''yrkesskola''), business schools (''kauppaoppilaitos'', ''handelskola''), police school, theater school and [[universities]] for students of all fields. It is also partly mandatory in the army, and at the request of SFP, it is intended to create compulsory Swedish education for children under primary school age (''esikoulu'', the compulsory school year before primary school). Furthermore, all university graduates must demonstrate a certain level of proficiency in Swedish (the so-called ''public servant's Swedish''). Altogether, 89% of Finnish citizens are native Finnish speakers, whereas 5.3% of the population report Swedish as their [[Mother-tongue|mother tongue]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20161013132323/http://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk_vaesto_en.html Swedophone population]</ref> It is currently possible for Finnish citizens to report a different mother tongue for themselves as many times as desired by submitting a form to the Population Register Center.

According to the [[Constitution of Finland|Finnish constitution]], both [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] are national languages. The employees of the national government and the bilingual municipal governments are required to be capable of serving citizens in Swedish. The official term for both mandatory Swedish and Finnish is ''the other domestic language''. The requirement to study Swedish is often referred to as ''pakkoruotsi'', a term in Finnish meaning "mandatory Swedish", or "forced Swedish," and similarly, Finnish as a mandatory school subject for native Swedish speakers in Finland is sometimes referred to as "[[mandatory Finnish]]" or "enforced Finnish" (''tvångsfinska'', ''pakkosuomi''),<ref>Tikkanen, Riitta (2005). ''[http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:952-442-866-0 Kulttuurikasvatuksella luovuuteen : Hankekartoitus 2003–2004]'', [[Ministry of Education and Culture (Finland)]]</ref> but since Swedish speakers in Finland are a small group (5 %), the term "mandatory Finnish" is not as widely used. According to [[Kari Sajavaara]] (1938–2006), a Finnish applied linguistics researcher and professor at the University of Jyväskylä who is familiar with the subject, the meaning of the Finnish language for Swedish speakers in Finland is quite different from the meaning of the Swedish language for Finnish speakers.<ref>http://www.mv.helsinki.fi/home/niskanen/sajavaara.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=August 2024}}</ref>

== Overview ==
The status of Swedish as a national language in Finland is defined by the Finnish constitution. During the [[Middle Ages]], Swedish-speaking peasants migrated to some Finnish coastal areas. Finland was ruled by Sweden at this time, and the Swedish language became part of the culture in those coastal areas, as well as the language of the ruling classes. The Finnish language was denied official status until the period of [[Russian Empire|Russian rule]] (1809–1917) began in 1860.

In [[Mainland Finland]], both Finnish and Swedish are mandatory subjects in [[Primary education|primary]] and [[secondary education|secondary]] schools. The Swedish [[Abitur|Matriculation Examination]] was made voluntary in 2004, although all university graduates must demonstrate that their skills in the other official language meet the standard required of all academically educated public servants. This means the completion of a so-called ''public servant's Swedish'' ''test''. The autonomous territory [[Åland]] (pop. 26,000, 95% Swedish, 5% Finnish) have only one official language, Swedish, and the speaking of Finnish between employees is forbidden in some public services. Protection of the Swedish language is one of the main agendas of the [[Swedish People's Party (Finland)|Swedish People's Party]], which has been a minor partner in most cabinets since Finland's independence, and in all cabinets between 1972 and 2015 and from 2019.

== History ==
{{Unreferenced-section|date=November 2020}}
{{Main|Finland's language strife}}
The area that today is Finland was an integral part of [[Sweden proper]] from the Middle Ages to the end of the [[Finnish War]] in 1809. Swedish migrants settled in coastal areas, and the language of administration was Swedish. This prompted many Finnish-speakers to learn Swedish in hopes of improving their social status, with some finn-speaking specially in [[Uusimaa]] switching to Swedish altogether.

Following the Finnish War, Sweden ceded Finland to [[Russian Empire|Russia]], and the Russian tsar established the autonomous [[Grand Duchy of Finland]]. Although a Governor-General was installed by the Russians as the highest authority within the Grand Duchy, much of the political system remained the same: Finland was allowed to keep its ”laws, religion and language” from the Swedish time. The tsar wanted to avoid trouble in the new territory, and also used former Swedish upper class to further modernization in Russia; Finnish could not be used as an official language at this time because the administration did not know Finnish well enough and the language was undeveloped regarding such use.

When Finland became autonomous, there was a big interest in the mostly Swedish speaking upper class in creating a new national identity and exploring the Finnish language and Finnish culture. At some point, the [[Fennoman]] movement arose, arguing that the country should be a united [[nationalism|nation]], with only one language. As a reaction, the [[Svecoman]] movement began and grew in strength, representing fears that abandoning Swedish would lead to [[slavicisation]] or worse.

However, during the 1860s, under Tsar [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]], legal equality between Finnish and Swedish as languages of administration gradually began to be introduced. Thus, since the late 19th century, Finnish has been a co-official language of administration in Finland. Modernizations typical for the era were introduced, boosting the status of the Finnish-speaking majority: the special rights of the higher [[estates of the realm]] were abolished, and a modern parliament based on [[universal suffrage]] was introduced 1907. Eventually, in 1917, Finland became independent.

The current form of mandatory Swedish was implemented as a part of the modernization of the [[Education in Finland|educational system]] in the 1970s. Previously, a Swedish test had been compulsory on university level and in ''oppikoulu'', a secondary school that was a prerequisite to matriculation to a university, but not in the common ''kansakoulu''. The introduction of the ''peruskoulu'' (student ages 7–15), compulsory for all children, introduced a course in Swedish compulsory to all pupils, while Swedish courses and standardized tests at higher levels remained mandatory. This was primarily motivated by the possibility that any student could become a public official, and would thus be required to know Swedish.

== Current situation ==
[[File:Pois pakkoruotsi - Lumon edusta - Korso - Vantaa - m.jpg|thumb|''Pois pakkoruotsi!'' ("Away with mandatory Swedish!"), graffito on wall of a school in [[Korso]], [[Vantaa]]]]
A compulsory introductory course to Swedish for all pupils in [[primary education]] was introduced in 1972–1977 as a part of modernization of the primary education system, at the same time the nine-year school (''peruskoulu, grundskola'') was made universally compulsory. Until then, there had been mandatory courses only in [[secondary education|secondary]] and [[tertiary education]]. Since the end of the 19th century, administrative services have been offered in both domestic languages; therefore, employees are proficient in both Finnish and Swedish. The reform was based on a political ambition to strengthen ties with [[Western world|the Western world]] through Scandinavia, and to show that Finland was a part of the [[Nordic countries]], not an [[Eastern Bloc]] country. It also sought to improve social mobility by ensuring that a decision on language in the early school years would not become an obstacle for applicants to the civil service.

In the [[secondary education|upper secondary general school]] all students learn at least two languages besides their mother tongue, one of which is the other domestic language, except for people studying some other language as their mother tongue (e.g. immigrants and those studying [[Sami languages|Sami]]). Finnish speakers take Swedish, and vice versa. According to [[Statistics Finland]], practically all the students take [[English language|English]], either as a compulsory or an optional language. There is also a possibility to take one or more extra foreign languages. Despite Finland being a neighbour of [[Russia]], [[Russian language|Russian]] is not taught in most schools of Finland, and only 1.5% of Finns know some Russian. Due to relatively little cultural exchange between the Finns and Russians in the 20th century and Finland's hostile relations with the Soviet Union following the [[Finnish Civil War]] (1918) until [[World War II]] (1939–1944), tensions persist between Finland and Russia.

The arrangement of "mandatory Swedish and practically-mandatory English" has been criticized as reducing the diversity of the language skills of the population.<ref> Hult, F.M., & Pietikäinen, S. (2014). Shaping discourses of multilingualism through a language ideological debate: The case of Swedish in Finland. ''Journal of Language and Politics'', 13, 1-20.</ref> The EU target is to teach two foreign languages; as English is an overwhelmingly popular choice, it has been suggested by, for example, the [[Confederation of Finnish Industries]] that keeping Swedish compulsory directly prevents choosing other languages.<ref>{{cite news|title=EK: Pakkoruotsista luovuttava valintamahdollisuuksien lisäämiseksi |first=Liiten |last=Marjukka |newspaper=Helsingin Sanomat |date=June 1, 2010 |url=http://www.hs.fi/paivanlehti/arkisto |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013131532/http://www.hs.fi/paivanlehti/arkisto/ |archivedate=October 13, 2016 |url-status=dead }} {{in lang|fi}}</ref>

== Surveys ==
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="float: right; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 0.5em;"
| valign="top" |
{|
|+''' The share of respondents in favour of voluntary Swedish according to a series of surveys by Taloustutkimus'''<ref name="tt">{{cite web|title=Pakkoruotsi |url=http://onet.tehonetti.fi/suomalaisuudenliitto/onet/vanhatsivut/ruotsi.htm |publisher=Suomalaisuuden liitto ry |accessdate=January 18, 2009 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080211134411/http://onet.tehonetti.fi/suomalaisuudenliitto/onet/vanhatsivut/ruotsi.htm |archivedate=February 11, 2008 }} {{in lang|fi}}</ref>
! style="background:#efefef;" | Year
! style="background:#efefef;" | In favour
|-
|align="center"|1990 ||align="center"| 66%
|-
|align="center"|1991 ||align="center"| 66%
|-
|align="center"|1997 ||align="center"| 72%
|-
|align="center"|1999 ||align="center"| 71%
|-
|align="center"|2001 ||align="center"| 67%
|-
|align="center"|2003 ||align="center"| 67%
|-
|align="center"|2007 ||align="center"| 63%
|-
|align="center"|2013 ||align="center"| 63%<ref name="yle.fi">[http://yle.fi/uutiset/yli_60_prosenttia_suomalaisista_haluaa_ruotsin_kielen_vapaavalintaiseksi_kouluaineeksi/6792707 Yli 60 prosenttia suomalaisista haluaa ruotsin kielen vapaavalintaiseksi kouluaineeksi], Yle 24 August 2013, accessed 22 December 2014</ref>
|}
|}
A number of studies into opinions regarding mandatory Swedish have been made with various results. The large differences between studies exemplifies the problems in conducting a neutral and broad study without asking [[leading question]]s on the subject. Furthermore, some of the studies have been commissioned by organizations that have politically partisan views on the subject of mandatory Swedish.

Between 1990 and 2003, Taloustutkimus Oy conducted more than ten surveys for [[Association of Finnish Culture and Identity|Suomalaisuuden liitto]], an organization opposing mandatory Swedish. According to these surveys, 66–72% of Finns were "in favor of voluntary Swedish education or against mandatory Swedish education".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.suomalaisuudenliitto.fi/ruotsi.htm |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040207045737/http://www.suomalaisuudenliitto.fi/ruotsi.htm |archivedate=February 7, 2004 |title=Mandatory Swedish }} {{in lang|fi}}</ref>

[[Suomen Gallup]]'s 2003 survey concluded that while a small majority supported "compulsory second domestic language studying", it was opposed by 42% of Finns, and 25% did not want both Finnish and Swedish to be official languages of Finland. This study was commissioned by [[Yle]], the Finnish publicly funded national broadcasting company.<ref>{{cite web|title=Suomen Gallupin tutkimus 2003 |url=http://www.mtv3.fi/uutiset/arkisto.shtml/arkistot/kotimaa/2003/02/157245 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430083604/http://www.mtv3.fi/uutiset/arkisto.shtml/arkistot/kotimaa/2003/02/157245 |archivedate=April 30, 2009 |url-status=dead }}{{in lang|fi}}</ref> The question posed to those surveyed was very verbose in comparison to the Taloustutkimus surveys on the same subject. The question did not include the word "Swedish".{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}}

In 1992, a study by ''Valitut Palat'' (the Finnish edition of ''[[Reader's Digest]]'') concluded that 90 percent of parents of third to fourth grade pupils "supported a reduction of compulsory languages" (only Finnish and Swedish are compulsory). When ''Valitut Palat'' did a new survey in 2003 it found 64% opposed mandatory Swedish, and 25% did not desire two official languages.<ref>[http://www-fi.valitutpalat.fi/lehti/tiedotteet/20000824a.html Valittujen Palojen tutkimus 2000] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928020523/http://www-fi.valitutpalat.fi/lehti/tiedotteet/20000824a.html |date=2007-09-28 }} {{in lang|fi}}</ref>

An [[International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement|IEA]] study (2000) revealed that 67% of young people studying in Finnish-speaking schools wanted to make Swedish a voluntary subject. The most politically aware youths were the most critical against Swedishness in this study.<ref>IEA/Civic Education Study: [http://www.jyu.fi/ktl/civicsIII/SaSuKolm.htm Nuorten käsityksiä Ruotsista ja ruotsalaisuudesta] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060105175621/http://www.jyu.fi/ktl/civicsIII/SaSuKolm.htm |date=2006-01-05 }} {{in lang|fi}} {{in lang|sv}}</ref>

A study conducted in 1997 by [[Folktinget]], an official consultative organization representing Finland's Swedish-speakers, concluded that 70% of the Finnish-speaking population considered "Swedish a vital and important part of Finnish society." This study also indicated that the most negative opinions about mandatory Swedish were found among those with academic degrees.<ref>Vårt land, vårt språk – kahden kielen Kansa. rapport 35. {{in lang|fi}} {{in lang|sv}}</ref>

A study conducted by Taloustutkimus for Yle in 2013 indicated that 63 percent of respondents were opposed to mandatory Swedish. Further, the study indicated that among the supporters of the different political parties, only supporters of the Swedish People's Party and the Green League favoured retaining mandatory Swedish teaching. A majority of supporters in all other parties wanted Swedish teaching to be voluntary – the supporters of the Finns Party and the Social Democrats were most heavily in favor of making Swedish voluntary (76 and 73 percent respectively).<ref name="yle.fi"/>

A study conducted by [[Åbo Akademi]] in 2014 indicated that 74 percent of Finnish speaking respondents agreed with the statement "The teaching of the Swedish language should be voluntary".<ref>[http://web.abo.fi/pressmaterial/sprakundersokning_Finska.pdf Tutkimus kartoitti suomalaisten mielipiteitä ruotsin kielestä], Åbo Akademi 22 December 2014, accessed 22 December 2014.</ref>

==Opinions==
[[Image:Pois pakkoruotsi.svg|thumb|"Away with mandatory Swedish". A campaign logo against mandatory Swedish. The character on the logo throws away an [[Å]], a letter found in [[Swedish alphabet|Swedish]] (and Norwegian and Danish) words, but not in native [[Finnish alphabet|Finnish]].]]
In many cases, pupils have negative expectations and experiences of learning Swedish, which may foster a negative attitude towards the Swedish language and culture. This behavior is claimed to hark back to a time when Finland was a part of Sweden (see [[Finland under Swedish rule]]), and Swedish was the language of prestige while Finnish was looked down on by the government. {{confusing|date=December 2020}}
Negative opinions towards studying Swedish are also grounded in the fact that mandatory Swedish is taught throughout the country, even though there are very few Swedish-speakers in [[mainland Finland]] outside the coastal area by the [[Baltic Sea]]. This fact can make the policy of bilingualism seem artificial, but the basic curriculum remains the same for the entire country.

Supporters of Mandatory Swedish argue that the policy brings Finland closer to the [[Nordic countries]], since Swedish is part of the larger [[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian dialect continuum]] and [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with both [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]. On the contrary, Finnish belongs to the unrelated [[Finnic languages|Finnic language]] group. The Scandinavian languages have over 25 million speakers in the Nordic region and are the largest languages by far. They are also the working languages of the Nordic political bodies (the [[Nordic Council]] and the [[Nordic Council of Ministers]]), and are spoken in all the Nordic countries as majority, official or second languages. Due to this, proponents of mandatory Swedish regard Finnish citizens' knowledge of Swedish is as essential for Finland's ability to be included in Nordic cooperation and maintain its Nordic identity. Supporters argue that knowledge of Swedish gives Finnish citizens access to the culture and labour market of Scandinavia, a region four times the size of Finland. They also believe that it gives Finnish citizens access to Finland's own history, as for 500 years, Swedish was Finland's sole language of prestige and government, used as the medium of administration, the judiciary and higher education.<ref>Harald Haarmann, ''Modern Finland'' (p. 69), McFarland, 2016, {{ISBN|9781476662022}}</ref> Lastly, they argue mandatory Swedish is necessary to ensure that Swedish-speakers can interact with governmental institutions and get service, such as health care, in their own mother tongue.

According to a study published in 2002, students are interested in the Swedish language, and find it an important part of education, but they perceived the compulsory nature of Swedish language education lessened their motivation<ref name="lammi">Lammi, Kati. ''Kielisalkku motivoi ruotsin kielen opiskeluun.'' (''Language portfolio as a tool in promoting motivation in the study of Swedish at senior high school: student and teacher views and experiences.'') Dissertation at [[University of Jyväskylä]], 2002. [https://www.jyu.fi/ajankohtaista/arkisto/2002/11/tiedote-2007-09-18-15-40-42-566699/ Announcement in Finnish and abstract in English])</ref> (this argument has been made very frequently in the public debate). The experiment of making the Swedish test voluntary in the matriculation examination (the completion of which is a ''de facto'' requirement for university enrollment) was declared successful and has been made permanent. The percentage of students taking the Swedish test has since been constantly dropping and was 67% in 2009 (less than 50% of boys).<ref>[[YLE]]: [http://svenska.yle.fi/nyheter/sok.php?id=203491&lookfor=&sokvariant=arkivet&advanced=yes&antal=10 Svenskan stadigt nedåt i studentskrivningarna]</ref>

There has also been a lot of criticism of the methodology used to teach Swedish and the lack of competence in many of the teachers. This has contributed to students' lack of motivation to study Swedish, and many may not learn to speak the language beyond a very basic level. Some students argue that they will never need Swedish, as its utility in the Finnish job market is limited to a few fields. Moreover, the rationale of mandatory tuition in Swedish and other subjects is to give the students a more general knowledge base, and not to train them for a specific field.

In addition to the direct costs of the tuition, some argue that mandatory Swedish effectively replaces elective courses in languages such as [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]] and Russian, which these persons argue are more important than Swedish in a [[Globalization|globalized world]]. University students are required to not only master their selected field, but also to study at least two languages beside their mother tongue, one of which is obligatorily Swedish for Finnish-speakers. As study material is often in English, this effectively removes the free choice; the two "voluntarily chosen" languages must be Swedish and English. Additionally, very few Finns speak Estonian (which is not taught in most schools), a language of the same [[Finnic languages|Finnic language group]] as Finnish, and national language of Finland's southern neighbor [[Estonia]] (although Finnish is popular in Estonia).

Sentiments toward mandatory Swedish vary. Many prominent politicians (both Finnish- and Swedish-speaking) wholeheartedly support mandatory Swedish in schools, while others oppose it. There have been numerous petitions and other similar campaigns arranged by some small but dedicated organizations to pressure lawmakers into abolishing mandatory Swedish; however, to date, they have had no significant impact on the established policy. Thus, while the ongoing debate is often heated and passionate, the support for mandatory Swedish tuition remains strong enough among politicians for the government not to consider a change of policy.

Mandatory Swedish is supported by most political parties in Finland, like the [[National Coalition Party]], the [[Centre Party (Finland)|Centre Party]], the [[Social Democratic Party of Finland|Social Democrats]] and the [[Left Alliance (Finland)|Left Alliance]]. The [[Finns Party]] opposes mandatory Swedish,<ref>[http://arkisto.perussuomalaiset.fi/ohjelmat/getfile.php?file=1536 Finns Party electoral programme, 2011, s. 26-27] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928083239/http://arkisto.perussuomalaiset.fi/ohjelmat/getfile.php?file=1536 |date=2013-09-28 }}, accessed 22 December 2014</ref> and so does the youth wing of the [[National Coalition Party]].<ref>[http://www.kokoomusnuoret.fi/kannanotot/2013/03/kokoomusnuoret-kannattavat-vapaaehtoista-kieltenopiskelua/ Kokoomusnuoret kannattaa vapaaehtoista kieltenopiskelua] 4 March 2013, accessed 22 December 2014</ref>

In 2013, the [[Confederation of Finnish Industries]] came out in favor of making Swedish teaching voluntary. They referred to a study which indicated that, in the future, Swedish will only be the tenth most important language to Finnish companies.<ref>[http://www.mtv.fi/uutiset/kotimaa/artikkeli/elinkeinoelama-ajaa-pakkoruotsin-poistoa---tulevaisuudessa-tarvitaan-portugalia-/1904284 Elinkeinoelämä ajaa pakkoruotsin poistoa – tulevaisuudessa tarvitaan portugalia], MTV Uutiset 13 August 2013, accessed 23 December 2014.</ref> According to [[Hufvudstadsbladet]], the Confederation has subsequently changed their stance and no longer favors making Swedish voluntary, while maintaining the need for learning other languages.<ref>[http://hbl.fi/opinion/ledare/2014-11-14/681976/valkommen-kursandring-om-svenskan-av-ek Välkommen kursändring om svenskan av EK], Hufvudstadsbladet November 14, 2014, accessed 29 March 2015.</ref>

===In the Finnish Parliament===
In the 2000s, the government dropped the requirement to take Swedish (or Finnish in the case of the Swedish-speaking minority) as part of the high school [[Abitur#Abitur in Finland|matriculation examination]].

In 2014, a citizens' initiative demanding an end to mandatory Swedish teaching on all levels of education was brought to the Finnish Parliament. In 2015, the MPs voted (134 to 48) to keep mandatory Swedish. In another vote, the MPs voted (93 to 89) to demand that the government should examine whether a regional experimentation—where another language would be taught instead of Swedish—is possible.<ref>[http://yle.fi/uutiset/ruotsi_sailyy_pakollisena__ita-suomeen_mahdollisuus_kielikokeiluun/7850273 Ruotsi säilyy pakollisena – Itä-Suomeen mahdollisuus kielikokeiluun?], YLE 6 March 2015, accessed 6 March 2015.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Finland's language strife]]

== Sources ==
<references />

== External links ==
* [http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/12/25/news/finland.php IHT: In Finland, a battle of the tongues]
* [http://www.vapaakielivalinta.fi/en.php The Language Choice Society]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927234853/http://www.suomalaisuudenliitto.fi/inenglish/ The Finnish Alliance]
* Finlex: [http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/alkup/2002/20021174 Government regulation on classification of municipalities according to language] {{in lang|fi}} {{in lang|sv}}
*[http://www.xn--sprkfrsvaret-vcb4v.se/sf/index.php?id=969&fbclid=IwAR2C0HRWIOSlS6bYyLLaxMcKQbxEIQKM0G7HnI8PpoVEGIBqaTxBGTSKAgw Arguments for mandatory Swedish by a pro-Swedish foundation]

{{Swedish language}}

[[Category:Linguistic rights]]
[[Category:Swedish-language education]]
[[Category:Languages of Finland]]
[[Category:Finland Swedish]]
[[Category:Education in Finland]]
[[Category:Language education in Finland]]
[[Category:Language policy in Finland]]
[[Category:Majority–minority relations]]
[[Category:Linguistic controversies]]
[[Category:Education issues]]

Vocational school

2024-12-07T14:41:56Z

Amherst99: /* Lycée Professionnel */

{{short description|Higher-level learning institution providing education needed for specific occupations}}
{{redirect|Career center|other uses|Career center (disambiguation)}}
{{confused|Training centre (disambiguation){{!}}training centre}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2013}}
[[File:Fsg wickersdorf tischlerei.jpg|thumb|Students in a carpentry trade school learning woodworking skills, {{c.|1920}}]]
[[File:Dongping County Vocational Secondary School 02.jpg|thumb|Dongping County Vocational Secondary School, China]]

A '''vocational school''', (alternatively known as a '''trade school''', or '''technical school''') is a type of educational institution, which, depending on the country, may refer to either [[secondary education#List of tech ed skills|secondary]] or [[post-secondary]] education<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/95024-2.asp|title=Vocational Education in the US|website=nces.ed.gov|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102252/https://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/95024-2.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> designed to provide [[vocational education]] or [[Technology education#List of tech ed skills|technical skills]] required to complete the tasks of a particular and specific job. In the case of secondary education, these schools differ from academic high schools which usually prepare students who aim to pursue tertiary education, rather than enter directly into the workforce. With regard to post-secondary education, vocational schools are traditionally distinguished from four-year [[colleges]] by their focus on job-specific training to students who are typically bound for one of the [[skilled trade]]s,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.adeccousa.com/employers/resources/skilled-trades-in-demand/|title=Skilled Trades in Demand (Infographic)|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074256/https://www.adeccousa.com/employers/resources/skilled-trades-in-demand/|url-status=live}}</ref> rather than providing academic training for students pursuing careers in a [[professional]] discipline. While many schools have largely adhered to this convention, the purely vocational focus of other trade schools began to shift in the 1990s "toward a broader preparation that develops the academic" as well as the technical skills of their students.<ref>{{cite news | title=Information Literacy in Vocational Education: A Course Model | date=2 Sep 2006 | publisher=White-Clouds.com | url=http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl23XLH.htm | access-date=28 August 2007 | archive-date=25 July 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725164223/http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl23XLH.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Terminology==
[[File:Диплом о среднем профобразовании. Россия. 2021 год.jpg|thumb|Diploma of secondary vocational education in Russia]]
This type of institution may also be called a '''trade school''', '''career center''', '''career college''', or '''vocational college'''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://study.com/vocational_schools.html |title=What are Vocational Schools? |website=Study.com |access-date=2018-06-29 |archive-date=2018-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074417/https://study.com/vocational_schools.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==By Region==
===Oceania===
====Australia====
Vocational schools were called "technical colleges" in Australia,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/what-to-study-in-australia/types-of-education/technical-and-further-education|title=Technical and Further Education (TAFE) {{!}} Study in Australia|work=Studies in Australia|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074201/https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/what-to-study-in-australia/types-of-education/technical-and-further-education|url-status=live}}</ref> and there were more than 20 schools specializing in vocational educational training (VET).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dtwd.wa.gov.au/training/vocational-education-and-training|title=Vocational education and training {{!}} Department of Training and Workforce Development|website=www.dtwd.wa.gov.au|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074348/http://www.dtwd.wa.gov.au/training/vocational-education-and-training|url-status=live}}</ref> Only four technical colleges remain, and these are now referred to as "trade colleges". At these colleges, students complete a modified year 12 certificate and commence a school-based apprenticeship in a trade of their choice. There are two trade colleges in Queensland; Brisbane, the Gold Coast, [[Australian Industry Trade College]] and one in Adelaide, St. Patrick's Technical College, and another in Perth, Australian Trades College.

In Queensland, students can also undertake VET at private and public high schools instead of studying for their overall position (OP), which is a tertiary entrance score. However these students usually undertake more limited vocational education of one day per week whereas in the trade colleges the training is longer.

===North America===
====Canada====
[[File:West Park Secondary School (Toronto).jpg|thumb|left|[[West Park Secondary School]] in Toronto is an example. It was built in 1968 for students with slow learning or special needs.]]

Education in [[Canada]] is a provincial responsibility, and education evolved independently in each province, much like separate countries.
Vocational School is an old antiquated term that was previously used until the late 1960s when the education system evolved from basic primary education to include High School and then technical schools or colleges in the mid 1960s. In the past (pre mid 1960s) some provinces Vocational schools in Western Canada were sometimes called "[[college (Canada)|college]]s" in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vocationalschools.ca/|title=Canadian Vocational Schools & Training Programs|website=www.vocationalschools.ca|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814060134/https://www.vocationalschools.ca/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, a college may also refer to an institution that offers part of a university degree, or credits that may be transferred to a university.

In Ontario Technical schools like Central Technical School in Toronto, which was started in the late 1800s to train workers in the evening, eventually evolved into high schools when the education system was extended to the high school level. When the public education system was expanded in by the early 1920s high school level education was provided in Technical / Commercial Schools or Collegiate Institutes in a hybrid high school/ college level like situation. In [[Ontario]] prior to the mid 1960s a Vocational School was a trades or job training school that provided training in a very focused trades related area, and these were started in the early 1950s, and the few that existed were merged as departments of the Community colleges that were established starting in the mid 1960s .

Secondary schools had evolved into three separated streams: technical schools, commercial and collegiates (the academic schools). By the mid 1960s in suburban areas purpose built High Schools for slow learners or individuals that were being trained for jobs after high school was also termed "vocational schools". By the early late 1960s many of the technical and commercial school programs in large populated areas like around Toronto, were being merged or had purpose built combined schools were being built. While the schools still exist, the curriculum has changed so that no matter which type of school one attends, they can still attend any post-secondary institution and still study a variety of subjects and others (either academic or practical).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/secondary.html|title=Secondary Education|last=Ontario|first=Government of|website=www.edu.gov.on.ca|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625162006/http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/secondary.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In Ontario, the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities divided post-secondary education into universities, community colleges and private career colleges.

In the Province of Quebec, there are some vocational programs offered at institutions called [[CEGEP]]s (''collège d'enseignement général et professionnel''),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mcgill.ca/applying/requirements/qc|title=Quebec CEGEPs, colleges and high schools|website=Applying to Undergraduate Studies|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074331/https://www.mcgill.ca/applying/requirements/qc|url-status=live}}</ref> but these too may function as an introduction to university. Generally, students complete two years at a CEGEP directly out of high school, and then complete three years at a university (rather than the usual four), to earn an undergraduate degree. Alternatively, some CEGEPs offer vocational training, but it is more likely that vocational training will be found at institutions separate from academic institutions, though they may still be called colleges. Although many (if not most) vocational programs are in high school.

====United States====
{{Main|Vocational education in the United States}}
{{See also|Tech certificate|Tech ed}}

In the [[United States]], there is a very large difference between career college and vocational college. The term ''career college'' is generally reserved for post-secondary for-profit institutions. Conversely, vocational schools are government-owned or at least government-supported institutions, requiring two full years of study, and their credits are usually accepted elsewhere in the academic world. In some instances, [[charter school|charter academies]] or [[magnet school]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://magnet.edu/about/what-are-magnet-schools|title=What are Magnet Schools – Magnet Schools of America|last=America|first=Magnet Schools of|website=Magnet.edu|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074259/http://magnet.edu/about/what-are-magnet-schools|url-status=live}}</ref> may take the place of the final years of [[high school]]. Additionally, most schools offer off-campus buildings, or partner with vocational schools in order for students to gain a certificate, as well as gaining the needed credit to graduate. With the dual enrollment, the student would graduate with both their high school diploma, as well as their vocational certificate.

[[File:ITT Technical Institute campus Canton Michigan.JPG|thumb|Educational institution of this type in [[Canton, Michigan|Canton]], [[Michigan]], United States]]

Career colleges on the other hand are generally not government supported in any capacity, occupy periods of study less than a year, and their training and certifications are rarely recognized by the larger academic world. In addition, as most career colleges are [[private school]]s, this group may be further subdivided into non-profit schools and proprietary schools, operated for the sole economic benefit of their owners.

As a result of this emphasis on the commercialization of education, a widespread poor reputation for quality was retained by a great number of career colleges for over promising what the job prospects for their graduates would be in their field of study upon completion of their program, and for emphasizing the number of careers from which a student could choose.

Even though the popularity of career colleges has exploded in recent years, the number of government-sponsored vocational schools in the United States has decreased significantly.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/business/vocational-schools-face-deep-cuts-in-federal-funding.html|title=Vocational Schools Face Deep Cuts in Federal Funding|last=Rich|first=Motoko|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=9 July 2011 |access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629081447/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/business/vocational-schools-face-deep-cuts-in-federal-funding.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Association for Career and Technical Education]] (ACTE) is the largest American national education association dedicated to the advancement of career and technical education or vocational education that prepares youth and adults for careers.

Earlier vocational schools such as the [[California Institute of Technology]]<ref>{{cite web |first=Judith |last=Goodstein |author-link=Judith R. Goodstein |date=1998-06-29 |title=History of Caltech |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/goodstein/index.html |website=NobelPrize.org |access-date=2007-11-19 |archive-date=2007-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030093148/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/goodstein/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Carnegie Mellon University]] have gone on to become full degree-granting institutions.

===Central and Eastern Europe===
{{main|Education in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Vrapice CZ vocational school 008.jpg|thumb|Vrapice Vocational School, Czech Republic]]
[[File:Dózsa György iskola, Martinovics Ignác utca, 2019 Kalocsa.jpg|thumb|György Dózsa Vocational Secondary School, Kalocsa, Hungary]]

In [[Central and Eastern Europe]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/latest/news/vocational-education-and-train.htm|title=Vocational Education and Training throughout Europe|website=www.schooleducationgateway.eu|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2020-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230034604/https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/latest/news/vocational-education-and-train.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> vocational education is represented in the forms of (professional) [[Professional technical school|vocational technical school]]s often abbreviated as PTU, technical colleges (technikum) and technical high school.
;Vocational school (college)
Vocational school or vocational college is considered a post-secondary education type school, but combines the coursework of a [[high school]] and [[junior college]] stretching for six years. In Ukraine, the term is used mostly for sports schools sometimes interchangeably with the term college. Such college could be a separate entity or a branch of bigger university. Successful graduates receive a [[specialist degree]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reimers |first=Fernando M. |title=Audacious Education Purposes. How Governments Transform the Goals of Education Systems |publisher=SpringerOpen}}</ref>
;PTU
{{main|Professional technical school}}
PTUs are usually preparatory [[vocational education]] and are equivalent to the general education of the third degree in the former Soviet education, providing a lower level of vocational education (apprenticeship). It could be compared to a trade [[high school]]. In the 1920-30s, such PTUs were called schools of factory and plant apprenticeship, and later 1940s - vocational schools. Sometime after 1959, the name PTU was established, however, with the reorganization of the Soviet educational system these vocational schools were renamed into lyceums. There were several types of PTUs such as middle city PTU and rural PTU.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVocational6technicalschools.htm|title=Vocational-technical schools|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074400/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVocational6technicalschools.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
;Technicum
{{main|Tekhnikum|Technikum (Polish education)}}
Technical college (technicum) is becoming an obsolete term for a college in different parts of Central and Eastern Europe. Technicums<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCCIJf-yhIC&q=Technicums&pg=PA69|title=Educational Reform in Post-Soviet Russia: Legacies and Prospects|last1=Eklof|first1=Ben|last2=Holmes|first2=Larry Eugene|last3=Kaplan|first3=Vera|date=2005|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780714657059|access-date=2020-11-22|archive-date=2022-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718182218/https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCCIJf-yhIC&q=Technicums&pg=PA69|url-status=live}}</ref> provided a middle level of vocational education. Aside of technicums and PTU there also were vocational schools ([[Russian language|Russian]]: профессиональные училища) that also provided a middle level of vocational education. In 1920-30s Ukraine, technicums were a (technical) vocational [[institute]]s, however, during the 1930-32s Soviet educational reform they were degraded in their accreditation.
;Institute
Institutes were considered a higher level of education; however, unlike universities, they were more oriented to a particular trade. With the reorganization of the Soviet education system, most institutes have been renamed as technical universities.

===Southeast Europe===
In ex-Yugoslavian countries (Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro and North Macedonia) there are technical high schools that can have three or four years courses. If a person finishes three year course he will get a trade degree, or a technician degree if he finishes four. After technical high school a person can go to university. In Croatia there are two types of universities where people can continue their education: Classical universities (sveučilište) and Universities of applied sciences (veleučilište). In Universities of applied sciences, after three years students get a bachelors degree like in classical university, and after 5 years they get a professional specialist degree.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}

====Greece====
In [[Greece]] vocational school is known as Vocational Lyceum (2006–present), it was named Technical Vocational Lyceum (1985–1998). It is an upper secondary education school (high school) of Greece, with a three-year duration. Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Vocational majors are in Electrical Installation, Electronics and Automation, Meganotronics, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Cooling, Nursing, Hairdressing, Graphic Design, Food Technology, Dental Technology, Aesthetic and Makeup, and others.

===Western and Northern Europe===
==== Finland ====
{{See also|Education in Finland}}
[[File:JAMI Lappajärvi 2015-06-18.JPG|thumb|Vocational school in [[Lappajärvi]], Finland]]

The Finnish system is divided between vocational and academic paths.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/finland-education-school-2011-12|title=26 Amazing Facts About Finland's Unorthodox Education System|work=Business Insider|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074354/http://www.businessinsider.com/finland-education-school-2011-12|url-status=live}}</ref> Currently about 47 percent of Finnish students at age 16 go to vocational school. The vocational school is a secondary school for ages 16–21, and prepares the students for entering the workforce. The curriculum includes little academic general education, while the practical skills of each trade are stressed. The education is divided into eight main categories with a total of about 50 trades. The basic categories of education are
* Humanist and educational branch (typical trade: youth- and free-time director)
* Cultural branch (typical trade: artisan, media-assistant)
* The branch of social sciences, business and merchandise (typical trade: vocational qualification in business and administration ({{langx|fi|merkonomi}}))
* Natural science (typical trade: IT worker ({{langx|fi|datanomi}}))
* Technology and traffic (typical trades: machinist, electrician, process worker)
* The branch of natural resources and environment (typical trade: rural entrepreneur, forest worker)
* The branch of social work, health care and physical exercise (typical trade: practical nurse ({{langx|fi|lähihoitaja}}))
* The branch of travel, catering and domestic economics (typical trade: institutional catering worker)

The vocational schools are usually owned by the municipalities, but in special cases, private or state vocational schools exist. The state grants aid to all vocational schools on the same basis, regardless of the owner. On the other hand, the vocational schools are not allowed to operate for profit. The Ministry of Education issues licences to provide vocational education. In the licence, the municipality or a private entity is given permission to train a yearly quota of students for specific trades. The licence also specifies the area where the school must be located and the languages used in the education.

The vocational school students are selected by the schools on the basis of criteria set by the Ministry of Education. The basic qualification for the study is completed nine-year comprehensive school. Anyone may seek admission in any vocational school regardless of their domicile. In certain trades, bad health or invalidity may be acceptable grounds for refusing admission. The students do not pay tuition and they must be provided with health care and a free daily school lunch. Tools and practice material are provided to the students for free. Any necessary books are also free for all students born during or after 2005.

In tertiary education, there are higher vocational schools (''[[ammattikorkeakoulu]]'' which is translated to "polytechnic" or "university of applied sciences"), which give three- to four-year degrees in more involved fields, like engineering (see [[insinööri (amk)]]) and nursing. Having a vocational degree also qualifies a person to apply to a university.<ref>[https://www.infofinland.fi/en/education/applying-for-education-and-training Applying for education and training]</ref>

In contrast to the vocational school, an academically orientated upper secondary school, or senior high school ({{langx|fi|lukio}}) teaches no vocational skills. It prepares students for entering the university or a higher vocational school.

==== France ====

===== ''Lycée professionnel'' =====
{{See also|Secondary education in France}}
In France, the [[lycée professionnel|''lycée professionnel'']] (LP, formerly known as a ''lycée d'enseignement professionnel'' (LEP)) grants a ''baccalauréat professionnel'' for students who do not plan to continue into higher education. Nearly 100 specialties are covered.

===== University Technical Institutes or ''IUT'' =====
{{See also|Higher education in France}}
In France, at [[post-secondary]] level, there are also [[University technical institute (France)|university technical institutes]] (in French: "''instituts universitaires de technologie''") offering vocational [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor's degrees]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=IUT (University Technical Institute) |url=https://www.centpourcent-normandie.fr/en/100normandie/education-and-training/iut-university-technical-institute/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie Caen Normandie |language=en-GB}}</ref>

====Ireland====
{{See also|Education in the Republic of Ireland}}

A vocational school in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] is a type of [[secondary education]] school<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/|title=Irish Education System|work=Department of Education and Skills|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102244/https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/|url-status=live}}</ref> which places a large emphasis on [[vocational education|vocational]] and [[technical education]]; this led to some conflict in the 1960s when the [[Institutes of Technology in Ireland|Regional Technical College]] system<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/regional-technical-college-in-cork-is-upgraded-to-institute-1.123679|title=Regional technical college in Cork is upgraded to institute|newspaper=The Irish Times|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2021-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728212514/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/regional-technical-college-in-cork-is-upgraded-to-institute-1.123679|url-status=live}}</ref> was in development. Since 2013 the schools have been managed by [[Education and Training Board]]s, which replaced [[Vocational Education Committee]]s which were largely based on [[Cities in Ireland|city]] or [[Counties of Ireland|county]] boundaries. Establishment of the schools is largely provided by the state; funding is through the block grant system providing about 90% of necessary funding requirements.

Vocational schools typically have [[further education]] courses in addition to the traditional courses at secondary level. For instance, post [[Irish Leaving Certificate|leaving certificate]] courses which are intended for school leavers and pre-[[tertiary education|third level]] education students.

Until the 1970s the vocational schools were seen as inferior to the other schools then available in Ireland. This was mainly because traditional courses such as the leaving certificate were not available at the schools, however this changed with the ''Investment in Education'' (1962) report which resulted in an upgrade in their status. Currently about 24% of secondary education students attend these schools.

====Netherlands====
{{See also|Education in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Ambachtsschool1.JPG|thumb|''Ambachtschool'']]

In the Middle Ages boys learned a vocation through an [[apprenticeship]]. They were usually 10 years old when they entered service, and were first called ''leerling'' ([[apprentice]]), then ''gezel'' ([[journeyman]]) and after an exam - sometimes with an example of workmanship called a ''meesterproef'' ([[masterpiece]]) - they were called ''meester'' ([[master craftsman]]). In 1795, all of the [[guilds]] in the Netherlands were disbanded by [[Napoleon]], and with them the guild vocational schooling system. After the French occupation, in the 1820s, the need for quality education caused more and more cities to form day and evening schools for various trades.
In 1854, the society ''Maatschappij tot verbetering van den werkenden stand'' (society to improve the working class) was founded in Amsterdam, that changed its name in 1861 to the ''Maatschappij voor de Werkende Stand'' (Society for the working class). This society started the first public vocational school (''[[Ambachtschool (Amsterdam)|De Ambachtsschool]]'') in [[Amsterdam]], and many cities followed. At first only for boys, later the ''Huishoudschool'' (housekeeping) was introduced as vocational schooling for girls. Housekeeping education began in 1888 with the [[Haagsche Kookschool]] in [[The Hague]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nuffic.nl/en/study-and-work-in-holland/dutch-education-system/vocational-education-and-training-vet|title=Vocational education and training (VET) — Nuffic English|website=www.nuffic.nl|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074340/https://www.nuffic.nl/en/study-and-work-in-holland/dutch-education-system/vocational-education-and-training-vet|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1968 the ''[[Mammoetwet]]'' law<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/mammoetwet-van-1968|title=Mammoetwet van 1968|date=2012-06-14|work=IsGeschiedenis|access-date=2018-06-29|language=nl|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102259/https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/mammoetwet-van-1968|url-status=live}}</ref> changed all of this, effectively dissolving the Ambachtsschool and the Huishoudschool. The name was changed to LTS (''lagere technische school'', lower technical school), where mainly boys went because of its technical nature, and the other option, where most girls went, was LBO (''lager beroepsonderwijs'', lower vocational education). In 1992 both LTS and LBO changed to VBO (''voorbereidend beroepsonderwijs'', preparatory vocational education) and since 1999 VBO together with MAVO (''middelbaar algemeen voortgezet onderwijs'', intermediate general secondary education) changed to the current VMBO (''voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs'', preparatory intermediate vocational education).

===South Asia===
====India====
{{See also|Vocational education in India}}

In [[India]] vocational schools are mainly run by the government under the guidance of the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship. Courses offered by the Government of India are Udaan, Polytechnics, Parvaaz, National Rural Livelihood Mission, Industrial Training Institutes, Aajeevika mission of national rural livelihood, Craftsmen Training Scheme. The Skill India movement has empowered the standards of all these institutions. Apart from these the [[Central Board of Secondary Education|Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)]] has included many vocational subjects in their senior secondary education.

===East Asia===
====Japan====
In [[Japan]] vocational schools are known as {{Nihongo|''senmon gakkō''|専門学校}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbcjpn.jp/english/guidance/speciality.html|title=What is a Professional Training College (Senmon Gakko)?｜神奈川県川崎市の日本語学校｜（CBC）外語ビジネス専門学校（東京・横浜近郊）|website=www.cbcjpn.jp|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701002720/http://www.cbcjpn.jp/english/guidance/speciality.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They are a part of Japan's [[higher education]] system. There are two-year schools that many students study at after finishing high school (although it is not always required that students graduate from high school). Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Some examples are [[computer technology]], [[fashion]] and [[English language|English]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Education}}
* {{annotated link|Vocational university}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.career.org/ Career College Association website]
* Barry Yeoman, [http://www.barryyeoman.com/articles/scamschools.html Scam Schools], ''Good Housekeeping''
* [http://www.acteonline.org Association of Career and Technical Education (ACTE)]
* [https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/grntprgm.html Paying for Vocational School]
* [https://bluecollarbrain.com/questions-vocational-school/ Questions to Ask a Vocational School],''Blue Collar Brain''

{{Employment}}
{{Schools}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Educational stages]]
[[Category:School systems]]
[[Category:Tertiary education]]
[[Category:Types of university or college]]
[[Category:Types of vocational school]]
[[Category:Vocational schools|*]]

Vocational school

2024-12-07T14:40:34Z

Amherst99: /* Greece */

{{short description|Higher-level learning institution providing education needed for specific occupations}}
{{redirect|Career center|other uses|Career center (disambiguation)}}
{{confused|Training centre (disambiguation){{!}}training centre}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2013}}
[[File:Fsg wickersdorf tischlerei.jpg|thumb|Students in a carpentry trade school learning woodworking skills, {{c.|1920}}]]
[[File:Dongping County Vocational Secondary School 02.jpg|thumb|Dongping County Vocational Secondary School, China]]

A '''vocational school''', (alternatively known as a '''trade school''', or '''technical school''') is a type of educational institution, which, depending on the country, may refer to either [[secondary education#List of tech ed skills|secondary]] or [[post-secondary]] education<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/95024-2.asp|title=Vocational Education in the US|website=nces.ed.gov|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102252/https://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/95024-2.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> designed to provide [[vocational education]] or [[Technology education#List of tech ed skills|technical skills]] required to complete the tasks of a particular and specific job. In the case of secondary education, these schools differ from academic high schools which usually prepare students who aim to pursue tertiary education, rather than enter directly into the workforce. With regard to post-secondary education, vocational schools are traditionally distinguished from four-year [[colleges]] by their focus on job-specific training to students who are typically bound for one of the [[skilled trade]]s,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.adeccousa.com/employers/resources/skilled-trades-in-demand/|title=Skilled Trades in Demand (Infographic)|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074256/https://www.adeccousa.com/employers/resources/skilled-trades-in-demand/|url-status=live}}</ref> rather than providing academic training for students pursuing careers in a [[professional]] discipline. While many schools have largely adhered to this convention, the purely vocational focus of other trade schools began to shift in the 1990s "toward a broader preparation that develops the academic" as well as the technical skills of their students.<ref>{{cite news | title=Information Literacy in Vocational Education: A Course Model | date=2 Sep 2006 | publisher=White-Clouds.com | url=http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl23XLH.htm | access-date=28 August 2007 | archive-date=25 July 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725164223/http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl23XLH.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Terminology==
[[File:Диплом о среднем профобразовании. Россия. 2021 год.jpg|thumb|Diploma of secondary vocational education in Russia]]
This type of institution may also be called a '''trade school''', '''career center''', '''career college''', or '''vocational college'''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://study.com/vocational_schools.html |title=What are Vocational Schools? |website=Study.com |access-date=2018-06-29 |archive-date=2018-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074417/https://study.com/vocational_schools.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==By Region==
===Oceania===
====Australia====
Vocational schools were called "technical colleges" in Australia,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/what-to-study-in-australia/types-of-education/technical-and-further-education|title=Technical and Further Education (TAFE) {{!}} Study in Australia|work=Studies in Australia|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074201/https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/what-to-study-in-australia/types-of-education/technical-and-further-education|url-status=live}}</ref> and there were more than 20 schools specializing in vocational educational training (VET).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dtwd.wa.gov.au/training/vocational-education-and-training|title=Vocational education and training {{!}} Department of Training and Workforce Development|website=www.dtwd.wa.gov.au|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074348/http://www.dtwd.wa.gov.au/training/vocational-education-and-training|url-status=live}}</ref> Only four technical colleges remain, and these are now referred to as "trade colleges". At these colleges, students complete a modified year 12 certificate and commence a school-based apprenticeship in a trade of their choice. There are two trade colleges in Queensland; Brisbane, the Gold Coast, [[Australian Industry Trade College]] and one in Adelaide, St. Patrick's Technical College, and another in Perth, Australian Trades College.

In Queensland, students can also undertake VET at private and public high schools instead of studying for their overall position (OP), which is a tertiary entrance score. However these students usually undertake more limited vocational education of one day per week whereas in the trade colleges the training is longer.

===North America===
====Canada====
[[File:West Park Secondary School (Toronto).jpg|thumb|left|[[West Park Secondary School]] in Toronto is an example. It was built in 1968 for students with slow learning or special needs.]]

Education in [[Canada]] is a provincial responsibility, and education evolved independently in each province, much like separate countries.
Vocational School is an old antiquated term that was previously used until the late 1960s when the education system evolved from basic primary education to include High School and then technical schools or colleges in the mid 1960s. In the past (pre mid 1960s) some provinces Vocational schools in Western Canada were sometimes called "[[college (Canada)|college]]s" in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vocationalschools.ca/|title=Canadian Vocational Schools & Training Programs|website=www.vocationalschools.ca|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814060134/https://www.vocationalschools.ca/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, a college may also refer to an institution that offers part of a university degree, or credits that may be transferred to a university.

In Ontario Technical schools like Central Technical School in Toronto, which was started in the late 1800s to train workers in the evening, eventually evolved into high schools when the education system was extended to the high school level. When the public education system was expanded in by the early 1920s high school level education was provided in Technical / Commercial Schools or Collegiate Institutes in a hybrid high school/ college level like situation. In [[Ontario]] prior to the mid 1960s a Vocational School was a trades or job training school that provided training in a very focused trades related area, and these were started in the early 1950s, and the few that existed were merged as departments of the Community colleges that were established starting in the mid 1960s .

Secondary schools had evolved into three separated streams: technical schools, commercial and collegiates (the academic schools). By the mid 1960s in suburban areas purpose built High Schools for slow learners or individuals that were being trained for jobs after high school was also termed "vocational schools". By the early late 1960s many of the technical and commercial school programs in large populated areas like around Toronto, were being merged or had purpose built combined schools were being built. While the schools still exist, the curriculum has changed so that no matter which type of school one attends, they can still attend any post-secondary institution and still study a variety of subjects and others (either academic or practical).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/secondary.html|title=Secondary Education|last=Ontario|first=Government of|website=www.edu.gov.on.ca|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625162006/http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/secondary.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In Ontario, the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities divided post-secondary education into universities, community colleges and private career colleges.

In the Province of Quebec, there are some vocational programs offered at institutions called [[CEGEP]]s (''collège d'enseignement général et professionnel''),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mcgill.ca/applying/requirements/qc|title=Quebec CEGEPs, colleges and high schools|website=Applying to Undergraduate Studies|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074331/https://www.mcgill.ca/applying/requirements/qc|url-status=live}}</ref> but these too may function as an introduction to university. Generally, students complete two years at a CEGEP directly out of high school, and then complete three years at a university (rather than the usual four), to earn an undergraduate degree. Alternatively, some CEGEPs offer vocational training, but it is more likely that vocational training will be found at institutions separate from academic institutions, though they may still be called colleges. Although many (if not most) vocational programs are in high school.

====United States====
{{Main|Vocational education in the United States}}
{{See also|Tech certificate|Tech ed}}

In the [[United States]], there is a very large difference between career college and vocational college. The term ''career college'' is generally reserved for post-secondary for-profit institutions. Conversely, vocational schools are government-owned or at least government-supported institutions, requiring two full years of study, and their credits are usually accepted elsewhere in the academic world. In some instances, [[charter school|charter academies]] or [[magnet school]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://magnet.edu/about/what-are-magnet-schools|title=What are Magnet Schools – Magnet Schools of America|last=America|first=Magnet Schools of|website=Magnet.edu|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074259/http://magnet.edu/about/what-are-magnet-schools|url-status=live}}</ref> may take the place of the final years of [[high school]]. Additionally, most schools offer off-campus buildings, or partner with vocational schools in order for students to gain a certificate, as well as gaining the needed credit to graduate. With the dual enrollment, the student would graduate with both their high school diploma, as well as their vocational certificate.

[[File:ITT Technical Institute campus Canton Michigan.JPG|thumb|Educational institution of this type in [[Canton, Michigan|Canton]], [[Michigan]], United States]]

Career colleges on the other hand are generally not government supported in any capacity, occupy periods of study less than a year, and their training and certifications are rarely recognized by the larger academic world. In addition, as most career colleges are [[private school]]s, this group may be further subdivided into non-profit schools and proprietary schools, operated for the sole economic benefit of their owners.

As a result of this emphasis on the commercialization of education, a widespread poor reputation for quality was retained by a great number of career colleges for over promising what the job prospects for their graduates would be in their field of study upon completion of their program, and for emphasizing the number of careers from which a student could choose.

Even though the popularity of career colleges has exploded in recent years, the number of government-sponsored vocational schools in the United States has decreased significantly.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/business/vocational-schools-face-deep-cuts-in-federal-funding.html|title=Vocational Schools Face Deep Cuts in Federal Funding|last=Rich|first=Motoko|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=9 July 2011 |access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629081447/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/business/vocational-schools-face-deep-cuts-in-federal-funding.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Association for Career and Technical Education]] (ACTE) is the largest American national education association dedicated to the advancement of career and technical education or vocational education that prepares youth and adults for careers.

Earlier vocational schools such as the [[California Institute of Technology]]<ref>{{cite web |first=Judith |last=Goodstein |author-link=Judith R. Goodstein |date=1998-06-29 |title=History of Caltech |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/goodstein/index.html |website=NobelPrize.org |access-date=2007-11-19 |archive-date=2007-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030093148/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/goodstein/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Carnegie Mellon University]] have gone on to become full degree-granting institutions.

===Central and Eastern Europe===
{{main|Education in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Vrapice CZ vocational school 008.jpg|thumb|Vrapice Vocational School, Czech Republic]]
[[File:Dózsa György iskola, Martinovics Ignác utca, 2019 Kalocsa.jpg|thumb|György Dózsa Vocational Secondary School, Kalocsa, Hungary]]

In [[Central and Eastern Europe]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/latest/news/vocational-education-and-train.htm|title=Vocational Education and Training throughout Europe|website=www.schooleducationgateway.eu|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2020-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230034604/https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/latest/news/vocational-education-and-train.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> vocational education is represented in the forms of (professional) [[Professional technical school|vocational technical school]]s often abbreviated as PTU, technical colleges (technikum) and technical high school.
;Vocational school (college)
Vocational school or vocational college is considered a post-secondary education type school, but combines the coursework of a [[high school]] and [[junior college]] stretching for six years. In Ukraine, the term is used mostly for sports schools sometimes interchangeably with the term college. Such college could be a separate entity or a branch of bigger university. Successful graduates receive a [[specialist degree]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reimers |first=Fernando M. |title=Audacious Education Purposes. How Governments Transform the Goals of Education Systems |publisher=SpringerOpen}}</ref>
;PTU
{{main|Professional technical school}}
PTUs are usually preparatory [[vocational education]] and are equivalent to the general education of the third degree in the former Soviet education, providing a lower level of vocational education (apprenticeship). It could be compared to a trade [[high school]]. In the 1920-30s, such PTUs were called schools of factory and plant apprenticeship, and later 1940s - vocational schools. Sometime after 1959, the name PTU was established, however, with the reorganization of the Soviet educational system these vocational schools were renamed into lyceums. There were several types of PTUs such as middle city PTU and rural PTU.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVocational6technicalschools.htm|title=Vocational-technical schools|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074400/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVocational6technicalschools.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
;Technicum
{{main|Tekhnikum|Technikum (Polish education)}}
Technical college (technicum) is becoming an obsolete term for a college in different parts of Central and Eastern Europe. Technicums<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCCIJf-yhIC&q=Technicums&pg=PA69|title=Educational Reform in Post-Soviet Russia: Legacies and Prospects|last1=Eklof|first1=Ben|last2=Holmes|first2=Larry Eugene|last3=Kaplan|first3=Vera|date=2005|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780714657059|access-date=2020-11-22|archive-date=2022-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718182218/https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCCIJf-yhIC&q=Technicums&pg=PA69|url-status=live}}</ref> provided a middle level of vocational education. Aside of technicums and PTU there also were vocational schools ([[Russian language|Russian]]: профессиональные училища) that also provided a middle level of vocational education. In 1920-30s Ukraine, technicums were a (technical) vocational [[institute]]s, however, during the 1930-32s Soviet educational reform they were degraded in their accreditation.
;Institute
Institutes were considered a higher level of education; however, unlike universities, they were more oriented to a particular trade. With the reorganization of the Soviet education system, most institutes have been renamed as technical universities.

===Southeast Europe===
In ex-Yugoslavian countries (Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro and North Macedonia) there are technical high schools that can have three or four years courses. If a person finishes three year course he will get a trade degree, or a technician degree if he finishes four. After technical high school a person can go to university. In Croatia there are two types of universities where people can continue their education: Classical universities (sveučilište) and Universities of applied sciences (veleučilište). In Universities of applied sciences, after three years students get a bachelors degree like in classical university, and after 5 years they get a professional specialist degree.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}

====Greece====
In [[Greece]] vocational school is known as Vocational Lyceum (2006–present), it was named Technical Vocational Lyceum (1985–1998). It is an upper secondary education school (high school) of Greece, with a three-year duration. Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Vocational majors are in Electrical Installation, Electronics and Automation, Meganotronics, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Cooling, Nursing, Hairdressing, Graphic Design, Food Technology, Dental Technology, Aesthetic and Makeup, and others.

===Western and Northern Europe===
==== Finland ====
{{See also|Education in Finland}}
[[File:JAMI Lappajärvi 2015-06-18.JPG|thumb|Vocational school in [[Lappajärvi]], Finland]]

The Finnish system is divided between vocational and academic paths.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/finland-education-school-2011-12|title=26 Amazing Facts About Finland's Unorthodox Education System|work=Business Insider|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074354/http://www.businessinsider.com/finland-education-school-2011-12|url-status=live}}</ref> Currently about 47 percent of Finnish students at age 16 go to vocational school. The vocational school is a secondary school for ages 16–21, and prepares the students for entering the workforce. The curriculum includes little academic general education, while the practical skills of each trade are stressed. The education is divided into eight main categories with a total of about 50 trades. The basic categories of education are
* Humanist and educational branch (typical trade: youth- and free-time director)
* Cultural branch (typical trade: artisan, media-assistant)
* The branch of social sciences, business and merchandise (typical trade: vocational qualification in business and administration ({{langx|fi|merkonomi}}))
* Natural science (typical trade: IT worker ({{langx|fi|datanomi}}))
* Technology and traffic (typical trades: machinist, electrician, process worker)
* The branch of natural resources and environment (typical trade: rural entrepreneur, forest worker)
* The branch of social work, health care and physical exercise (typical trade: practical nurse ({{langx|fi|lähihoitaja}}))
* The branch of travel, catering and domestic economics (typical trade: institutional catering worker)

The vocational schools are usually owned by the municipalities, but in special cases, private or state vocational schools exist. The state grants aid to all vocational schools on the same basis, regardless of the owner. On the other hand, the vocational schools are not allowed to operate for profit. The Ministry of Education issues licences to provide vocational education. In the licence, the municipality or a private entity is given permission to train a yearly quota of students for specific trades. The licence also specifies the area where the school must be located and the languages used in the education.

The vocational school students are selected by the schools on the basis of criteria set by the Ministry of Education. The basic qualification for the study is completed nine-year comprehensive school. Anyone may seek admission in any vocational school regardless of their domicile. In certain trades, bad health or invalidity may be acceptable grounds for refusing admission. The students do not pay tuition and they must be provided with health care and a free daily school lunch. Tools and practice material are provided to the students for free. Any necessary books are also free for all students born during or after 2005.

In tertiary education, there are higher vocational schools (''[[ammattikorkeakoulu]]'' which is translated to "polytechnic" or "university of applied sciences"), which give three- to four-year degrees in more involved fields, like engineering (see [[insinööri (amk)]]) and nursing. Having a vocational degree also qualifies a person to apply to a university.<ref>[https://www.infofinland.fi/en/education/applying-for-education-and-training Applying for education and training]</ref>

In contrast to the vocational school, an academically orientated upper secondary school, or senior high school ({{langx|fi|lukio}}) teaches no vocational skills. It prepares students for entering the university or a higher vocational school.

==== France ====

===== ''Lycée Professionnel'' =====
{{See also|Secondary education in France}}
In France, the [[lycée professionnel|''lycée professionnel'']] (LP, formerly known as a ''lycée d'enseignement professionnel'' (LEP)) grants a ''baccalauréat professionnel'' for students who do not plan to continue into higher education. Nearly 100 specialties are covered.

===== University Technical Institutes or ''IUT'' =====
{{See also|Higher education in France}}
In France, at [[post-secondary]] level, there are also [[University technical institute (France)|university technical institutes]] (in French: "''instituts universitaires de technologie''") offering vocational [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor's degrees]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=IUT (University Technical Institute) |url=https://www.centpourcent-normandie.fr/en/100normandie/education-and-training/iut-university-technical-institute/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie Caen Normandie |language=en-GB}}</ref>

====Ireland====
{{See also|Education in the Republic of Ireland}}

A vocational school in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] is a type of [[secondary education]] school<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/|title=Irish Education System|work=Department of Education and Skills|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102244/https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/|url-status=live}}</ref> which places a large emphasis on [[vocational education|vocational]] and [[technical education]]; this led to some conflict in the 1960s when the [[Institutes of Technology in Ireland|Regional Technical College]] system<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/regional-technical-college-in-cork-is-upgraded-to-institute-1.123679|title=Regional technical college in Cork is upgraded to institute|newspaper=The Irish Times|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2021-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728212514/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/regional-technical-college-in-cork-is-upgraded-to-institute-1.123679|url-status=live}}</ref> was in development. Since 2013 the schools have been managed by [[Education and Training Board]]s, which replaced [[Vocational Education Committee]]s which were largely based on [[Cities in Ireland|city]] or [[Counties of Ireland|county]] boundaries. Establishment of the schools is largely provided by the state; funding is through the block grant system providing about 90% of necessary funding requirements.

Vocational schools typically have [[further education]] courses in addition to the traditional courses at secondary level. For instance, post [[Irish Leaving Certificate|leaving certificate]] courses which are intended for school leavers and pre-[[tertiary education|third level]] education students.

Until the 1970s the vocational schools were seen as inferior to the other schools then available in Ireland. This was mainly because traditional courses such as the leaving certificate were not available at the schools, however this changed with the ''Investment in Education'' (1962) report which resulted in an upgrade in their status. Currently about 24% of secondary education students attend these schools.

====Netherlands====
{{See also|Education in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Ambachtsschool1.JPG|thumb|''Ambachtschool'']]

In the Middle Ages boys learned a vocation through an [[apprenticeship]]. They were usually 10 years old when they entered service, and were first called ''leerling'' ([[apprentice]]), then ''gezel'' ([[journeyman]]) and after an exam - sometimes with an example of workmanship called a ''meesterproef'' ([[masterpiece]]) - they were called ''meester'' ([[master craftsman]]). In 1795, all of the [[guilds]] in the Netherlands were disbanded by [[Napoleon]], and with them the guild vocational schooling system. After the French occupation, in the 1820s, the need for quality education caused more and more cities to form day and evening schools for various trades.
In 1854, the society ''Maatschappij tot verbetering van den werkenden stand'' (society to improve the working class) was founded in Amsterdam, that changed its name in 1861 to the ''Maatschappij voor de Werkende Stand'' (Society for the working class). This society started the first public vocational school (''[[Ambachtschool (Amsterdam)|De Ambachtsschool]]'') in [[Amsterdam]], and many cities followed. At first only for boys, later the ''Huishoudschool'' (housekeeping) was introduced as vocational schooling for girls. Housekeeping education began in 1888 with the [[Haagsche Kookschool]] in [[The Hague]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nuffic.nl/en/study-and-work-in-holland/dutch-education-system/vocational-education-and-training-vet|title=Vocational education and training (VET) — Nuffic English|website=www.nuffic.nl|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074340/https://www.nuffic.nl/en/study-and-work-in-holland/dutch-education-system/vocational-education-and-training-vet|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1968 the ''[[Mammoetwet]]'' law<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/mammoetwet-van-1968|title=Mammoetwet van 1968|date=2012-06-14|work=IsGeschiedenis|access-date=2018-06-29|language=nl|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102259/https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/mammoetwet-van-1968|url-status=live}}</ref> changed all of this, effectively dissolving the Ambachtsschool and the Huishoudschool. The name was changed to LTS (''lagere technische school'', lower technical school), where mainly boys went because of its technical nature, and the other option, where most girls went, was LBO (''lager beroepsonderwijs'', lower vocational education). In 1992 both LTS and LBO changed to VBO (''voorbereidend beroepsonderwijs'', preparatory vocational education) and since 1999 VBO together with MAVO (''middelbaar algemeen voortgezet onderwijs'', intermediate general secondary education) changed to the current VMBO (''voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs'', preparatory intermediate vocational education).

===South Asia===
====India====
{{See also|Vocational education in India}}

In [[India]] vocational schools are mainly run by the government under the guidance of the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship. Courses offered by the Government of India are Udaan, Polytechnics, Parvaaz, National Rural Livelihood Mission, Industrial Training Institutes, Aajeevika mission of national rural livelihood, Craftsmen Training Scheme. The Skill India movement has empowered the standards of all these institutions. Apart from these the [[Central Board of Secondary Education|Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)]] has included many vocational subjects in their senior secondary education.

===East Asia===
====Japan====
In [[Japan]] vocational schools are known as {{Nihongo|''senmon gakkō''|専門学校}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbcjpn.jp/english/guidance/speciality.html|title=What is a Professional Training College (Senmon Gakko)?｜神奈川県川崎市の日本語学校｜（CBC）外語ビジネス専門学校（東京・横浜近郊）|website=www.cbcjpn.jp|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701002720/http://www.cbcjpn.jp/english/guidance/speciality.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They are a part of Japan's [[higher education]] system. There are two-year schools that many students study at after finishing high school (although it is not always required that students graduate from high school). Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Some examples are [[computer technology]], [[fashion]] and [[English language|English]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Education}}
* {{annotated link|Vocational university}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.career.org/ Career College Association website]
* Barry Yeoman, [http://www.barryyeoman.com/articles/scamschools.html Scam Schools], ''Good Housekeeping''
* [http://www.acteonline.org Association of Career and Technical Education (ACTE)]
* [https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/grntprgm.html Paying for Vocational School]
* [https://bluecollarbrain.com/questions-vocational-school/ Questions to Ask a Vocational School],''Blue Collar Brain''

{{Employment}}
{{Schools}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Educational stages]]
[[Category:School systems]]
[[Category:Tertiary education]]
[[Category:Types of university or college]]
[[Category:Types of vocational school]]
[[Category:Vocational schools|*]]

Vocational school

2024-12-07T14:40:03Z

Amherst99: /* University Technical Institutes or IUT */

{{short description|Higher-level learning institution providing education needed for specific occupations}}
{{redirect|Career center|other uses|Career center (disambiguation)}}
{{confused|Training centre (disambiguation){{!}}training centre}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2013}}
[[File:Fsg wickersdorf tischlerei.jpg|thumb|Students in a carpentry trade school learning woodworking skills, {{c.|1920}}]]
[[File:Dongping County Vocational Secondary School 02.jpg|thumb|Dongping County Vocational Secondary School, China]]

A '''vocational school''', (alternatively known as a '''trade school''', or '''technical school''') is a type of educational institution, which, depending on the country, may refer to either [[secondary education#List of tech ed skills|secondary]] or [[post-secondary]] education<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/95024-2.asp|title=Vocational Education in the US|website=nces.ed.gov|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102252/https://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/95024-2.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> designed to provide [[vocational education]] or [[Technology education#List of tech ed skills|technical skills]] required to complete the tasks of a particular and specific job. In the case of secondary education, these schools differ from academic high schools which usually prepare students who aim to pursue tertiary education, rather than enter directly into the workforce. With regard to post-secondary education, vocational schools are traditionally distinguished from four-year [[colleges]] by their focus on job-specific training to students who are typically bound for one of the [[skilled trade]]s,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.adeccousa.com/employers/resources/skilled-trades-in-demand/|title=Skilled Trades in Demand (Infographic)|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074256/https://www.adeccousa.com/employers/resources/skilled-trades-in-demand/|url-status=live}}</ref> rather than providing academic training for students pursuing careers in a [[professional]] discipline. While many schools have largely adhered to this convention, the purely vocational focus of other trade schools began to shift in the 1990s "toward a broader preparation that develops the academic" as well as the technical skills of their students.<ref>{{cite news | title=Information Literacy in Vocational Education: A Course Model | date=2 Sep 2006 | publisher=White-Clouds.com | url=http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl23XLH.htm | access-date=28 August 2007 | archive-date=25 July 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725164223/http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl23XLH.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Terminology==
[[File:Диплом о среднем профобразовании. Россия. 2021 год.jpg|thumb|Diploma of secondary vocational education in Russia]]
This type of institution may also be called a '''trade school''', '''career center''', '''career college''', or '''vocational college'''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://study.com/vocational_schools.html |title=What are Vocational Schools? |website=Study.com |access-date=2018-06-29 |archive-date=2018-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074417/https://study.com/vocational_schools.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==By Region==
===Oceania===
====Australia====
Vocational schools were called "technical colleges" in Australia,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/what-to-study-in-australia/types-of-education/technical-and-further-education|title=Technical and Further Education (TAFE) {{!}} Study in Australia|work=Studies in Australia|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074201/https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/what-to-study-in-australia/types-of-education/technical-and-further-education|url-status=live}}</ref> and there were more than 20 schools specializing in vocational educational training (VET).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dtwd.wa.gov.au/training/vocational-education-and-training|title=Vocational education and training {{!}} Department of Training and Workforce Development|website=www.dtwd.wa.gov.au|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074348/http://www.dtwd.wa.gov.au/training/vocational-education-and-training|url-status=live}}</ref> Only four technical colleges remain, and these are now referred to as "trade colleges". At these colleges, students complete a modified year 12 certificate and commence a school-based apprenticeship in a trade of their choice. There are two trade colleges in Queensland; Brisbane, the Gold Coast, [[Australian Industry Trade College]] and one in Adelaide, St. Patrick's Technical College, and another in Perth, Australian Trades College.

In Queensland, students can also undertake VET at private and public high schools instead of studying for their overall position (OP), which is a tertiary entrance score. However these students usually undertake more limited vocational education of one day per week whereas in the trade colleges the training is longer.

===North America===
====Canada====
[[File:West Park Secondary School (Toronto).jpg|thumb|left|[[West Park Secondary School]] in Toronto is an example. It was built in 1968 for students with slow learning or special needs.]]

Education in [[Canada]] is a provincial responsibility, and education evolved independently in each province, much like separate countries.
Vocational School is an old antiquated term that was previously used until the late 1960s when the education system evolved from basic primary education to include High School and then technical schools or colleges in the mid 1960s. In the past (pre mid 1960s) some provinces Vocational schools in Western Canada were sometimes called "[[college (Canada)|college]]s" in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vocationalschools.ca/|title=Canadian Vocational Schools & Training Programs|website=www.vocationalschools.ca|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814060134/https://www.vocationalschools.ca/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, a college may also refer to an institution that offers part of a university degree, or credits that may be transferred to a university.

In Ontario Technical schools like Central Technical School in Toronto, which was started in the late 1800s to train workers in the evening, eventually evolved into high schools when the education system was extended to the high school level. When the public education system was expanded in by the early 1920s high school level education was provided in Technical / Commercial Schools or Collegiate Institutes in a hybrid high school/ college level like situation. In [[Ontario]] prior to the mid 1960s a Vocational School was a trades or job training school that provided training in a very focused trades related area, and these were started in the early 1950s, and the few that existed were merged as departments of the Community colleges that were established starting in the mid 1960s .

Secondary schools had evolved into three separated streams: technical schools, commercial and collegiates (the academic schools). By the mid 1960s in suburban areas purpose built High Schools for slow learners or individuals that were being trained for jobs after high school was also termed "vocational schools". By the early late 1960s many of the technical and commercial school programs in large populated areas like around Toronto, were being merged or had purpose built combined schools were being built. While the schools still exist, the curriculum has changed so that no matter which type of school one attends, they can still attend any post-secondary institution and still study a variety of subjects and others (either academic or practical).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/secondary.html|title=Secondary Education|last=Ontario|first=Government of|website=www.edu.gov.on.ca|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625162006/http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/secondary.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In Ontario, the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities divided post-secondary education into universities, community colleges and private career colleges.

In the Province of Quebec, there are some vocational programs offered at institutions called [[CEGEP]]s (''collège d'enseignement général et professionnel''),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mcgill.ca/applying/requirements/qc|title=Quebec CEGEPs, colleges and high schools|website=Applying to Undergraduate Studies|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074331/https://www.mcgill.ca/applying/requirements/qc|url-status=live}}</ref> but these too may function as an introduction to university. Generally, students complete two years at a CEGEP directly out of high school, and then complete three years at a university (rather than the usual four), to earn an undergraduate degree. Alternatively, some CEGEPs offer vocational training, but it is more likely that vocational training will be found at institutions separate from academic institutions, though they may still be called colleges. Although many (if not most) vocational programs are in high school.

====United States====
{{Main|Vocational education in the United States}}
{{See also|Tech certificate|Tech ed}}

In the [[United States]], there is a very large difference between career college and vocational college. The term ''career college'' is generally reserved for post-secondary for-profit institutions. Conversely, vocational schools are government-owned or at least government-supported institutions, requiring two full years of study, and their credits are usually accepted elsewhere in the academic world. In some instances, [[charter school|charter academies]] or [[magnet school]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://magnet.edu/about/what-are-magnet-schools|title=What are Magnet Schools – Magnet Schools of America|last=America|first=Magnet Schools of|website=Magnet.edu|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074259/http://magnet.edu/about/what-are-magnet-schools|url-status=live}}</ref> may take the place of the final years of [[high school]]. Additionally, most schools offer off-campus buildings, or partner with vocational schools in order for students to gain a certificate, as well as gaining the needed credit to graduate. With the dual enrollment, the student would graduate with both their high school diploma, as well as their vocational certificate.

[[File:ITT Technical Institute campus Canton Michigan.JPG|thumb|Educational institution of this type in [[Canton, Michigan|Canton]], [[Michigan]], United States]]

Career colleges on the other hand are generally not government supported in any capacity, occupy periods of study less than a year, and their training and certifications are rarely recognized by the larger academic world. In addition, as most career colleges are [[private school]]s, this group may be further subdivided into non-profit schools and proprietary schools, operated for the sole economic benefit of their owners.

As a result of this emphasis on the commercialization of education, a widespread poor reputation for quality was retained by a great number of career colleges for over promising what the job prospects for their graduates would be in their field of study upon completion of their program, and for emphasizing the number of careers from which a student could choose.

Even though the popularity of career colleges has exploded in recent years, the number of government-sponsored vocational schools in the United States has decreased significantly.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/business/vocational-schools-face-deep-cuts-in-federal-funding.html|title=Vocational Schools Face Deep Cuts in Federal Funding|last=Rich|first=Motoko|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=9 July 2011 |access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629081447/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/business/vocational-schools-face-deep-cuts-in-federal-funding.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Association for Career and Technical Education]] (ACTE) is the largest American national education association dedicated to the advancement of career and technical education or vocational education that prepares youth and adults for careers.

Earlier vocational schools such as the [[California Institute of Technology]]<ref>{{cite web |first=Judith |last=Goodstein |author-link=Judith R. Goodstein |date=1998-06-29 |title=History of Caltech |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/goodstein/index.html |website=NobelPrize.org |access-date=2007-11-19 |archive-date=2007-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030093148/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/goodstein/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Carnegie Mellon University]] have gone on to become full degree-granting institutions.

===Central and Eastern Europe===
{{main|Education in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Vrapice CZ vocational school 008.jpg|thumb|Vrapice Vocational School, Czech Republic]]
[[File:Dózsa György iskola, Martinovics Ignác utca, 2019 Kalocsa.jpg|thumb|György Dózsa Vocational Secondary School, Kalocsa, Hungary]]

In [[Central and Eastern Europe]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/latest/news/vocational-education-and-train.htm|title=Vocational Education and Training throughout Europe|website=www.schooleducationgateway.eu|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2020-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230034604/https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/latest/news/vocational-education-and-train.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> vocational education is represented in the forms of (professional) [[Professional technical school|vocational technical school]]s often abbreviated as PTU, technical colleges (technikum) and technical high school.
;Vocational school (college)
Vocational school or vocational college is considered a post-secondary education type school, but combines the coursework of a [[high school]] and [[junior college]] stretching for six years. In Ukraine, the term is used mostly for sports schools sometimes interchangeably with the term college. Such college could be a separate entity or a branch of bigger university. Successful graduates receive a [[specialist degree]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reimers |first=Fernando M. |title=Audacious Education Purposes. How Governments Transform the Goals of Education Systems |publisher=SpringerOpen}}</ref>
;PTU
{{main|Professional technical school}}
PTUs are usually preparatory [[vocational education]] and are equivalent to the general education of the third degree in the former Soviet education, providing a lower level of vocational education (apprenticeship). It could be compared to a trade [[high school]]. In the 1920-30s, such PTUs were called schools of factory and plant apprenticeship, and later 1940s - vocational schools. Sometime after 1959, the name PTU was established, however, with the reorganization of the Soviet educational system these vocational schools were renamed into lyceums. There were several types of PTUs such as middle city PTU and rural PTU.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVocational6technicalschools.htm|title=Vocational-technical schools|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074400/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVocational6technicalschools.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
;Technicum
{{main|Tekhnikum|Technikum (Polish education)}}
Technical college (technicum) is becoming an obsolete term for a college in different parts of Central and Eastern Europe. Technicums<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCCIJf-yhIC&q=Technicums&pg=PA69|title=Educational Reform in Post-Soviet Russia: Legacies and Prospects|last1=Eklof|first1=Ben|last2=Holmes|first2=Larry Eugene|last3=Kaplan|first3=Vera|date=2005|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780714657059|access-date=2020-11-22|archive-date=2022-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718182218/https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCCIJf-yhIC&q=Technicums&pg=PA69|url-status=live}}</ref> provided a middle level of vocational education. Aside of technicums and PTU there also were vocational schools ([[Russian language|Russian]]: профессиональные училища) that also provided a middle level of vocational education. In 1920-30s Ukraine, technicums were a (technical) vocational [[institute]]s, however, during the 1930-32s Soviet educational reform they were degraded in their accreditation.
;Institute
Institutes were considered a higher level of education; however, unlike universities, they were more oriented to a particular trade. With the reorganization of the Soviet education system, most institutes have been renamed as technical universities.

===Southeast Europe===
In ex-Yugoslavian countries (Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro and North Macedonia) there are technical high schools that can have three or four years courses. If a person finishes three year course he will get a trade degree, or a technician degree if he finishes four. After technical high school a person can go to university. In Croatia there are two types of universities where people can continue their education: Classical universities (sveučilište) and Universities of applied sciences (veleučilište). In Universities of applied sciences, after three years students get a bachelors degree like in classical university, and after 5 years they get a professional specialist degree.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}

====Greece====
In [[Greece]] vocational school is known as Vocational Lyceum (2006–Present), it was named Technical Vocational Lyceum (1985–1998). It is an upper secondary education school (high school) of Greece, with a three-year duration. Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Vocational majors are in Electrical Installation, Electronics and Automation, Meganotronics, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Cooling, Nursing, Hairdressing, Graphic Design, Food Technology, Dental Technology, Aesthetic and Makeup, and others.

===Western and Northern Europe===
==== Finland ====
{{See also|Education in Finland}}
[[File:JAMI Lappajärvi 2015-06-18.JPG|thumb|Vocational school in [[Lappajärvi]], Finland]]

The Finnish system is divided between vocational and academic paths.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/finland-education-school-2011-12|title=26 Amazing Facts About Finland's Unorthodox Education System|work=Business Insider|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074354/http://www.businessinsider.com/finland-education-school-2011-12|url-status=live}}</ref> Currently about 47 percent of Finnish students at age 16 go to vocational school. The vocational school is a secondary school for ages 16–21, and prepares the students for entering the workforce. The curriculum includes little academic general education, while the practical skills of each trade are stressed. The education is divided into eight main categories with a total of about 50 trades. The basic categories of education are
* Humanist and educational branch (typical trade: youth- and free-time director)
* Cultural branch (typical trade: artisan, media-assistant)
* The branch of social sciences, business and merchandise (typical trade: vocational qualification in business and administration ({{langx|fi|merkonomi}}))
* Natural science (typical trade: IT worker ({{langx|fi|datanomi}}))
* Technology and traffic (typical trades: machinist, electrician, process worker)
* The branch of natural resources and environment (typical trade: rural entrepreneur, forest worker)
* The branch of social work, health care and physical exercise (typical trade: practical nurse ({{langx|fi|lähihoitaja}}))
* The branch of travel, catering and domestic economics (typical trade: institutional catering worker)

The vocational schools are usually owned by the municipalities, but in special cases, private or state vocational schools exist. The state grants aid to all vocational schools on the same basis, regardless of the owner. On the other hand, the vocational schools are not allowed to operate for profit. The Ministry of Education issues licences to provide vocational education. In the licence, the municipality or a private entity is given permission to train a yearly quota of students for specific trades. The licence also specifies the area where the school must be located and the languages used in the education.

The vocational school students are selected by the schools on the basis of criteria set by the Ministry of Education. The basic qualification for the study is completed nine-year comprehensive school. Anyone may seek admission in any vocational school regardless of their domicile. In certain trades, bad health or invalidity may be acceptable grounds for refusing admission. The students do not pay tuition and they must be provided with health care and a free daily school lunch. Tools and practice material are provided to the students for free. Any necessary books are also free for all students born during or after 2005.

In tertiary education, there are higher vocational schools (''[[ammattikorkeakoulu]]'' which is translated to "polytechnic" or "university of applied sciences"), which give three- to four-year degrees in more involved fields, like engineering (see [[insinööri (amk)]]) and nursing. Having a vocational degree also qualifies a person to apply to a university.<ref>[https://www.infofinland.fi/en/education/applying-for-education-and-training Applying for education and training]</ref>

In contrast to the vocational school, an academically orientated upper secondary school, or senior high school ({{langx|fi|lukio}}) teaches no vocational skills. It prepares students for entering the university or a higher vocational school.

==== France ====

===== ''Lycée Professionnel'' =====
{{See also|Secondary education in France}}
In France, the [[lycée professionnel|''lycée professionnel'']] (LP, formerly known as a ''lycée d'enseignement professionnel'' (LEP)) grants a ''baccalauréat professionnel'' for students who do not plan to continue into higher education. Nearly 100 specialties are covered.

===== University Technical Institutes or ''IUT'' =====
{{See also|Higher education in France}}
In France, at [[post-secondary]] level, there are also [[University technical institute (France)|university technical institutes]] (in French: "''instituts universitaires de technologie''") offering vocational [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor's degrees]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=IUT (University Technical Institute) |url=https://www.centpourcent-normandie.fr/en/100normandie/education-and-training/iut-university-technical-institute/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie Caen Normandie |language=en-GB}}</ref>

====Ireland====
{{See also|Education in the Republic of Ireland}}

A vocational school in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] is a type of [[secondary education]] school<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/|title=Irish Education System|work=Department of Education and Skills|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102244/https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/|url-status=live}}</ref> which places a large emphasis on [[vocational education|vocational]] and [[technical education]]; this led to some conflict in the 1960s when the [[Institutes of Technology in Ireland|Regional Technical College]] system<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/regional-technical-college-in-cork-is-upgraded-to-institute-1.123679|title=Regional technical college in Cork is upgraded to institute|newspaper=The Irish Times|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2021-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728212514/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/regional-technical-college-in-cork-is-upgraded-to-institute-1.123679|url-status=live}}</ref> was in development. Since 2013 the schools have been managed by [[Education and Training Board]]s, which replaced [[Vocational Education Committee]]s which were largely based on [[Cities in Ireland|city]] or [[Counties of Ireland|county]] boundaries. Establishment of the schools is largely provided by the state; funding is through the block grant system providing about 90% of necessary funding requirements.

Vocational schools typically have [[further education]] courses in addition to the traditional courses at secondary level. For instance, post [[Irish Leaving Certificate|leaving certificate]] courses which are intended for school leavers and pre-[[tertiary education|third level]] education students.

Until the 1970s the vocational schools were seen as inferior to the other schools then available in Ireland. This was mainly because traditional courses such as the leaving certificate were not available at the schools, however this changed with the ''Investment in Education'' (1962) report which resulted in an upgrade in their status. Currently about 24% of secondary education students attend these schools.

====Netherlands====
{{See also|Education in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Ambachtsschool1.JPG|thumb|''Ambachtschool'']]

In the Middle Ages boys learned a vocation through an [[apprenticeship]]. They were usually 10 years old when they entered service, and were first called ''leerling'' ([[apprentice]]), then ''gezel'' ([[journeyman]]) and after an exam - sometimes with an example of workmanship called a ''meesterproef'' ([[masterpiece]]) - they were called ''meester'' ([[master craftsman]]). In 1795, all of the [[guilds]] in the Netherlands were disbanded by [[Napoleon]], and with them the guild vocational schooling system. After the French occupation, in the 1820s, the need for quality education caused more and more cities to form day and evening schools for various trades.
In 1854, the society ''Maatschappij tot verbetering van den werkenden stand'' (society to improve the working class) was founded in Amsterdam, that changed its name in 1861 to the ''Maatschappij voor de Werkende Stand'' (Society for the working class). This society started the first public vocational school (''[[Ambachtschool (Amsterdam)|De Ambachtsschool]]'') in [[Amsterdam]], and many cities followed. At first only for boys, later the ''Huishoudschool'' (housekeeping) was introduced as vocational schooling for girls. Housekeeping education began in 1888 with the [[Haagsche Kookschool]] in [[The Hague]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nuffic.nl/en/study-and-work-in-holland/dutch-education-system/vocational-education-and-training-vet|title=Vocational education and training (VET) — Nuffic English|website=www.nuffic.nl|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074340/https://www.nuffic.nl/en/study-and-work-in-holland/dutch-education-system/vocational-education-and-training-vet|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1968 the ''[[Mammoetwet]]'' law<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/mammoetwet-van-1968|title=Mammoetwet van 1968|date=2012-06-14|work=IsGeschiedenis|access-date=2018-06-29|language=nl|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102259/https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/mammoetwet-van-1968|url-status=live}}</ref> changed all of this, effectively dissolving the Ambachtsschool and the Huishoudschool. The name was changed to LTS (''lagere technische school'', lower technical school), where mainly boys went because of its technical nature, and the other option, where most girls went, was LBO (''lager beroepsonderwijs'', lower vocational education). In 1992 both LTS and LBO changed to VBO (''voorbereidend beroepsonderwijs'', preparatory vocational education) and since 1999 VBO together with MAVO (''middelbaar algemeen voortgezet onderwijs'', intermediate general secondary education) changed to the current VMBO (''voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs'', preparatory intermediate vocational education).

===South Asia===
====India====
{{See also|Vocational education in India}}

In [[India]] vocational schools are mainly run by the government under the guidance of the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship. Courses offered by the Government of India are Udaan, Polytechnics, Parvaaz, National Rural Livelihood Mission, Industrial Training Institutes, Aajeevika mission of national rural livelihood, Craftsmen Training Scheme. The Skill India movement has empowered the standards of all these institutions. Apart from these the [[Central Board of Secondary Education|Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)]] has included many vocational subjects in their senior secondary education.

===East Asia===
====Japan====
In [[Japan]] vocational schools are known as {{Nihongo|''senmon gakkō''|専門学校}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbcjpn.jp/english/guidance/speciality.html|title=What is a Professional Training College (Senmon Gakko)?｜神奈川県川崎市の日本語学校｜（CBC）外語ビジネス専門学校（東京・横浜近郊）|website=www.cbcjpn.jp|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701002720/http://www.cbcjpn.jp/english/guidance/speciality.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They are a part of Japan's [[higher education]] system. There are two-year schools that many students study at after finishing high school (although it is not always required that students graduate from high school). Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Some examples are [[computer technology]], [[fashion]] and [[English language|English]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Education}}
* {{annotated link|Vocational university}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.career.org/ Career College Association website]
* Barry Yeoman, [http://www.barryyeoman.com/articles/scamschools.html Scam Schools], ''Good Housekeeping''
* [http://www.acteonline.org Association of Career and Technical Education (ACTE)]
* [https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/grntprgm.html Paying for Vocational School]
* [https://bluecollarbrain.com/questions-vocational-school/ Questions to Ask a Vocational School],''Blue Collar Brain''

{{Employment}}
{{Schools}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Educational stages]]
[[Category:School systems]]
[[Category:Tertiary education]]
[[Category:Types of university or college]]
[[Category:Types of vocational school]]
[[Category:Vocational schools|*]]

Vocational school

2024-12-07T14:39:17Z

Amherst99: /* University Technical Institutes or IUT */

{{short description|Higher-level learning institution providing education needed for specific occupations}}
{{redirect|Career center|other uses|Career center (disambiguation)}}
{{confused|Training centre (disambiguation){{!}}training centre}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2013}}
[[File:Fsg wickersdorf tischlerei.jpg|thumb|Students in a carpentry trade school learning woodworking skills, {{c.|1920}}]]
[[File:Dongping County Vocational Secondary School 02.jpg|thumb|Dongping County Vocational Secondary School, China]]

A '''vocational school''', (alternatively known as a '''trade school''', or '''technical school''') is a type of educational institution, which, depending on the country, may refer to either [[secondary education#List of tech ed skills|secondary]] or [[post-secondary]] education<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/95024-2.asp|title=Vocational Education in the US|website=nces.ed.gov|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102252/https://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/95024-2.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> designed to provide [[vocational education]] or [[Technology education#List of tech ed skills|technical skills]] required to complete the tasks of a particular and specific job. In the case of secondary education, these schools differ from academic high schools which usually prepare students who aim to pursue tertiary education, rather than enter directly into the workforce. With regard to post-secondary education, vocational schools are traditionally distinguished from four-year [[colleges]] by their focus on job-specific training to students who are typically bound for one of the [[skilled trade]]s,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.adeccousa.com/employers/resources/skilled-trades-in-demand/|title=Skilled Trades in Demand (Infographic)|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074256/https://www.adeccousa.com/employers/resources/skilled-trades-in-demand/|url-status=live}}</ref> rather than providing academic training for students pursuing careers in a [[professional]] discipline. While many schools have largely adhered to this convention, the purely vocational focus of other trade schools began to shift in the 1990s "toward a broader preparation that develops the academic" as well as the technical skills of their students.<ref>{{cite news | title=Information Literacy in Vocational Education: A Course Model | date=2 Sep 2006 | publisher=White-Clouds.com | url=http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl23XLH.htm | access-date=28 August 2007 | archive-date=25 July 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725164223/http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl23XLH.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Terminology==
[[File:Диплом о среднем профобразовании. Россия. 2021 год.jpg|thumb|Diploma of secondary vocational education in Russia]]
This type of institution may also be called a '''trade school''', '''career center''', '''career college''', or '''vocational college'''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://study.com/vocational_schools.html |title=What are Vocational Schools? |website=Study.com |access-date=2018-06-29 |archive-date=2018-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074417/https://study.com/vocational_schools.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==By Region==
===Oceania===
====Australia====
Vocational schools were called "technical colleges" in Australia,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/what-to-study-in-australia/types-of-education/technical-and-further-education|title=Technical and Further Education (TAFE) {{!}} Study in Australia|work=Studies in Australia|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074201/https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/what-to-study-in-australia/types-of-education/technical-and-further-education|url-status=live}}</ref> and there were more than 20 schools specializing in vocational educational training (VET).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dtwd.wa.gov.au/training/vocational-education-and-training|title=Vocational education and training {{!}} Department of Training and Workforce Development|website=www.dtwd.wa.gov.au|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074348/http://www.dtwd.wa.gov.au/training/vocational-education-and-training|url-status=live}}</ref> Only four technical colleges remain, and these are now referred to as "trade colleges". At these colleges, students complete a modified year 12 certificate and commence a school-based apprenticeship in a trade of their choice. There are two trade colleges in Queensland; Brisbane, the Gold Coast, [[Australian Industry Trade College]] and one in Adelaide, St. Patrick's Technical College, and another in Perth, Australian Trades College.

In Queensland, students can also undertake VET at private and public high schools instead of studying for their overall position (OP), which is a tertiary entrance score. However these students usually undertake more limited vocational education of one day per week whereas in the trade colleges the training is longer.

===North America===
====Canada====
[[File:West Park Secondary School (Toronto).jpg|thumb|left|[[West Park Secondary School]] in Toronto is an example. It was built in 1968 for students with slow learning or special needs.]]

Education in [[Canada]] is a provincial responsibility, and education evolved independently in each province, much like separate countries.
Vocational School is an old antiquated term that was previously used until the late 1960s when the education system evolved from basic primary education to include High School and then technical schools or colleges in the mid 1960s. In the past (pre mid 1960s) some provinces Vocational schools in Western Canada were sometimes called "[[college (Canada)|college]]s" in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vocationalschools.ca/|title=Canadian Vocational Schools & Training Programs|website=www.vocationalschools.ca|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814060134/https://www.vocationalschools.ca/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, a college may also refer to an institution that offers part of a university degree, or credits that may be transferred to a university.

In Ontario Technical schools like Central Technical School in Toronto, which was started in the late 1800s to train workers in the evening, eventually evolved into high schools when the education system was extended to the high school level. When the public education system was expanded in by the early 1920s high school level education was provided in Technical / Commercial Schools or Collegiate Institutes in a hybrid high school/ college level like situation. In [[Ontario]] prior to the mid 1960s a Vocational School was a trades or job training school that provided training in a very focused trades related area, and these were started in the early 1950s, and the few that existed were merged as departments of the Community colleges that were established starting in the mid 1960s .

Secondary schools had evolved into three separated streams: technical schools, commercial and collegiates (the academic schools). By the mid 1960s in suburban areas purpose built High Schools for slow learners or individuals that were being trained for jobs after high school was also termed "vocational schools". By the early late 1960s many of the technical and commercial school programs in large populated areas like around Toronto, were being merged or had purpose built combined schools were being built. While the schools still exist, the curriculum has changed so that no matter which type of school one attends, they can still attend any post-secondary institution and still study a variety of subjects and others (either academic or practical).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/secondary.html|title=Secondary Education|last=Ontario|first=Government of|website=www.edu.gov.on.ca|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625162006/http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/secondary.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In Ontario, the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities divided post-secondary education into universities, community colleges and private career colleges.

In the Province of Quebec, there are some vocational programs offered at institutions called [[CEGEP]]s (''collège d'enseignement général et professionnel''),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mcgill.ca/applying/requirements/qc|title=Quebec CEGEPs, colleges and high schools|website=Applying to Undergraduate Studies|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074331/https://www.mcgill.ca/applying/requirements/qc|url-status=live}}</ref> but these too may function as an introduction to university. Generally, students complete two years at a CEGEP directly out of high school, and then complete three years at a university (rather than the usual four), to earn an undergraduate degree. Alternatively, some CEGEPs offer vocational training, but it is more likely that vocational training will be found at institutions separate from academic institutions, though they may still be called colleges. Although many (if not most) vocational programs are in high school.

====United States====
{{Main|Vocational education in the United States}}
{{See also|Tech certificate|Tech ed}}

In the [[United States]], there is a very large difference between career college and vocational college. The term ''career college'' is generally reserved for post-secondary for-profit institutions. Conversely, vocational schools are government-owned or at least government-supported institutions, requiring two full years of study, and their credits are usually accepted elsewhere in the academic world. In some instances, [[charter school|charter academies]] or [[magnet school]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://magnet.edu/about/what-are-magnet-schools|title=What are Magnet Schools – Magnet Schools of America|last=America|first=Magnet Schools of|website=Magnet.edu|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074259/http://magnet.edu/about/what-are-magnet-schools|url-status=live}}</ref> may take the place of the final years of [[high school]]. Additionally, most schools offer off-campus buildings, or partner with vocational schools in order for students to gain a certificate, as well as gaining the needed credit to graduate. With the dual enrollment, the student would graduate with both their high school diploma, as well as their vocational certificate.

[[File:ITT Technical Institute campus Canton Michigan.JPG|thumb|Educational institution of this type in [[Canton, Michigan|Canton]], [[Michigan]], United States]]

Career colleges on the other hand are generally not government supported in any capacity, occupy periods of study less than a year, and their training and certifications are rarely recognized by the larger academic world. In addition, as most career colleges are [[private school]]s, this group may be further subdivided into non-profit schools and proprietary schools, operated for the sole economic benefit of their owners.

As a result of this emphasis on the commercialization of education, a widespread poor reputation for quality was retained by a great number of career colleges for over promising what the job prospects for their graduates would be in their field of study upon completion of their program, and for emphasizing the number of careers from which a student could choose.

Even though the popularity of career colleges has exploded in recent years, the number of government-sponsored vocational schools in the United States has decreased significantly.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/business/vocational-schools-face-deep-cuts-in-federal-funding.html|title=Vocational Schools Face Deep Cuts in Federal Funding|last=Rich|first=Motoko|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=9 July 2011 |access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629081447/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/business/vocational-schools-face-deep-cuts-in-federal-funding.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Association for Career and Technical Education]] (ACTE) is the largest American national education association dedicated to the advancement of career and technical education or vocational education that prepares youth and adults for careers.

Earlier vocational schools such as the [[California Institute of Technology]]<ref>{{cite web |first=Judith |last=Goodstein |author-link=Judith R. Goodstein |date=1998-06-29 |title=History of Caltech |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/goodstein/index.html |website=NobelPrize.org |access-date=2007-11-19 |archive-date=2007-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030093148/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/goodstein/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Carnegie Mellon University]] have gone on to become full degree-granting institutions.

===Central and Eastern Europe===
{{main|Education in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Vrapice CZ vocational school 008.jpg|thumb|Vrapice Vocational School, Czech Republic]]
[[File:Dózsa György iskola, Martinovics Ignác utca, 2019 Kalocsa.jpg|thumb|György Dózsa Vocational Secondary School, Kalocsa, Hungary]]

In [[Central and Eastern Europe]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/latest/news/vocational-education-and-train.htm|title=Vocational Education and Training throughout Europe|website=www.schooleducationgateway.eu|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2020-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230034604/https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/latest/news/vocational-education-and-train.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> vocational education is represented in the forms of (professional) [[Professional technical school|vocational technical school]]s often abbreviated as PTU, technical colleges (technikum) and technical high school.
;Vocational school (college)
Vocational school or vocational college is considered a post-secondary education type school, but combines the coursework of a [[high school]] and [[junior college]] stretching for six years. In Ukraine, the term is used mostly for sports schools sometimes interchangeably with the term college. Such college could be a separate entity or a branch of bigger university. Successful graduates receive a [[specialist degree]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reimers |first=Fernando M. |title=Audacious Education Purposes. How Governments Transform the Goals of Education Systems |publisher=SpringerOpen}}</ref>
;PTU
{{main|Professional technical school}}
PTUs are usually preparatory [[vocational education]] and are equivalent to the general education of the third degree in the former Soviet education, providing a lower level of vocational education (apprenticeship). It could be compared to a trade [[high school]]. In the 1920-30s, such PTUs were called schools of factory and plant apprenticeship, and later 1940s - vocational schools. Sometime after 1959, the name PTU was established, however, with the reorganization of the Soviet educational system these vocational schools were renamed into lyceums. There were several types of PTUs such as middle city PTU and rural PTU.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVocational6technicalschools.htm|title=Vocational-technical schools|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074400/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVocational6technicalschools.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
;Technicum
{{main|Tekhnikum|Technikum (Polish education)}}
Technical college (technicum) is becoming an obsolete term for a college in different parts of Central and Eastern Europe. Technicums<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCCIJf-yhIC&q=Technicums&pg=PA69|title=Educational Reform in Post-Soviet Russia: Legacies and Prospects|last1=Eklof|first1=Ben|last2=Holmes|first2=Larry Eugene|last3=Kaplan|first3=Vera|date=2005|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780714657059|access-date=2020-11-22|archive-date=2022-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718182218/https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCCIJf-yhIC&q=Technicums&pg=PA69|url-status=live}}</ref> provided a middle level of vocational education. Aside of technicums and PTU there also were vocational schools ([[Russian language|Russian]]: профессиональные училища) that also provided a middle level of vocational education. In 1920-30s Ukraine, technicums were a (technical) vocational [[institute]]s, however, during the 1930-32s Soviet educational reform they were degraded in their accreditation.
;Institute
Institutes were considered a higher level of education; however, unlike universities, they were more oriented to a particular trade. With the reorganization of the Soviet education system, most institutes have been renamed as technical universities.

===Southeast Europe===
In ex-Yugoslavian countries (Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro and North Macedonia) there are technical high schools that can have three or four years courses. If a person finishes three year course he will get a trade degree, or a technician degree if he finishes four. After technical high school a person can go to university. In Croatia there are two types of universities where people can continue their education: Classical universities (sveučilište) and Universities of applied sciences (veleučilište). In Universities of applied sciences, after three years students get a bachelors degree like in classical university, and after 5 years they get a professional specialist degree.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}

====Greece====
In [[Greece]] vocational school is known as Vocational Lyceum (2006–Present), it was named Technical Vocational Lyceum (1985–1998). It is an upper secondary education school (high school) of Greece, with a three-year duration. Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Vocational majors are in Electrical Installation, Electronics and Automation, Meganotronics, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Cooling, Nursing, Hairdressing, Graphic Design, Food Technology, Dental Technology, Aesthetic and Makeup, and others.

===Western and Northern Europe===
==== Finland ====
{{See also|Education in Finland}}
[[File:JAMI Lappajärvi 2015-06-18.JPG|thumb|Vocational school in [[Lappajärvi]], Finland]]

The Finnish system is divided between vocational and academic paths.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/finland-education-school-2011-12|title=26 Amazing Facts About Finland's Unorthodox Education System|work=Business Insider|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074354/http://www.businessinsider.com/finland-education-school-2011-12|url-status=live}}</ref> Currently about 47 percent of Finnish students at age 16 go to vocational school. The vocational school is a secondary school for ages 16–21, and prepares the students for entering the workforce. The curriculum includes little academic general education, while the practical skills of each trade are stressed. The education is divided into eight main categories with a total of about 50 trades. The basic categories of education are
* Humanist and educational branch (typical trade: youth- and free-time director)
* Cultural branch (typical trade: artisan, media-assistant)
* The branch of social sciences, business and merchandise (typical trade: vocational qualification in business and administration ({{langx|fi|merkonomi}}))
* Natural science (typical trade: IT worker ({{langx|fi|datanomi}}))
* Technology and traffic (typical trades: machinist, electrician, process worker)
* The branch of natural resources and environment (typical trade: rural entrepreneur, forest worker)
* The branch of social work, health care and physical exercise (typical trade: practical nurse ({{langx|fi|lähihoitaja}}))
* The branch of travel, catering and domestic economics (typical trade: institutional catering worker)

The vocational schools are usually owned by the municipalities, but in special cases, private or state vocational schools exist. The state grants aid to all vocational schools on the same basis, regardless of the owner. On the other hand, the vocational schools are not allowed to operate for profit. The Ministry of Education issues licences to provide vocational education. In the licence, the municipality or a private entity is given permission to train a yearly quota of students for specific trades. The licence also specifies the area where the school must be located and the languages used in the education.

The vocational school students are selected by the schools on the basis of criteria set by the Ministry of Education. The basic qualification for the study is completed nine-year comprehensive school. Anyone may seek admission in any vocational school regardless of their domicile. In certain trades, bad health or invalidity may be acceptable grounds for refusing admission. The students do not pay tuition and they must be provided with health care and a free daily school lunch. Tools and practice material are provided to the students for free. Any necessary books are also free for all students born during or after 2005.

In tertiary education, there are higher vocational schools (''[[ammattikorkeakoulu]]'' which is translated to "polytechnic" or "university of applied sciences"), which give three- to four-year degrees in more involved fields, like engineering (see [[insinööri (amk)]]) and nursing. Having a vocational degree also qualifies a person to apply to a university.<ref>[https://www.infofinland.fi/en/education/applying-for-education-and-training Applying for education and training]</ref>

In contrast to the vocational school, an academically orientated upper secondary school, or senior high school ({{langx|fi|lukio}}) teaches no vocational skills. It prepares students for entering the university or a higher vocational school.

==== France ====

===== ''Lycée Professionnel'' =====
{{See also|Secondary education in France}}
In France, the [[lycée professionnel|''lycée professionnel'']] (LP, formerly known as a ''lycée d'enseignement professionnel'' (LEP)) grants a ''baccalauréat professionnel'' for students who do not plan to continue into higher education. Nearly 100 specialties are covered.

===== University Technical Institutes or ''IUT'' =====
{{See also|Higher education in France}}
In France, at [[post-secondary]] level, there are also [[University technical institute (France)|university technical institutes]] (in French: "''institut universitaire de technologie''") offering vocational [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor's degrees]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=IUT (University Technical Institute) |url=https://www.centpourcent-normandie.fr/en/100normandie/education-and-training/iut-university-technical-institute/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie Caen Normandie |language=en-GB}}</ref>

====Ireland====
{{See also|Education in the Republic of Ireland}}

A vocational school in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] is a type of [[secondary education]] school<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/|title=Irish Education System|work=Department of Education and Skills|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102244/https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/|url-status=live}}</ref> which places a large emphasis on [[vocational education|vocational]] and [[technical education]]; this led to some conflict in the 1960s when the [[Institutes of Technology in Ireland|Regional Technical College]] system<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/regional-technical-college-in-cork-is-upgraded-to-institute-1.123679|title=Regional technical college in Cork is upgraded to institute|newspaper=The Irish Times|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2021-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728212514/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/regional-technical-college-in-cork-is-upgraded-to-institute-1.123679|url-status=live}}</ref> was in development. Since 2013 the schools have been managed by [[Education and Training Board]]s, which replaced [[Vocational Education Committee]]s which were largely based on [[Cities in Ireland|city]] or [[Counties of Ireland|county]] boundaries. Establishment of the schools is largely provided by the state; funding is through the block grant system providing about 90% of necessary funding requirements.

Vocational schools typically have [[further education]] courses in addition to the traditional courses at secondary level. For instance, post [[Irish Leaving Certificate|leaving certificate]] courses which are intended for school leavers and pre-[[tertiary education|third level]] education students.

Until the 1970s the vocational schools were seen as inferior to the other schools then available in Ireland. This was mainly because traditional courses such as the leaving certificate were not available at the schools, however this changed with the ''Investment in Education'' (1962) report which resulted in an upgrade in their status. Currently about 24% of secondary education students attend these schools.

====Netherlands====
{{See also|Education in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Ambachtsschool1.JPG|thumb|''Ambachtschool'']]

In the Middle Ages boys learned a vocation through an [[apprenticeship]]. They were usually 10 years old when they entered service, and were first called ''leerling'' ([[apprentice]]), then ''gezel'' ([[journeyman]]) and after an exam - sometimes with an example of workmanship called a ''meesterproef'' ([[masterpiece]]) - they were called ''meester'' ([[master craftsman]]). In 1795, all of the [[guilds]] in the Netherlands were disbanded by [[Napoleon]], and with them the guild vocational schooling system. After the French occupation, in the 1820s, the need for quality education caused more and more cities to form day and evening schools for various trades.
In 1854, the society ''Maatschappij tot verbetering van den werkenden stand'' (society to improve the working class) was founded in Amsterdam, that changed its name in 1861 to the ''Maatschappij voor de Werkende Stand'' (Society for the working class). This society started the first public vocational school (''[[Ambachtschool (Amsterdam)|De Ambachtsschool]]'') in [[Amsterdam]], and many cities followed. At first only for boys, later the ''Huishoudschool'' (housekeeping) was introduced as vocational schooling for girls. Housekeeping education began in 1888 with the [[Haagsche Kookschool]] in [[The Hague]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nuffic.nl/en/study-and-work-in-holland/dutch-education-system/vocational-education-and-training-vet|title=Vocational education and training (VET) — Nuffic English|website=www.nuffic.nl|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074340/https://www.nuffic.nl/en/study-and-work-in-holland/dutch-education-system/vocational-education-and-training-vet|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1968 the ''[[Mammoetwet]]'' law<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/mammoetwet-van-1968|title=Mammoetwet van 1968|date=2012-06-14|work=IsGeschiedenis|access-date=2018-06-29|language=nl|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102259/https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/mammoetwet-van-1968|url-status=live}}</ref> changed all of this, effectively dissolving the Ambachtsschool and the Huishoudschool. The name was changed to LTS (''lagere technische school'', lower technical school), where mainly boys went because of its technical nature, and the other option, where most girls went, was LBO (''lager beroepsonderwijs'', lower vocational education). In 1992 both LTS and LBO changed to VBO (''voorbereidend beroepsonderwijs'', preparatory vocational education) and since 1999 VBO together with MAVO (''middelbaar algemeen voortgezet onderwijs'', intermediate general secondary education) changed to the current VMBO (''voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs'', preparatory intermediate vocational education).

===South Asia===
====India====
{{See also|Vocational education in India}}

In [[India]] vocational schools are mainly run by the government under the guidance of the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship. Courses offered by the Government of India are Udaan, Polytechnics, Parvaaz, National Rural Livelihood Mission, Industrial Training Institutes, Aajeevika mission of national rural livelihood, Craftsmen Training Scheme. The Skill India movement has empowered the standards of all these institutions. Apart from these the [[Central Board of Secondary Education|Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)]] has included many vocational subjects in their senior secondary education.

===East Asia===
====Japan====
In [[Japan]] vocational schools are known as {{Nihongo|''senmon gakkō''|専門学校}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbcjpn.jp/english/guidance/speciality.html|title=What is a Professional Training College (Senmon Gakko)?｜神奈川県川崎市の日本語学校｜（CBC）外語ビジネス専門学校（東京・横浜近郊）|website=www.cbcjpn.jp|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701002720/http://www.cbcjpn.jp/english/guidance/speciality.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They are a part of Japan's [[higher education]] system. There are two-year schools that many students study at after finishing high school (although it is not always required that students graduate from high school). Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Some examples are [[computer technology]], [[fashion]] and [[English language|English]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Education}}
* {{annotated link|Vocational university}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.career.org/ Career College Association website]
* Barry Yeoman, [http://www.barryyeoman.com/articles/scamschools.html Scam Schools], ''Good Housekeeping''
* [http://www.acteonline.org Association of Career and Technical Education (ACTE)]
* [https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/grntprgm.html Paying for Vocational School]
* [https://bluecollarbrain.com/questions-vocational-school/ Questions to Ask a Vocational School],''Blue Collar Brain''

{{Employment}}
{{Schools}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Educational stages]]
[[Category:School systems]]
[[Category:Tertiary education]]
[[Category:Types of university or college]]
[[Category:Types of vocational school]]
[[Category:Vocational schools|*]]

University technical institute (France)

2024-12-07T14:38:17Z

Amherst99:

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Other uses|IUT (disambiguation){{!}}IUT}}{{Confusion|Institute of technology|University technical college|University Institutes of Technology}}[[File:Vesoul Institut Universitaire de Technologie 3.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A University Technical Institute (''IUT'') in [[Vesoul]], France.]]
A '''university technical institute'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2022 |title=Université de Caen Normandie |url=https://www.campusfrance.org/system/files/medias/documents/2022-08/French%20HEIs%20ID.pdf |website=Campus France}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=IUT (University Technical Institute) |url=https://www.centpourcent-normandie.fr/en/100normandie/education-and-training/iut-university-technical-institute/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie Caen Normandie |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2022 |title=University of Angers, Main Programmes of Study |url=https://ressources.campusfrance.org/pratique/etablissements/en/univ_angers_en.pdf |website=Campus France}}</ref> or '''''IUT''''' ({{langx|fr|instituts universitaires de technologie}}) is a type of [[post-secondary]] [[vocational college]] in France, similar to the ''yrkeshögskolan'' in Sweden.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Higher Vocational Education (HVE) |url=https://www.yrkeshogskolan.se/in-english/ |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=Yrkeshögskolan |language=en}}</ref>

This is a type of educational institution, usually in small and medium-sized towns,<ref name=":0" /> that offers [[post-secondary]] study programmes designed to provide [[vocational education|higher vocational education]] or the technical skills needed to perform the tasks of a particular and specific job. While the [[International Standard Classification of Education|academic level]] is the same as a [[Licence (France)|bachelor's degree (''licence'')]], the programme is different, with much more practical work, projects, apprenticeships and work placements, unlike a traditional bachelor's degree.

Its main diploma, the ''[[bachelor universitaire de technologie]]'' (in [[English language|English]] "University Bachelor of Technical Studies"), is very similar to a [[Bachelor of Applied Science]].

The model of a university technical institute in France is similar to that of a [[university technical college]] in England or a [[post-secondary]] [[vocational school]]. Unlike them, a French university technical institute is attached to a university and offers programmes ranging from [[associate degree]]s to [[bachelor's degree]]s. University technical institutes have nothing in common with the [[Institute of technology|institutes of technology]] or ''Universités de Technologie'' in France, which are engineering schools.

== Description ==
The university technical institutes (''Institut Universitaire de Technologie, IUT'') were created in 1966. There are 108 IUTs which are attached to 80 universities including the ones in the French Overseas Territories and Departments.

Prior to 2021, a university technical institute (''IUT'') was known for offering [[Post-secondary|post-secondary studies]] lasting two to three years. It offered a diploma (the ''Diplôme universitaire de technologie'' or ''DUT'') with an academic level above that of a [[high school diploma]] but below that of a bachelor's degree. After finishing their ''DUT'', students had the option to work, do a one-year professional bachelor's degree called ''Licence Professionnelle'' (a course also offered by IUTs), or further their studies in a university. Since 2021, university technical institutes have been aligned with the [[bachelor's master's doctorate system]], with the degree being extended from two to three years and renamed "[[Bachelor of Technical Studies (France)|University Bachelor of Technical Studies]]" (''Bachelor Universitaire de Technologie'').

The university technical institute allow the preparation of a three-year career-focused vocational undergraduate diploma called ''[[Bachelor universitaire de technologie|Bachelor Universitaire de Technologie]]'', (in [[English language|English]]: "Bachelor of Technical Studies", the IUT diploma''.'' They are similar to [[associate degree]]s or the [[Higher National Diploma|BTEC Higher Nationals Diploma]]. After the three-year IUT diploma, students are expected to enter the job market. Some choose to continue their studies on a post-graduate course at university.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Professionalisation of studies: improvement and development of University Institutes of Technology |url=https://www.campusfrance.org/en/actu/professionnalisation-des-formations-renforcement-et-developpement-des-iut |access-date=2024-05-04 |website=Campus France |language=en}}</ref>

In France, university technical institutes generally bring university education to regions where no university exists. They are systematically attached to a large university, as a [[satellite campus]] located several kilometers away. Rural areas and small and medium-sized towns are home to short higher education programmes, such as university technical institutes, but also the ''Brevets de Technicien Supérieur'' in high schools.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Lauricella |first=Marie |date=June 2023 |title=L'inégale répartition territoriale des formations supérieures |url=https://veille-et-analyses.ens-lyon.fr/EB-Veille/Edubref-juin-2023.pdf |website=Institut Français de l'Éducation, ENS de Lyon}}</ref>

It is important to note that, contrary to what their name suggests in French, these IUTs are not [[Engineering education|engineering schools]] and are not authorised by the French State to award an [[engineering degree]] or a [[Bachelor of Technology]].

== List of university technical institutes ==

{| class="wikitable"
! Region !! University !! IUTs
|-
| rowspan="6" | [[Grand Est]]
| [[University of Upper Alsace]]
| IUT de Colmar
IUT de Mulhouse
|-
| [[University of Strasbourg]]
| IUT d'Haguenau
IUT d'Illkirch

IUT de Schiltigheim
|-
|[[University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne|University of Reims]]
|IUT de Reims
IUT de Troyes
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[University of Lorraine]]
|IUT de Metz
IUT Moselle-Est

IUT de Thionville-Yutz
|-
|IUT Henri Poincaré de Longwy
IUT de Nancy-Brabois

IUT de Saint-Dié
|-
|IUT d'Epinal-Hubert Curien
IUT de Nancy-Charlemagne
|-
| rowspan="7" | [[Nouvelle-Aquitaine]]
| rowspan="2" | [[University of Bordeaux]]
| IUT Bordeaux-I
|-
| IUT Bordeaux-III
|-
| [[Bordeaux Montaigne University|Bordeaux-Montaigne University]]
| IUT Bordeaux-IV
IUT de Périgueux
|-
| [[University of Pau and the Adour Region]]
| IUT de Bayonne
IUT des Pays de l'Adour
|-
|[[University of Limoges]]
|IUT du Limousin
|-
|[[University of La Rochelle]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie de La Rochelle
|-
|[[University of Poitiers]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie d'Angoulême
Institut universitaire de technologie de Poitiers
|-
| rowspan="9" | [[Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Clermont Auvergne University]]
| IUT de Clermont-Ferrand
|-
| IUT de Montluçon
|-
|[[Université Savoie-Mont Blanc|University of Savoie-Mont Blanc]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie d'Annecy
Institut universitaire de technologie de Chambéry
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Grenoble Alpes University]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie A de l'université Grenoble-I
|-
|Institut universitaire de technologie B de l'université Grenoble-II
Institut universitaire de technologie de Valence
|-
|[[Claude Bernard University Lyon 1|Claude Bernard University – Lyon 1]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie Lyon-I de l'université de Lyon
|-
|[[Lumière University Lyon 2|Lumière University – Lyon 2]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie de Bron
|-
|[[Jean Moulin University Lyon 3|Jean Moulin University – Lyon 3]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie de Lyon-III
|-
|[[Jean Monnet University]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie de Roanne
Institut universitaire de technologie de Saint-Etienne

Institut universitaire de technologie de Saint-Etienne ATII promotion
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Normandy]]
| [[University of Caen Normandy]]
| IUT d'Alençon
IUT de Caen

IUT de Cherbourg
|-
|[[University of Le Havre]]
|IUT du Havre
|-
|[[University of Rouen]]
|IUT d'Évreux
IUT de Rouen
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Bourgogne-Franche-Comté]]
| [[University of Burgundy]]
|IUT de Chalon-sur-Saône
IUT de Dijon

IUT du Creusot
|-
|[[University of Franche-Comté]]
|IUT de Belfort
IUT de Besançon
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Brittany]]
| [[University of Western Brittany]]
| IUT de Brest
IUT de Quimper
|-
| [[University of Southern Brittany]]
| IUT de Lorient-Pontivy
IUT de Vannes
|-
| [[University of Rennes]]
| IUT de Lannion
IUT de Rennes

IUT de Saint-Brieuc

IUT de Saint-Malo
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Centre-Val de Loire]]
| [[University of Orléans]]
| IUT de Bourges
IUT de Chartres

IUT de l'Indre

IUT de technologie d'Orléans
|-
| [[University of Tours]]
| IUT de Blois
IUT de Tours
|-
| [[Corsica]]
| [[Universita di Corsica|Università di Corsica]]
| IUT de Corte
|-
| rowspan="13" | [[Île-de-France]]
| [[CY Cergy Paris University]]
| IUT de Cergy-Pontoise
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[University of Évry Val d'Essonne]]
| IUT d'Évry
|-
|IUT d'Évry in Juvisy-sur-Orge
|-
|IUT d'Évry in Brétigny-sur-Orge
|-
| [[Gustave Eiffel University]]
| IUT de Marne-la-Vallée
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Paris Cité University]]
| IUT de Paris – Rives de Seine
|-
| IUT de Paris – Pajol
|-
| [[University of Saint-Denis|University of Vincennes Saint-Denis]]
| IUT de Montreuil
IUT de Tremblay-en-France
|-
| [[University of Nanterre|Paris-Nanterre University]]
| IUT de Ville-d'Avray
|-
| [[Paris-Saclay University]]
| IUT de Cachan
IUT d'Orsay

IUT de Sceaux
|-
| [[Paris-Est Créteil University]]
| IUT de Créteil
IUT de Seine-et-Marne Sud
|-
| [[Université Sorbonne Paris Nord|Sorbonne Paris Nord University]]
| IUT de Bobigny
IUT de Saint-Denis

IUT de Villetaneuse
|-
|[[University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines]]
|[[Mantes University Technical Institute|IUT de Mantes]]
[[Vélizy University Technical Institute|IUT de Vélizy]]
|-
| rowspan="5" | [[Occitania (administrative region)|Occitanie]]
| [[University of Montpellier]]
| IUT de Béziers
IUT de Montpellier

IUT de Nîmes
|-
| [[University of Perpignan]]
| IUT de Perpignan
|-
| [[Toulouse 1 University Capitole|University of Toulouse Capitole]]
| IUT de Rodez
|-
| [[University of Toulouse-Jean Jaurès|University of Toulouse Jean Jaurès]]
| IUT de Blagnac
IUT de Figeac
|-
| [[Paul Sabatier University]]
| IUT de Castres
IUT de Tarbes
IUT de Toulouse
|-
| rowspan="7" | [[Hauts-de-France]]
| [[Artois University]]
| IUT de Béthune
IUT de Lens
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[University of Lille]]
| IUT A de l'université de Lille
|-
| IUT C de l'université de Lille
|-
| IUT B de l'université de Lille
|-
| [[University of the Littoral Opal Coast]]
| IUT de Calais – Boulogne
IUT de Saint-Omer – Dunkerque
|-
| [[Polytechnic University of Hauts-de-France]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie de Valenciennes
|-
|[[University of Picardy Jules Verne|University of Picardy]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie de l'Aisne
Institut universitaire de technologie d'Amiens

Institut universitaire de technologie de Beauvais
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Overseas France]]
| [[University of French Guiana]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie de Kourou
|-
| [[University of Reunion Island]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie de La Réunion
|-
| rowspan="6" | [[Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur]]
| rowspan="3" | [[Aix-Marseille University]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie de l'université de Provence
|-
| Institut universitaire de technologie d'Aix-en-Provence
|-
| Institut universitaire de technologie de Marseille
|-
| [[University of Avignon]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie d'Avignon
|-
| [[French Riviera University|French Rivera University]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie de Nice
|-
| [[University of Toulon]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie de Toulon
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Pays de la Loire]]
| [[University of Angers]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie d'Angers
|-
| [[Le Mans University]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie du Mans
Institut universitaire de technologie de Laval
|-
| [[University of Nantes]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie de la Roche-sur-Yon
Institut universitaire de technologie de Nantes

Institut universitaire de technologie de Saint-Nazaire
|}

== References ==

{{Reflist}}
http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/cid21016/liste-des-instituts-universitaires-de-technologie-i.u.t.html

== External links ==
* [http://www.iut-fr.net/ Dedicated site]
* [http://www.sup.adc.education.fr/iutlst/ List of IUT by rectorate]
* [http://www.e-tud.com/annuaire/tb42-cat3-sort-iut.html Other site about IUT]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Education in France]]

Bachelor universitaire de technologie

2024-12-07T14:30:30Z

Amherst99: /* History */

{{Expand French|Bachelor universitaire de technologie|date=November 2024}}{{Italic title}}{{Short description|French undergraduate-level academic degree}}
The '''''bachelor universitaire de technologie''''' ('''BUT''', in English: "'''Bachelor of Technical Studies'''" or "'''Bachelor of Technical and Applied Studies'''") is a national [[Vocational education|vocational]] [[bachelor's degree]], and a national French [[Undergraduate education|undergraduate]] diploma created in [[2019]], awarded on completion of the first three years of study at a [[University technical institute (France)|university technical institute]] (IUT). This diploma allows the intermediate award of a ''diplôme universitaire de technologie'' (DUT) from the second year of the bachelor's degree. It is awarded after three years of study, with 180 [[ECTS grading scale|ECTS]] credits.

This type of [[Licentiate (degree)|bachelor's degree]] does not give automatic access to French [[Master's degree (France)|master's degrees]], although it is possible to apply for a master's degree on the basis of a portfolio.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|access-date=2020-11-17 |title=Arrêté du 6 décembre 2019 portant réforme de la licence professionnelle - Légifrance |url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/id/JORFTEXT000039481561 |website=legifrance.gouv.fr}}.</ref>

It is similar to a [[Bachelor of Applied Science]] or a Bachelor of Technical and Applied Studies in the US.

== History ==
The DUT and the LP, the French vocational bachelor's degree (in French: ''licence professionnelle'') are changing in September 2021. From that date, a new three-year diploma, the BUT, level 6 [[International Standard Classification of Education|ISCED]] in the [[National Professional Qualifications Register|French Government's National Professional Qualifications Register]] (RNCP), conferring 180 [[ECTS grading scale|ECTS]] credits, will be introduced.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=14 October 2024 |date=29 January 2020 |first=Marine |last=Ilario |title=Du DUT au BUT : quels sont les changements liés à la réforme ? |url=https://www.cidj.com/etudes-formations-alternance/etudes-superieures/du-dut-au-but-quels-sont-les-changements-lies-a-la-reforme |website=cidj.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=à 12h19 |first=Par Le Parisien Etudiant Le 9 février 2024 |date=2024-02-09 |title=BUT : enseignements, spécialités, inscriptions… les atouts du Bachelor universitaire de technologie |url=https://www.leparisien.fr/etudiant/orientation/but-enseignements-specialites-inscriptions-les-atouts-du-bachelor-universitaire-de-technologie-YVVVQP3ASFH43AFJGHOO25D6KU.php |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=leparisien.fr |language=fr-FR}}</ref> The BUT, a [[Bachelor of Applied Science]], delivered by the mainstream French public university system (which explains the "university" or "''universitaire''" in its title), becomes the reference diploma for French [[University technical institute (France)|university technical institutes]] (IUT).

== Fields of study ==
Mentions identical to the BUT specialities are defined, and allow local adaptation for a third of the hourly volume. This makes it possible to adapt training to the local context and integrate people from other courses.

There are 24 BUT specialisations:

=== Tertiary sector ===

* Legal Careers (CJ)
* Social Careers (CS)
* Administrative and Commercial Management of Organisations (GACO)
* Business and Administration Management (GEA)
* Logistics and Transport Management (MLT - formerly GLT)
* Information and Communication (Info-Com)
* Data Science (SD)
* Marketing Techniques (TC)

=== Science sector ===

* Chemistry
* Biological Engineering (GB)
* Chemical and Process Engineering (GCGP)
* Civil Engineering and Sustainable Construction (GCCD)
* Electrical Engineering and Industrial Computing (GEII or GE2I)
* Industrial Engineering and Maintenance (GIM)
* Mechanical and Production Engineering (GMP)
* Energy Transition and Efficiency (MT2E - formerly GTE)
* Health, Safety and Environment (HSE)
* Computer Science (Info)
* Physical Measurements (MP)
* Packaging and Conditioning (PEC)
* Quality, Industrial Logistics and Organisation (QLIO)
* Networks and Telecommunications (R&T)
* Materials Science and Engineering (SGM)
* Multimedia and Internet Professions (MMI)

== Admissions ==
The 2019 decree specifies the composition of the admissions panel for applicants with a ''[[baccalauréat]]'' diploma or a level 4 qualification [[International Standard Classification of Education|ISCED]] registered on the [[Répertoire national des certifications professionnelles|RNCP]].<ref name=":0" />

== See also ==

* [[Bachelor of Applied Arts]]
* [[Bachelor of Applied Arts and Sciences]]
* [[Bachelor's degree]]
* [[University technical institute (France)|University Technical Institutes]]
* [[Education in France]]

== References ==
<references responsive="1"></references>
{{Academic degrees}}
[[Category:Education in France]]
[[Category:Academic degrees of France]]
[[Category:Vocational education in France]]

Bachelor universitaire de technologie

2024-12-07T14:29:46Z

Amherst99:

{{Expand French|Bachelor universitaire de technologie|date=November 2024}}{{Italic title}}{{Short description|French undergraduate-level academic degree}}
The '''''bachelor universitaire de technologie''''' ('''BUT''', in English: "'''Bachelor of Technical Studies'''" or "'''Bachelor of Technical and Applied Studies'''") is a national [[Vocational education|vocational]] [[bachelor's degree]], and a national French [[Undergraduate education|undergraduate]] diploma created in [[2019]], awarded on completion of the first three years of study at a [[University technical institute (France)|university technical institute]] (IUT). This diploma allows the intermediate award of a ''diplôme universitaire de technologie'' (DUT) from the second year of the bachelor's degree. It is awarded after three years of study, with 180 [[ECTS grading scale|ECTS]] credits.

This type of [[Licentiate (degree)|bachelor's degree]] does not give automatic access to French [[Master's degree (France)|master's degrees]], although it is possible to apply for a master's degree on the basis of a portfolio.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|access-date=2020-11-17 |title=Arrêté du 6 décembre 2019 portant réforme de la licence professionnelle - Légifrance |url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/id/JORFTEXT000039481561 |website=legifrance.gouv.fr}}.</ref>

It is similar to a [[Bachelor of Applied Science]] or a Bachelor of Technical and Applied Studies in the US.

== History ==
The DUT and the LP, the French vocational bachelor's degree (in French: ''Licence Professionnelle'') are changing in September 2021. From that date, a new three-year diploma, the BUT, level 6 [[International Standard Classification of Education|ISCED]] in the [[National Professional Qualifications Register|French Government's National Professional Qualifications Register]] (RNCP), conferring 180 [[ECTS grading scale|ECTS]] credits, will be introduced.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=14 October 2024 |date=29 January 2020 |first=Marine |last=Ilario |title=Du DUT au BUT : quels sont les changements liés à la réforme ? |url=https://www.cidj.com/etudes-formations-alternance/etudes-superieures/du-dut-au-but-quels-sont-les-changements-lies-a-la-reforme |website=cidj.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=à 12h19 |first=Par Le Parisien Etudiant Le 9 février 2024 |date=2024-02-09 |title=BUT : enseignements, spécialités, inscriptions… les atouts du Bachelor universitaire de technologie |url=https://www.leparisien.fr/etudiant/orientation/but-enseignements-specialites-inscriptions-les-atouts-du-bachelor-universitaire-de-technologie-YVVVQP3ASFH43AFJGHOO25D6KU.php |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=leparisien.fr |language=fr-FR}}</ref> The BUT, a [[Bachelor of Applied Science]], delivered by the mainstream French public university system (which explains the "university" or "''universitaire''" in its title), becomes the reference diploma for French [[University technical institute (France)|university technical institutes]] (IUT).

== Fields of study ==
Mentions identical to the BUT specialities are defined, and allow local adaptation for a third of the hourly volume. This makes it possible to adapt training to the local context and integrate people from other courses.

There are 24 BUT specialisations:

=== Tertiary sector ===

* Legal Careers (CJ)
* Social Careers (CS)
* Administrative and Commercial Management of Organisations (GACO)
* Business and Administration Management (GEA)
* Logistics and Transport Management (MLT - formerly GLT)
* Information and Communication (Info-Com)
* Data Science (SD)
* Marketing Techniques (TC)

=== Science sector ===

* Chemistry
* Biological Engineering (GB)
* Chemical and Process Engineering (GCGP)
* Civil Engineering and Sustainable Construction (GCCD)
* Electrical Engineering and Industrial Computing (GEII or GE2I)
* Industrial Engineering and Maintenance (GIM)
* Mechanical and Production Engineering (GMP)
* Energy Transition and Efficiency (MT2E - formerly GTE)
* Health, Safety and Environment (HSE)
* Computer Science (Info)
* Physical Measurements (MP)
* Packaging and Conditioning (PEC)
* Quality, Industrial Logistics and Organisation (QLIO)
* Networks and Telecommunications (R&T)
* Materials Science and Engineering (SGM)
* Multimedia and Internet Professions (MMI)

== Admissions ==
The 2019 decree specifies the composition of the admissions panel for applicants with a ''[[baccalauréat]]'' diploma or a level 4 qualification [[International Standard Classification of Education|ISCED]] registered on the [[Répertoire national des certifications professionnelles|RNCP]].<ref name=":0" />

== See also ==

* [[Bachelor of Applied Arts]]
* [[Bachelor of Applied Arts and Sciences]]
* [[Bachelor's degree]]
* [[University technical institute (France)|University Technical Institutes]]
* [[Education in France]]

== References ==
<references responsive="1"></references>
{{Academic degrees}}
[[Category:Education in France]]
[[Category:Academic degrees of France]]
[[Category:Vocational education in France]]

University technical institute (France)

2024-12-07T14:27:25Z

Amherst99:

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Other uses|IUT (disambiguation){{!}}IUT}}{{Confusion|Institute of technology|University technical college|University Institutes of Technology}}[[File:Vesoul Institut Universitaire de Technologie 3.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A University Technical Institute (''IUT'') in [[Vesoul]], France.]]
A '''university technical institute'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2022 |title=Université de Caen Normandie |url=https://www.campusfrance.org/system/files/medias/documents/2022-08/French%20HEIs%20ID.pdf |website=Campus France}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=IUT (University Technical Institute) |url=https://www.centpourcent-normandie.fr/en/100normandie/education-and-training/iut-university-technical-institute/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie Caen Normandie |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2022 |title=University of Angers, Main Programmes of Study |url=https://ressources.campusfrance.org/pratique/etablissements/en/univ_angers_en.pdf |website=Campus France}}</ref> or '''''IUT''''' ({{langx|fr|instituts universitaires de technologie}}) is a type of [[post-secondary]] [[vocational college]] in France, similar to the ''yrkeshögskolan'' in Sweden.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Higher Vocational Education (HVE) |url=https://www.yrkeshogskolan.se/in-english/ |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=Yrkeshögskolan |language=en}}</ref>

This is a type of educational institution, usually in small and medium-sized towns,<ref name=":0" /> that offers [[post-secondary]] study programmes designed to provide [[vocational education|higher vocational education]] or the technical skills needed to perform the tasks of a particular and specific job. While the [[International Standard Classification of Education|academic level]] is the same as a [[Licence (France)|bachelor's degree (''licence'')]], the programme is different, with much more practical work, projects, apprenticeships and work placements, unlike a traditional bachelor's degree.

Its main diploma, the ''[[Bachelor universitaire de technologie|Bachelor Universitaire de Technologie]]'' (in [[English language|English]] "University Bachelor of Technical Studies"), is very similar to a [[Bachelor of Applied Science]].

The model of a university technical institute in France is similar to that of a [[university technical college]] in England or a [[post-secondary]] [[vocational school]]. Unlike them, a French university technical institute is attached to a university and offers programmes ranging from [[associate degree]]s to [[bachelor's degree]]s. University technical institutes have nothing in common with the [[Institute of technology|institutes of technology]] or ''Universités de Technologie'' in France, which are engineering schools.

== Description ==
The university technical institutes (''Institut Universitaire de Technologie, IUT'') were created in 1966. There are 108 IUTs which are attached to 80 universities including the ones in the French Overseas Territories and Departments.

Prior to 2021, a university technical institute (''IUT'') was known for offering [[Post-secondary|post-secondary studies]] lasting two to three years. It offered a diploma (the ''Diplôme universitaire de technologie'' or ''DUT'') with an academic level above that of a [[high school diploma]] but below that of a bachelor's degree. After finishing their ''DUT'', students had the option to work, do a one-year professional bachelor's degree called ''Licence Professionnelle'' (a course also offered by IUTs), or further their studies in a university. Since 2021, university technical institutes have been aligned with the [[bachelor's master's doctorate system]], with the degree being extended from two to three years and renamed "[[Bachelor of Technical Studies (France)|University Bachelor of Technical Studies]]" (''Bachelor Universitaire de Technologie'').

The university technical institute allow the preparation of a three-year career-focused vocational undergraduate diploma called ''[[Bachelor universitaire de technologie|Bachelor Universitaire de Technologie]]'', (in [[English language|English]]: "Bachelor of Technical Studies", the IUT diploma''.'' They are similar to [[associate degree]]s or the [[Higher National Diploma|BTEC Higher Nationals Diploma]]. After the three-year IUT diploma, students are expected to enter the job market. Some choose to continue their studies on a post-graduate course at university.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Professionalisation of studies: improvement and development of University Institutes of Technology |url=https://www.campusfrance.org/en/actu/professionnalisation-des-formations-renforcement-et-developpement-des-iut |access-date=2024-05-04 |website=Campus France |language=en}}</ref>

In France, university technical institutes generally bring university education to regions where no university exists. They are systematically attached to a large university, as a [[satellite campus]] located several kilometers away. Rural areas and small and medium-sized towns are home to short higher education programmes, such as university technical institutes, but also the ''Brevets de Technicien Supérieur'' in high schools.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Lauricella |first=Marie |date=June 2023 |title=L'inégale répartition territoriale des formations supérieures |url=https://veille-et-analyses.ens-lyon.fr/EB-Veille/Edubref-juin-2023.pdf |website=Institut Français de l'Éducation, ENS de Lyon}}</ref>

It is important to note that, contrary to what their name suggests in French, these IUTs are not [[Engineering education|engineering schools]] and are not authorised by the French State to award an [[engineering degree]] or a [[Bachelor of Technology]].

== List of university technical institutes ==

{| class="wikitable"
! Region !! University !! IUTs
|-
| rowspan="6" | [[Grand Est]]
| [[University of Upper Alsace]]
| IUT de Colmar
IUT de Mulhouse
|-
| [[University of Strasbourg]]
| IUT d'Haguenau
IUT d'Illkirch

IUT de Schiltigheim
|-
|[[University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne|University of Reims]]
|IUT de Reims
IUT de Troyes
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[University of Lorraine]]
|IUT de Metz
IUT Moselle-Est

IUT de Thionville-Yutz
|-
|IUT Henri Poincaré de Longwy
IUT de Nancy-Brabois

IUT de Saint-Dié
|-
|IUT d'Epinal-Hubert Curien
IUT de Nancy-Charlemagne
|-
| rowspan="7" | [[Nouvelle-Aquitaine]]
| rowspan="2" | [[University of Bordeaux]]
| IUT Bordeaux-I
|-
| IUT Bordeaux-III
|-
| [[Bordeaux Montaigne University|Bordeaux-Montaigne University]]
| IUT Bordeaux-IV
IUT de Périgueux
|-
| [[University of Pau and the Adour Region]]
| IUT de Bayonne
IUT des Pays de l'Adour
|-
|[[University of Limoges]]
|IUT du Limousin
|-
|[[University of La Rochelle]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie de La Rochelle
|-
|[[University of Poitiers]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie d'Angoulême
Institut universitaire de technologie de Poitiers
|-
| rowspan="9" | [[Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Clermont Auvergne University]]
| IUT de Clermont-Ferrand
|-
| IUT de Montluçon
|-
|[[Université Savoie-Mont Blanc|University of Savoie-Mont Blanc]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie d'Annecy
Institut universitaire de technologie de Chambéry
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Grenoble Alpes University]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie A de l'université Grenoble-I
|-
|Institut universitaire de technologie B de l'université Grenoble-II
Institut universitaire de technologie de Valence
|-
|[[Claude Bernard University Lyon 1|Claude Bernard University – Lyon 1]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie Lyon-I de l'université de Lyon
|-
|[[Lumière University Lyon 2|Lumière University – Lyon 2]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie de Bron
|-
|[[Jean Moulin University Lyon 3|Jean Moulin University – Lyon 3]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie de Lyon-III
|-
|[[Jean Monnet University]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie de Roanne
Institut universitaire de technologie de Saint-Etienne

Institut universitaire de technologie de Saint-Etienne ATII promotion
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Normandy]]
| [[University of Caen Normandy]]
| IUT d'Alençon
IUT de Caen

IUT de Cherbourg
|-
|[[University of Le Havre]]
|IUT du Havre
|-
|[[University of Rouen]]
|IUT d'Évreux
IUT de Rouen
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Bourgogne-Franche-Comté]]
| [[University of Burgundy]]
|IUT de Chalon-sur-Saône
IUT de Dijon

IUT du Creusot
|-
|[[University of Franche-Comté]]
|IUT de Belfort
IUT de Besançon
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Brittany]]
| [[University of Western Brittany]]
| IUT de Brest
IUT de Quimper
|-
| [[University of Southern Brittany]]
| IUT de Lorient-Pontivy
IUT de Vannes
|-
| [[University of Rennes]]
| IUT de Lannion
IUT de Rennes

IUT de Saint-Brieuc

IUT de Saint-Malo
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Centre-Val de Loire]]
| [[University of Orléans]]
| IUT de Bourges
IUT de Chartres

IUT de l'Indre

IUT de technologie d'Orléans
|-
| [[University of Tours]]
| IUT de Blois
IUT de Tours
|-
| [[Corsica]]
| [[Universita di Corsica|Università di Corsica]]
| IUT de Corte
|-
| rowspan="13" | [[Île-de-France]]
| [[CY Cergy Paris University]]
| IUT de Cergy-Pontoise
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[University of Évry Val d'Essonne]]
| IUT d'Évry
|-
|IUT d'Évry in Juvisy-sur-Orge
|-
|IUT d'Évry in Brétigny-sur-Orge
|-
| [[Gustave Eiffel University]]
| IUT de Marne-la-Vallée
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Paris Cité University]]
| IUT de Paris – Rives de Seine
|-
| IUT de Paris – Pajol
|-
| [[University of Saint-Denis|University of Vincennes Saint-Denis]]
| IUT de Montreuil
IUT de Tremblay-en-France
|-
| [[University of Nanterre|Paris-Nanterre University]]
| IUT de Ville-d'Avray
|-
| [[Paris-Saclay University]]
| IUT de Cachan
IUT d'Orsay

IUT de Sceaux
|-
| [[Paris-Est Créteil University]]
| IUT de Créteil
IUT de Seine-et-Marne Sud
|-
| [[Université Sorbonne Paris Nord|Sorbonne Paris Nord University]]
| IUT de Bobigny
IUT de Saint-Denis

IUT de Villetaneuse
|-
|[[University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines]]
|[[Mantes University Technical Institute|IUT de Mantes]]
[[Vélizy University Technical Institute|IUT de Vélizy]]
|-
| rowspan="5" | [[Occitania (administrative region)|Occitanie]]
| [[University of Montpellier]]
| IUT de Béziers
IUT de Montpellier

IUT de Nîmes
|-
| [[University of Perpignan]]
| IUT de Perpignan
|-
| [[Toulouse 1 University Capitole|University of Toulouse Capitole]]
| IUT de Rodez
|-
| [[University of Toulouse-Jean Jaurès|University of Toulouse Jean Jaurès]]
| IUT de Blagnac
IUT de Figeac
|-
| [[Paul Sabatier University]]
| IUT de Castres
IUT de Tarbes
IUT de Toulouse
|-
| rowspan="7" | [[Hauts-de-France]]
| [[Artois University]]
| IUT de Béthune
IUT de Lens
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[University of Lille]]
| IUT A de l'université de Lille
|-
| IUT C de l'université de Lille
|-
| IUT B de l'université de Lille
|-
| [[University of the Littoral Opal Coast]]
| IUT de Calais – Boulogne
IUT de Saint-Omer – Dunkerque
|-
| [[Polytechnic University of Hauts-de-France]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie de Valenciennes
|-
|[[University of Picardy Jules Verne|University of Picardy]]
|Institut universitaire de technologie de l'Aisne
Institut universitaire de technologie d'Amiens

Institut universitaire de technologie de Beauvais
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Overseas France]]
| [[University of French Guiana]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie de Kourou
|-
| [[University of Reunion Island]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie de La Réunion
|-
| rowspan="6" | [[Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur]]
| rowspan="3" | [[Aix-Marseille University]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie de l'université de Provence
|-
| Institut universitaire de technologie d'Aix-en-Provence
|-
| Institut universitaire de technologie de Marseille
|-
| [[University of Avignon]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie d'Avignon
|-
| [[French Riviera University|French Rivera University]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie de Nice
|-
| [[University of Toulon]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie de Toulon
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Pays de la Loire]]
| [[University of Angers]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie d'Angers
|-
| [[Le Mans University]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie du Mans
Institut universitaire de technologie de Laval
|-
| [[University of Nantes]]
| Institut universitaire de technologie de la Roche-sur-Yon
Institut universitaire de technologie de Nantes

Institut universitaire de technologie de Saint-Nazaire
|}

== References ==

{{Reflist}}
http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/cid21016/liste-des-instituts-universitaires-de-technologie-i.u.t.html

== External links ==
* [http://www.iut-fr.net/ Dedicated site]
* [http://www.sup.adc.education.fr/iutlst/ List of IUT by rectorate]
* [http://www.e-tud.com/annuaire/tb42-cat3-sort-iut.html Other site about IUT]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Education in France]]

Vocational school

2024-12-07T14:24:13Z

Amherst99: /* Southeast Europe */

{{short description|Higher-level learning institution providing education needed for specific occupations}}
{{redirect|Career center|other uses|Career center (disambiguation)}}
{{confused|Training centre (disambiguation){{!}}training centre}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2013}}
[[File:Fsg wickersdorf tischlerei.jpg|thumb|Students in a carpentry trade school learning woodworking skills, {{c.|1920}}]]
[[File:Dongping County Vocational Secondary School 02.jpg|thumb|Dongping County Vocational Secondary School, China]]

A '''vocational school''', (alternatively known as a '''trade school''', or '''technical school''') is a type of educational institution, which, depending on the country, may refer to either [[secondary education#List of tech ed skills|secondary]] or [[post-secondary]] education<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/95024-2.asp|title=Vocational Education in the US|website=nces.ed.gov|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102252/https://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/95024-2.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> designed to provide [[vocational education]] or [[Technology education#List of tech ed skills|technical skills]] required to complete the tasks of a particular and specific job. In the case of secondary education, these schools differ from academic high schools which usually prepare students who aim to pursue tertiary education, rather than enter directly into the workforce. With regard to post-secondary education, vocational schools are traditionally distinguished from four-year [[colleges]] by their focus on job-specific training to students who are typically bound for one of the [[skilled trade]]s,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.adeccousa.com/employers/resources/skilled-trades-in-demand/|title=Skilled Trades in Demand (Infographic)|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074256/https://www.adeccousa.com/employers/resources/skilled-trades-in-demand/|url-status=live}}</ref> rather than providing academic training for students pursuing careers in a [[professional]] discipline. While many schools have largely adhered to this convention, the purely vocational focus of other trade schools began to shift in the 1990s "toward a broader preparation that develops the academic" as well as the technical skills of their students.<ref>{{cite news | title=Information Literacy in Vocational Education: A Course Model | date=2 Sep 2006 | publisher=White-Clouds.com | url=http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl23XLH.htm | access-date=28 August 2007 | archive-date=25 July 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725164223/http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl23XLH.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Terminology==
[[File:Диплом о среднем профобразовании. Россия. 2021 год.jpg|thumb|Diploma of secondary vocational education in Russia]]
This type of institution may also be called a '''trade school''', '''career center''', '''career college''', or '''vocational college'''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://study.com/vocational_schools.html |title=What are Vocational Schools? |website=Study.com |access-date=2018-06-29 |archive-date=2018-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074417/https://study.com/vocational_schools.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==By Region==
===Oceania===
====Australia====
Vocational schools were called "technical colleges" in Australia,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/what-to-study-in-australia/types-of-education/technical-and-further-education|title=Technical and Further Education (TAFE) {{!}} Study in Australia|work=Studies in Australia|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074201/https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/what-to-study-in-australia/types-of-education/technical-and-further-education|url-status=live}}</ref> and there were more than 20 schools specializing in vocational educational training (VET).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dtwd.wa.gov.au/training/vocational-education-and-training|title=Vocational education and training {{!}} Department of Training and Workforce Development|website=www.dtwd.wa.gov.au|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074348/http://www.dtwd.wa.gov.au/training/vocational-education-and-training|url-status=live}}</ref> Only four technical colleges remain, and these are now referred to as "trade colleges". At these colleges, students complete a modified year 12 certificate and commence a school-based apprenticeship in a trade of their choice. There are two trade colleges in Queensland; Brisbane, the Gold Coast, [[Australian Industry Trade College]] and one in Adelaide, St. Patrick's Technical College, and another in Perth, Australian Trades College.

In Queensland, students can also undertake VET at private and public high schools instead of studying for their overall position (OP), which is a tertiary entrance score. However these students usually undertake more limited vocational education of one day per week whereas in the trade colleges the training is longer.

===North America===
====Canada====
[[File:West Park Secondary School (Toronto).jpg|thumb|left|[[West Park Secondary School]] in Toronto is an example. It was built in 1968 for students with slow learning or special needs.]]

Education in [[Canada]] is a provincial responsibility, and education evolved independently in each province, much like separate countries.
Vocational School is an old antiquated term that was previously used until the late 1960s when the education system evolved from basic primary education to include High School and then technical schools or colleges in the mid 1960s. In the past (pre mid 1960s) some provinces Vocational schools in Western Canada were sometimes called "[[college (Canada)|college]]s" in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vocationalschools.ca/|title=Canadian Vocational Schools & Training Programs|website=www.vocationalschools.ca|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814060134/https://www.vocationalschools.ca/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, a college may also refer to an institution that offers part of a university degree, or credits that may be transferred to a university.

In Ontario Technical schools like Central Technical School in Toronto, which was started in the late 1800s to train workers in the evening, eventually evolved into high schools when the education system was extended to the high school level. When the public education system was expanded in by the early 1920s high school level education was provided in Technical / Commercial Schools or Collegiate Institutes in a hybrid high school/ college level like situation. In [[Ontario]] prior to the mid 1960s a Vocational School was a trades or job training school that provided training in a very focused trades related area, and these were started in the early 1950s, and the few that existed were merged as departments of the Community colleges that were established starting in the mid 1960s .

Secondary schools had evolved into three separated streams: technical schools, commercial and collegiates (the academic schools). By the mid 1960s in suburban areas purpose built High Schools for slow learners or individuals that were being trained for jobs after high school was also termed "vocational schools". By the early late 1960s many of the technical and commercial school programs in large populated areas like around Toronto, were being merged or had purpose built combined schools were being built. While the schools still exist, the curriculum has changed so that no matter which type of school one attends, they can still attend any post-secondary institution and still study a variety of subjects and others (either academic or practical).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/secondary.html|title=Secondary Education|last=Ontario|first=Government of|website=www.edu.gov.on.ca|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625162006/http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/secondary.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In Ontario, the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities divided post-secondary education into universities, community colleges and private career colleges.

In the Province of Quebec, there are some vocational programs offered at institutions called [[CEGEP]]s (''collège d'enseignement général et professionnel''),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mcgill.ca/applying/requirements/qc|title=Quebec CEGEPs, colleges and high schools|website=Applying to Undergraduate Studies|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074331/https://www.mcgill.ca/applying/requirements/qc|url-status=live}}</ref> but these too may function as an introduction to university. Generally, students complete two years at a CEGEP directly out of high school, and then complete three years at a university (rather than the usual four), to earn an undergraduate degree. Alternatively, some CEGEPs offer vocational training, but it is more likely that vocational training will be found at institutions separate from academic institutions, though they may still be called colleges. Although many (if not most) vocational programs are in high school.

====United States====
{{Main|Vocational education in the United States}}
{{See also|Tech certificate|Tech ed}}

In the [[United States]], there is a very large difference between career college and vocational college. The term ''career college'' is generally reserved for post-secondary for-profit institutions. Conversely, vocational schools are government-owned or at least government-supported institutions, requiring two full years of study, and their credits are usually accepted elsewhere in the academic world. In some instances, [[charter school|charter academies]] or [[magnet school]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://magnet.edu/about/what-are-magnet-schools|title=What are Magnet Schools – Magnet Schools of America|last=America|first=Magnet Schools of|website=Magnet.edu|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074259/http://magnet.edu/about/what-are-magnet-schools|url-status=live}}</ref> may take the place of the final years of [[high school]]. Additionally, most schools offer off-campus buildings, or partner with vocational schools in order for students to gain a certificate, as well as gaining the needed credit to graduate. With the dual enrollment, the student would graduate with both their high school diploma, as well as their vocational certificate.

[[File:ITT Technical Institute campus Canton Michigan.JPG|thumb|Educational institution of this type in [[Canton, Michigan|Canton]], [[Michigan]], United States]]

Career colleges on the other hand are generally not government supported in any capacity, occupy periods of study less than a year, and their training and certifications are rarely recognized by the larger academic world. In addition, as most career colleges are [[private school]]s, this group may be further subdivided into non-profit schools and proprietary schools, operated for the sole economic benefit of their owners.

As a result of this emphasis on the commercialization of education, a widespread poor reputation for quality was retained by a great number of career colleges for over promising what the job prospects for their graduates would be in their field of study upon completion of their program, and for emphasizing the number of careers from which a student could choose.

Even though the popularity of career colleges has exploded in recent years, the number of government-sponsored vocational schools in the United States has decreased significantly.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/business/vocational-schools-face-deep-cuts-in-federal-funding.html|title=Vocational Schools Face Deep Cuts in Federal Funding|last=Rich|first=Motoko|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=9 July 2011 |access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629081447/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/business/vocational-schools-face-deep-cuts-in-federal-funding.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Association for Career and Technical Education]] (ACTE) is the largest American national education association dedicated to the advancement of career and technical education or vocational education that prepares youth and adults for careers.

Earlier vocational schools such as the [[California Institute of Technology]]<ref>{{cite web |first=Judith |last=Goodstein |author-link=Judith R. Goodstein |date=1998-06-29 |title=History of Caltech |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/goodstein/index.html |website=NobelPrize.org |access-date=2007-11-19 |archive-date=2007-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030093148/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/goodstein/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Carnegie Mellon University]] have gone on to become full degree-granting institutions.

===Central and Eastern Europe===
{{main|Education in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Vrapice CZ vocational school 008.jpg|thumb|Vrapice Vocational School, Czech Republic]]
[[File:Dózsa György iskola, Martinovics Ignác utca, 2019 Kalocsa.jpg|thumb|György Dózsa Vocational Secondary School, Kalocsa, Hungary]]

In [[Central and Eastern Europe]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/latest/news/vocational-education-and-train.htm|title=Vocational Education and Training throughout Europe|website=www.schooleducationgateway.eu|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2020-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230034604/https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/latest/news/vocational-education-and-train.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> vocational education is represented in the forms of (professional) [[Professional technical school|vocational technical school]]s often abbreviated as PTU, technical colleges (technikum) and technical high school.
;Vocational school (college)
Vocational school or vocational college is considered a post-secondary education type school, but combines the coursework of a [[high school]] and [[junior college]] stretching for six years. In Ukraine, the term is used mostly for sports schools sometimes interchangeably with the term college. Such college could be a separate entity or a branch of bigger university. Successful graduates receive a [[specialist degree]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reimers |first=Fernando M. |title=Audacious Education Purposes. How Governments Transform the Goals of Education Systems |publisher=SpringerOpen}}</ref>
;PTU
{{main|Professional technical school}}
PTUs are usually preparatory [[vocational education]] and are equivalent to the general education of the third degree in the former Soviet education, providing a lower level of vocational education (apprenticeship). It could be compared to a trade [[high school]]. In the 1920-30s, such PTUs were called schools of factory and plant apprenticeship, and later 1940s - vocational schools. Sometime after 1959, the name PTU was established, however, with the reorganization of the Soviet educational system these vocational schools were renamed into lyceums. There were several types of PTUs such as middle city PTU and rural PTU.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVocational6technicalschools.htm|title=Vocational-technical schools|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074400/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVocational6technicalschools.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
;Technicum
{{main|Tekhnikum|Technikum (Polish education)}}
Technical college (technicum) is becoming an obsolete term for a college in different parts of Central and Eastern Europe. Technicums<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCCIJf-yhIC&q=Technicums&pg=PA69|title=Educational Reform in Post-Soviet Russia: Legacies and Prospects|last1=Eklof|first1=Ben|last2=Holmes|first2=Larry Eugene|last3=Kaplan|first3=Vera|date=2005|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780714657059|access-date=2020-11-22|archive-date=2022-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718182218/https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCCIJf-yhIC&q=Technicums&pg=PA69|url-status=live}}</ref> provided a middle level of vocational education. Aside of technicums and PTU there also were vocational schools ([[Russian language|Russian]]: профессиональные училища) that also provided a middle level of vocational education. In 1920-30s Ukraine, technicums were a (technical) vocational [[institute]]s, however, during the 1930-32s Soviet educational reform they were degraded in their accreditation.
;Institute
Institutes were considered a higher level of education; however, unlike universities, they were more oriented to a particular trade. With the reorganization of the Soviet education system, most institutes have been renamed as technical universities.

===Southeast Europe===
In ex-Yugoslavian countries (Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro and North Macedonia) there are technical high schools that can have three or four years courses. If a person finishes three year course he will get a trade degree, or a technician degree if he finishes four. After technical high school a person can go to university. In Croatia there are two types of universities where people can continue their education: Classical universities (sveučilište) and Universities of applied sciences (veleučilište). In Universities of applied sciences, after three years students get a bachelors degree like in classical university, and after 5 years they get a professional specialist degree.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}

====Greece====
In [[Greece]] vocational school is known as Vocational Lyceum (2006–Present), it was named Technical Vocational Lyceum (1985–1998). It is an upper secondary education school (high school) of Greece, with a three-year duration. Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Vocational majors are in Electrical Installation, Electronics and Automation, Meganotronics, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Cooling, Nursing, Hairdressing, Graphic Design, Food Technology, Dental Technology, Aesthetic and Makeup, and others.

===Western and Northern Europe===
==== Finland ====
{{See also|Education in Finland}}
[[File:JAMI Lappajärvi 2015-06-18.JPG|thumb|Vocational school in [[Lappajärvi]], Finland]]

The Finnish system is divided between vocational and academic paths.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/finland-education-school-2011-12|title=26 Amazing Facts About Finland's Unorthodox Education System|work=Business Insider|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074354/http://www.businessinsider.com/finland-education-school-2011-12|url-status=live}}</ref> Currently about 47 percent of Finnish students at age 16 go to vocational school. The vocational school is a secondary school for ages 16–21, and prepares the students for entering the workforce. The curriculum includes little academic general education, while the practical skills of each trade are stressed. The education is divided into eight main categories with a total of about 50 trades. The basic categories of education are
* Humanist and educational branch (typical trade: youth- and free-time director)
* Cultural branch (typical trade: artisan, media-assistant)
* The branch of social sciences, business and merchandise (typical trade: vocational qualification in business and administration ({{langx|fi|merkonomi}}))
* Natural science (typical trade: IT worker ({{langx|fi|datanomi}}))
* Technology and traffic (typical trades: machinist, electrician, process worker)
* The branch of natural resources and environment (typical trade: rural entrepreneur, forest worker)
* The branch of social work, health care and physical exercise (typical trade: practical nurse ({{langx|fi|lähihoitaja}}))
* The branch of travel, catering and domestic economics (typical trade: institutional catering worker)

The vocational schools are usually owned by the municipalities, but in special cases, private or state vocational schools exist. The state grants aid to all vocational schools on the same basis, regardless of the owner. On the other hand, the vocational schools are not allowed to operate for profit. The Ministry of Education issues licences to provide vocational education. In the licence, the municipality or a private entity is given permission to train a yearly quota of students for specific trades. The licence also specifies the area where the school must be located and the languages used in the education.

The vocational school students are selected by the schools on the basis of criteria set by the Ministry of Education. The basic qualification for the study is completed nine-year comprehensive school. Anyone may seek admission in any vocational school regardless of their domicile. In certain trades, bad health or invalidity may be acceptable grounds for refusing admission. The students do not pay tuition and they must be provided with health care and a free daily school lunch. Tools and practice material are provided to the students for free. Any necessary books are also free for all students born during or after 2005.

In tertiary education, there are higher vocational schools (''[[ammattikorkeakoulu]]'' which is translated to "polytechnic" or "university of applied sciences"), which give three- to four-year degrees in more involved fields, like engineering (see [[insinööri (amk)]]) and nursing. Having a vocational degree also qualifies a person to apply to a university.<ref>[https://www.infofinland.fi/en/education/applying-for-education-and-training Applying for education and training]</ref>

In contrast to the vocational school, an academically orientated upper secondary school, or senior high school ({{langx|fi|lukio}}) teaches no vocational skills. It prepares students for entering the university or a higher vocational school.

==== France ====

===== ''Lycée Professionnel'' =====
{{See also|Secondary education in France}}
In France, the [[lycée professionnel|''lycée professionnel'']] (LP, formerly known as a ''lycée d'enseignement professionnel'' (LEP)) grants a ''baccalauréat professionnel'' for students who do not plan to continue into higher education. Nearly 100 specialties are covered.

===== University Technical Institutes or ''IUT'' =====
{{See also|Higher education in France}}
In France, at [[post-secondary]] level, there are also [[University technical institute (France)|university technical institutes]] (in French: "''Institut Universitaire de Technologie''") offering vocational [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor's degrees]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=IUT (University Technical Institute) |url=https://www.centpourcent-normandie.fr/en/100normandie/education-and-training/iut-university-technical-institute/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie Caen Normandie |language=en-GB}}</ref>

====Ireland====
{{See also|Education in the Republic of Ireland}}

A vocational school in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] is a type of [[secondary education]] school<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/|title=Irish Education System|work=Department of Education and Skills|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102244/https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/|url-status=live}}</ref> which places a large emphasis on [[vocational education|vocational]] and [[technical education]]; this led to some conflict in the 1960s when the [[Institutes of Technology in Ireland|Regional Technical College]] system<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/regional-technical-college-in-cork-is-upgraded-to-institute-1.123679|title=Regional technical college in Cork is upgraded to institute|newspaper=The Irish Times|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2021-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728212514/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/regional-technical-college-in-cork-is-upgraded-to-institute-1.123679|url-status=live}}</ref> was in development. Since 2013 the schools have been managed by [[Education and Training Board]]s, which replaced [[Vocational Education Committee]]s which were largely based on [[Cities in Ireland|city]] or [[Counties of Ireland|county]] boundaries. Establishment of the schools is largely provided by the state; funding is through the block grant system providing about 90% of necessary funding requirements.

Vocational schools typically have [[further education]] courses in addition to the traditional courses at secondary level. For instance, post [[Irish Leaving Certificate|leaving certificate]] courses which are intended for school leavers and pre-[[tertiary education|third level]] education students.

Until the 1970s the vocational schools were seen as inferior to the other schools then available in Ireland. This was mainly because traditional courses such as the leaving certificate were not available at the schools, however this changed with the ''Investment in Education'' (1962) report which resulted in an upgrade in their status. Currently about 24% of secondary education students attend these schools.

====Netherlands====
{{See also|Education in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Ambachtsschool1.JPG|thumb|''Ambachtschool'']]

In the Middle Ages boys learned a vocation through an [[apprenticeship]]. They were usually 10 years old when they entered service, and were first called ''leerling'' ([[apprentice]]), then ''gezel'' ([[journeyman]]) and after an exam - sometimes with an example of workmanship called a ''meesterproef'' ([[masterpiece]]) - they were called ''meester'' ([[master craftsman]]). In 1795, all of the [[guilds]] in the Netherlands were disbanded by [[Napoleon]], and with them the guild vocational schooling system. After the French occupation, in the 1820s, the need for quality education caused more and more cities to form day and evening schools for various trades.
In 1854, the society ''Maatschappij tot verbetering van den werkenden stand'' (society to improve the working class) was founded in Amsterdam, that changed its name in 1861 to the ''Maatschappij voor de Werkende Stand'' (Society for the working class). This society started the first public vocational school (''[[Ambachtschool (Amsterdam)|De Ambachtsschool]]'') in [[Amsterdam]], and many cities followed. At first only for boys, later the ''Huishoudschool'' (housekeeping) was introduced as vocational schooling for girls. Housekeeping education began in 1888 with the [[Haagsche Kookschool]] in [[The Hague]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nuffic.nl/en/study-and-work-in-holland/dutch-education-system/vocational-education-and-training-vet|title=Vocational education and training (VET) — Nuffic English|website=www.nuffic.nl|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074340/https://www.nuffic.nl/en/study-and-work-in-holland/dutch-education-system/vocational-education-and-training-vet|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1968 the ''[[Mammoetwet]]'' law<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/mammoetwet-van-1968|title=Mammoetwet van 1968|date=2012-06-14|work=IsGeschiedenis|access-date=2018-06-29|language=nl|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102259/https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/mammoetwet-van-1968|url-status=live}}</ref> changed all of this, effectively dissolving the Ambachtsschool and the Huishoudschool. The name was changed to LTS (''lagere technische school'', lower technical school), where mainly boys went because of its technical nature, and the other option, where most girls went, was LBO (''lager beroepsonderwijs'', lower vocational education). In 1992 both LTS and LBO changed to VBO (''voorbereidend beroepsonderwijs'', preparatory vocational education) and since 1999 VBO together with MAVO (''middelbaar algemeen voortgezet onderwijs'', intermediate general secondary education) changed to the current VMBO (''voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs'', preparatory intermediate vocational education).

===South Asia===
====India====
{{See also|Vocational education in India}}

In [[India]] vocational schools are mainly run by the government under the guidance of the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship. Courses offered by the Government of India are Udaan, Polytechnics, Parvaaz, National Rural Livelihood Mission, Industrial Training Institutes, Aajeevika mission of national rural livelihood, Craftsmen Training Scheme. The Skill India movement has empowered the standards of all these institutions. Apart from these the [[Central Board of Secondary Education|Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)]] has included many vocational subjects in their senior secondary education.

===East Asia===
====Japan====
In [[Japan]] vocational schools are known as {{Nihongo|''senmon gakkō''|専門学校}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbcjpn.jp/english/guidance/speciality.html|title=What is a Professional Training College (Senmon Gakko)?｜神奈川県川崎市の日本語学校｜（CBC）外語ビジネス専門学校（東京・横浜近郊）|website=www.cbcjpn.jp|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701002720/http://www.cbcjpn.jp/english/guidance/speciality.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They are a part of Japan's [[higher education]] system. There are two-year schools that many students study at after finishing high school (although it is not always required that students graduate from high school). Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Some examples are [[computer technology]], [[fashion]] and [[English language|English]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Education}}
* {{annotated link|Vocational university}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.career.org/ Career College Association website]
* Barry Yeoman, [http://www.barryyeoman.com/articles/scamschools.html Scam Schools], ''Good Housekeeping''
* [http://www.acteonline.org Association of Career and Technical Education (ACTE)]
* [https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/grntprgm.html Paying for Vocational School]
* [https://bluecollarbrain.com/questions-vocational-school/ Questions to Ask a Vocational School],''Blue Collar Brain''

{{Employment}}
{{Schools}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Educational stages]]
[[Category:School systems]]
[[Category:Tertiary education]]
[[Category:Types of university or college]]
[[Category:Types of vocational school]]
[[Category:Vocational schools|*]]

Vocational school

2024-12-07T14:23:33Z

Amherst99: /* Central and Eastern Europe */

{{short description|Higher-level learning institution providing education needed for specific occupations}}
{{redirect|Career center|other uses|Career center (disambiguation)}}
{{confused|Training centre (disambiguation){{!}}training centre}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2013}}
[[File:Fsg wickersdorf tischlerei.jpg|thumb|Students in a carpentry trade school learning woodworking skills, {{c.|1920}}]]
[[File:Dongping County Vocational Secondary School 02.jpg|thumb|Dongping County Vocational Secondary School, China]]

A '''vocational school''', (alternatively known as a '''trade school''', or '''technical school''') is a type of educational institution, which, depending on the country, may refer to either [[secondary education#List of tech ed skills|secondary]] or [[post-secondary]] education<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/95024-2.asp|title=Vocational Education in the US|website=nces.ed.gov|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102252/https://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/95024-2.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> designed to provide [[vocational education]] or [[Technology education#List of tech ed skills|technical skills]] required to complete the tasks of a particular and specific job. In the case of secondary education, these schools differ from academic high schools which usually prepare students who aim to pursue tertiary education, rather than enter directly into the workforce. With regard to post-secondary education, vocational schools are traditionally distinguished from four-year [[colleges]] by their focus on job-specific training to students who are typically bound for one of the [[skilled trade]]s,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.adeccousa.com/employers/resources/skilled-trades-in-demand/|title=Skilled Trades in Demand (Infographic)|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074256/https://www.adeccousa.com/employers/resources/skilled-trades-in-demand/|url-status=live}}</ref> rather than providing academic training for students pursuing careers in a [[professional]] discipline. While many schools have largely adhered to this convention, the purely vocational focus of other trade schools began to shift in the 1990s "toward a broader preparation that develops the academic" as well as the technical skills of their students.<ref>{{cite news | title=Information Literacy in Vocational Education: A Course Model | date=2 Sep 2006 | publisher=White-Clouds.com | url=http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl23XLH.htm | access-date=28 August 2007 | archive-date=25 July 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725164223/http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl23XLH.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Terminology==
[[File:Диплом о среднем профобразовании. Россия. 2021 год.jpg|thumb|Diploma of secondary vocational education in Russia]]
This type of institution may also be called a '''trade school''', '''career center''', '''career college''', or '''vocational college'''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://study.com/vocational_schools.html |title=What are Vocational Schools? |website=Study.com |access-date=2018-06-29 |archive-date=2018-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074417/https://study.com/vocational_schools.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==By Region==
===Oceania===
====Australia====
Vocational schools were called "technical colleges" in Australia,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/what-to-study-in-australia/types-of-education/technical-and-further-education|title=Technical and Further Education (TAFE) {{!}} Study in Australia|work=Studies in Australia|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074201/https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/what-to-study-in-australia/types-of-education/technical-and-further-education|url-status=live}}</ref> and there were more than 20 schools specializing in vocational educational training (VET).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dtwd.wa.gov.au/training/vocational-education-and-training|title=Vocational education and training {{!}} Department of Training and Workforce Development|website=www.dtwd.wa.gov.au|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074348/http://www.dtwd.wa.gov.au/training/vocational-education-and-training|url-status=live}}</ref> Only four technical colleges remain, and these are now referred to as "trade colleges". At these colleges, students complete a modified year 12 certificate and commence a school-based apprenticeship in a trade of their choice. There are two trade colleges in Queensland; Brisbane, the Gold Coast, [[Australian Industry Trade College]] and one in Adelaide, St. Patrick's Technical College, and another in Perth, Australian Trades College.

In Queensland, students can also undertake VET at private and public high schools instead of studying for their overall position (OP), which is a tertiary entrance score. However these students usually undertake more limited vocational education of one day per week whereas in the trade colleges the training is longer.

===North America===
====Canada====
[[File:West Park Secondary School (Toronto).jpg|thumb|left|[[West Park Secondary School]] in Toronto is an example. It was built in 1968 for students with slow learning or special needs.]]

Education in [[Canada]] is a provincial responsibility, and education evolved independently in each province, much like separate countries.
Vocational School is an old antiquated term that was previously used until the late 1960s when the education system evolved from basic primary education to include High School and then technical schools or colleges in the mid 1960s. In the past (pre mid 1960s) some provinces Vocational schools in Western Canada were sometimes called "[[college (Canada)|college]]s" in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vocationalschools.ca/|title=Canadian Vocational Schools & Training Programs|website=www.vocationalschools.ca|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814060134/https://www.vocationalschools.ca/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, a college may also refer to an institution that offers part of a university degree, or credits that may be transferred to a university.

In Ontario Technical schools like Central Technical School in Toronto, which was started in the late 1800s to train workers in the evening, eventually evolved into high schools when the education system was extended to the high school level. When the public education system was expanded in by the early 1920s high school level education was provided in Technical / Commercial Schools or Collegiate Institutes in a hybrid high school/ college level like situation. In [[Ontario]] prior to the mid 1960s a Vocational School was a trades or job training school that provided training in a very focused trades related area, and these were started in the early 1950s, and the few that existed were merged as departments of the Community colleges that were established starting in the mid 1960s .

Secondary schools had evolved into three separated streams: technical schools, commercial and collegiates (the academic schools). By the mid 1960s in suburban areas purpose built High Schools for slow learners or individuals that were being trained for jobs after high school was also termed "vocational schools". By the early late 1960s many of the technical and commercial school programs in large populated areas like around Toronto, were being merged or had purpose built combined schools were being built. While the schools still exist, the curriculum has changed so that no matter which type of school one attends, they can still attend any post-secondary institution and still study a variety of subjects and others (either academic or practical).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/secondary.html|title=Secondary Education|last=Ontario|first=Government of|website=www.edu.gov.on.ca|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625162006/http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/secondary.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In Ontario, the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities divided post-secondary education into universities, community colleges and private career colleges.

In the Province of Quebec, there are some vocational programs offered at institutions called [[CEGEP]]s (''collège d'enseignement général et professionnel''),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mcgill.ca/applying/requirements/qc|title=Quebec CEGEPs, colleges and high schools|website=Applying to Undergraduate Studies|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074331/https://www.mcgill.ca/applying/requirements/qc|url-status=live}}</ref> but these too may function as an introduction to university. Generally, students complete two years at a CEGEP directly out of high school, and then complete three years at a university (rather than the usual four), to earn an undergraduate degree. Alternatively, some CEGEPs offer vocational training, but it is more likely that vocational training will be found at institutions separate from academic institutions, though they may still be called colleges. Although many (if not most) vocational programs are in high school.

====United States====
{{Main|Vocational education in the United States}}
{{See also|Tech certificate|Tech ed}}

In the [[United States]], there is a very large difference between career college and vocational college. The term ''career college'' is generally reserved for post-secondary for-profit institutions. Conversely, vocational schools are government-owned or at least government-supported institutions, requiring two full years of study, and their credits are usually accepted elsewhere in the academic world. In some instances, [[charter school|charter academies]] or [[magnet school]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://magnet.edu/about/what-are-magnet-schools|title=What are Magnet Schools – Magnet Schools of America|last=America|first=Magnet Schools of|website=Magnet.edu|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074259/http://magnet.edu/about/what-are-magnet-schools|url-status=live}}</ref> may take the place of the final years of [[high school]]. Additionally, most schools offer off-campus buildings, or partner with vocational schools in order for students to gain a certificate, as well as gaining the needed credit to graduate. With the dual enrollment, the student would graduate with both their high school diploma, as well as their vocational certificate.

[[File:ITT Technical Institute campus Canton Michigan.JPG|thumb|Educational institution of this type in [[Canton, Michigan|Canton]], [[Michigan]], United States]]

Career colleges on the other hand are generally not government supported in any capacity, occupy periods of study less than a year, and their training and certifications are rarely recognized by the larger academic world. In addition, as most career colleges are [[private school]]s, this group may be further subdivided into non-profit schools and proprietary schools, operated for the sole economic benefit of their owners.

As a result of this emphasis on the commercialization of education, a widespread poor reputation for quality was retained by a great number of career colleges for over promising what the job prospects for their graduates would be in their field of study upon completion of their program, and for emphasizing the number of careers from which a student could choose.

Even though the popularity of career colleges has exploded in recent years, the number of government-sponsored vocational schools in the United States has decreased significantly.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/business/vocational-schools-face-deep-cuts-in-federal-funding.html|title=Vocational Schools Face Deep Cuts in Federal Funding|last=Rich|first=Motoko|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=9 July 2011 |access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629081447/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/business/vocational-schools-face-deep-cuts-in-federal-funding.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Association for Career and Technical Education]] (ACTE) is the largest American national education association dedicated to the advancement of career and technical education or vocational education that prepares youth and adults for careers.

Earlier vocational schools such as the [[California Institute of Technology]]<ref>{{cite web |first=Judith |last=Goodstein |author-link=Judith R. Goodstein |date=1998-06-29 |title=History of Caltech |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/goodstein/index.html |website=NobelPrize.org |access-date=2007-11-19 |archive-date=2007-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030093148/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/goodstein/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Carnegie Mellon University]] have gone on to become full degree-granting institutions.

===Central and Eastern Europe===
{{main|Education in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Vrapice CZ vocational school 008.jpg|thumb|Vrapice Vocational School, Czech Republic]]
[[File:Dózsa György iskola, Martinovics Ignác utca, 2019 Kalocsa.jpg|thumb|György Dózsa Vocational Secondary School, Kalocsa, Hungary]]

In [[Central and Eastern Europe]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/latest/news/vocational-education-and-train.htm|title=Vocational Education and Training throughout Europe|website=www.schooleducationgateway.eu|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2020-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230034604/https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/latest/news/vocational-education-and-train.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> vocational education is represented in the forms of (professional) [[Professional technical school|vocational technical school]]s often abbreviated as PTU, technical colleges (technikum) and technical high school.
;Vocational school (college)
Vocational school or vocational college is considered a post-secondary education type school, but combines the coursework of a [[high school]] and [[junior college]] stretching for six years. In Ukraine, the term is used mostly for sports schools sometimes interchangeably with the term college. Such college could be a separate entity or a branch of bigger university. Successful graduates receive a [[specialist degree]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reimers |first=Fernando M. |title=Audacious Education Purposes. How Governments Transform the Goals of Education Systems |publisher=SpringerOpen}}</ref>
;PTU
{{main|Professional technical school}}
PTUs are usually preparatory [[vocational education]] and are equivalent to the general education of the third degree in the former Soviet education, providing a lower level of vocational education (apprenticeship). It could be compared to a trade [[high school]]. In the 1920-30s, such PTUs were called schools of factory and plant apprenticeship, and later 1940s - vocational schools. Sometime after 1959, the name PTU was established, however, with the reorganization of the Soviet educational system these vocational schools were renamed into lyceums. There were several types of PTUs such as middle city PTU and rural PTU.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVocational6technicalschools.htm|title=Vocational-technical schools|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074400/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVocational6technicalschools.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
;Technicum
{{main|Tekhnikum|Technikum (Polish education)}}
Technical college (technicum) is becoming an obsolete term for a college in different parts of Central and Eastern Europe. Technicums<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCCIJf-yhIC&q=Technicums&pg=PA69|title=Educational Reform in Post-Soviet Russia: Legacies and Prospects|last1=Eklof|first1=Ben|last2=Holmes|first2=Larry Eugene|last3=Kaplan|first3=Vera|date=2005|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780714657059|access-date=2020-11-22|archive-date=2022-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718182218/https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCCIJf-yhIC&q=Technicums&pg=PA69|url-status=live}}</ref> provided a middle level of vocational education. Aside of technicums and PTU there also were vocational schools ([[Russian language|Russian]]: профессиональные училища) that also provided a middle level of vocational education. In 1920-30s Ukraine, technicums were a (technical) vocational [[institute]]s, however, during the 1930-32s Soviet educational reform they were degraded in their accreditation.
;Institute
Institutes were considered a higher level of education; however, unlike universities, they were more oriented to a particular trade. With the reorganization of the Soviet education system, most institutes have been renamed as technical universities.

===Southeast Europe===
In ex-Yugoslavian countries (Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro and North Macedonia) there are technical high schools that can have three or four years courses. If a person finishes three year course he will get a trade degree, or a technician degree if he finishes four. After technical high school a person can go to university. In Croatia there are two types of universities where people can continue their education: Classical universities (Sveučilište) and Universities of applied sciences (Veleučilište). In Universities of applied sciences, after three years students get a bachelors degree like in classical university, and after 5 years they get a professional specialist degree.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}

====Greece====
In [[Greece]] vocational school is known as Vocational Lyceum (2006–Present), it was named Technical Vocational Lyceum (1985–1998). It is an upper secondary education school (high school) of Greece, with a three-year duration. Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Vocational majors are in Electrical Installation, Electronics and Automation, Meganotronics, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Cooling, Nursing, Hairdressing, Graphic Design, Food Technology, Dental Technology, Aesthetic and Makeup, and others.

===Western and Northern Europe===
==== Finland ====
{{See also|Education in Finland}}
[[File:JAMI Lappajärvi 2015-06-18.JPG|thumb|Vocational school in [[Lappajärvi]], Finland]]

The Finnish system is divided between vocational and academic paths.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/finland-education-school-2011-12|title=26 Amazing Facts About Finland's Unorthodox Education System|work=Business Insider|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074354/http://www.businessinsider.com/finland-education-school-2011-12|url-status=live}}</ref> Currently about 47 percent of Finnish students at age 16 go to vocational school. The vocational school is a secondary school for ages 16–21, and prepares the students for entering the workforce. The curriculum includes little academic general education, while the practical skills of each trade are stressed. The education is divided into eight main categories with a total of about 50 trades. The basic categories of education are
* Humanist and educational branch (typical trade: youth- and free-time director)
* Cultural branch (typical trade: artisan, media-assistant)
* The branch of social sciences, business and merchandise (typical trade: vocational qualification in business and administration ({{langx|fi|merkonomi}}))
* Natural science (typical trade: IT worker ({{langx|fi|datanomi}}))
* Technology and traffic (typical trades: machinist, electrician, process worker)
* The branch of natural resources and environment (typical trade: rural entrepreneur, forest worker)
* The branch of social work, health care and physical exercise (typical trade: practical nurse ({{langx|fi|lähihoitaja}}))
* The branch of travel, catering and domestic economics (typical trade: institutional catering worker)

The vocational schools are usually owned by the municipalities, but in special cases, private or state vocational schools exist. The state grants aid to all vocational schools on the same basis, regardless of the owner. On the other hand, the vocational schools are not allowed to operate for profit. The Ministry of Education issues licences to provide vocational education. In the licence, the municipality or a private entity is given permission to train a yearly quota of students for specific trades. The licence also specifies the area where the school must be located and the languages used in the education.

The vocational school students are selected by the schools on the basis of criteria set by the Ministry of Education. The basic qualification for the study is completed nine-year comprehensive school. Anyone may seek admission in any vocational school regardless of their domicile. In certain trades, bad health or invalidity may be acceptable grounds for refusing admission. The students do not pay tuition and they must be provided with health care and a free daily school lunch. Tools and practice material are provided to the students for free. Any necessary books are also free for all students born during or after 2005.

In tertiary education, there are higher vocational schools (''[[ammattikorkeakoulu]]'' which is translated to "polytechnic" or "university of applied sciences"), which give three- to four-year degrees in more involved fields, like engineering (see [[insinööri (amk)]]) and nursing. Having a vocational degree also qualifies a person to apply to a university.<ref>[https://www.infofinland.fi/en/education/applying-for-education-and-training Applying for education and training]</ref>

In contrast to the vocational school, an academically orientated upper secondary school, or senior high school ({{langx|fi|lukio}}) teaches no vocational skills. It prepares students for entering the university or a higher vocational school.

==== France ====

===== ''Lycée Professionnel'' =====
{{See also|Secondary education in France}}
In France, the [[lycée professionnel|''lycée professionnel'']] (LP, formerly known as a ''lycée d'enseignement professionnel'' (LEP)) grants a ''baccalauréat professionnel'' for students who do not plan to continue into higher education. Nearly 100 specialties are covered.

===== University Technical Institutes or ''IUT'' =====
{{See also|Higher education in France}}
In France, at [[post-secondary]] level, there are also [[University technical institute (France)|university technical institutes]] (in French: "''Institut Universitaire de Technologie''") offering vocational [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor's degrees]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=IUT (University Technical Institute) |url=https://www.centpourcent-normandie.fr/en/100normandie/education-and-training/iut-university-technical-institute/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie Caen Normandie |language=en-GB}}</ref>

====Ireland====
{{See also|Education in the Republic of Ireland}}

A vocational school in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] is a type of [[secondary education]] school<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/|title=Irish Education System|work=Department of Education and Skills|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102244/https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/|url-status=live}}</ref> which places a large emphasis on [[vocational education|vocational]] and [[technical education]]; this led to some conflict in the 1960s when the [[Institutes of Technology in Ireland|Regional Technical College]] system<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/regional-technical-college-in-cork-is-upgraded-to-institute-1.123679|title=Regional technical college in Cork is upgraded to institute|newspaper=The Irish Times|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2021-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728212514/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/regional-technical-college-in-cork-is-upgraded-to-institute-1.123679|url-status=live}}</ref> was in development. Since 2013 the schools have been managed by [[Education and Training Board]]s, which replaced [[Vocational Education Committee]]s which were largely based on [[Cities in Ireland|city]] or [[Counties of Ireland|county]] boundaries. Establishment of the schools is largely provided by the state; funding is through the block grant system providing about 90% of necessary funding requirements.

Vocational schools typically have [[further education]] courses in addition to the traditional courses at secondary level. For instance, post [[Irish Leaving Certificate|leaving certificate]] courses which are intended for school leavers and pre-[[tertiary education|third level]] education students.

Until the 1970s the vocational schools were seen as inferior to the other schools then available in Ireland. This was mainly because traditional courses such as the leaving certificate were not available at the schools, however this changed with the ''Investment in Education'' (1962) report which resulted in an upgrade in their status. Currently about 24% of secondary education students attend these schools.

====Netherlands====
{{See also|Education in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Ambachtsschool1.JPG|thumb|''Ambachtschool'']]

In the Middle Ages boys learned a vocation through an [[apprenticeship]]. They were usually 10 years old when they entered service, and were first called ''leerling'' ([[apprentice]]), then ''gezel'' ([[journeyman]]) and after an exam - sometimes with an example of workmanship called a ''meesterproef'' ([[masterpiece]]) - they were called ''meester'' ([[master craftsman]]). In 1795, all of the [[guilds]] in the Netherlands were disbanded by [[Napoleon]], and with them the guild vocational schooling system. After the French occupation, in the 1820s, the need for quality education caused more and more cities to form day and evening schools for various trades.
In 1854, the society ''Maatschappij tot verbetering van den werkenden stand'' (society to improve the working class) was founded in Amsterdam, that changed its name in 1861 to the ''Maatschappij voor de Werkende Stand'' (Society for the working class). This society started the first public vocational school (''[[Ambachtschool (Amsterdam)|De Ambachtsschool]]'') in [[Amsterdam]], and many cities followed. At first only for boys, later the ''Huishoudschool'' (housekeeping) was introduced as vocational schooling for girls. Housekeeping education began in 1888 with the [[Haagsche Kookschool]] in [[The Hague]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nuffic.nl/en/study-and-work-in-holland/dutch-education-system/vocational-education-and-training-vet|title=Vocational education and training (VET) — Nuffic English|website=www.nuffic.nl|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074340/https://www.nuffic.nl/en/study-and-work-in-holland/dutch-education-system/vocational-education-and-training-vet|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1968 the ''[[Mammoetwet]]'' law<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/mammoetwet-van-1968|title=Mammoetwet van 1968|date=2012-06-14|work=IsGeschiedenis|access-date=2018-06-29|language=nl|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102259/https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/mammoetwet-van-1968|url-status=live}}</ref> changed all of this, effectively dissolving the Ambachtsschool and the Huishoudschool. The name was changed to LTS (''lagere technische school'', lower technical school), where mainly boys went because of its technical nature, and the other option, where most girls went, was LBO (''lager beroepsonderwijs'', lower vocational education). In 1992 both LTS and LBO changed to VBO (''voorbereidend beroepsonderwijs'', preparatory vocational education) and since 1999 VBO together with MAVO (''middelbaar algemeen voortgezet onderwijs'', intermediate general secondary education) changed to the current VMBO (''voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs'', preparatory intermediate vocational education).

===South Asia===
====India====
{{See also|Vocational education in India}}

In [[India]] vocational schools are mainly run by the government under the guidance of the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship. Courses offered by the Government of India are Udaan, Polytechnics, Parvaaz, National Rural Livelihood Mission, Industrial Training Institutes, Aajeevika mission of national rural livelihood, Craftsmen Training Scheme. The Skill India movement has empowered the standards of all these institutions. Apart from these the [[Central Board of Secondary Education|Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)]] has included many vocational subjects in their senior secondary education.

===East Asia===
====Japan====
In [[Japan]] vocational schools are known as {{Nihongo|''senmon gakkō''|専門学校}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbcjpn.jp/english/guidance/speciality.html|title=What is a Professional Training College (Senmon Gakko)?｜神奈川県川崎市の日本語学校｜（CBC）外語ビジネス専門学校（東京・横浜近郊）|website=www.cbcjpn.jp|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701002720/http://www.cbcjpn.jp/english/guidance/speciality.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They are a part of Japan's [[higher education]] system. There are two-year schools that many students study at after finishing high school (although it is not always required that students graduate from high school). Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Some examples are [[computer technology]], [[fashion]] and [[English language|English]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Education}}
* {{annotated link|Vocational university}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.career.org/ Career College Association website]
* Barry Yeoman, [http://www.barryyeoman.com/articles/scamschools.html Scam Schools], ''Good Housekeeping''
* [http://www.acteonline.org Association of Career and Technical Education (ACTE)]
* [https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/grntprgm.html Paying for Vocational School]
* [https://bluecollarbrain.com/questions-vocational-school/ Questions to Ask a Vocational School],''Blue Collar Brain''

{{Employment}}
{{Schools}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Educational stages]]
[[Category:School systems]]
[[Category:Tertiary education]]
[[Category:Types of university or college]]
[[Category:Types of vocational school]]
[[Category:Vocational schools|*]]

Vocational school

2024-12-07T14:22:19Z

Amherst99: /* Central and Eastern Europe */

{{short description|Higher-level learning institution providing education needed for specific occupations}}
{{redirect|Career center|other uses|Career center (disambiguation)}}
{{confused|Training centre (disambiguation){{!}}training centre}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2013}}
[[File:Fsg wickersdorf tischlerei.jpg|thumb|Students in a carpentry trade school learning woodworking skills, {{c.|1920}}]]
[[File:Dongping County Vocational Secondary School 02.jpg|thumb|Dongping County Vocational Secondary School, China]]

A '''vocational school''', (alternatively known as a '''trade school''', or '''technical school''') is a type of educational institution, which, depending on the country, may refer to either [[secondary education#List of tech ed skills|secondary]] or [[post-secondary]] education<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/95024-2.asp|title=Vocational Education in the US|website=nces.ed.gov|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102252/https://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/95024-2.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> designed to provide [[vocational education]] or [[Technology education#List of tech ed skills|technical skills]] required to complete the tasks of a particular and specific job. In the case of secondary education, these schools differ from academic high schools which usually prepare students who aim to pursue tertiary education, rather than enter directly into the workforce. With regard to post-secondary education, vocational schools are traditionally distinguished from four-year [[colleges]] by their focus on job-specific training to students who are typically bound for one of the [[skilled trade]]s,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.adeccousa.com/employers/resources/skilled-trades-in-demand/|title=Skilled Trades in Demand (Infographic)|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074256/https://www.adeccousa.com/employers/resources/skilled-trades-in-demand/|url-status=live}}</ref> rather than providing academic training for students pursuing careers in a [[professional]] discipline. While many schools have largely adhered to this convention, the purely vocational focus of other trade schools began to shift in the 1990s "toward a broader preparation that develops the academic" as well as the technical skills of their students.<ref>{{cite news | title=Information Literacy in Vocational Education: A Course Model | date=2 Sep 2006 | publisher=White-Clouds.com | url=http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl23XLH.htm | access-date=28 August 2007 | archive-date=25 July 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725164223/http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl23XLH.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Terminology==
[[File:Диплом о среднем профобразовании. Россия. 2021 год.jpg|thumb|Diploma of secondary vocational education in Russia]]
This type of institution may also be called a '''trade school''', '''career center''', '''career college''', or '''vocational college'''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://study.com/vocational_schools.html |title=What are Vocational Schools? |website=Study.com |access-date=2018-06-29 |archive-date=2018-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074417/https://study.com/vocational_schools.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==By Region==
===Oceania===
====Australia====
Vocational schools were called "technical colleges" in Australia,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/what-to-study-in-australia/types-of-education/technical-and-further-education|title=Technical and Further Education (TAFE) {{!}} Study in Australia|work=Studies in Australia|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074201/https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/what-to-study-in-australia/types-of-education/technical-and-further-education|url-status=live}}</ref> and there were more than 20 schools specializing in vocational educational training (VET).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dtwd.wa.gov.au/training/vocational-education-and-training|title=Vocational education and training {{!}} Department of Training and Workforce Development|website=www.dtwd.wa.gov.au|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074348/http://www.dtwd.wa.gov.au/training/vocational-education-and-training|url-status=live}}</ref> Only four technical colleges remain, and these are now referred to as "trade colleges". At these colleges, students complete a modified year 12 certificate and commence a school-based apprenticeship in a trade of their choice. There are two trade colleges in Queensland; Brisbane, the Gold Coast, [[Australian Industry Trade College]] and one in Adelaide, St. Patrick's Technical College, and another in Perth, Australian Trades College.

In Queensland, students can also undertake VET at private and public high schools instead of studying for their overall position (OP), which is a tertiary entrance score. However these students usually undertake more limited vocational education of one day per week whereas in the trade colleges the training is longer.

===North America===
====Canada====
[[File:West Park Secondary School (Toronto).jpg|thumb|left|[[West Park Secondary School]] in Toronto is an example. It was built in 1968 for students with slow learning or special needs.]]

Education in [[Canada]] is a provincial responsibility, and education evolved independently in each province, much like separate countries.
Vocational School is an old antiquated term that was previously used until the late 1960s when the education system evolved from basic primary education to include High School and then technical schools or colleges in the mid 1960s. In the past (pre mid 1960s) some provinces Vocational schools in Western Canada were sometimes called "[[college (Canada)|college]]s" in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vocationalschools.ca/|title=Canadian Vocational Schools & Training Programs|website=www.vocationalschools.ca|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814060134/https://www.vocationalschools.ca/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, a college may also refer to an institution that offers part of a university degree, or credits that may be transferred to a university.

In Ontario Technical schools like Central Technical School in Toronto, which was started in the late 1800s to train workers in the evening, eventually evolved into high schools when the education system was extended to the high school level. When the public education system was expanded in by the early 1920s high school level education was provided in Technical / Commercial Schools or Collegiate Institutes in a hybrid high school/ college level like situation. In [[Ontario]] prior to the mid 1960s a Vocational School was a trades or job training school that provided training in a very focused trades related area, and these were started in the early 1950s, and the few that existed were merged as departments of the Community colleges that were established starting in the mid 1960s .

Secondary schools had evolved into three separated streams: technical schools, commercial and collegiates (the academic schools). By the mid 1960s in suburban areas purpose built High Schools for slow learners or individuals that were being trained for jobs after high school was also termed "vocational schools". By the early late 1960s many of the technical and commercial school programs in large populated areas like around Toronto, were being merged or had purpose built combined schools were being built. While the schools still exist, the curriculum has changed so that no matter which type of school one attends, they can still attend any post-secondary institution and still study a variety of subjects and others (either academic or practical).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/secondary.html|title=Secondary Education|last=Ontario|first=Government of|website=www.edu.gov.on.ca|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625162006/http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/secondary.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In Ontario, the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities divided post-secondary education into universities, community colleges and private career colleges.

In the Province of Quebec, there are some vocational programs offered at institutions called [[CEGEP]]s (''collège d'enseignement général et professionnel''),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mcgill.ca/applying/requirements/qc|title=Quebec CEGEPs, colleges and high schools|website=Applying to Undergraduate Studies|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074331/https://www.mcgill.ca/applying/requirements/qc|url-status=live}}</ref> but these too may function as an introduction to university. Generally, students complete two years at a CEGEP directly out of high school, and then complete three years at a university (rather than the usual four), to earn an undergraduate degree. Alternatively, some CEGEPs offer vocational training, but it is more likely that vocational training will be found at institutions separate from academic institutions, though they may still be called colleges. Although many (if not most) vocational programs are in high school.

====United States====
{{Main|Vocational education in the United States}}
{{See also|Tech certificate|Tech ed}}

In the [[United States]], there is a very large difference between career college and vocational college. The term ''career college'' is generally reserved for post-secondary for-profit institutions. Conversely, vocational schools are government-owned or at least government-supported institutions, requiring two full years of study, and their credits are usually accepted elsewhere in the academic world. In some instances, [[charter school|charter academies]] or [[magnet school]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://magnet.edu/about/what-are-magnet-schools|title=What are Magnet Schools – Magnet Schools of America|last=America|first=Magnet Schools of|website=Magnet.edu|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074259/http://magnet.edu/about/what-are-magnet-schools|url-status=live}}</ref> may take the place of the final years of [[high school]]. Additionally, most schools offer off-campus buildings, or partner with vocational schools in order for students to gain a certificate, as well as gaining the needed credit to graduate. With the dual enrollment, the student would graduate with both their high school diploma, as well as their vocational certificate.

[[File:ITT Technical Institute campus Canton Michigan.JPG|thumb|Educational institution of this type in [[Canton, Michigan|Canton]], [[Michigan]], United States]]

Career colleges on the other hand are generally not government supported in any capacity, occupy periods of study less than a year, and their training and certifications are rarely recognized by the larger academic world. In addition, as most career colleges are [[private school]]s, this group may be further subdivided into non-profit schools and proprietary schools, operated for the sole economic benefit of their owners.

As a result of this emphasis on the commercialization of education, a widespread poor reputation for quality was retained by a great number of career colleges for over promising what the job prospects for their graduates would be in their field of study upon completion of their program, and for emphasizing the number of careers from which a student could choose.

Even though the popularity of career colleges has exploded in recent years, the number of government-sponsored vocational schools in the United States has decreased significantly.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/business/vocational-schools-face-deep-cuts-in-federal-funding.html|title=Vocational Schools Face Deep Cuts in Federal Funding|last=Rich|first=Motoko|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=9 July 2011 |access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629081447/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/business/vocational-schools-face-deep-cuts-in-federal-funding.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Association for Career and Technical Education]] (ACTE) is the largest American national education association dedicated to the advancement of career and technical education or vocational education that prepares youth and adults for careers.

Earlier vocational schools such as the [[California Institute of Technology]]<ref>{{cite web |first=Judith |last=Goodstein |author-link=Judith R. Goodstein |date=1998-06-29 |title=History of Caltech |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/goodstein/index.html |website=NobelPrize.org |access-date=2007-11-19 |archive-date=2007-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030093148/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/goodstein/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Carnegie Mellon University]] have gone on to become full degree-granting institutions.

===Central and Eastern Europe===
{{main|Education in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Vrapice CZ vocational school 008.jpg|thumb|Vrapice Vocational School, Czech Republic]]
[[File:Dózsa György iskola, Martinovics Ignác utca, 2019 Kalocsa.jpg|thumb|György Dózsa Vocational Secondary School, Kalocsa, Hungary]]

In [[Central and Eastern Europe]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/latest/news/vocational-education-and-train.htm|title=Vocational Education and Training throughout Europe|website=www.schooleducationgateway.eu|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2020-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230034604/https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/latest/news/vocational-education-and-train.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> vocational education is represented in the forms of (professional) [[Professional technical school|vocational technical school]]s often abbreviated as PTU, technical colleges (technikum) and technical high school.
;Vocational school (college)
Vocational school or vocational college is considered a post-secondary education type school, but combines the coursework of a [[high school]] and [[junior college]] stretching for six years. In Ukraine, the term is used mostly for sports schools sometimes interchangeably with the term college. Such college could be a separate entity or a branch of bigger university. Successful graduates receive a [[specialist degree]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reimers |first=Fernando M. |title=Audacious Education Purposes. How Governments Transform the Goals of Education Systems |publisher=SpringerOpen}}</ref>
;PTU
{{main|Professional technical school}}
PTUs are usually preparatory [[vocational education]] and are equivalent to the general education of the third degree in the former Soviet education, providing a lower level of vocational education (apprenticeship). It could be compared to a trade [[high school]]. In the 1920-30s, such PTUs were called schools of factory and plant apprenticeship, and later 1940s - vocational schools. Sometime after 1959, the name PTU was established, however, with the reorganization of the Soviet educational system these vocational schools were renamed into lyceums. There were several types of PTUs such as middle city PTU and rural PTU.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVocational6technicalschools.htm|title=Vocational-technical schools|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074400/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVocational6technicalschools.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
;Technicum
{{main|Tekhnikum|Technikum (Polish education)}}
Technical college (technicum) is becoming an obsolete term for a college in different parts of Central and Eastern Europe. Technicums<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCCIJf-yhIC&q=Technicums&pg=PA69|title=Educational Reform in Post-Soviet Russia: Legacies and Prospects|last1=Eklof|first1=Ben|last2=Holmes|first2=Larry Eugene|last3=Kaplan|first3=Vera|date=2005|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780714657059|access-date=2020-11-22|archive-date=2022-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718182218/https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCCIJf-yhIC&q=Technicums&pg=PA69|url-status=live}}</ref> provided a middle level of vocational education. Aside of technicums and PTU there also were vocational schools ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Профессиональные училища) that also provided a middle level of vocational education. In 1920-30s Ukraine, technicums were a (technical) vocational [[institute]]s, however, during the 1930-32s Soviet educational reform they were degraded in their accreditation.
;Institute
Institutes were considered a higher level of education; however, unlike universities, they were more oriented to a particular trade. With the reorganization of the Soviet education system, most institutes have been renamed as technical universities.

===Southeast Europe===
In ex-Yugoslavian countries (Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro and North Macedonia) there are technical high schools that can have three or four years courses. If a person finishes three year course he will get a trade degree, or a technician degree if he finishes four. After technical high school a person can go to university. In Croatia there are two types of universities where people can continue their education: Classical universities (Sveučilište) and Universities of applied sciences (Veleučilište). In Universities of applied sciences, after three years students get a bachelors degree like in classical university, and after 5 years they get a professional specialist degree.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}

====Greece====
In [[Greece]] vocational school is known as Vocational Lyceum (2006–Present), it was named Technical Vocational Lyceum (1985–1998). It is an upper secondary education school (high school) of Greece, with a three-year duration. Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Vocational majors are in Electrical Installation, Electronics and Automation, Meganotronics, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Cooling, Nursing, Hairdressing, Graphic Design, Food Technology, Dental Technology, Aesthetic and Makeup, and others.

===Western and Northern Europe===
==== Finland ====
{{See also|Education in Finland}}
[[File:JAMI Lappajärvi 2015-06-18.JPG|thumb|Vocational school in [[Lappajärvi]], Finland]]

The Finnish system is divided between vocational and academic paths.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/finland-education-school-2011-12|title=26 Amazing Facts About Finland's Unorthodox Education System|work=Business Insider|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074354/http://www.businessinsider.com/finland-education-school-2011-12|url-status=live}}</ref> Currently about 47 percent of Finnish students at age 16 go to vocational school. The vocational school is a secondary school for ages 16–21, and prepares the students for entering the workforce. The curriculum includes little academic general education, while the practical skills of each trade are stressed. The education is divided into eight main categories with a total of about 50 trades. The basic categories of education are
* Humanist and educational branch (typical trade: youth- and free-time director)
* Cultural branch (typical trade: artisan, media-assistant)
* The branch of social sciences, business and merchandise (typical trade: vocational qualification in business and administration ({{langx|fi|merkonomi}}))
* Natural science (typical trade: IT worker ({{langx|fi|datanomi}}))
* Technology and traffic (typical trades: machinist, electrician, process worker)
* The branch of natural resources and environment (typical trade: rural entrepreneur, forest worker)
* The branch of social work, health care and physical exercise (typical trade: practical nurse ({{langx|fi|lähihoitaja}}))
* The branch of travel, catering and domestic economics (typical trade: institutional catering worker)

The vocational schools are usually owned by the municipalities, but in special cases, private or state vocational schools exist. The state grants aid to all vocational schools on the same basis, regardless of the owner. On the other hand, the vocational schools are not allowed to operate for profit. The Ministry of Education issues licences to provide vocational education. In the licence, the municipality or a private entity is given permission to train a yearly quota of students for specific trades. The licence also specifies the area where the school must be located and the languages used in the education.

The vocational school students are selected by the schools on the basis of criteria set by the Ministry of Education. The basic qualification for the study is completed nine-year comprehensive school. Anyone may seek admission in any vocational school regardless of their domicile. In certain trades, bad health or invalidity may be acceptable grounds for refusing admission. The students do not pay tuition and they must be provided with health care and a free daily school lunch. Tools and practice material are provided to the students for free. Any necessary books are also free for all students born during or after 2005.

In tertiary education, there are higher vocational schools (''[[ammattikorkeakoulu]]'' which is translated to "polytechnic" or "university of applied sciences"), which give three- to four-year degrees in more involved fields, like engineering (see [[insinööri (amk)]]) and nursing. Having a vocational degree also qualifies a person to apply to a university.<ref>[https://www.infofinland.fi/en/education/applying-for-education-and-training Applying for education and training]</ref>

In contrast to the vocational school, an academically orientated upper secondary school, or senior high school ({{langx|fi|lukio}}) teaches no vocational skills. It prepares students for entering the university or a higher vocational school.

==== France ====

===== ''Lycée Professionnel'' =====
{{See also|Secondary education in France}}
In France, the [[lycée professionnel|''lycée professionnel'']] (LP, formerly known as a ''lycée d'enseignement professionnel'' (LEP)) grants a ''baccalauréat professionnel'' for students who do not plan to continue into higher education. Nearly 100 specialties are covered.

===== University Technical Institutes or ''IUT'' =====
{{See also|Higher education in France}}
In France, at [[post-secondary]] level, there are also [[University technical institute (France)|university technical institutes]] (in French: "''Institut Universitaire de Technologie''") offering vocational [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor's degrees]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=IUT (University Technical Institute) |url=https://www.centpourcent-normandie.fr/en/100normandie/education-and-training/iut-university-technical-institute/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie Caen Normandie |language=en-GB}}</ref>

====Ireland====
{{See also|Education in the Republic of Ireland}}

A vocational school in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] is a type of [[secondary education]] school<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/|title=Irish Education System|work=Department of Education and Skills|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102244/https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/|url-status=live}}</ref> which places a large emphasis on [[vocational education|vocational]] and [[technical education]]; this led to some conflict in the 1960s when the [[Institutes of Technology in Ireland|Regional Technical College]] system<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/regional-technical-college-in-cork-is-upgraded-to-institute-1.123679|title=Regional technical college in Cork is upgraded to institute|newspaper=The Irish Times|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2021-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728212514/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/regional-technical-college-in-cork-is-upgraded-to-institute-1.123679|url-status=live}}</ref> was in development. Since 2013 the schools have been managed by [[Education and Training Board]]s, which replaced [[Vocational Education Committee]]s which were largely based on [[Cities in Ireland|city]] or [[Counties of Ireland|county]] boundaries. Establishment of the schools is largely provided by the state; funding is through the block grant system providing about 90% of necessary funding requirements.

Vocational schools typically have [[further education]] courses in addition to the traditional courses at secondary level. For instance, post [[Irish Leaving Certificate|leaving certificate]] courses which are intended for school leavers and pre-[[tertiary education|third level]] education students.

Until the 1970s the vocational schools were seen as inferior to the other schools then available in Ireland. This was mainly because traditional courses such as the leaving certificate were not available at the schools, however this changed with the ''Investment in Education'' (1962) report which resulted in an upgrade in their status. Currently about 24% of secondary education students attend these schools.

====Netherlands====
{{See also|Education in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Ambachtsschool1.JPG|thumb|''Ambachtschool'']]

In the Middle Ages boys learned a vocation through an [[apprenticeship]]. They were usually 10 years old when they entered service, and were first called ''leerling'' ([[apprentice]]), then ''gezel'' ([[journeyman]]) and after an exam - sometimes with an example of workmanship called a ''meesterproef'' ([[masterpiece]]) - they were called ''meester'' ([[master craftsman]]). In 1795, all of the [[guilds]] in the Netherlands were disbanded by [[Napoleon]], and with them the guild vocational schooling system. After the French occupation, in the 1820s, the need for quality education caused more and more cities to form day and evening schools for various trades.
In 1854, the society ''Maatschappij tot verbetering van den werkenden stand'' (society to improve the working class) was founded in Amsterdam, that changed its name in 1861 to the ''Maatschappij voor de Werkende Stand'' (Society for the working class). This society started the first public vocational school (''[[Ambachtschool (Amsterdam)|De Ambachtsschool]]'') in [[Amsterdam]], and many cities followed. At first only for boys, later the ''Huishoudschool'' (housekeeping) was introduced as vocational schooling for girls. Housekeeping education began in 1888 with the [[Haagsche Kookschool]] in [[The Hague]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nuffic.nl/en/study-and-work-in-holland/dutch-education-system/vocational-education-and-training-vet|title=Vocational education and training (VET) — Nuffic English|website=www.nuffic.nl|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074340/https://www.nuffic.nl/en/study-and-work-in-holland/dutch-education-system/vocational-education-and-training-vet|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1968 the ''[[Mammoetwet]]'' law<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/mammoetwet-van-1968|title=Mammoetwet van 1968|date=2012-06-14|work=IsGeschiedenis|access-date=2018-06-29|language=nl|archive-date=2018-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102259/https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/mammoetwet-van-1968|url-status=live}}</ref> changed all of this, effectively dissolving the Ambachtsschool and the Huishoudschool. The name was changed to LTS (''lagere technische school'', lower technical school), where mainly boys went because of its technical nature, and the other option, where most girls went, was LBO (''lager beroepsonderwijs'', lower vocational education). In 1992 both LTS and LBO changed to VBO (''voorbereidend beroepsonderwijs'', preparatory vocational education) and since 1999 VBO together with MAVO (''middelbaar algemeen voortgezet onderwijs'', intermediate general secondary education) changed to the current VMBO (''voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs'', preparatory intermediate vocational education).

===South Asia===
====India====
{{See also|Vocational education in India}}

In [[India]] vocational schools are mainly run by the government under the guidance of the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship. Courses offered by the Government of India are Udaan, Polytechnics, Parvaaz, National Rural Livelihood Mission, Industrial Training Institutes, Aajeevika mission of national rural livelihood, Craftsmen Training Scheme. The Skill India movement has empowered the standards of all these institutions. Apart from these the [[Central Board of Secondary Education|Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)]] has included many vocational subjects in their senior secondary education.

===East Asia===
====Japan====
In [[Japan]] vocational schools are known as {{Nihongo|''senmon gakkō''|専門学校}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbcjpn.jp/english/guidance/speciality.html|title=What is a Professional Training College (Senmon Gakko)?｜神奈川県川崎市の日本語学校｜（CBC）外語ビジネス専門学校（東京・横浜近郊）|website=www.cbcjpn.jp|access-date=2018-06-29|archive-date=2018-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701002720/http://www.cbcjpn.jp/english/guidance/speciality.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They are a part of Japan's [[higher education]] system. There are two-year schools that many students study at after finishing high school (although it is not always required that students graduate from high school). Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Some examples are [[computer technology]], [[fashion]] and [[English language|English]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Education}}
* {{annotated link|Vocational university}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.career.org/ Career College Association website]
* Barry Yeoman, [http://www.barryyeoman.com/articles/scamschools.html Scam Schools], ''Good Housekeeping''
* [http://www.acteonline.org Association of Career and Technical Education (ACTE)]
* [https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/grntprgm.html Paying for Vocational School]
* [https://bluecollarbrain.com/questions-vocational-school/ Questions to Ask a Vocational School],''Blue Collar Brain''

{{Employment}}
{{Schools}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Educational stages]]
[[Category:School systems]]
[[Category:Tertiary education]]
[[Category:Types of university or college]]
[[Category:Types of vocational school]]
[[Category:Vocational schools|*]]

General Staff Academy (Russian Empire)

2024-12-07T12:46:19Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Russian military academy (1832–1918)}}
[[File:General Staff Academy (Imperial Russia) (1).JPG|250px|thumb|{{center|Imperial Nicholas Military General staff Academy (1832–1918)}}]]
The '''General Staff Academy''' ({{Langx|ru|Академия Генерального штаба, or Akademiya General'nogo shtaba}}) was a Russian [[military academy]], established in 1832 in [[St.Petersburg]]. It was first known as the '''Imperial Military Academy''' (Императорская военная академия), then in 1855 it was renamed '''Nicholas General Staff Academy''' (in commemoration of [[Nicholas I of Russia|Emperor Nicholas I]]) and in 1909 - '''Imperial Nicholas Military Academy''' (Императорская Николаевская военная академия).

According to [[Peter Kenez]], "The Nicholas Academy, or Staff College, gave the highest military education in Russia. The Academy was organized, as were many institutions of the Russian army, on the German model. Only the best officers, after some years of service in regiments, could enter this academy. Of the annual 150 graduates, the 50 best students received appointment at the General Staff and the others returned to their regiments. Practically the entire high command of the Russian army in the [[WWI|World War]] and the [[Volunteer Army]] in the [[Russian Civil War|Civil War]] were graduates of the College of the General Staff."<ref name="pk">{{cite book |last1=Kenez |first1=Peter |title=Red Attack, White Resistance; Civil War in South Russia 1918 |date=2004 |publisher=New Academia Publishing |location=Washington, DC |isbn=9780974493442 |pages=16}}</ref>

The academy trained [[Imperial Russian Army]] officers with higher military education and military [[Surveying|land survey]]ors. It admitted officers of all arms of military service up to the rank of [[stabs-captain]] inclusive. The academy offered two principal courses, one additional course and had a [[geodesic]] department. Those who graduated from the additional course used to join the [[General Staff]]. The alumni had the right to an accelerated promotion to the next rank and commanding posts. The academy used to employ theoreticians and historians, such as [[Mikhail Dragomirov]], [[Dmitry Milyutin]], [[Alexander Myshlayevsky]]. From 1832 to 1918, the General Staff Academy trained 4,532 General Staff officers.

Among academy's alumni were [[Abdolhossein Teymourtash]], [[Nikolai Obruchev]], [[Fyodor Radetsky]], [[Mikhail Skobelev]], and [[Nikolai Stoletov]]. Many of its alumni would become leaders of the [[White movement]], such as [[Aleksandr Kolchak]] and [[Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel|Pyotr Wrangel]]. Some others would take the side of the [[Bolsheviks]] as military experts and become [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] military leaders and politicians, such as [[Mikhail Bonch-Bruevich]], [[Jukums Vācietis]], [[Sergei Kamenev]], [[Boris Shaposhnikov]], [[Vladimir Egoryev]]. Most of these commanders were executed in the 1930s.

Also several [[Estonia]]n military leaders, such as [[Johan Laidoner]], [[Jaan Soots]] and [[Andres Larka]], came from General Staff Academy. One of its graduates, [[Mykola Kapustiansky]], would become a General in the army of the [[Ukrainian National Republic]] and later a founder of the [[Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists]].

In March 1918, the General Staff Academy was transformed into the [[Red Army Military Academy]]. In the summer of that same year, the academy was evacuated to [[Kazan]], where its staff would join the [[Volunteer Army]] of Admiral Kolchak. In 1921, the General Staff Academy was disbanded. The term was reintroduced in 1936, when the [[Voroshilov Military Academy of the USSR Army General Staff]] was established.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[Soviet military academies]]
*[[General Staff Academy (Russia)]]

==External links==
{{commonscat-inline}}

{{coord missing|Saint Petersburg}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Defunct military academies]]
[[Category:Military academies of the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Staff colleges]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1832]]
[[Category:1832 establishments in the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:History of Saint Petersburg]]
[[Category:Cultural heritage monuments of regional significance in Saint Petersburg]]

Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment

2024-12-07T11:27:47Z

Amherst99:

{{short description|Government ministry of Finland}}
{{Infobox government agency
| name = Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment
| native_name =
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| minister1_name = [[Wille Rydman]]
| minister1_pfo = [[Minister of Economic Affairs (Finland)|Minister of Economic Affairs]]
| minister2_name = [[Arto Satonen]]
| minister2_pfo = [[Minister of Employment (Finland)|Minister of Employment]]<ref name="yle1">{{cite web |title=Tässä ovat Marinin hallituksen ministerit – joukko äänikuningattaria, pikapaluun tekijä, maailman nuorin pääministeri |url=https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-11108950 |publisher=Yle |language= Finnish |accessdate=10 December 2019 |date=9 December 2019}}</ref>
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{{Politics of Finland}}

The '''Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment''' ('''TEM''', {{langx|fi|Työ- ja elinkeinoministeriö}}, {{Langx|sv|Arbets- och näringsministeriet}}) is one of the ministries of the [[Finnish Government]]. The ministry implements industry, labor, and local development policies.

There are two ministerial portfolios located within the ministry:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tem.fi/johto-ja-organisaatio|title=Työ- ja elinkeinoministeriön johto ja organisaatio|website=Työ- ja elinkeinoministeriö|language=fi-FI|access-date=2018-03-24}}</ref>
* [[Minister of Economic Affairs (Finland)|Minister of Economic Affairs]]
* [[Minister of Employment (Finland)|Minister of Employment]]

The ministry was formed in 2008 by merging the former Ministry of Labour (''työministeriö''), the former [[Minister of Trade and Industry (Finland)|Ministry of Trade and Industry]] (''kauppa- ja teollisuusministeriö''), and parts of the [[Ministry of the Interior (Finland)|Ministry of the Interior]] (''sisäministeriö'') related to local administration. The first minister was [[Mauri Pekkarinen]]. The combination was called ''superministeriö'' because it was so large and diverse. The intention of the merger was to make sure that labor policy and industrial policy, as well as others such as immigration policy and regional policy, are coordinated and don't go separate ways.

The ministry manages 15 local employment and economy offices, 15 local [[Centre for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment|Centres for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment]] and a host of separate national agencies.

== Agencies ==

Government agencies:
* Energy authority
* Finnish Competition and Consumer Authority
* Finnish Patent and Registration Office
* [[Geological Survey of Finland]]
* [[National Emergency Supply Agency]]
* The [[Finnish Safety and Chemicals Agency]] (Tukes)

Companies:
* [[Business Finland]] Ltd
* Finnvera Plc
* Industry Investment Ltd
* [[VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland]] Ltd
* Finnish Minerals Group

Funds:
* Nuclear Waste Management Fund
* Security of Supply Fund
* State Guarantee Fund

== See also ==
* [[Finnfacts]], Finnish media organisation
* [[List of Finnish government enterprises]]
* [[Solidium]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|https://tem.fi/}}

{{Finnish_Ministries}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Government ministries of Finland|Employment]]
[[Category:Government of Finland]]

Karl Parts

2024-12-06T21:21:01Z

Amherst99: /* References */

{{Short description|Estonian military commander}}
{{More footnotes|date=January 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox military person
| name = Karl Parts
| birth_date = {{birth date|1886|7|15|df=y}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1941|9|1|1886|7|15|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Palupera Parish]], [[Estonia]]
| death_place = [[Kirov, Kirov Oblast|Kirov]], [[Soviet Union]]
| image = Karl Parts1.jpg
| caption =
| nickname =
| allegiance = {{flag|Estonia}}
| branch = [[Estonia]]
| serviceyears = 1914–1917 [[Imperial Russian Army]] 1918–1925 [[Military of Estonia|Estonian Army]]
| rank = [[Colonel]]
| unit = [[Estonian Army]]
| battles = [[World War I]] [[Estonian War of Independence]]
| awards = [[Cross of Liberty (Estonia)|Cross of Liberty]]
| laterwork = Farmer
}}
'''Karl Parts''' [[Cross of Liberty (Estonia)|VR I/1, VR II/2, VR II/3]] (15 July 1886 in [[Palupera Parish]], [[Estonia]] – 1 September 1941 in [[Kirov, Kirov Oblast|Kirov]], [[Soviet Union]]) was an Estonian military commander during the [[Estonian War of Independence]].

In 1915, he graduated from [[Petergof|Peterhof]] Military School, and participated in [[World War I]]. In July 1917, Parts joined the Estonian national units. During the [[German occupation of Estonia during World War I|German occupation]] in 1918, he organized the underground [[Estonian Defence League]]. In the [[Estonian War of Independence|Estonian Liberation War]], Karl Parts led and organized the [[armoured train]]s, and in December 1918, became the commander of the Armoured Trains Division. He commanded in the biggest armoured conflict of war that resulted in the capture of [[Pskov]].{{clarify|date=June 2021}} After the war, Parts served as commander of the Armoured Trains Brigade from 1921 to 1923, and later as inspector. He actively participated in defeating the [[Estonian coup attempt of 1924|1924 coup attempt]]. In 1925, he retired and became a farmer. In 1940, Soviet occupation authorities arrested Parts, and he was shot in imprisonment the year after. Six weeks before his death, a Soviet [[Destruction battalions|destruction battalions]] doused his son Mauricius (1912–1941) with acid and killed him.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Laar |first1=Mart |author1-link=Mart Laar |title=War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944–1956 |date=1992 |publisher=The Compass Press |location=Washington, DC |page=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Madisson |first1=Tiit |author1-link=Tiit Madisson |title=Lihula õppetund: Maailma Uue Korra loomine Eestis : ajaloo ümbertegemine ja rahvusluse mahasurumine |date=2005 |publisher=Kirjastus OÜ Ortwil |location=Lihula |page=24}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Estonian War of Independence]]
*[[Freikorps in the Baltic]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{refbegin}}
* [[Ülo Kaevats]] et al. 2000. ''Eesti entsüklopeedia 14''. Tallinn: Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus, {{ISBN|978-9985-70-064-8}}
{{refend}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parts, Karl}}
[[Category:1886 births]]
[[Category:1941 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Elva Parish]]
[[Category:People from Kreis Dorpat]]
[[Category:Members of the Estonian Provincial Assembly]]
[[Category:Military personnel of the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Russian military personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:Estonian military personnel of the Estonian War of Independence]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Cross of Liberty (Estonia)]]
[[Category:Estonian people executed by the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:People who died in the Gulag]]

{{Estonia-mil-bio-stub}}

Karl Parts

2024-12-06T21:19:20Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Estonian military commander}}
{{More footnotes|date=January 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox military person
| name = Karl Parts
| birth_date = {{birth date|1886|7|15|df=y}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1941|9|1|1886|7|15|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Palupera Parish]], [[Estonia]]
| death_place = [[Kirov, Kirov Oblast|Kirov]], [[Soviet Union]]
| image = Karl Parts1.jpg
| caption =
| nickname =
| allegiance = {{flag|Estonia}}
| branch = [[Estonia]]
| serviceyears = 1914–1917 [[Imperial Russian Army]] 1918–1925 [[Military of Estonia|Estonian Army]]
| rank = [[Colonel]]
| unit = [[Estonian Army]]
| battles = [[World War I]] [[Estonian War of Independence]]
| awards = [[Cross of Liberty (Estonia)|Cross of Liberty]]
| laterwork = Farmer
}}
'''Karl Parts''' [[Cross of Liberty (Estonia)|VR I/1, VR II/2, VR II/3]] (15 July 1886 in [[Palupera Parish]], [[Estonia]] – 1 September 1941 in [[Kirov, Kirov Oblast|Kirov]], [[Soviet Union]]) was an Estonian military commander during the [[Estonian War of Independence]].

In 1915, he graduated from [[Petergof|Peterhof]] Military School, and participated in [[World War I]]. In July 1917, Parts joined the Estonian national units. During the [[German occupation of Estonia during World War I|German occupation]] in 1918, he organized the underground [[Estonian Defence League]]. In the [[Estonian War of Independence|Estonian Liberation War]], Karl Parts led and organized the [[armoured train]]s, and in December 1918, became the commander of the Armoured Trains Division. He commanded in the biggest armoured conflict of war that resulted in the capture of [[Pskov]].{{clarify|date=June 2021}} After the war, Parts served as commander of the Armoured Trains Brigade from 1921 to 1923, and later as inspector. He actively participated in defeating the [[Estonian coup attempt of 1924|1924 coup attempt]]. In 1925, he retired and became a farmer. In 1940, Soviet occupation authorities arrested Parts, and he was shot in imprisonment the year after. Six weeks before his death, a Soviet [[Destruction battalions|destruction battalions]] doused his son Mauricius (1912–1941) with acid and killed him.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Laar |first1=Mart |author1-link=Mart Laar |title=War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944–1956 |date=1992 |publisher=The Compass Press |location=Washington, DC |page=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Madisson |first1=Tiit |author1-link=Tiit Madisson |title=Lihula õppetund: Maailma Uue Korra loomine Eestis : ajaloo ümbertegemine ja rahvusluse mahasurumine |date=2005 |publisher=Kirjastus OÜ Ortwil |location=Lihula |page=24}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Estonian War of Independence]]
*[[Freikorps in the Baltic]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{refbegin}}
* [[Ülo Kaevats]] et al. 2000. ''Eesti Entsüklopeedia 14''. Tallinn: Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus, {{ISBN|978-9985-70-064-8}}
{{refend}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parts, Karl}}
[[Category:1886 births]]
[[Category:1941 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Elva Parish]]
[[Category:People from Kreis Dorpat]]
[[Category:Members of the Estonian Provincial Assembly]]
[[Category:Military personnel of the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Russian military personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:Estonian military personnel of the Estonian War of Independence]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Cross of Liberty (Estonia)]]
[[Category:Estonian people executed by the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:People who died in the Gulag]]

{{Estonia-mil-bio-stub}}

Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia

2024-12-06T20:32:51Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Senior staff college of the Russian Armed Forces}}
{{Infobox university
|name = Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation
|native_name = Военная академия Генерального штаба Вооружённых сил Российской Федерации
|image_name = Russian General Staff Academy 20160725 12053.jpg
|image_size = 200
|caption =Academy of the General Staff on Vernadskogo prosp., 100
|logo = [[file:Great emblem of the Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia.svg|150px]]
|motto =
|established = 1936
|type = [[Military academy|Military college]]
|chancellor =
|head_label = Director
|head = [[Vladimir Zarudnitsky]]
|principal =
|city = [[Moscow]]
|state =
|country = [[Russia]]
|staff =
|students =
|campus =
|affiliations =
|founder =[[Red Army]]
|website = http://vagsh.mil.ru/
|mascot =
|nickname =
|publictransit =
|coordinates = {{Coord|55|38|59.28|N|37|28|26.37|E|type:edu|display=title}}
|address = Vernadskogo Prospekt 100, Moscow
|footnotes =
}}
[[File:Banner of the Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia.svg|thumb|Official banner of the Academy]]

The '''Military Academy of the [[General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation]]''' ({{langx|ru|Военная академия Генерального штаба Вооруженных сил Российской Федерации}}) is the senior [[staff college]] of the [[Russian Armed Forces]].

The academy is located in Moscow, on 14 Kholzunova Lane. It was founded in 1936 as a Soviet institution, based on higher command courses that had been established at the [[M. V. Frunze Military Academy]], itself founded in 1918. An [[General Staff Academy (Imperial Russia)|earlier General Staff Academy]] had existed during the [[Imperial Russia|Imperial period]], since 1832.

Students were, and probably still are, admitted to the Academy in the [[Military rank|rank]]s of lieutenant colonel, [[colonel]], and General-Major (one star). Most were colonels or newly promoted generals. Officers enter in their late 30s, as a general rule. Officers selected for this academy would have first attended the appropriate service or branch academy (see [[Military academies in Russia]]). Graduates who were not already generals or admirals usually were promoted to this rank a short time after completing the course. Length of the academy was only two years, in contrast to the three years for the branch and service academies.

Faculty and students of the General Staff Academy were involved in debates over Soviet military restructuring in the last years of the USSR. They became associated with the military reform efforts of Major Vladimir Lopatin and made specific suggestions for deep force reductions.<ref>[[William Eldridge Odom|William E Odom]], The Collapse of the Soviet Military, Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1998</ref>

As of 22 November 2017, [[Colonel General]] [[Vladimir Zarudnitsky]] has been the chief of the academy.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

==History==
===Precursors===
The existence of a general staff academy for the Russian military dates back to the [[Imperial Russia|Imperial period]], with the founding of the [[General Staff Academy (Imperial Russia)|Imperial Military Academy]] in Saint Petersburg in 1832, and its official opening on {{OldStyleDate|8 December|1832|26 November}}.<ref name="Ist">{{cite web|url=http://vagsh.mil.ru/O_VUZe/history|title=История академии|work=Военная академия Генерального штаба Вооруженных Сил Российской Федерации |publisher=[[Ministry of Defence (Russia)|Ministry of Defence]]|language=ru|access-date=13 March 2020}}</ref> In 1855 the academy was renamed the Nikolaev Academy of the General Staff, commemorating [[Nicholas I of Russia|Emperor Nicholas I]], who had died that year.<ref name="Ist"/> Further renamings followed, to the Nikolaev Military Academy in 1909, the Imperial Nikolaev Military Academy in 1910, and back to the Nikolaev Military Academy in 1917. Following the [[Russian Revolutions]], the Nikolaev Military Academy functioned in support of the [[White Army]], being evacuated to territory held by Admiral [[Alexander Kolchak]]. With the defeat of the White cause in the [[Russian Civil War]], the academy ceased to exist in 1921, with its final graduation held in [[Vladivostok]] at the end of that year.<ref name="Ist"/>

In the meantime a new academy had been established by the [[Red Army]], in light of its early experiences during the first stages of the Civil War, which had demonstrated the inadvisability of entrusting battlefield commands to former workers and soldiers who had little experience of tactics or of leading men.<ref name="Ist2">{{cite web|url=http://ova.mil.ru/info/Istoriya|title=История|work=Военный учебно-научный центр Сухопутных войск «Общевойсковая ордена Жукова академия Вооруженных Сил Российской Федерации»|publisher=[[Ministry of Defence (Russia)|Ministry of Defence]]|language=ru|access-date=11 March 2020}}</ref> On 7 October 1918 the [[Revolutionary Military Council]] ordered the foundation of the [[M. V. Frunze Military Academy|General Staff Academy of the Red Army]], based in Moscow.<ref name="Ist2"/> The first intake of students, who joined on 25 November that year, numbered 183, with the official opening of the academy taking place on 8 December 1918.<ref name="Ist2"/> In August 1921 this became the Military Academy of the Red Army, with the focus on training personnel in tactical warfare.<ref name="Ist"/> Additional nine-month courses were established to provide operational-strategic command training, termed the Higher Military Academic Courses, which from 1931 became one-year-long courses as part of the academy's Faculty of Operations.<ref name="Ist"/> These courses became the basis of the creation of a new {{ill|General Staff of the Soviet Armed Forces|ru|Генеральный штаб Вооружённых сил СССР}}, and in 1936 a new staff college was created, split from the [[M. V. Frunze Military Academy]], as the Military Academy of the Red Army had been known since 1925.<ref name="Ist"/><ref name="Ist2"/>

===Soviet General Staff Academy===
The academy trained large numbers of senior commanders and staff officers prior to, and during, the Second World War. From 1941 it became the K. E. Voroshilov Military Academy of the General Staff of the Red Army, and in April 1942 it was named the K. Е. Voroshilov Higher Military Academy, and in 1958 the Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the USSR.<ref name="Ist"/> It became the K. E. Voroshilov Military Academy of the General Staff of the Soviet Armed Forces in 1969.<ref name="S&S">{{cite book|last=Scott & Scott|title=The Armed Forces of the USSR|pages=354–5}}</ref>

===Russian General Staff Academy===
With the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991, the academy became part of the [[Russian Armed Forces]], and since 1992 has been the Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia.<ref name="Ist"/>

{{clear}}
{|align="right"
|[[File:Russian General Staff Academy in Moscow.JPG|right|thumb|{{center|Assembly hall of the academy}}]]
|[[File:Badge GenStaffCol SU.png|100px|right|thumb|{{center|Graduate badge until 1992}}]]
|[[File:Генштаб.jpg|thumb|165px|left|{{center|Gold medal for the excellent graduates 1950}}]]
|}

== Awards ==
*[[Order of Kutuzov]] (2015)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://function.mil.ru/news_page/person/more.htm?id=12041696@egNews|title=Министр обороны вручил орден Кутузова Военной академии Генерального штаба Вооруженных сил России|work=Министерство обороны Российской Федерации|date=2015-06-19|accessdate=2015-06-19}}</ref>
*[[Order of Lenin]] (1968)
*[[Order of the Red Banner]] (1986)
*[[Order of Suvorov]] I degree (1945)
*Order of the Red Banner (Czechoslovakia, 1967)
*[[Scharnhorst Order]] (GDR, 1969)
*[[Order of the Banner of Work]] (Poland, 1973)
*Order of the People's Republic of Bulgaria (NRB, 1974)
*Order of the Red Banner ([[Hungarian People's Republic]], 1975)
*[[Order of Sukhbaatar]] ([[Mongolian People's Republic]], 1976)
*Order of Antonio Maceo (Cuba, 1982)
*[[Order of Ho Chi Minh]] (Vietnam, 1986)

== Notable faculty ==
* [[Fyodor Kuznetsov]] - Commandant of the Academy (1942-1943), Colonel General
* [[Matvei Zakharov]] - Commandant of the Academy (1945-1949 & 1963-1964), [[Marshal of the Soviet Union]]
* [[Dmitry Karbyshev]] - Doctor of Military Sciences, professor
* [[Gregory Lavrik]] – Doctor of Military Sciences, professor.<ref>Академия Генерального штаба (General Staff Academy). – М., Военное издательство, 1987. с. 242.</ref>
* [[Valentin Rog]] - Doctor of Military Sciences, professor, Major General of aviation.<ref name="ReferenceA">Академия Генерального штаба. – М., Военное издательство, 1987. с. 243.</ref>
* [[Ivan Timokhovich]] – Doctor of Historical Sciences, professor, Major General of aviation.

==Notable alumni==
*[[Beqir Balluku]], [[Albanians|Albanian]] former Minister of Defense.
*[[Teme Sejko]], [[Albanians|Albanian]] [[rear-admiral]] and commander of the [[Albanian navy]] in the 1950s.
*[[Sherali Mirzo]], Tajik Minister of Defence.
*[[Saken Zhasuzakov]], former Defence Minister of Kazakhstan.
*[[Taalaibek Omuraliev]], Kyrgyz Minister of Defence.
*[[Aleksi Inauri]], [[Committee for State Security of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic|Chairman of the Georgian KGB]].
*[[Horst Stechbarth]], Deputy [[Ministry of National Defence (East Germany)|Minister of Defense of the GDR]].
*[[Phùng Quang Thanh]], [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]], former Minister of Defense of Vietnam.
*[[Hmayak Babayan]], [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Red Army]] [[Major General]] and [[Hero of the Soviet Union]].
*[[Sergey Chemezov]], CEO of [[Rostec|Rostec Corporation]].
*[[Yordan Milanov (officer)|Yordan Milanov]], [[Bulgarian Air Force]] Major-General.
*[[Georgij Alafuzoff]] former Chief of Finnish Military Intelligence Service, as well as former Director of the Intelligence Directorate of the European Union Military Staff.
*[[Sedrak Saroyan]], Armenian general and [[Parliament of Armenia|member of parliament]].

==Chiefs since 1936==
[[File:Chinese military delegation visits the Military Academy of the General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces (2023-04-17) 01.jpg|thumb|Colonel General [[Vladimir Zarudnitsky]] with Chinese Defence Minister General [[Li Shangfu]] on 17 April 2023]]
*[[Komdiv]] [[Dmitry Kuchinsky]] (1936—1937)
*[[Kombrig]] [[Ivan Shlemin]] (1937—1940)
*[[Lieutenant general|Lieutenant General]] [[Fyodor Kuznetsov]] (July{{En dash}}August 1940)
*Lieutenant General [[Vasily Mordvinov]] (1940—1941)
*Lieutenant General [[Yevgeny Shilovsky]] (1941—1942)
*[[Colonel general|Colonel General]] Fyodor Kuznetsov (1942—1943)
*[[Marshal of the Soviet Union]] [[Boris Shaposhnikov]] (1943—1945)
*Lieutenant General Vasily Mordvinov (March—November 1945)
*[[General of the army (USSR)|Army General]] [[Matvei Zakharov]] (1945—1949)
*Army General [[Vladimir Kurasov]] (1946—1956)
*Marshal of the Soviet Union [[Ivan Bagramyan]] (1956—1958)
*Army General [[German Malandin]] (1958—1961)
*Army General Vladimir Kurasov (1961—1963)
*Marshal of the Soviet Union [[Matvei Zakharov]] (1963—1965)
*Army General [[Vladimir Ivanov (general)|Vladimir Ivanov]] (1965—1968)
*Army General [[Semion Ivanov]] (1968—1973)
*Army General [[Ivan Shavrov]] (1973—1979)
*Army General [[Mikhail Kozlov (general)|Mikhail Kozlov]] (1979—1986)
*Army General [[Grigory Salmonov]] (1986—1989)
*Colonel General [[Igor Rodionov]] (1989—1996)
*Colonel General [[Valery Tretyakov (general)|Valery Tretyakov]] (1996—1999)
*Colonel General [[Viktor Chechevatov]] (1999{{En dash}}2005)
*Army General [[Ivan Yefremov (general)|Ivan Yefremov]] (2005—2007).<ref>Scott and Scott, Russian Military Directory 2004, p.194</ref>
*Army General [[Alexander Belousov]] (2007—2009)
*Army General [[Vladimir Yakovlev (general)|Vladimir Yakovlev]] (2009—2012)
*Lieutenant General of the Reserve [[Andrei Tretyak]] (2012—2013)
*Colonel General of the Reserve [[Sergei Makarov (general)|Sergei Makarov]] (2013—2016)
*Lieutenant General [[Sergei Kuralenko]] (2016—2017)
*Colonel General [[Vladimir Zarudnitsky]] (2017—present)

==References==
<references/>
*{{cite book|first1=Harriet Fast|last1=Scott|first2=William F.|last2=Scott|title=The Armed Forces of the USSR|edition=2|isbn=0-85368-287-9|publisher=[[Arms and Armour Press]]|location=London|year=1981}}

{{Armed Forces of the Russian Federation}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Military academies of Russia]]
[[Category:Staff colleges]]

Cittern

2024-12-05T19:53:25Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Plucked string instrument}}
{{redirect-distinguish|Cither|zither|gittern}}
{{Infobox Instrument
|name = Cittern
|names = [[French language|Fr]]. ''cistre'', [[Italian language|It]]. ''cetra'', [[German language|Ger]]. ''Cister, Zister'', [[Spanish language|Sp]]. ''cistro, cedra, cítola''
|image = MuseuMusicaBCN 8845.jpg
|image_size =
|caption= Cittern exhibited at the [[Music Museum of Barcelona]]
|classification = [[String instrument]] ([[plucked string instrument|plucked]])
|hornbostel_sachs = [[List of musical instruments by Hornbostel-Sachs number: 321.322|321.322-5]]
|hornbostel_sachs_desc = [[necked box lute]], plucked with fingers
|developed = 16th century
|range =
|related= {{collapsible list|
* [[Cetra]]
* [[Citole]]
* [[Ceterone]]
* [[English guitar]]
* [[Portuguese guitar]]
* [[Halszither]]
* [[Waldzither]]
* [[Zither]]
}}
}}

The '''cittern''' or '''cithren''' ([[French language|Fr]]. ''cistre'', [[Italian language|It]]. ''cetra'', [[German language|Ger]]. ''Cister,'' [[Spanish language|Sp]]. ''cistro, cedra, cítola'')<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Cittern|volume=6|pages=399–400}}</ref> is a stringed instrument dating from the [[Renaissance]]. Modern scholars debate its exact history, but it is generally accepted that it is descended from the [[Medieval]] [[citole]] (or cytole). Its flat-back design was simpler and cheaper to construct than the [[lute]]. It was also easier to play, smaller, less delicate and more portable. Played by people of all social classes, the cittern was a popular instrument of casual music-making much like the [[guitar]] is today.

== History ==
=== Pre-modern citterns ===
{{multiple image
|direction = horizontal
|align = right
|total_width = 400
|header =
|image1 = Arxicistre.tif
|image2 = Cittern MET DP163302.jpg
|image3 = Sir Joshua Reynolds - Portrait of Mrs. Froude.jpg
|footer = From left to right, '''1''': Archicitter, Laurent, Louis-Sigismond, c. 1774–89; '''2''': [[Bell cittern]] by Joachim Tielke, c. 1865; '''3''': Painting by Sir [[Joshua Reynolds]] of Mrs. Froude playing an [[English guitar]] or cittern, 1762
}}
The cittern is one of the few metal-strung instruments known from the [[Renaissance]] period. It generally has four courses of strings (single, pairs or threes depending on design or regional variation), one or more courses being usually tuned in octaves, though instruments with more or fewer courses were made. The cittern may have a range of only an octave between its lowest and highest strings and employs a [[Reentrant tuning|re-entrant tuning]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cittern.theaterofmusic.com/faq/index.html |title=The Renaissance Cittern Site: Frequently Asked Questions about the Renaissance Cittern |publisher=Cittern.theaterofmusic.com |date=2012-06-21 |access-date=2013-07-15}}</ref> – a tuning in which the string that is physically uppermost is not the lowest, as is also the case with the five-string [[banjo]] and most [[ukulele]]s for example. The tuning and narrow range allow the player a number of simple [[Chord (music)|chord]] shapes useful for both simple song accompaniment and dances, though much more complex music was also written for it.<ref name="oxford-companion">The Oxford Companion to Music - ''cittern''</ref> Its bright and cheerful timbre make it a valuable counterpoint to gut-strung instruments. The Spanish [[bandurria]], still used today, is a similar instrument.

=== 16th to 18th centuries ===
{{multiple image
|direction = horizontal
|align = right
|total_width = 350
|header =
|image1 = Stringed_instruments_-_Musical_Instrument_Museum,_Brussels_-_IMG_3919.JPG
|image2 = Sister_(Deutsche_Guitarre)_by_Johann_Wilhelm_Bindernagel,_Gotha_(1800),_Inv.-Nr.621,_MfM.Uni-Leipzig.jpg
|footer = From left to right, '''1''': Stringed instruments in [[Musical Instrument Museum, Brussels]], including two citterns by Gérard Joseph Deleplanque; '''2''': The Sister (Deutsche Guitarre) by Johann Wilhelm Bindernagel.
}}
From the 16th until the 18th century the cittern was a common English [[barber|barber shop]] instrument, kept in waiting areas for customers to entertain themselves and others with, and popular [[sheet music]] for the instrument was published to that end.<ref name="oxford-companion"/> The top of the pegbox was often decorated with a small carved head, perhaps not always of great artistic merit; in [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Love's Labour's Lost]]'', the term "cittern-head" is used as an insult:<ref>{{cite web|last1=Shakespeare|first1=William|title=Love's Labours Lost|url=http://shakespeare.mit.edu/lll/full.html|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Dilworth|first1=John|title=How well did Shakespeare know the violin?|url=http://www.thestrad.com/cpt-latests/how-well-did-shakespeare-know-the-violin/|access-date=22 January 2015|orig-year=2009|date=21 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122121603/http://www.thestrad.com/cpt-latests/how-well-did-shakespeare-know-the-violin/|archive-date=22 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

:: HOLOFERNES: What is this?
:: BOYET: A cittern-head.
:: DUMAIN: The head of a bodkin.
:: BIRON: A Death's face in a ring.

Just as the [[lute]] was enlarged and bass-extended to become the [[theorbo]] and [[chitarrone]] for [[Figured bass|continuo]] work, so the cittern was developed into the [[ceterone]], with its extended neck and unstopped bass strings, though this was a much less common instrument.

Gérard Joseph Deleplanque (1723-1784) was a luthier from [[Lille]] who made a [https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/504251 wide variety of instruments], including citterns.

The instrument maker Johann Wilhelm Bindernagel (around 1770-1845), who worked in [[Gotha]], made a [http://www.studia-instrumentorum.de/MUSEUM/zist_sister.htm mixed guitar-cittern] under the name "Sister" or "German Guitar", which was equipped with seven gut strings.

The leading 18th-century Swedish songwriter [[Carl Michael Bellman]] played mostly on the cittern, and is shown with the instrument (now in the National Museum, Stockholm) in a 1779 portrait by [[Per Krafft the elder]].<ref>{{cite book | url=https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/1842/5776/4/Poulopoulos%202011.pdf | title=The Guittar in the British Isles, 1750-1810 (PhD Thesis) | publisher=University of Edinburgh | author=Poulopoulos, Panagiotis | year=2011 | pages=199}}</ref>

=== Modern citterns ===
{{multiple image
|align=right
|direction = horizontal
|total_width= 250
|header = Modern citterns
|image1 = Portugueseguitarlisbon.jpg
|image2 = Hamburger_waldzither.jpg
|footer = ''(Left)'': [[Portuguese guitar]] at a music shop, 2010; ''(right)'': Hamburger [[Waldzither]]
}}
In Germany, the cittern survives under the names ''[[Waldzither]]'' and ''Lutherzither''. The last name comes from the belief that [[Martin Luther]] played this instrument. Also, the names ''Thüringer Waldzither'' in Thüringer Wald, ''Harzzither'' in the Harz mountains, ''[[Halszither]]'' in German-speaking Switzerland are used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atlasofpluckedinstruments.com/cittern.htm |title=cittern |publisher=ATLAS of Plucked Instruments |access-date=2013-07-15}}</ref> There is a tendency in modern [[German language|German]] to interchange the words for cittern and [[zither]]. The term [[waldzither]] came into use around 1900, to distinguish citterns from zithers.

The cittern family survives as the Corsican [[cetara]] and the [[Portuguese guitar]]. The ''guitarra portuguesa'' is typically used to play the popular traditional music known as [[fado]]. In the early 1970s, using the guitarra and a 1930s archtop Martin guitar as models, English luthier Stefan Sobell created a "cittern", a hybrid instrument primarily used for playing folk music, which has proved to be popular with folk revival musicians.<ref>{{cite book|title=American Lutherie: The Quarterly Journal of the Guild of American Luthiers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qxw9AQAAIAAJ|year=2006|publisher=The Guild|page=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Frets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8E_aAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=GPI Publications}}</ref>

==See also==
{{See also|Lute#History and evolution of the lute}}
* [[Chitarra Italiana]]
* [[English guitar]]
* [[Russian guitar#Derivation|Russian guitar]]
* [[Stringed instrument tunings]]
* [[Martina Rosenberger]]

==Bibliography==
* ''Musick's Delight on the Cithren'', John Playford (1666).
* ''Musick's Delight on the Modern Cittern'', Robin Alexander Lucas, Vol.I. (2021) ISBN 9781838438500; Vol.II. (2022) ISBN 9781838438517; Vol.III. (2023) ISBN 9781838438524.
* [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k319108n/ ''Méthode pour Apprendre à Pincer du Cistre, ou Guitare Allemande''], Charles Pollet (1786).

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Cittern}}
* [http://cittern.theaterofmusic.com/ Renovata Cythara: The Renaissance Cittern Pages]
* [http://www.sobellinstruments.com/ Stefan Sobell website]
* [http://www.docrossimusic.com/ Doc Rossi website]
* [http://www.studia-instrumentorum.de/MUSEUM/zistern.htm Zistern: Europäische Zupfinstrumente von der Renaissance bis zum Historismus]
* [https://cittern.co.uk Cittern Press] (publisher of printed tune books for the modern cittern)
Citterns and cittern research at the [[Museum of Musical Instruments of the University of Leipzig|Musikinstrumenten-Museum der Universität Leipzig]]
* [http://orgs.usd.edu/nmm/PluckedStrings/Citterns/English/13500/Cittern13500.html Cittern, possibly by Petrus Raitta, England, 1579] at the [[National Music Museum]]
* [http://orgs.usd.edu/nmm/PluckedStrings/Citterns/Italian/3386/Cittern3386.html Cittern, Urbino, ca. 1550] at the [[National Music Museum]]
* [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/musd/ho_1985.124.htm Decorated Cittern by Joachim Tielke, Hamburg, ca. 1685] at [[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]]

{{Mandolin family instruments}}
{{Lute}}
{{Classical guitar}}
{{Renaissance music}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Early musical instruments]]
[[Category:String instruments]]
[[Category:Mandolin family instruments]]
[[Category:Swiss musical instruments]]
[[Category:Celtic musical instruments]]
[[Category:English musical instruments]]
[[Category:Scottish musical instruments]]

Tarmo Oja

2024-12-04T10:45:07Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Swedish astronomer (born 1934)}}
'''Tarmo Oja''' (21 December 1934 [[Tallinn]], [[Estonia]] – 18 November 2024 [[Uppsala]], [[Sweden]]) was a professor in [[astronomy]] at [[Uppsala University]]<ref>[http://katalog.uu.se/empInfo/?languageId=1&id=XX443 Uppsala University directory: Tarmo Oja], accessed 2010-05-13</ref> who studies [[Galaxy|galactic]] structure and [[variable star]]s. He was the director at the Swedish [[Kvistaberg Station]] of the [[Uppsala Observatory]] from 1970 until his retirement in 1999.

As a senior professor he continued his observations (work) at the observatory at Kvistaberg until the spring of 2006, when he moved (back) to Uppsala together with his wife Silvi.

== Awards and honors ==
In 2001, Estonian President [[Lennart Meri]] awarded Oja the [[Order of the White Star]] V Class for his contribution to science. The asteroid [[5080 Oja]], discovered at the Kvistaberg Station, was named in his honor in 1992.<ref name="5080-Oja" />

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="5080-Oja">{{cite web
|title = 5080 Oja (1976 EB)
|work = Minor Planet Center
|url = https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=5080
|accessdate = 20 March 2018}}</ref>

}} 

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oja, Tarmo}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:2024 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Swedish astronomers]]
[[Category:Estonian astronomers]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Uppsala University]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Estonian emigrants to Sweden]]
[[Category:Academics from Tallinn]]
[[Category:Estonian World War II refugees]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Star, 5th Class]]

{{Sweden-scientist-stub}}
{{Europe-astronomer-stub}}

{{Estonia-academic-bio-stub}}

List of astronomers

2024-12-04T10:44:20Z

Amherst99: /* O */

{{Short description|None}}
{{Dynamic list}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=January 2024}}
The following is a list of [[astronomer]]s, [[astrophysics|astrophysicists]] and other notable people who have made contributions to the field of [[astronomy]]. They may have won major prizes or awards, developed or invented widely used techniques or technologies within astronomy, or are directors of major observatories or heads of space-based telescope projects.

==Notable astronomers==
{| class="wikitable sortable"; line-height:1.5em;"
|-
! Name !! Country !! Born !! Died !! Notable for
|- id="M. Aaronson"
| [[Marc Aaronson]] || United States || 1950 || 1987
| His work concentrated on three fields: the determination of the [[Hubble constant]] (H0) using the [[Tully–Fisher relation]], the study of [[Carbon star|carbon rich stars]], and the velocity distribution of those stars in [[Dwarf spheroidal galaxy|dwarf spheroidal galaxies]].

Aaronson was one of the first astronomers to attempt to image [[dark matter]] using infrared imaging. He imaged infrared halos of unknown matter around galaxies that could be dark matter.
|- id="G. O. Abell"
| [[George Ogden Abell]] || United States || 1927 || 1983
|- id="H. Abe"
| [[Hiroshi Abe (astronomer)|Hiroshi Abe]] || Japan || 1958 ||
|- id="Michaël Gillon"
| [[Michaël Gillon]] || Belgium || 1974 ||
|- id="A. Abetti"
| [[Antonio Abetti]] || Italy || 1847 || 1928
|- id="G. Abetti"
| [[Giorgio Abetti]] || Italy || 1882 || 1982
|- id="C. Abbot"
| [[Charles Greeley Abbot]] || United States || 1872 || 1973
|- id="C. H. Adams"
| [[Charles Hitchcock Adams]] || United States || 1868 || 1951
|- id="J. C. Adams"
| [[John Couch Adams]] || United Kingdom || 1819 || 1892 || His most famous achievement was predicting the existence and position of [[Neptune]], using only mathematics. The calculations were made to explain discrepancies with [[Uranus]]'s orbit and the laws of Kepler and Newton.
|- id="W. S. Adams"
| [[Walter Sydney Adams]] || United States || 1876 || 1956
|- id="S. Adelman"
| [[Saul Adelman]] || United States || 1944 ||
|- id="P. Alphonsi"
| [[Petrus Alphonsi]] || Spain || 1062 || 1110
|- id="Agrippa"
| [[Agrippa (astronomer)|Agrippa]] || Greece || fl. {{circa|92}} ||
| Agrippa observed the occultation of a part of the [[Pleiades]] by the southernmost part of the [[Moon]].
|- id="P. O. Ahnert"
| [[Paul Oswald Ahnert]] || Germany || 1897 || 1989
|- id="E. Ahnert"
| [[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]] || Germany || 1912 || 1954
|- id="G. B. Airy"
| [[George Biddell Airy]] || United Kingdom || 1801 || 1892
|- id="R. G. Aitken"
| [[Robert Grant Aitken|Robert Aitken]] || United States || 1864 || 1951
|- id="M. Akiyama"
| [[Makio Akiyama]] || Japan || 1950 ||
|- id="Al Sufi"
| [[Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi]] || Persia || 903 || 986
|- id="Albategnius"
| [[Albategnius]] ''(see Al-Batani)'' || [[Bilad al-Sham|Syria]] || {{circa|858}} || 929 || Al-Battānī's observations of the Sun led him to understand the nature of annular [[solar eclipses]]. He accurately calculated the Earth's [[obliquity]] (the angle between the planes of the equator and the ecliptic)
|- id="V. A. Albitzky"
| [[Vladimir Aleksandrovich Albitzky]] || Russia || 1891 || 1952
|- id="Albumasar"
| [[Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi|Albumasar]] || Persia || 787 || 886
|- id="G. Alcock"
| [[George Alcock]] || United Kingdom || 1913 || 2000
|- id="H. Alden"
| [[Harold Alden]] || United States || 1890 || 1964
|- id="H. Alfven]]
| [[Hannes Alfvén]] || Sweden || 1908 || 1995
|- id="L. H. Aller"
| [[Lawrence H. Aller]] || United States || 1913 || 2003
|- id="V. A. Ambartsumian"
| [[Viktor Amazaspovich Ambartsumian]] || [[Armenia]] || 1912 || 1996 || One of the 20th century's top astronomers, he is widely regarded as the founder of theoretical astrophysics in the [[Soviet Union]].
|- id="J. A. Anderson"
| [[John August Anderson]] || United States || 1876 || 1959
|- id="W. Anderson"
| [[Wilhelm Anderson]] || [[Estonia]] || 1880 || 1940
|- id="M. H. Andoyer"
| [[Marie Henri Andoyer]] || France || 1862 || 1929
|- id="Andronicus"
| [[Andronicus of Cyrrhus]] || Greece || fl. {{circa|100}} BC ||
|- id="A. J. Angstrom"
| [[Anders Jonas Ångström]] || Sweden || 1814 || 1874
|- id="E. M. Antoniada"
| [[E. M. Antoniadi|Eugène Michel Antoniadi]] || Greece/France || 1870 || 1944 || He made the first map of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] (although his maps were flawed due to incorrectly assumming that Mercury had synchronous rotation with the Sun)
|- id="M. Aoki"
| [[Masakatsu Aoki]] || Japan || 1957 ||
|- id="P. Apianu"
| [[Petrus Apianus]] || Germany || 1495 || 1557
|- id="F. Arago"
| [[François Arago]] || France || 1786 || 1853
|- id="M. Arai"
| [[Masaru Arai]] || Japan || 1952 ||
|- id="H. Araki"
| [[Hiroshi Araki]] || Japan || ||
|- id="S. J. Arend"
| [[Sylvain Julien Victor Arend|Sylvain Arend]] || Belgium || 1902 || 1992
|- id="F. W. Argelander"
| [[Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander]] || Germany || 1799 || 1875
|- id="Aristarchus"
| [[Aristarchus of Samos]] || Greece || {{circa|310}} BC || {{circa|230}} BC || He presented the first known [[heliocentric]] model that placed the Sun at the center of the known universe, with the Earth revolving around the Sun once a year and rotating about its axis once a day.
|- id="C. Arnold"
| [[Christoph Arnold]] || Germany || 1650 || 1695
|- id="H. Arp"
| [[Halton Arp|Halton Christian Arp]] || United States || 1927 || 2013
|- id="S. Arrhenius"
| [[Svante Arrhenius]] || Sweden || 1859 || 1927 ||| The first to use the principles of physical chemistry to estimate the extent to which increases in the atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]] are responsible for the Earth's increasing surface temperature.
|- id="Aryabhata"
| [[Aryabhata]] || India || 476 || 550
| Aryabhata correctly insisted that the earth rotates about its axis daily, and that the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the rotation of the earth. Solar and lunar eclipses were scientifically explained by Aryabhata. Aryabhata calculated the [[sidereal rotation]] (the rotation of the earth referencing the fixed stars).
|- id="Arzachel"
| [[Arzachel]] || Spain || 1028 || 1087
|- id="A. Goryu"
| [[Asada Goryu]] || Japan || 1734 || 1799
|- id="A. Asami"
| [[Atsuo Asami]] || Japan || ||
|- id="G. Asclepi"
| [[Giuseppe Asclepi]] || Italy || 1706 || 1776
|- id="J. Ashbrook"
| [[Joseph Ashbrook]] || United States || 1918 || 1980
|- id="A. Auwers"
| [[Arthur Auwers]] || Germany || 1838 || 1915
|- id="A. Auzout"
| [[Adrien Auzout]] || France || 1622 || 1691
|- id="D. Axon"
| [[David Axon]] || England || 1951 || 2012
|- id="W. Baade"
| [[Walter Baade]] || Germany || 1893 || 1960
|- id="H. D. Babcock"
| [[Harold D. Babcock]] || United States || 1882 || 1968
|- id="H. W. Babacock"
| [[Horace W. Babcock]] || United States || 1912 || 2003
|- id="O. Backlund"
| [[Oskar Backlund]] || Sweden || 1846 || 1916
|- id="J. N. Bahcall"
| [[John N. Bahcall]] || United States || 1934 || 2005
|- id="Y. Banno"
| [[Yoshiaki Banno]] || Japan || 1952 || 1991
|- id="B. Baillaud"
| [[Benjamin Baillaud]] || France || 1848 || 1934
|- id="J. Baillaud"
| [[Jules Baillaud]] || France || 1876 || 1960
|- id="B. Baille"
| [[Baptistin Baille|Jean-Baptiste Baille]] || France || 1841 || 1918
|- id="J. S. Bailly"
| [[Jean Sylvain Bailly]] || France || 1736 || 1793
|- id="F. Baily"
| [[Francis Baily]] || United Kingdom || 1774 || 1844
|- id="J. Bainbridge"
| [[John Bainbridge (astronomer)|John Bainbridge]] || United Kingdom || 1582 || 1643
|- id="J. E. Baldwin"
| [[John E. Baldwin]] || United Kingdom || 1931 || 2010
|- id="S. Baliunas"
| [[Sallie Baliunas]] || United States || 1953 ||
|- id="Z. Balog"
| [[Zoltán Balog (astronomer)|Zoltán Balog]] || Hungary/United States || 1972 ||
|- id="B. Banneker"
| [[Benjamin Banneker]] || United States || 1731 || 1806
|- id="P. Baracchi"
| [[Pietro Baracchi]] || Italy/Australia || 1851 || 1926
|- id="B. Barbuy"
| [[Beatriz Barbuy]] || Brazil || 1950 ||
|- id="E. E. Barnard"
| [[Edward Emerson Barnard]] || United States || 1857 || 1923 || He is best known for his discovery of the high proper motion of [[Barnard's Star]] in [[1916]], which is named in his honor
|- id="A. Battini"
| [[Al Battani]] || [[Iraq]] || 850 || 929
|- id="S. Baum"
| [[Stefi Baum]] || United States || 1958 ||
|- id="J. Bauschinger"
| [[Julius Bauschinger]] || Germany || 1860 || 1934
|- id="J. Bayer"
| [[Johann Bayer]] || Germany || 1572 || 1625
|- id="A. Becvar"
| [[Antonín Bečvář]] || Czechoslovakia || 1901 || 1965
|- id="W. Beer"
| [[Wilhelm Beer]] || Germany || 1797 || 1850 || Together with [[Johann Heinrich Mädler]] he produced the first exact map of the Moon and of Mars
|- id="S. Belyavsky"
| [[Sergei Ivanovich Belyavsky]] || Russia || 1883 || 1953
|- id="C. L. Bennett"
| [[Charles L. Bennett]] || United States || 1956 ||
|- id="Bhaskara I"
| [[Bhaskara I]] || India || 600 || 680
|- id="Bhaskara II"
| [[Bhaskara II]] || India || 1114 || 1185
|- id="J. B. Burnell"
| [[Jocelyn Bell Burnell]] || United Kingdom || 1943 || || Discovered the first [[radio pulsars]], highly magnetized rotating [[neutron stars]], in 1967
|- id="F. Bessel"
| [[Friedrich Bessel|Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]] || Germany || 1784 || 1846 || The first to successfully calculate the distance to a star other than the sun
|- id="S. Bharadwaj"
| [[Somnath Bharadwaj]] || India || 1964 ||
|- id="W. F. Biela"
| [[Wilhelm Freiherr von Biela]] || Austria || 1782 || 1856
|- id=""L. Biermann"
| [[Ludwig Biermann]] || Germany || 1907 || 1986 || discovering the [[Biermann battery]], a process by which a weak seed magnetic field can be generated from zero initial conditions. He predicted the existence of the [[solar wind]] which in [[1947]] he dubbed "solar corpuscular radiation"
|- id="W. Bickel"
| [[Wolf Bickel]] || Germany || 1942 ||
|- id="G. Bigourdan"
| [[Guillaume Bigourdan]] || France || 1851 || 1932
|- id="J. Binney"
| [[James Binney]] || United Kingdom || 1950 ||
|- id="Al-Biruni"
| [[Al-Biruni]] || [[Khwarezm]]/Persia || 973 || 1048
|- id="G. Bisnovatyi"
| [[Gennady S. Bisnovatyi-Kogan]] || Russia || 1941 ||
|- id="A. Blaauw"
| [[Adriaan Blaauw]] || Netherlands || 1914 || 2010
|- id="N. Bliss"
| [[Nathaniel Bliss]] || United Kingdom || 1700 || 1764
|- id="J. E. Bode"
| [[Johann Elert Bode]] || Germany || 1747 || 1826
|- id="A. Bohrmann"
| [[Alfred Bohrmann]] || Germany || 1904 || 2000
|- id="B. Bok"
| [[Bart Bok]] || Netherlands || 1906 || 1983 || the discovery of Bok [[Bok globule|globules]], which are small, densely dark clouds of interstellar gas and dust that can be seen silhouetted against brighter backgrounds.
|- id="C. T. Bolton"
| [[Charles Thomas Bolton]] || United States/Canada || 1943 || 2021 || was one of the first to present strong evidence of the existence of a [[stellar-mass black hole]]
|- id="J. G. Bolton"
| [[John Gatenby Bolton]] || United Kingdom/Australia || 1922 || 1993
|- id="W. C. Bond"
| [[William Cranch Bond]] || United States || 1789 || 1859
|- id="T. Bopp"
| [[Thomas Bopp]] || United States || 1949 || 2018
|- id="A. Borrelly"
| [[Alphonse Borrelly]] || France || 1842 || 1926
|- id="R. Boscovich"
| [[Rudjer Boscovich]] || [[Croatia]] || 1711 || 1787
|- id="L. Boss"
| [[Lewis Boss]] || United States || 1846 || 1912
|- id="A. Bouvard"
| [[Alexis Bouvard]] || France || 1767 || 1843
|- id="R. Bouwens"
| [[Rychard Bouwens]] || United States || 1972 ||
|- id="E. Bowell"
| [[Edward L. G. Bowell]] || United States || 1943 ||
|- id="I. Bowen"
| [[Ira Sprague Bowen]] || United States || 1898 || 1973
|- id="L. Boyer"
| [[Louis Boyer (astronomer)|Louis Boyer]] || France || 1901 || 1999
|- id="B. J. Boyle"
| [[Brian J. Boyle]] || United Kingdom/Australia || 1960 ||
|- id="R. N. Bracewell"
| [[Ronald N. Bracewell]] || Australia/United States || 1921 || 2007
|- id="J. Bradley"
| [[James Bradley]] || United Kingdom || 1693 || 1762 || He is best known for two fundamental discoveries in astronomy, the [[aberration of light]] (1725–1728), and the [[nutation]] of the Earth's axis (1728–1748).
|- id="W. A. Bradfield"
| [[William A. Bradfield]] || New Zealand/Australia || 1927 || 2014
|- id="T. Brahe"
| [[Tycho Brahe]] || [[Denmark]] || 1546 || 1601 || Tycho Brahe was the first to discover a [[super nova]], which he falsely believed was a newly created star (in reality a dying star), which was one of the major reasons to abandon the view that the universe was static and eternal.
|- id="Brahmagupta"
| [[Brahmagupta]] || India || 598 || 668 CE
|- id="J. Brashear"
| [[John Brashear|John Alfred Brashear]] || United States || 1840 || 1920
|- id="W. R. Brooks"
| [[William Robert Brooks]] || United States || 1844 || 1922
|- id="T. Brorsen"
| [[Theodor Brorsen]] || Denmark || 1819 || 1895 || He is best known for his discovery of five comets, including the lost periodic comet, 5D/Brorsen
|- id="D. Brouwer"
| [[Dirk Brouwer]] || Netherlands/United States || 1902 || 1966
|- id="E. W. Brown"
| [[Ernest William Brown]] || United Kingdom || 1866 || 1938
|- id="M. E. Brown"
| [[Michael E. Brown|Michael (Mike) E. Brown]] || United States || 1965 || || Co-discoverer of multiple [[dwarf planets]] beyond Pluto, including [[50000 Quaoar|Quaoar]] in 2002, [[Makemake]] in 2005 and [[Eris (dwarf planet)|Eris]] in 2006. This triggered a debate on the definition of a planet.
|- id="H. Bruck"
| [[Hermann Alexander Brück]] || Germany || 1905 || 2000
|-
|Paul Brück
|France
|1856
|1922
|- id="I. Bullialdus"
| [[Ismael Bullialdus]] || France || 1605 || 1694
|- id="M. Burbidge"
| [[Margaret Burbidge]] || United Kingdom/United States || 1919 || 2020
|- id="M. Burland"
| [[Miriam Burland]] || Canada || 1902 || 1996
|- id="R. Burnham"
| [[Robert Burnham Jr.]] || United States || 1931 || 1993
|- id="S. W. Burnham"
| [[Sherburne Wesley Burnham]] || United States || 1838 || 1921
|- id="S. J. Bus"
| [[Schelte J. Bus]] || United States || 1956 ||
|- id="B. Buti"
| [[Bimla Buti]] || India || 1933 ||
|- id="A. Cameron"
| [[Alastair G. W. Cameron]] || Canada || 1925 || 2005 || He was one of the founders of the field of [[nuclear astrophysics]], advanced the theory that the [[Moon]] was created by the giant impact of a Mars-sized object with the early Earth, and was an early adopter of computer technology in astrophysics.
|- id="W. W. Campbell"
| [[William Wallace Campbell]] || United States || 1862 || 1938
|- id="A. J. Cannon"
| [[Annie Jump Cannon]] || United States || 1863 || 1941
|- id="L. Carnera"
| [[Luigi Carnera]] || Italy || 1875 || 1962
|- id="E. F. Carpenter"
| [[Edwin Francis Carpenter]] || United States || 1898 || 1963
|- id="J. Carpenter"
| [[James Carpenter (astronomer)|James Carpenter]] || United Kingdom || 1840 || 1899
|- id="R. C. Carringtion"
| [[Richard Christopher Carrington]] || United Kingdom || 1826 || 1875
|- id="J. Carroll"
| Sir [[John Carroll (astronomer)|John Carroll]] || United Kingdom || 1899 || 1974
|- id="C. Cassini"
| [[César-François Cassini de Thury]] || France || 1714 || 1784
|- id="D. Cassini"
| [[Dominique, comte de Cassini]] || France || 1748 || 1845
|- id="G. Cassini"
| [[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]] || France || 1625 || 1712
|- id="J. Cassini"
| [[Jacques Cassini]] || France || 1677 || 1756
|- id="C. Carsono"
| [[Corsono Carsono]] || Spain || fl. {{circa|14th century}} ||
|- id="B. Cavalieri"
| [[Bonaventura Cavalieri]] || Italy || 1598 || 1647
|- id="A. Celsius"
| [[Anders Celsius]] || Sweden || 1701 || 1744
|- id="V. Cerulli"
| [[Vincenzo Cerulli]] || Italy || 1859 || 1927
|- id="J. Chacornac"
| [[Jean Chacornac]] || France || 1823 || 1873
|- id="M. Chadid"
| [[Merieme Chadid]] || France || 1969 ||
|- id="J. Challis"
| [[James Challis]] || United Kingdom || 1803 || 1882
|- id="R. Chandra"
| [[Radha Gobinda Chandra]] || [[Bangladesh]]/[[India]] || 1878 || 1975
|- id="S. Chandrasekhar
| [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] || India/United States || 1910 || 1995 || He shared the 1983 [[Nobel Prize for Physics]] with [[William A. Fowler]] for "...theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars".
|- id="C. Charlier"
| [[Carl Charlier]] || Sweden || 1862 || 1934
|- id="A. Charlois"
| [[Auguste Charlois]] || France || 1864 || 1910
|- id="L. I. Chernykh"
| [[Lyudmila Ivanovna Chernykh]] || Russia/[[Ukraine]] || 1935 || 2017
|- id="N. S. Chernykh"
| [[Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh]] || Russia/[[Ukraine]] || 1931 || 2004 ||
|- id="J. Christy"
| [[James Christy]] || United States || 1938 || || Discovered the largest of [[Pluto]]'s moons, [[Charon (moon)|Charon]]
|- id="E. F. Coddington"
| [[Edwin Foster Coddington]] || United States || 1870 || 1950
|- id="J. E. Coggia"
| [[Jérôme Eugène Coggia]] || France || 1849 || 1919
|- id="J. Comas"
| [[Josep Comas i Solà]] || Spain || 1868 || 1937
|- id="A. A. Common"
| [[Andrew Ainslie Common]] || United Kingdom || 1841 || 1903
|- id="G. Consolmagno
| [[Guy Consolmagno]] || United States || 1952 ||
|- id="N. Copernicus"
| [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] || [[Royal Prussia|Prussia]]/Poland || 1473 || 1543
|Copernicus discovered the heliocentric model of the solar system.
|- id="J. Connes"
| [[Janine Connes]] || France || 1934 ||
|- id="P. Cottenot"
| [[Pablo Cottenot]] || France || 1800 || ?
|- id="H. Couper"
| [[Heather Couper]] || United Kingdom || 1949 || 2020 || In [[1984]], she was elected President of the British Astronomical Association, the first woman and the second-youngest person to hold the position.
|- id="L. Courvoisier"
| [[Leopold Courvoisier]] || Switzerland || 1873 || 1955
|- id="A. E. Covington"
| [[Arthur Edwin Covington]] || Canada || 1914 || 2001
|- id="P. H. Cowell"
| [[Philip Herbert Cowell]] || United Kingdom || 1870 || 1949
|- id="T. G. Cowling"
| [[Thomas George Cowling]] || United Kingdom || 1906 || 1990
|- id="A. C. Crommelin"
| [[Andrew Claude de la Cherois Crommelin]] || United Kingdom || 1865 || 1939
|- id="L. Cruls"
| [[Luís Cruls|Luíz Cruls]] || Brazil || 1848 || 1908
|- id="J. Cuffey"
| [[James Cuffey]] || United States || 1911 || 1999
|- id="H. D. Curtis"
| [[Heber Doust Curtis]] || United States || 1872 || 1942
|- id="J. B. Cysat"
| [[Johann Baptist Cysat]] || Switzerland || 1587 || 1657
|- id="A. Dalgarno"
| [[Alexander Dalgarno]] || United States || 1928 || 2015
|- id="J. D'Allonville"
| [[Jacques D'Allonville|Jacques Eugène d'Allonville]] || France || 1671 || 1732
|- id="A. L. Danjon"
| [[Andre Louis Danjon]] || France || 1890 || 1967
|- id="H. d.Arrest"
| [[Heinrich d'Arrest]] || Germany || 1822 || 1875
|- id="G. H. Darwin"
| [[George Howard Darwin]] || United Kingdom || 1845 || 1912
|- id="R. Davies"
| [[Roger Davies (astrophysicist)|Roger Davies]] || United Kingdom || 1954 ||
|- id="L. da Vinci"
| [[Leonardo da Vinci]] || Italy || 1452 || 1519
|- id="W. R. Dawes"
| [[William Rutter Dawes]] || United Kingdom || 1799 || 1868
|- id="B. Dawson"
| [[Bernhard Dawson]] || Argentina || 1890 || 1960
|- id="L. de Ball"
| [[Leo de Ball]] || Germany/Austria || 1853 || 1916
|- id="D. de Mello"
| [[Duília de Mello]] || Brazil || 1963 || || [[Duília de Mello]] was responsible for the discovery of the supernova [[SN 1997D]]. She also contributed to the discovery of [[blue blobs]], known as 'star orphanages' due to their role in forming stars outside of galaxies. And in 2013, the scientist was involved in the discovery of the largest spiral galaxy in the universe, the Condor Galaxy [[NGC 6872]].
|- id="H. Debehogne"
| [[Henri Debehogne]] || Belgium || 1928 || 2007
|- id="A. de Gasparis"
| [[Annibale de Gasparis]] || Italy || 1819 || 1892
|- id="J. B. Delambre"
| [[Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre]] || France || 1749 || 1822
|- id="C. Delaunay"
| [[Charles-Eugène Delaunay]] || France || 1816 || 1872
|- id="E. J. Delporte"
| [[Eugène Joseph Delporte]] || Belgium || 1882 || 1955
|- id="A. C. Delsanti"
| [[Audrey C. Delsanti]] || France || 1976 ||
|- id="W. F. Denning"
| [[William Frederick Denning]] || United Kingdom || 1848 || 1931
|- id="A. Derekas"
| [[Alíz Derekas]] || Hungary || 1977 ||
|- id="H. Deslandres"
| [[Henri-Alexandre Deslandres]] || France || 1853 || 1948
|- id="A. N. Deutsch"
| [[Alexander Nikolaevich Deutsch]] || Russia || 1900 || 1986
|- id="G. de Vaucouleurs"
| [[Gérard de Vaucouleurs]] || France/United States || 1918 || 1995
|- id="R. Dicke"
| [[Robert Dicke]] || United States || 1916 || 1997
|- id="T. Dickinson"
| [[Terence Dickinson]] || Canada || 1943 ||
|- id="T. Digges"
| [[Thomas Digges]] || United Kingdom || 1546 || 1595
|- id="H. Dingle"
| [[Herbert Dingle]] || United States || 1890 || 1978
|- id="Andrea Di Paola"
| [[Andrea Di Paola]] || Italy || 1970 ||
|- id="E. Dishoeck"
| [[Ewine van Dishoeck]] || Netherlands || 1955 ||
|- id="H. D. Prince"
| [[Helen Dodson Prince]] || United States || 1905 || 2002
|- id="G. B. Donati"
| [[Giovanni Battista Donati]] || Italy || 1826 || 1873
|- id="F. Drake"
| [[Frank Drake]] || United States || 1930 ||
|- id="H. Draper"
| [[Henry Draper]] || United States || 1837 || 1882
|- id="J. Dreyer"
| [[John Louis Emil Dreyer|John Dreyer]] || [[Ireland]] || 1852 || 1926
|- id="Y. Drohobych"
| [[Yuriy Drohobych]] || [[Ukraine]] || 1450 || 1494
|- id="A. D. Dubyago"
| [[Alexander D. Dubyago]] || Russia || 1903 || 1959
|- id="D. I. Dubyago"
| [[Dmitrij I. Dubyago]] || Russia || 1850 || 1918
|- id="J. Dufey"
| [[Jean Dufay|Jean C. B. Dufay]] || France || 1896 || 1967
|- id="R. S. Dugan"
| [[Raymond Smith Dugan]] || United States || 1878 || 1940
|- id="J. Dunlop"
| [[James Dunlop]] || [[Scotland]] || 1793 || 1848
|- id="P. Barkovic"
| [[Petar Đurković]] || [[Serbia]] || 1908 || 1981
|- id="F. W. Dyson"
| [[Frank Watson Dyson]] || United Kingdom || 1868 || 1939
|- id="A. Eddington"
| [[Arthur Eddington]] || United Kingdom || 1882 || 1944 || Around 1920, he foreshadowed the discovery and mechanism of [[nuclear fusion]] processes in stars. The [[Eddington limit]], the natural limit to the [[luminosity]] of stars is named in his honour.
|- id="F. K. Edmondson"
| [[Frank K. Edmondson]] || United States || 1912 || 2008
|- id="O. J. Eggen"
| [[Olin J. Eggen]] || United States || 1919 || 1998
|- id="D. J. Eicher"
| [[David J. Eicher]] || United States || 1961 ||
|- id="A. Einstein"
| [[Albert Einstein]] || Germany || 1879 || 1955
|- id=""E. Eisinga"
| [[Eise Eisinga]] || Netherlands || 1744 || 1828
|- id="E. W. Elst"
| [[Eric Walter Elst]] || Belgium || 1936 || 2022
|- id="J. F. Encke"
| [[Johann Franz Encke]] || Germany || 1791 || 1865
|- id="K. Endate"
| [[Kin Endate]] || Japan || 1960 ||
|- id="Eratosthenes"
| [[Eratosthenes]] || [[Alexandria]] || 276 BC || 194 BC
|- id="E. Ernst"
| [[Emil Ernst]] || Germany || 1889 || 1942
|- id="E. Eschangon"
| [[Ernest Esclangon]] || France || 1876 || 1954
|- id="F. Espenak"
| [[Fred Espenak]] || United States || 1953 ||
|- id="L. Esposito"
| [[Larry W. Esposito]] || United States || 1951 ||
|- id="Eudoxus"
| [[Eudoxus of Cnidus]] || Ancient Greece || {{circa|408}} BC || {{circa|355}} BC
|- id="R. Evans"
| [[Robert Evans (astronomer)|Robert Evans]] || Australia || 1937 ||2022
|- id="S. M. Faber"
| [[Sandra M. Faber]] || United States || 1945 ||
|- id="D. Fabricius"
| [[David Fabricius]] || Netherlands || 1564 || 1617
|- id="J. Fabricius"
| [[Johannes Fabricius]] || Netherlands || 1587 || 1615
|- id="F. Fallows"
| [[Fearon Fallows]] || United Kingdom || 1789 || 1831
|- id="A. Farghani"
| [[Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathir al-Farghani|Farghani]] || Persia || 800 || 870
|- id="H. Faye"
| [[Hervé Faye]] || France || 1814 || 1902
|- id="C. Fehrenbach"
| [[Charles Fehrenbach (astronomer)|Charles Fehrenbach]] || France || 1914 || 2008
|- id="G. Fenyi"
| [[Gyula Fényi]] || Hungary || 1845 || 1927
|- id="J. Ferguson"
| [[James Ferguson (American astronomer)|James Ferguson]] || United States || 1797 || 1867
|- id="Gary Ferland"
| [[Gary Ferland]] || United States || 1951 ||
|- id="A. Filippenko"
| [[Alex Filippenko]] || United States || 1958 ||
|- id="E. Finlay"
| [[Erwin Finlay-Freundlich]] || Germany || 1885 || 1964
|- id="A. Firsoff"
| [[Axel Firsoff]] || United Kingdom || 1910 || 1981
|- id="D. Fischer"
| [[Debra Fischer]] || United States || 1951 ||
|- id="J. R. Fisher"
| [[J. Richard Fisher]] || United States || 1943 ||
|- id="C. Flammarion"
| [[Camille Flammarion]] || France || 1842 || 1925
|- id="G. R. Flammarion"
| [[Gabrielle Renaudot Flammarion]] || France || 1867 || 1962
|- id="J. Flamsteed"
| [[John Flamsteed]] || United Kingdom || 1646 || 1719
|- id="H. Flaugergues"
| [[Honoré Flaugergues]] || France || 1755 || 1835
|- id="W. Fleming"
| [[Williamina Fleming]] || United States || 1857 || 1911
|- id="W. J. Foerster"
| [[Wilhelm Julius Foerster]] || Germany || 1832 || 1921
|- id="A. Fowler"
| [[Alfred Fowler]] || United Kingdom || 1868 || 1940
|- id="W. A. Fowler"
| [[William Alfred Fowler]] || United States || 1911 || 1995 || He is known for his theoretical and experimental research into nuclear reactions within stars and the energy elements produced in the process. Winner of the 1983 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] together with [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]].
|- id="P. Fox"
| [[Philip Fox (astronomer)|Philip Fox]] || United States || 1878 || 1944
|- id=""A. Fraknoi"
| [[Andrew Fraknoi]] || United States || 1948 ||
|- id="J. Fraunhofer"
| [[Joseph von Fraunhofer]] || Germany || 1787 || 1826 || Designed the [[Heliometer]] used to successfully calculate the distance to a star, other than the sun, for the first time.
|- id="H. Friedman"
| [[Herbert Friedman]] || United States || 1916 || 2000
|- id="D. D. Frimout
| [[Dirk D. Frimout]] || Belgium || 1941 ||
|- id="E. B. Frost"
| [[Edwin Brant Frost]] || United States || 1866 || 1935
|- id="S. Fujikawa"
| [[Shigehisa Fujikawa]] || Japan || ||
|- id="N. Fukushima"
| [[Naoshi Fukushima]] || Japan || 1925 || 2003
|- id="K. Furukawa"
| [[Kiichirō Furukawa]] || Japan || 1929 || 2016
|- id="T. Furuta"
| [[Toshimasa Furuta]] || Japan || ||
|- id="B. Gaensler"
| [[Bryan Gaensler]] || Australia || 1973 ||
|- id="Galileo"
| [[Galileo Galilei]] || Italy || 1564 || 1642 ||
|- id="Gan De"
| [[Gan De]] || China || fl. 4th century BC || || Gan De, together with [[Shi Shen]] compiled China's first [[star catalogue]]
|- id="G. J. Gaarradd"
| [[Gordon J. Garradd]] || Australia || 1959 ||
|- id="J. Garavito Armero"
| [[Julio Garavito Armero]] || [[Colombia]] || 1865 || 1920
|- id="B. Gascoigne"
| [[Ben Gascoigne]] || [[New Zealand]]/[[Australia]] || 1915 || 2010
|- id="G. Siddha"
| [[Gautama Siddha]] || China || fl. 8th century AD ||
|- id="M. Geller"
| [[Margaret Geller]] || United States || 1947 ||
|- id="J. G. Galle"
| [[Johann Gottfried Galle]] || Germany || 1812 || 1910 || was the first person to view the planet [[Neptune]] and know what he was looking at.
|- id="G. Gamow"
| [[George Gamow]] || Russia/United States || 1904 || 1968
|- id="C. F. Gauss"
| [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] || Germany || 1777 || 1855
|- id="T. Gehrels"
| [[Tom Gehrels]] || United States || 1925 || 2011
|- id="N. Gehrels"
| [[Neil Gehrels]] || United States || 1952 || 2017
| Gamma-ray astronomy; led [[Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory]]; led [[Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope]]
|- id="R. Gendler"
| [[Robert Gendler]] || United States || 1957 ||
|- id="A. M. Ghez"
| [[Andrea M. Ghez]] || United States || 1965 ||
|- id="Aurélien Barrau"
| [[Aurélien Barrau]] || France || 1973 ||
|- id="R. Giacconi"
| [[Riccardo Giacconi]] || Italy || 1931 || 2018
|- id="M. Giacobini"
| [[Michel Giacobini]] || France || 1873 || 1938
|- id="H. L. Giclas"
| [[Henry L. Giclas]] || United States || 1910 || 2007
|- id="D. Gill"
| [[David Gill (astronomer)|David Gill]] || United Kingdom || 1843 || 1914
|- id="I. Glass"
| [[Ian Glass]] || Ireland/[[South Africa]] || 1939 ||
|- id="K. Glazebrook"
| [[Karl Glazebrook]] || United Kingdom || 1965 || || Determined that the average color of the vast universe is [[Cosmic Latte]]
|- id="M. Gleiser"
| [[Marcelo Gleiser]] || Brazil || 1959 ||
|- id="T. Gold"
| [[Thomas Gold]] || United States || 1920 || 2004
|- id="L. Goldberg"
| [[Leo Goldberg]] || United States || 1913 || 1987
|- id="P. Goldreich"
| [[Peter Goldreich]] || United States || 1939 ||
|- id="H. Goldschmidt"
| [[Hermann Goldschmidt]] || Germany || 1802 || 1866 || In 1820, Goldschmidt discovered shadow bands in total [[solar eclipses]]
|- id="F. Gonnessiat"
| [[François Gonnessiat]] || France || 1856 || 1934
|- id="J. Goodricke"
| [[John Goodricke]] || United Kingdom || 1764 || 1786
|- id="A. A. Goodman"
| [[Alyssa A. Goodman]] || United States || 1962 ||
|- id="A. Gorgani"
| [[Abu Sa'id Gorgani]] || Persia || 9th century
|- id="P. Gotz"
| [[Paul Götz]] || Germany || 1883 || 1962
|- id="B. A. Gould"
| [[Benjamin Apthorp Gould]] || United States || 1824 || 1896
|- id="A. Graham"
| [[Andrew Graham (astronomer)|Andrew Graham]] || Ireland || 1815 || 1907
|- id="C. Green"
| [[Charles Green (astronomer)|Charles Green]] || England || 1735 || 1771
|- id="J. Greenstein"
| [[Jesse Greenstein]] || United States || 1909 || 2002
|- id="J. Grunsfeld"
| [[John Grunsfeld]] || United States || 1956 ||
|- id="J.U. Gunter"
| [[Edward Guinan]] || United States || 1922 ||
|- id="E. Guinan"
| [[Jay U. Gunter]] || United States || 1911 || 1994
|- id="A. A. Gurshtein"
| [[Alexander A. Gurshtein]] || Russia || 1937 || 2020
|- id="B. Gustafsson"
| [[Bengt Gustafsson (astronomer)|Bengt Gustafsson]] || Sweden || 1943 ||
|- id="G. Shoujing"
| [[Guo Shoujing]] || China || 1231 || 1316
|- id="A. H. Guth"
| [[Alan Harvey Guth]] || United States || 1947 ||
|- id="Y. Hagihara"
| [[Yusuke Hagihara]] || Japan || 1897 || 1979
|- id="A. Hale"
| [[Alan Hale (astronomer)|Alan Hale]] || United States || 1958 ||
|- id="G. E. Hale"
| [[George Ellery Hale]] || United States || 1868 || 1938
|- id="A. Hall"
| [[Asaph Hall]] || United States || 1829 || 1907
|- id="E. Halley"
| [[Edmond Halley]] || England || 1656 || 1742
|- id="E. Hamden"
| [[Erika Hamden]] || United States || ? ||
|- id="H. Hammel"
| [[Heidi Hammel]] || United States || 1960 ||
|- id="M. Hamuy"
| [[Mario Hamuy]] || [[Chile]] || 1960 ||
|- id="P. A. Hansen"
| [[Peter Andreas Hansen]] || Denmark || 1795 || 1874
|- id="A. Harawi"
| [[Abolfadl Harawi|Abulfazl Harawi]] || Persia || 10th century ||
|- id="K. L. Harding"
| [[Karl Ludwig Harding]] || Germany || 1765 || 1834 || Was a part of the so-called '[[celestial police]]' group, which made the orbital calculations leading to the discovery of many [[dwarf planets]] between Mars and Jupiter.
|- id="T. Hariot"
| [[Thomas Hariot]] || United Kingdom || 1560 || 1621
|- id="G. Haro"
| [[Guillermo Haro]] || Mexico || 1913 || 1988
|- id="R. G. Harrington"
| [[Robert George Harrington]] || United States || 1904 || 1987
|- id="R. S. Harrington"
| [[Robert Sutton Harrington]] || United States || 1942 || 1993
|- id="E. R. Harrison"
| [[Edward Robert Harrison]] || United Kingdom/United States || 1917 || 2007
|- id="W. K. Hartmann"
| [[William Kenneth Hartmann]] || United States || 1939 ||
|- id= "John Hartnup Jr."
| [[John Hartnup Jr.]] || United Kingdom || 1841 || 1892
|- id="L. Harvey"
| [[Lisa Harvey-Smith]] || Australia || 1979 ||
|- id="T. Hatanaka"
| [[Takeo Hatanaka]] || Japan || 1914 || 1963
|- id="S. Hawking"
| [[Stephen Hawking]] || United Kingdom || 1942 || 2018
|- id="W. Hay"
| [[Will Hay]] || United Kingdom || 1888 || 1949
|- id="C. Hayashi"
| [[Chushiro Hayashi]] || Japan || 1920 || 2010
|- id="O. H. Heckmann"
| [[Otto Hermann Leopold Heckmann]] || Germany || 1901 || 1983
|- id="E. R. Hedeman"
| [[E. Ruth Hedeman]] || United States || 1910 || 2006
|- id="C. E. Heiles"
| [[Carl E. Heiles|Carl Heiles]] || United States || 1939 ||
|- id="J. Helffrich"
| [[Joseph Helffrich]] || Germany || 1872 || 1971
|- id="E. Helin"
| [[Eleanor Helin]] || United States || 1932 || 2009
|- id="M. Hell"
| [[Maximilian Hell]] || [[Austria-Hungary]] || 1720 || 1792
|- id="K. L. Hencke"
| [[Karl Ludwig Hencke]] || Germany || 1793 || 1866
|- id="T. Henderson"
| [[Thomas Henderson (astronomer)|Thomas Henderson]] || Scotland || 1798 || 1844
|- id="Paul Henry"
| [[Paul Henry and Prosper Henry|Paul Henry]] || France || 1848 || 1905
|- id="Prosper Henry"
| [[Paul Henry and Prosper Henry|Prosper Henry]] || France || 1849 || 1903
|- id="A. Hiyya"
| [[Abraham bar Hiyya]] || [[Spain|Spanish]] Jewish || 1070 || 1136
|- id="G. H. Herbig"
| [[George Howard Herbig]] || United States || 1920 || 2013
|- id="C. W. Hergenrother"
| [[Carl W. Hergenrother]] || United States || 1973 ||
|- id="C. Herschel"
| [[Caroline Herschel]] || United Kingdom || 1750 || 1848
|- id="J. Herschel
| [[John Herschel]] || United Kingdom || 1792 || 1871
|- id="W. Herschel"
| [[William Herschel]] || United Kingdom/Germany || 1738 || 1822
|Herschel discovered [[Uranus]] in 1781.
|- id="E. Hertzsprung"
| [[Ejnar Hertzsprung]] || Denmark || 1873 || 1967 || He developed a classification system for stars to divide them by spectral type, stage in their development, and luminosity, the [[Hertzsprung–Russell diagram]].
|- id="J. Hevelius"
| [[Johannes Hevelius]] || [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]]|| 1611 || 1687
|- id="A. Hewish"
| [[Antony Hewish]] || United Kingdom || 1924 || 2021 || won the [[Nobel Prize for Physics]] in 1974 for his role in the discovery of [[pulsars]].
|- id="G. W. Hill"
| [[George William Hill]] || United States || 1838 || 1914
|- id="J. R. Hind"
| [[John Russell Hind]] || United Kingdom || 1823 || 1895
|- id="Hipparchus"
| [[Hipparchus]] || [[İznik|Nicaea]] || {{circa|190}} BC || 120 BC || Hipparchus is considered the greatest ancient astronomical observer and, by some, the greatest overall astronomer of antiquity. He was the first whose quantitative and accurate models for the motion of the Sun and Moon survive.
|- id="M. Hirasawa"
| [[Masanori Hirasawa]] || Japan || ||
|- id="K. Hirayama"
| [[Kiyotsugu Hirayama]] || Japan || 1874 || 1943
|- id="S. Hirayama"
| [[Shin Hirayama]] || Japan || 1868 || 1945
|- id="G. Hirn"
| [[Gustave-Adolphe Hirn]] || France || 1815 || 1890
|- id="S. Hoerner"
| [[Sebastian von Hoerner]] || Germany || 1919 || 2003
|- id="C. Hoffmeister"
| [[Cuno Hoffmeister]] || Germany || 1892 || 1968
|- id="D. Hoffleit"
| [[Dorrit Hoffleit]] || United States || 1907 || 2007
|- id="H. S. Hogg"
| [[Helen Sawyer Hogg]] || Canada || 1905 || 1993
|- id="M. Holden"
| [[Moses Holden]] || United Kingdom || 1777 || 1864
|- id="P. Holvorcem"
| [[Paulo R. Holvorcem]] || Brazil || 1967 ||
|- id="M. Honda"
| [[Minoru Honda]] || Japan || 1917 || 1990
|- id="K. Hornoch"
| [[Kamil Hornoch]] || [[Czech Republic]] || 1972 ||
|- id="J. Horrocks"
| [[Jeremiah Horrocks]] || United Kingdom || {{circa|1619}} || 1641 || First person to demonstrate the Moon's elliptical orbit around the Earth. He predicted, observed and recorded the 1639 transit of Venus.
|- id="I. Houten"
| [[Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld]] || Netherlands || 1921 || 2015
|- id="H. Howe'
| [[Herbert Alonzo Howe]] || United States || 1858 || 1926
|- id="S. Howell'
| [[Steve B. Howell]] || United States || 1955 || || Howell was fundamental in the development of CCD astronomy especially CCD photometry of faint sources. He was the Project Scientist for the NASA Kepler and K2 Exoplanet missions.
|- id="F. Hoyle"
| [[Fred Hoyle]] || United Kingdom || 1915 || 2001
|- id="E. Hubble"
| [[Edwin Hubble|Edwin Powell Hubble]] || United States || 1889 || 1953 || Hubble proved that many objects previously thought to be clouds of dust and gas and classified as "nebulae" were actually galaxies beyond the Milky Way. He provided evidence for [[Hubble–Lemaître law]], the fact that the universe is ever expanding.
|- id="W. Huggins"
| [[William Huggins]] || United Kingdom || 1824 || 1910
|- id="R. A. Hulse"
| [[Russell Alan Hulse]] || United States || 1950 ||
|- id="H. C. Hulst"
| [[Hendrik C. van de Hulst|Hendrik Christoffel van de Hulst]] || Netherlands || 1918 || 2000
|- id="W. L. Humason"
| [[Milton Lasell Humason]] || United States || 1891 || 1972
|- id="T. J. Hussey"
| [[Thomas John Hussey]] || England || 1792 || 1854
|- id="C. Huygens"
| [[Christiaan Huygens]] || Netherlands || 1629 || 1695 || Discovered the largest moon of [[Saturn]], [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]
|- id="Y. Hyakutake"
| [[Yuji Hyakutake]] || Japan || 1950 || 2002
|- id="J. A. Hynek"
| [[J. Allen Hynek|Josef Allen Hynek]] || United States || 1910 || 1986
|- id="Hypatia"
| [[Hypatia]] || [[Egypt]] || {{circa}} 350–370 || 415
|- id="C. Hansteen"
| [[Christopher Hansteen]] || Norway || 1784 || 1873
|- id="I. Iben"
| [[Icko Iben|Icko Iben Jr.]] || United States || 1931 ||
|- id="K. Ikeya"
| [[Kaoru Ikeya]] || Japan || 1943 ||
|- id="C. Impey"
| [[Chris Impey]] || United Kingdom/United States || 1956 ||
|- id="R. T. Innes"
| [[Robert Thorburn Ayton Innes]] || Scotland/[[South Africa]] || 1861 || 1933
|- id="S. Inoda"
| [[Shigeru Inoda]] || Japan || 1955 || 2008
|- id="J. Islam"
| [[Jamal Nazrul Islam]] || [[Bangladesh]] || 1939 || 2013
|- id="E. Israel"
| [[Edward Israel]] || United States || 1859 || 1884
|- id="I. Zenbei"
| [[Iwahashi Zenbei]] || Japan || 1756 || 1811
|- id="M. Iwamoto"
| [[Masayuki Iwamoto]] || Japan || 1954 ||
|- id="S. Izumikawa"
| [[Shun-ei Izumikawa]] || Japan || ||
|- id="C. V. Jackson"
| [[Cyril V. Jackson]] || [[South Africa]] || 1903 || 1988
|- id="K. Jani"
| [[Karan Jani]] || India || 1988 ||
|- id="P. J. Janssen"
| [[Pierre Jules César Janssen]] || France || 1824 || 1907
|- id="J. Jeans"
| [[James Jeans]] || United Kingdom || 1877 || 1946
|- id="B. Jekhowsky"
| [[Benjamin Jekhowsky]] || Russia/France/[[Algeria]] || 1881 || 1975
|- id="L. F. Jenkins"
| [[Louise Freeland Jenkins]] || United States || 1888 || 1970
|- id="D. C. Jewitt"
| [[David C. Jewitt]] || United Kingdom || 1958 ||
|- id="J. Bingzhen"
| [[Jiao Bingzhen]] || China || 1689 || 1726
|- id="J. Johnson"
| [[John Johnson (astronomer)|John A. Johnson]] || United States || 1977 ||
|- id="A. H. Joy"
| [[Alfred Harrison Joy]] || United States || 1882 || 1973
|- id="V. Johri"
| [[Vinod Johri]] || India || 1935 || 2014
|- id="T. Kagawa"
| [[Tetsuo Kagawa]] || Japan || 1969 ||
|- id="N. Kaifu"
| [[Norio Kaifu]] || Japan || 1943 || 2019 || Norio directed the construction of the [[Nobeyama Radio Observatory]] and the [[Subaru Telescope]]. He was also the director of the [[International Astronomical Union]](IAU) from 2012 to 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iau.org/administration/membership/individual/3997/|title=International Astronomical Union {{!}} IAU|website=www.iau.org|access-date=2019-04-12}}</ref>
|- id="F. Kaiser"
| [[Franz Kaiser]] || Germany || 1891 || 1962
|- id="P. Kamp"
| [[Peter van de Kamp|Piet van de Kamp]] || Netherlands/United States || 1901 || 1995
|- id="K. Kanai
| [[Kiyotaka Kanai]] || Japan || 1951 ||
|- id="H. Kaneda"
| [[Hiroshi Kaneda]] || Japan || 1953 ||
|- id="H. Kandrup"
| [[Henry Kandrup]] || United States || 1955 || 2003
|- id="J. Kapteyn"
| [[Jacobus Kapteyn]] || Netherlands || 1851 || 1922
|- id="L. Karachkina"
| [[Lyudmila Karachkina]] || [[Ukraine]] || 1948 ||
|- id="G. Kashi"
| [[Ghiyath al-Kashi]] || Persia || 1380 || 1429
|- id="J. O. Katz"
| [[Jeffrey Owen Katz]] || United States || 1960 ||
|- id="K. Kaufmanis"
| [[Karlis Kaufmanis]] || [[Latvia]]/United States || 1910 || 2003
|- id="K. Kawanishi"
| [[Kōyō Kawanishi]] || Japan || 1959 ||
|- id="N. Kawasato"
| [[Nobuhiro Kawasato]] || Japan || ||
|- id="J. E. Keeler"
| [[James Edward Keeler]] || United States || 1857 || 1900
|- id="P. Kempf"
| [[Paul Kempf]] || Germany || 1856 || 1920
|- id="J. Kepler"
| [[Johannes Kepler]] || Germany || 1571 || 1630
|- id="O. Khayyam"
| [[Omar Khayyám]] || Persia || 1048 || 1131
|- id="Al-Khujandi"
| [[Al-Khujandi]] || Persia || {{circa|940}} || 1000 || discovered that the [[axial tilt]] of the earth is not constant
|- id="M. Khwarizmi"
| [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]] || Persia || 780 || 850
|- id="Kidinnu"
| [[Kidinnu]] || [[Babylon]] || fl. 4th century BC || {{circa|330 BC}}
|- id="H. Kimura"
| [[Hisashi Kimura]] || Japan || 1870 || 1943
|- id="M. Kirch"
| [[Maria Margarethe Kirch]] || Germany || 1670 || 1720
|- id="D. Kirkwood"
| [[Daniel Kirkwood]] || United States || 1814 || 1895
|- id="R. Kirshner"
| [[Robert Kirshner]] || United States || 1949 ||
|- id="M. Kizawa"
| [[Minoru Kizawa]] || Japan || 1947 ||
|- id="E. F. Klinkerfues"
| [[Ernst Friedrich Wilhelm Klinkerfues]] || Germany || 1827 || 1884
|- id="V. Knorre"
| [[Viktor Knorre]] || Russia || 1840 || 1919
|- id="Takao Kobayashi"
| [[Takao Kobayashi]] || Japan || 1961 ||
|- id="Toru Kobayashi"
| [[Toru Kobayashi]] || Japan || ||
|- id="L. Kohoutek"
| [[Luboš Kohoutek]] || [[Czechoslovakia]] || 1935 ||
|- id="M. Koishikawa"
| [[Masahiro Koishikawa]] || Japan || 1952 || 2020
|- id="N. Kojima"
| [[Nobuhisa Kojima]] || Japan || 1933 ||
|- id="T. Kojima"
| [[Takuo Kojima]] || Japan || 1955 ||
|- id="Y. Kondo"
| [[Yoji Kondo]] || Japan || 1933 || 2017
|- id="Z. Kopal"
| [[Zdeněk Kopal]] || Czechoslovakia/United Kingdom/United States || 1914 || 1993
|- id="S. Kopeikin"
| [[Sergei Kopeikin]] || United States || 1956 ||
|- id="A. Kopff"
| [[August Kopff]] || Germany || 1882 || 1960
|- id="K. Korlevic"
| [[Korado Korlević]] || [[Croatia]] || 1958 ||
|- id="H. Kosai"
| [[Hiroki Kosai]] || Japan || 1933 ||
|- id="C. T. Kowal"
| [[Charles T. Kowal]] || United States || 1940 || 2011
|- id="R. Kraft"
| [[Robert Kraft (astronomer)|Robert Kraft]] || United States || 1927 || 2015
|- id="L. Kresak"
| [[Ľubor Kresák]] || Czechoslovakia || 1927 || 1994
|- id="H. Kreutz"
| [[Heinrich Kreutz]] || Germany || 1854 || 1927
|- id="E. Krupp"
| [[Ed Krupp|Edwin C. Krupp]] || United States || 1944 ||
|- id="K. Kubokawa"
| [[Kazuo Kubokawa]] || Japan || 1903 || 1943
|- id="M. Kuchner"
| [[Marc Kuchner]] || United States || 1972 ||
|- id="G. Kuiper"
| [[Gerard Kuiper]] || Netherlands/United States || 1905 || 1973 || The namesake of the [[Kuiper belt]], a region of minor planets beyond [[Neptune]].
|- id="G. Kulin"
| [[György Kulin]] || [[Austria-Hungary]] || 1905 || 1989
|- id="D. Kurtz"
| [[Donald Kurtz]] || United States || 1948 ||
|- id="A. Kuscu"
| [[Ali Kuşçu]] || [[Turkey]] || 1403 || 1474
|- id="R. Kushida"
| [[Reiki Kushida]] || Japan || ||
|- id="Y. Kushida"
| [[Yoshio Kushida]] || Japan || 1957 ||
|- id="N. Lacaille"
| [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] || France || 1713 || 1762
|- id="E. Lada"
| [[Elizabeth Lada]] || United States || ||
|- id="Lagadha"
| [[Lagadha]] || India || 1st millennium BCE ||
|- id="C. Lagerkvist"
| [[Claes-Ingvar Lagerkvist]] || Sweden || 1944 ||
|- id="J. L. Lagrange"
| [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] || France || 1736 || 1813
|- id="E. Lakdawalla"
| [[Emily Lakdawalla]] || United States || 1975 ||
|- id="J. Lalande"
| [[Jérôme Lalande]] || France || 1732 || 1807 || Calculated the distance from the moon to Earth
|- id="J. H. Lambert"
| [[Johann Heinrich Lambert]] || France/Germany || 1728 || 1777
|- id="D. J. Lane"
| [[David J. Lane (astronomer)|David J. Lane]] || Canada || 1963 ||
|- id="A. E. Lange"
| [[Andrew E. Lange]] || United States || 1957 || 2010
|- id="S. P. Langley"
| [[Samuel Pierpont Langley]] || United States || 1834 || 1906
|- id="P. Laplace"
| [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]] || France || 1749 || 1827
|- id="J. Laskar"
| [[Jacques Laskar]] || France || 1955 ||
|- id="W. Lassell"
| [[William Lassell]] || United Kingdom || 1799 || 1880
|- id="J. J. Laurent"
| [[Joseph Jean Pierre Laurent]] || France || || 1900
|- id="H. S. Leavitt"
| [[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]] || United States || 1868 || 1921 || Discovered that [[Cepheid variable]] stars pulsated at a rate relative to the luminosity. This discovery made it possible to determine the distance to other galaxies by comparing the distance to Cepheids in our galaxy measured by [[Parallax]] and [[Spectroscopy]] and then applying the results to cepheids in other galaxies. This would eventually lead to the discovery that the Universe is expanding.
|- id="T. Lee"
| [[Typhoon Lee]] || United States/[[Taiwan]] || 1948 ||
|- id="G. Gentil"
| [[Guillaume Le Gentil]] || France || 1725 || 1792
|- id="G. Lemaitre"
| [[Georges Lemaître]] || Belgium || 1894 || 1966 || Being the first the theorize that the Universe is ever expanding. The namesake of the [[Hubble–Lemaître law]]
|- id="P. Lemonnier"
| [[Pierre Lemonnier (physicist)|Pierre Lemonnier]] || France || 1715 || 1799
|- id="F. C. Leonard"
| [[Frederick C. Leonard]] || United States || 1896 || 1960

|- id="A. O. Leuschner"
| [[Armin Otto Leuschner|Armin Leuschner]] || United States || 1868 || 1953
|- id="G. F. Lewis"
| [[Geraint F. Lewis|Geraint Lewis]] || Australia || 1969 ||
|- id="U. Verrier"
| [[Urbain Le Verrier]] || France || 1811 || 1877 || Theorized the existence of [[Neptune]] by calculations of its influence of orbit of [[Uranus]], which let to Neptune's discovery.
|- id="L. Fan"
| [[Li Fan (Han Dynasty)|Li Fan]] || China || 202 AD || 220 AD
|- id="B. Lindblad"
| [[Bertil Lindblad]] || Sweden || 1895 || 1965
|- id="A. Friedrich"
| [[Adolph Friedrich Lindemann]] || Germany/[[United Kingdom]] || 1846 || 1927
|- id="C. Lintott"
| [[Chris Lintott]] || United Kingdom || 1980 ||
|- id="J. J. Littrow"
| [[Joseph Johann Littrow]] || Austria || 1781 || 1840
|- id="K. L. Littrow"
| [[Karl L. Littrow]] || Austria || 1811 || 1877
|- id="L. Xin"
| [[Liu Xin (scholar)|Liu Xin]] || China || 50 BCE || 23 BCE
|- id="J. Lockyer"
| [[Joseph Lockyer]] || United Kingdom || 1836 || 1920
|- id="M. Loewy"
| [[Maurice Loewy]] || Austria/France || 1833 || 1907
|- id="C. S. Longomontanus"
| [[Christian Sørensen Longomontanus]] || Denmark || 1562 || 1647
|- id="B. Lovell"
| [[Bernard Lovell]] || United Kingdom || 1913 || 2012
|- id="P. Lowell
| [[Percival Lowell]] || United States || 1855 || 1916 || Theorized the existence of a ninth planet beyond [[Neptune]], and contributed to the calculations that would eventually lead to the discovery of [[Pluto]]
|- id="R. Lopes"
| [[Rosaly Lopes]] || [[Brazil]] || 1957 ||
|- id="A. Lopez"
| [[Ángel López (astronomer)|Ángel López]] || Spain || 1955 ||
|- id="A. Lopez-Garcia"
| [[Álvaro López-García]] || Spain || 1941 || 2019
|- id="J. W. Lubbock"
| [[John William Lubbock]] || United Kingdom || 1803 || 1865
|- id="K. Lundmark"
| [[Knut Lundmark]] || Sweden || 1889 || 1958
|- id="Lupitus"
| [[Lupitus of Barcelona]] || Spain || fl. 10th century ||
|- id="R. Luther"
| [[Robert Luther]] || Germany || 1822 || 1900
|- id="J. Luu"
| [[Jane Luu]] || [[South Vietnam]]/United States || 1963 ||
|- id="W. Luyten"
| [[Willem Luyten]] || [[Dutch East Indies]] (Netherlands) || 1899 || 1994
|- id="D. Lynden"
| [[Donald Lynden-Bell]] || United Kingdom || 1935 || 2018
|- id="A. Lyne
| [[Andrew Lyne]] || [[United Kingdom]] || 1942 ||
|- id="B. Lyot
| [[Bernard Lyot]] || France || 1897 || 1952
|- id="M. Suri"
| [[Mahendra Suri]] || India || {{circa|1340}} || 1400
|- id="M. Yize"
| [[Ma Yize]] || China || 910 || 1005
|- id="A. Maanen"
| [[Adriaan van Maanen]] || United States || 1884 || 1946
|- id="G. Parker"
| [[George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield|George Parker]] 2nd Earl of Macclesfield || United Kingdom || {{circa|1697}} || 1764
|- id="A. Mainzer"
| [[Amy Mainzer]] || United States || 1974 ||
|- id="S. Mandel"
| [[Steve Mandel]] || United States || ||
|- id="G. Marcy"
| [[Geoff Marcy]] || United States || 1954 ||
|- id="S. Marius"
| [[Simon Marius]] || Germany || 1573 || 1624
|- id="B. G. Marsden"
| [[Brian G. Marsden]] || United States || 1937 || 2010
|- id="A. Marth"
| [[Albert Marth]] || Germany || 1828 || 1897
|- id="N. Maskelyne"
| [[Nevil Maskelyne]] || United Kingdom || 1732 || 1811
|- id="C. Mason"
| [[Charles Mason]] || United Kingdom/United States || 1730 || 1787
|- id="J. C. Mather"
| [[John C. Mather]] || United States || 1946 ||
|- id="J. A. Mattei"
| [[Janet Akyüz Mattei]] || [[Turkey]]/United States || 1943 || 2004
|- id="E. W. Maunder"
| [[Edward Walter Maunder]] || United Kingdom || 1851 || 1928
|- id="P. L. Maupertuis"
| [[Pierre Louis Maupertuis]] || France || 1698 || 1759
|- id="A. Maury"
| [[Alain Maury]] || France || 1958 ||
|- id="M. F. Maury"
| [[Matthew Fontaine Maury]] || United States || 1806 || 1873
|- id="B. May"
| [[Brian May]] || United Kingdom || 1947 ||
|- id="C. Mayer"
| [[Cornell Mayer]] || United States || 1922 || 2005
|- id="T. Mayer"
| [[Tobias Mayer]] || Germany || 1723 || 1762
|- id="M. Mayor"
| [[Michel Mayor]] || Switzerland || 1942 ||
|- id="C. McKee"
| [[Christopher McKee]] || United States || 1942 ||
|- id="R. S. McMillan"
| [[Robert S. McMillan (astronomer)|Robert S. McMillan]] || United States || ||
|- id="W. H. McCrea"
| [[William H. McCrea]] || United Kingdom || 1904 || 1999
|- id="B. A> McIntosh"
| [[Bruce A. McIntosh]] || Canada || 1929 || 2015
|- id="R. H. McNaught"
| [[Robert H. McNaught]] || Australia || 1956 ||
|- id="P. Mechain"
| [[Pierre Méchain]] || France || 1744 || 1804
|- id="T. Medupe"
| [[Thebe Medupe]] || [[South Africa]] || 1973 ||
|- id="K. J. Meech"
| [[Karen Jean Meech]] || United States || 1959 ||
|- id="A. Meinel"
| [[Aden Meinel|Aden Baker Meinel]] || United States || 1922 || 2011
|- id="F. Melia"
| [[Fulvio Melia]] || United States || 1956 ||
|- id="P. J. Melotte"
| [[Philibert Jacques Melotte]] || United Kingdom || 1880 || 1961
|- id="P. Merrill"
| [[Paul Merrill|Paul Willard Merrill]] || United States || 1887 || 1961
|- id="D. Merritt"
| [[David Merritt]] || United States || 1955 ||
|- id="C. Messier"
| [[Charles Messier]] || France || 1730 || 1817
|- id="J. H. Metcalf"
| [[Joel Hastings Metcalf]] || United States || 1866 || 1925
|- id="A. G. Michalitsianos"
| [[Andreas Gerasimos Michalitsianos]] || United States || 1947 || 1997
|- id="J. Michell"
| [[John Michell]] || United Kingdom || 1724 || 1793 || The first person known to have proposed the existence of [[black holes]]
|- id="E. Millosevich"
| [[Elia Millosevich]] || Italy || 1848 || 1919
|- id="E. A. Milne"
| [[Edward Arthur Milne]] || United Kingdom || 1896 || 1950
|- id="R. Minkowski"
| [[Rudolph Minkowski]] || Germany || 1895 || 1976
|- id="M. Minnaert"
| [[Marcel Minnaert|Marcel Gilles Jozef Minnaert]] || [[Belgium]]/[[Netherlands]] || 1893 || 1970
|- id="M. Mitchell"
| [[Maria Mitchell]] || United States || 1818 || 1889
|- id="S. Miyasaka"
| [[Seidai Miyasaka]] || Japan || 1955 ||
|- id="Y. Mizuno"
| [[Yoshikane Mizuno]] || Japan || 1954 ||
|- id="A. F. Mobius"
| [[August Ferdinand Möbius]] || Germany || 1790 || 1868
|- id="A. Moffat"
| [[Anthony Moffat]] || Canada || ||
|- id="J. M. Mohr"
| [[Johan Maurits Mohr]] || Netherlands || 1716 || 1775
|- id="S. Molyneux"
| [[Samuel Molyneux]] || United Kingdom || 1689 || 1728 || best known for his work in attempting to measure the parallax of Gamma Draconis leading to the discovery of the [[aberration of light]]
|- id="G. Montanari"
| [[Geminiano Montanari]] || Italy || 1633 || 1687
|- id="P. Moore"
| [[Patrick Moore]] || United Kingdom || 1923 || 2012
|- id="J. M. Moran"
| [[James Michael Moran]] || United States || 1943 ||
|- id="W. W. Morgan"
| [[William Wilson Morgan]] || United States || 1906 || 1994
|- id="H. Mori"
| [[Hiroshi Mori (astronomer)|Hiroshi Mori]] || Japan || 1958 ||
|- id="A. Mouchez"
| [[Amédée Mouchez]] || France || 1821 || 1892
|- id="A. Mrkos"
| [[Antonín Mrkos]] || Czechoslovakia || 1918 || 1996
|- id="J. Mueller"
| [[Jean Mueller]] || United States || 1950 ||
|- id="M. Mukai"
| [[Masaru Mukai]] || Japan || 1949 ||
|- id="G. Muller"
| [[Gustav Müller (astronomer)|Gustav Müller]] || Germany || 1851 || 1925
|- id="J. Muller"
| [[Regiomontanus|Johannes Müller]] || Germany || 1436 || 1476
|- id="H. Murakami"
| [[Harutaro Murakami]] || Japan || 1872 || 1947
|- id=""Muramatsu"
| [[Osamu Muramatsu]] || Japan || 1949 ||
|- id="A. Musa"
| [[Ahmad bin Musa|bin Musa Ahmad]] || Persia || 805 || 873
|- id="H. Musa"
| [[Hasan bin Musa|bin Musa Hasan]] || Persia || 810 || 873
|- id="M. Musa"
| [[Muhammad bin Musa|bin Musa Muhammad]] || Persia || {{circa|800}} || 873
|- id="N. Mustelin"
| [[Nils Mustelin]] || Finland || 1931 || 2004
|- id="N. Somayaji"
| [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] || India || 1444 || 1544
|- id="V. Naboth"
| [[Valentin Naboth]] || Germany/Italy || 1523 || 1593
|- id="Naburimannu"
| [[Naburimannu]] || [[Babylonia]] || sometime between 6th century BC and 2nd century BC ||
|- id="T. Nagata"
| [[Takeshi Nagata]] || Japan || 1913 || 1991
|- id="A. Nahavandi"
| [[Ahmad Nahavandi]] || Persia || 7th–8th century ||
|- id="A. Nakamura"
| [[Akimasa Nakamura]] || Japan || 1961 ||
|- id="S. Nakano"
| [[Syuichi Nakano]] || Japan || 1947 ||
|- id="J. Narlikar"
| [[Jayant Narlikar]] || India || 1938 ||
|- id="Naubakht"
| [[Naubakht]] || Persia || d. 776 ||
|- id="A. Naubakht"
| [[Al-fadl ibn Naubakht]] || Persia || 8th century ||
|- id="O. Neugebauer"
| [[Otto Neugebauer]] || Germany/United States || 1899 || 1990
|- id="G. N. Neujmin"
| [[G. N. Neujmin|Grigoriy Nikolaevich Neujmin]] || [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]/[[Russia]] || 1886 || 1946
|- id="S. Newcomb"
| [[Simon Newcomb]] || United States || 1835 || 1909
|- id="I. Newton"
| [[Isaac Newton]] || United Kingdom || 1643 || 1727
|- id="S. B. Nicholson"
| [[Seth Barnes Nicholson]] || United States || 1891 || 1963
|- id="A. A. Nijland"
| [[Albertus Antonie Nijland]] || Netherlands || 1868 || 1936
|- id="T. Niijima
| [[Tsuneo Niijima]] || Japan || 1955 ||
|- id="P. Nilson"
| [[Peter Nilson]] || Sweden || 1937 || 1998
|- id="H. Nojiri"
| [[Hōei Nojiri]] || Japan || 1885 || 1977
|- id="J. Nomen"
| [[Jaime Nomen]] || Spain || 1960 ||
|- id="T. Nomura"
| [[Toshiro Nomura]] || Japan || 1954 ||
|- id="K. Odegaard"
| [[Knut Jørgen Røed Ødegaard]] || [[Norway]] || 1966 ||
|- id="Okuro Oikawa"
| [[Okuro Oikawa]] || Japan || 1896 || 1970
|- id="T. Oja"
| [[Tarmo Oja]] || Sweden || 1934 ||
|- id="T. Okuni"
| [[Tomimaru Okuni]] || Japan || 1931 ||
|- id="N. Olahus"
| [[Nicolaus Olahus]] || [[Hungary]] || 1493 || 1568
|- id="H. W. Olbers"
| [[Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers]] || Germany || 1758 || 1840 || Was a part of the so-called '[[celestial police]]' group, which made the orbital calculations leading to the discovery of many [[dwarf planets]] between Mars and Jupiter.
|- id="G. K. O'Neill"
| [[Gerard K. O'Neill|Gerard O'Neill]] || United States || 1927 || 1992
|- id="J. Oort
| [[Jan Hendrik Oort]] || Netherlands || 1900 || 1992 || Determined that the [[Milky Way]] rotates, and disproved that the sun is the center of the Milky Way.
|- id="P. Oosterhoff"
| [[Pieter Oosterhoff]] || Netherlands || 1904 || 1978
|- id="E. Opik"
| [[Ernst Öpik]] || [[Estonia]]/Ireland || 1893 || 1985
|- id="J. L. Ortiz"
| [[José Luis Ortiz Moreno]] || Spain || 1967 || || Led the team to discover the [[dwarf planet]] [[Haumea]] in 2004
|- id="Y. Oshima"
| [[Yoshiaki Oshima]] || Japan || 1952 ||
|- id="D. E. Osterbrook:
| [[Donald Edward Osterbrock]] || United States || 1924 || 2007
|- id="L. Oterma"
| [[Liisi Oterma]] || Finland || 1915 || 2001
|- id="S. Otomo"
| [[Satoru Otomo]] || Japan || 1957 ||
|- id="J. A. Oudemans"
| [[Jean Abraham Chrétien Oudemans]] || Netherlands || 1827 || 1906
|- id="R. Pacheco"
| [[Rafael Pacheco]] || Spain || 1954 ||
|- id="B. Paczynski"
| [[Bohdan Paczyński]] || Poland || 1940 || 2007
|- id="L. Pajdusakova"
| [[Ľudmila Pajdušáková]] || Czechoslovakia || 1916 || 1979
|- id="J. Palisa"
| [[Johann Palisa]] || Austria || 1848 || 1925
|- id="J. Palitzsch"
| [[Johann Palitzsch]] || Germany || 1723 || 1788
|- id="A. Pannekoek"
| [[Anton Pannekoek]] || Netherlands || 1873 || 1960
|- id="E. Parker"
| [[Eugene Parker]] || United States || 1927 ||2022
|- id="W. Parsons"
| [[William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse|William Parsons]] (Lord Rosse) || Ireland || 1800 || 1867 || discovered the spiral nature of some [[nebulae]], today known to be spiral [[galaxies]]
|- id="A. Patry"
| [[Miriani Griselda Pastoriza]] || Brazil || 1939 ||
|- id="M. Pastoriza"
| [[André Patry]] || France || 1902 || 1960
|- id="C. Payne"
| [[Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin]] || United Kingdom/United States || 1900 || 1979
|- id="R. Payne"
| [[Ruby Payne-Scott]] || Australia || 1912 || 1981
|- id="J. Peebles"
| [[Jim Peebles|James Peebles]] || Canada/United States || 1935 ||
|- id="C. Peek"
| [[Cuthbert Peek|Sir Cuthbert Peek, 2nd Baronet]] || United Kingdom || 1855 || 1901
|- id="L. Peltier"
| [[Leslie Peltier|Leslie Copus Peltier]] || United States || 1900 || 1980
|- id="R. Penrose"
| [[Roger Penrose]] || United Kingdom || 1931 ||
|- id="A. Penzias"
| [[Arno Penzias]] || United States/Germany || 1933 || 2024
|- id="S. Perlmutter"
| [[Saul Perlmutter]] || United States || 1959 || || Proved that the expansion rate of the universe is expanding.
|- id="C. D. Perrine"
| [[Charles Dillon Perrine]] || United States/[[Argentina]] || 1867 || 1951
|- id="H. J. Perrotin"
| [[Henri Joseph Anastase Perrotin]] || France || 1845 || 1904
|- id="C. H. Peters"
| [[Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters]] || Germany/United States || 1813 || 1890
|- id="G. H. Peters"
| [[George Henry Peters]] || United States || 1863 || 1947
|- id="M. M. Phillips"
| [[Mark M. Phillips]] || United States || 1951 ||
|- id="G. Piazzi"
| [[Giuseppe Piazzi]] || Italy || 1746 || 1826 || Discovered the [[dwarf planet]] [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]]
|- id="E. C. Pickering"
| [[Edward Charles Pickering]] || United States || 1846 || 1919
|- id="W. H. Pickering"
| [[William Henry Pickering]] || United States || 1858 || 1938
|- id="P. Pismis"
| [[Paris Pişmiş]] || [[Armenia]]/[[Mexico]] || 1911 || 1999
|- id="M. Pittendreigh"
| Maynard Pittendreigh || United States || 1954 ||
|- id="P. Plait"
| [[Phil Plait]] || United States || 1964 ||
|- id="G. A. Plana"
| [[Giovanni Antonio Amedeo Plana]] || Italy || 1781 || 1864
|- id="P. Plancius"
| [[Petrus Plancius]] || Netherlands || 1552 || 1622
|- id="J. S. Plaskett"
| [[John Stanley Plaskett]] || Canada || 1865 || 1941
|- id="N. R. Pogson"
| [[Norman Robert Pogson]] || United Kingdom || 1829 || 1891
|- id="C. Pollas"
| [[Christian Pollas]] || France || 1947 ||
|- id="J. Pond"
| [[John Pond]] || England || 1767 || 1836
|- id="J. Pons"
| [[Jean-Louis Pons]] || France || 1761 || 1831
|- id="C. Porco"
| [[Carolyn Porco]] || United States || 1953 ||
|- id="V. Porubcan"
| [[Vladimír Porubčan]] || Czechoslovakia || 1940 ||
|- id="C. Pritchard"
| [[Charles Pritchard]] || United Kingdom || 1808 || 1893
|- id="R. Proctor"
| [[Richard Proctor]] || England || 1837 || 1888
|- id="M. B. Protic"
| [[Milorad B. Protić]] || [[Serbia]] || 1911 || 2001
|- id="Ptolemy"
| [[Ptolemy]] of Alexandria || [[Roman Egypt]] || {{circa|85}} || 165
|- id="P. Puiseux"
| [[Pierre Puiseux]] || France || 1855 || 1928
|- id="G. Purbach"
| [[Georg Purbach]] || Germany || 1423 || 1461
|- id="Pythagoras"
| [[Pythagoras]] of Samos || Greece || 580 BC || 500 BC
|- id="A. Quetelet"
| [[Adolphe Quetelet]] || Belgium || 1796 || 1874
|- id="M. Qureshi"
| [[M. Shahid Qureshi]] || [[Pakistan]] || ||
|- id="A. Qushji"
| [[Ali Qushji]] || [[Ottoman Empire]] || 1403 || 1474
|- id="D. L. Rabinowitz"
| [[David L. Rabinowitz|David Lincoln Rabinowitz]] || United States || 1960 || || Co-discoverer of the dwarf planet [[Eris (dwarf planet)|Eris]] in 2006
|- id="N. C. Rana"
| [[Narayan Chandra Rana]] || India || 1954 || 1996<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epaper.thestatesman.com/1018159/Dainik-Statesman/29TH-NOVEMBER-2016#page/10/1|title=E Paper|work=epaper.thestatesman.com|date=29 November 2016|access-date=5 February 2017}}</ref>
|- id="G. Reber"
| [[Grote Reber]] || United States || 1911 || 2002
|- id="M. Rees"
| [[Martin Rees]] || United Kingdom || 1942 ||
|-
|[[Edward Ayearst Reeves]]
|United Kingdom
|1862
|1945
|Geographer and astronomer<ref>{{Cite web |title=Telescopic Alidade |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/nmah_765754 |access-date=2024-03-14 |publisher=[[National Museum of American History]] |language=en}}</ref>
|- id="H. Reeves"
| [[Hubert Reeves]] || Canada || 1932 || 2023
|- id="J. Muller"
| [[Regiomontanus|Johannes Müller]] || Germany || 1436 || 1476
|- id="J. Reichelt"
| [[Julius Reichelt]] || Germany || 1637 || 1717
|- id="E. Reinhold"
| [[Erasmus Reinhold]] || [[Duchy of Prussia|Prussia]], Germany || 1511 || 1553
|- id="K. Reinmuth"
| [[Karl Reinmuth]] || Germany || 1892 || 1979
|- id="P. Rhijn"
| [[Pieter Johannes van Rhijn]] || Netherlands || 1886 || 1960
|- id="G. Riccioli"
| [[Giovanni Battista Riccioli]] || Italy || 1598 || 1671 || discovering the first double star.
|-
|[[Mercedes Richards]] || [[Jamaica]] || 1955 || 2016 || Pioneering research in the [[tomography]] of interacting [[binary star]] systems and [[cataclysmic variable star]]s to predict magnetic activity and simulate gas flow is her most known work. She was the first to use tomography in astronomy.
|- id="J. Richer"
| [[Jean Richer]] || France || 1630 || 1696
|- id="E. Riddle"
| [[Edward Riddle]] || England || 1788 || 1854
|- id="A. Riess"
| [[Adam Riess]] || United States || 1969 || || He is known for his research in using [[supernovae]] as cosmological probes and for being part of the team that proved that the expansion rate of the universe is expanding.
|- id="F. Rigaux"
| [[Fernand Rigaux]] || Belgium || 1905 || 1962
|- id="G. W. Ritchey"
| [[George Willis Ritchey]] || United States || 1864 || 1945
|- id="D. Rittenhouse"
| [[David Rittenhouse]] || United States || 1732 || 1796
|- id="H. Rix"
| [[Hans-Walter Rix]] || Germany || 1964 ||
|- id="C. Robert"
| [[Carmelle Robert]] || Canada || 1962 ||
|- id="A. Roelofs"
| [[Arjen Roelofs]] || Netherlands || 1754 || 1824
|- id="E. Roemer"
| [[Elizabeth Roemer]] || United States || 1929 || 2016
|- id="R. Hereford
| [[Roger of Hereford]] || England || {{circa|1176}} || 1198
|- id="N. G. Roman"
| [[Nancy G. Roman]] || United States || 1925 || 2018
|- id="G. E. Romero"
| [[Gustavo E. Romero]] || Argentina || 1964 ||
|- id="O. Romer"
| [[Ole Rømer|Ole Christensen Rømer]] || Denmark || 1644 || 1710 || made the first measurement of the [[speed of light]] and discovery that light travels at a finite speed.
|- id="O. A. Rosenberger"
| [[Otto A. Rosenberger]] || Germany || 1800 || 1890

|- id="S. Rosseland"
| [[Svein Rosseland]] || Norway || 1894 || 1985
|- id="B. Rossi"
| [[Bruno Rossi]] || Italy || 1905 || 1993
|- id="L. Rousseau"
| [[Laurie Rousseau-Nepton]] || Canada || ||
|- id="V. Rubin"
| [[Vera Rubin]] || United States || 1928 || 2016 || Studied the rotation of Galaxies. Her research provided evidence for the discovery of [[Dark matter]].
|- id="H. C. Russell"
| [[Henry Chamberlain Russell]] || Australia || 1836 || 1907
|- id="H. N. Russell"
| [[Henry Norris Russell]] || United States || 1877 || 1957
|- id="M. Ryle"
| [[Martin Ryle]] || United Kingdom || 1918 || 1984 || won the [[Nobel Prize for Physics]] in 1974 for his role in the discovery of [[pulsars]].
|- id="E. Sabine"
| Sir [[Edward Sabine]] || Ireland || 1788 || 1883
|- id="Sadr"
| [[Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar]] || [[Uzbekistan]] || ? || 1346
| He was a theoretical astronomer and religious scholar who created original and sophisticated astronomical theories of time and place, and under circumstances that have long been considered devoid of original scientific research.
|- id="C. Sagan"
| [[Carl Sagan]] || United States || 1934 || 1996
|- id="M. N. Saha"
| [[Megh Nad Saha]] || India || 1893 || 1956
|- id="E. E. Salpeter"
| [[Edwin Ernest Salpeter]] || Austria/Australia/United States || 1924 || 2008
|- id="A. R. Sandage"
| [[Allan Rex Sandage]] || United States || 1926 || 2010
|- id="H. G. Sande"
| [[H. G. van de Sande Bakhuyzen|Hendricus Gerardus van de Sande Bakhuyzen]] || Netherlands || 1838 || 1923
|- id="W. L. Sargent"
| [[Wallace Leslie William Sargent]] || United Kingdom/United States || 1935 || 2012
|- id="A. Sargent"
| [[Anneila Sargent]] || United Kingdom/United States || 1942 ||
|- id="N. Sato"
| [[Naoto Sato]] || Japan || 1953 ||
|- id="A. Schaumasse"
| [[Alexandre Schaumasse]] || France || 1882 || 1958
|- id="G. Schiapaarelli"
| [[Giovanni Schiaparelli]] || Italy || 1835 || 1910
|- id="F. Schlesinger"
| [[Frank Schlesinger]] || United States || 1871 || 1943
|- id="B. Schmidt"
| [[Bernhard Schmidt]] || [[Estonia]]/[[Sweden]]/[[Germany]] || 1879 || 1935
|- id="B. P. Schmidt"
| [[Brian P. Schmidt]] || United States || 1967 || || Proved that the expansion rate of the universe is expanding.
|- id="M. Schmidt"
| [[Maarten Schmidt]] || Netherlands || 1929 || 2022
|- id="R. Schommer"
| [[Robert Schommer]] || United States || 1946 || 2001
|- id="J. H. Schroter"
| [[Johann Hieronymus Schröter]] || Germany || 1745 || 1816 || Was a part of the so-called '[[celestial police]]' group, which made the orbital calculations leading to the discovery of many [[dwarf planets]] between Mars and Jupiter.
|- id="L. Schulhof"
| [[Lipót Schulhof]] || Hungary || 1847 || 1921
|- id="H. C. Schumacher"
| [[Heinrich Christian Schumacher]] || Germany || 1780 || 1850
|- id="H. Schuster"
| [[Hans-Emil Schuster]] || Germany || 1934 ||
|- id="S. H. Schwabe"
| [[Samuel Heinrich Schwabe]] || Germany || 1789 || 1875
|- id="K. Schwarzschild"
| [[Karl Schwarzschild]] || Germany || 1873 || 1916
|- id="M. Schwarzschild"
| [[Martin Schwarzschild]] || Germany/United States || 1912 || 1997
|- id="F. K. Schwassmann"
| [[Friedrich Karl Arnold Schwassmann]] || Germany || 1870 || 1964
|- id="J. V. Scotti"
| [[James Vernon Scotti]] || United States || 1960 ||
|- id="F. H. Seares"
| [[Frederick Hanley Seares]] || United States || 1873 || 1964
|- id="G. M. Searle"
| [[George Mary Searle]] || United States || 1839 || 1918
|- id="A. Secchi"
| [[Angelo Secchi]] || Italy || 1818 || 1878 || One of the first scientists to state authoritatively that the Sun is a star.
|- id="S. Sei"
| [[Sadao Sei]] || Japan || ||
|- id="W. Seitter"
| [[Waltraut Seitter]] || Germany || 1930 || 2007
|- id="T. Seki"
| [[Tsutomu Seki]] || Japan || 1930 ||
|- id="C. K. Seyfert"
| [[Carl Keenan Seyfert]] || United States || 1911 || 1960
|- id="G. Shajn"
| [[Grigory Abramovich Shajn]] || Russia || 1892 || 1956
|- id="P. Shajn"
| [[Pelageya Fedorovna Shajn]] || Russia || 1894 || 1956
|- id="H. Shapley"
| [[Harlow Shapley]] || United States || 1885 || 1972
|- id="R. Sheepshanks"
| [[Richard Sheepshanks]] || United Kingdom || 1794 || 1855
|- id="S. Kuo"
| [[Shen Kuo]] || China || 1031 || 1095
|- id="S. Shen"
| [[Shi Shen]] || China || fl. 4th century BC || || Shi Shen, together with [[Gan De]] compiled China's first [[star catalogue]]
|- id="S. Shunkai"
| [[Shibukawa Shunkai]] || Japan || 1639 || 1715
|- id="Y. Shimizu"
| [[Yoshisada Shimizu]] || Japan || 1943 ||
|- id="S. Shinjo"
| [[Shinzo Shinjo]] || Japan || 1873 || 1938
|- id="Q. Shirazi"
| [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi|Qutb eddin Shirazi]] || Persia || 1236 || 1311
|- id="I. Shklovsky"
| [[Iosif Samuilovich Shklovsky]] || Russia || 1916 || 1985
|- id="V. Shkodrov"
| [[Vladimir Shkodrov]] || [[Bulgaria]] || 1930 || 2010
|- id="C. J. Shoemaker"
| [[Carolyn Jean Spellmann Shoemaker]] || United States || 1929 || 2021
|- id="E. M. Schoemaker"
| [[Eugene Merle Shoemaker]] || United States || 1928 || 1997
|- id="E. M. Sion"
| [[Edward M. Sion]] || United States || 1946 ||
|- id="W. Sitter"
| [[Willem de Sitter]] || Netherlands || 1872 || 1934 || De Sitter made major contributions to the field of physical [[cosmology]]. He co-authored a paper with Albert Einstein in 1932 in which they discussed the implications of cosmological data for the curvature of the universe.
|- id="C. M. Sitterly"
| [[Charlotte Moore Sitterly]] || United States || 1898 || 1990
|- id="B. A. Skiff"
| [[Brian A. Skiff]] || United States || ||
|- id="J. F. Skjellerup"
| [[John Francis Skjellerup]] || [[Australia]]/[[South Africa]] || 1875 || 1952
|- id="V. M. Slipher"
| [[Vesto Melvin Slipher]] || United States || 1875 || 1969
|- id="W. M. Smart"
| [[William Marshall Smart]] || United Kingdom || 1889 || 1975
|- id="T. M. Smirnova"
| [[Tamara Mikhaylovna Smirnova (astronomer)|Tamara Mikhaylovna Smirnova]] || Russia || 1935 || 2001
|- id="G. Smoot"
| [[George Smoot]] || United States || 1945 ||
|- id="W. H. Smyth"
| [[William Henry Smyth]] || United Kingdom || 1788 || 1865
|- id="W. Snellius"
| [[Willebrord Snellius|Snell]] || Netherlands || 1580 || 1626
|- id="M. F. Somerville"
| [[Mary Fairfax Somerville]] || United Kingdom || 1780 || 1872
|- id="J. South"
| Sir [[James South]] || United Kingdom || 1785 || 1867
|- id="H. Spencer"
| Sir [[Harold Spencer Jones]] || United Kingdom || 1890 || 1960
|- id="L. Spitzer"
| [[Lyman Spitzer]] || United States || 1914 || 1997
|- id="F. W. Sporer"
| [[Friederich Wilhelm Gustav Spörer]] || Germany || 1822 || 1895
|- id="R. Spurzem"
| [[Rainer Spurzem]] || Germany || 1956 ||
|- id="A. Staus"
| [[Anton Staus]] || Germany || 1872 || 1955
|- id="J. Stebbins"
| [[Joel Stebbins]] || United States || 1878 || 1966
|- id="J. Stein"
| [[Johan Stein]] || Netherlands || 1871 || 1951
|- id="C. A. Steinheil"
| [[Carl August Steinheil|Karl August von Steinheil]] || Germany || 1801 || 1870
|- id="E. Stephan"
| [[Édouard Stephan]] || France || 1837 || 1923
|- id="D. J. Stevenson"
| [[David J. Stevenson]] || New Zealand || 1948 ||
|- id="E. J. Stone"
| [[Edward James Stone]] || England || 1831 || 1897
|- id="F. J. Stratton"
| [[F. J. M. Stratton]] || United Kingdom || 1881 || 1960
|- id="B. G. Stromgren"
| [[Bengt Georg Daniel Strömgren]] || Denmark || 1908 || 1987
|- id="K. H. Struve"
| [[Karl Hermann Struve]] || Russia/Germany || 1854 || 1920
|- id="G. W. Struve"
| [[Gustav Wilhelm Ludwig Struve]] || Russia || 1858 || 1920
|- id="O. Struve"
| [[Otto Struve]] || Russia/United States || 1897 || 1963
|- id="S. Song"
| [[Su Song]] || China || 1020 || 1101
|- id="M. Sugano"
| [[Matsuo Sugano]] || Japan || 1939 ||
|- id="A. Sugie"
| [[Atsushi Sugie]] || Japan || ||
|- id="N. Suntzeff"
| [[Nicholas Suntzeff]] || United States || 1952 ||
|- id="R. A. Sunyaev"
| [[Rashid Alievich Sunyaev]] || [[Uzbekistan]]/[[Russia]]/[[Germany]] || 1943 ||
|- id="S. Suzuki"
| [[Shohei Suzuki]] || Japan || ||
|- id="L. A. Swift"
| [[Lewis A. Swift]] || United States || 1820 || 1913
|- id="F. Sy"
| [[Frédéric Sy]] || France || 1861 || 1917
|- id="A. Tago"
| [[Akihiko Tago]] || Japan || 1932 ||
|- id="A. Takahashi"
| [[Atsushi Takahashi]] || Japan || 1965 ||
|- id="K. Takamizawa"
| [[Kesao Takamizawa]] || Japan || 1952 ||
|- id="Y. Tanaka"
| [[Yasuo Tanaka (astronomer)|Yasuo Tanaka]] || Japan || 1931 || 2018
|-
|[[Pierre Tardi]]
|France
|1897
|1972
|
|- id="J. Tarter"
| [[Jill Tarter]] || United States || 1944 || || Research in extra-terristrial light. Came up with the name [[Brown dwarfs]] for substellar entities.
|- id="J. Taylor"
| [[Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.]] || United States || 1941 ||
|- id="J. Tebbutt"
| [[John Tebbutt]] || Australia || 1834 || 1916
|- id="E. W. Tempel"
| [[Ernst Wilhelm Leberecht Tempel]] || Germany || 1821 || 1889
|- id="Thabit"
| [[Thabit ibn Qurra]] || [[Iraq]] || 826 || 901
|- id="T. Thiele"
| [[Thorvald Nicolai Thiele]] || Denmark || 1838 || 1910
|- id="L. Thollon"
| [[Louis Thollon]] || France || 1829 || 1887
|- id="N. G. Thomas"
| [[Norman G. Thomas]] || United States || 1930 || 2020
|- id="J. M. Thome"
| [[John M. Thome|John Thome]] || United States/Argentina || 1843 || 1908
|- id="K. S. Thorne"
| [[Kip Stephen Thorne]] || United States || 1940 ||
|- id="F. Tietjen"
| [[Friedrich Tietjen]] || Germany || 1834 || 1895
|- id="B. M. Tinsley"
| [[Beatrice Muriel Hill Tinsley]] || New Zealand/United States || 1941 || 1981
|- id="F. F. Tisserand"
| [[François Félix Tisserand]] || France || 1845 || 1896
|- id="J. D. Titius"
| [[Johann Daniel Titius]] || Germany || 1729 || 1796
|- id="C. Tombaugh"
| [[Clyde Tombaugh|Clyde W. Tombaugh]] || United States || 1906 || 1997 || Discovered [[Pluto]] as well as numerous asteroids
|- id="K. Tomita"
| [[Kōichirō Tomita]] || Japan || 1925 || 2006
|- id="R. Tousey"
| [[Richard Tousey]] || United States || 1908 || 1997
|- id="C. Townes"
| [[Charles Townes]] || United States || 1915 || 2015
|- id="V. Trimble"
| [[Virginia Trimble]] || United States || 1943 ||
|- id="C. Trujillo"
| [[Chad Trujillo]] || United States || 1973 || || Co-discoverer of multiple [[dwarf planets]] beyond Pluto, including [[50000 Quaoar|Quaoar]] in 2002, [[Makemake]] in 2005 and [[Eris (dwarf planet)|Eris]] in 2006. This triggered a debate on the definition of a planet.
|- id="R. J. Trumpler"
| [[Robert Julius Trumpler]] || United States || 1886 || 1956
|- id="R. B. Tully"
| [[R. Brent Tully]] || United States || 1943 ||
|- id="H. H. Turner"
| [[Herbert Hall Turner]] || England || 1861 || 1930 || Coined the term [[Parsec]], a very large unit of distance to measure the distance to objects outside the solar system
|- id="N. Tusi"
| [[Nasir al-Din Tusi]] || Persia || 1201 || 1274
|- id="H. P. Tuttle"
| [[Horace Parnell Tuttle]] || United States || 1839 || 1923
|- id="N. Tyson"
| [[Neil deGrasse Tyson]] || United States || 1958 ||
|- id="S. Ueda"
| [[Seiji Ueda]] || Japan || 1952 ||
|- id="Ulugh"
| [[Ulugh Beg]] || [[Uzbekistan]] || 1394 || 1449
|- id="A. Ulloa"
| [[Antonio de Ulloa]] || Spain || 1716 || 1795
|- id="A. Unsold"
| [[Albrecht Unsöld]] || Germany || 1905 || 1995
|- id="T. Urata"
| [[Takeshi Urata]] || Japan || 1947 || 2012
|- id="M. Urdi"
| [[Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi]] || Persia || {{circa|1200}} || 1266
|- id="F. Uto"
| [[Fumiaki Uto]] || Japan || ||
|- id="Y. Vaisala"
| [[Yrjö Väisälä]] || [[Finland]] || 1891 || 1971
|- id="B. Valz"
| [[Benjamin Valz]] || France || 1787 || 1867
|- id="J. Van Allen"
| [[James Van Allen]] || United States || 1914 || 2006
|- id="G. Van Biesbroeck"
| [[George Van Biesbroeck]] || Belgium/United States || 1880 || 1974
|- id="H. C. van de Hulst"
| [[Hendrik C. van de Hulst|Hendrik Christoffel van de Hulst]] || Netherlands || 1918 || 2000
|- id="P. van de Kamp"
| [[Peter van de Kamp]] || United States || 1901 || 1995
|- id="S. van den Burgh"
| [[Sidney van den Bergh]] || Canada || 1929 ||
|- id="M. van den Hove"
| [[Martin van den Hove]] || Netherlands || 1605 || 1639
|- id="H. G. van de Sande"
| [[H. G. van de Sande Bakhuyzen|Hendricus Gerardus van de Sande Bakhuyzen]] || Netherlands || 1838 || 1923
|- id="H. van Gent"
| [[Hendrik van Gent]] || Netherlands/[[South Africa]] || 1900 || 1947
|- id="C. J. van Houten"
| [[Cornelis Johannes van Houten]] || Netherlands || 1920 || 2002
|- id="P. J. van Rhijn"
| [[Pieter Johannes van Rhijn]] || Netherlands || 1886 || 1960
|- id="S. Vauclair"
| [[Sylvie Vauclair]] || France || 1946 ||
|- id="G. Vaucouleurs"
| [[Gérard de Vaucouleurs]] || France/United States || 1918 || 1995
|- id="Z. Vavrova"
| [[Zdeňka Vávrová]] || Czechoslovakia || 1945 ||
|- id="J. Verdet"
| [[Jean-Pierre Verdet]] || France || 1932 ||
|- id="P. Veron"
| [[Philippe Véron]] || France || 1939 || 2014
|- id="F. W. Very"
| [[Frank Washington Very]] || United States || 1852 || 1927
|- id="Y. Villarceau"
| [[Yvon Villarceau]] || France || 1813 || 1883
|- id="J. Vinter"
| [[Julie Vinter Hansen]] || Denmark || 1890 || 1960
|- id="H. C. Vogel"
| [[Hermann Carl Vogel]] || Germany || 1841 || 1907
|- id="F. G. von Struve"
| [[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]] || Germany/Russia || 1793 || 1864
|- id="O. W. von Struve"
| [[Otto Wilhelm von Struve]] || Russia || 1819 || 1905
|- id="A. N. Vyssotsky"
| [[Alexander N. Vyssotsky]] || Russia/United States || 1888 || 1973 || His best known work is probably a catalog with five lists of stars titled ''Dwarf M Stars Found Spectrophotometrically''. This work was important because it was the first list of nearby stars identified not by their motions in the sky, but by their intrinsic, [[spectroscopic]], characteristics.
|- id="E. Vyssotsky"
| [[Emma Vyssotsky]] || United States || 1894 || 1975
|- id="A. A. Wachmann"
| [[Arno Arthur Wachmann]] || Germany || 1902 || 1990
|- id="A. Wafa"
| [[Abū al-Wafā' al-Būzjānī|Abul Wáfa]] || Persia || 940 || 997/998
|- id="Walcher"
| [[Walcher of Malvern]] || England || ? || 1135
|- id="G. Wallerstein"
| [[George Wallerstein]] || United States || 1930 || 2021
|- id="W. Wales"
| [[William Wales (astronomer)|William Wales]] || United Kingdom || {{circa|1734}} || 1798
|- id="Q. Wang"
| [[Qingde Wang]] || United States/China || ||
|- id="K. Watanabe"
| [[Kazuro Watanabe]] || Japan || 1955 ||
|- id="J. C. Watson"
| [[James Craig Watson]] || United States || 1838 || 1880
|- id="E. Weaver"
| [[Edmund Weaver (astronomer)|Edmund Weaver]] || United Kingdom || 1663 || 1748
|- id="K. Weaver"
| [[Kim Weaver]] || United States || 1969 ||
|- id="T. W. Webb"
| [[Thomas William Webb]] || United Kingdom || 1807 || 1885
|- id="A. L. Wegener"
| [[Alfred Lothar Wegener]] || Germany || 1880 || 1930
|- id="G. A. Wegner"
| [[Gary A. Wegner]] || United States || 1944 ||
|- id="W. Pu"
| [[Wei Pu]] || China || 960 || 1279
|- id="C. F. Weizsacker"
| [[Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker|Karl von Weizsäcker]] || Germany || 1912 || 2007
|- id="G. Wendelin"
| [[Godefroy Wendelin]] || Belgium || 1580 || 1667
|- id="R. M. West"
| [[Richard M. West]] || Denmark || 1941 ||
|- id="G. Westerhout"
| [[Gart Westerhout]] || Netherlands/United States || 1927 || 2012
|- id="B. Westerlund"
| [[Bengt Westerlund]] || Sweden || 1921 || 2008
|- id="J. G. Westphal"
| [[J. G. Westphal]] || Germany || 1824 || 1859
|- id="J. H. Westphal"
| [[Johann Heinrich Westphal]] || Germany/Italy || 1794 || 1831
|- id="G. Wetherill"
| [[George Wetherill]] || United States || 1925 || 2006
|- id="J. A. Wheeler"
| [[John Archibald Wheeler]] || United States || 1911 || 2008 || Popularizing the term '[[wormholes]]', theoretical holes in [[spacetime]]
|- id="F. L. Whipple"
| [[Fred Lawrence Whipple]] || United States || 1906 || 2004
|- id="A. Whitford"
| [[Albert Whitford (astronomer)|Albert Whitford]] || United States || 1905 || 2002
|- id="M. W. Whitney"
| [[Mary Watson Whitney]] || United States || 1847 || 1921
|- id="C. Wickramasinghe"
| [[Chandra Wickramasinghe]] || United Kingdom || 1939 ||
|- id="P. Wild"
| [[Paul Wild (Swiss astronomer)|Paul Wild]] || Switzerland || 1925 || 2014
|- id="O. C. Wilson"
| [[Olin C. Wilson]] || United States || 1909 || 1994
|- id="R. Windhorst"
| [[Rogier Windhorst]] || United States || 1955 ||
|- id="R. W. Wilson"
| [[Robert Woodrow Wilson|Robert Wilson]] || United States || 1936 ||
|- id="V. Wing"
| [[Vincent Wing]] || [[United Kingdom]] || 1619 || 1668 || Author of the ''Astronomia Britannica'' (published in 1669).
|- id="J. Winthrop"
| [[John Winthrop (1714–1779)|John Winthrop]] || [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] || 1714 || 1779
|- id="F. A. Winnecke"
| [[Friedrich August Theodor Winnecke]] || Germany || 1835 || 1897
|- id="C. Wirtanen"
| [[Carl Wirtanen]] || United States || 1910 || 1990
|- id="J. Wisdom"
| [[Jack Wisdom]] || United States || 1953 ||
|- id="G. Witt"
| [[Gustav Witt]] || Germany || 1866 || 1946
|- id="M. Wolf"
| [[Maximilian Wolf]] || Germany || 1863 || 1932
|- id="A. Wolszczan"
| [[Aleksander Wolszczan]] || Poland || 1946 || || Co-discoverer of the first confirmed extrasolar planets and pulsar planets.
|- id="R. Woolley"
| [[Richard van der Riet Woolley]] || United Kingdom || 1906 || 1986
|- id="T. Wright"
| [[Thomas Wright (astronomer)|Thomas Wright]] || United Kingdom || 1711 || 1786
|- id="I. Yamamoto"
| [[Issei Yamamoto]] || Japan || 1889 || 1959
|- id="M. Yanai"
| [[Masayuki Yanai]] || Japan || 1959 ||
|- id="Y. Xing"
| [[Yi Xing]] || China || 683 || 727
|- id="A. S. Young"
| [[Anne Sewell Young]] || United States || 1871 || 1961
|- id="C. A. Young"
| [[Charles Augustus Young]] || United States || 1834 || 1908
|- id="J. W. Young"
| [[James Whitney Young]] || United States || 1941 ||
|- id="F. X. Zach"
| [[Franz Xaver von Zach]] || Germany || 1753 || 1832 || The founder of the so-called '[[celestial police]]', an informal group of astronomers looking for additional planets after the discovery of [[Uranus]]. The Celestial Police made the orbital calculations leading to the discovery of the asteroid belt and many [[dwarf planets]] between Mars and Jupiter.
|- id="A. Zacuto"
| [[Abraham Zacuto]] || [[Spain]]/[[Portugal]] || 1450 || 1510 || His mapping of stars lead to breakthroughs in navigation
|- id="J. Zarnecki"
| [[John Zarnecki]] || [[United Kingdom]] || 1949 ||
|- id="Y. B. Zel'dovisch"
| [[Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich]] || [[Soviet Union|USSR]] || 1914 || 1987
|- id="Zhang D."
| [[Zhang Daqing]] || China || 1969 ||
|- id="Zhang H."
| [[Zhang Heng]] || China || 78 || 139
|- id="Zhang Y."
| [[Zhang Yuzhe]] || China || 1902 || 1986
|- id="L. V. Zhuravleva"
| [[Lyudmila Vasil'evna Zhuravleva]] || Russia/[[Ukraine]] || 1946 ||
|- id="F. Ziegel"
| [[Felix Ziegel]] || [[Soviet Union]] || 1920 || 1988
|- id="Zu C."
| [[Zu Chongzhi]] || China || 429 || 500
|- id="F. Zwicky"
| [[Fritz Zwicky]] || Switzerland/United States || 1898 || 1974 || Zwicky was the first to use the virial theorem to discover the existence of a gravitational anomaly, which he termed [[dark matter]].
|- id="HY Chiu"
| [[Hong-Yee Chiu]] || [[Taiwan]]/United States || 1932 || || Coined the term "[[Quasar]]" for the light emitted from the area around [[Supermassive black hole]]s
|- id="S. Huang"
| [[Su-Shu Huang]] || [[China]]/United States || 1915 || 1977 || Developed the idea that all stars have a [[habitable zone]], a distance where water could be liquid on the surface and thus there would be potential for life.
|- id="J. H. Mädler"
| [[Johann Heinrich von Mädler]] || [[Germany]] || 1794 || 1874 || Together with [[Wilhelm Beer]] he produced the first exact map of the Moon and of Mars
|}

__NOTOC__
{{Compact TOC}}
In alphabetical order:

==A==
*[[Aryabhata]] (India, 476–550)
*[[Marc Aaronson]] (United States, 1950–1987)
*[[George Ogden Abell]] (United States, 1927–1983)
*[[Hiroshi Abe (astronomer)|Hiroshi Abe]] (Japan, 1958–)
*[[Antonio Abetti]] (Italy, 1846–1928)
*[[Giorgio Abetti]] (Italy, 1882–1982)
*[[Charles Greeley Abbot]] (United States, 1872–1973)
*[[Charles Hitchcock Adams]] (United States, 1868–1951)
*[[John Couch Adams]] (United Kingdom, 1819–1892)
*[[Walter Sydney Adams]] (United States, 1876–1956)
*[[Saul Adelman]] (United States, 1944–)
*[[Petrus Alphonsi]] (Spain, 1062–1110)
*[[Agrippa (astronomer)|Agrippa]] (Greece, fl. {{circa|92}})
*[[Paul Oswald Ahnert]] (Germany, 1897–1989)
*[[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]] (Germany, 1912–1954)
*[[George Biddell Airy]] (United Kingdom, 1801–1892)
*[[Robert Grant Aitken|Robert Aitken]], (United States, 1864–1951)
*[[Makio Akiyama]] (Japan, 1950–)
*[[Al Battani]] ([[Iraq]], 850–929)
*[[Albategnius]] ''(see Al-Batani)''
*[[Vladimir Aleksandrovich Albitzky]] (Russia, 1891–1952)
*[[Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi]] (Persia, 787–886)
*[[George Alcock]] (United Kingdom, 1913–2000)
*[[Harold Alden]] (United States, 1890–1964)
*[[Hannes Alfvén]] (Sweden, 1908–1995)
*[[Lawrence H. Aller]] (United States, 1913–2003)
*[[Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi]] (Persia, 903–986)
*[[Viktor Amazaspovich Ambartsumian]], ([[Armenia]], 1912–1996)
*[[John August Anderson]] (United States, 1876–1959)
*[[Wilhelm Anderson]] ([[Estonia]], 1880–1940)
*[[Marie Henri Andoyer]] (France, 1862–1929)
*[[Andronicus of Cyrrhus]] (Greece, fl. 100 BC)
*[[Anders Jonas Ångström]] (Sweden, 1814–1874)
*[[E. M. Antoniadi|Eugène Michel Antoniadi]] (Greece-France, 1870–1944)
*[[Masakatsu Aoki]] (Japan, 1957–)
*[[Petrus Apianus]] (Germany, 1495–1557)
*[[François Arago]] (France, 1786–1853)
*[[Masaru Arai]] (Japan, 1952–)
*[[Hiroshi Araki]] (Japan)
*[[Sylvain Julien Victor Arend|Sylvain Arend]] (Belgium, 1902–1992)
*[[Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander]] (Germany, 1799–1875)
*[[Aristarchus of Samos]] (Greece, {{circa|310}} BC – {{circa|230}} BC)
*[[Christoph Arnold]] (Germany, 1650–1695)
*[[Halton Arp|Halton Christian Arp]] (United States, 1927–2013)
*[[Svante Arrhenius]] (Sweden, 1859–1927)
*[[Arzachel]] (Spain, 1028–1087)
*[[Asada Goryu]] (Japan, 1734–1799)
*[[Atsuo Asami]] (Japan)
*[[Giuseppe Asclepi]] (Italy, 1706–1776)
*[[Joseph Ashbrook]] (United States, 1918–1980)
*[[Arthur Auwers]] (Germany, 1838–1915)
*[[Adrien Auzout]] (France, 1622–1691)
*[[David Axon]] (England, 1951–2012)

==B==
*[[Brahmagupta]] (India, 598–668 CE)
*[[Bhaskara I]] (India, 629 CE)
*[[Bhaskara II]] (India, 1114–1185)
*[[Walter Baade]] (Germany, 1893–1960)
*[[Harold D. Babcock]] (United States, 1882–1968)
*[[Horace W. Babcock]] (United States, 1912–2003)
*[[Oskar Backlund]] (Sweden, 1846–1916)
*[[John N. Bahcall]] (United States, 1934–2005)
*[[Yoshiaki Banno]] (Japan, 1952–1991)
*[[Benjamin Baillaud]] (France, 1848–1934)
*[[Jules Baillaud]] (France, 1876–1960)
*[[Baptistin Baille|Jean-Baptiste Baille]] (France, 1841–1918)
*[[Jean Sylvain Bailly]] (France, 1736–1793)
*[[Francis Baily]] (United Kingdom, 1774–1844)
*[[John Bainbridge (astronomer)|John Bainbridge]] (United Kingdom, 1582–1643)
*[[John E. Baldwin]] (United Kingdom, 1931–2010)
*[[Sallie Baliunas]] (United States, 1953–)
*[[Zoltán Balog (astronomer)|Zoltán Balog]] (Hungary/United States, 1972–)
*[[Benjamin Banneker]] (United States, 1731–1806)
*[[Pietro Baracchi]] (Italy, Australia, 1851–1926)
*[[Beatriz Barbuy]] (Brazil, 1950–)
*[[Edward Emerson Barnard]] (United States, 1857–1923)
*[[Julius Bauschinger]] (France, 1860–1934)
*[[Johann Bayer]] (Germany, 1572–1625)
*[[Antonín Bečvář]] (Czechoslovakia, 1901–1965)
*[[Wilhelm Beer]] (Germany, 1797–1850)
*[[Sergei Ivanovich Belyavsky]] (Russia, 1883–1953)
*[[Charles L. Bennett]] (United States, 1956–)
*[[Jocelyn Bell Burnell]] (United Kingdom, 1943–)
*[[Friedrich Bessel|Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]] (Germany, 1784–1846)
*[[Somnath Bharadwaj]] (India, 1964–)
*[[Wilhelm Freiherr von Biela]] (Austria, 1782–1856)
*[[Ludwig Biermann]] (Germany, 1907–1986)
*[[Wolf Bickel]] (Germany. 1942–)
*[[Guillaume Bigourdan]] (France, 1851–1932)
*[[James Binney]] (United Kingdom, 1950–)
*[[Biruni]] (Persia, 973–1048)
*[[Gennady S. Bisnovatyi-Kogan]] (Russia, 1941–)
*[[Adriaan Blaauw]] (Netherlands, 1914–2010)
*[[Nathaniel Bliss]] (United Kingdom, 1700–1764)
*[[Johann Elert Bode]] (Germany, 1747–1826)
*[[Alfred Bohrmann]] (Germany, 1904–2000)
*[[Bart Bok]] (Netherlands, 1906–1983)
*[[Charles Thomas Bolton]] (United States/Canada, 1943–2021)
*[[John Gatenby Bolton]] (United Kingdom/Australia, 1922–1993)
*[[William Cranch Bond]] (United States, 1789–1859)
*[[Alphonse Borrelly]] (France, 1842–1926)
*[[Rudjer Boscovich]] ([[Dalmatia]], 1711–1787)
*[[Lewis Boss]] (United States, 1846–1912)
*[[Alexis Bouvard]] (France, 1767–1843)
*[[Rychard Bouwens]] (United States, 1972–)
*[[Edward L. G. Bowell]] (United States, 1943–)
*[[Ira Sprague Bowen]] (United States, 1898–1973)
*[[Louis Boyer (astronomer)|Louis Boyer]] (France, 1901–1999)
*[[Brian J. Boyle]] (Scotland and Australia, 1960–)
*[[Ronald N. Bracewell]] (Australia, United States, 1921–2007)
*[[James Bradley]] (United Kingdom, 1693–1762)
*[[William A. Bradfield]] (New Zealand, Australia, 1927–2014)
*[[Tycho Brahe]] (Denmark, 1546–1601)
*[[John Brashear|John Alfred Brashear]] (United States, 1840–1920)
*[[William Robert Brooks]] (United States, 1844–1922)
*[[Theodor Brorsen]] (Denmark, 1819–1895)
*[[Dirk Brouwer]] (Netherlands–United States, 1902–1966)
*[[Ernest William Brown]] (United Kingdom, 1866–1938)
*[[Michael E. Brown|Michael (Mike) E. Brown]] (United States, 1965–)
*[[Hermann Alexander Brück]] (Germany, 1905–2000)
*[[Ismael Bullialdus]] (France, 1605–1694)
*[[Margaret Burbidge]] (United Kingdom–United States, 1919–2020)
*[[Robert Burnham, Jr.]] (United States, 1931–1993)
*[[Sherburne Wesley Burnham]] (United States, 1838–1921)
*[[Schelte J. Bus]] (United States, 1956–)
*[[Bimla Buti]] (India, 1933–)

==C==
*[[William Wallace Campbell]] (United States, 1862–1938)
*[[Annie Jump Cannon]] (United States, 1863–1941)
*[[Luigi Carnera]] (Italy, 1875–1962)
*[[Edwin Francis Carpenter]] (United States, 1898–1963)
*[[James Carpenter (astronomer)|James Carpenter]] (United Kingdom, 1840–1899)
*[[Richard Christopher Carrington]] (United Kingdom, 1826–1875)
*Sir [[John Carroll (astronomer)|John Carroll]] (United Kingdom, 1899–1974)
*[[Anthony W. Case]] (United States, 1980–)
*[[César-François Cassini de Thury]] (France, 1714–1784)
*[[Dominique, comte de Cassini]] (France, 1748–1845)
*[[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]] (France, 1625–1712)
*[[Jacques Cassini]] (France, 1677–1756)
*[[Bonaventura Cavalieri]] (Italy, 1598–1647)
*[[Anders Celsius]] (Sweden, 1701–1744)
*[[Vincenzo Cerulli]] (Italy, 1859–1927)
*[[Jean Chacornac]] (France, 1823–1873)
*[[James Challis]] (United Kingdom, 1803–1882)
*[[Radha Gobinda Chandra]] ([[Bangladesh]], India, 1878–1975)
*[[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] (India, United States, 1910–1995)
*[[Carl Charlier]] (Sweden, 1862–1934)
*[[Auguste Charlois]] (France, 1864–1910)
*[[Lyudmila Ivanovna Chernykh]] (Russia/[[Ukraine]], 1935–2017)
*[[Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh]] (Russia/[[Ukraine]], 1931–2004)
*[[James Christy]] (United States, 1938–)
*[[Klim Churyumov]] ([[Ukraine]], 1937–2016)
*[[Barry G. Clark]] (United States, 1938–)
*[[Edwin Foster Coddington]] (United States, 1870–1950)
*[[Jérôme Eugène Coggia]] (France, 1849–1919)
*[[Josep Comas i Solà]] (Spain, 1868–1937)
*[[Andrew Ainslie Common]] (United Kingdom, 1841–1903)
*[[Guy Consolmagno]] (United States, 1952–)
*[[Nicolaus Copernicus]] ([[Royal Prussia|Prussia]]/Poland), 1473–1543)
*[[Corsono Carsono]] (Spain)
*[[Janine Connes]] (France, 1934–)
*[[Pablo Cottenot]] (France)
*[[Heather Couper]] (United Kingdom, 1949–2020)
*[[Leopold Courvoisier]] (Switzerland, 1873–1955)
*[[Arthur Edwin Covington]] (Canada, 1914–2001)
*[[Philip Herbert Cowell]] (United Kingdom, 1870–1949)
*[[Thomas George Cowling]] (United Kingdom, 1906–1990)
*[[Andrew Claude de la Cherois Crommelin]] (United Kingdom, 1865–1939)
*[[Luís Cruls|Luíz Cruls]] (Brazil, 1848–1908)
*[[James Cuffey]] (United States, 1911–1999)
*[[Heber Doust Curtis]] (United States, 1872–1942)
*[[Florence Cushman]] (United States, 1860–1940)

==D==
*[[Alexander Dalgarno]] (United States, 1928–2015)
*[[Jacques D'Allonville|Jacques Eugène d'Allonville]] (France, 1671–1732)
*[[Andre Louis Danjon]] (France, 1890–1967)
*[[Heinrich d'Arrest]] (Germany, 1822–1875)
*[[George Howard Darwin]] (United Kingdom, 1845–1912)
*[[Roger Davies (astrophysicist)|Roger Davies]] (United Kingdom, 1954–)
*[[Leonardo da Vinci]] (Italy, 1452–1519)
*[[William Rutter Dawes]] (United Kingdom, 1799–1868)
*[[Bernhard Dawson]] (Argentina, 1890–1960)
*[[Leo de Ball]] (Germany, Austria, 1853–1916)
*[[Duília de Mello]] (Brazil, 1963–)
*[[Henri Debehogne]] (Belgium, 1928–2007)
*[[Annibale de Gasparis]] (Italy, 1819–1892)
*[[Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre]] (France, 1749–1822)
*[[Charles-Eugène Delaunay]] (France, 1816–1872)
*[[Eugène Joseph Delporte]] (Belgium, 1882–1955)
*[[Audrey C. Delsanti]] (France, 1976–)
*[[William Frederick Denning]] (United Kingdom, 1848–1931)
*[[Alíz Derekas]] (Hungary, 1977–)
*[[Willem de Sitter]] (Netherlands, 1872–1934)
*[[Henri-Alexandre Deslandres]] (France, 1853–1948)
*[[Alexander Nikolaevich Deutsch]] (Russia, 1900–1986)
*[[Gérard de Vaucouleurs]] (France/United States, 1918–1995)
*[[Robert Dicke]] (United States, 1916–1997)
*[[Terence Dickinson]] (Canada, 1943–)
*[[Thomas Digges]] (United Kingdom, 1546–1595)
*[[Herbert Dingle]] (United States, 1890–1978)
*[[Andrea Di Paola]] (Italy, 1970–)
*[[Ewine van Dishoeck]] (Netherlands, 1955–)
*[[Giovanni Battista Donati]] (Italy, 1826–1873)
*[[Frank Drake]] (United States, 1930–)
*[[Henry Draper]] (United States, 1837–1882)
*[[Mary Anna Draper]] (United States, 1839–1914)
*[[John Louis Emil Dreyer|John Dreyer]] (Ireland, 1852–1926)
*[[Alexander D. Dubyago]] (Russia), 1903–1959)
*[[Dmitrij I. Dubyago]] (Russia), 1850–1918)
*[[Jean Dufay|Jean C. B. Dufay]] (France, 1896–1967)
*[[Raymond Smith Dugan]] (United States, 1878–1940)
*[[James Dunlop]] (Scotland, 1793–1848)
*[[Richard B. Dunn]] (United States, 1927–2005)
*[[Petar Đurković]] ([[Serbia]], 1908–1981)
*[[Frank Watson Dyson]] (United Kingdom, 1868–1939)

==E==
*[[Arthur Eddington]] (United Kingdom, 1882–1944)
*[[Frank K. Edmondson]] (United States, 1912–2008)
*[[Olin J. Eggen]] (United States, 1919–1998)
*[[David J. Eicher]] (United States, 1961–)
*[[Albert Einstein]] (Germany, 1879–1955)
*[[Eise Eisinga]] (Netherlands, 1744–1828)
*[[Eric Walter Elst]] (Belgium, 1936–2022)
*[[Johann Franz Encke]] (Germany, 1791–1865)
*[[Kin Endate]] (Japan, 1960–)
*[[Eratosthenes]] ([[Alexandria]], 276 BC – 194 BC)
*[[Emil Ernst]] (Germany, 1889–1942)
*[[Ernest Esclangon]] (France, 1876–1954)
*[[Fred Espenak]] (United States, 1953–)
*[[Larry W. Esposito]] (United States, 1951–)
*[[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]] ([[Cnidus]], {{circa|408 BC}} – {{circa|355}} BC)
*[[Robert Evans (astronomer)|Robert Evans]] (Australia, 1937–2022)

==F==
*[[David Fabricius]] (Netherlands, 1564–1617)
*[[Sandra M. Faber]] (United States, 1945–)
*[[Johannes Fabricius]] (Netherlands, 1587–1615)
*[[Fearon Fallows]] (United Kingdom, 1789–1831)
*[[Hervé Faye]] (France, 1814–1902)
*[[Charles Fehrenbach (astronomer)|Charles Fehrenbach]] (France, 1914–2008)
*[[Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathir al-Farghani|Farghani]] (Persia, 800–870)
*[[James Ferguson (American astronomer)|James Ferguson]] (United States, 1797–1867)
*[[Alex Filippenko]] (United States, 1958–)
*[[Erwin Finlay-Freundlich]] (Germany, 1885–1964)
*[[Axel Firsoff]] (United Kingdom, 1910–1981)
*[[Debra Fischer]] (United States)
*[[J. Richard Fisher]] (United States, 1943–)
*[[Camille Flammarion]] (France, 1842–1925)
*[[Gabrielle Renaudot Flammarion]] (France, 1867–1962)
*[[John Flamsteed]] (United Kingdom, 1646–1719)
*[[Honoré Flaugergues]] (France, 1755–1835)
*[[Williamina Fleming]] (United States, 1857–1911)
*[[Wilhelm Julius Foerster]] (Germany, 1832–1921)
*[[Alfred Fowler]] (United Kingdom, 1868–1940)
*[[William Alfred Fowler]] (United States, 1911–1995)
*[[Philip Fox (astronomer)|Philip Fox]] (United States, 1878–1944)
*[[Andrew Fraknoi]] (United States, 1948–)
*[[Joseph von Fraunhofer]] (Germany, 1787–1826)
*[[Herbert Friedman]] (United States, 1916–2000)
*[[Dirk D. Frimout]] (Belgium, 1941–)
*[[Edwin Brant Frost]] (United States, 1866–1935)
*[[Shigehisa Fujikawa]] (Japan)
*[[Naoshi Fukushima]] (Japan, 1925–2003)
*[[Kiichirō Furukawa]] (Japan, 1929–2016)
*[[Toshimasa Furuta]] (Japan)

==G==
*[[Bryan Gaensler]] (Australia, 1973–)
*[[Gan De]] (China, fl. 4th century BC)
*[[Galileo Galilei]] (Italy, 1564–1642)
*[[Julio Garavito Armero]] ([[Colombia]], 1865–1920)
*[[Gordon J. Garradd]] (Australia, 1959–)
*[[Ben Gascoigne]] (New Zealand, Australia, 1915–2010)
*[[Margaret Geller]] (United States, 1947)
*[[Gautama Siddha]] (China, fl. 8th century AD)
*[[Johann Gottfried Galle]] (Germany, 1812–1910)
*[[George Gamow]] (Russia, United States, 1904–1968)
*[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] (Germany, 1777–1855)
*[[Tom Gehrels]] (Netherlands, United States, 1925–2011)
*[[Neil Gehrels]] (United States, 1952–2017)
*[[Andrea M. Ghez]] (United States, 1965–)
*[[Riccardo Giacconi]] (Italy, 1931–2018)
*[[Michel Giacobini]] (France, 1873–1938)
*[[Henry L. Giclas]] (United States, 1910–2007)
*[[David Gill (astronomer)|David Gill]] (United Kingdom, 1843–1914)
*[[Fred Gillett (astronomer)|Fred Gillett]] (United States, 1937–2001)
*[[Karl Glazebrook]] (UK, 1965–)
*[[Ian Glass]] (Ireland/[[South Africa]], 1939–)
*[[Thomas Gold]] (United States, 1920–2004)
*[[Leo Goldberg]] (United States, 1913–1987)
*[[Peter Goldreich]] (United States, 1939–)
*[[Hermann Goldschmidt]] (Germany, 1802–1866)
*[[François Gonnessiat]] (France, 1856–1934)
*[[John Goodricke]] (United Kingdom, 1764–1786)
*[[Alyssa A. Goodman]] (United States, 1962–)
*[[Abu Sa'id Gorgani]] (Persia, 9th century)
*[[Paul Götz]] (Germany, 1883–1962)
*[[Benjamin Apthorp Gould]] (United States, 1824–1896)
*[[Andrew Graham (astronomer)|Andrew Graham]] (Ireland, 1815–1907)
*[[Kathryn Aurora Gray]] (Canada, 2000–)
*[[Charles Green (astronomer)|Charles Green]] (England, 1735–1771)
*[[Jesse Greenstein]] (United States, 1909–2002)
*[[John Grunsfeld]] (United States, 1956–)
*[[Jay U. Gunter]] (United States, 1911–1994)
*[[Alexander A. Gurshtein]] (Russia, 1937–2020)
*[[Bengt Gustafsson (astronomer)|Bengt Gustafsson]] (Sweden, 1943–)
*[[Guo Shoujing]] (China, 1231–1316)
*[[Alan Harvey Guth]] (United States, 1947–)

==H==
*[[Yusuke Hagihara]] (Japan, 1897–1979)
*[[Alan Hale (astronomer)|Alan Hale]] (United States, 1958–)
*[[George Ellery Hale]] (United States, 1868–1938)
*[[Asaph Hall]] (United States, 1829–1907)
*[[Edmond Halley]] (England, 1656–1742)
*[[Erika Hamden]] (United States, ?–)
*[[Heidi Hammel]] (United States, 1960–)
*[[Mario Hamuy]] ([[Chile]], 1960–?)
*[[Peter Andreas Hansen]] (Denmark, 1795–1874)
*[[Harawi, Abolfadl|Abulfazl Harawi]] (Persia, 10th century)
*[[Karl Ludwig Harding]] (Germany, 1765–1834)
*[[Thomas Hariot]] (United Kingdom, 1560–1621)
*[[Guillermo Haro]] (Mexico, 1913–1988)
*[[Robert George Harrington]] (United States, 1904–1987)
*[[Robert Sutton Harrington]] (United States, 1942–1993)
*[[Edward Robert Harrison]] (United Kingdom/United States, 1917–2007)
*[[William Kenneth Hartmann]] (United States, 1939–)
*[[Lisa Harvey-Smith]] (Australia, 1979–)
*[[Takeo Hatanaka]] (Japan, 1914–1963)
*[[Tim Hawarden]] (South Africa, 1943–2009)
*[[Stephen Hawking]] (United Kingdom, 1942–2018)
*[[Will Hay]] (United Kingdom, 1888–1949)
*[[Chushiro Hayashi]] (Japan, 1920–2010)
*[[Otto Hermann Leopold Heckmann]] (Germany, 1901–1983)
*[[Carl E. Heiles|Carl Heiles]] (United States, 1939–)
*[[Joseph Helffrich]] (Germany, 1872–1971)
*[[Eleanor Helin]] (United States, 1932–2009)
*[[Maximilian Hell]] ([[Austria-Hungary]], 1720–1792)
*[[Karl Ludwig Hencke]] (Germany, 1793–1866)
*[[Thomas Henderson (astronomer)|Thomas Henderson]] (Scotland, 1798–1844)
*[[Paul Henry and Prosper Henry|Paul Henry]] (France, 1848–1905)
*[[Paul Henry and Prosper Henry|Prosper Henry]] (France, 1849–1903)
*[[Abraham bar Hiyya]] (Spanish Jewish), (1070–1136)
*[[George Howard Herbig]] (United States, 1920–2013)
*[[Carl W. Hergenrother]] (United States, 1973–)
*[[Caroline Herschel]] (United Kingdom, 1750–1848)
*[[John Herschel]] (United Kingdom, 1792–1871)
*[[William Herschel]] (United Kingdom/Germany, 1738–1822)
*[[Ejnar Hertzsprung]] (Denmark, 1873–1967)
*[[Johannes Hevelius]] ([[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]], 1611–1687)
*[[Antony Hewish]] (United Kingdom, 1924–2021)
*[[George William Hill]] (United States, 1838–1914)
*[[John Russell Hind]] (United Kingdom, 1823–1895)
*[[Hipparchus]] ([[İznik|Nicaea]], {{circa|190}} BC–120 BC)
*[[Masanori Hirasawa]] (Japan)
*[[Kiyotsugu Hirayama]] (Japan, 1874–1943)
*[[Shin Hirayama]] (Japan, 1868–1945)
*[[Gustave-Adolphe Hirn]] (France, 1815–1890)
*[[Sebastian von Hoerner]] (Germany), 1919–2003)
*[[Cuno Hoffmeister]] (Germany, 1892–1968)
*[[Dorrit Hoffleit]] (United States, 1907–2007)
*[[Helen Sawyer Hogg]] (Canada, 1905–1993)
*[[Minoru Honda]] (Japan, 1917–1990)
*[[Kamil Hornoch]] ([[Czech Republic]], 1972–)
*[[Jeremiah Horrocks]] (United Kingdom, {{circa|1619}}–1641)
*[[Cornelis Johannes van Houten]] (Netherlands, 1920–2002)
*[[Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld]] (Netherlands, 1921–2015)
*[[Martin van den Hove]] (Netherlands, 1605–1639)
*[[Herbert Alonzo Howe]] (USA, 1858–1926)
*[[Fred Hoyle]] (United Kingdom, 1915–2001)
*[[Su-Shu Huang]] (China/USA, 1915-1977)
*[[Edwin Hubble|Edwin Powell Hubble]] (United States, 1889–1953)
*[[William Huggins]] (United Kingdom, 1824–1910)
*[[Russell Alan Hulse]] (United States, 1950–)
*[[Hendrik C. van de Hulst|Hendrik Christoffel van de Hulst]] (Netherlands, 1918–2000)
*[[Milton Lasell Humason]] (United States, 1891–1972)
*[[Thomas John Hussey]] (England, 1792–1854)
*[[Christiaan Huygens]] (Netherlands, 1629–1695)
*[[Yuji Hyakutake]] (Japan, 1950–2002)
*[[J. Allen Hynek|Josef Allen Hynek]] (United States, 1910–1986)
*[[Hypatia]] ([[Egypt]], (born {{circa}} 350–370; died 415 AD)
*[[Christopher Hansteen]] (Norway, 1784–1873)

==I==
*[[Icko Iben|Icko Iben, Jr.]] (United States, 1931–)
*[[Kaoru Ikeya]] (Japan, 1943–)
*[[Chris Impey]] (United Kingdom/United States, 1956–)
*[[Robert Thorburn Ayton Innes]] (Scotland/[[South Africa]], 1861–1933)
*[[Shigeru Inoda]] (Japan, 1955–2008)
*[[Jamal Nazrul Islam]] ([[Bangladesh]], 1939–2013)
*[[Edward Israel]] (United States, 1859–1884)
*[[Iwahashi Zenbei]] (Japan, 1756–1811)
*[[Masayuki Iwamoto]] (Japan, 1954–)
*[[Shun-ei Izumikawa]] (Japan)

==J==
*[[Cyril V. Jackson]] ([[South Africa]], 1903–1988)
*[[Karan Jani]] (India, 1988–)
*[[Pierre Jules César Janssen]] (France, 1824–1907)
*[[James Jeans]] (United Kingdom, 1877–1946)
*[[Benjamin Jekhowsky]] (Russia/France/[[Algeria]], 1881–1953)
*[[Louise Freeland Jenkins]] (United States, 1888–1970)
*[[David C. Jewitt]] (United Kingdom, 1958–)
*[[Jiao Bingzhen]] (China, 1689–1726)
*[[John Johnson (astronomer)|John A. Johnson]] (United States, 1977–)
*[[Alfred Harrison Joy]] (United States, 1882–1973)
*[[Vinod Johri]] (India, 1935–2014)

==K==
*[[Ali Kuşçu]] ([[Turkey]], 1403–1474)
*[[Tetsuo Kagawa]] (Japan, 1969–)
*[[Franz Kaiser]] (Germany, 1891–1962)
*[[Kiyotaka Kanai]] (Japan, 1951–)
*[[Hiroshi Kaneda]] (Japan, 1953–)
*[[Henry Kandrup]] (United States, 1955–2003)
*[[Jacobus Kapteyn]] (Netherlands, 1851–1922)
*[[Lyudmila Karachkina]] ([[Ukraine]], 1948–)
*[[Ghiyath al-Kashi]] (Persia, 1380–1429)
*[[Jeffrey Owen Katz]] (United States, 1960–)
*[[Karlis Kaufmanis]] ([[Latvia]]/United States, 1910–2003
*[[Kōyō Kawanishi]] (Japan, 1959–)
*[[Nobuhiro Kawasato]] (Japan)
*[[James Edward Keeler]] (United States, 1857–1900)
*[[Paul Kempf]] (Germany, 1856–1920)
*[[Johannes Kepler]] (Germany, 1571–1630)
*[[Omar Khayyám]] (Persia, 1048–1131)
*[[Al-Khujandi]] (Persia, 10th century)
*[[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]], (Persia, 780–850)
*[[Kidinnu]] ([[Babylon]], 4th century BC; d. 330 BC?)
*[[Hisashi Kimura]] (Japan, 1870–1943)
*[[Maria Margarethe Kirch]] (Germany, 1670–1720)
*[[Daniel Kirkwood]] (United States, 1814–1895)
*[[Robert Kirshner]] (United States, 1949–)
*[[Minoru Kizawa]] (Japan, 1947–)
*[[Ernst Friedrich Wilhelm Klinkerfues]] (Germany, 1827–1884)
*[[Viktor Knorre]] (Russia, 1840–1919)
*[[Takao Kobayashi]] (Japan, 1961–)
*[[Toru Kobayashi]] (Japan)
*[[Luboš Kohoutek]] (1935–)
*[[Masahiro Koishikawa]] (Japan, 1952–2020)
*[[Nobuhisa Kojima]] (Japan, 1933–)
*[[Takuo Kojima]] (Japan, 1955–)
*[[Yoji Kondo]] (Japan, 1933–2017)
*[[Zdeněk Kopal]] (Czechoslovakia, United Kingdom, United States, 1914–1993)
*[[August Kopff]] (Germany, 1882–1960)
*[[Korado Korlević]] ([[Croatia]], 1958–)
*[[Hiroki Kosai]] (Japan, 1933–)
*[[Charles T. Kowal]] (United States, 1940–2011)
*[[Robert Kraft (astronomer)|Robert Kraft]] (United States, 1927–2015)
*[[Ľubor Kresák]] (Czechoslovakia, 1927–1994)
*[[Heinrich Kreutz]] (Germany, 1854–1927)
*[[Kazuo Kubokawa]] (Japan, 1903–1943)
*[[Marc Kuchner]] (United States, 1972–)
*[[Gerard Kuiper]] (Netherlands, United States, 1905–1973)
*[[Donald Kurtz]] (1948–)
*[[Reiki Kushida]] (Japan)
*[[Yoshio Kushida]] (Japan, 1957–)
*[[György Kulin]] ([[Austria-Hungary]], 1905–1989)

==L==
*[[Lagadha]] (India, 1st millennium BCE)
*[[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] (France, 1713–1762)
*[[Claes-Ingvar Lagerkvist]] (Sweden, 1944–)
*[[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (France, 1736–1813)
*[[Jérôme Lalande]] (France, 1732–1807)
*[[Johann Heinrich Lambert]] (France, Germany, 1728–1777)
*[[David J. Lane (astronomer)|David J. Lane]] (Canada, 1983–)
*[[Andrew E. Lange]] (United States, 1957–2010)
*[[Samuel Pierpont Langley]] (United States, 1834–1906)
*[[Pierre-Simon Laplace]] (France, 1749–1827)
*[[Jacques Laskar]] (France, 1955–)
*[[William Lassell]] (United Kingdom, 1799–1880)
*[[Joseph Jean Pierre Laurent]] (France, fl. 1858)
*[[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]] (United States, 1868–1921)
*[[Typhoon Lee]] (United States and [[Taiwan]], 1948–)
*[[Guillaume Le Gentil]] (France, 1725–1792)
*[[Georges Lemaître]] (Belgium, 1894–1966)
*[[Pierre Lemonnier (physicist)|Pierre Lemonnier]] (France, 1715–1799)
*[[Frederick C. Leonard]] (United States, 1896–1960)

*[[Armin Otto Leuschner|Armin Leuschner]] (US, 1868–1953)
*[[Geraint F. Lewis|Geraint Lewis]] (Australia, 1969–)
*[[Urbain Le Verrier]] (France, 1811–1877)
*[[Li Fan (Han Dynasty)|Li Fan]] (China, fl. 1st century AD)
*[[James Lind (naturalist)|James Lind]] (UK, 1736–1812)
*[[Bertil Lindblad]] (Sweden, 1895–1965)
*[[Adolph Friedrich Lindemann]] (Germany/[[UK]], 1846–1927)
*[[Chris Lintott]] (United Kingdom, 1980–)
*[[Joseph Johann Littrow]] (Austria, 1781–1840)
*[[Karl L. Littrow]] (Austria, 1811–1877)
*[[Liu Xin (scholar)|Liu Xin]] (China, fl. 1st century AD)
*[[Joseph Lockyer]] (United Kingdom, 1836–1920)
*[[Avi Loeb]] ([[Israel]], USA 1962–)
*[[Maurice Loewy]] (Austria/France, 1833–1907)
*[[Christian Sørensen Longomontanus]] (Denmark, 1562–1647)
*[[Percival Lowell]] (United States, 1855–1916)
*[[Ángel López (astronomer)|Ángel López]] (Spain, 1955–)
*[[Álvaro López-García]] (Spain, 1941–2019)
*[[John William Lubbock]] (United Kingdom, 1803–1865)
*[[Knut Lundmark]] (Sweden, 1889–1958)
*[[Robert Luther]] (Germany, 1822–1900)
*[[Lupitus of Barcelona]] (Spain)
*[[Jane Luu]] ([[South Vietnam]], United States 1965–)
*[[Willem Luyten]] ([[Dutch East Indies]], Netherlands, 1899–1994)
*[[Donald Lynden-Bell]] (United Kingdom, 1935–2018)
*[[Andrew Lyne]] (UK, 1942–)
*[[Bernard Lyot]] (France, 1897–1952)

==M==
*[[Mahendra Suri]] (India, 14th century CE)
*[[Ma Yize]] (China, 910–1005)
*[[Adriaan van Maanen]] (United States, 1884–1946)
*[[George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield]] (United Kingdom, {{circa|1697}}–1764)
*[[Johann Heinrich von Mädler]] (Germany, 1794-1874)
*[[Amy Mainzer]] (United States, 1974–)
*[[Steve Mandel]] (United States)
*[[Geoff Marcy]] (United States, 1954–)
*[[Simon Marius]] (Germany, 1573–1624)
*[[Brian G. Marsden]] (United States, 1937–2010)
*[[Albert Marth]] (Germany, 1828–1897)
*[[Nevil Maskelyne]] (United Kingdom, 1732–1811)
*[[Charles Mason]] (United Kingdom, United States, 1730–1787)
*[[John C. Mather]] (United States, 1946–)
*[[Janet Akyüz Mattei]] ([[Turkey]]/United States, 1943–2004)
*[[Edward Walter Maunder]] (United Kingdom, 1851–1928)
*[[Pierre Louis Maupertuis]] (France, 1698–1759)
*[[Alain Maury]] (France, 1958–)
*[[Antonia Maury]] (United States, 1866–1952)
*[[Matthew Fontaine Maury]] (United States, 1806–1873)
*[[Brian May]] (United Kingdom, 1947–)
*[[Cornell Mayer]] (United States, 1922–2005)
*[[Tobias Mayer]] (Germany, 1723–1762)
*[[Michel Mayor]] (Switzerland, 1942–)
*[[Christopher McKee]] (United States, 1942–)
*[[Robert S. McMillan (astronomer)|Robert S. McMillan]] (United States)
*[[William H. McCrea]] (United Kingdom, 1904–1999)
*[[Bruce A. McIntosh]] (Canada, 1929–2015)
*[[Robert H. McNaught]] (Australia, 1956–)
*[[Pierre Méchain]] (France, 1744–1804)
*[[Thebe Medupe]] ([[South Africa]], 1973–)
*[[Karen Jean Meech]] (United States, 1956–)
*[[Aden Meinel|Aden Baker Meinel]] (United States, 1922–2011)
*[[Marjorie Meinel|Marjorie Pettit Meinel]] (United States, 1922–2008)
*[[Fulvio Melia]] (United States, 1956–)
*[[Philibert Jacques Melotte]] (United Kingdom, 1880–1961)
*[[Paul Merrill|Paul Willard Merrill]] (United States, 1887–1961)
*[[David Merritt]] (United States)
*[[Charles Messier]] (France, 1730–1817)
*[[Joel Hastings Metcalf]] (United States, 1866–1925)
*[[Andreas Gerasimos Michalitsianos]] (United States, 1947–1997)
*[[John Michell]] (United Kingdom, 1724–1793)
*[[Elia Millosevich]] (Italy, 1848–1919)
*[[Edward Arthur Milne]] (United Kingdom, 1896–1950)
*[[Rudolph Minkowski]] (Germany, 1895–1976)
*[[Marcel Minnaert|Marcel Gilles Jozef Minnaert]] (Belgium, Netherlands, 1893–1970)
*[[Maria Mitchell]] (United States, 1818–1889)
*[[Seidai Miyasaka]] (Japan, 1955–)
*[[Yoshikane Mizuno]] (Japan, 1954–)
*[[August Ferdinand Möbius]] (Germany, 1790–1868)
*[[Anthony Moffat]] (Canada)
*[[Johan Maurits Mohr]] (Netherlands, 1716–1775)
*[[Samuel Molyneux]] (United Kingdom, 1689–1728)
*[[Geminiano Montanari]] (Italy, 1633–1687)
*[[Patrick Moore]] (United Kingdom, 1923–2012)
*[[James Michael Moran]] (United States, 1943–)
*[[William Wilson Morgan]] (United States, 1906–1994)
*[[Hiroshi Mori (astronomer)|Hiroshi Mori]] (Japan, 1958–)
*[[Amédée Mouchez]] (France, 1821–1892)
*[[Antonín Mrkos]] (Czechoslovakia, 1918–1996)
*[[Jean Mueller]] (United States, 1950–)
*[[Masaru Mukai]] (Japan, 1949–)
*[[Christiaan Alexander Muller]] (Netherlands, 1923-2004)
*[[Gustav Müller (astronomer)|Gustav Müller]] (Germany, 1851–1925)
*[[Regiomontanus|Johannes Müller]] (Germany, 1436–1476)
*[[Harutaro Murakami]] (Japan, 1872–1947)
*[[Osamu Muramatsu]] (Japan, 1949–)
*[[Ahmad bin Musa|bin Musa, Ahmad]] (Persia, 805–873)
*[[Hasan bin Musa|bin Musa, Hasan]] (Persia, 810–873)
*[[Muhammad bin Musa|bin Musa, Muhammad]] (Persia, (800–873)
*[[Nils Mustelin]] (Finland, 1931–2004)

==N==
*[[Nilakantha Somayaji]] (India, 1444–1544)
*[[Valentin Naboth]] (Germany, Italy, 1523–1593)
*[[Naburimannu]] ([[Babylonia]], sometime between 6th century BC and 2nd century BC)
*[[Takeshi Nagata]] (Japan, 1913–1991)
*[[Ahmad Nahavandi]] (Persia, 7th–8th century)
*[[Akimasa Nakamura]] (Japan, 1961–)
*[[Syuichi Nakano]] (Japan, 1947–)
*[[Jayant Narlikar]] (India, 1938–)
*[[Naubakht]] (Persia, d. 776)
*[[Al-fadl ibn Naubakht]] (Persia, 8th century)
*[[Otto Neugebauer]] (Germany, United States, 1899–1990)
*[[G. N. Neujmin|Grigoriy Nikolaevich Neujmin]] (Russia, 1886–1946)
*[[Simon Newcomb]] (United States, 1835–1909)
*[[Isaac Newton]] (United Kingdom, 1643–1727)
*[[Seth Barnes Nicholson]] (United States, 1891–1963)
*[[Albertus Antonie Nijland]] (Netherlands, 1868–1936)
*[[Tsuneo Niijima]] (Japan, 1955–)
*[[Peter Nilson]] (Sweden, 1937–1998)
*[[Hōei Nojiri]] (Japan, 1885–1977)
*[[Jaime Nomen]] (Spain, 1960–)
*[[Toshiro Nomura]] (Japan, 1954–)

==O==
*[[Knut Jørgen Røed Ødegaard]] (Norway, 1966–)
*[[Okuro Oikawa]] (Japan, 1896–1970)
*[[Tarmo Oja]] (Sweden, 1934–2024)
*[[Tomimaru Okuni]] (Japan, 1931–)
*[[Nicolaus Olahus]] ([[Hungarian people|Hungarian]], 1493–1568)
*[[Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers]] (Germany, 1758–1840)
*[[Gerard K. O'Neill|Gerard O'Neill]] (United States, 1927–1992)
*[[Jan Hendrik Oort]] (Netherlands, 1900–1992)
*[[Pieter Oosterhoff]] (Netherlands, 1904–1978)
*[[Ernst Öpik]] ([[Estonia]], Ireland, 1893–1985)
*[[José Luis Ortiz Moreno]] (Spain, 1967–)
*[[Yoshiaki Oshima]] (Japan, 1952–)
*[[Donald Edward Osterbrock]], United States, 1924–2007)
*[[Liisi Oterma]] (Finland, 1915–2001)
*[[Satoru Otomo]] (Japan, 1957–)
*[[Jean Abraham Chrétien Oudemans]] (Netherlands, 1827–1906)

==P==
*[[Rafael Pacheco]] (Spain, 1954–)
*[[Bohdan Paczyński]] (Poland, 1940–2007)
*[[Ľudmila Pajdušáková]] (Czechoslovakia, 1916–1979)
*[[Johann Palisa]] (Austria, 1848–1925)
*[[Johann Palitzsch]] (Germany, 1723–1788)
*[[Anton Pannekoek]] (Netherlands, 1873–1960)
*[[Eugene Parker]] (United States, 1927–2022)
*[[George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield]] (United Kingdom, {{circa|1697}}–1764)
*[[William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse|William Parsons, Lord Rosse]] (Ireland, 1800–1867)
*[[André Patry]] (France, 1902–1960)
*[[Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin]] (United Kingdom, United States, 1900–1979)
*[[Ruby Payne-Scott]] (Australia, 1912–1981)
*[[Jean-Claude Pecker]] (France, 1923–2020)
*[[Jim Peebles|James Peebles]] (Canada, United States, 1935–)
*[[Cuthbert Peek|Sir Cuthbert Peek, 2nd Baronet]] (UK, 1855–1901)
*[[Manuel Peimbert]] (Mexico, 1941–)
*[[Leslie Peltier|Leslie Copus Peltier]] (United States, 1900–1980)
*[[Roger Penrose]] (United Kingdom, 1931–)
*[[Arno Penzias]] (United States, Germany, 1933–2024)
*[[Luboš Perek]] (Czech Republic, 1919–2020)
*[[Saul Perlmutter]] (United States, 1959–)
*[[Charles Dillon Perrine]] (United States, Argentina, 1867–1951)
*[[Henri Joseph Anastase Perrotin]] (France, 1845–1904)
*[[Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters]] (Germany, United States, 1813–1890)
*[[George Henry Peters]] (United States, 1863–1947)
*[[Mark M. Phillips]] (United States, 1951–)
*[[Giuseppe Piazzi]] (Italy, 1746–1826)
*[[Edward Charles Pickering]] (United States, 1846–1919)
*[[William Henry Pickering]] (United States, 1858–1938)
*[[Phil Plait]] (United States, 1964–)
*[[Giovanni Antonio Amedeo Plana]] (Italy, 1781–1864)
*[[Petrus Plancius]] (Netherlands, 1552–1622)
*[[John Stanley Plaskett]] (Canada, 1865–1941)
*[[Norman Robert Pogson]] (United Kingdom, 1829–1891)
*[[Christian Pollas]] (France, 1947–)
*[[John Pond]] (England, 1767–1836)
*[[Jean-Louis Pons]] (France, 1761–1831)
*[[Carolyn Porco]] (United States, 1953–)
*[[Vladimír Porubčan]] (Czechoslovakia, 1940–)
*[[Charles Pritchard]] (United Kingdom, 1808–1893)
*[[Richard Proctor]] (England, 1837–1888)
*[[Milorad B. Protić]] ([[Serbia]], 1911– 2001)
*[[Antoni Przybylski]] (Poland, Australia, 1913–1985)
*[[Ptolemy]] of Alexandria ([[Roman Egypt]], {{circa|85}}–165)
*[[Pierre Puiseux]] (France, 1855–1928)
*[[Georg Purbach]] (Germany, 1423–1461)
*[[Pythagoras]] of Samos (Greece, 580 BC–500 BC)
*[[Paris Pişmiş]] (Armenia/Mexico, 1911–1999)

==Q==
*[[Adolphe Quetelet]] (Belgium, 1796–1874)
*[[Ali Qushji]] ([[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]], 1403–1474)
*[[M. Shahid Qureshi]] (Pakistan)

==R==
*[[David L. Rabinowitz|David Lincoln Rabinowitz]] (United States, 1960–)
*[[Grote Reber]] (United States, 1911–2002)
*[[Martin Rees]] (United Kingdom, 1942–)
*[[Hubert Reeves]] (Canada, 1932–)
*[[Regiomontanus]] (Johannes Müller) (Germany, 1436–1476)
*[[Julius Reichelt]] (Germany, 1637–1717)
*[[Erasmus Reinhold]] ([[Duchy of Prussia|Prussia]], Germany, 1511–1553)
*[[Karl Reinmuth]] (Germany, 1892–1979)
*[[Pieter Johannes van Rhijn]] (Netherlands, 1886–1960)
*[[Giovanni Battista Riccioli]] (Italy, 1598–1671)
*[[Mercedes Richards]] (Jamaica, 1955–2016)
*[[Jean Richer]] (France, 1630–1696)
*[[Edward Riddle]] (England, 1788–1854)
*[[Adam Riess]] (United States, 1969–)
*[[Fernand Rigaux]] (Belgium, 1905–1962)
*[[George Willis Ritchey]] (United States, 1864–1945)
*[[David Rittenhouse]] (United States, 1732–1796)
*[[Hans-Walter Rix]] (Germany, 1964–)
*[[Arjen Roelofs]] (Netherlands, 1754–1824)
*[[Nancy G. Roman]] (United States, 1925–2018)
*[[Elizabeth Roemer]] (United States, 1929–2016)
*[[Gustavo E. Romero]] (Argentina, (1964–)
*[[Roger of Hereford]] (England, {{circa|1176}}–1198)
*[[Ole Rømer|Ole Christensen Rømer]] (Denmark, 1644–1710)
*[[Otto A. Rosenberger]] (Germany, 1800–1890)
*[[Svein Rosseland]] (Norway, 1894–1985)
*[[Bruno Rossi]] (Italy, 1905–1993)
*[[Marta Graciela Rovira]] (Argentina)
*[[Vera Rubin]] (United States, 1928–2016)
*[[Henry Chamberlain Russell]] (Australia, 1836–1907)
*[[Henry Norris Russell]] (United States, 1877–1957)
*[[Martin Ryle]] (United Kingdom, 1918–1984)

==S==
*Sir [[Edward Sabine]] (Ireland, 1788–1883)
*[[Carl Sagan]] (United States, 1934–1996)
*[[Megh Nad Saha]] (India, 1893–1956)
*[[Edwin Ernest Salpeter]] (Austria, Australia, United States, 1924–2008)
*[[Allan Rex Sandage]] (United States, 1926–2010)
*[[H. G. van de Sande Bakhuyzen|Hendricus Gerardus van de Sande Bakhuyzen]] (Netherlands, 1838–1923)
*[[Wallace Leslie William Sargent]] (United Kingdom, United States, 1935–2012)
*[[Anneila Sargent]] (United Kingdom, United States, 1942–)
*[[Naoto Sato]] (Japan, 1953–)
*[[Alexandre Schaumasse]] (France, 1882–1958)
*[[Giovanni Schiaparelli]] (Italy, 1835–1910)
*[[Frank Schlesinger]] (United States, 1871–1943)
*[[Bernhard Schmidt]] ([[Estonia]], Sweden, Germany, 1879–1935)
*[[Brian P. Schmidt]] (United States, 1967–)
*[[Maarten Schmidt]] (Netherlands, 1929–)
*[[Robert Schommer]] (United States, 1946–2001)
*[[Johann Hieronymus Schröter]] (Germany, 1745–1816)
*[[Lipót Schulhof]] (Hungary, 1847–1921)
*[[Heinrich Christian Schumacher]] (Germany, 1780–1850)
*[[Hans-Emil Schuster]] (Germany, 1934–)
*[[Samuel Heinrich Schwabe]] (Germany, 1789–1875)
*[[Karl Schwarzschild]] (Germany, 1873–1916)
*[[Martin Schwarzschild]] (Germany, United States, 1912–1997)
*[[Friedrich Karl Arnold Schwassmann]] (Germany, 1870–1964)
*[[James Vernon Scotti]] (United States, 1960–)
*[[Frederick Hanley Seares]] (United States, 1873–1964)
*[[George Mary Searle]] (United States, 1839–1918)
*[[Angelo Secchi]] (Italy, 1818–1878)
*[[Sadao Sei]] (Japan)
*[[Waltraut Seitter]] (Germany, 1930–2007)
*[[Tsutomu Seki]] (Japan, 1930–)
*[[Carl Keenan Seyfert]] (United States, 1911–1960)
*[[Grigory Abramovich Shajn]] (Russia, 1892–1956)
*[[Pelageya Fedorovna Shajn]] (Russia, 1894–1956)
*[[Harlow Shapley]] (United States, 1885–1972)
*[[Richard Sheepshanks]] (United Kingdom, 1794–1855)
*[[Shen Kuo]] (China, 1031–1035)
*[[Shi Shen]] (China, fl. 4th century BC)
*[[Shibukawa Shunkai]] (Japan, 1639–1715)
*[[Yoshisada Shimizu]] (Japan, 1943–)
*[[Shinzo Shinjo]] (Japan, 1873–1938)
*[[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi|Qutb eddin Shirazi]] (Persia, 1236–1311)
*[[Iosif Samuilovich Shklovsky]] (Russia, 1916–1985)
*[[Vladimir Shkodrov]] ([[Bulgaria]], 1930–2010)
*[[Carolyn Jean Spellmann Shoemaker]] (United States, 1929–2021)
*[[Eugene Merle Shoemaker]] (United States, 1928–1997)
*[[Seth Shostak]] (United States, 1943–)
*[[Andrew Siemion]] (United States, 1980–)
*[[Willem de Sitter]] (Netherlands, 1872–1934)
*[[Charlotte Moore Sitterly]] (United States, 1898–1990)
*[[Brian A. Skiff]] (United States)
*[[John Francis Skjellerup]] (Australia, [[South Africa]], 1875–1952)
*[[Vesto Melvin Slipher]] (United States, 1875–1969)
*[[William Marshall Smart]] (United Kingdom, 1889–1975)
*[[Tamara Mikhaylovna Smirnova (astronomer)|Tamara Mikhaylovna Smirnova]] (Russia, 1935–2001)
*[[George Smoot]] (United States, 1945–)
*[[William Henry Smyth]] (United Kingdom, 1788–1865)
*[[Willebrord Snellius]] (Netherlands, 1580–1626)
*[[Mary Fairfax Somerville]] (United Kingdom, 1780–1872)
*Sir [[James South]] (United Kingdom, 1785–1867)
*Sir [[Harold Spencer Jones]] (United Kingdom, 1890–1960)
*[[Lyman Spitzer]] (United States, 1914–1997)
*[[Friederich Wilhelm Gustav Spörer]] (Germany, 1822–1895)
*[[Rainer Spurzem]] (Germany, 1956–)
*[[Anton Staus]] (Germany, 1872–1955)
*[[Joel Stebbins]] (United States, 1878–1966)
*[[Johan Stein]] (Netherlands, 1871–1951)
*[[Carl August Steinheil|Karl August von Steinheil]], (Germany, 1801–1870)
*[[Édouard Stephan]] (France, 1837–1923)
*[[Denise Stephens]] (United States)
*[[Charles Bruce Stephenson]] (United States, 1929–2001))
*[[David J. Stevenson]] (New Zealand, 1948–)
*[[Edward James Stone]] (1831–1897)
*[[F. J. M. Stratton]] (United Kingdom, 1881–1960)
*[[Bengt Georg Daniel Strömgren]] (Denmark, 1908–1987)
*[[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve|Friedrich Georg Wilhelm (von) Struve]] (Germany, Russia, 1793–1864)
*[[Karl Hermann Struve]] (Russia, Germany, 1854–1920)
*[[Gustav Wilhelm Ludwig Struve]] (Russia, 1858–1920)
*[[Otto Struve]] (Russia, United States, 1897–1963)
*[[Otto Wilhelm von Struve|Otto Wilhelm (von) Struve]] (Russia, 1819–1905)
*[[Su Song]] (China, 1020–1101)
*[[Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi]] (Persia, 903–986)
*[[Matsuo Sugano]] (Japan, 1939–)
*[[Atsushi Sugie]] (Japan)
*[[Nicholas Suntzeff]] (United States, 1952–)
*[[Rashid Alievich Sunyaev]] ([[Uzbekistan]] Russia Germany, 1943–)
*[[Shohei Suzuki]] (Japan)
*[[Lewis A. Swift]] (United States, 1820–1913)
*[[Frédéric Sy]] (France)

==T==
*[[Akihiko Tago]] (Japan, 1932–)
*[[Atsushi Takahashi]] (Japan, 1965–)
*[[Kesao Takamizawa]] (Japan, 1952–)
*[[Jill Tarter]] (United States, 1944–)
*[[Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.]] (United States, 1941–)
*[[John Tebbutt]] (Australia, 1834–1916)
*[[Ernst Wilhelm Leberecht Tempel]] (Germany, 1821–1889)
*[[Thabit ibn Qurra]] ([[Iraq]], 826–901)
*[[Thorvald Nicolai Thiele]] (Denmark, 1838–1910)
*[[Louis Thollon]] (France, 1829–1887)
*[[Norman G. Thomas]] (United States, 1930–2020)
*[[John M. Thome|John Thome]] (United States, Argentina, 1843–1908)
*[[Kip Stephen Thorne]] (United States, 1940–)
*[[Friedrich Tietjen]] (Germany, 1834–1895)
*[[Beatrice Muriel Hill Tinsley]] (New Zealand, United States, 1941–1981)
*[[François Félix Tisserand]] (France, 1845–1896)
*[[Johann Daniel Titius]] (Germany, 1729–1796)
*[[Yasuo Tanaka (astronomer)|Yasuo Tanaka]] (Japan, 1931–2018)
*[[Clyde Tombaugh]] (United States, 1906–1997)
*[[Kōichirō Tomita]] (Japan, 1925–2006)
*[[Richard Tousey]] (United States, 1908–1997)
*[[Charles Townes]] (United States, 1915–2015)
*[[Virginia Trimble]] (United States, 1943–)
*[[Chad Trujillo]] (United States, 1973–)
*[[Robert Julius Trumpler]] (United States, 1886–1956)
*[[R. Brent Tully]] (United States, 1943–)
*[[Herbert Hall Turner]] (England, 1861–1930)
*[[Nasir al-Din Tusi]] (Persia, 1201–1274)
*[[Horace Parnell Tuttle]] (United States, 1839–1923)
*[[Neil deGrasse Tyson]] (United States, 1958–)

==U==
*[[Seiji Ueda]] (Japan, 1952–)
*[[Ulugh Beg]] ([[Uzbekistan]], 1394–1449)
*[[Antonio de Ulloa]] (Spain), 1716–1795)
*[[Anne Barbara Underhill]] (Canada, 1920–2003)
*[[Albrecht Unsöld]] (Germany, 1905–1995)
*[[Takeshi Urata]] (Japan, 1947–2012)
*[[Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi|Mu’ayyad al-Din al-’Urdi]] (Persia d. 1266)
*[[Fumiaki Uto]] (Japan)

==V==
*[[Yrjö Väisälä]] (Finland, 1891–1971)
*[[Benjamin Valz]] (France, 1787–1867)
*[[James Van Allen]] (United States, 1914–2006)
*[[George Van Biesbroeck]] (Belgium, United States, 1880–1974)
*[[Hendrik C. van de Hulst|Hendrik Christoffel van de Hulst]] (Netherlands, 1918–2000)
*[[Peter van de Kamp]] (United States, 1901–1995)
*[[Sidney van den Bergh]] (Canada, 1929–)
*[[Martin van den Hove]] (Netherlands, 1605–1639)
*[[H. G. van de Sande Bakhuyzen|Hendricus Gerardus van de Sande Bakhuyzen]] (Netherlands, 1838–1923)
*[[Hendrik van Gent]] (Netherlands, [[South Africa]], 1900–1947)
*[[Cornelis Johannes van Houten]] (Netherlands, 1920–2002)
*[[Pieter Johannes van Rhijn]] (Netherlands, 1886–1960)
*[[Gérard de Vaucouleurs]] (France, United States, 1918–1995)
*[[Zdeňka Vávrová]] (Czechoslovakia, 1945–)
*[[Jean-Pierre Verdet]] (France, 1932–)
*[[Philippe Véron]] (France, 1939–2014)
*[[Frank Washington Very]] (United States, 1852–1927)
*[[Yvon Villarceau]] (France, 1813–1883)
*[[Julie Vinter Hansen]] (Denmark), 1890–1960)
*[[Hermann Carl Vogel]] (Germany, 1841–1907)
*[[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]] (Germany, Russia, 1793–1864)
*[[Otto Wilhelm von Struve]] (Russia, 1819–1905)
*[[Alexander N. Vyssotsky]] (Russia/United States, 1888–1973)
*[[Emma Vyssotsky]] (United States, 1894–1975)

==W==

*[[Arno Arthur Wachmann]] (Germany, 1902–1990)
*[[Abū al-Wafā' al-Būzjānī|Abul Wáfa]] (Persia, 940–997/998)
*[[Walcher of Malvern]] (England d. 1135)
*[[George Wallerstein]] (1930–2021)
*[[William Wales (astronomer)|William Wales]] (United Kingdom, {{circa|1734}}–1798)
*[[Dennis Walsh]] (United Kingdom, 1933–2005)
*[[Qingde Wang]] (United States/China)
*[[Brian Warner (astronomer)]] (United Kingdom, 1939–)
*[[Brian D. Warner]] (United States, 1952–)
*[[Kazuro Watanabe]] (Japan, 1955–)
*[[James Craig Watson]] (United States, 1838–1880)
*[[Edmund Weaver (astronomer)|Edmund Weaver]] (United Kingdom, 1663–1748)
*[[Kim Weaver]] (United States, 1969–)
*[[Thomas William Webb]] (United Kingdom, 1807–1885)
*[[Rachel Webster]] (Australia, 1951–)
*[[Alfred Lothar Wegener]] (Germany, 1880–1930)
*[[Gary A. Wegner]] (United States, 1944–)
*[[Wei Pu]] (China, 960–1279)
*[[Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker|Karl von Weizsäcker]] (Germany, 1912–2007)
*[[Godefroy Wendelin]] (Belgium, 1580–1667)
*[[Richard M. West]] (Denmark, 1941–)
*[[Gart Westerhout]] (Netherlands, United States, 1927–2012)
*[[Bengt Westerlund]] (Sweden, 1921–2008)
*[[J. G. Westphal]] (Germany, 1824–1859)
*[[Johann Heinrich Westphal]] (Germany, Italy, 1794–1831)
*[[George Wetherill]] (1925–2006)
*[[John Archibald Wheeler]] (United States, 1911–2008)
*[[Fred Lawrence Whipple]] (United States, 1906–2004)
*[[Albert Whitford (astronomer)|Albert Whitford]] (United States, 1905–2002)
*[[Mary Watson Whitney]] (United States, 1847–1921)
*[[Chandra Wickramasinghe]] (United Kingdom, 1939–)
*[[Paul Wild (Swiss astronomer)|Paul Wild]] (Switzerland, 1925–2014)
*[[Olin C. Wilson]] (United States, 1909–1994)
*[[Ida E. Woods]] (United States, 1870–1940)
*[[Robert Woodrow Wilson|Robert Wilson]] (United States, 1936–)
*[[Rogier Windhorst]] (United States, 1955–)
*[[Vincent Wing]] (UK, 1619–1668)
*[[Anna Winlock]] (United States, 1857–1904)
*[[Henry "Trae" Winter]] (United States, 1972)
*[[John Winthrop (educator)|John Winthrop]] ([[Massachusetts Bay Colony]], 1714–1779)
*[[Friedrich August Theodor Winnecke]] (Germany, 1835–1897)
*[[Carl Wirtanen]] (United States, 1910–1990)
*[[Jack Wisdom]] (United States, 1953–)
*[[Gustav Witt]] (Germany, 1866–1946)
*[[Maximilian Wolf]] (Germany, 1863–1932)
*[[Aleksander Wolszczan]] (Poland, 1946–)
*[[Edith Jones Woodward]] (United States), (1914–2002)
*[[Richard van der Riet Woolley]] (United Kingdom, 1906–1986)
*[[Frances Woodworth Wright]] (United States, 1897–1989)
*[[Thomas Wright (astronomer)|Thomas Wright]] (United Kingdom, 1711–1786)
*[[Gillian Wright (Astronomer)|Gillian Wright]] (United Kingdom)
*[[Arthur Bambridge Wyse]] (United States, 1909–1942)

==Y==
*[[Issei Yamamoto]] (Japan, 1889–1959)
*[[Masayuki Yanai]] (Japan, 1959–)
*[[Yi Xing]] (China, 683–727)
*[[Anne Sewell Young]] (United States, 1871–1961)
*[[Charles Augustus Young]] (United States, 1834–1908)
*[[James Whitney Young]] (United States, 1941–)
*[[Judith Young (astronomer)|Judith Young]] (United States, 1952–2014)

==Z==
*[[Franz Xaver von Zach]] (Germany, 1753–1832)
*[[Abraham Zacuto]] (Spain/[[Portugal]], 1450–1510)
*[[John Zarnecki]] (UK, 1949–)
*[[Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich]] ([[Soviet Union|USSR]], 1914–1987)
*[[Zhang Daqing]] (China, 1969–)
*[[Zhang Heng]] (China, 78–139)
*[[Zhang Yuzhe]] (China, 1902–1986)
*[[Lyudmila Vasil'evna Zhuravleva]] (Russia/[[Ukraine]], 1946–)
*[[Felix Ziegel]] ([[Soviet Union]], 1920–1988)
*[[Zu Chongzhi]] (China, 429–500)
*[[Fritz Zwicky]] (Switzerland, United States, 1898–1974)

==Others who influenced astronomy and astrophysics==
The following is a list of people who are not astronomers but made a contribution to the field of astronomy and astrophysics.
*[[Hans Bethe]] (1906–2005), (physicist)
*[[Niels Bohr]] (1885–1962), (physicist)
*[[Andreas Cellarius]] (Netherlands, Germany, 1596–1665), ([[cartographer]])
*[[Freeman Dyson]] (1923–2020), (physicist)
*[[Albert Einstein]] (1879–1955), (physicist)
*[[Karl Guthe Jansky]] (United States, 1905–1950), ([[Radio astronomy|radio astronomer]])
*[[James Clerk Maxwell]] (United Kingdom, 1831–1879), (physicist)
*[[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]] (United Kingdom, 1773–1829), (physicist)
*[[Abdus Salam]] (1926–1996), (physicist)
*[[Riazuddin (physicist)|Riazuddin]] (1936–2013), (physicist)

==See also==
*[[List of astronomical instrument makers]]
*[[List of women astronomers]]
*[[List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===General sources===
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070202111707/http://www.astrosociety.org/education/resources/womenast_bib.html Astronomical Society of the Pacific: Women in Astronomy]
*[http://www.worldrecordsindia.com/2018/02/the-oldest-living-astronomer-of-india/ The Oldest Living Astronomers in India honored by World Records India]

{{Astronomy navbox}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Astronomers, List Of}}
[[Category:Lists of space scientists|Astronomers]]
[[Category:History of astronomy]]
[[Category:Astronomers|*]]
[[Category:Astronomy-related lists]]

Tarmo Oja

2024-12-04T10:43:03Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Swedish astronomer (born 1934)}}
'''Tarmo Oja''' (21 December 1934 [[Tallinn]], [[Estonia]] – 18 November 2024 [[Uppsala]], [[Sweden]]) is a professor in [[astronomy]] at [[Uppsala University]]<ref>[http://katalog.uu.se/empInfo/?languageId=1&id=XX443 Uppsala University directory: Tarmo Oja], accessed 2010-05-13</ref> who studies [[Galaxy|galactic]] structure and [[variable star]]s. He was the director at the Swedish [[Kvistaberg Station]] of the [[Uppsala Observatory]] from 1970 until his retirement in 1999.

As a senior professor he continued his observations (work) at the observatory at Kvistaberg until the spring of 2006, when he moved (back) to Uppsala together with his wife Silvi.

== Awards and honors ==
In 2001, Estonian President [[Lennart Meri]] awarded Oja the [[Order of the White Star]] V Class for his contribution to science. The asteroid [[5080 Oja]], discovered at the Kvistaberg Station, was named in his honor in 1992.<ref name="5080-Oja" />

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="5080-Oja">{{cite web
|title = 5080 Oja (1976 EB)
|work = Minor Planet Center
|url = https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=5080
|accessdate = 20 March 2018}}</ref>

}} 

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oja, Tarmo}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:2024 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Swedish astronomers]]
[[Category:Estonian astronomers]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Uppsala University]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Estonian emigrants to Sweden]]
[[Category:Academics from Tallinn]]
[[Category:Estonian World War II refugees]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Star, 5th Class]]

{{Sweden-scientist-stub}}
{{Europe-astronomer-stub}}

{{Estonia-academic-bio-stub}}

Tarmo Oja

2024-12-04T10:42:21Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Swedish astronomer (born 1934)}}
'''Tarmo Oja''' (21 December 1934 [[Tallinn]], [[Estonia]] – 18 November 2024 [[Uppsala]], [[Sweden]]) is a professor in [[astronomy]] at [[Uppsala University]]<ref>[http://katalog.uu.se/empInfo/?languageId=1&id=XX443 Uppsala University directory: Tarmo Oja], accessed 2010-05-13</ref> who studies [[Galaxy|galactic]] structure and [[variable star]]s. He was the director at the Swedish [[Kvistaberg Station]] of the [[Uppsala Observatory]] from 1970 until his retirement in 1999.

As a senior professor he continued his observations (work) at the observatory at Kvistaberg until the spring of 2006, when he moved (back) to Uppsala together with his wife Silvi.

== Awards and honors ==
In 2001, Estonian President [[Lennart Meri]] awarded Oja the [[Order of the White Star]] V Class for his contribution to science. The asteroid [[5080 Oja]], discovered at the Kvistaberg Station, was named in his honor in 1992.<ref name="5080-Oja" />

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="5080-Oja">{{cite web
|title = 5080 Oja (1976 EB)
|work = Minor Planet Center
|url = https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=5080
|accessdate = 20 March 2018}}</ref>

}} 

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oja, Tarmo}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:20th-century Swedish astronomers]]
[[Category:Estonian astronomers]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Uppsala University]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Estonian emigrants to Sweden]]
[[Category:Academics from Tallinn]]
[[Category:Estonian World War II refugees]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Star, 5th Class]]

{{Sweden-scientist-stub}}
{{Europe-astronomer-stub}}

{{Estonia-academic-bio-stub}}

Reader (liturgy)

2024-12-02T20:20:34Z

Amherst99: /* Eastern liturgical rites */

{{Short description|Church office}}
[[File:Church of St. Anthony the Great September 22, 2019. Reader-09.jpg|thumb|Reader in the Divine Liturgy]]

In some [[Christian denominations]], a '''reader''' or '''lector''' is the person responsible for reading aloud excerpts of [[scripture]] at a [[liturgy]]. In early Christian times the reader was of particular value due to the rarity of [[literacy]].

== Catholic Church{{anchor|CatholicLector}} ==
In the [[Latin liturgical rites]] of the [[Catholic Church]], the term ''[[lector]]'' or ''reader''"<ref>The term "lector" is used in preference to that of "reader" in the official English text of the [[General Instruction of the Roman Missal]] ("reader" is found in no. 352 of this document, but not elsewhere), but "reader" is used in the English version of the [https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_ben-xvi_exh_20100930_verbum-domini_en.html Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation ''Verbum Domini''], which capitalizes "Reader" to indicate an "instituted" reader or lector.</ref> means someone who in a particular [[liturgy]] is assigned to read a [[Bible|Biblical]] text other than the [[Gospel]] (reading the Gospel at [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] is reserved specifically to the [[deacon]] or, in his absence, to the [[priest]]). But it also has the more specific meaning of a person who has been [[Minister (Catholic Church)#Instituted ministries|"instituted" as a lector or reader]], and is such even when not assigned to read in a specific liturgy.

The office was formerly classed as one of the four [[minor orders]] in the [[Latin Church]]. However, since 1 January 1973, the [[Ecclesiastical letter#Letters of the popes in modern times|apostolic letter]] ''Ministeria quaedam'' decreed instead that:<ref>{{cite web |title=Pope Paul VI - Ministeria Quaedam |url=https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/ministeria-quaedam-9006 |work=ewtn.com}}</ref>
# What up to now were called minor orders are henceforth to be called ''ministries''.
# Ministries may be assigned to lay Christians; hence they are no longer to be considered as reserved to candidates for the sacrament of orders.
# Two ministries, adapted to present-day needs, are to be preserved in the whole Latin Church, namely, those of reader and [[acolyte]]. The functions heretofore assigned to the [[subdeacon]] are entrusted to the reader and the acolyte.
# The reader is appointed for a function proper to him, that of reading the word of God in the liturgical assembly. Accordingly, he is to proclaim the readings from sacred Scripture, except for the gospel in the Mass and other sacred celebrations; he is to recite the [[psalm]] between the readings when there is no psalmist; he is to present the intentions for the general intercessions in the absence of a deacon or cantor; he is to direct the singing and the participation by the faithful; he is to instruct the faithful for the worthy reception of the sacraments. He may also, insofar as may be necessary, take care of preparing other faithful who are appointed on a temporary basis to read the Scriptures in liturgical celebrations. That he may more fittingly and perfectly fulfill these functions, he is to meditate assiduously on sacred Scripture.
:Aware of the office he has undertaken, the reader is to make every effort and employ suitable means to acquire that increasingly warm and living love and knowledge of Scripture that will make him a more perfect disciple of the Lord.

[[Canon (canon law)|Canon]] 1035 of the [[1983 Code of Canon Law|1983 ''Code of Canon Law'']] requires candidates for [[deacon|diaconal]] ordination to have received and have exercised for an appropriate time the ministries of lector and acolyte and prescribes that institution in the second of these ministries must precede by at least six months ordination as a deacon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P3Q.HTM|title=Code of Canon Law: text - IntraText CT|work=intratext.com}}</ref>

Instituted lectors, either men or women (since the 2021 [[motu proprio]] ''[[Spiritus Domini (Pope Francis)|spiritus domini]]''),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncronline.org/news/vatican/francis-changes-catholic-church-law-women-explicitly-allowed-lectors-altar-servers|title=Francis changes Catholic Church law: women explicitly allowed as lectors, altar servers|date=January 11, 2021|website=National Catholic Reporter}}</ref> are obliged, when proclaiming the readings at Mass, to wear an [[alb]] or an "other suitable attire that has been legitimately approved by the Conference of Bishops".<ref>General Instruction of the Order of Mass, 339</ref> such as [[cassock]] and [[surplice]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/the-mass/general-instruction-of-the-roman-missal/girm-chapter-6.cfm|title=Chapter VI: The Requisites for the Celebration of Mass|work=usccb.org}}</ref> Others who perform the function of lector, "may go to the ambo in ordinary attire, but this should be in keeping with the customs of the different regions."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicliturgy.com/index.cfm/FuseAction/documentText/Index/2/SubIndex/11/ContentIndex/133/Start/126|title=Chapter III: Offices and Ministries in the Celebration of the Liturgy of the Word within Mass|work=catholicliturgy.com}}</ref>

The ''[[General Instruction of the Roman Missal]]'' speaks as follows of those who, without being lectors in the specific sense, carry out their functions at Mass: "In the absence of an instituted lector, other lay people may be deputed to proclaim the readings from Sacred Scripture, people who are truly suited to carrying out this function and carefully prepared, so that by their hearing the readings from the sacred texts the faithful may conceive in their hearts a sweet and living affection for Sacred Scripture."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/roman-missal/general-instruction-of-the-roman-missal/girm-chapter-3.cfm|title=101|website=usccb.org|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref>

In its sections the same document lists the lector's specific duties at Mass.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/roman-missal/general-instruction-of-the-roman-missal/girm-chapter-4.cfm|title=194-198|website=usccb.org|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref>

[[Traditionalist Catholic]] organizations such as the [[Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter]], the [[Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest]] and the [[Personal Apostolic Administration of Saint John Mary Vianney]] are authorized to use the pre-1973 rite for their members who receive the office of lector.<ref>"Only in [[Institute of consecrated life|Institutes of Consecrated Life]] and [[Society of apostolic life|Societies of Apostolic Life]] which are under the [[Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei]], and in those which use the [[Liturgy|liturgical]] books of the ''[[Preconciliar rites after the Second Vatican Council|forma extraordinaria]]'', is the use of the ''[[Roman Pontifical|Pontificale Romanum]]'' of 1962 for the conferral of minor and major orders permitted" ([https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_commissions/ecclsdei/documents/rc_com_ecclsdei_doc_20110430_istr-universae-ecclesiae_en.html Instruction on the Application of ''Summorum Pontificum'', 30 April 2011], 31).</ref>

== Eastern liturgical rites ==
{{Further|Eastern Rite (disambiguation){{!}}Eastern liturgical rites}}
[[Image:Reader ordination.jpg|thumb|The tonsuring of readers in a seminary by a Russian Orthodox bishop. The readers being ordained are wearing the short phelon (in white).]]

In the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and in the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] of [[Byzantine Rite|Byzantine tradition]], the reader (in [[Greek language|Greek]], {{lang|grc|Ἀναγνώστης}} ''Anagnostis''; in [[Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic]], чтец ''chtets'') is the second highest of the minor orders of clergy. This order is higher than the [[Ostiarius|doorkeeper]] (now largely obsolete) and lower than the [[subdeacon]].

Immediately before ordination as a reader, the candidate is [[tonsure]]d as a sign of his submission and obedience upon entry into the clerical state. It is a separate act from ordination. The tonsure is performed only once, immediately prior to the actual ordination of a reader, which the ordination rite refers to as "the first degree of priesthood". However, it is not the means whereby a person becomes a reader. Readers, like subdeacons, are ordained by ''Cheirothesia'' - literally, "to place hands" - whereas ''[[Christian laying on of hands|Cheirotonia]]'' - "to stretch out the hands" - is practised at the ordination of the higher clergy: bishops, priests and deacons.<ref name="Ordination">{{cite web|url=http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith7106|title=The Sacramental Life of the Orthodox Church - Liturgy & Worship - Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America|website=www.goarch.org|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref>

[[File:Lukijaksivihkiminen.jpg|thumb|The ordination of a reader in Finland.]]
After being tonsured, the reader is [[vestment|vested]] in a short [[phelonion|phelon]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://old.svots.edu/Three-Hierarchs-Chapel/2004-1005-patterson/pages/1200_JPG.htm |title=Patterson / 1200.JPG |access-date=2006-01-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060304093128/http://old.svots.edu/Three-Hierarchs-Chapel/2004-1005-patterson/pages/1200_JPG.htm |archive-date=2006-03-04 }}</ref> which he wears while reading the Epistle for the first time. This short phelon is then removed (and never worn thereafter) and replaced with a [[sticharion|stikhar]], which the reader wears thereafter whenever he performs his liturgical duties. This practice is not universal, however, and many bishops and priests will allow a reader to perform his function dressed only in a cassock or (if a [[monk]]) a [[Cassock|riassa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kosovo.net/289_y.jpg|title=Image|website=kosovo.net|access-date=12 June 2023}}</ref> Sometimes, a bishop will decree what vesting practice he wishes to be followed within his own [[diocese]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.holy-trinity.org/liturgics/tikhon.lit1.html|title=HTC: Liturgical Order #1|work=holy-trinity.org}}</ref>

[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[icon]]s often show readers and church singers wearing a stikhar-like garment (more loose and flowing than the modern stikhar) and a pointed hat with the brim pulled out to the sides.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://saints.oca.org/IconDirectory/LG/GreatLent/sundayorthodoxy.jpg|title=Icon Directory, lower left corner|website=oca.org|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref>

In [[Eastern Thrace]], during the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] period and prior to the tragedy of 1922, some lay people were selected through symbolic [[tonsure]] and [[Cheirothesia]] to receive the ecclesiastical blessing and rank of {{Interlanguage link multi|''Anagnostis''|el|3=Αναγνώστης}}.

==Anglicanism==
{{main|Lay Reader}}

Minor orders were discontinued in the reformed [[Church of England]]. The modern office of reader was introduced in 1866 and is distinct from the traditional minor order of reader. It is the office of a licensed lay minister and, for this reason, a person holding the office is referred to as a "lay reader" in many parts of the Anglican Communion. After a period of theological training (often, in the case of the Church of England, three years of evening classes), a lay person is licensed to preach and lead public worship. A reader is not a member of the clergy and cannot preside at the [[Eucharist]], officiate at [[wedding|marriages]], [[absolution|absolve]] or [[blessing|bless]].<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://readers.cofe.anglican.org/|title=Anglican Readers' website - Home Page|work=anglican.org}}</ref>

A reader is licensed to lead non-sacramental worship (including, in some cases, [[funeral]]s), may assist in the leadership of eucharistic worship and may preach. [[Anglican]] readers in some countries often wear a blue [[tippet]] with [[choir dress]].<ref name="auto"/>

==Methodism==

In the [[United Methodist Church]] in the United States, similar to the Anglican office, a certified lay minister is a servant, who is called and equipped to conduct public worship, care for the congregation, assist in program leadership, develop new and existing faith communities, preach the Word, lead small groups, or establish community outreach ministries as part of a ministry team with the supervision and support of an ordained minister.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=https://www.umcdiscipleship.org/leadership-resources/clm-faqs#anchor1|title=CLM FAQs|work=umc.org}}</ref>

The role of certified lay minister is intended for missional leadership in churches or other ministry settings as part of a team ministry under the supervision of clergy, and they are ''assigned'' to a local church by the district superintendent, unlike clergy who are ''appointed'' by a bishop.<ref name="auto1"/>

==See also==
*[[Baal keriah]]
*[[Cantor (church)|Cantor]]
*[[Holy orders]]

==Endnotes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.russianorthodoxchurch.ws/synod/pictures/12seattle_8.jpg Photo: Tonsure of a Reader]
*[http://www.orthodoxpsalm.org/resources/Halvorsen.html ''Church Reading: A Vital Ministry''] by Deacon Sergius Halvorsen (Orthodox)

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Minor orders]]
[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox liturgy]]
[[Category:Anglican liturgy]]
[[Category:Eastern Christian ecclesiastical offices]]
[[Category:Catholic ecclesiastical titles]]

Reader (liturgy)

2024-12-02T20:20:02Z

Amherst99: /* Eastern liturgical rites */

{{Short description|Church office}}
[[File:Church of St. Anthony the Great September 22, 2019. Reader-09.jpg|thumb|Reader in the Divine Liturgy]]

In some [[Christian denominations]], a '''reader''' or '''lector''' is the person responsible for reading aloud excerpts of [[scripture]] at a [[liturgy]]. In early Christian times the reader was of particular value due to the rarity of [[literacy]].

== Catholic Church{{anchor|CatholicLector}} ==
In the [[Latin liturgical rites]] of the [[Catholic Church]], the term ''[[lector]]'' or ''reader''"<ref>The term "lector" is used in preference to that of "reader" in the official English text of the [[General Instruction of the Roman Missal]] ("reader" is found in no. 352 of this document, but not elsewhere), but "reader" is used in the English version of the [https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_ben-xvi_exh_20100930_verbum-domini_en.html Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation ''Verbum Domini''], which capitalizes "Reader" to indicate an "instituted" reader or lector.</ref> means someone who in a particular [[liturgy]] is assigned to read a [[Bible|Biblical]] text other than the [[Gospel]] (reading the Gospel at [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] is reserved specifically to the [[deacon]] or, in his absence, to the [[priest]]). But it also has the more specific meaning of a person who has been [[Minister (Catholic Church)#Instituted ministries|"instituted" as a lector or reader]], and is such even when not assigned to read in a specific liturgy.

The office was formerly classed as one of the four [[minor orders]] in the [[Latin Church]]. However, since 1 January 1973, the [[Ecclesiastical letter#Letters of the popes in modern times|apostolic letter]] ''Ministeria quaedam'' decreed instead that:<ref>{{cite web |title=Pope Paul VI - Ministeria Quaedam |url=https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/ministeria-quaedam-9006 |work=ewtn.com}}</ref>
# What up to now were called minor orders are henceforth to be called ''ministries''.
# Ministries may be assigned to lay Christians; hence they are no longer to be considered as reserved to candidates for the sacrament of orders.
# Two ministries, adapted to present-day needs, are to be preserved in the whole Latin Church, namely, those of reader and [[acolyte]]. The functions heretofore assigned to the [[subdeacon]] are entrusted to the reader and the acolyte.
# The reader is appointed for a function proper to him, that of reading the word of God in the liturgical assembly. Accordingly, he is to proclaim the readings from sacred Scripture, except for the gospel in the Mass and other sacred celebrations; he is to recite the [[psalm]] between the readings when there is no psalmist; he is to present the intentions for the general intercessions in the absence of a deacon or cantor; he is to direct the singing and the participation by the faithful; he is to instruct the faithful for the worthy reception of the sacraments. He may also, insofar as may be necessary, take care of preparing other faithful who are appointed on a temporary basis to read the Scriptures in liturgical celebrations. That he may more fittingly and perfectly fulfill these functions, he is to meditate assiduously on sacred Scripture.
:Aware of the office he has undertaken, the reader is to make every effort and employ suitable means to acquire that increasingly warm and living love and knowledge of Scripture that will make him a more perfect disciple of the Lord.

[[Canon (canon law)|Canon]] 1035 of the [[1983 Code of Canon Law|1983 ''Code of Canon Law'']] requires candidates for [[deacon|diaconal]] ordination to have received and have exercised for an appropriate time the ministries of lector and acolyte and prescribes that institution in the second of these ministries must precede by at least six months ordination as a deacon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P3Q.HTM|title=Code of Canon Law: text - IntraText CT|work=intratext.com}}</ref>

Instituted lectors, either men or women (since the 2021 [[motu proprio]] ''[[Spiritus Domini (Pope Francis)|spiritus domini]]''),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncronline.org/news/vatican/francis-changes-catholic-church-law-women-explicitly-allowed-lectors-altar-servers|title=Francis changes Catholic Church law: women explicitly allowed as lectors, altar servers|date=January 11, 2021|website=National Catholic Reporter}}</ref> are obliged, when proclaiming the readings at Mass, to wear an [[alb]] or an "other suitable attire that has been legitimately approved by the Conference of Bishops".<ref>General Instruction of the Order of Mass, 339</ref> such as [[cassock]] and [[surplice]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/the-mass/general-instruction-of-the-roman-missal/girm-chapter-6.cfm|title=Chapter VI: The Requisites for the Celebration of Mass|work=usccb.org}}</ref> Others who perform the function of lector, "may go to the ambo in ordinary attire, but this should be in keeping with the customs of the different regions."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicliturgy.com/index.cfm/FuseAction/documentText/Index/2/SubIndex/11/ContentIndex/133/Start/126|title=Chapter III: Offices and Ministries in the Celebration of the Liturgy of the Word within Mass|work=catholicliturgy.com}}</ref>

The ''[[General Instruction of the Roman Missal]]'' speaks as follows of those who, without being lectors in the specific sense, carry out their functions at Mass: "In the absence of an instituted lector, other lay people may be deputed to proclaim the readings from Sacred Scripture, people who are truly suited to carrying out this function and carefully prepared, so that by their hearing the readings from the sacred texts the faithful may conceive in their hearts a sweet and living affection for Sacred Scripture."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/roman-missal/general-instruction-of-the-roman-missal/girm-chapter-3.cfm|title=101|website=usccb.org|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref>

In its sections the same document lists the lector's specific duties at Mass.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/roman-missal/general-instruction-of-the-roman-missal/girm-chapter-4.cfm|title=194-198|website=usccb.org|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref>

[[Traditionalist Catholic]] organizations such as the [[Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter]], the [[Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest]] and the [[Personal Apostolic Administration of Saint John Mary Vianney]] are authorized to use the pre-1973 rite for their members who receive the office of lector.<ref>"Only in [[Institute of consecrated life|Institutes of Consecrated Life]] and [[Society of apostolic life|Societies of Apostolic Life]] which are under the [[Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei]], and in those which use the [[Liturgy|liturgical]] books of the ''[[Preconciliar rites after the Second Vatican Council|forma extraordinaria]]'', is the use of the ''[[Roman Pontifical|Pontificale Romanum]]'' of 1962 for the conferral of minor and major orders permitted" ([https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_commissions/ecclsdei/documents/rc_com_ecclsdei_doc_20110430_istr-universae-ecclesiae_en.html Instruction on the Application of ''Summorum Pontificum'', 30 April 2011], 31).</ref>

== Eastern liturgical rites ==
{{Further|Eastern Rite (disambiguation){{!}}Eastern liturgical rites}}
[[Image:Reader ordination.jpg|thumb|The tonsuring of readers in a seminary by a Russian Orthodox bishop. The readers being ordained are wearing the short phelon (in white).]]

In the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and in the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] of [[Byzantine Rite|Byzantine tradition]], the reader (in [[Greek language|Greek]], {{lang|grc|Ἀναγνώστης}} ''Anagnostis''; in [[Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic]], чтец ''chtets'') is the second highest of the minor orders of clergy. This order is higher than the [[Ostiarius|Doorkeeper]] (now largely obsolete) and lower than the [[subdeacon]].

Immediately before ordination as a reader, the candidate is [[tonsure]]d as a sign of his submission and obedience upon entry into the clerical state. It is a separate act from ordination. The tonsure is performed only once, immediately prior to the actual ordination of a reader, which the ordination rite refers to as "the first degree of priesthood". However, it is not the means whereby a person becomes a reader. Readers, like subdeacons, are ordained by ''Cheirothesia'' - literally, "to place hands" - whereas ''[[Christian laying on of hands|Cheirotonia]]'' - "to stretch out the hands" - is practised at the ordination of the higher clergy: bishops, priests and deacons.<ref name="Ordination">{{cite web|url=http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith7106|title=The Sacramental Life of the Orthodox Church - Liturgy & Worship - Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America|website=www.goarch.org|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref>

[[File:Lukijaksivihkiminen.jpg|thumb|The ordination of a reader in Finland.]]
After being tonsured, the reader is [[vestment|vested]] in a short [[phelonion|phelon]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://old.svots.edu/Three-Hierarchs-Chapel/2004-1005-patterson/pages/1200_JPG.htm |title=Patterson / 1200.JPG |access-date=2006-01-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060304093128/http://old.svots.edu/Three-Hierarchs-Chapel/2004-1005-patterson/pages/1200_JPG.htm |archive-date=2006-03-04 }}</ref> which he wears while reading the Epistle for the first time. This short phelon is then removed (and never worn thereafter) and replaced with a [[sticharion|stikhar]], which the reader wears thereafter whenever he performs his liturgical duties. This practice is not universal, however, and many bishops and priests will allow a reader to perform his function dressed only in a cassock or (if a [[monk]]) a [[Cassock|riassa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kosovo.net/289_y.jpg|title=Image|website=kosovo.net|access-date=12 June 2023}}</ref> Sometimes, a bishop will decree what vesting practice he wishes to be followed within his own [[diocese]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.holy-trinity.org/liturgics/tikhon.lit1.html|title=HTC: Liturgical Order #1|work=holy-trinity.org}}</ref>

[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[icon]]s often show readers and church singers wearing a stikhar-like garment (more loose and flowing than the modern stikhar) and a pointed hat with the brim pulled out to the sides.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://saints.oca.org/IconDirectory/LG/GreatLent/sundayorthodoxy.jpg|title=Icon Directory, lower left corner|website=oca.org|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref>

In [[Eastern Thrace]], during the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] period and prior to the tragedy of 1922, some lay people were selected through symbolic [[tonsure]] and [[Cheirothesia]] to receive the ecclesiastical blessing and rank of {{Interlanguage link multi|''Anagnostis''|el|3=Αναγνώστης}}.

==Anglicanism==
{{main|Lay Reader}}

Minor orders were discontinued in the reformed [[Church of England]]. The modern office of reader was introduced in 1866 and is distinct from the traditional minor order of reader. It is the office of a licensed lay minister and, for this reason, a person holding the office is referred to as a "lay reader" in many parts of the Anglican Communion. After a period of theological training (often, in the case of the Church of England, three years of evening classes), a lay person is licensed to preach and lead public worship. A reader is not a member of the clergy and cannot preside at the [[Eucharist]], officiate at [[wedding|marriages]], [[absolution|absolve]] or [[blessing|bless]].<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://readers.cofe.anglican.org/|title=Anglican Readers' website - Home Page|work=anglican.org}}</ref>

A reader is licensed to lead non-sacramental worship (including, in some cases, [[funeral]]s), may assist in the leadership of eucharistic worship and may preach. [[Anglican]] readers in some countries often wear a blue [[tippet]] with [[choir dress]].<ref name="auto"/>

==Methodism==

In the [[United Methodist Church]] in the United States, similar to the Anglican office, a certified lay minister is a servant, who is called and equipped to conduct public worship, care for the congregation, assist in program leadership, develop new and existing faith communities, preach the Word, lead small groups, or establish community outreach ministries as part of a ministry team with the supervision and support of an ordained minister.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=https://www.umcdiscipleship.org/leadership-resources/clm-faqs#anchor1|title=CLM FAQs|work=umc.org}}</ref>

The role of certified lay minister is intended for missional leadership in churches or other ministry settings as part of a team ministry under the supervision of clergy, and they are ''assigned'' to a local church by the district superintendent, unlike clergy who are ''appointed'' by a bishop.<ref name="auto1"/>

==See also==
*[[Baal keriah]]
*[[Cantor (church)|Cantor]]
*[[Holy orders]]

==Endnotes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.russianorthodoxchurch.ws/synod/pictures/12seattle_8.jpg Photo: Tonsure of a Reader]
*[http://www.orthodoxpsalm.org/resources/Halvorsen.html ''Church Reading: A Vital Ministry''] by Deacon Sergius Halvorsen (Orthodox)

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Minor orders]]
[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox liturgy]]
[[Category:Anglican liturgy]]
[[Category:Eastern Christian ecclesiastical offices]]
[[Category:Catholic ecclesiastical titles]]

Harrien County

2024-12-02T12:59:28Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Uyezd in Estonia Governorate, Russian Empire}}
{{Expand Estonian|date=August 2023|topic=hist}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Harrien County
| native_name = Ревельскій уѣздъ
| native_name_lang = ru
| settlement_type = [[Uezd]]
| image_shield = Coat_of_arms_of_Governorate_of_Estonia.svg
| image_map = Estlandia Governorate Revelsky uezd.svg
| mapsize = 225px
| map_caption = Location in the Governorate of Estonia
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[Russian Empire]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[List of governorates of the Russian Empire|Governorate]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Governorate of Estonia|Estonia]]
| established_title = Established
| established_date = 1745
| extinct_title = Abolished
| extinct_date = 1920
| seat_type = Capital
| seat = [[Tallinn|Reval]]
| area_total_km2 = 5713
| population_as_of = 1897
| population_total = 157,736
| population_density_km2 = auto
}}

'''Harrien County''' ({{langx|de|Kreis Harrien}} or {{lang|de|Kreis Reval}}, {{langx|et|Harju kreis}}, {{langx|ru|Ревельскій/Гарріенскій уѣздъ|Revelskiy/Garrienskiy uyezd}}) was one of the four [[counties of the Russian Empire|counties]] of the [[Governorate of Estonia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.runivers.ru/doc/territory/366461/|title=Эстляндская губерния|publisher=Руниверс|language=Russian|accessdate=22 December 2013}}</ref> It was situated in the central part of the governorate (in present-day northern [[Estonia]]). Its capital was ''Reval'' ([[Tallinn]]), which was the capital of the governorate as well. The territory of Harrien County corresponds to present-day [[Harju County]] and most parts of [[Rapla County]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mois.ee/harju/|title=Ajaloolise Harjumaa (Harrien) lühitutvustus|publisher=Estonian Manors|language=Estonian|accessdate=22 December 2013}}</ref>

==Demographics==
At the time of the [[Russian Empire Census]] of 1897, Harrien County had a population of 157,736. Of these, 82.9% spoke [[Estonian language|Estonian]], 7.3% [[German language|German]], 6.8% [[Russian language|Russian]], 0.7% [[Swedish language|Swedish]], 0.7% [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], 0.7% [[Polish language|Polish]], 0.2% [[Latvian language|Latvian]], 0.2% [[Finnish language|Finnish]], 0.1% [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] and 0.1% [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] as their native language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97_uezd.php?reg=1730|title=Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г. Распределение населения по родному языку и уездам 50 губерний Европейской России|publisher=Демоскоп Weekly|language=Russian|accessdate=22 December 2013}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Kreis Harrien}}

{{coord|59|20|N|24|42|E|type:city|display=title}}

[[Category:Kreis Harrien| ]]
[[Category:Uezds of Estland Governorate]]

{{Estonia-hist-stub}}

Wiek County

2024-12-02T12:58:50Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Uyezd in Estonia Governorate, Russian Empire}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Wiek County
| native_name = Гапсальскій уѣздъ
| native_name_lang = ru
| settlement_type = [[Uezd]]
| image_shield =
| image_map = Estlandia Governorate Gapsalsky uezd.svg
| mapsize = 225px
| map_caption = Location in the Governorate of Estonia
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[Russian Empire]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[List of governorates of the Russian Empire|Governorate]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Governorate of Estonia|Estonia]]
| established_title = Established
| established_date = 1745
| extinct_title = Abolished
| extinct_date = 1920
| seat_type = Capital
| seat = [[Haapsalu|Hapsal]]
| area_total_km2 = 4697.92
| population_as_of = 1897
| population_total = 82,077
| population_density_km2 = auto
}}

'''Wiek County''' ({{langx|de|Kreis Wiek}} or {{lang|de|Kreis Hapsal}}, {{langx|et|Lääne kreis}}, {{langx|ru|Гапсальскій/Викскій уѣздъ|Gapsalskiy/Vikskiy uyezd}}) was one of the four [[Uezd|counties of the Russian Empire]] located in the [[Governorate of Estonia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.runivers.ru/doc/territory/366461/|title=Эстляндская губерния|publisher=Руниверс|language=Russian|accessdate=22 December 2013}}</ref> It was situated in the western part of the governorate (in the northwestern part of present-day [[Estonia]]). Its capital was [[Haapsalu]] (''Hapsal''). The territory of Wiek County corresponds to present-day [[Lääne County|Lääne]] and [[Hiiu County|Hiiu]] counties, the westernmost part of [[Rapla County]], and a small part of [[Pärnu County]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mois.ee/laane/|title=Ajaloolise Läänemaa (Wiek) lühitutvustus|publisher=Estonian Manors|language=Estonian|accessdate=22 December 2013}}</ref>

==Demographics==
At the time of the [[Russian Empire Census]] of 1897, Wiek County had a population of 82,077. Of these, 92.2% spoke [[Estonian language|Estonian]], 5.6% [[Swedish language|Swedish]], 1.2% [[German language|German]], 0.6% [[Russian language|Russian]], 0.2% [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], and 0.1% [[Latvian language|Latvian]] as their native language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97_uezd.php?reg=1740|title=Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г. Распределение населения по родному языку и уездам 50 губерний Европейской России|publisher=Демоскоп Weekly|language=Russian|accessdate=22 December 2013}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord|59|00|N|24|00|E|type:city|display=title}}

[[Category:Kreis Wiek|Wiek]]
[[Category:Uezds of Estland Governorate]]

{{Estonia-hist-stub}}

Wierland County

2024-12-02T12:58:07Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Uyezd in Estonia Governorate, Russian Empire}}
{{expand Estonian|date=August 2023|topic=hist}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Wierland County
| native_name = Везенбергскій уѣздъ
| native_name_lang = ru
| settlement_type = [[Uezd]]
| image_shield =
| image_map = Estlandia Governorate Vezenbergsky uezd.svg
| mapsize = 225px
| map_caption = Location in the Governorate of Estonia
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[Russian Empire]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[List of governorates of the Russian Empire|Governorate]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Governorate of Estonia|Estonia]]
| established_title = Established
| established_date = 1745
| extinct_title = Abolished
| extinct_date = 1917
| seat_type = Capital
| seat = [[Rakvere|Wesenberg]]
| area_total_km2 = 6939.33
| population_as_of = 1897
| population_total = 120,230
| population_density_km2 = auto
}}

'''Wierland County''' ({{langx|de|Kreis Wierland}} or {{lang|de|Wierlandische Kreis}}, {{langx|et|Viru kreis}}, {{langx|ru|Vezenbergsky uyezd}}, {{langx|ru|Везенбергскій/Вирляндскій уѣздъ|Vesenbergskiy/Virlyandskiy uyezd}}) was one of the four [[counties of the Russian Empire]] located in the [[Governorate of Estonia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.runivers.ru/doc/territory/366461/|title=Эстляндская губерния|publisher=Руниверс|language=Russian|accessdate=22 December 2013}}</ref> It was situated in the eastern part of the governorate (in present-day northeastern [[Estonia]]). Its capital was [[Rakvere]] (''Wesenberg''). The territory of Wierland County corresponds to most parts of present-day [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru]] and [[Lääne-Viru County|Lääne-Viru]] counties and a small part of [[Jõgeva County]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mois.ee/viru/|title=Ajaloolise Virumaa (Wierland) lühitutvustus|publisher=Estonian Manors|language=Estonian|accessdate=22 December 2013}}</ref>

==Demographics==
At the time of the [[Russian Empire Census]] of 1897, Wierland County had a population of 120, 230. Of these, 90.3% spoke [[Estonian language|Estonian]], 7.2% [[Russian language|Russian]], 1.9% [[German language|German]], 0.1% [[Polish language|Polish]], 0.1% [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], 0.1% [[Latvian language|Latvian]] and 0.1% [[Finnish language|Finnish]] as their native language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97_uezd.php?reg=1734|title=Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г. Распределение населения по родному языку и уездам 50 губерний Европейской России|publisher=Демоскоп Weekly|language=Russian|accessdate=22 December 2013}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord|59|24|N|26|25|E|type:city|display=title}}

[[Category:Kreis Wierland|Wierland]]
[[Category:Uezds of Estland Governorate]]

{{Estonia-hist-stub}}

Jerwen County

2024-12-02T12:56:14Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Uyezd in Estonia Governorate, Russian Empire}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Jerwen County
| native_name = Вейсенштейнскій уѣздъ
| native_name_lang = ru
| settlement_type = [[Uezd]]
| image_shield =
| image_map = Estlandia Governorate Veysenshteynsky uezd.svg
| mapsize = 225px
| map_caption = Location in the Governorate of Estonia
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[Russian Empire]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[List of governorates of the Russian Empire|Governorate]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Governorate of Estonia|Estonia]]
| established_title = Established
| established_date = 1745
| extinct_title = Abolished
| extinct_date = 1920
| seat_type = Capital
| seat = [[Paide|Weissenstein]]
| area_total_km2 = 2871.21
| population_as_of = 1897
| population_total = 52,673
| population_density_km2 = auto
}}

'''Jerwen County''' ({{langx|de|Kreis Jerwen}} or {{lang|de|Kreis Weissenstein}}, {{langx|et|Järva kreis}} or {{lang|et|Paide kreis}}, {{langx|ru|Вейсенштейнскій/Еервенскій уѣздъ|Veysenshteynskiy/Yervenskiy uyezd}}) was one of the four [[counties of the Russian Empire]] located in the [[Governorate of Estonia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.runivers.ru/doc/territory/366461/|title=Эстляндская губерния|publisher=Руниверс|language=Russian|accessdate=22 December 2013}}</ref> It was situated in the central part of the governorate (in present-day northern [[Estonia]]). Its capital was [[Paide]] (''Weissenstein''). The territory of Jerwen County corresponds to most of present-day [[Järva County]] and small parts of [[Lääne-Viru County|Lääne-Viru]] and [[Rapla County|Rapla]] counties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mois.ee/jarva/|title=Ajaloolise Järvamaa (Jerwen) lühitutvustus|publisher=Estonian Manors|language=Estonian|accessdate=22 December 2013}}</ref>

==Demographics==
At the time of the [[Russian Empire Census]] of 1897, Jerwen County had a population of 52,673. Of these, 96.7% spoke [[Estonian language|Estonian]], 2.2% [[German language|German]], 0.8% [[Russian language|Russian]], 0.1% [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and 0.1% [[Latvian language|Latvian]] as their native language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97_uezd.php?reg=1737|title=Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г. Распределение населения по родному языку и уездам 50 губерний Европейской России|publisher=Демоскоп Weekly|language=Russian|accessdate=22 December 2013}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord|59|00|N|25|00|E|type:city|display=title}}

[[Category:Kreis Jerwen|Jerwen]]
[[Category:Uezds of Estland Governorate]]

{{Estonia-hist-stub}}

Tibial tuberosity advancement

2024-12-02T07:24:33Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Orthopedic procedure in dogs}}
'''Tibial tuberosity advancement''' (TTA) is an [[orthopedic procedure]] to repair deficient cranial cruciate [[ligament]]s in dogs. It has also been used in cats. This procedure was developed by Dr. Slobodan Tepic and Professor Pierre Montavon at the School of Veterinary Medicine, [[University of Zurich]], in [[Zurich]], [[Switzerland]] beginning in the late 1990s.

Dr. Slobodan Tepic later founded [https://www.kyon.ch KYON], a leading provider of veterinary orthopaedic implants, in 1999. Kyon became the first veterinary orthopedic implant company offering this procedure to veterinarians.

The [[cranial cruciate ligament]] (CrCL) in dogs, provides the same function as the [[anterior cruciate ligament]] in humans. It stabilizes the knee joint, called the [[stifle joint]] in quadrupeds, and limits the [[tibia]] from sliding forward in relation to the [[femur]]. It is attached to the cranial (anterior) medial side of the interdylar notch of the tibia at one end and the caudal (posterior) side of the lateral femoral condyle at the other end. It also helps to prevent the stifle (knee) joint from over-extending or rotating.

Trauma to the equivalent ligament in humans is common, and damage most frequently occurs during some form of sporting activity (including football, rugby and golf). The nature of the injury is very different in dogs. Rather than the ligament suddenly breaking due to excessive trauma, it usually degenerates slowly over time, rather like a fraying rope. This important difference is the primary reason why the treatment options recommended for cruciate ligament injury in dogs are so different from the treatment options recommended for humans.

In the vast majority of dogs, the cranial cruciate ligament (CrCL) ruptures as a result of long-term degeneration, whereby the fibres within the ligament weaken over time. The precise cause of this is not known, but genetic factors are probably most important, with certain breeds being predisposed (including Labradors, Rottweilers, Boxers, West Highland White Terriers and Newfoundlands). Supporting evidence for a genetic cause was primarily obtained by assessment of family lines, coupled with the knowledge that many animals will rupture the CrCL in both knees, often relatively early in life. Other factors such as obesity, individual conformation, hormonal imbalance and certain inflammatory conditions of the joint may also play a role. Uncorrected CrCL deficiencies have been associated with meniscal damage and degenerative joint diseases such as osteoarthritis.<ref>Johnson JM, and Johnson AL: Cranial Cruciate Ligament Rupture Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Post operative Rehabilitation. Vet Cl of N America: Small Animal Practice 23:4, July 1993</ref>

TTA is a surgical procedure designed to correct CrCL deficient stifles. The objective of the TTA is to advance the tibial tuberosity, which changes the angle of the patellar ligament to neutralize the tibiofemoral shear force during [[weight bearing]]. A microsaggital saw is used to cut the Tibial Tuberosity off then a special titanium cage is used to advance the tibial tuberosity. A titanium plate is used to hold the tibial tuberosity in position.<ref>Apelt D, Kowaleski MP, Boudrieau RJ: Effect of Tibial Tuberosity Advancement on Cranial Tibial Subluxation in Canine Cranial Cruciate-Deficient Stifle Joints: An In Vitro Experimental Study. Vet Surg 36:170-177, 2007</ref> By neutralizing the shear forces in the stifle caused by a ruptured or weakened CrCL, the joint becomes more stable without compromising joint congruency.

TTA appears to be a less invasive procedure than some other techniques for stabilizing the deficient cranial cruciate ligament such as [[TPLO]] ([[Tibial Plateau Leveling Osteotomy]]) and TWO ([[Tibial Wedge Osteotomy]]), as TTA does not disrupt the primary loading axis of the tibia.

Since KYON first developed the TTA procedure, they have pioneered a new less invasive version of the procedure known as [https://www.kyon.ch/products-solutions/tibial-tuberosity-advancement-2/ TTA-II]. This new TTA procedure delivers the same TTA outcomes with less trauma, fewer implants, a simplified technique and at a reduced cost.

Recently, [[TR BioSurgical]] has developed a bioscaffold to be used for veterinary osteotomies as a substitute for autologous cancellous bone grafting.<ref>Pullen CM, Kellerman JW, Woods CW: TR Matrix BioScaffold: A New Substitute for Autologous Bone
Graft in Tibial Tuberosity Advancement. Internal Report-Tr BioSurgical Clinical Trial; Dec. 2008</ref>

In 2012 TTA RAPID was introduced by the German manufacturer RITA LEIBINGER Medical GmbH & Co. KG in cooperation with the University of Ghent, Belgium. The TTA RAPID implant is a biocompatible sponge-construction which combines a wedge-cage with a plate on the top. In this way there is only one implant needed for the whole TTA surgery. It is called "rapid" because the implantation is very quick, easy to learn and offers a high stability.
The surgery is based on the Maquet-Hole-Technique.
<ref>http://www.tta-rapid.com, Official Website</ref>

==Alternative procedures==
* [[Tibial-plateau-leveling osteotomy]]
* [[Tightrope CCL]]
* [[Triple tibial osteotomy]]
* [[Simitri Stable in Stride]]
* [[Cranial tibial wedge osteotomy]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}
4. Boudrieau RJ: Tibial Plateau Leveling Osteotomy or Tibial Tuberosity Advancement? Vet Surg 38:1-22, 2009

5. Kim SE, Pozzi A, Banks SA, et al.: Effect of Tibial Tuberosity Advancement on Femorotibial Contact Mechanics and Stifle Kinematics. Vet Surg 38:33-39, 2009

==External links==
* [http://www.canineortho.com/index.php/acl-tear-treatment/tta How TTA Works (illustrations)]
* [http://jeffmayodvm.com/TTA.aspx Procedure Slideshow]
* [https://www.kyon.ch/products-solutions/tta_tibial-tuberosity-advancement/ KYON Tibial Tuberosity Advancement]
* [https://www.kyon.ch/products-solutions/tibial-tuberosity-advancement-2/ KYON TTA-II]
* [http://www.tta-rapid.com RITA LEIBINGER TTA RAPID Advancement]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tibial Tuberosity Advancement}}
[[Category:Veterinary procedures]]

Rosette (cookie)

2024-12-01T19:37:53Z

Amherst99:

{{Short description|Deep-fried pastry}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox food
| name = Rosette
| image = Rosettes.JPG
| image_size = 250px
| caption = Sugared rosettes from a bakery
| alternate_name =
| country =
| region =
| creator =
| course = [[Snack]], [[dessert]]
| type = [[Fritter]]
| served =
| main_ingredient = Batter (wheat flour, milk, sugar, salt, eggs)
| minor_ingredient =
| variations = [[Timbale (food)|Timbale]], [[Kembang goyang]]
}}

[[File:Rosettirauta_-_struvjärn_-_rosette_mould_01.jpg|thumb|250 px|Rosette irons]]
'''Rosettes''' are thin, [[cookie]]-like [[fritter]]s made with iron molds that are found in many cultures. They are crispy and characterized by their lacy pattern.

==Preparation==
The batter is a blend of wheat flour, eggs, sugar and whole milk. Rosette cookies are formed with a rosette iron. This specialized tool has a long handle and with a metal shape, commonly stars, flowers, snowflakes or Christmas trees.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081212214051/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/10-traditional-christmas-sweet-recipes/80326-19.html 10 Traditional Christmas Sweet Recipe] Retrieved 30 November 2013</ref><ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/good-ol-christmas/article4235107.ece Good ol’ Christmas] Retrieved 30 November 2013</ref> In Kerala, India, Rosette cookies known as [[Achappam]] are made using rice flour.

The metal is heated in hot oil before it is dipped in batter. Returning the iron to the oil, the batter is detached from the mold when it is partially cooked and gently flipped to finish cooking. They are usually topped with sugar or honey,<ref name=oxford/> or the edges of rosettes are dipped into frosting.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.thespruceeats.com/how-to-make-scandinavian-rosette-cookies-2952742 |title = How to Make Scandinavian Rosette Cookies|website= thespruceeats.com |author= Kari Diehl |date= January 26, 2019 |access-date=March 1, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.thatskinnychickcanbake.com/rosettes-sundaysupper-holidaycookieexchange/ |title = How to Make Rosettes Cookies|website= thatskinnychickcanbake |access-date=March 1, 2020}}</ref> The process was recorded in the 19th century [[Ottoman cuisine|Ottoman cookbook]] ''Aşçı başı''.

Swedish [[timbale (food)|timbale]] can be made with rosette batter using a timbale mold instead of an iron. These can be made with savory fillings like creamed chicken and mushrooms.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Delta Cook Book: A Collection of Tested Recipes, Recommended by Experienced Housekeepers |date=1917 |publisher=First Methodist Church Ladie's Aid Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GYoTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA24 |page=24}}</ref>

==Geographic distribution==
[[File:Achappam Rose Cookie Achu Murukku (2).jpg|thumb|[[Achappam]] rosette cookies from India]]
Versions of this cookie exist in places such as northern Europe, Iran, Turkey, and Sri Lanka.<ref name=oxford/>

This type of fritter exists in Nordic countries known as:
*Denmark: {{lang|da|rosetbakkelse}}
*Finland: {{lang|fi|rosetti}}{{fact|date=December 2022}}
*Norway: {{lang|no|rosettbakkels}}; {{lang|no|rosetter}}<ref name=oxford>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets |date=April 2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-931362-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPNgBwAAQBAJ}}</ref>
*Swedish: ''struvor''

Rosette recipes are popular in the United States among families with Scandinavian ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.tine.no/oppskrifter/kaker/vafler-og-smakaker/rosetter-rosettbakkelse|title = Rosetter (rosettbakkelse)
|website= tine.no |access-date=March 1, 2020}}</ref>

In [[Alentejo]] ([[Portuguese cuisine|Portugal]]), they are known as {{lang|pt|filhós de forma}} ({{literal translation|formed donuts}}) or {{lang|pt|filhós de floreta}} ({{literal translation|flower donuts}}) are popular at Christmas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Magalhães |first1=Márcio |title=Receitas de filhós tradicionais, ou filhoses de Natal. Uma delícia! |url=https://ncultura.pt/receitas-de-filhos-tradicionais-ou-filhoses/ |website=NCultura |access-date=6 November 2023 |language=pt-PT |date=12 November 2022}}</ref> The batter is flavored with [[port wine|port]] and [[orange juice]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fernandes |first1=Daniel |title=Filhós de Forma |url=https://tradicional.dgadr.gov.pt/pt/cat/doces-e-produtos-de-pastelaria/179-filhos-de-forma |website=Produtos Tradicionais Portugueses |publisher=Direção-Geral de Agricultura e Desenvolvimento Rural |access-date=6 November 2023 |language=pt}}</ref>

*Spain: {{lang|es|flores manchegas}} ({{literal translation|[[La Mancha]] flowers}})
*Mexico: {{lang|es|buñuelos de viento}} ({{literal translation|wind fritters}})<ref>{{cite web |last1=Flores |first1=Maricruz Avalos |title=Buñuelos de Viento (Mexican Rosette Fritters) |url=http://www.maricruzavalos.com/bunuelos-de-viento/ |website=M.A. Kitchen |access-date=6 November 2023 |date=4 November 2023}}</ref>

In the Middle East and western Asia:
*[[Afghan cuisine|Afghanistan]]: ''kulcha-e-panjerei'' ({{literal translation|window biscuits}})
*Iran: ''shirini panjerei'' (شیرینی پنجره‌ای)
*Turkey: ''demir tatlisi''
*[[Tunisian cuisine|Tunisia]]: ''chebbak el-janna''

They are typical of [[Anglo-Indian cuisine]] and a favourite among [[Christianity in India|Indian Christians]] during the [[Christmas and holiday season|Christmas season]] introduced by the Dutch in the 1600s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cherian |first1=Kaviya |title=The Rose Cookie Through the Lens of Colonialism |url=https://www.whetstonemagazine.com/journal/the-rose-cookie-through-the-lens-of-colonialism |website=Whetstone Magazine |access-date=6 November 2023 |date=18 August 2023}}</ref> They are called ''rose cookies'' or ''rose biscuits'' in Indian-English.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bear |first1=Laura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChDDThfsVFcC&dq=rose+biscuit+Anglo+Indian&pg=PA194 |title=Lines of the Nation: Indian Railway Workers, Bureaucracy, and the Intimate Historical Self |year=2007 |isbn=9780231140027}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Carsten |first1=Janet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-tVSKu7tlH8C&dq=rose+biscuit+Anglo+Indian&pg=PA41 |title=Ghosts of Memory: Essays on Remembrance and Relatedness |date=15 April 2008 |isbn=9780470691540}}</ref> In India, they are made from [[flour]], [[sugar]], [[Eggs as food|eggs]] and coconut milk:{{fact|date=December 2022}}
*Bangladesh: ''fuljhuri pitha'', ''fulkuchi pitha''
*[[Kerala]]: ''[[achappam]]''<ref>[http://Kerala.citizenmatters.in/articles/4762-jolly-holly-trails-spirit-of-christmas-in-Kerala/print Experiencing the true spirit of Xmas in Kerala] Retrieved 30 November 2013</ref>
*[[Malayalam]]: ''achappam''
*[[Odisha]]: ''mahughara khaja''
*Sri Lanka: ''[[kokis]]''<ref name="oxford" />
*[[Tamil language|Tamil]]: ''acchu murukku''
*[[Telugu language|Telugu]]: ''gulabi puvvulu''

In [[Cantonese cuisine|Cantonese]] they are known as {{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|tong wan}}. It was introduced to [[Cuisine of Hawaii|Hawaii]], where they are known as ''Chinese pretzels''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Yum Yum Cha: Let’s Eat Dim Sum in Hawaii – Staradvertiser |url=https://staradvertiser.mutualpublishing.com/product/yum-yum-cha/ |website=Honolulu Star-Advertiser |access-date=6 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Miura |first1=Muriel |last2=Tom |first2=Lynette Lo |title=Yum Yum Cha: Let’s Eat Dim Sum in Hawaii |date=2021 |publisher=Honolulu Star-Advertiser |location=Honolulu |isbn=978-1-949307-29-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Linn |first1=Nancy |title=CHINESE PRETZELS (TONG WAN) |url=https://www.hawaii.edu/recipes/snack/chinpretz.html |website=www.hawaii.edu |access-date=6 November 2023}}</ref> In Malaysia, they are known as ''kuih Loyang''.<ref>[http://www.nagpurtoday.in/a-rosy-sweet-for-christmas-rose-cookies-by-esme-stephens/ A rosy sweet for Christmas "Rose Cookies" by Esme Stephens] Retrieved 30 November 2013</ref>

==See also==
{{Commons category-inline|Rosettes (food)}}
{{Portal|Food}}
* [[List of fried dough foods]]
* [[List of Christmas dishes]]
* [[Christmas cookie]]
* [[Norwegian cuisine]]
* [[Swedish cuisine]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Related reading==
* Astrid Karlsen Scott (2000) ''Authentic Norwegian Cooking'' (Nordic Adventures). {{ISBN|978-0963433978}}.
* Jan Hedh (2012) ''Swedish Cookies, Tarts, and Pies'' (Skyhorse). {{ISBN|978-1616088262}}.

{{Doughnut}}
{{Pastries}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rosette (Cookie)}}
[[Category:Christmas food]]
[[Category:Fritters]]
[[Category:Norwegian desserts]]
[[Category:Swedish desserts]]
[[Category:Turkish desserts]]
[[Category:Afghan desserts]]
[[Category:Tunisian cuisine]]
[[Category:Portuguese desserts]]
[[Category:Hawaiian desserts]]

Saffranspannkaka

2024-12-01T19:27:26Z

Amherst99:

{{Infobox food|name=|image=Saffron pancake with dewberry.jpg|image_size=|image_alt=|caption=''Saffranspannkaka'' with dewberry jam and whipped cream.|alternate_name={{plainlist|
* saffron pancake
* ''gotlandspannkaka''
* Gotland pancake
}}
|type=|course=Dessert|country=[[Sweden]]|region=[[Gotland]]|national_cuisine=|year=Circa 19th century|mintime=20|maxtime=75|served=Lukewarm or cold|main_ingredient={{plainlist|
* [[Rice pudding]]
* [[Cream]]
* [[Milk]]
* [[Sugar]]
* [[Egg as food|Egg]]
* [[Saffron]]
}}|minor_ingredient={{plainlist|
* [[Almond]]
* [[Rubus caesius|Dewberry]] jam
* [[Whipped cream]]
}}|variations=|serving_size=100 g|calories=390|calories_ref=[https://www.arla.se/recept/saffranspannkaka-fran-ljugarn/ Arla.se]|protein=8|fat=29|carbohydrate=25|similar_dish=|cookbook=|other=Store-bought [[rice pudding]] is commonly used, as it shortens the cooking time considerably.}}'''Saffranspannkaka''' or '''gotlandspannkaka''' ''([[English language|English]]: '''saffron pancake''' or '''Gotland pancake''', [[Gutnish]]: '''saffranspannkake''' or '''saffranspannkakå''')'' is a dessert from the island of [[Gotland]], [[Sweden]], and is considered one of their provincial dishes.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://sverigesradio.se/sida/gruppsida.aspx?programid=260&grupp=18763&artikel=3483433|title=Saffranspannkaka är Gotlands landskapsrätt|last1=Lundberg|first1=Tommy|last2=Shadura|first2=Olga|date=3 March 2010|newspaper=Sveriges Radio|publisher=Sveriges Radio P4 Gotland|language=sv|trans-title=Saffron pancake is Gotland's provincial dish|publication-place=Visby|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819144709/https://sverigesradio.se/sida/gruppsida.aspx?programid=260&grupp=18763&artikel=3483433|archive-date=19 August 2019|url-status=live|access-date=19 August 2019}}</ref> It is made of [[rice pudding]], [[cream]], [[milk]], [[sugar]], [[Egg as food|egg]], chopped [[almond]]s, and [[saffron]] mixed together and baked. The cake can be eaten lukewarm or cold and is traditionally served with [[Rubus caesius|dewberry jam]] and whipped cream.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.mat.se/recept/gotlandsk-saffranspannkaka-1|title=Gotländsk saffranspannkaka|website=Mat.se|language=sv|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819100935/https://www.mat.se/recept/gotlandsk-saffranspannkaka-1|archive-date=19 August 2019|url-status=live|access-date=19 August 2019}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.culinary-heritage.com/region.asp?sprakid=1&regionid=27|title=Gotland - en fantastisk ö för matupplevelser|date=2013|website=Culinary Heritage|language=sv|trans-title=Gotland - a fantastic island for dining experience|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819143533/https://www.culinary-heritage.com/region.asp?sprakid=1&regionid=27|archive-date=19 August 2019|url-status=live|access-date=19 August 2019}}</ref>

== History ==
The concept of a saffron pancake has its roots in [[medieval cuisine]], when wealthy households served flavored and coloured rice puddings. Gotland's status as part of the [[Hanseatic League]] provided geographical and financial access to exotic spices.<ref name=":1" /> The particular combination of rice-almond-saffron-sugar made the dish very exclusive, compared to the [[Saffron bun|saffron bread]] that has been known since the 16th century.

[[Pancake#Sweden and Norway|Oven pancakes]], which were mostly served during feasts, have been made on Gotland since the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mat och måltidsseder på Gotland|last=Genrup|first=Kurt|publisher=Guteböcker Press|year=1992|location=Visby|page=68|language=sv|trans-title=Food and meal customs on Gotland}}</ref> They are turned into feast food with the addition of fine flour and eggs. During the 19th century, it became common not only to add sugar to the pancakes, but also [[saffron]] and [[raisin]]s. Today's ''saffranspannkaka'', made with rice pudding that is then baked in an oven, belongs to the class of [[pudding]] desserts that became common during the 19th century when the wood stove made cooking easier.

The ''saffranspannkaka'' is associated with [[Christmas in Sweden|Christmas]], as it is sometimes made with the leftover Christmas pudding, but during the 19th and 20th century it was also served during [[Anniversary|anniversaries]], [[wedding]]s, and [[funeral]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gotländska mattraditioner: seder och bruk i helg och vardag|last=Lingegård|first=Ingeborg|publisher=LT|year=1978|isbn=9136010731|location=Stockholm|page=92|language=sv|trans-title=Gotlandian food traditions: customs and practice on holidays and weekdays}}</ref> The [[Fruit preserves|jams]] eaten with the pancake are also a fashion from the 19th century, when sugar became cheaper. It is today unknown if the ''saffranspannkaka'' was created on Gotland, or if someone brought it to the island.[[File:Saffranspannkaka.jpg|thumb]]
During the latter half of the 20th century, the ''saffranspannkaka'' have become a well-known [[Tourism in Sweden|tourism]] symbol for [[Gotland]] and is often served at summer-open [[Restaurant|tourism restaurants]] and in other contexts where the local island food is highlighted. It has also been named Gotland's provincial dish.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gotland.net/sv/ata/arkiv/saffranspannkaka|title=Saffranspannkaka|date=22 July 2008|website=Gotland.net|language=sv|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819150647/https://www.gotland.net/sv/ata/arkiv/saffranspannkaka|archive-date=19 August 2019|url-status=live|access-date=19 August 2019}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Swedish desserts]]
[[Category:Pancakes]]
[[Category:Rice pudding]]
[[Category:Saffron]]
[[Category:Fruit desserts]]