Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

RPCS3

2024-10-20T00:36:10Z

Asyncadr: /* Requirements */ Fixed link to RPCS3 quick start guide

{{Short description|Emulator for PlayStation 3 software}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox software
| title = RPCS3
| name = RPCS3
| logo = [[File:RPCS3 vector logo.svg|frameless|class=skin-invert]]
| screenshot = This is a screenshot capture of RPCS3 running in Windows 10.png
| caption = RPCS3 running on [[Windows 11]]
| collapsible =
| author = DH, Hykem, AlexAlta
| developer = (RPCS3 TEAM) Nekotekina, kd-11, elad335, jarveson, Megamouse, hcorion, scribam, ruipin, isJuhn, Galciv, Numan<ref>{{cite web|url=https://github.com/RPCS3/rpcs3/graphs/contributors|title=Contributors to RPCS3/rpcs3|publisher=[[GitHub]]}}</ref>
| released = {{Start date and age|2011|05|23}}
| discontinued = No
| latest release version = None
| latest preview version = v0.0.32-16834 Alpha
| latest preview date = {{Start date and age|2024|08|16}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Downloads|url=https://rpcs3.net/download|website=rpcs3.net|access-date=13 April 2023}}</ref>
| repo = {{URL|https://github.com/rpcs3/rpcs3/}}
| programming language = [[C++]], [[GLSL]] and [[C (programming language)|C]]
| operating system = [[Windows]], [[macOS]], [[Linux]], [[FreeBSD]]
| platform = [[x86-64]], [[ARM64]]
| language = English
| genre = [[Video game console emulator]]
| license = [[GNU General Public License]] version 2.0
| website = {{URL|https://rpcs3.net/}}
}}

'''RPCS3''' is a [[free and open-source]] [[video game console emulator|emulator]] and [[debugger]] for the [[Sony PlayStation 3]] that runs on [[Windows]], [[Linux]], [[FreeBSD]] and [[macOS]] operating systems, allowing PlayStation 3 games and software to be played and debugged on a [[personal computer]]. It is being developed in the [[C++ programming language]] targeting [[x86-64]] and [[AArch64|ARM64]]{{efn|For macOS devices.}} [[CPU|CPUs]] featuring [[OpenGL]] and [[Vulkan]] as backend renderers.

As of August 2024, nearly 70% of PlayStation 3 games have been classified as "playable", meaning that a significant portion of the native library can be played from start to finish without any major problems.<ref>{{Cite web |last=wololo |date=2024-08-05 |title=RPCS3 (PS3 Emulator) 0.0.32 gets improved CPU detection + countless improvements |url=https://wololo.net/2024/08/05/rpcs3-ps3-emulator-0-0-32-gets-improved-cpu-detection-countless-improvements/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240822130737/https://wololo.net/2024/08/05/rpcs3-ps3-emulator-0-0-32-gets-improved-cpu-detection-countless-improvements/ |archive-date=2024-08-22 |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Wololo.net |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Development==
Despite the general idea that the complexity of the PlayStation 3's [[PlayStation 3 technical specifications|Cell architecture]] would prevent it from being emulated,<ref>{{cite web |last=Usher |first=William |date=2014-03-08 |title=PS3 Emulator Can Now Run Commercial Games |url=https://www.cinemablend.com/games/PS3-Emulator-Can-Now-Run-Commercial-Games-62686.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313053021/https://www.cinemablend.com/games/PS3-Emulator-Can-Now-Run-Commercial-Games-62686.html |archive-date=2014-03-13 |access-date=2017-03-03 |website=[[CinemaBlend]]}}</ref> RPCS3 released on May 23, 2011, by programmers DH and Hykem as a working emulator.<ref>{{cite web |date=2011-05-23 |title=rpcs3 r1 Google Code |url=https://code.google.com/p/rpcs3/source/detail?r=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314021939/https://code.google.com/p/rpcs3/source/detail?r=1 |archive-date=2014-03-14 |via=[[Google Code]]}}</ref> The developers initially hosted the project on [[Google Developers#Google Code|Google Code]] and eventually moved it to [[GitHub]] on August 27, 2013. The emulator was first able to successfully run simple [[Homebrew (video games)|homebrew]] projects in September 2011<ref>{{cite web |date=2011-05-23 |title=rpcs3 r28 on Google Code |url=https://code.google.com/p/rpcs3/source/detail?r=28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820004504/https://code.google.com/p/rpcs3/source/detail?r=28 |archive-date=2012-08-20 |via=[[Google Code]]}}</ref> and got its first public release in June 2012 as v0.0.0.2.<ref>{{cite web |date=2012-06-01 |title=rpcs3 tag 0.0.0.2 |url=https://code.google.com/p/rpcs3/downloads/list |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106221557/http://code.google.com/p/rpcs3/downloads/list |archive-date=2013-01-06 |via=[[Google Code]]}}</ref>

On February 9, 2017, RPCS3 received its first implementation of a [[Power Processing Element|PPE]] [[Thread (computing)|thread]] [[Scheduling (computing)|scheduler]], enhancing its emulation of the many-core Cell microprocessor.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://github.com/RPCS3/rpcs3/pull/2349 |title=Pull request #2349 - [WIP] PPU scheduler |access-date=2017-03-03 |via=GitHub}}</ref> On February 16, 2017, RPCS3 gained the ability to install official PlayStation 3 firmware directly to its core file system.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://github.com/RPCS3/rpcs3/commit/458dbbd15d57ae6df928774d4dd83317635482e3 |title=PS3UPDAT.PUP installer (#2386) · RPCS3/rpcs3@458dbbd |access-date=2017-03-03 |via=GitHub}}</ref> In May 2017, it was reported that the implementation of the Vulkan graphics API had shown some performance improvements approaching 400%, pushing several games into "playable" status.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eteknix.com/rpcs3-vulkan-api/|title=RPCS3 Gets Performance Boost with Vulkan API|last=Donnell|first=Peter|date=2017-05-22|website=Eteknix|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122004353/https://www.eteknix.com/rpcs3-vulkan-api/|archive-date=2019-01-22|url-status=live}}</ref>

In July 2022, the developers of RPCS3 implemented [[save state]]s into the emulator. This feature had previously been considered infeasible due to technical limitations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bailey |first=Dustin |date=2022-08-04 |title=PS3 emulator RPCS3 finally adds save states |url=https://www.gamesradar.com/ps3-emulator-rpcs3-finally-adds-save-states/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=[[GamesRadar]] |language=en}}</ref>

In September 2024, a build of RPCS3 native to the [[AArch64|ARM64]] CPU architecture for macOS devices with [[Apple silicon]] [[System on a chip|system-on-chip]] was released on GitHub.<ref>{{Citation |title=RPCS3/rpcs3-binaries-mac-arm64 |date=2024-09-25 |url=https://github.com/RPCS3/rpcs3-binaries-mac-arm64 |access-date=2024-09-25 |publisher=RPCS3}}</ref>

==Requirements==
As of late 2024, the OS requirements are:
* '''Windows:''' 10 or later.
* '''macOS:''' Monterey (12.0) or later.
* '''Linux''': 5.4 or later.
* '''FreeBSD''': 13.3 or later.

Prior to this, the requirements for Mac and PC were lower at [[Mac OS 11|macOS 11.6]] or later and [[Windows 7]] or later, respectively. The PC must have at least 4 GB of [[RAM]], 8 GB recommended, an [[x86-64]] [[Central processing unit|CPU]] and a [[Graphics processing unit|GPU]] supporting one of the supported graphics APIs: [[OpenGL]] 4.3 or greater, or [[Vulkan]], the latter being recommended. Additional support for [[Single instruction, multiple data|SIMD]] CPU instruction sets such as [[Advanced Vector Extensions#Advanced Vector Extensions 2|AVX-2]] and [[AVX-512]] is also recommended for best performance. Apart from the game itself to be run, the emulator requires the PlayStation 3's [[firmware]], which can be downloaded from Sony's official website.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=Quickstart |url=https://rpcs3.net/quickstart |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=RPCS3 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Legal challenges==
RPCS3 received significant media attention in April 2017 for its ability to emulate ''[[Persona 5]]'', achieving playability prior to the game's Western release date.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pcgamer.com/persona-5-is-playable-on-pc-with-this-ps3-emulator/|title=Persona 5 is playable on PC with this PS3 emulator|last=Prescott|first=Shaun|date=2017-04-03|website=[[PC Gamer]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621050912/https://www.pcgamer.com/persona-5-is-playable-on-pc-with-this-ps3-emulator/|archive-date=2017-06-21|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Plunkett |first=Luke |date=2017-04-04 |title=Here's Persona 5 'Running' On A PC |url=https://kotaku.com/heres-persona-5-running-on-a-pc-1794012308 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623141254/https://kotaku.com/heres-persona-5-running-on-a-pc-1794012308 |archive-date=2018-06-23 |website=[[Kotaku]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://heavy.com/games/2017/04/persona-5-pc-emulation-rpcs3-ps4-ps3/|title='Persona 5' Running on PC Emulation|last=Becht|first=Eli|date=2017-04-05|website=[[Heavy.com]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319223056/https://heavy.com/games/2017/04/persona-5-pc-emulation-rpcs3-ps4-ps3/|archive-date=2018-03-19|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://venturebeat.com/2017/04/03/persona-5-is-up-and-running-on-one-of-the-pcs-playstation-3-emulators/|title=Persona 5 is up and running on one of the PC's PlayStation 3 emulators|last=Grubb|first=Jeff|date=2017-04-03|website=[[VentureBeat]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623085057/https://venturebeat.com/2017/04/03/persona-5-is-up-and-running-on-one-of-the-pcs-playstation-3-emulators/|archive-date=2018-06-23|url-status=live}}</ref> In September 2017, ''[[Persona (video game)|Persona]]'' developer [[Atlus]] issued a [[DMCA takedown]] notice against RPCS3's [[Patreon]] page. The action was motivated by the Patreon page making frequent mentions on the emulator's progress on emulating ''Persona 5''. The demand, however, was settled by only removing all ''Persona 5'' references from the page.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.engadget.com/2017/09/27/atlus-ps3-emulator-takedown/|title=Atlus tried to take down a PS3 emulator advertising 'Persona 5'|last=Moon|first=Mariella|date=2017-09-27|website=[[Engadget]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929122423/https://www.engadget.com/2017/09/27/atlus-ps3-emulator-takedown/|archive-date=2017-09-29|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2017/09/atlus-wants-to-cut-off-a-ps3-emulator-because-it-runs-persona-5/|title=Atlus wants to cut off a PS3 emulator because it runs Persona 5|last=Orland|first=Kyle|date=2017-09-27|website=[[ArsTechnica]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930005120/https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2017/09/atlus-wants-to-cut-off-a-ps3-emulator-because-it-runs-persona-5/|archive-date=2017-09-30|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Video games|Free and open-source software}}
* [[PCSX2]], a [[PlayStation 2]] emulator.
* [[Dolphin (emulator)]], a [[GameCube]] and [[Wii]] emulator.
* [[Cemu]], the first [[Wii U]] emulator
* [[Citra (emulator)|Citra]], the first [[Nintendo 3DS]] emulator
* [[List of video game emulators]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==External links==
* {{official website|rpcs3.net}}
* [https://rpcs3.net/compatibility Game compatibility list]

{{Sony emulators}}

[[Category:2011 software]]
[[Category:Cross-platform software]]
[[Category:Free video game console emulators]]
[[Category:Free software programmed in C++]]
[[Category:Free software projects]]
[[Category:Linux emulation software]]
[[Category:Software that uses Qt]]
[[Category:Sony emulators]]
[[Category:Windows emulation software]]

Seersucker Thursday

2024-08-29T02:40:06Z

Asyncadr: Fixed link to senate history website

{{Short description|Tradition of wearing seersucker suits in the United States Senate}}
[[File:Seersucker Day 2023.png|thumb|Members of the [[United States Senate]] on Seersucker Day 2023]]
[[File:Seersucker Thursday 2006 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Seersucker Thursday, 2006]]
'''Seersucker Thursday''' is an annual tradition in the [[United States]] [[United States Congress|Congress]] in which [[United States Senate|senators]] wear clothing made of [[seersucker]] on National Seersucker Day, traditionally observed on a {{"'}}nice and warm day' in the second or third week of June'".<ref name="senate">[https://www.senate.gov/about/traditions-symbols/seersucker-thursday.htm Seersucker Thursday]. US Senate. Accessed July 17, 2009.</ref> This light, cotton-based material is associated with the warm and humid climate of the [[Southern United States]].

Seersucker Thursday was initiated by [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] Senator [[Trent Lott]] of [[Mississippi]] in 1996 who wanted to "bring a little Southern charm to the Capitol" to remind the Senate of how senators dressed before the advent of [[air conditioning]] in the 1950s.<ref name="usnews">{{cite news | last = Bedard | first = Paul | title = Suckers for Seersucker | publisher = U.S. News & World Report | date = July 13, 2009 | url = https://www.usnews.com/blogs/washington-whispers/2007/06/13/suckers-for-seersucker.html | accessdate = July 17, 2009}}</ref> The practice was temporarily suspended in 2012 amid congressional gridlock but began again in 2015.<ref>{{cite news |title=Cotton-suit up! (It's Seersucker Thursday.) |url=https://www.politico.com/gallery/2015/06/cotton-suit-up-its-seersucker-thursday-208664?slide=0 |work=Politico |date=June 11, 2015 |language=en}}</ref>

While National Seersucker Thursday occurs only once per year, it is not uncommon to see congressional staffers don seersucker suits on Thursdays throughout the summer.

==History of the seersucker suit==
{{main|Seersucker}}

[[Image:Seersucker jacket.jpg|thumb|right|A blue and white seersucker jacket]]
Seersucker weave was introduced to the American South probably through [[British colonial]] trade, sometime in the second half of the 19th century. The cotton weave, which originated in western India, became a signature look of the United States in the early 20th century because its light weight and pre-rumpled surface made it ideal for the intense humidity of summer.<ref name="abcnews">{{cite news | last = Jaffe | first = Matthew | title = Seersucker-Suited Senators Dress for Success | work=ABC News | date = June 21, 2007 | url = https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/Story?id=3302753 | accessdate = July 17, 2009}}</ref> [[Joseph Haspel]], a New Orleans haberdasher, is credited with inventing the seersucker business suit.

The wearing of seersucker suits declined with the advent of [[air conditioning]]. By the 1950s, air conditioning reached the Capitol, ending the necessity of seersucker suits there.<ref name="senate" />

[[Gregory Peck]] famously wore a seersucker suit in the movie ''[[To Kill a Mockingbird (film)|To Kill a Mockingbird]]'', creating a cliché of how small town Southern lawyers dressed invoked by later actors such as [[Andy Griffith]].

==History of Seersucker Thursday==
In 1996<ref name="usnews" /> Senator Trent Lott declared the first National Seersucker Day to be on a Thursday that June. His goal was to show that "the Senate isn't just a bunch of dour folks wearing dark suits and — in the case of men — red or blue ties".<ref name="senate" /> In 2004, Senator [[Dianne Feinstein]] decided to increase participation by encouraging women senators to follow the tradition. The following year 11 of the 14 women senators appeared on Seersucker Thursday in outfits received as gifts from Feinstein.<ref name="senate" />

In 2012, Seersucker Thursday was cancelled at the last moment by Senate leaders concerned how they might appear in the face of ongoing congressional debates which would eventually culminate in the [[2013 United States federal government shutdown]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=McDevitt |first1=Caitlin |title=Seersucker Thursday discontinued |url=https://www.politico.com/blogs/click/2012/06/seersucker-thursday-discontinued-127432 |work=Politico |date=June 27, 2012 |language=en}}</ref> National Seersucker Day remained cancelled until May 27, 2015 when Senator [[Bill Cassidy]] successfully advocated for the return of Seersucker Thursday, appearances notwithstanding. Cassidy remarked, "This uniquely American fashion has a storied history dating back to 1909 ... [[Joseph Haspel|Mr. Haspel]] said it best, 'hot is hot, no matter what you do for a living.{{'"}}<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lesniewski |first1=Niels |title=Senate Seersucker Thursday Returns June 11 |url=http://hoh.rollcall.com/seersucker-day-senate-june-11/ |work=Roll Call |date=May 27, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528183739/http://hoh.rollcall.com/seersucker-day-senate-june-11/ |archive-date=May 28, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Fashion-related occasions]]
[[Category:United States Senate]]
[[Category:June observances]]
[[Category:1996 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:Holidays and observances by scheduling (nth weekday of the month)]]
[[Category:Thursday]]

Moss Landing, California

2024-06-15T18:57:40Z

Asyncadr:

{{Short description|Census designated place in United States}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Moss Landing, California
|settlement_type = [[Census designated place]]
|image_skyline = Moss Landing California aerial view.jpg
|imagesize = 250px
|image_caption = Aerial view
|image_seal =
|image_map = Monterey_County_California_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Moss_Landing_Highlighted.svg
|mapsize = 250x200px
|map_caption = Location in [[Monterey County, California|Monterey County]] and the state of [[California]]
|image_map1 =
|mapsize1 =
|map_caption1 =
|pushpin_map = USA
|pushpin_label = Moss Landing
|pushpin_map_caption = Location in the United States
|pushpin_relief = 1
|subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
|subdivision_name = {{US}}
|subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = {{flag|California}}
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in California|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Monterey County, California|Monterey]]
|government_type =
|leader_title = N/A
|leader_name =
|leader_title1 = [[California's 17th State Senate district|State senator]]
|leader_name1 = {{Representative|casd|17|fmt=sleader}}<ref name=swd>{{Cite web
| url = http://statewidedatabase.org/gis/gis2011/index_2011.html
| title = Statewide Database
| publisher = UC Regents
| access-date = November 29, 2014
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150201113744/http://statewidedatabase.org/gis/gis2011/index_2011.html
| archive-date = February 1, 2015
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>
|leader_title2 = [[California's 29th State Assembly district|Assemblymember]]
|leader_name2 = {{Representative|caad|29|fmt=sleader}}<ref name=swd/>
|leader_title3 = [[California's 19th congressional district|U.S. Rep.]]
|leader_name3 = {{Representative|cacd|19|fmt=usleader}}<ref name="gt20">{{Cite GovTrack|CA|19|access-date=Jun 15, 2024}}</ref>
|established_date =

| unit_pref = US
| area_footnotes = <ref name="CenPopGazetteer2022">{{cite web |title=2022 U.S. Gazetteer Files: California |url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2022_Gazetteer/2022_gaz_place_06.txt |publisher=United States Census Bureau |accessdate=November 21, 2022}}</ref>
| area_total_sq_mi = 0.602
| area_land_sq_mi = 0.392
| area_water_sq_mi = 0.210
| area_total_km2 =
| area_land_km2 =
| area_water_km2 =
| area_water_percent = 34.88
| area_note =

|elevation_ft = 10
|elevation_m = 3
|population_as_of = [[2020 United States census|2020]]
|population_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2020">{{Cite web| url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=&g=1600000US0649488&tid=DECENNIALPL2020.P1| title=P1. Race – Moss Landing CDP, California: 2020 DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171)| publisher=U.S. Census Bureau| access-date=November 21, 2022}}</ref>
|population_total = 237
|population_metro =
|population_density_km2 =
|population_density_sq_mi = 604.6
|timezone = [[Pacific Time Zone|Pacific]]
|utc_offset = -8
|coordinates = {{coord|36|48|16|N|121|47|13|W|region:US-CA|display=inline,title}}
|elevation_footnotes = <ref name=gnis>{{gnis|1659184}}</ref>
|timezone_DST = [[Pacific Daylight Time|PDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -7
|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
|postal_code = 95039
|area_code_type = [[North American Numbering Plan|Area code]]
|area_code = [[Area code 831|831]]
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS]] code
|blank_info = {{FIPS|06|49488}}
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature IDs
|blank1_info = {{GNIS 4|1659184}}, {{GNIS 4|2408874}}
|footnotes =
|website =
}}
'''Moss Landing''', formerly '''Moss''',<ref name=CGN>{{California's Geographic Names|927}}</ref> is an [[unincorporated community]] and [[census-designated place]] (CDP) in [[Monterey County, California|Monterey County]], [[California]], United States.<ref name=gnis /> It is located {{convert|18|mi}} north-northeast of [[Monterey, California|Monterey]], at an elevation of {{convert|10|ft|3}}.<ref name=gnis /> It is on the shore of [[Monterey Bay]], at the mouth of [[Elkhorn Slough]] and at the head of the [[Submarine canyon|submarine]] [[Monterey Canyon]].

==History==
The earliest residents of the Moss Landing/Elkhorn Slough area were the [[Ohlone]] people. Evidence from archaeological digs show that they may have lived here as long ago as 4,000 years. The Spanish forced the Ohlone into the [[Spanish missions in California|mission]] system in the 1700s from which few survived. "A total of 81,000 Indians were baptized and 60,000 deaths were recorded."<ref name="Bean 1994">{{cite book|last=Bean|first=John|title=The Ohlone Past and Present: Native Americans of the San Francisco Bay Region|url=https://archive.org/details/ohlonepastpresen00bean|url-access=registration|date=1994|publisher=Bellena|location=Menlo Park}}</ref> After the mission system was [[Mexican secularization act of 1833|secularized]], the Spanish government granted vast [[Ranchos of California|ranchos]] to soldiers and others with connections, including the {{convert|30901|acre|km2|adj=on}} [[Rancho Bolsa Nueva y Moro Cojo]]. This grant extended from Moss Landing to present-day [[Prunedale, California|Prunedale]] and south to [[Castroville, California|Castroville]].<ref>[http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/hb2199n6tz/?&brand=oac Diseño del Rancho Bolsa Nueva y Moro Cojo]</ref><ref>{{gnis|id = 219617|name = Rancho Bolsa Nueva y Moro Cojo}}</ref>

They farmed the land and ran cattle over the nearby hills. Americans arrived in the mid-1800s and farmers turned the area into cropland.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}

In the early 1860s Charles Moss, a Texas ship captain, established with the help of a partner a landing and wharf to handle the emerging [[grain trade]] in the [[Salinas Valley]].<ref name=nrhp/><ref name=hermit>{{Cite web |url=https://www.folksinging.org/the-hermit-of-the-little-sur/ |title=The Hermit of the Little Sur {{pipe}} Adam Miller - Folksinger and Storyteller |date=December 30, 2021}}</ref>

[[Posts, California|William B. Post]] earned a reputation as a skilled bear and deer hunter in the [[Big Sur]] region, and he traded in hides and buckskin. This work drew him north to Moss Landing. Post opened one of the first grain warehouses along the coast at Moss Landing. Flat bottom boats brought grain from all over the Salinas Valley to [[Elkhorn Slough]] and unloaded at Post's warehouse. W.B. became an agent for the steamship company of [[Pacific Steamship Company|Goodall, Nelson and Perkins]]. The success of the shipping point stimulated the growth of Castroville, one of Monterey County's first municipalities, which served to support Moss Landing commerce.<ref name=nrhp>{{cite web |last=Seavey |first=Kent L. |title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory—Nomination Form: Joseph W. Post House |date=August 14, 1985 |url={{NRHP url|id=85002196}}}}</ref>

The location was initially named "Moss", after Charles Moss.<ref name=CGN /> The Moss post office opened in 1895 and in 1917 changed its name to "Moss Landing".<ref name=CGN /><ref name=Monterey>{{cite news |first=Kera |last=Abraham |url=http://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/cover/moss-landing-s-development-diversity-makes-it-an-economic-survivor/article_abc4f88b-b6a9-562c-9ff2-5c3c71c855ae.html |title=Moss Landing's development diversity makes it an economic survivor |newspaper=Monterey County Weekly |date=October 13, 2011}}</ref> It became a busy whaling and fishing port and a location for fish processing plants and canneries. The Moss Landing Harbor District, established in the 1940s, dredged channels and built piers. The [[Moss Landing Power Plant]] opened in 1950. The [[California State University]] system founded [[Moss Landing Marine Laboratories]] in 1966 (it was rebuilt nearby after the [[Loma Prieta Earthquake]] destroyed the facility in 1989), and in the mid-1990s the [[Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute]] was moved to Moss Landing from [[Pacific Grove, California|Pacific Grove]]. In the 1980s, then-Monterey County Supervisor Marc Del Piero secured millions of dollars in federal grants to cure historic and chronic water pollution issues and sanitary sewers were installed.<ref name=Monterey/>

==Geography==
Moss Landing is located in northern Monterey County, where [[Elkhorn Slough]] becomes an estuary as it flows into [[Monterey Bay]] at the head of the [[Monterey Submarine Canyon]].<ref name=Monterey/> [[California State Route 1]] follows the eastern edge of the community, leading north {{convert|8|mi|0}} to [[Watsonville, California|Watsonville]] and southwest {{convert|18|mi}} to [[Monterey, California|Monterey]].

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the CDP has a total area of {{convert|0.6|sqmi|1}}, of which {{convert|0.4|sqmi|1}} are land and {{convert|0.2|sqmi|1}}, or 34.88%, are water.<ref name="CenPopGazetteer2022"/>

===Climate===
This region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F. According to the [[Köppen Climate Classification]] system, Moss Landing has a [[Mediterranean climate#Warm-summer Mediterranean climate|warm-summer Mediterranean climate]], abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps.<ref>[http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather-summary.php3?s=866740&cityname=Moss+Landing%2C+California%2C+United+States+of+America&units= Climate Summary for Moss Landing, California]</ref>

==Demographics==
[[File:CALIFORNIA-MOSS LANDING - NARA - 543160.jpg|thumb|right|Moss Landing, 1972]]
[[File:CALIFORNIA-MOSS LANDING - NARA - 543210.jpg|thumb|right|Moss Landing, 1972]]

===2010===
The [[2010 United States Census]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl=06:0649488|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140715031831/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl=06:0649488|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 15, 2014|title=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA - Moss Landing CDP|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|access-date=July 12, 2014}}</ref> reported that Moss Landing had a population of 204. The population density was {{convert|338.3|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|sp=us|adj=off}}. The racial makeup of Moss Landing was 149 (73.0%) [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 7 (3.4%) [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 1 (0.5%) [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 2 (1.0%) [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 1 (0.5%) [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 30 (14.7%) from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 14 (6.9%) from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 46 persons (22.5%).

The Census reported that 204 people (100% of the population) lived in households, 0 (0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized.

There were 100 households, out of which 21 (21.0%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 36 (36.0%) were [[marriage|opposite-sex married couples]] living together, 11 (11.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 4 (4.0%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 8 (8.0%) [[POSSLQ|unmarried opposite-sex partnerships]], and 0 (0%) [[same-sex partnerships|same-sex married couples or partnerships]]. 41 households (41.0%) were made up of individuals, and 11 (11.0%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.04. There were 51 [[family (U.S. Census)|families]] (51.0% of all households); the average family size was 2.76.

The population was spread out, with 32 people (15.7%) under the age of 18, 8 people (3.9%) aged 18 to 24, 54 people (26.5%) aged 25 to 44, 84 people (41.2%) aged 45 to 64, and 26 people (12.7%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46.5 years. For every 100 females, there were 108.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 115.0 males.

There were 108 housing units at an average density of {{convert|179.1|/sqmi|/km2|sp=us|adj=off}}, of which 55 (55.0%) were owner-occupied, and 45 (45.0%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 0%; the rental vacancy rate was 8.2%. 118 people (57.8% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 86 people (42.2%) lived in rental housing units.

===2000===
[[Image:Sea otters at moss landing.jpg|thumb|right|Sea otters at Moss Landing harbor]]
As of the [[census]]<ref name="GR2">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=2008-01-31|title=U.S. Census website}}</ref> of 2000, there were 300 people, 125 households, and 68 families residing in the CDP. The population density was {{convert|734.9|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|sp=us|adj=off}}. There were 135 housing units at an average density of {{convert|330.7|/sqmi|/km2|sp=us|adj=off}}. The racial makeup of the CDP was 59.33% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 3.00% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.67% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 2.00% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 21.67% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 13.33% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 28.3% of the population.

There were 125 households, out of which 27.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.2% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 14.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 45.6% were non-families. 31.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 3.09.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 21.3% under the age of 18, 11.7% from 18 to 24, 34.3% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 11.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 117.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 118.5 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $66,442, and the median income for a family was $66,731. Males had a median income of $41,154 versus $36,691 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the CDP was $28,005. About 13.0% of families and 18.8% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 38.7% of those under the age of 18 and none of those 65 or over.

==Economy==
[[File:Vessels of the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute 2012-10-13 P1030631.JPG|thumb|right|Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute]]
[[File:Moss Landing Power Plant p1270026.jpg|thumb|right|Moss Landing Power Plant]]
Located in Moss Landing is the [[Moss Landing Marine Laboratories]], a multi-campus research facility of the [[California State University]]. Also located here is the [[Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute]], a sister organization to the [[Monterey Bay Aquarium]].

The [[Moss Landing Power Plant]] is a natural gas plant and the largest battery storage facility in the world. Located at the intersection of [[California State Route 1|State Route 1]] and Dolan Road. It produces 2,538 megawatts, and is wholly owned by [[Dynegy]]. It is visible from [[Santa Cruz, California]] to the north and [[Monterey, California]] to the south on clear days. There is a commercial park adjacent to the power plant, housing manufacturers and laboratories.<ref name=Monterey/>

While intended as a backup for California's marginal electric grid, the plant could only power the state of California for about two minutes. Three fires have occurred in the last several years, causing a shutdown of the plant and emission of toxic air pollutants from the burning lithium ion batteries.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/california/article/Portion-of-Highway-1-closed-due-to-fire-at-PG-E-17454145.php | title=Portion of Highway 1 closed after Tesla battery catches fire at PG&E substation | date=20 September 2022 }}</ref>

Tourism is a large part of the economy in Moss Landing.

==Arts and culture==
===Annual cultural events===
The Moss Landing Antique Street Fair is held annually on the last Sunday in July and hosts hundreds of antique vendors. It brings over ten times the population of Moss Landing to the area.<ref name="chamber">{{cite web |title=Moss Landing Camber of Commerce |url= http://www.mosslandingchamber.com |access-date= February 16, 2011 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.seemonterey.com/moss-landing-california/mosslandingantiquefair SeeMonterey: Moss Landing Antique Street Fair] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522144612/http://www.seemonterey.com/moss-landing-california/mosslandingantiquefair |date=2009-05-22 }}</ref>

Other events include the May opener for rock cod fishing, blessing the fleet May 1, open house at Moss Landing Marine Labs held in April or May, and Nautical Flea Market held in May.<ref name="chamber"/>

===Tourism===
[[Image:Moss Landing harbor.JPG|thumb|right|Pleasure and commercial boats at the Moss Landing harbor]]
[[File:Kayaks at Moss Landing, California.jpg|thumb|right|Kayaks at Moss Landing]]
Moss landing is most noted as the gateway to Elkhorn Slough, one of the largest wetlands in the state. Elkhorn Slough is a precious resource and is always ranked in the top 10 best birding spots in the US according to the Audubon's annual bird count. There are over 350 species of bird that migrate through the area annually. It is also known as one of the best spots in the world to see sea otters. Moss Landing lies in the northern part of Monterey County and has numerous restaurants, galleries, a bed and breakfast, and is the home port to many fishing and pleasure boats.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

Moss Landing Harbor District berths over 600 boats, including 350 fishing boats, 200 pleasure craft, 30 research vessels, and a half dozen tour and charter boats. The harbor's commercial boats land dungeness crab, halibut, king salmon, albacore, rockfish, sablefish, anchovies, sardines, squid, black cod, red snapper, covina, prawns, mackerel, and others. Several maritime businesses support harbor users including a fuel dock. The harbor district also provides two public boat launches and a community park.<ref>[http://www.mosslandingharbor.dst.ca.us Moss Landing Harbor District]</ref>

Moss Landing is home to the Shakespeare Society of America.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sfgate.com/travel/article/The-very-peculiar-society-tucked-away-in-a-teeny-16285792.php|title=The gift and the curse of the Shakespeare Society of America|date=11 July 2021}}</ref>

==Parks and nature reserves==
Moss Landing provides access to state and federal protected lands, including surfing destination [[Moss Landing State Beach]], [[Salinas River State Beach]], [[Zmudowski State Beach]], [[Moss Landing Wildlife Area]], and the [[Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{wikivoyage|Moss Landing}}
* [http://www.mosslandingchamber.com/ Moss Landing Chamber of Commerce]
* [https://www.mosslandingharbor.dst.ca.us/ Moss Landing Harbor District]

{{Monterey Bay Area}}
{{Monterey County, California}}
{{California}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Census-designated places in Monterey County, California]]
[[Category:Monterey Bay]]
[[Category:Populated coastal places in California]]
[[Category:Census-designated places in California]]

Manitoba Electrical Museum

2024-06-14T22:07:27Z

Asyncadr: Corrected link to the museum's website

{{infobox museum
| name = '''Manitoba Electrical Museum'''
| logo =
| image = HydroelectricTurbineRunner.png
| map_type =
| former_name =
| established =
| location = [[Winnipeg]], [[Manitoba]]
| coordinates = {{coord|49.8558|-97.1547|type:landmark_region:CA-MB|display=inline,title}}
| mapframe-zoom = 16
| type = Electrical Museum
| director =
| curator =
| visitors =
| website =
}}

'''Manitoba Electrical Museum and Education Centre''' is a museum in [[Winnipeg]], [[Manitoba]], dedicated to the electrical history of Manitoba. It is a volunteer-run organization housed in a converted [[electrical substation]] building.<ref>''Annual Report - The Manitoba Hydro-electric Board 2003''</ref>

The Museum is affiliated with: [[Canadian Museums Association|CMA]], [[Canadian Heritage Information Network|CHIN]], and [[Virtual Museum of Canada]].

==Collection==
[[Image:KnobAndTubeWiring.png|thumb|left|Manitoba Electrical Museum Collection]]The museum follows the history through six themes from the 1870s to the present, and looks into the future. On the lower level, hands-on safety activities and seasonal displays are featured. Electricity and electrical safety movies can be shown in the orientation room on the lower level, as well as a collection of vintage Gas Genies. A turbine runner is on permanent display at the Manitoba Electrical Museum.

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Commons}}

==External links==
*[https://www.electricalmuseum.ca/ Electrical museum Website]

[[Category:Museums in Winnipeg]]
[[Category:Technology museums in Canada]]
[[Category:River Heights, Winnipeg]]
[[Category:Science and technology in Manitoba]]

{{Manitoba-struct-stub}}
{{Canada-museum-stub}}

Talk:Microsoft Edge

2024-06-12T22:48:13Z

Asyncadr: /* Split article into old EdgeHTML Edge and the current Chromium Edge */ minor format

{{not a forum}}
{{WikiProject banner shell|class=B|vital=yes|
{{WikiProject Microsoft |importance=high}}
{{WikiProject Microsoft Windows |importance=High}}
{{WikiProject Software |importance=high}}
{{WikiProject Internet |importance=high}}
}}
{{oldafdfull| date = 9 January 2015 (UTC) | result = '''keep''' | page = Spartan (browser) }}
{{Annual readership}}
{{Talk header|noarchives=yes|search=no}}
{{Archives|bot=lowercase sigmabot III|age=180|minthreadsleft=4}}

== "WebView" listed at [[Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion|Redirects for discussion]] ==
[[File:Information.svg|30px]]
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect [[:WebView]]. The discussion will occur at [[Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion/Log/2021 March 1#WebView]] until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion.  [[User:JJPMaster|JJP...MASTER!]][[User talk:JJPMaster|[talk to] JJP... master?]] 19:12, 1 March 2021 (UTC)

== A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion ==
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion:
* [[commons:File:Microsoft Edge logo (2019).png|Microsoft Edge logo (2019).png]]
Participate in the deletion discussion at the [[commons:Commons:Deletion requests/Files in Category:Microsoft Edge logos|nomination page]]. —[[User:Community Tech bot|Community Tech bot]] ([[User talk:Community Tech bot|talk]]) 10:23, 24 August 2021 (UTC)

== Edge for iOS/iPadOS ==

The version number needs to be updated to 46.3.30, as an update was released on September 8th, 2021. [[User:GabrielBloom28|GabrielBloom28]] ([[User talk:GabrielBloom28|talk]]) 13:21, 13 September 2021 (UTC)

=="Not supported for Linux"==
The article claims that Edge is available for Linux, but when I go to https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/edge on a linux PC, it says "Not supported for Linux". It lists downloads for Windows, MacOS, iOS and Android and that is all. The cited refs all seem to be from the beta and "coming soon" stage. If it is actually available for Linux as the article claims, where is the ref for that and the downloads? - [[User:Ahunt|Ahunt]] ([[User talk:Ahunt|talk]]) 20:29, 30 October 2021 (UTC)
:Downloads [https://packages.microsoft.com/yumrepos/edge/ here]. -- [[User:WOSlinker|WOSlinker]] ([[User talk:WOSlinker|talk]]) 20:40, 30 October 2021 (UTC)
::Those seem to be .rpm files. I did find Ubuntu here: https://packages.microsoft.com/ubuntu/. So why does the official website say "Not supported for Linux"? - [[User:Ahunt|Ahunt]] ([[User talk:Ahunt|talk]]) 20:44, 30 October 2021 (UTC)

== A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion ==
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion:
* [[commons:File:Microsoft Edge logo (2019).png|Microsoft Edge logo (2019).png]]
You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —[[User:Community Tech bot|Community Tech bot]] ([[User talk:Community Tech bot|talk]]) 15:52, 25 February 2022 (UTC)

:{{Fixed}} - [[User:Ahunt|Ahunt]] ([[User talk:Ahunt|talk]]) 16:05, 25 February 2022 (UTC)

== Currently supported version? ==

The version history chart for the Chromium-based Edge seems to indicate that no version is currently supported, but the text and infobox seem to indicate that at least one does exist. -- [[User:Beland|Beland]] ([[User talk:Beland|talk]]) 23:05, 29 March 2022 (UTC)

:The current supported version of Microsoft Edge for Windows is Version 108.0.1462.42, released on December 5, 2022. [[Special:Contributions/169.224.255.20|169.224.255.20]] ([[User talk:169.224.255.20|talk]]) 21:20, 6 December 2022 (UTC)

::You will need to take that up on Wikidata. Good luck. - [[User:Ahunt|Ahunt]] ([[User talk:Ahunt|talk]]) 21:22, 6 December 2022 (UTC)

== "Internet Explorer 12" listed at [[Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion|Redirects for discussion]] ==
[[File:Information.svg|30px]]
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect [[:Internet Explorer 12]] and has thus listed it [[Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion|for discussion]]. This discussion will occur at [[Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 June 29#Internet Explorer 12]] until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion.  [[User:Jay| Jay]] [[User talk:Jay|(''talk'')]] 06:02, 29 June 2022 (UTC)

== Microsoft Edge ==

Microsoft Edge was launched as a successor to Internet Explorer [[User:Derwydd74|Derwydd74]] ([[User talk:Derwydd74|talk]]) 05:05, 29 December 2022 (UTC)

== End support Window 7 Windows 8/8.1 ==

Microsoft announcement there no longer support Windows 7 and windows 8/8.1 on January 10, 2023. Here that l[https://blogs.windows.com/msedgedev/2022/12/09/microsoft-edge-and-webview2-ending-support-for-windows-7-and-windows-8-8-1/ ink blog Windows here]. There need to add article. [[Special:Contributions/47.234.198.142|47.234.198.142]] ([[User talk:47.234.198.142|talk]]) 23:24, 7 February 2023 (UTC)

== A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion ==
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion:
* [[commons:File:Microsoft Edge logo (2019).svg|Microsoft Edge logo (2019).svg]]
You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —[[User:Community Tech bot|Community Tech bot]] ([[User talk:Community Tech bot|talk]]) 23:08, 11 February 2023 (UTC)

== Microsoft Edge for Business ==

I've just noticed a new logo on my Microsoft Edge. Couldn't find anything doing an image search. The Edge logo has a small brown [[briefcase]] added to the icon on the [[taskbar]]. I've just found out it's for '''Microsoft Edge for Business'''. For info, see here: https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/deployedge/microsoft-edge-for-business [[User:ML5|ML5]] ([[User talk:ML5|talk]]) 09:06, 23 August 2023 (UTC)

== Split article into old EdgeHTML Edge and the current Chromium Edge ==

Half of the article are informations about the EdgeHTML-based Edge that mixed with information of the current Chromium Edge which I think will be confusing for layman. It had been a year or two since the Chromium Edge replaced the old EdgeHTML Edge so either the article needs to be clean up for its information or split the article for better clarity. If the page being split I recommend that the current page retains as Chromium based Edge as it is the latest version. ~ [[User:Limyx826|Limyx826]] ([[User talk:Limyx826|talk]]) 07:47, 30 November 2023 (UTC)

*I tried mitigating the problem by rewriting the article heading to further emphasize the difference of the two Edges. I personally think that moving most of information regarding the “Edge Legacy” towards its own section would be enough. [[User:Jothefiredragon|Jothefiredragon]] ([[User talk:Jothefiredragon|talk]]) 07:46, 1 December 2023 (UTC)
*I agree. There should be an article about Microsoft Edge Legacy, and one about Microsoft Edge (Chromium). [[User:Tailscraft|Tailscraft]] ([[User talk:Tailscraft|talk]]) 18:35, 12 March 2024 (UTC)
*'''Agree:''' I agree this should be split about the Legacy Edge and the Chromium version, as they are very different from each other. A "for the legacy version, click here" might be necessary if the outcome is "split". [[User:Myrealnamm|Myrealnamm ]][[User talk:Myrealnamm|(talk]] to me) 18:25, 17 March 2024 (UTC)
*'''Agree''': Edge Legacy is a different browser and it would help balance the size of this article. This would allow more room for the development, features, and reception of each version. A hatnote could be added to the top of the article for disambiguation. [[User:StreetcarEnjoyer|StreetcarEnjoyer]] [[User talk:StreetcarEnjoyer|(talk)]] 19:29, 2 April 2024 (UTC)
*'''Disagree ''' Although they are two separate and distinct versions, they are still the same base product. As an example of my point: Human lives are long and go through several phases. We don't split an individual's life up into separate articles simply because they started a new career or advanced into a new phase of their life. The article should remain as it is, with the two distinct versions under the same article. {{User:SWDG/sig}} 23:42, 6 April 2024 (UTC)
* '''Agree''' per [[User:StreetcarEnjoyer|StreetcarEnjoyer]]. [[User:Urban Versis 32|Urban Versis 32]]KB ⚡ ([[User talk:Urban Versis 32|talk]] / [[Special:Contributions/Urban Versis 32|contribs]]) 13:11, 4 May 2024 (UTC)
*'''Agree:''' The current version of Edge and its original EdgeHTML version are drastically different products and I believe they both warrant seperate articles. [[User:Crying2theocean|Crying2theocean]] ([[User talk:Crying2theocean|talk]]) 22:32, 21 May 2024 (UTC)
*'''Oppose''' I agree with {{U|SWDG}} and {{U|Jothefiredragon}} comments, we don't need two separate articles to describe the current Edge and Legacy Edge, if we work on the article, it is easy to make a clear distinction between the current and former which both have the same name, and showing both of the logos would also help in differentiating the two. General people out there will only look at the front side, they see "Microsoft Edge as Microsoft Edge", not "it's engine was Edge HTML and now it's Chromium" which is a bit more on the technical side of things. I must also note, upon reading the article, I'm able to see a distinction between the two presented clearly, I'm not sure where we are getting the "confusing for layman", after all we have to read what is written in order to understand, if you don't read the article properly, you won't see the distinction, right? [[User:Steven (Editor)|Steven (Editor)]] ([[User talk:Steven (Editor)|talk]]) 22:48, 22 May 2024 (UTC)
*'''Agree''' The EdgeHTML and Chromium versions are, in all but name, completely different. I also agree with {{u|Myrealnamm}} on the need for a ''for the legacy version, see Microsoft Edge (EdgeHTML)''.-[[User:FusionSub|FusionSub]] ([[User_talk:FusionSub|talk]]) 13:41, 26 May 2024 (UTC)
*'''Agree''' by this point, the two browsers have little in common but name. [[User:Asyncadr|Asyncadr]] ([[User talk:Asyncadr|talk]]) 22:47, 12 June 2024 (UTC)

== Current version info out of date as usual. ==

No one seems committed to keeping the current version data in Wikidata. It's about a month out of date, and who updates it does't seem to be consistent. We should omit purportedly current version info, and refer people to sources for it instead, no? [[User:RudolfoMD|RudolfoMD]] ([[User talk:RudolfoMD|talk]]) 02:59, 6 December 2023 (UTC)

:{{agree}}. I could change that. [[User:Myrealnamm|Myrealnamm ]][[User talk:Myrealnamm|(talk]] to me) 18:26, 17 March 2024 (UTC)
:Sorry, I tried changing it on Wikidata but somehow it didn't show up here in the article. @[[User:RudolfoMD|RudolfoMD]] Do you know what I did wrong there? [[User:Myrealnamm|Myrealnamm ]][[User talk:Myrealnamm|(talk]] to me) 20:01, 2 April 2024 (UTC)
::Just so you know [[user:RudolfoMD]] was indefinitely blocked in January [[User:StreetcarEnjoyer|StreetcarEnjoyer]] [[User talk:StreetcarEnjoyer|(talk)]] 20:05, 2 April 2024 (UTC)
:::I was just thinking about mentioning that. Thanks though! {{smiley}} [[User:Myrealnamm|Myrealnamm ]][[User talk:Myrealnamm|(talk]] to me) 20:08, 2 April 2024 (UTC)
::::@[[User:StreetcarEnjoyer|StreetcarEnjoyer]] Could you try to help me, if you are familiar with Wikidata, on solving the issue? I tried adding information to a newer update (March 27) [[User:Myrealnamm|Myrealnamm ]][[User talk:Myrealnamm|(talk]] to me) 20:17, 2 April 2024 (UTC)
:::::Unfortunately I'm not a Wikidata person. You could try asking at the [[WP:HELPDESK]]. [[User:StreetcarEnjoyer|StreetcarEnjoyer]] [[User talk:StreetcarEnjoyer|(talk)]] 21:02, 2 April 2024 (UTC)

Talk:Microsoft Edge

2024-06-12T22:47:44Z

Asyncadr: /* Split article into old EdgeHTML Edge and the current Chromium Edge */ Reply

{{not a forum}}
{{WikiProject banner shell|class=B|vital=yes|
{{WikiProject Microsoft |importance=high}}
{{WikiProject Microsoft Windows |importance=High}}
{{WikiProject Software |importance=high}}
{{WikiProject Internet |importance=high}}
}}
{{oldafdfull| date = 9 January 2015 (UTC) | result = '''keep''' | page = Spartan (browser) }}
{{Annual readership}}
{{Talk header|noarchives=yes|search=no}}
{{Archives|bot=lowercase sigmabot III|age=180|minthreadsleft=4}}

== "WebView" listed at [[Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion|Redirects for discussion]] ==
[[File:Information.svg|30px]]
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect [[:WebView]]. The discussion will occur at [[Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion/Log/2021 March 1#WebView]] until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion.  [[User:JJPMaster|JJP...MASTER!]][[User talk:JJPMaster|[talk to] JJP... master?]] 19:12, 1 March 2021 (UTC)

== A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion ==
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion:
* [[commons:File:Microsoft Edge logo (2019).png|Microsoft Edge logo (2019).png]]
Participate in the deletion discussion at the [[commons:Commons:Deletion requests/Files in Category:Microsoft Edge logos|nomination page]]. —[[User:Community Tech bot|Community Tech bot]] ([[User talk:Community Tech bot|talk]]) 10:23, 24 August 2021 (UTC)

== Edge for iOS/iPadOS ==

The version number needs to be updated to 46.3.30, as an update was released on September 8th, 2021. [[User:GabrielBloom28|GabrielBloom28]] ([[User talk:GabrielBloom28|talk]]) 13:21, 13 September 2021 (UTC)

=="Not supported for Linux"==
The article claims that Edge is available for Linux, but when I go to https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/edge on a linux PC, it says "Not supported for Linux". It lists downloads for Windows, MacOS, iOS and Android and that is all. The cited refs all seem to be from the beta and "coming soon" stage. If it is actually available for Linux as the article claims, where is the ref for that and the downloads? - [[User:Ahunt|Ahunt]] ([[User talk:Ahunt|talk]]) 20:29, 30 October 2021 (UTC)
:Downloads [https://packages.microsoft.com/yumrepos/edge/ here]. -- [[User:WOSlinker|WOSlinker]] ([[User talk:WOSlinker|talk]]) 20:40, 30 October 2021 (UTC)
::Those seem to be .rpm files. I did find Ubuntu here: https://packages.microsoft.com/ubuntu/. So why does the official website say "Not supported for Linux"? - [[User:Ahunt|Ahunt]] ([[User talk:Ahunt|talk]]) 20:44, 30 October 2021 (UTC)

== A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion ==
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion:
* [[commons:File:Microsoft Edge logo (2019).png|Microsoft Edge logo (2019).png]]
You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —[[User:Community Tech bot|Community Tech bot]] ([[User talk:Community Tech bot|talk]]) 15:52, 25 February 2022 (UTC)

:{{Fixed}} - [[User:Ahunt|Ahunt]] ([[User talk:Ahunt|talk]]) 16:05, 25 February 2022 (UTC)

== Currently supported version? ==

The version history chart for the Chromium-based Edge seems to indicate that no version is currently supported, but the text and infobox seem to indicate that at least one does exist. -- [[User:Beland|Beland]] ([[User talk:Beland|talk]]) 23:05, 29 March 2022 (UTC)

:The current supported version of Microsoft Edge for Windows is Version 108.0.1462.42, released on December 5, 2022. [[Special:Contributions/169.224.255.20|169.224.255.20]] ([[User talk:169.224.255.20|talk]]) 21:20, 6 December 2022 (UTC)

::You will need to take that up on Wikidata. Good luck. - [[User:Ahunt|Ahunt]] ([[User talk:Ahunt|talk]]) 21:22, 6 December 2022 (UTC)

== "Internet Explorer 12" listed at [[Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion|Redirects for discussion]] ==
[[File:Information.svg|30px]]
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect [[:Internet Explorer 12]] and has thus listed it [[Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion|for discussion]]. This discussion will occur at [[Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 June 29#Internet Explorer 12]] until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion.  [[User:Jay| Jay]] [[User talk:Jay|(''talk'')]] 06:02, 29 June 2022 (UTC)

== Microsoft Edge ==

Microsoft Edge was launched as a successor to Internet Explorer [[User:Derwydd74|Derwydd74]] ([[User talk:Derwydd74|talk]]) 05:05, 29 December 2022 (UTC)

== End support Window 7 Windows 8/8.1 ==

Microsoft announcement there no longer support Windows 7 and windows 8/8.1 on January 10, 2023. Here that l[https://blogs.windows.com/msedgedev/2022/12/09/microsoft-edge-and-webview2-ending-support-for-windows-7-and-windows-8-8-1/ ink blog Windows here]. There need to add article. [[Special:Contributions/47.234.198.142|47.234.198.142]] ([[User talk:47.234.198.142|talk]]) 23:24, 7 February 2023 (UTC)

== A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion ==
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion:
* [[commons:File:Microsoft Edge logo (2019).svg|Microsoft Edge logo (2019).svg]]
You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —[[User:Community Tech bot|Community Tech bot]] ([[User talk:Community Tech bot|talk]]) 23:08, 11 February 2023 (UTC)

== Microsoft Edge for Business ==

I've just noticed a new logo on my Microsoft Edge. Couldn't find anything doing an image search. The Edge logo has a small brown [[briefcase]] added to the icon on the [[taskbar]]. I've just found out it's for '''Microsoft Edge for Business'''. For info, see here: https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/deployedge/microsoft-edge-for-business [[User:ML5|ML5]] ([[User talk:ML5|talk]]) 09:06, 23 August 2023 (UTC)

== Split article into old EdgeHTML Edge and the current Chromium Edge ==

Half of the article are informations about the EdgeHTML-based Edge that mixed with information of the current Chromium Edge which I think will be confusing for layman. It had been a year or two since the Chromium Edge replaced the old EdgeHTML Edge so either the article needs to be clean up for its information or split the article for better clarity. If the page being split I recommend that the current page retains as Chromium based Edge as it is the latest version. ~ [[User:Limyx826|Limyx826]] ([[User talk:Limyx826|talk]]) 07:47, 30 November 2023 (UTC)

*I tried mitigating the problem by rewriting the article heading to further emphasize the difference of the two Edges. I personally think that moving most of information regarding the “Edge Legacy” towards its own section would be enough. [[User:Jothefiredragon|Jothefiredragon]] ([[User talk:Jothefiredragon|talk]]) 07:46, 1 December 2023 (UTC)
*I agree. There should be an article about Microsoft Edge Legacy, and one about Microsoft Edge (Chromium). [[User:Tailscraft|Tailscraft]] ([[User talk:Tailscraft|talk]]) 18:35, 12 March 2024 (UTC)
*'''Agree:''' I agree this should be split about the Legacy Edge and the Chromium version, as they are very different from each other. A "for the legacy version, click here" might be necessary if the outcome is "split". [[User:Myrealnamm|Myrealnamm ]][[User talk:Myrealnamm|(talk]] to me) 18:25, 17 March 2024 (UTC)
*'''Agree''': Edge Legacy is a different browser and it would help balance the size of this article. This would allow more room for the development, features, and reception of each version. A hatnote could be added to the top of the article for disambiguation. [[User:StreetcarEnjoyer|StreetcarEnjoyer]] [[User talk:StreetcarEnjoyer|(talk)]] 19:29, 2 April 2024 (UTC)
*'''Disagree ''' Although they are two separate and distinct versions, they are still the same base product. As an example of my point: Human lives are long and go through several phases. We don't split an individual's life up into separate articles simply because they started a new career or advanced into a new phase of their life. The article should remain as it is, with the two distinct versions under the same article. {{User:SWDG/sig}} 23:42, 6 April 2024 (UTC)
* '''Agree''' per [[User:StreetcarEnjoyer|StreetcarEnjoyer]]. [[User:Urban Versis 32|Urban Versis 32]]KB ⚡ ([[User talk:Urban Versis 32|talk]] / [[Special:Contributions/Urban Versis 32|contribs]]) 13:11, 4 May 2024 (UTC)
*'''Agree:''' The current version of Edge and its original EdgeHTML version are drastically different products and I believe they both warrant seperate articles. [[User:Crying2theocean|Crying2theocean]] ([[User talk:Crying2theocean|talk]]) 22:32, 21 May 2024 (UTC)
*'''Oppose''' I agree with {{U|SWDG}} and {{U|Jothefiredragon}} comments, we don't need two separate articles to describe the current Edge and Legacy Edge, if we work on the article, it is easy to make a clear distinction between the current and former which both have the same name, and showing both of the logos would also help in differentiating the two. General people out there will only look at the front side, they see "Microsoft Edge as Microsoft Edge", not "it's engine was Edge HTML and now it's Chromium" which is a bit more on the technical side of things. I must also note, upon reading the article, I'm able to see a distinction between the two presented clearly, I'm not sure where we are getting the "confusing for layman", after all we have to read what is written in order to understand, if you don't read the article properly, you won't see the distinction, right? [[User:Steven (Editor)|Steven (Editor)]] ([[User talk:Steven (Editor)|talk]]) 22:48, 22 May 2024 (UTC)
*'''Agree''' The EdgeHTML and Chromium versions are, in all but name, completely different. I also agree with {{u|Myrealnamm}} on the need for a ''for the legacy version, see Microsoft Edge (EdgeHTML)''.-[[User:FusionSub|FusionSub]] ([[User_talk:FusionSub|talk]]) 13:41, 26 May 2024 (UTC)

:'''Agree''' by this point, the two browsers have little in common but name. [[User:Asyncadr|Asyncadr]] ([[User talk:Asyncadr|talk]]) 22:47, 12 June 2024 (UTC)

== Current version info out of date as usual. ==

No one seems committed to keeping the current version data in Wikidata. It's about a month out of date, and who updates it does't seem to be consistent. We should omit purportedly current version info, and refer people to sources for it instead, no? [[User:RudolfoMD|RudolfoMD]] ([[User talk:RudolfoMD|talk]]) 02:59, 6 December 2023 (UTC)

:{{agree}}. I could change that. [[User:Myrealnamm|Myrealnamm ]][[User talk:Myrealnamm|(talk]] to me) 18:26, 17 March 2024 (UTC)
:Sorry, I tried changing it on Wikidata but somehow it didn't show up here in the article. @[[User:RudolfoMD|RudolfoMD]] Do you know what I did wrong there? [[User:Myrealnamm|Myrealnamm ]][[User talk:Myrealnamm|(talk]] to me) 20:01, 2 April 2024 (UTC)
::Just so you know [[user:RudolfoMD]] was indefinitely blocked in January [[User:StreetcarEnjoyer|StreetcarEnjoyer]] [[User talk:StreetcarEnjoyer|(talk)]] 20:05, 2 April 2024 (UTC)
:::I was just thinking about mentioning that. Thanks though! {{smiley}} [[User:Myrealnamm|Myrealnamm ]][[User talk:Myrealnamm|(talk]] to me) 20:08, 2 April 2024 (UTC)
::::@[[User:StreetcarEnjoyer|StreetcarEnjoyer]] Could you try to help me, if you are familiar with Wikidata, on solving the issue? I tried adding information to a newer update (March 27) [[User:Myrealnamm|Myrealnamm ]][[User talk:Myrealnamm|(talk]] to me) 20:17, 2 April 2024 (UTC)
:::::Unfortunately I'm not a Wikidata person. You could try asking at the [[WP:HELPDESK]]. [[User:StreetcarEnjoyer|StreetcarEnjoyer]] [[User talk:StreetcarEnjoyer|(talk)]] 21:02, 2 April 2024 (UTC)

Horizon Forbidden West

2024-03-23T02:51:09Z

Asyncadr: Updated verb tense due to its Windows release

{{short description|2022 video game}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox video game
| title = Horizon Forbidden West
| image = Horizon Forbidden West cover art.jpg
| developer = [[Guerrilla Games]]{{efn|Ported to Windows by [[Nixxes Software]]<ref name=complete></ref>}}
| publisher = [[Sony Interactive Entertainment]]
| director = Mathijs de Jonge
| producer = Joel Eschler
| programmer = Michiel van der Leeuw
| artist = {{Unbulleted list|Jan-Bart van Beek|Misja Baas}}
| writer = Ben McCaw
| composer = {{Unbulleted list|[[Joris de Man]]|Niels van der Leest|Oleksa Lozowchuk|[[The Flight (band)|The Flight]]}}
| series = ''[[Horizon (video game series)|Horizon]]''
| engine = [[Decima (game engine)|Decima]]
| platforms = {{Unbulleted list|[[PlayStation 4]]|[[PlayStation 5]]|[[Windows]]}}
| released = {{Unbulleted list|'''PS4''', '''PS5'''|18 February 2022|'''Windows'''|21 March 2024}}
| genre = [[Action-adventure game|Action adventure]]
| modes = [[Single-player]]
}}

'''''Horizon Forbidden West''''' is a 2022 [[action role-playing game]] developed by [[Guerrilla Games]] and published by [[Sony Interactive Entertainment]]. The game was released for [[PlayStation 4]] and [[PlayStation 5]] on 18 February 2022.

The sequel to 2017's ''[[Horizon Zero Dawn]]'', ''Horizon Forbidden West'' is set in a [[post-apocalyptic]] version of the [[Western United States]] recovering from the aftermath of an [[extinction event]] caused by a rogue [[Swarm robotics|robot swarm]]. The player can explore the [[open world]] and complete [[Quest (video games)|quests]] using [[Ranged weapon|ranged]] and [[Melee weapon|melee]] weapons against hostile machine creatures.

''Horizon Forbidden West'' received generally positive reviews from critics, and had sold over 8.4 million units by April 2023. An expansion, ''Burning Shores'', was released for the PlayStation 5 version on 19 April 2023. The game and the ''Burning Shores'' expansion was collected together and re-released as ''Horizon Forbidden West Complete Edition'' for PlayStation 5 on 6 October 2023, and released for [[Windows]] on 21 March 2024.

== Gameplay ==
''Horizon Forbidden West'' is an [[action role-playing game]] played from a [[Virtual camera system#Third-person view|third-person perspective]]. The player controls [[Aloy]], a hunter in a world populated by dangerous, animalistic machines. In an [[open world]], she explores the mysterious frontier known as the Forbidden West, a [[post-apocalyptic]] version of the [[Western United States]], specifically the states of [[California]], [[Nevada]], and [[Utah]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Surej |date=31 July 2020 |title=New explorable regions in 'Horizon Forbidden West' revealed |url=https://www.nme.com/news/gaming-news/new-explorable-regions-in-horizon-forbidden-west-revealed-2718944 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801202342/https://www.nme.com/news/gaming-news/new-explorable-regions-in-horizon-forbidden-west-revealed-2718944 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |access-date=31 July 2020 |website=[[NME]]}}</ref> The map is larger than in the previous game.{{how|reason=Let's assume the reader isn't familiar with the first game, how large was that one and how does it compare?|date=September 2022}}<ref name="Announcement GS" /><ref name="Announcement GR" /> Exploration is improved with new underwater discoveries,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Crouse |first=Megan |date=16 June 2020 |title=Horizon Forbidden West: 7 Things We Want to See in the PS5 Game |url=https://www.denofgeek.com/games/horizon-forbidden-west-ps5-ps4-predictions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723210056/https://www.denofgeek.com/games/horizon-forbidden-west-ps5-ps4-predictions/ |archive-date=23 July 2020 |access-date=23 July 2020 |website=Den of Geek}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Gartenberg |first=Chaim |date=17 June 2020 |title=Horizon Forbidden West aiming for a 2021 launch on PS5 |url=https://www.theverge.com/21294561/horizon-forbidden-west-ps5-release-date-2021-guerrilla-games-details-playstation |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617212921/https://www.theverge.com/21294561/horizon-forbidden-west-ps5-release-date-2021-guerrilla-games-details-playstation |archive-date=17 June 2020 |access-date=23 July 2020 |website=The Verge}}</ref> and improvements to combat using the Valor Surge system, freeform climbing, and tools such as the Shieldwing, Focus Scanner, Diving Mask, and Pullcaster.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gingerich |first=Megan |date=4 June 2021 |title=Horizon Forbidden West: All Combat and Traversal Improvements Shown in the Recent Trailer |url=https://gamerant.com/horizon-forbidden-west-combat-traversal-improvements-glider-grapple-underwater/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606023621/https://gamerant.com/horizon-forbidden-west-combat-traversal-improvements-glider-grapple-underwater/ |archive-date=6 June 2021 |access-date=5 June 2021 |website=GameRant}}</ref> The mission structure for quests better supports variety in objectives with compelling reward systems.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sinha |first=Ravi |date=7 January 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West – Improved Cinematics, More Rewarding Side Quests, and More Detailed |url=https://gamingbolt.com/horizon-forbidden-west-improved-cinematics-more-rewarding-side-quests-and-more-detailed |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107061246/https://gamingbolt.com/horizon-forbidden-west-improved-cinematics-more-rewarding-side-quests-and-more-detailed |archive-date=7 January 2022 |access-date=4 February 2022 |website=GamingBolt}}</ref>

== Synopsis ==
=== Setting ===
''Horizon Forbidden West'' continues the story of Aloy ([[Ashly Burch]]), a young hunter of the Nora tribe and a clone of the Old World scientist Elisabet Sobeck, as she leads a band of companions on a quest to the frontier region known as the Forbidden West to find the source of a mysterious plague that kills all it infects. On her journey across these lands, Aloy encounters new regions ravaged by massive storms and deadly machines, and conflicts with a tribe of nomadic raiders, some of which have tamed the machines as war mounts. She discovers a vast array of environments and ecosystems, including lush valleys, dry deserts, snowy mountains, tropical beaches, ruined cities, and underwater settings.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Clark |first=Nicole |date=19 January 2022 |title=In Horizon Forbidden West, Aloy and her friends 'save a dying planet' |url=https://www.polygon.com/gaming/22891293/horizon-forbidden-west-story-trailer-reveal-guerrilla |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119172319/https://www.polygon.com/gaming/22891293/horizon-forbidden-west-story-trailer-reveal-guerrilla |archive-date=19 January 2022 |access-date=19 January 2022 |website=Polygon}}</ref>

=== Plot ===
In the six months following the defeat of HADES ([[Anthony Ingruber]]) in ''[[Horizon Zero Dawn]]'', Aloy has been searching fruitlessly for a working backup of GAIA (Lesley Ewen) to restore the planet's rapidly degrading [[biosphere]]. After she discovers that her former associate Sylens ([[Lance Reddick]]) did not destroy but stole HADES, he contacts Aloy and asks her to continue her search in the region known as the Forbidden West.

Aloy and her friend Varl ([[John Macmillan (actor)|John Macmillan]]) cross into the west to find the ruling Tenakth tribe amidst a [[civil war]] between Chief Hekarro ([[Geno Segers]]) and the rebel leader Regalla ([[Angela Bassett]]). Aloy tracks Sylens to a facility where she finds HADES badly damaged and permanently deletes it. She recovers a GAIA backup without its subsystems but is interrupted by a group of futuristic humans. The group, consisting of their leader Gerard (Dan Donohue), his lieutenant Tilda ([[Carrie-Anne Moss]]), enforcer Erik ([[Marc Kudisch]]), and accompanied by a clone of Sobeck named Beta (also voiced by Burch), possess advanced technology that renders them invulnerable. They take a second GAIA backup while Aloy barely escapes.

Zo ([[Erica Luttrell]]), a member of the nearby Utaru tribe, guides Aloy to a control center where she rejoins GAIA with her subsystem MINERVA. GAIA locates the other subsystems, AETHER, DEMETER, and POSEIDON, and advises Aloy to retrieve them before attempting to capture the more advanced HEPHAESTUS. GAIA reveals the extinction signal that triggered HADES and mutated the subsystems originated from the [[Sirius]] system; Aloy suspects that the futuristic humans sent it. She later tracks down Beta, who informs Aloy that her group are, in fact, Far Zenith, an organization of billionaire colonists who fled Earth during its global extinction, having managed to extend their natural lifespans. After their colony on Sirius collapsed, the Zeniths returned to Earth to use GAIA through Beta's [[genetic make-up]] for their own recolonization. They already acquired subsystems ELEUTHIA, ARTEMIS, and APOLLO, but Beta has stolen their GAIA backup.

Aloy recovers AETHER after helping Hekarro advance in the civil war and retrieves POSEIDON from the ruins of [[Las Vegas]]. Journeying to California, she encounters the Quen, a foreign tribe attempting to solve [[Ecology|ecological]] crises in their homeland. Aloy helps tribe member Alva (Alison Jaye) acquire data while recovering DEMETER. After obtaining a high-level clearance from the private bunker-turned-tomb of a grotesquely mutated Ted Faro ([[Lloyd Owen]]) before being burned down in the ruins of [[San Francisco]], Aloy helps GAIA to trap HEPHAESTUS but is attacked by the Zeniths. Erik kills Varl and recaptures Beta while Gerard steals GAIA, but Tilda double-crosses them and helps Aloy escape. Tilda explains that she was romantically involved with Elisabet Sobeck and regretted leaving her; having been inspired by Aloy, she wishes to stop Far Zenith. She further reveals that Sylens has been supporting the Tenakth rebels to use them against the Zeniths. Aloy refuses to sacrifice the Tenakth and instead defeats Regalla herself after thwarting the latter's final attack on Hekarro.

Aloy and her companions assault Far Zenith's base, while Beta releases HEPHAESTUS into the Zeniths' [[Computer network|network]] and it builds a near-endless amount of machines that tie down Far Zenith's army of drones. Sylens disables the Zeniths' personal defences, allowing Aloy and Zo to kill Erik, while Tilda kills Gerard. Aloy and Beta learn that the Far Zenith colony was destroyed by Nemesis, a failed [[mind uploading]] experiment they created; the Zeniths fled from Nemesis and hoped to steal GAIA to colonize a new planet. Nemesis also sent the extinction signal to Earth and is en route to destroy the planet. Tilda tries to force Aloy to abandon Earth with her, but Aloy refuses and is forced to kill Tilda. Sylens reveals that HADES told him about Nemesis and also plans to escape Earth, but has a change of heart and decides to aid Aloy against Nemesis. Aloy's companions disperse to spread the warning of Nemesis while Aloy and Beta reactivate GAIA.

=== ''Burning Shores'' ===
Some time after the defeat of Far Zenith, Sylens warns Aloy that one Zenith member, aerospace magnate Walter Londra, remains unaccounted for. The last known sighting of Londra places him at a location to the south called the Burning Shores, the former site of [[Los Angeles]]. Upon arriving in the Burning Shores, Aloy meets a member of the Quen tribe, Seyka. Seyka agrees to guide Aloy to Londra's hideout on Starlight Rise ([[Griffith Observatory]]), in return for helping her disable a Zenith defense tower. Seyka takes Aloy to her settlement, Fleet's End, explaining that her fleet was separated from the main Quen expedition heading to San Francisco, shipwrecked on the Burning Shores, and have been stranded since. It is revealed that Seyka stole a deceased Diviner's Focus and found a clue that some crew that had gone missing are located at Starlight Rise. Admiral Gerrit allows Aloy and Seyka to pursue this lead since one of the missing crew is Seyka's sister and the fleet's last remaining navigator.

Working together, Aloy and Seyka destroy the Tower and make their way to Starlight Rise. Upon reaching it, they discover signs that Londra has captured the missing Quen crew and has been forcing them to excavate his old headquarters. They find evidence of him retrieving data on a project called "MSP" and follow his trail north to the wreckage of a Horus war machine resting near the [[Hollywood Sign]]. They come across a Quen camp and are dismayed to see that the missing Quen crew have willingly joined Londra, worshipping him as a god who promises them "Ascension". They infiltrate Londra's Ascension Hall and discover that he is using the Horus to build a rocket to take him off the planet. However, in order to get the lift he needs, Londra salvaged experimental nuclear booster engines from the Starlight Rise but the use of them would irradiate the entire Burning Shore and its surrounding lands. After eliminating Londra's henchman Zeth, they learn he has taken a small number of his most loyal Quen, including Seyka's sister, to a nearby abandoned amusement park in preparation for their journey.

Aloy and Seyka infiltrate the park and make contact with Londra's personal AI, Nova. Nova explains that Londra intends to use his rocket to take himself and a select few Quen and genetic library collected from his Quen followers to found a new colony away from the threat of Nemesis. However, to ensure that his followers will not betray him, Londra reactivated his Mutiny Suppression Protocol research, using it to brainwash Quen into being his loyal followers. Nova then deactivates Londra's security measures in return for Aloy deleting her so she can finally be free from Londra's constant tweaking of her personality matrix. They enter Londra's inner sanctum, where they find him ready to seduce Seyka's sister Kina. Seyka then intervenes, forcing Londra to flee back to his bunker underneath the Hollywood Sign. Londra activates the Horus and uses it to attack Aloy and Seyka, who sabotage its cooling system to weaken it and open a breach in its hull. Aloy then infiltrates the Horus and kills Londra.

In the aftermath, Aloy sends all of the data from Londra's Focus to Sylens, and helps the Quen in Fleet's End make contact with Alva so they can coordinate on reuniting their fleets. Aloy also has an option of starting a romantic relationship with Seyka before temporarily parting ways. Upon returning to her base, Aloy meets with Sylens who has managed to decrypt some of Londra's data, finding a list of 21st century companies that were developing experimental weaponry that may be key to defeating Nemesis.

== Development ==
[[Guerrilla Games]] began developing ''Horizon Forbidden West'' in 2018, a year after its predecessor ''Horizon Zero Dawn'' was released.<ref name="EngadgetIngraham">{{Cite web |last=Ingraham |first=Nathan |date=17 February 2022 |title=Guerrilla Games explains why 'Horizon Forbidden West' works well on the PS4 |url=https://www.engadget.com/horizon-forbidden-west-guerrilla-games-developer-interview-143036984.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626213341/https://www.engadget.com/horizon-forbidden-west-guerrilla-games-developer-interview-143036984.html |archive-date=26 June 2022 |access-date=26 June 2022 |website=[[Engadget]]}}</ref> It was published by [[Sony Interactive Entertainment]] for the [[PlayStation 4]] and [[PlayStation 5]].<ref name="Announcement IGN" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bonifacic |first=Igor |date=16 September 2020 |title='Horizon Forbidden West' is also coming to PS4 |url=https://www.engadget.com/horizon-forbidden-west-sony-playstation-4-215249430.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917010904/https://www.engadget.com/horizon-forbidden-west-sony-playstation-4-215249430.html |archive-date=17 September 2020 |access-date=16 September 2020 |website=Engadget}}</ref> The director is Mathijs de Jonge and the narrative director is Benjamin McCaw.<ref name="Gameplay updates improvements" /> According to documents from Sony, the five-year development peaked at over 300 full-time employees and cost around {{USD|212 million}}, making it one of the [[most expensive video games to develop]].<ref name="GamesRadar Costs">{{cite web |url=https://www.gamesradar.com/playstation-accidentally-reveals-dollar200m-development-costs-for-horizon-forbidden-west-and-the-last-of-us-part-2/ |title=PlayStation accidentally reveals $200m+ development costs for Horizon Forbidden West and The Last of Us Part 2 |last=Wood |first=Austin |work=[[GamesRadar+]] |publisher=[[Future plc]] |date=28 June 2023 |accessdate=29 June 2023 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628225100/https://www.gamesradar.com/playstation-accidentally-reveals-dollar200m-development-costs-for-horizon-forbidden-west-and-the-last-of-us-part-2/ |archivedate=28 June 2023 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Joris de Man]], [[The Flight (band)|The Flight]] (composed of Joe Henson and Alexis Smith), and Niels van de Leest return to compose an original score for the game alongside Oleksa Lozowchuk.<ref name="Composers info" /> [[Ashly Burch]], [[Lance Reddick]], and [[John Hopkins (actor)|John Hopkins]] reprise their roles as [[Aloy]], Sylens, and Erend, respectively.<ref name="Announcement Poly" /><ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wQATS4HOxdo |title=Horizon Forbidden West – State of Play Gameplay Reveal {{!}} PS5 |date=27 May 2021 |publisher=[[PlayStation]] |access-date=5 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228142855/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wQATS4HOxdo |archive-date=28 February 2022 |url-status=live |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> [[Angela Bassett]] plays a new character named Regalla, and [[Carrie-Anne Moss]] plays Tilda.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Wallace |first=Kimberley |date=19 January 2022 |title=Breaking Down The New Horizon Forbidden West Trailer With Guerrilla Games |url=https://www.gameinformer.com/2022/01/19/breaking-down-the-new-horizon-forbidden-west-trailer-with-guerrilla-games |url-status=live |magazine=Game Informer |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119154659/https://www.gameinformer.com/2022/01/19/breaking-down-the-new-horizon-forbidden-west-trailer-with-guerrilla-games |archive-date=19 January 2022 |access-date=19 January 2022}}</ref> Using [[Motion capture|motion capturing]], Aloy's motions were acted by [[Peggy Vrijens]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Schmid |first=Timo |date=22 February 2022 |title=Peggy Vrijens hoofdpersoon in wereldberoemde game |language=nl |work=1Limburg |url=https://www.1limburg.nl/peggy-vrijens-hoofdpersoon-wereldberoemde-game |url-status=dead |access-date=22 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222161625/https://www.1limburg.nl/peggy-vrijens-hoofdpersoon-wereldberoemde-game |archive-date=22 February 2022}}</ref>

The PlayStation 5's increased processing power, custom [[solid-state drive]] storage, Tempest Engine, and [[DualShock#DualSense|DualSense]] controller provides the game with advanced haptic feedback, [[3D audio effect|3D spatial audio]], enhanced lighting, special water rendering, improved visual effects, and reduced loading times.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Riley |first=Sean |date=14 June 2020 |title=Horizon: Forbidden West release date, gameplay, story and more |url=https://www.laptopmag.com/au/news/horizon-forbidden-west-release-date-gameplay-story-and-more |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901213809/https://www.laptopmag.com/au/news/horizon-forbidden-west-release-date-gameplay-story-and-more |archive-date=1 September 2020 |access-date=30 July 2020 |website=Laptop Mag}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wood |first=Chandler |date=20 August 2020 |title=Developers Detail Unique Ways They Are Using the PS5 DualSense Controller's Adaptive Triggers and Haptic Feedback |url=https://www.playstationlifestyle.net/2020/08/20/developers-ps5-dualsense-controller/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019180725/https://www.playstationlifestyle.net/2020/08/20/developers-ps5-dualsense-controller/ |archive-date=19 October 2020 |access-date=25 August 2020 |website=Playstation Lifestyle}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Barker |first=Sammy |date=18 June 2020 |title=PS5 Will Ensure There's Virtually No Loading Screens in Horizon Forbidden West |url=https://www.pushsquare.com/news/2020/06/ps5_will_ensure_theres_virtually_no_loading_screens_in_horizon_forbidden_west |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618030655/https://www.pushsquare.com/news/2020/06/ps5_will_ensure_theres_virtually_no_loading_screens_in_horizon_forbidden_west |archive-date=18 June 2020 |access-date=28 July 2020 |website=PushSquare}}</ref> This version has an optional "performance mode" at 60 frames per second with a lower base resolution,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sheridan |first=Connor |date=3 June 2021 |title=Horizon Forbidden West 60 FPS Performance Mode confirmed for PS5 |url=https://www.gamesradar.com/horizon-forbidden-west-60-fps-performance-mode-confirmed-for-ps5/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603164324/https://www.gamesradar.com/horizon-forbidden-west-60-fps-performance-mode-confirmed-for-ps5/ |archive-date=3 June 2021 |access-date=5 June 2021 |website=GamesRadar+}}</ref> and an updated version of the [[Decima (game engine)|Decima]] engine supporting [[high dynamic range]].<ref name="State of Play IGN" />

== Release ==
''Horizon Forbidden West'' was announced during Sony's PlayStation 5 reveal event in June 2020 with a planned release in 2021.<ref name="Announcement IGN" /><ref name="Horizon Forbidden West – Guerrilla Talks" /><ref name="ReleasePeriod">{{Cite web |last=Statt |first=Nick |date=9 November 2020 |title=Sony clarifies when to expect some of the PS5's biggest 2021 games |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/11/9/21556505/sony-ps5-horizon-forbidden-west-release-date-ratchet-and-clank-rift-apart-2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128215331/https://www.theverge.com/2020/11/9/21556505/sony-ps5-horizon-forbidden-west-release-date-ratchet-and-clank-rift-apart-2021 |archive-date=28 November 2020 |access-date=9 November 2020 |website=[[The Verge]]}}</ref> On 27 May 2021, Guerrilla Games showcased a 14-minute PlayStation 5 gameplay demo for the game in Sony's State of Play presentation.<ref name="State of Play IGN" /> In June 2021, head of [[PlayStation Studios]] Hermen Hulst said they were on track for a late 2021 release but development was being partly [[Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the video game industry|impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic]], as they were having trouble getting access to performance capture and talent.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shuman |first=Sid |date=2 June 2021 |title=Hermen Hulst Q&A: What's Next for PlayStation Studios |url=https://blog.playstation.com/2021/06/02/hermen-hulst-qa-whats-next-for-playstation-studios/#sf246401757 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603203837/https://blog.playstation.com/2021/06/02/hermen-hulst-qa-whats-next-for-playstation-studios/#sf246401757 |archive-date=3 June 2021 |access-date=2 June 2021 |website=[[PlayStation.Blog]] |publisher=[[Sony Interactive Entertainment]]}}</ref> On 25 August 2021, it was announced that its release had been delayed to 18 February 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sarkar |first=Samit |date=25 August 2021 |title=Horizon Forbidden West launching in February 2022 |url=https://www.polygon.com/22641722/horizon-forbidden-west-release-date-delay-ps5-ps4 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825203236/https://www.polygon.com/22641722/horizon-forbidden-west-release-date-delay-ps5-ps4 |archive-date=25 August 2021 |access-date=25 August 2021 |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]}}</ref> The game had "[[gone gold]]" on 27 January 2022, according to Guerrilla Games, meaning that physical copies were ready to be produced, with any further development delivered through [[Patch (computing)|online software updates]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smets |first=Angie |date=27 January 2022 |title=Guerrilla celebrates the game going gold with a first look at gameplay on the PS4 Pro console. |url=https://blog.playstation.com/2022/01/27/a-glimpse-at-horizon-forbidden-west-ps4-gameplay/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127130446/https://blog.playstation.com/2022/01/27/a-glimpse-at-horizon-forbidden-west-ps4-gameplay/ |archive-date=27 January 2022 |access-date=27 January 2022 |website=PlayStation.Blog}}</ref>

The PlayStation 4 version can be freely upgraded to the PlayStation 5 version.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 September 2021 |title=UPDATE: Pre-order Horizon Forbidden West now: Collector's and Digital Deluxe Editions detailed |url=https://blog.playstation.com/2021/09/04/pre-order-horizon-forbidden-west-now-collectors-and-digital-deluxe-editions-detailed/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904230416/https://blog.playstation.com/2021/09/04/pre-order-horizon-forbidden-west-now-collectors-and-digital-deluxe-editions-detailed/ |archive-date=4 September 2021 |access-date=16 January 2022 |website=PlayStation.Blog |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Reed |first=Chris |date=2 September 2021 |title=Horizon Forbidden West: Here's What Comes in Each Edition |url=https://www.ign.com/articles/horizon-forbidden-west-release-date-collectors-edition-regalla |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902181251/https://www.ign.com/articles/horizon-forbidden-west-release-date-collectors-edition-regalla |archive-date=2 September 2021 |access-date=16 January 2022 |website=IGN |language=en}}</ref> The PlayStation 4 version comes on two [[Blu-ray]] discs containing 97 GB, and the PlayStation 5 version comes on one [[Ultra HD Blu-ray]] disc containing 98 GB.<ref name="large">{{Cite web |last=Bains |first=Callum |date=14 February 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West is so large it needs two discs on PS4 |url=https://www.techradar.com/news/horizon-forbidden-west-is-so-large-it-needs-two-discs-on-ps4 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214122213/https://www.techradar.com/news/horizon-forbidden-west-is-so-large-it-needs-two-discs-on-ps4 |archive-date=14 February 2022 |access-date=17 February 2022 |website=TechRadar}}</ref>

A comic book series, set after the events of the first game, was published by [[Titan Comics]] on 5 August 2020.<ref name="Comic VGC" /> On 3 June 2021, Guerilla released an [[extended play]] (EP) titled ''The Isle of Spires'' composed of four tracks.<ref name="Composers info" /> On 16 February 2022, Argentine singer [[Nathy Peluso]] released "Emergencia", an electronic single inspired by the video game. In the music video, Peluso takes on the role of Aloy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 February 2022 |title=Nathy Peluso lanza "Emergencia", en asociación con PlayStation |url=https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2022/02/18/nathy-peluso-emergencia-playstation-horizon-forbidden-world-huston-zona-pop/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218091255/https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2022/02/18/nathy-peluso-emergencia-playstation-horizon-forbidden-world-huston-zona-pop/ |archive-date=18 February 2022 |access-date=18 February 2022 |website=CNN |language=es}}</ref>

A [[downloadable content|downloadable expansion]] titled ''Horizon Forbidden West: Burning Shores'' was announced at [[The Game Awards 2022]]. It was released for the PlayStation 5 version on 19 April 2023.<ref name="BurningShores">{{Cite web |last=Marks |first=Tom |date=9 December 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West: Burning Shores DLC Announced, Exclusive to PS5 |url=https://www.ign.com/articles/horizon-forbidden-west-burning-shores-dlc-announced-exclusive-to-ps5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209140831/https://www.ign.com/articles/horizon-forbidden-west-burning-shores-dlc-announced-exclusive-to-ps5 |archive-date=9 December 2022 |access-date=9 December 2022 |website=[[IGN]]}}</ref>

In September 2023, it was announced that the game and the ''Burning Shores'' expansion would be collected together and re-released as ''Horizon Forbidden West - Complete Edition'' for PlayStation 5 on 6 October 2023, and would release for [[Windows]] on 21 March 2024.<ref name="complete">{{Cite web |last=Romano |first=Sal |date=September 27, 2023 |title=Horizon Forbidden West Complete Edition launches October 6 for PS5, in early 2024 for PC |url=https://www.gematsu.com/2023/09/horizon-forbidden-west-complete-edition-launches-october-6-for-ps5-in-early-2024-for-pc |website=Gematsu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Romano |first1=Sal |title=Horizon Forbidden West Complete Edition for PC launches March 21 |url=https://www.gematsu.com/2024/01/horizon-forbidden-west-complete-edition-for-pc-launches-march-21 |website=Gematsu |access-date=25 January 2024}}</ref>

== Reception ==
{{Video game reviews
| MC = PS5: 88/100<ref name="MCPS5">{{cite Metacritic |id=horizon-forbidden-west |title=Horizon Forbidden West for PlayStation 5 Reviews |type=game |vgtype=playstation-5 |access-date=14 February 2022}}</ref> PS4: 83/100<ref name="MCPS4">{{cite Metacritic |id=horizon-forbidden-west |title=Horizon Forbidden West for PlayStation 4 Reviews |type=game |vgtype=playstation-4 |access-date=18 March 2022}}</ref>
| Destruct = 8.5/10<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carter |first=Chris |date=14 February 2022 |title=Review: Horizon Forbidden West |url=https://www.destructoid.com/reviews/review-horizon-forbidden-west-ps5-version/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214103319/https://www.destructoid.com/reviews/review-horizon-forbidden-west-ps5-version/ |archive-date=14 February 2022 |access-date=14 February 2022 |website=[[Destructoid]]}}</ref>
| EZA = 9/10<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Brandon |date=14 February 2022 |title=Review: Horizon Forbidden West |url=https://easyallies.com/#!/review/horizon-forbidden-west |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170902041336/https://easyallies.com/%23!/review/resident-evil-7-biohazard#!/review/horizon-forbidden-west |archive-date=2 September 2017 |access-date=14 February 2022 |publisher=[[Easy Allies]]}}</ref>
| EGM = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Harmon |first=Josh |date=14 February 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West review |url=https://egmnow.com/horizon-forbidden-west-review/ |url-status=live |magazine=Electronic Gaming Monthly |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214182637/https://egmnow.com/horizon-forbidden-west-review/ |archive-date=14 February 2022 |access-date=14 February 2022}}</ref>
| GI = 9.25/10<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Wallace |first=Kimberly |date=14 February 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West Review – Leaping To Greater Heights |url=https://www.gameinformer.com/review/horizon-forbidden-west/horizon-forbidden-west-review-leaping-to-greater-heights |url-status=live |magazine=[[Game Informer]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214080814/https://www.gameinformer.com/review/horizon-forbidden-west/horizon-forbidden-west-review-leaping-to-greater-heights |archive-date=14 February 2022 |access-date=14 February 2022}}</ref>
| GameRev = {{Rating|9|10}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Faulkner |first=Jason |date=14 February 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West Review: 'An Early Contender for Game of the Year' |url=https://www.gamerevolution.com/review/702212-horizon-forbidden-west-review-is-it-worth-buying-playing-ps4-ps5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214095457/https://www.gamerevolution.com/review/702212-horizon-forbidden-west-review-is-it-worth-buying-playing-ps4-ps5 |archive-date=14 February 2022 |access-date=14 February 2022 |website=[[GameRevolution]]}}</ref>
| GSpot = 8/10<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hornshaw |first=Phil |date=14 February 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West Review – Squad Goals |url=https://www.gamespot.com/reviews/horizon-forbidden-west-review/1900-6417826/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214085903/https://www.gamespot.com/reviews/horizon-forbidden-west-review/1900-6417826/ |archive-date=14 February 2022 |access-date=14 February 2022 |website=[[GameSpot]]}}</ref>
| GRadar = {{Rating|4.5|5}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Loveridge |first=Same |date=14 February 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West Review: "Nothing Short Of Phenomenal" |url=https://www.gamesradar.com/horizon-forbidden-west-review/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214183002/https://www.gamesradar.com/horizon-forbidden-west-review/ |archive-date=14 February 2022 |access-date=14 February 2022 |website=[[GamesRadar]]}}</ref>
| HCG = 4/5<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunsmore |first=Kevin |date=14 February 2022 |title=Review: Horizon Forbidden West |url=https://hardcoregamer.com/reviews/review-horizon-forbidden-west/418714/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214203245/https://hardcoregamer.com/reviews/review-horizon-forbidden-west/418714/ |archive-date=14 February 2022 |access-date=14 February 2022 |publisher=Hardcore Gamer}}</ref>
| IGN = 9/10<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cardy |first=Simon |date=14 February 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West Review |url=https://www.ign.com/articles/horizon-forbidden-west-review |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214090845/https://www.ign.com/articles/horizon-forbidden-west-review |archive-date=14 February 2022 |access-date=14 February 2022 |website=[[IGN]]}}</ref>
| PSQ = {{Rating|9|10}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tailby |first=Stephen |date=14 February 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West Review (PS5) |url=https://www.pushsquare.com/reviews/ps5/horizon-forbidden-west |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214080244/https://www.pushsquare.com/reviews/ps5/horizon-forbidden-west |archive-date=14 February 2022 |access-date=14 February 2022 |publisher=[[Push Square]]}}</ref>
| SN = 9/10<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lavoy |first=Bill |date=14 February 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West review: Big machine |url=https://www.shacknews.com/article/128800/horizon-forbidden-west-review-big-machine |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214081632/https://www.shacknews.com/article/128800/horizon-forbidden-west-review-big-machine |archive-date=14 February 2022 |access-date=14 February 2022 |publisher=[[Shacknews]]}}</ref>
| TG = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=MacDonald |first=Keza |date=14 February 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West review – an eccentric adventure with robot dinosaurs |url=https://www.theguardian.com/games/2022/feb/14/horizon-forbidden-west-review-an-eccentric-adventure-with-robot-dinosaurs |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214093829/https://www.theguardian.com/games/2022/feb/14/horizon-forbidden-west-review-an-eccentric-adventure-with-robot-dinosaurs |archive-date=14 February 2022 |access-date=14 February 2022 |website=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref>
| VG247 = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Peppiatt |first=Dom |date=14 February 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West review: Another beautiful string to Aloy's bow, despite some open world drawbacks |url=https://www.vg247.com/horizon-forbidden-west-review-ps5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214214818/https://www.vg247.com/horizon-forbidden-west-review-ps5 |archive-date=14 February 2022 |access-date=14 February 2022 |website=[[VG247]]}}</ref>
| VG = 8/10<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wise |first=Josh |date=14 February 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West review |url=https://www.videogamer.com/reviews/horizon-forbidden-west-review/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214090418/https://www.videogamer.com/reviews/horizon-forbidden-west-review/ |archive-date=14 February 2022 |access-date=14 February 2022 |website=VideoGamer.com}}</ref>
}}

''Horizon Forbidden West'' received "generally favorable" reviews from critics, according to [[review aggregator]] website [[Metacritic]].<ref name="MCPS5" /><ref name="MCPS4" />

Many critics praised the game's larger setting compared to the first entry. In a review published by ''[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]'', Swapna Krishna praised ''Horizon Forbidden West'' as a successful open world game and as a manageable alternative to the less forgiving gameplay of ''[[The Witcher 3]]'',<ref name="wired">{{Cite magazine |last=Krishna |first=Swapna |date=23 February 2022 |title='Horizon Forbidden West' Does Open Worlds Right |url=https://www.wired.com/story/horizon-forbidden-west-ope-worlds/ |url-status=live |magazine=Wired |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223140929/https://www.wired.com/story/horizon-forbidden-west-ope-worlds/ |archive-date=23 February 2022 |access-date=23 February 2022}}</ref> while in a review for [[NPR]], Krishna compared the game favorably to the first in the series, writing that it "continues the achievements of its predecessor" while "seeking to improve upon them in every way".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Krishna |first=Swapna |date=16 February 2022 |title=Review: 'Horizon Forbidden West' brings a personal saga to a primal post-apocalypse |language=en |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/02/16/1081118985/review-horizon-forbidden-west-brings-a-personal-saga-to-a-primal-post-apocalypse |url-status=live |access-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223181639/https://www.npr.org/2022/02/16/1081118985/review-horizon-forbidden-west-brings-a-personal-saga-to-a-primal-post-apocalypse |archive-date=23 February 2022}}</ref> Jason Schreier, in a review for [[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]], echoed this sentiment, writing "The mantra for ''Horizon Forbidden West''{{'}}s development appears to be: make everything bigger, better and more beautiful."<ref name="Schreier">{{Cite news |last=Schreier |first=Jason |date=14 February 2022 |title=Sony's Horizon Forbidden West Is a Worthy PlayStation Sequel |work=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-02-14/sony-s-horizon-forbidden-west-is-a-worthy-playstation-sequel?sref=CIpmV6x8 |url-status=live |access-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223190628/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-02-14/sony-s-horizon-forbidden-west-is-a-worthy-playstation-sequel?sref=CIpmV6x8 |archive-date=23 February 2022}}</ref> Conversely, in a mixed review for ''[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]'', Dan Silver characterized the game's open world and scale as "overwhelming".<ref name="telegraph">{{Cite news |last=Silver |first=Dan |date=14 February 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West review: machine-busting action RPG ramps up the scale for sprawling sequel |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gaming/features/horizon-forbidden-west-review-machine-busting-action-rpg-ramps/ |url-status=live |access-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222153726/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gaming/features/horizon-forbidden-west-review-machine-busting-action-rpg-ramps/ |archive-date=22 February 2022}}</ref>

Some critics noted technical issues at launch, ranging from minor graphical issues, to [[Crash (computing)|crashes]] and losses of [[Saved game|save files]].<ref name="Schreier" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Frisch |first=Benjamin |date=14 February 2022 |title=This New Game Is So Good, It's Worth Buying a Whole System Just to Play It |language=en |work=Slate Magazine |url=https://slate.com/culture/2022/02/horizon-forbidden-west-review-ps5.html |url-status=live |access-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223005008/https://slate.com/culture/2022/02/horizon-forbidden-west-review-ps5.html |archive-date=23 February 2022}}</ref>

=== Sales ===
In the United Kingdom, ''Horizon Forbidden West'' was digitally the best-selling game during the week of release. At least 49% of all sales in the UK were made digitally.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 February 2022 |title=Almost Half of Horizon: Forbidden West Sales in UK Were Digital |url=https://gamerant.com/horizon-forbidden-west-uk-sales-digital/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301175506/https://gamerant.com/horizon-forbidden-west-uk-sales-digital/ |archive-date=1 March 2022 |access-date=1 March 2022 |website=Game Rant}}</ref> By the end of 2022, the game had sold 530,454 units in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dring |first=Christopher |date=7 March 2023 |title=Average selling price of games rose nearly 7% in the UK last year |url=https://www.gamesindustry.biz/average-selling-price-of-games-rose-nearly-7-in-the-uk-last-year |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308214317/https://www.gamesindustry.biz/average-selling-price-of-games-rose-nearly-7-in-the-uk-last-year |archive-date=8 March 2023 |access-date=8 March 2022 |website=GamesIndustry.biz}}</ref>

In Germany, the game had sold over 200,000 units during its launch month.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 March 2022 |title=Aus der Zwischenwelt in den Verbotenen Westen: Die game Sales Awards im Februar |url=https://www.game.de/aus-der-zwischenwelt-in-den-verbotenen-westen-die-game-sales-awards-im-februar/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317120922/https://www.game.de/aus-der-zwischenwelt-in-den-verbotenen-westen-die-game-sales-awards-im-februar/ |archive-date=17 March 2022 |access-date=18 March 2022 |language=German}}</ref>

In Japan, the PlayStation 4 version was the third best-selling retail game during its first week of release in Japan, with 48,476 physical units being sold. The PlayStation 5 version sold 43,012 physical units throughout the same week, making it the fourth best-selling retail game of the week in the country.<ref name="Gematsusales">{{Cite web |last=Romano |first=Sal |date=24 February 2022 |title=Famitsu Sales: 2/14/22 – 2/20/22 [Update] |url=https://www.gematsu.com/2022/02/famitsu-sales-2-14-22-2-20-22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319163655/https://www.gematsu.com/2022/02/famitsu-sales-2-14-22-2-20-22 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |access-date=7 April 2022 |website=Gematsu}}</ref> By 26 March 2023, the game had sold 155,267 units in Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.famitsu.com/news/202305/31303939.html |title=23年度はPS5の売上がゲーム市場活性化のカギ、Switchの旧作ソフトが売れ続ける理由は? "2023年春季ゲーム産業セミナー"リポート |trans-title=23年度はPS5の売上がゲーム市場活性化のカギ、Switchの旧作ソフトが売れ続ける理由は? “2023年春季ゲーム産業セミナー”リポート |language=Japanese |date=31 May 2023 |access-date=3 June 2023}}</ref>

In May 2023, Sony announced that ''Horizon Forbidden West'' had sold over 8.4 million units by 16 April 2023.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nme.com/news/gaming-news/horizon-forbidden-west-has-sold-over-8-4million-copies-3441203 |title='Horizon Forbidden West' has sold over 8.4million copies |website=[[NME]] |date=9 May 2023 |access-date=9 May 2023}}</ref>

=== Awards ===
In July 2022 ''Forbidden West'' won the best game award and the best Visual Art award at the 2022 Star Awards.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hopley |first=Alex |date=14 July 2022 |title=Horizon Forbidden West Has Already Won a Game of the Year Award |url=https://gamerant.com/horizon-forbidden-west-wins-game-of-the-year-award/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718131942/https://gamerant.com/horizon-forbidden-west-wins-game-of-the-year-award/ |archive-date=18 July 2022 |access-date=18 July 2022 |website=Game Rant |language=en-US}}</ref> The game was up for 7 nominations at [[The Game Awards 2022]], including Game of the Year, but lost to ''[[Elden Ring]]''.<ref name="GameAward2022">{{Cite magazine |date=14 November 2022 |title=The Full List of the 2022 Game Awards Nominees |url=https://www.gameinformer.com/2022/11/14/the-full-list-of-the-2022-game-awards-nominees |url-status=live |magazine=[[Game Informer]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114175047/https://www.gameinformer.com/2022/11/14/the-full-list-of-the-2022-game-awards-nominees |archive-date=14 November 2022 |access-date=14 November 2022}}</ref> It received five nominations at the [[19th British Academy Games Awards]], winning [[British Academy Games Award for Technical Achievement|Technical Achievement]]. It also received eight nominations at the [[26th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards]], including [[D.I.C.E. Award for Game of the Year|Game of the Year]].<ref name="DICE awards">{{Cite web |last=Kim |first=Matt |date=12 January 2023 |title=26th Annual DICE Awards Game of the Year Nominees Announced |url=https://www.ign.com/articles/26th-annual-dice-awards-game-of-the-year-nominees-announced |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112184950/https://www.ign.com/articles/26th-annual-dice-awards-game-of-the-year-nominees-announced |archive-date=12 January 2023 |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=[[IGN]]}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col"|Year
! scope="col"|Award
! scope="col"|Category
! scope="col"|Result
! scope="col" class="unsortable"|{{refh}}
|-
|style="text-align:center;" rowspan="11"|2022
| rowspan="4"|[[Golden Joystick Awards]]
| [[Golden Joystick Award for Game of the Year|Ultimate Game of the Year]]
|{{Nominated}}
|style="text-align:center;" rowspan="4" | <ref name="gj2022">{{Cite web |last=Loveridge |first=Sam |date=22 November 2022 |title=Here are all the Golden Joystick Awards 2022 winners |url=https://www.gamesradar.com/golden-joystick-awards-2022-winners/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122212535/https://www.gamesradar.com/golden-joystick-awards-2022-winners/ |archive-date=22 November 2022 |access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref>
|-
| Best Storytelling
| {{Won}}
|-
| Best Visual Design
| {{Nominated}}
|-
| PlayStation Game of the Year
| {{Nominated}}
|-
|rowspan="7"|[[The Game Awards 2022]]
|[[The Game Award for Game of the Year|Game of the Year]]
|{{nominated}}
|style="text-align:center;" rowspan="7"|<ref name="GameAward2022" />
|-
|Best Game Direction
|{{nominated}}
|-
|Best Narrative
|{{nominated}}
|-
|Best Art Direction
|{{nominated}}
|-
|Best Audio Design
|{{nominated}}
|-
|Best Performance (Ashly Burch)
|{{nominated}}
|-
|Best Action/Adventure Game
|{{nominated}}
|-
|style="text-align:center;" rowspan="23"|2023
|rowspan="3"|[[New York Game Awards]]
|Statue of Liberty Award for Best World
|{{nominated}}
|style="text-align:center;" rowspan="3" | <ref>{{Cite web |last=Bankhurst |first=Adam |date=18 January 2023 |title=New York Game Awards 2023: Elden Ring Wins Two Awards as Phil Spencer Is Honored |url=https://www.ign.com/articles/new-york-game-awards-2023-elden-ring-wins-two-awards-as-phil-spencer-is-honored |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118033959/https://www.ign.com/articles/new-york-game-awards-2023-elden-ring-wins-two-awards-as-phil-spencer-is-honored |archive-date=18 January 2023 |access-date=28 January 2023 |website=[[IGN]]}}</ref>
|-
|Tin Pan Alley Award for Best Music in a Game
|{{nominated}}
|-
|Great White Way Award for Best Acting in a Game (Ashly Burch)
|{{nominated}}
|-
|rowspan="8"|[[26th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards]]
|[[D.I.C.E. Award for Game of the Year|Game of the Year]]
|{{nominated}}
|style="text-align:center;" rowspan="8" | <ref name="DICE awards"/>
|-
|[[D.I.C.E. Award for Adventure Game of the Year|Adventure Game of the Year]]
|{{nominated}}
|-
|[[D.I.C.E. Award for Outstanding Achievement in Animation|Outstanding Achievement in Animation]]
|{{nominated}}
|-
|[[D.I.C.E. Award for Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction|Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction]]
|{{nominated}}
|-
|[[D.I.C.E. Award for Outstanding Achievement in Character|Outstanding Achievement in Character]] (Aloy)
|{{nominated}}
|-
|[[D.I.C.E. Award for Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction|Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction]]
|{{nominated}}
|-
|[[D.I.C.E. Award for Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition|Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition]]
|{{nominated}}
|-
|[[D.I.C.E. Award for Outstanding Technical Achievement|Outstanding Technical Achievement]]
|{{nominated}}
|-
|[[50th Annie Awards]]
|[[Annie Award for Outstanding Achievement for Character Animation in a Video Game|Best Character Animation – Video Game]]
|{{nom}}
|style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{Cite web |last=Pedersen |first=Erik |date=17 January 2023 |title=Annie Awards Nominations: 'Guillermo del Toro's Pinocchio' & 'Marcel The Shell' Lead Field |url=https://deadline.com/2023/01/annie-awards-nominations-2023-list-1235224045/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117165203/https://deadline.com/2023/01/annie-awards-nominations-2023-list-1235224045/ |archive-date=17 January 2023 |access-date=17 January 2023 |website=[[Deadline Hollywood]]}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |last=Giardina |first=Carolyn |date=25 February 2023 |title='Guillermo Del Toro's Pinocchio' Wins Five Trophies Including the Top Prize at the 50th Annie Awards |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/annie-awards-animation-2023-winners-1235334278/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226092842/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/annie-awards-animation-2023-winners-1235334278/ |archive-date=26 February 2023 |access-date=30 March 2023 |website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="6"|[[23rd Game Developers Choice Awards]]
|[[Game Developers Choice Award for Game of the Year|Game of the Year]]
|{{Sho|Honored}}
|style="text-align:center;" rowspan="6" | <ref>{{Cite web |last=Mejia |first=Ozzie |date=26 January 2023 |title=Elden Ring & Stray lead Game Developers Choice Awards 2023 nominees |url=https://www.shacknews.com/article/133863/gdc-2023-award-nominees |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127040625/https://www.shacknews.com/article/133863/gdc-2023-award-nominees |archive-date=27 January 2023 |access-date=28 January 2023 |website=[[Shacknews]]}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |last=Makar |first=Connor |date=23 March 2023 |title=Elden Ring wins Game of the Year at the Game Developers Choice Awards |url=https://www.vg247.com/elden-ring-wins-game-of-the-year-at-the-game-developers-choice-awards |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329204304/https://www.vg247.com/elden-ring-wins-game-of-the-year-at-the-game-developers-choice-awards |archive-date=29 March 2023 |access-date=24 March 2023 |website=[[VG247]]}}</ref>
|-
|Best Audio
|{{nom}}
|-
|Innovation Award
|{{Sho|Honored}}
|-
|Best Narrative
|{{Sho|Honored}}
|-
|Best Technology
|{{nom}}
|-
|Best Visual Art
|{{nom}}
|-
| rowspan=5| [[19th British Academy Games Awards|British Academy Games Awards]]
| [[British Academy Games Award for Animation|Animation]]
| {{nom}}
|style="text-align:center;" rowspan=5| <ref>{{Cite web |date=2 March 2023 |title=2023 BAFTA Games Awards: The Nominations |url=https://www.bafta.org/games/awards/2023-nominations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302164040/https://www.bafta.org/games/awards/2023-nominations |archive-date=2 March 2023 |access-date=2 March 2023 |publisher=[[BAFTA]]}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |date=30 March 2023 |title=2023 BAFTA Games Awards: The Winners |url=https://www.bafta.org/games/awards/2023-nominations-winners |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402053434/https://www.bafta.org/games/awards/2023-nominations-winners |archive-date=2 April 2023 |access-date=30 March 2023 |publisher=[[BAFTA]]}}</ref>
|-
| [[British Academy Games Award for Audio Achievement|Audio Achievement]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[British Academy Games Award for Game Design|Game Design]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[British Academy Games Award for Performer in a Supporting Role|Performer in a Supporting Role]] (Alison Jaye as Alva)
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[British Academy Games Award for Technical Achievement|Technical Achievement]]
| {{won}}
|}

== Sequel ==
In April 2023 developer [[Guerrilla Games]] confirmed plans about "expanding the world of Horizon with [[Aloy]]'s next adventure" hinting that a possible direct sequel to ''Forbidden West'' is likely to be in development.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bonthuys |first=Darryn |date=24 April 2023 |title=Horizon Forbidden West Sequel in Development, Guerrilla Confirms |url=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/horizon-forbidden-west-sequel-in-development-guerrilla-confirms/1100-6513480/ |access-date=24 April 2023 |website=Gamespot}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=



<ref name="Announcement IGN">{{Cite web |last=Dornbush |first=Jonathon |date=11 June 2020 |title=Horizon 2: Forbidden West Announced for PS5 |url=https://www.ign.com/articles/ps5-horizon-zero-dawn-2-sequel |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708205149/https://www.ign.com/articles/ps5-horizon-zero-dawn-2-sequel |archive-date=8 July 2020 |access-date=11 June 2020 |website=[[IGN]] |publisher=[[Ziff Davis]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Announcement GS">{{Cite web |last1=Woo |first1=Ginny |last2=Gurwin |first2=Gabe |date=11 June 2020 |title=Horizon: Forbidden West Confirmed At PS5 Reveal Event |url=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/horizon-forbidden-west-confirmed-at-ps5-reveal-eve/1100-6478302/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611230835/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/horizon-forbidden-west-confirmed-at-ps5-reveal-eve/1100-6478302/ |archive-date=11 June 2020 |access-date=11 June 2020 |website=[[GameSpot]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Announcement GR">{{Cite web |last1=Avard |first1=Alex |last2=Sheridan |first2=Connor |date=11 June 2020 |title=Horizon Forbidden West is the Zero Dawn sequel and it's headed to PS5 |url=https://www.gamesradar.com/horizon-forbidden-west-ps5-reveal/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611230834/https://www.gamesradar.com/horizon-forbidden-west-ps5-reveal/ |archive-date=11 June 2020 |access-date=11 June 2020 |website=[[GamesRadar+]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Announcement Poly">{{Cite web |last=Sarkar |first=Samit |date=11 June 2020 |title=Horizon Forbidden West announced for PS5 |url=https://www.polygon.com/2020/6/11/21284436/horizon-forbidden-west-ps5-playstation-5-trailer |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611212935/https://www.polygon.com/2020/6/11/21284436/horizon-forbidden-west-ps5-playstation-5-trailer |archive-date=11 June 2020 |access-date=11 June 2020 |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Horizon Forbidden West – Guerrilla Talks">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qIyz_7Hz3U4 |title=Horizon Forbidden West – Guerrilla Talks {{!}} PS5 |date=17 June 2020 |publisher=[[PlayStation]] |access-date=5 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226084038/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qIyz_7Hz3U4 |archive-date=26 February 2022 |url-status=live |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Comic VGC">{{Cite web |last=Robinson |first=Andy |date=21 May 2020 |title=Horizon Zero Dawn's sequel comic will now release in August |url=https://www.videogameschronicle.com/news/horizon-zero-dawns-sequel-comic-will-now-release-in-august/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200622211016/https://www.videogameschronicle.com/news/horizon-zero-dawns-sequel-comic-will-now-release-in-august/ |archive-date=22 June 2020 |access-date=22 June 2020 |website=[[Video Games Chronicle]] |publisher=[[Gamer Network]]}}</ref>

<ref name="State of Play IGN">{{Cite web |last=Kat |first=Alex |date=27 May 2021 |title=Horizon Forbidden West State of Play: Lots of New Gameplay, But No Release Date Yet |url=https://www.ign.com/articles/horizon-forbidden-west-new-gameplay-state-of-play |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603145155/https://www.ign.com/articles/horizon-forbidden-west-new-gameplay-state-of-play |archive-date=3 June 2021 |access-date=3 June 2021 |website=[[IGN]] |publisher=[[Ziff Davis]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Gameplay updates improvements">{{Cite web |last=Jonathon |first=Dornbush |date=3 June 2021 |title=Horizon Forbidden West: New Details on Free Climbing, Combat Revealed |url=https://www.ign.com/articles/horizon-forbidden-west-gameplay-open-world-combat |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603121419/https://www.ign.com/articles/horizon-forbidden-west-gameplay-open-world-combat |archive-date=3 June 2021 |access-date=3 June 2021 |website=[[IGN]] |publisher=[[Ziff Davis]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Composers info">{{Cite web |last=McAllister |first=Gillen |date=3 June 2021 |title=The music of Horizon Forbidden West: meet the composers |url=https://blog.playstation.com/2021/06/03/the-music-of-horizon-forbidden-west-meet-the-composers/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603130326/https://blog.playstation.com/2021/06/03/the-music-of-horizon-forbidden-west-meet-the-composers/ |archive-date=3 June 2021 |access-date=3 June 2021 |website=[[PlayStation.Blog]] |publisher=[[Sony Interactive Entertainment]]}}</ref>

}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
*{{Official website}}
* {{IMDb title|12496904}}
* {{MobyGames|/horizon-ii-forbidden-west}}
* {{Metacritic game}}

{{Guerrilla Games}}
{{Portal bar|Video games|Netherlands}}

[[Category:2022 video games]]
[[Category:Action role-playing video games]]
[[Category:Decima (game engine) games]]
[[Category:Fiction about immortality]]
[[Category:Genocide in fiction]]
[[Category:Golden Joystick Award winners]]
[[Category:Guerrilla Games games]]
[[Category:Horizon (video game series)]]
[[Category:Open-world video games]]
[[Category:PlayStation 4 games]]
[[Category:PlayStation 4 Pro enhanced games]]
[[Category:PlayStation 5 games]]
[[Category:Post-apocalyptic video games]]
[[Category:Science fiction video games]]
[[Category:Single-player video games]]
[[Category:Sony Interactive Entertainment games]]
[[Category:Video game sequels]]
[[Category:Video games about robots]]
[[Category:Video games adapted into comics]]
[[Category:Video games developed in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Video games featuring female protagonists]]
[[Category:Video games postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic]]
[[Category:Video games set in California]]
[[Category:Video games set in Los Angeles]]
[[Category:Video games set in Nevada]]
[[Category:Video games set in San Francisco]]
[[Category:Video games set in Utah]]
[[Category:Video games set in the 31st century]]
[[Category:Video games set in the Las Vegas Valley]]
[[Category:British Academy Games Award for Technical Achievement winners]]

Talk:Apple Lossless Audio Codec

2024-03-12T16:52:52Z

Asyncadr: /* Apple Lossless with Apple Music and DRM */ Reply

{{Talk header}}
{{WikiProject banner shell|class=Start|1=
{{WikiProject Computing |importance=Low |free-software=yes |free-software-importance=Low |software=yes }}
{{WikiProject Apple Inc. |importance=Low}}
}}

==Mentions==
* Inside iTunes preferences: "Import using: Apple Lossless Encoder"
* From [http://www.apple.com/quicktime/products/qt/ Apple - Quicktime Player]: "Apple Lossless Encoder".
* From [http://www.apple.com/itunes/import.html Apple - iTunes - Import Music]: "Apple Lossless encoder"
* From [http://www.apple.com/support/itunes/windows/tutorial/segment102082b.html Apple - iTunes Tutorial]: "You can also choose the Apple Lossless Encoder..."
I could go on and on, but I can't find a single example of "Apple Lossless Encoding" mentioned on the Apple website. Funnily enough, a Google search for ''[http://www.google.com/search?q=site:www.apple.com+%22lossless+encoding%22 site:www.apple.com "lossless encoding"]'' returns two pages that don't actually contain the phrase "lossless encoding". [[User:AlistairMcMillan|AlistairMcMillan]] 01:30, 9 Nov 2004 (UTC)

== paradox? ==

isn't a lossless encoder a paradox? i dont understand, nor does the article explain, how a compressed audio format could possibly be equillivant in quality to uncompressed data. any further explination would be appreciated. [[User:Cacophony|Cacophony]] 08:07, Nov 25, 2004 (UTC)

: Lossless compression formats are actually quite common. See [[Lossless data compression]]. [[User:AlistairMcMillan|AlistairMcMillan]] 15:15, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)

::Thanks for the link, that is what I was looking for. I'll add it to the "see also" section. [[User:Cacophony|Cacophony]] 17:47, Dec 2, 2004 (UTC)

::: That page is already linked from the article under the word "lossless". [[User:AlistairMcMillan|AlistairMcMillan]] 18:35, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)

::: I'm rather surprised that someone on the internet has never comes across loseless compression before. Zip? Gzip? Bzip2? Rar? Ace? 7zip? PNG? Gif? Have you really never encounter any of these before [[User:Nil Einne|Nil Einne]] 16:45, 27 October 2006 (UTC)
::::Until lossy compression became a term with a lot of exposure, most people never though about the fact that *zip programs were lossless, that's all. — [[User:Saxifrage|Saxifrage]] [[User talk:Saxifrage|✎]] 17:53, 27 October 2006 (UTC)
:::::Really: I would have thought most people knew zip is a form of compression. That's what they often use it for (okay some are primarily interested in the archiving functions)... And if it is a form of compression it doesn't take much thinking to realise it's lossless [[User:Nil Einne|Nil Einne]] ([[User talk:Nil Einne|talk]]) 11:57, 25 September 2009 (UTC)

== Lossless ITMS sales? ==
Can someone comment on whether or not it is possible to buy music through the iTMS in Apple Lossless format? [[User:65.200.4.130|65.200.4.130]]
: The music available from the iTMS is encoded in ~128 kbps AAC audio only. AFAIK lossless audio is not available. HTH, [[User:Bdesham|bdesham]] [[User talk:Bdesham|★]] 20:04, 5 November 2005 (UTC)
:: No, sorry. As of a few years ago iTMS has improved a little, but still currently only offers lossy *non-DRM* (previously it was DRM'd) at 256 kbps AAC audio files. This is much to the annoyance of a great many users who would like the choice hence do not buy anything there (choice is just not Apple's way of doing things though, hence another reason why rampant torrenting exists!). It's generally thought to have been chosen to be done like this because ALAC –and other lossless audio– file sizes tend to be 5x bigger, so both data transfer and data storage are issues. Storage is still a BIG issue on portable devices, with relatively very limited space on them even today (even the 160 GB on a Classic iPod is not much space if lossless is being used). Data transfer is an issue across the board. For ''local'' transfers, whether wired (though Thunderbolt deals with that now!) or wireless (wifi is still much too slow). And for wide-area ''internet'' transfers, most of the western world doesn't have fast enough connections (both downloading, but especially uploading too – large-scale data backup thus impossible currently!).

:: I exclusively encode manually into ALAC now though, because the amount of cheap non-portable computer-based storage available is massive now (12 TB of external Thunderbolt RAID-10 does nicely for audio [and video too]). So clearly, thinking longterm, if today storage is not an issue in the non-portable world, in a few years even in the portable world this stuff is not going to even be an issue. And data transfers will improve for both eventually. Hence, no reason to lose quality now if you're archiving content. [[User:Jimthing|Jimthing]] ([[User talk:Jimthing|talk]]) 06:48, 27 August 2011 (UTC)

== Needs sources etc ==

Quite a number of parts are in need of courses, for example:
:Testers using a selection of music have found that compressed files are about 40% to 60% the size of the originals depending on the kind of music, similar to other lossless formats. Compared to most other formats, Apple Lossless is not as difficult to decode, making it practical for a limited-power device such as an iPod.
[[User:Nil Einne|Nil Einne]] 16:43, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

:Yeah. I tagged the last sentence as needing a citation. The first could probably use one too, but since it's just corroborating a non-converserial statement by Apple, it's less of a big deal. — [[User:Saxifrage|Saxifrage]] [[User talk:Saxifrage|✎]] 17:54, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

:Well according to the [http://members.home.nl/w.speek/comparison.htm comparison] referenced in the article, the decoding speed of Apple Lossless is somewhere between that of [[FLAC]] and [[WavPack]]. So while it's not as difficult to decode as some other formats, I think saying "most other formats" is too ambiguous without actually saying which formats you're comparing to. It is accurate to say that Apple Lossless is suitable for playback on the iPod, however the [[Rockbox]] software can also play FLAC, WavPack, and Shorten on iPods.[http://www.rockbox.org/twiki/bin/view/Main/SoundCodecs#Current_status] There isn't anything particularly special about the technology in Apple Lossless, and the fact that it can be played on iPods is mentioned in the preceeding paragraph. So I don't see any reason to keep this sentence and I'm going to remove it. --[[User:Mcoder|Mcoder]] 02:29, 5 November 2006 (UTC)

Lossless audio coding is a huge topic for discussion. Lossless audio coding is based on 'Entropy' of the signal which actually is amount of redundant information present in audio data to be compressed. Its all involved with statistical algorithms like prediction and database creation/seach algorithm. —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment was added by [[Special:Contributions/{{{IP|{{{User|202.56.254.194}}}}}}|{{{IP|{{{User|202.56.254.194}}}}}}]] ([[User talk:{{{IP|{{{User|202.56.254.194}}}}}}|talk]]) {{{Time|08:42, 17 January 2007 (UTC)}}}

:Apple Lossless is based on [[linear predictive coding]]. Encoding the difference between the prediction and the actual signal is referred to as 'entropy coding'. This subject would be more appropriately addressed in the [[linear predictive coding]] article, rather than here. --[[User:Mcoder|Mcoder]] 03:50, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

== Add Link Back ==

I would like to see if anyone would object to me adding the link back to our site, [http://losslessaudio.blogspot.com/ The Lossless Audio Blog]? Our site tries to bridge the gap between the forums and the various EAC Guides by providing information on getting started with lossless audio formats as well as current news and information. Because the Wiki pages for lossless audio formats are such a great place for those learning about the various formats I feel that our site compliments this and have heard from a lot of users voicing the same opinion.

Thanks for the consideration!
[[User:Windmiller|Windmiller]] 12:27, 25 January 2007 (UTC)

Link Added [[User:Windmiller|Windmiller]] 14:07, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

:I visited this page and it appears to be one of those commercial sites that try to harvest clicks. There seemed to be zero information there at all, let alone a blog. [[User:Telosmachina|Telosmachina]] ([[User talk:Telosmachina|talk]]) 06:50, 3 March 2010 (UTC)

== low power? ==
<blockquote>
Furthermore, the speed at which it can be decoded makes it useful for a limited-power device such as the iPod.
</blockquote>

hm, according to the page listed as reference, both flac and shn have a better decoding performance ... not sure, whether this phrase adds any valuable information to the article ... would propose to remove it. [[Special:Contributions/85.127.84.54|85.127.84.54]] ([[User talk:85.127.84.54|talk]]) 18:42, 17 January 2009 (UTC)

I don't think that FLAC or SHN having better decoding performance necessarily makes ALAC's decoding performance poor.--[[Special:Contributions/69.254.67.10|69.254.67.10]] ([[User talk:69.254.67.10|talk]]) 16:24, 3 May 2009 (UTC)

:If there's data that shows that an iDevice runs longer or uses less energy playing FLAC than common lossy formats, then this should stay. I bet the contributor assumed it would, but would the increased data reads outweigh the reduced processing? It's not an encyclopedia-worthy assumption. I'm removing it.--[[Special:Contributions/67.170.192.66|67.170.192.66]] ([[User talk:67.170.192.66|talk]]) 18:27, 4 August 2012 (UTC)

::Sorry, but the comment is not stating it's better/worse than FLAC or other lossless, so should stay accordingly, unless proven otherwise as being entirely incorrect. The rest of your comment is baseless assumptions on others actions, whilst making assumptions on facts you don't know the answer to, hence should have been left alone accordingly. [[User:Jimthing|Jimthing]] ([[User talk:Jimthing|talk]]) 10:33, 7 January 2013 (UTC)

:::Is there any source for the claim that ALAC decoding is faster or consumes less energy than decoding any other codec? Is it less energy-consuming to play ALAC files than playing uncompressed PCM audio? I did not test (and the claim is not completely implausible) but it sounds a lot like marketing speech to me that needs a source.--[[User:Regression Tester|Regression Tester]] ([[User talk:Regression Tester|talk]]) 11:58, 7 January 2013 (UTC)

::::Cite added from professional audio mastering handbook. So this has been dealt with. [[User:Jimthing|Jimthing]] ([[User talk:Jimthing|talk]]) 16:45, 15 January 2013 (UTC)

::::I disagree: "Compared to most other formats" does not sound very reliable (or even informative) to me... --[[User:Regression Tester|Regression Tester]] ([[User talk:Regression Tester|talk]]) 18:38, 15 January 2013 (UTC)
::::Since no better source and no explanation was given, I reverted the change.--[[User:Regression Tester|Regression Tester]] ([[User talk:Regression Tester|talk]]) 10:13, 29 January 2013 (UTC)

:::::What? There is nothing to disagree with here. The cite clearly states facts perfectly well enough, "Compared to most other formats, '''Apple Lossless is not as difficult to decode, making it practical for a ''limited-power device, such as an iPod''.'''" That is perfectly informative to me and anyone else. As it's taken from a professional mastering engineering book aimed at mastering audio professionals, it's certainly reliable enough for WP, so I think we'll go with their facts on the matter, rather than a casual WP editor deciding they just don't like it for inexplained reasons. Thanks! [[User:Jimthing|Jimthing]] ([[User talk:Jimthing|talk]]) 00:33, 8 February 2013 (UTC)

::::::You highlighted the wrong part of the sentence: "Apple Lossless is not as difficult to decode, making it practical for a ''limited-power device, such as an iPod''." is fine, the problematic part is ''Compared to most other formats'': What could most other formats be? I cannot even guess it (and I know many formats very well). Allow me to repeat: I believe it is absolutely possible that alac is particularly well suited for embedded devices but such a (definitely non-obvious) claim needs a source. The claim that it is [better] than "most other formats" is completely ambiguous and vague and is therefore insufficient as a source on WP. (And I honestly wonder what an argumentum ad hominem has to do with the power needs of alac.)--[[User:Regression Tester|Regression Tester]] ([[User talk:Regression Tester|talk]]) 12:12, 9 February 2013 (UTC)
::::::I am not a native speaker but I think it would not be completely absurd to interpret the sentence "Compared to most other formats, Apple Lossless is not as difficult to decode" as "There are formats that are not as difficult to decode as Apple Lossless and therefore more suitable for low-power devices such as an iPod" completely contradicting your claim.--[[User:Regression Tester|Regression Tester]] ([[User talk:Regression Tester|talk]]) 12:21, 9 February 2013 (UTC)

:::::::Ignoring the ad hominem claim – it was plainly clear that my point was that most readers would trust the audio professional that wrote the audio professionals handbook we are talking about, over a WP editor's thoughts on whether the claim the professional makes is true or not (which was not in fact your point anyway, as it wasn't until your later comments above that you actually explained your de facto reasoning properly), regardless of it happening to be you or any other editor. So really, claiming this was to do with you directly, is ridiculously taking some sort of pointless offence.
:::::::Back to the actual issue. The cited sentence reads, "Compared to most other formats, Apple Lossless is not as difficult to decode, making it practical for a limited-power device, such as an iPod". There is nothing wrong with this statement. It doesn't claim that it is the best or worst format in the world ever for limited power devices, it simply claims it's better than "''most'' other formats" which is factually true, if you accept the audio professional would know what he is talking about (which we do, unless evidence states otherwise, hence it's a valid source). This statement doesn't claim to explain ''which'' formats, nor does it have to under WP guidelines. The statement "Furthermore, the speed at which it can be decoded makes it useful for limited-power devices such as iOS devices" I have tightened-up accordingly, to be more directly as per the cite; "Furthermore, compared to many other formats, it is not as difficult to decode, making it practical for a limited-power device, such as [[iOS]] devices." This is certainly a point of interest, as those using the format or considering doing so, may want to know if it will heavily impact their battery usage on "limited-power devices", hence being worthy of inclusion. [[User:Jimthing|Jimthing]] ([[User talk:Jimthing|talk]]) 21:45, 9 February 2013 (UTC)

: 2022 and the claim still stands. It is outright misleading. Go to [https://www.rockbox.org/wiki/CodecPerformanceComparison the source cited where it is actually measured], and compare with other lossless formats. ALAC measures as two to eight times as CPU-hungry as FLAC. Worse than the highest WavPack mode tested. Test includes iPod. The best thing you can say about ALAC is that it isn't as intensive as a well-known notorious CPU hog - that doesn't make ALAC any efficient at all. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/193.90.163.192|193.90.163.192]] ([[User talk:193.90.163.192#top|talk]]) 12:44, 2 January 2022 (UTC) 

== worst case ==
The compression attempt can backfire. I just compressed a 19 kbps WAV file (~500KB) with ALAC (with iTunes 10.6), and the result is a 217 kbps file. So I see there are no sanity checks in the implementation.--[[Special:Contributions/67.170.192.66|67.170.192.66]] ([[User talk:67.170.192.66|talk]]) 18:27, 4 August 2012 (UTC)
:"Sanity checks in the implementation" what's that supposed to mean? Little to no proper explanations in your comments. Explain much further please, if you're gonna bother to edit info on here. [[User:Jimthing|Jimthing]] ([[User talk:Jimthing|talk]]) 10:27, 7 January 2013 (UTC)
::[[WAV]] is a container, ALAC a codec. Typical WAV files contain [[PCM]] audio with a bitrate araound a magnitude higher than 217 kbps. Your wav file already contains compressed (lossy) audio, there is no lossless codec that can compress already compressed audio further, the same is true for video codecs. (This of course depends on the definition of "already compressed" but it is at least true for common - including older - codecs like mp3, wma, mpeg2video.)--[[User:Regression Tester|Regression Tester]] ([[User talk:Regression Tester|talk]]) 11:51, 7 January 2013 (UTC)
:::Why should the format have such "sanity checks" which it doesn't claim to have, nor that it should need to have. There's an old saying in audio engineering (often evident in other fields too) "shit in, shit out" – it sounds like that's what has happened here. Given CD audio in WAV is 1411kbps, ALAC isn't aimed at handling such low quality WAV's; it's aimed at relatively high quality CD audio and higher, at those levels the term ''lossless'' then becomes valid, which it certainly wouldn't be at the kbps level you used here. [[User:Jimthing|Jimthing]] ([[User talk:Jimthing|talk]]) 22:14, 9 February 2013 (UTC)

== Removed Questions ==

I removed two questions that asked for assistance with using Apple Lossless. As it states, this is not a help forum nor a place to ask for technical assistance.

[[User:Deepcloud|Deepcloud]] ([[User talk:Deepcloud|talk]]) 09:05, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

09:05, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

== Futility of the format? ==
Is there actually any reason why Apple "created" this format, since codecs like Flac and Shorten already exist?
It seems to me that the *only* reason Apple created this format was so it could have an Apple name.
Basically, Apple just added a lossless format that's actually technically inferior to ie. Flac, just because it could.

Imagine every company that makes MP4 players made their own format.. there's no real rational reason why this format is any good; therefore, I am forced to conclude that Apple only looks at their own interests, and doesn't care about the people.

Prove me wrong, please. Please. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:SeriousWorm|SeriousWorm]] ([[User talk:SeriousWorm|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/SeriousWorm|contribs]]) 00:11, 4 June 2009 (UTC) 

:I think that apple simply wanted to provide a lossless option optimized for its hardware in the absence of any established de facto standard. [[User:Killakittens|Killakittens]] ([[User talk:Killakittens|talk]]) 21:30, 6 September 2009 (UTC)

::It was my understanding that FLAC was unsuitable for streaming (such as Airtunes) or reading big chunks sequentially from storage (remember early iPods had little hard drives, so any time the drive was powered, the battery life would shorten). What about chapter marks for audiobooks? Also, can FLAC be tagged with metadata, artwork, lyrics, ratings, etc? Apple Lossless is exactly like an MP3/AAC track in that regard. --[[Special:Contributions/68.103.141.28|68.103.141.28]] ([[User talk:68.103.141.28|talk]]) 01:09, 25 September 2009 (UTC)

:::I doubt metadata had much to do with it. [[FLAC]] does support metadata and in any case I'm pretty sure the metadata of Apple Lossless is a function of the MP4 container not the codec. I don't know much about FLAC, but from the little I know see no reason why it would be intrinsically unsuitable for streaming or big chunks sequentially and I believe people do stream FLAC. I suspect other factors had more to do with it, probably not so much Apple's desire to have their name but more to have a format they control. Microsoft also has WMA lossless after all. While I can find some sources [http://reviews.cnet.co.uk/natelanxon/0,139102300,49294808,00.htm], I don't know whether there's much merit to mention any of this in the article in which case this discussion is OT [[User:Nil Einne|Nil Einne]] ([[User talk:Nil Einne|talk]]) 12:24, 25 September 2009 (UTC)

::::All of the above and more. My reading on the background to ALAC is they didn't want any potential patent issues, as the development and ownership of the FLAC codec was unclear at the time. However FLAC has since emerged clear of any of these issues; but of course that's with the benefit of hindsight, and Apple clearly wouldn't have known that when they needed a lossless codec for their products, so had to pursue their own highly similar codec instead. As for being "futile", far from it. Apple now have the upper hand in the lossless game after open sourcing the ALAC codec, as it can be used on not only their own iDevice/iTunes products, but also all other manufacturers can add the reference version of the codec (instead of the unlicensed reverse engineered libavcodec) to their supported formats without legal or possible technical issues, whereas Apple will never add FLAC natively into their iDevice/iTunes product ecosystem. Thus both better ALAC compatibility with external docking device manufacturers, and ALAC audio file format sales through the iTMStore seem ever more likely in the future. --[[User:Jimthing|Jimthing]] ([[User talk:Jimthing|talk]]) 07:03, 1 December 2011 (UTC)

:::::It was definitely about the fear of patent trolls coming after them; and this applies both to Apple and to Microsoft. (It's not about the actual ownership of FLAC, but rather that it may have used certain techniques that are patented. No one will go after a bunch of free software people; there's no money in it. But if Apple or Microsoft started using them, then there would be a target.) They both created their own lossless formats for this reason. Tossing out the old "control" canard doesn't really apply to a format that isn't widely used, but the point aout FLAC streaming could be true. (Though I have heard that, internally, the iTunes Store uses FLAC to store masters.) But I don't think any of this is germane to the article. [[User:Kirkmc|Kirkmc]] ([[User talk:Kirkmc|talk]]) 09:47, 1 December 2011 (UTC)

::::::I don't think that's factually correct. I don't believe Apple stores on its server computers so-called "masters", as such objects are the responsibility and ownership of the content owners themselves (record companies, content owners, etc.), or even higher-quality encodes of ''any'' content formats (in ALAC/FLAC or anything else). Content owners have to encode and format content into Apple's approved format standards, then upload to Apple using tools Apple provide to do so. Apple have two main methods for content providers to upload content in Apple's approved standards through their iTunes Connect service. If you're big enough and can sell minimum sales amounts (earning thresholds in each territory), then according to this link (http://www.apple.com/itunes/content-providers/music-faq.html ) Apple provide music indie content owners with a piece of software called "iTunes Producer" in which to format their content into music files sellable through the store and in order to upload to iTunes (they can alternatively get an encoding house to do the required encoding), or alternatively they can use an approved aggregator (aggregators: https://itunesconnect.apple.com/WebObjects/iTunesConnect.woa/wa/displayAggregators?ccTypeId=3 ) to do all this on their behalf; especially required if they do not meeting minimum sales thresholds anyway. Certain music-related file types (music videos, ringtones, concert films, and iTunes LP) they sell will require an Apple-approved encoding house to be engaged to so such formatting. It is a similar process for other media types (books, films, apps, etc.). --[[User:Jimthing|Jimthing]] ([[User talk:Jimthing|talk]]) 23:12, 6 December 2011 (UTC)
{{od}}
...FYI, it looks like Apple ''are'' asking for masters now, currently limited for use as their Mastered For iTunes (MFI) specifically mastered 256 kbps AAC sales, but hopefully lossless sales will arrive as Apple can presumably re-encode these MFI-provided masters they will already have into lossless files (or whatever format is needed for adaptive streaming usage. See: http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/feb/28/apple-audio-file-adaptive-streaming ). Sounds positive, but we'll see! Ref: "Provide High Resolution Masters" section here http://images.apple.com/itunes/mastered-for-itunes/docs/mastered_for_itunes.pdf --[[User:Jimthing|Jimthing]] ([[User talk:Jimthing|talk]]) 07:41, 11 March 2012 (UTC)

:Eleven or so months later, and here we still are. None of the above has exactly happened. A re-read of that MFI pdf doc makes it sound like lossless is a distant concept — given 'bandwidth', 'storage', 'battery-life', and even 'CPU' are still considerations. Further patience looks to be inevitable, as unfortunately technology has not moved on enough to seemingly allow most of the above to be relevant. Apple's market aims are difficult to tell, and still open to a lot of interpretation (certainly in the media, for sure!). [[User:Jimthing|Jimthing]] ([[User talk:Jimthing|talk]]) 01:45, 10 February 2013 (UTC)

::Coming back to this a long time later, I don't know if I'd agree that 'patent trolls' is a separate issue from 'format you control'. A format you control means you have the ability to control what techniques etc you use in it, to ensure that there are none that you believe may violate some patent. Remember contrary to what was said above, knowledge of the development of FLAC is only of limited benefit in assessing whether there are any possible patents issues. We are talking about patents after all, not copyright. You could come up with something completely by yourself but if it's covered by someone's patent your screwed. And it's not like there's some magic way to avoid patent problems, the best you can do is hire fancy lawyers to find all the possibly relevant patents you can and do your best to stay well clear of them. Something which could after all also have happened for FLAC, if anyone wanted to except perhaps by the time anyone cared the bitstream was already frozen so if you found anything of concern you're SOL. (By comparison, a properly implemented clean room engineering of ALAC for example, should only be affected by Apple patents. The fact that whoever implemented it by some definitions didn't come up with anything by themselves is moot. In such cases you do want to know about the history to ensure there's no risk of copyright violation not because of patent concerns.) [[User:Nil Einne|Nil Einne]] ([[User talk:Nil Einne|talk]]) 17:37, 15 January 2019 (UTC)

== Future proofing the format ==

I'm attracted to Apple Lossless because it's smaller than raw AIFF/WAV, can be tagged with metadata, and it's very easy to use with iTunes/Pod/Phone. But I'm concerned for the future. I know I can re-rip Lossless into other formats, but "what if" some day there's no more iTunes or Apple? --[[Special:Contributions/68.103.141.28|68.103.141.28]] ([[User talk:68.103.141.28|talk]]) 01:04, 25 September 2009 (UTC)
: This isn't really the place for such questions. I suggest you try the [[WP:RDC]] for factual questions. However no one can predict the future so this isn't a factual question. However it isn't necessary to rerip, simple conversion programs exist which can convert Apple Lossless into other formats such as uncompressed PCM wave or AIFF or some other lossless compresion like FLAC. As mentioned in the article, this includes open source utilities. So it's likely you will be able to decode and convert Apple Lossless in the future, even if no program supports it, if you are able to modify the existing code or willing to pay someone else to do it, to work on whatever modern platforms existthen. Alternatively you can use either an uncompressed format like PCM wave or other lossless compression format, perhaps one like FLAC which is widely supported by the open source community and so may be more likely to survive into the future. A final possibility would be to use Apple Lossless for now, but reevaluate every 3 or 5 years in the future or something of that sort whether it's still prudent to use it and if not, mass convert all your files to whatever format you feel is best then. BTW as far as I'm aware both [[FLAC]] is capable of support metadata as mentioned in the article, as is RIFF wave of course. --[[User: Nil Einne|Nil Einne]] ([[User talk: Nil Einne|talk]]) 12:15, 25 September 2009 (UTC)

:: (under "Futility of the format?" topic above, see my "All of the above and more..." comment.) Basically the future's a lot brighter now the original reference version has been open sourced by Apple ;-) --[[User:Jimthing|Jimthing]] ([[User talk:Jimthing|talk]]) 07:10, 1 December 2011 (UTC)

== External links modified ==

Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to {{plural:1|one external link|1 external links}} on [[Apple Lossless]]. Please take a moment to review [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=prev&oldid=698705454 my edit]. If necessary, add {{tlx|cbignore}} after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add {{tlx|nobots|deny{{=}}InternetArchiveBot}} to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
*Added archive https://web.archive.org/20120620124229/http://craz.net:80/programs/itunes/alac.html to http://craz.net/programs/itunes/alac.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the ''checked'' parameter below to '''true''' to let others know.

{{sourcecheck|checked=true}}

Cheers.—[[User:Cyberbot II|cyberbot II]][[User talk:Cyberbot II|Talk to my owner]]:Online 19:15, 7 January 2016 (UTC)

== Requested move 21 October 2021 ==

<div class="boilerplate" style="background-color: #efe; margin: 0; padding: 0 10px 0 10px; border: 1px dotted #aaa;">
:''The following is a closed discussion of a [[Wikipedia:Requested moves|requested move]]. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a [[Wikipedia:move review|move review]] after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion. ''

The result of the move request was: no participation, but moved as a BOLD move as the nomination is reasonable and apparently nobody is disputing a move. [[User:ProcrastinatingReader|ProcrastinatingReader]] ([[User talk:ProcrastinatingReader|talk]]) 14:42, 30 October 2021 (UTC)
----

[[:Apple Lossless]] → {{no redirect|Apple Lossless Audio Codec}} – "Apple Lossless" is no longer used in any primary sources, e.g.:

https://macosforge.github.io/alac/

https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT212183

https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2021/05/apple-music-announces-spatial-audio-and-lossless-audio/

(Exception: In the ReadMe.txt on the Codec's [https://github.com/macosforge/alac GitHub], it's still mentioned as "Apple Lossless", but the "About" section on the right still calls it the Apple Lossless Audio Codec (ALAC).)

The seems to be no persistent usage of "Apple Lossless" in third-party sources; sources usually cite the full name (Apple Lossless Audio Codec) first, and continue with the abbreviation (ALAC).

Even though the current title is slightly more concise, I think the official, full name is more appropriate, since the short term "Apple Lossless" isn't the more common name. [[User:Andibrema|Andibrema]] ([[User talk:Andibrema|talk]]) 15:26, 21 October 2021 (UTC)
<div style="padding-left: 1.6em; font-style: italic; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1; margin: 0.5em 0; padding-top: 0.5em">The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.</div>
</div><div style="clear:both;"></div>

== Apple Lossless with Apple Music and DRM ==

With Apple Music beginning to offer lossless audio, it is very likely that Apple have applied DRM to these. I've found one Reddit post on this:

* [https://www.reddit.com/r/AppleMusic/comments/nvw2ru/apple_music_has_converted_a_lot_of_my_itunes Apple Music has converted a lot of my iTunes library to lossless]

If what the post states is true, this would contradict the statement "ALAC also does not use any DRM scheme." I have yet to find a reliable source on this, but it shouldn't be very hard. -- [[User:NasssaNser|NasssaNser]] - [[User talk:NasssaNser|T]] 16:00, 13 February 2022 (UTC)

:The entire sentence is correct. ALAC is purely and audio codec. DRM is applied to the MP4 container.
:''ALAC also does not use any [[Digital rights management|DRM]] scheme;[<nowiki/>[[Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute#Disputed statement|dubious]] – [[Talk:Apple Lossless Audio Codec#Apple Lossless with Apple Music and DRM|discuss]]] but by the nature of the MP4 [[Container format (digital)|container]], it is feasible that DRM could be applied to ALAC much in the same way it is applied to files in other QuickTime containers.`'' [[Special:Contributions/2600:1700:5040:7950:F93D:178C:AEE5:5131|2600:1700:5040:7950:F93D:178C:AEE5:5131]] ([[User talk:2600:1700:5040:7950:F93D:178C:AEE5:5131|talk]]) 03:42, 22 July 2022 (UTC)
::Why is it worth pointing out that it "does not use any DRM scheme"? Are there any codecs that do?
::I feel like this just creates confusion for people that don't understand the relationship between codecs, containers, and DRM. [[Special:Contributions/24.222.18.26|24.222.18.26]] ([[User talk:24.222.18.26|talk]]) 14:39, 20 November 2023 (UTC)
:::Reading about a specific audio codec is inherently a nerdy/technical thing to do IMO, so I think that anyone reading this would be able to deal with some nuance here. We could say something like "The ALAC codec itself does not use any DRM scheme. However, since it is often stored within an MP4 container, DRM could be applied to it in the same way as to other MP4 media." [[User:Asyncadr|Asyncadr]] ([[User talk:Asyncadr|talk]]) 16:52, 12 March 2024 (UTC)

Some references to coding issues surrounding DRM removal of ALAC lossless files on Apple Music seem to indicate that Apple is actively using [[Fairplay|Fairplay]] as a DRM on their lossless ALAC files in Apple Music:
* [https://github.com/glomatico/gamdl/issues/10 Download lossless (ALAC)?] — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/97.117.27.106|97.117.27.106]] ([[User talk:97.117.27.106#top|talk]]) 18:54, 19 September 2023 (UTC)

Shashi Tharoor

2024-03-11T16:36:21Z

Asyncadr: Spelling error

{{short description|Indian politician, diplomat, author and member of congress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Shashi Tharoor
| image = File:Sasi Tharoor 2021 at Kollam.jpg
| image_upright =
| landscape =
| alt =
| caption = Tharoor in 2021
| pronunciation = {{IPA-ml|ʃɐʃi t̪ɐɾuːr|}}
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1956|3|9|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[London]], [[England]], UK
| death_date =
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| other_names =
| siglum =
| citizenship =
| education =
| alma_mater = [[University of Delhi]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) [[Tufts University]] ([[Master of Arts|MA]], [[Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy|MALD]], [[PhD]])
| occupation = {{hlist|Writer|diplomat|politician|former international civil servant}}
| years_active = 1978–present
| era =
| employer =
| organization =
| agent =
| known_for =
| works = [[#Bibliography|Bibliography]]
| style =
| height =
| television =
| title =
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| party = [[Indian National Congress]] 2008 Present
| otherparty =
| movement =
| opponents =
| boards =
| criminal_charges =
| criminal_penalty =
| criminal_status =
| spouse = {{Unbulleted_list|{{Marriage| Tilottama Mukherji |1981||end=divorced}}|{{Marriage|Christa Giles |2007|2010|end=divorced}}|{{Marriage|[[Sunanda Pushkar]]|2010|2014|end=died}}}}
| partner =
| children = 2
| parents =
| mother =
| father =
| relatives =
| family =
| callsign =
| awards = [[#Honours and awards|Full list]]
| honours = [[File:Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Ribbon.png|25px]] [[Pravasi Bharatiya Samman]] (2004) [[File:ESP Charles III Order COM.svg|25px]] [[Order of Charles III|Encomienda de la Orden Española de Carlos III]] (2012) [[File:Legion Honneur Chevalier ribbon.svg|25px]] [[Legion of Honour|Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur]] (2022)
| website = {{URL|shashitharoor.in}}
| module = {{Infobox officeholder
| embed = yes
| embed_title =
| office2 = [[Ministry of Human Resource Development|Minister of State for Human Resource Development]]
| primeminister2 = [[Manmohan Singh]]
| minister2 = [[Kapil Sibal]] [[M. M. Pallam Raju]]
| term_start2 = 28 October 2012
| term_end2 = 26 May 2014
| predecessor2 = [[Daggubati Purandeswari]]
| successor2 = [[Upendra Kushwaha]]
| office3 = [[Minister of External Affairs (India)|Minister of State for External Affairs]]
| primeminister3 = [[Manmohan Singh]]
| minister3 = [[S. M. Krishna]]
| term_start3 = 28 May 2009
| term_end3 = 18 April 2010
| predecessor3 = [[Anand Sharma]]
| successor3 = [[E. Ahamed]]
| office4 = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| constituency4 = [[Thiruvananthapuram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Thiruvananthapuram]]
| term_start4 = 31 May 2009
| term_end4 =
| predecessor4 = [[Pannyan Raveendran]]
| successor4 =
| office5 = [[United Nations Department of Global Communications|United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Communications and Public Information]]
| 1blankname5 = {{nowrap|Secretary General}}
| 1namedata5 = [[Kofi Annan]]
| term_start5 = 1 June 2002
| term_end5 = 9 February 2007
| predecessor5 = Position established
| successor5 = [[Kiyotaka Akasaka]]
| office6 =
[[List of Indian parliamentary committees|Chairman of the Standing Committee on Information Technology]]
| term_start6 = 13 September 2019
| term_end6 = 12 September 2022
|office7 =
[[List of Indian parliamentary committees|Chairman of the Standing Committee on Chemicals & Fertilizers]]
| term_start7 = 23 March 2023
| term_end7 = Incumbent
| predecessor7 = [[Kanimozhi Karunanidhi]]
| successor7 =
| office8 = Founder-Chairman of the [[All India Professionals Congress]]
| term_start8 = 1 August 2017
| term_end8 = 15 November 2023
| predecessor8 = ''Position established''
| successor8 = [[Praveen Chakravarty]]
}}
| module2 = {{Infobox writer
| embed = yes
| embed_title =
| language = [[English language|English]]
| period = [[Postmodern literature|Postmodern]]
| genre = {{cslist|[[Novel]]|[[short story]]|[[non-fiction]]}}
| subject = {{cslist|[[Economics]]|[[history]]|[[governance]]|[[foreign policy]]|[[geopolitics]]}}
| movement =
| notable_works = {{ubl|[[The Great Indian Novel]]|[[India: From Midnight to the Millennium]]|[[Why I Am a Hindu]]|[[Inglorious Empire|Inglorious Empire: What the British Did to India]]}}
| years_active = 1964–present
}}
| module3 =
| module4 =
| module5 =
| module6 =
| signature =
| signature_type =
| signature_size =
| signature_alt =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Shashi Tharoor''' ({{IPA-ml|ʃɐʃi t̪ɐɾuːr|language}}, {{Respell|SHUH|shee}} {{Respell|thǝ|ROOR}}; born 9 March 1956) is a former Indian international [[civil servant]], [[diplomat]], [[bureaucrat]], [[politician]], [[writer]] and public intellectual who has been serving as [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament]] for [[Thiruvananthapuram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]], since 2009. He is the present [[List of Indian parliamentary committees|Chairman of the Standing Committee on Chemicals and Fertilizers]].<ref name="Tharoor IT">{{cite news |last1=Alawadhi |first1=Neha |date=14 September 2019 |title=Govt forms IT Standing Committee, names Shashi Tharoor as chairperson |work=[[Business Standard]] |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/govt-forms-it-standing-committee-names-shashi-tharoor-as-chairperson-119091400680_1.html |url-status=live |access-date=16 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920225722/https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/govt-forms-it-standing-committee-names-shashi-tharoor-as-chairperson-119091400680_1.html |archive-date=20 September 2019}}</ref> He was formerly an [[Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations]] and [[2006 United Nations Secretary-General selection|unsuccessfully ran]] for the post of [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] in 2006. Founder-Chairman of [[All India Professionals Congress]],<ref name="AIPC INC">{{cite web |url=https://www.professionalscongress.com/ |title=All India Professionals Congress – Indian National Congress |work=[[Indian National Congress]] |access-date=29 August 2017 |archive-date=13 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913135609/https://www.professionalscongress.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> he formerly served as Chairman of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on External Affairs and on Informational Technology. He has about two dozen titles to his credit and was awarded by [[World Economic Forum]] as "Global Leader of Tomorrow".

Born in [[London]], [[UK]], and raised in [[India]], Tharoor worked across the world, graduating from [[St. Stephen's College, Delhi]] in 1975 and culminated his studies in 1978 with a doctorate in International Relations and Affairs from the [[Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy]], [[Tufts University]]. At the age of 22, he was the youngest person at the time to receive such an honour from the Fletcher School. From 1978 to 2007, Tharoor was a career official at the [[United Nations]], rising to the rank of [[Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations|Under-Secretary General]] for Communications and Public Information in 2001. He announced his retirement after finishing second in the [[2006 United Nations Secretary-General selection|2006 selection for U.N. Secretary-General]] to [[Ban Ki-moon]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/shashi-tharoor-candidate-for-united-nations/1/180465.html |title=UN top job: Why India's candidate Shashi Tharoor had to drop out of the race |first=Saurabh |last=Shukla |date=16 October 2006 |newspaper=[[India Today]] |access-date=16 January 2016 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082928/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/shashi-tharoor-candidate-for-united-nations/1/180465.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2009, Tharoor began his political career by joining the [[Indian National Congress]] and successfully represented the party from [[Thiruvananthapuram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]] by winning in the Lok Sabha elections and becoming a [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|member of parliament]] thrice. During the Congress-led [[UPA Government|UPA]] government, Tharoor served as [[Minister of State]] for [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|External Affairs]]. A non-loyalist of [[Nehru–Gandhi family|the Gandhis]], Tharoor was defeated by [[Mallikarjun Kharge]] to [[2022 Indian National Congress presidential election|be elected as party president]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-26 |title=Tharoor vs Gehlot: A battle of opposites for Congress president's post |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/india/2022/09/26/congress-presidential-poll-shashi-tharoor-vs-ashok-gehlot.html |access-date=2022-09-26 |website=Onmanorama |language=en}}</ref> He is currently a member of the [[Congress Working Committee]], which is highest decision making body of the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref>[https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/congress-announces-reconstituted-working-committee-shashi-tharoor-sachin-pilot-new-additions/article67215877.ece The Hindu, 20.08.2023 ]</ref>

A [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] winner, Tharoor has authored many works of fiction and non-fiction since 1981.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/not-as-catchy-as-webaqoof-but-29-letter-long-shashi-tharoors-new-word-is-floccinaucinihilipilificati-1929980|title=The 29-Letter Word That Shashi Tharoor Used To Announce His Book on PM|website=NDTV.com|access-date=3 November 2018|archive-date=4 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104050322/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/not-as-catchy-as-webaqoof-but-29-letter-long-shashi-tharoors-new-word-is-floccinaucinihilipilificati-1929980|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/culture/books/hindi-not-our-natural-national-language-shashi-tharoor-in-the-paradoxical-prime-minister/cid/1672987|title=Hindi not our natural, national language: Shashi Tharoor in The Paradoxical Prime Minister|website=The Telegraph|location=Kolkota|access-date=3 November 2018|archive-date=4 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104050123/https://www.telegraphindia.com/culture/books/hindi-not-our-natural-national-language-shashi-tharoor-in-the-paradoxical-prime-minister/cid/1672987|url-status=live}}</ref> Popular for his command over the [[English language]], Tharoor was the most followed Indian on [[Twitter]] before being overtaken by [[Narendra Modi]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Narendra Modi overtakes Shashi Tharoor, becomes most followed Indian politician on Twitter |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/gujarat/story/narendra-modi-topples-tharoor-to-become-most-popular-on-twitter-169087-2013-07-03 |access-date=2022-10-25 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Shashi Tharoor was born on 9 March 1956<ref>{{Cite web|title='Am touched by your thoughtfulness': Shashi Tharoor thanks PM Modi for birthday wishes in Malayalam|url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/india/am-touched-by-your-thoughtfulness-shashi-tharoor-thanks-pm-modi-for-birthday-wishes-in-malayalam|access-date=29 March 2021|website=www.freepressjournal.in|archive-date=14 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514020105/https://www.freepressjournal.in/india/am-touched-by-your-thoughtfulness-shashi-tharoor-thanks-pm-modi-for-birthday-wishes-in-malayalam|url-status=live}}</ref> in [[London]], [[United Kingdom]] to Chandran Tharoor and Sulekha Menon, a [[Malayali]] couple from [[Palakkad]], [[Kerala]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/shashi-tharoor/caste-wont-disappear-india_b_6257354.html |work=[[HuffPost]] |title=Why Caste Won't Disappear From India |date=8 December 2014 |access-date=15 August 2015 |archive-date=26 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150726183804/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/shashi-tharoor/caste-wont-disappear-india_b_6257354.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Tharoor has two younger sisters, Shobha and Smitha.<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 October 2021|title=Used to bully them when we were younger but now...: Shashi Tharoor on his equation with his sisters|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/congress-mp-shashi-tharoor-younger-sisters-smita-shobha-1863066-2021-10-10|access-date=29 November 2021|website=India Today|language=en}}</ref> Shashi's paternal grandfather's name was Chippukutty Nair. Shashi's paternal uncle was Parameshwaran Tharoor, the founder of ''[[Reader's Digest]]'' in India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.geni.com/people/Chandran-Tharoor/6000000003135182048|title=Chandran Tharoor (1929–1993) – Genealogy|access-date=18 April 2021|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418164635/https://www.geni.com/people/Chandran-Tharoor/6000000003135182048|url-status=live}}</ref>

Tharoor's father, originally from Kerala, worked in various positions in London, [[Bombay]], [[Calcutta]] and [[Delhi]], including a 25-year career (culminating as group advertising manager) for ''[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]]''. Tharoor's parents returned to India when he was 2-years old, where he joined the [[Montfort School, Yercaud]], in 1962, subsequently moving to [[Bombay]] (now Mumbai) and studying at the [[Campion School, Mumbai|Campion School]] (1963–68).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.excampionites.com/members-details/?ID=1328 |title=Shashi Tharoor |work=Old Campionite's Association |year=2016 |access-date=16 January 2016 |archive-date=1 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201052710/http://www.excampionites.com/members-details/?ID=1328 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1975, Tharoor graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history from [[St Stephen's College, Delhi|St Stephen's College]] at the [[Delhi University|University of Delhi]], where he had been president of the student union and also founded the St. Stephen's Quiz Club.<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 September 2015|title=10 politicians who graduated from Delhi University|url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/politics/national/10-politicians-graduated-from-university-of-delhi-32279.html|access-date=29 November 2021|website=www.indiatvnews.com|language=en|archive-date=29 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129060855/https://www.indiatvnews.com/politics/national/10-politicians-graduated-from-university-of-delhi-32279.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Within the same year, Tharoor went to the United States to obtain an [[Master of Arts|M.A.]] in International Relations from [[The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy]] at [[Tufts University]] in [[Medford, Massachusetts|Medford]]. After obtaining his M.A. in 1976, Tharoor further obtained his [[Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy]] in 1977 and his Ph.D. in International Relations and Affairs in 1978.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tuftsalumni.org/who-we-are/alumni-recognition/tufts-notables/public-service-education-5/#tharoor |title=Public Service and Education, S – T |work=Tufts Alumni |access-date=16 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160123221752/http://tuftsalumni.org/who-we-are/alumni-recognition/tufts-notables/public-service-education-5/#tharoor |archive-date=23 January 2016 }}</ref> While he was pursuing his doctorate, Tharoor was awarded the Robert B. Stewart Prize for best student and was also the first editor of the Fletcher Forum of International Affairs.<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 March 2016|title=Shashi Tharoor turns 60: Some lesser-known facts you shouldn't overlook|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/shashi-tharoor-312409-2016-03-09|access-date=29 November 2021|website=India Today|language=en|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428101503/https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/shashi-tharoor-312409-2016-03-09|url-status=live}}</ref> At the age of 22, he was the youngest person to receive a doctorate in the history of the Fletcher School.<ref>{{cite news |title=Shashi Tharoor's controversial political stint {{!}} India News |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Shashi-Tharoors-controversial-political-stint/articleshow/5829403.cms |access-date=3 July 2019 |work=The Times of India |date=18 April 2010 |archive-date=12 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712125121/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Shashi-Tharoors-controversial-political-stint/articleshow/5829403.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Diplomatic career==
===Beginning===
Tharoor's career in the United Nations began in 1978 as a staff member of the [[UN High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR) in [[Geneva]]. From 1981 until 1984 he was head of the UNHCR office in Singapore, during the [[boat people]] crisis, leading the organisation's rescue efforts at sea and succeeding in resettling a backlog of Vietnamese refugees. He also processed Polish and Acehnese refugee cases.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/events/women/iwd/2003/tharoor.html |title=Shashi Tharoor |publisher=United Nations |access-date=16 January 2016 |archive-date=22 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222152908/http://www.un.org/events/women/iwd/2003/tharoor.html |url-status=live }}</ref> After a further stint at the UNHCR headquarters in Geneva, during which he became the first chairman of the staff elected by UNHCR personnel worldwide, Tharoor left UNHCR. In 1989 he was appointed special assistant to the Under-Secretary-General for Special Political Affairs, the unit that later became the [[United Nations peacekeeping|Peacekeeping Operations Department]] in New York. Until 1996, he led the team responsible for [[United Nations Protection Force|peacekeeping operations]] in the former [[Yugoslavia]], spending considerable time on the ground during the [[Yugoslav Wars|civil war]] there.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fletcher.tufts.edu/News-and-Media/2008/01/25/A-look-at-the-life |title=A look at life after the UN: Shashi Tharoor F'78 |date=25 January 2008 |work=Tufts Fletcher School |access-date=16 January 2016 |archive-date=24 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151024211455/http://fletcher.tufts.edu/News-and-Media/2008/01/25/A-look-at-the-life |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/News/ossg/sg/stories/tharoor_bio.htm |title=Shashi Tharoor biography |publisher=United Nations |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413040623/http://www.un.org/News/ossg/sg/stories/tharoor_bio.htm |archive-date=13 April 2012 }}</ref>

===Assistant Secretary and Under-Secretary-General at the UN===
In 1996, Tharoor was appointed Director of Communications and Special Projects and Executive Assistant to Secretary-General [[Kofi Annan]]. In January 2001, Tharoor was appointed as Interim Head<ref name="ST UN">{{Cite web|title=Appointment of Shashi Tharoor as Under Secretary General for Communications and Public Information confirmed by Secretary General|url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2002/sga803.doc.htm|access-date=19 November 2018|publisher=United Nations|archive-date=3 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703163815/https://www.un.org/press/en/2002/sga803.doc.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> of the Department of Public Information (DPI) at the Assistant-Secretary-General level.<ref name="ST UN"/> He was subsequently confirmed as the Under-Secretary-General for Communications and Public Information (UNDPI) with effect from 1 June 2002.<ref name="ST UN"/> In this capacity, he was responsible for the United Nations' communications strategy, enhancing the image and effectiveness of the organisation. In 2003 the Secretary-General gave him the additional responsibility of United Nations Coordinator for Multilingualism. During his tenure at the UNDPI, Tharoor reformed the department and undertook a number of initiatives, ranging from organizing and conducting the first-ever UN seminar on Antisemitism, the first-ever UN seminar on [[Islamophobia]] after the [[11 September attacks]], and launching an annual list of "Ten Under-Reported Stories the World Ought to Know about", which was last produced in 2008 by his successor.

On 9 February 2007, Tharoor resigned from the post of Under-Secretary-General and left the UN on 1 April 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/feb/09un.htm |title=UN Under Secy General Shashi Tharoor resigns |date=9 February 2007 |work=Rediff |access-date=16 January 2016 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303235820/http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/feb/09un.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/events/tenstories/08/ |title=Ten Stories The World Should Hear More About |publisher=United Nations |access-date=16 January 2016 |archive-date=31 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231143730/http://www.un.org/en/events/tenstories/08/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nysun.com/new-york/shashi-tharoor-inside-man/32384/ |title=Shashi Tharoor: Inside Man |first=Pranay |last=Gupte |date=9 May 2006 |newspaper=The New York Sun |access-date=16 January 2016 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303214436/http://www.nysun.com/new-york/shashi-tharoor-inside-man/32384/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Campaign for UN Secretary-General: 2006===
{{See also|2006 United Nations Secretary-General selection}}

In 2006, the government of India nominated Tharoor for the post of [[UN Secretary-General]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/old/print.php?content_id=130689 |title=India names Shashi Tharoor for UN secy-general's post |work=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207062959/http://www.financialexpress.com/old/print.php?content_id=130689 |archive-date=7 December 2013 }}</ref> Had he won, the 50-year-old Shashi Tharoor would have become the second-youngest Secretary-General, after the 46-year-old [[Dag Hammarskjöld]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1961/hammarskjold-bio.html |title=Biography – Dag Hammarskjöld |publisher=Nobel Foundation |access-date=16 April 2010 |archive-date=3 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100903131550/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1961/hammarskjold-bio.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Although all previous Secretaries-General had come from small countries, Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] and National Security Advisor [[M. K. Narayanan]] felt that Tharoor's candidacy would demonstrate India's willingness to play a larger role at the United Nations.<ref name="open">{{cite news|last1=Tharoor|first1=Shashi|title=The inside Story of How I Lost the Race for the UN Secretary-General's Job in 2006|url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/cover-story/the-inside-story-of-how-i-lost-the-race-for-the-un-secretary-generals-job-in-2006-shashi-tharoor|work=OPEN Magazine|date=21 October 2016|access-date=9 July 2017|archive-date=5 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105161700/http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/cover-story/the-inside-story-of-how-i-lost-the-race-for-the-un-secretary-generals-job-in-2006-shashi-tharoor|url-status=live}}</ref>

Tharoor finished second, behind [[Ban Ki-moon]] of South Korea, in each of the four straw polls conducted by the [[UN Security Council]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unsg.org/wordpress/2006/10/first-color-coded-straw-poll-results/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117050910/http://www.unsg.org/wordpress/2006/10/first-color-coded-straw-poll-results/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 November 2015 |title=Ban Ki-moon wins |work=UNSG.org |date=2 October 2006 |access-date=2 October 2006 }}</ref> In the final round, Ban emerged as the only candidate not to be vetoed by one of the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent members]], while Tharoor received one veto from the United States. U.S. Ambassador [[John R. Bolton|John Bolton]] later revealed his instructions from [[Condoleezza Rice]]: "We don't want a strong Secretary-General." Tharoor was a protégé of the independently minded [[Kofi Annan]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/world/report_us-veto-ends-shashi-tharoor-s-run-for-top-job-at-the-un_1056664 |title=US veto ends Shashi Tharoor's run for top job at the UN |work=DNA India |first=Seema |last=Guha |date=4 October 2006 |access-date=16 April 2010 |archive-date=25 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625185332/http://www.dnaindia.com/world/report_us-veto-ends-shashi-tharoor-s-run-for-top-job-at-the-un_1056664 |url-status=live }}</ref> and a senior American official told Tharoor that the US was determined to have "No more Kofis."<ref name="open"/> After the vote, Tharoor withdrew his candidacy and declined Ban Ki-moon's invitation to remain in service beyond the expiry of his term as Under-Secretary-General.

==Post-UN career==
{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | video1 =[http://www.ted.com/talks/shashi_tharoor "Why nations should pursue soft power"], [[TED (conference)|TED talk]], November 2009 }}
In February 2007, amidst speculation about his post-UN future, the Indian press reported that Tharoor might be inducted into Council of Ministers of Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] as Minister of State for External Affairs. In the same month, an American gossip blog reported that Tharoor was a finalist for the position of dean of the [[USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism|USC Annenberg School for Communication]] in Los Angeles, but he withdrew his name from consideration at the final stage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.laist.com/archives/2007/02/20/top_5_candidates_for_usc_annenberg_dean.php |title=Top 5 Candidates for USC Annenberg Dean |first=Andy |last=Sternberg |date=20 February 2007 |work=LAist |access-date=16 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403083550/http://www.laist.com/archives/2007/02/20/top_5_candidates_for_usc_annenberg_dean.php |archive-date=3 April 2007 }}</ref> Instead, Tharoor became chairman of Dubai-based Afras Ventures,<ref name="Rediff">{{cite news |last=Haniffa |first=Aziz |title=Shashi Tharoor joins the corporate world |date=10 May 2007 |work=Rediff News |url=http://www.rediff.com/money/2007/may/10shashi.htm |access-date=6 May 2008 |archive-date=27 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527215120/http://www.rediff.com/money/2007/may/10shashi.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> which established the Afras Academy for Business Communication (AABC) in [[Thiruvananthapuram]], Kerala, the city in which he would go on to win a record three parliamentary elections. He also spoke around the world about India and Kerala, where he spent increasing amounts of time before moving for good to India in October 2008.

Prior to embarking on his political career, Tharoor also served on the board of overseers of the [[Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy]], the board of trustees of the [[Aspen Institute]], and the advisory boards of the [[Indo-American Arts Council]], the [[American India Foundation]], the [[World Policy Journal]], the Virtue Foundation, and the human rights organisation [[Breakthrough (human rights)|Breakthrough]].<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/BSP/images/Shashitharoorbio.pdf |title=Shashi Tharoor Biographical note |year=2007 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=17 March 2014 |archive-date=25 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325232442/http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/BSP/images/Shashitharoorbio.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> At the [[Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy]] in 1976, he founded and was the first chair of the editorial board of ''[[The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs]]'', a journal examining issues in international relations.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ony.unu.edu/09February2006Panelists.html
|title = In cooperation with UNU-P&G, United States Institute of Peace, and Cambridge University Press
|access-date = 10 May 2007
|publisher = [[United Nations University]] Office at the United Nations |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609181244/http://www.ony.unu.edu/09February2006Panelists.html |archive-date=9 June 2007}}</ref> Tharoor was an international adviser to the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] in Geneva from 2008 to 2011. He served on the advisory council of the [[Hague Institute for International Justice]]<ref name="The Hague Institute for Global Justice">{{cite news |title=Shashi Tharoor now a member of the THIGJ Advisory Council |date=17 October 2012 |work=The Hague Institute for Global Justice |url=http://www.thehagueinstituteforglobaljustice.org/index.php?page=News-News_articles-Recent-Shashi_Tharoor_now_a_member_of_the_THIGJ_Advisory_Council&pid=138&id=32 |access-date=28 November 2012 |archive-date=6 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606222423/http://www.thehagueinstituteforglobaljustice.org/index.php?page=News-News_articles-Recent-Shashi_Tharoor_now_a_member_of_the_THIGJ_Advisory_Council&pid=138&id=32 |url-status=live }}</ref> and was elected Fellow of the [[New York Institute for the Humanities]] during 1995–96.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Atlantic Companion to Literature in English |editor-first=Mohit K. |editor-last=Ray |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors |location=New Delhi |date=1 September 2007 |page=524 |isbn=9788126908325}}</ref> He also supported various educational causes, including as Patron of [[GEMS Modern Academy]] in [[Dubai]].<ref>{{cite news
|url = http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?NewsID=1080342
|date = 16 February 2007
|title = Shashi Tharoor to be inducted in government?
|access-date = 16 January 2016
|newspaper = [[Daily News and Analysis]]
|archive-date = 11 February 2009
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090211162737/http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?NewsID=1080342
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

==Political career in India==
[[File:The President, Shri Pranab Mukherjee administering the oath as Minister of State to Dr. Shashi Tharoor, at a Swearing-in Ceremony, at Rashtrapati Bhavan, in New Delhi on October 28, 2012.jpg|thumb|[[List of Presidents of India|13th]] [[President of India]] [[Pranab Mukherjee]] administering the oath as Minister of State to Shashi Tharoor at a Swearing-in Ceremony, at [[Rashtrapati Bhavan]], in New Delhi on 2012.]]
Tharoor once said that when he began his political career he was approached by the Congress, the Communists, and the BJP. He chose Congress because he felt ideologically comfortable with it.<ref name="telegraphindia.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/1170514/jsp/opinion/story_151438.jsp|title=In his Image – The Importance of being Shashi Tharoor|date=14 May 2017|newspaper=The Telegraph|access-date=5 June 2017|archive-date=20 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220093305/https://www.telegraphindia.com/1170514/jsp/opinion/story_151438.jsp|url-status=dead}}</ref> In March 2009, Tharoor contested the Indian General elections as a candidate for the Congress Party in [[Thiruvananthapuram]], Kerala. His opponents included P. Ramachandran Nair of the [[Communist Party of India]] (CPI), Neelalohitadasan Nadar of the [[Bahujan Samaj Party]] (BSP), MP Gangadharan of the [[Nationalist Congress Party]] (NCP), and PK Krishna Das of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP). Despite criticism that he was an "elite outsider",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/outsider-to-playboy-tharoor-hopes-to-ride-out-new-storm/articleshow/33581994.cms|title=Shashi Tharoor – The Elite Outsider|website=The Times of India|access-date=14 November 2019|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508142753/https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/outsider-to-playboy-tharoor-hopes-to-ride-out-new-storm/articleshow/33581994.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
Tharoor won the elections by a margin of 99,989. He was then selected as a Minister of State in the Council of Ministers of Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]]. On 28 May 2009, he was sworn in as Minister of State for External Affairs, in charge of Africa, Latin America, and the Gulf, including the Haj pilgrimage, and the Consular, Passports, and Visas services of the Ministry. As Minister of State for External Affairs, he re-established long-dormant diplomatic relationships with African nations, where his fluency in French made him popular with Francophone countries and their heads of state.

[[File:Manmohan Singh addressing after unveiling the commemoration plaque of the offsite Campus of Central University of Kerala, at Thiruvananthapuram, in Kerala. The Governor of Kerala, Shri Nikhil Kumar.jpg|thumb|[[List of Prime Ministers of India|13th Prime Minister of India]] [[Manmohan Singh]] with Shashi unveiling the commemoration plaque of the offsite Campus of Central University of Kerala at Thiruvananthapuram, in Kerala.]]
Tharoor was a pioneer in using social media as an instrument of political interaction. He was India's most-followed politician on Twitter until 2013, when he was overtaken by future Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]]. Some of his Twitter posts have proved controversial in the past and were highlighted negatively by the opposition and press.

He was also the first Indian minister to visit Haiti after the devastating [[2010 Haiti earthquake|2010 earthquake]]. He reformed the arrangements relating to the conduct of the Haj pilgrimage. He initiated new policy-planning activities on the Indian Ocean and represented India at various global events during his 11-month tenure as minister. In April 2010, he resigned from the position, following allegations that he had misused his office to get shares in the [[Indian Premier League|IPL]] cricket franchise. Tharoor denied the charges and, during his resignation speech in Parliament, called for a full inquiry. In a 2014 rejoinder he defended his position: "I was never involved in a scam of any sort in the IPL- I was brought down because...[I had] antagonised some powerful political cricketing interests" and added that he had "cooperated extensively with the detailed investigation conducted by the Enforcement Directorate into the entire issue", and no wrongdoing had been found.{{citation needed |date=August 2015}}

Between 2010 and 2012 Tharoor remained active in Parliament and was member-convenor of the Parliamentary Forum on Disaster Management, a member of the Standing Committee on External Affairs, of the Consultative Committee of Defence, [[Public Accounts Committee|the Public Accounts Committee]], and the Joint Parliamentary Committee on Telecoms. He participated in several important debates of the 15th Lok Sabha, including on the Lokpal Bill, the demand for grants of the Ministry of External Affairs and of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, the black money debate, and so on. In the special debate on the 60th anniversary of the Indian Parliament, Tharoor was one of four members of the Congress Party, including party President [[Sonia Gandhi]], Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]], and Leader of the House [[Pranab Mukherjee]], to be invited to address the [[Lok Sabha]].

In 2012 Tharoor was re-inducted into the Union Council of Ministers by Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] with the portfolio of [[minister of state]] for HRD. In this role he took special interest in the problems and challenges of [[adult education]], [[distance education]] and enhancing high-quality research by academic institutions. He was responsible for the ministry's written answers to Parliament's questions and responded to oral questions on education during the Lok Sabha's Question Hour. He addressed forums and conferences on education, explained a vision of India's educational challenges in the context of the country's demographic opportunities, and stressed that education was not only a socioeconomic issue, but also a national security issue.

As Member of Parliament for [[Thiruvananthapuram district|Thiruvananthapuram]], Tharoor became the first elected representative in India to issue annual reports on his work as MP, including furnishing accounts of his MPLADS expenditure. In 2012 he published a half-term report followed in 2014 by a full-term report.

[[File:Hibi Eden and Sasi Tharoor.jpg|thumb|230px|left|Shashi Tharoor at a march parade with [[NSUI]] President [[Hibi Eden]] and other Congress workers in [[Ernakulam]], Kerala.]]
In May 2014 Tharoor won his re-election from Thiruvananthapuram, defeating [[O. Rajagopal]] of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] by a margin of around 15,700 votes, and became a member of the 16th [[Lok Sabha]], sitting in Opposition. He was named Chairman of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on External Affairs. Shashi Tharoor was dropped from the post of Congress spokesperson on 13 October 2014 after he praised statements of his party's opponent, Prime Minister Modi.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://m.indiatoday.in/story/shashi-tharoor-removed-congress-spokesperson-kpcc/1/395503.html|title=Shashi Tharoor removed as Congress spokesperson|date=13 October 2014|newspaper=India Today|access-date=9 March 2017|archive-date=12 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312023709/http://m.indiatoday.in/story/shashi-tharoor-removed-congress-spokesperson-kpcc/1/395503.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In regards to Tharoor's removal from the post of congress spokesperson, Kolkata's ''[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]]'' opined, "For an Opposition MP to have and to exercise the freedom to appreciate a good thing done by the government and for a ruling party MP to speak and vote against the party line is not just legitimate parliamentary practice, it is the very essence of parliamentary democracy. Shashi Tharoor, from the ranks of the Congress has tried to do that; there is not one BJP MP who has matched him. Blind conformism is not loyalty, nor independent thinking, dissent."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/1151004/jsp/opinion/story_46010.jsp|title=Silence Is Not Golden- The Importance of being Shashi Tharoor MP|date=4 October 2015|newspaper=The Telegraph|access-date=5 June 2017|archive-date=13 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151013001254/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1151004/jsp/opinion/story_46010.jsp|url-status=dead}}</ref>

After the BJP victory of 2014, Tharoor was asked to help the treasury benches draft a statement condemning Pakistan for freeing Zaki-ur-Rehman Lakhvi, the Lashkar-e-Toiba commander, who masterminded the [[2008 Mumbai attacks]] that killed 166 people. In January 2015, Tharoor asked not to debunk genuine accomplishments of Ancient Indian Science due to exaggerations of the [[Hindutva]] brigade,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/dont-debunk-genuine-accomplishments-of-ancient-indian-science-says-shashi-tharoor-722353|title=Don't Debunk Genuine Accomplishments of Ancient Indian Science, says Shashi Tharoor|website=NDTV.com|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=26 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826052811/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/dont-debunk-genuine-accomplishments-of-ancient-indian-science-says-shashi-tharoor-722353|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/why-indian-science-scores/article28521379.ece|title=Why Indian science scores|date=8 June 2003|work=The Hindu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Shashi-Tharoor-supports-Vardhan-says-dont-debunk-ancient-science/articleshow/45751273.cms|title=Shashi Tharoor supports Vardhan, says don't debunk ancient science | India News|website=The Times of India|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108171353/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Shashi-Tharoor-supports-Vardhan-says-dont-debunk-ancient-science/articleshow/45751273.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> amid [[2015 Indian Science Congress ancient aircraft controversy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/opinion/tharoor-explains-his-tweets-on-ancient-indian-science-729942|title=Opinion: Tharoor Explains His Tweets on Ancient Indian Science|website=NDTV.com|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=29 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229152102/https://www.ndtv.com/opinion/tharoor-explains-his-tweets-on-ancient-indian-science-729942|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/Sundayapp/R3qHit95m09xNttJNPo43L/Separating-fact-from-ancient-Indian-science-fiction.html|title=Separating fact from ancient Indian science fiction|first=Akshat|last=Rathi|date=1 August 2015|website=Mint|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=17 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117172216/https://www.livemint.com/Sundayapp/R3qHit95m09xNttJNPo43L/Separating-fact-from-ancient-Indian-science-fiction.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In March 2017, Tharoor called for the [[Victoria Memorial, Kolkata|Victoria Memorial]] in [[Kolkata]] to be converted into a museum on the effects of [[British Raj|British colonial rule in India]]. Tharoor wrote in an ''[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]'' article that the British "conquered one of the richest countries in the world (27 per cent of global gross domestic product in 1700) and reduced it to, after over two centuries of looting and exploitation, one of the poorest, most diseased and most illiterate countries on Earth by the time they left in 1947. ...Nor is there any memorial to the massacres of the Raj, from Delhi in 1857 to [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre|Amritsar]] in 1919, the [[Timeline of major famines in India during British rule|deaths of 35 million Indians]] in totally unnecessary [[Famine in India|famines]] caused by British [policies]".<ref>"[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/india-35-million-deaths-britain-shashi-tharoor-british-empire-a7627041.html Britain is responsible for deaths of 35 million Indians, says acclaimed author Shashi Tharoor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180518211431/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/india-35-million-deaths-britain-shashi-tharoor-british-empire-a7627041.html |date=18 May 2018 }}". ''The Independent''. 13 March 2017.</ref>

Although there was significant support for Tharoor to contest as the Prime Minister candidate in 2019 General Elections, he has disowned, downplayed, and distanced himself from any such online campaigns run by his large number of followers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/shashi-tharoor-responds-to-online-petition-wanting-him-as-upa-pm-contender-in-2019/|title=Shashi Tharoor responds to online petition wanting him as UPA PM contender in 2019|date=17 March 2017|work=The Indian Express|access-date=19 September 2018|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428100652/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/shashi-tharoor-responds-to-online-petition-wanting-him-as-upa-pm-contender-in-2019/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=17 March 2017|title=Shashi Tharoor says no intention of becoming PM in 2019, asks to withdraw petition|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/shashi-tharoor-says-no-intention-of-becoming-pm-in-2019-asks-to-withdraw-petition/591555/|access-date=29 November 2021|website=The Financial Express|language=en-US|archive-date=29 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129063841/https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/shashi-tharoor-says-no-intention-of-becoming-pm-in-2019-asks-to-withdraw-petition/591555/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Tharoor has also attempted to introduce a number of Private Members Bills in the Parliament. Notably, his efforts to amend [[Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code]] were voted out by the majority of parliamentarians on two occasions. The [[Supreme Court of India|Apex court of India]] [[Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India|later ruled in favor of amending the controversial article in 2018]], thereby vindicating the position advocated by Tharoor.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bill to decriminalise gay sex rejected |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35129361 |work=BBC News |date=18 December 2015 |access-date=19 September 2018 |archive-date=19 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919174638/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35129361 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=SC verdict on Section 377 – A timeline of the case |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/section-377-to-be-revisited-timeline-of-the-case-501 |work=The Indian Express |date=8 January 2018}}</ref> Dr.Tharoor got elected to the AICC Working committee on 20 August 2023.

=== Electoral Performances ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Election
!colspan="2"|Party
!Constituency Name
!Result
!Votes gained
!Vote share%
!Margin
!Ref
|-
|[[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
|[[15th Lok Sabha]]
| rowspan="4" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| rowspan="4" |[[Indian National Congress|INC]] 
|[[Thiruvananthapuram Lok Sabha constituency|Thiruvananthapuram]]
|{{Won}}
|3,26,725
|44.46%
|99,998
|<ref name="keralaassembly.org">{{Cite web|title=Thiruvananthapuram Lok Sabha Election Result|url=http://keralaassembly.org/lok/sabha/poll_results.php4?year=2009&no=20|access-date=2 October 2022}}</ref>
|-
|[[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
|[[16th Lok Sabha]]
|[[Thiruvananthapuram Lok Sabha constituency|Thiruvananthapuram]]
|{{Won}}
|2,97,806
|34.10%
|15,470
|<ref name="keralaassembly.org 2014">{{Cite web|title=Thiruvananthapuram Lok Sabha Election Result|url=http://keralaassembly.org/lok/sabha/poll_results.php4?year=2014&no=20|access-date=2 October 2022}}</ref>
|-
|[[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
|[[17th Lok Sabha]]
|[[Thiruvananthapuram Lok Sabha constituency|Thiruvananthapuram]]
|{{Won}}
|4,16,131
|41.19%
|99,989
|<ref name="keralaassembly.org 2019">{{Cite web|title=Thiruvananthapuram Lok Sabha Election Result|url=http://keralaassembly.org/lok/sabha/poll_results.php4?year=2019&no=20|access-date=2 October 2022}}</ref>
|-
|}

== Speeches ==
{{See also|Shashi Tharoor's Oxford Union speech}}
Tharoor is notable for his eloquence while speaking, as demonstrated by the popularity of his speeches on online platforms<ref>Top Indian Speaker at ISB [https://www.indianspeakerbureau.com/speaker_profile/161"Indian Speaker Bureau] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213125051/http://www.indianspeakerbureau.com/speaker_profile/161 |date=13 February 2019 }}</ref> such as YouTube. For instance, [[Shashi Tharoor's Oxford Union speech]], delivered at the [[Oxford Union]] in 2015, has amassed over 10 million views on one site alone, while simultaneously being praised as ground-breaking in various educational institutions in India. Further speeches such as those explaining the importance of "[[soft power]]" and analyzing the impacts of education in India have garnered over one million and two million views respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://livecounts.io/youtube-live-view-counter/f7CW7S0zxv4 |title=Dr Shashi Tharoor MP – Britain Does Owe Reparations |website=livecounts.io |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Five lessons we learned about India from Shashi Tharoor's Oxford speech|url=http://www.firstpost.com/living/five-lessons-learned-india-shashi-tharoors-oxford-speech-2356444.html|website=FirstPost|date=22 July 2015|access-date=22 July 2015|archive-date=23 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723160504/http://www.firstpost.com/living/five-lessons-learned-india-shashi-tharoors-oxford-speech-2356444.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Shashi Tharoor's Scalding Oxford Union Speech Against Colonial Britain|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/shashi-tharoor-garners-appreciation-his-spirited-argument-oxford-union-debate-full-text-640299n-debate-full-text-640299|website=International Business Times|date=24 July 2015}}</ref>

Additionally, Tharoor is known for his views on a number of topics including economics, history, governance, and geopolitics due to both his well-regarded educational attainment and his broad experience while at the United Nations. He is an outspoken supporter of the [[Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly]], an organisation which campaigns for democratic reformation of the United Nations, arguing that "United Nations needs to open its doors to elected representatives"<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://en.unpacampaign.org/statements/|title=Statements|work=Campaign for a UN Parliamentary Assembly|access-date=28 September 2017|archive-date=26 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926043017/http://en.unpacampaign.org/statements/|url-status=live}}</ref> Many note that it is his combination of wit, charm, wry humour, and intelligence that make him accessible and held in high esteem, both in India and abroad.<ref>{{cite web|title=India's Best Orators|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/indias-best-orators/295106|website=Outlook India|access-date=6 May 2017|archive-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170505144432/http://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/indias-best-orators/295106|url-status=live}}</ref>

Tharoor did a one-off stand-up act as part of [[Amazon Prime Video]] series One Mic Stand.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Duggal|first=Deepansh|title=Shashi Tharoor {{!}} 'One Mic Stand': Shashi Tharoor calls out PM Modi, speaks millennial lingo; his stand-up act becomes a massive hit|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/one-mic-stand-shashi-tharoor-shines-in-his-stand-up-act-calls-out-pm-modi-speaks-millennial-lingo/articleshow/72105829.cms?from=mdr|access-date=16 November 2020}}</ref>

==Literary career==
Tharoor has been a columnist in each of India's three best-known English-language newspapers,<ref>[[Newspaper circulation#India|Newspaper Circulation]]</ref> most recently for ''[[The Hindu]]'' (2001–2008) and in a weekly column, "Shashi on Sunday," in the ''[[Times of India]]'' (January 2007 – December 2008). Following his resignation as Minister of State for External Affairs, he began a fortnightly column on foreign policy issues in the ''[[Deccan Chronicle]]''. Previously he was a columnist for the ''[[Gentleman (magazine)|Gentleman]]'' magazine and the ''[[Indian Express]]'' newspaper, as well as a frequent contributor to ''[[Newsweek International]]'' and the ''[[International Herald Tribune]]''. His [[op-eds]] and [[book reviews]] have appeared in ''[[The Washington Post]]'',<ref>{{cite news|last=Tharoor|first=Shashi|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/book-review-behind-the-beautiful-forevers-by-katherine-boo/2012/01/26/gIQA848t4Q_story.html|title=Book review: 'Behind the Beautiful Forevers,' by Katherine Boo|date=10 October 2012|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=10 July 2013|archive-date=23 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123205730/http://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/book-review-behind-the-beautiful-forevers-by-katherine-boo/2012/01/26/gIQA848t4Q_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/08/opinion/india-s-odd-enduring-patchwork.html|title=Opinion | India's Odd, Enduring Patchwork|last=Tharoor|first=Shashi|date=8 August 1997|work=The New York Times|access-date=11 September 2017|archive-date=4 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104184516/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/08/opinion/india-s-odd-enduring-patchwork.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'',<ref>{{cite news|last=Tharoor|first=Shashi|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2004/oct/24/books/bk-tharoor24|title=No great sheiks|date=24 October 2004|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=10 July 2013|archive-date=20 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220092038/http://articles.latimes.com/2004/oct/24/books/bk-tharoor24|url-status=live}}</ref> amongst other [[List of newspapers|papers]].{{citation needed |date=April 2012}} His monthly column, "India Reawakening", distributed by [[Project Syndicate]], appears in 80 newspapers around the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.project-syndicate.org/columnist/shashi-tharoor|title=Shashi Tharoor|website=Project Syndicate|access-date=15 April 2017|archive-date=23 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323200651/https://www.project-syndicate.org/columnist/shashi-tharoor|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2021, Tharoor has written twenty-three books in English.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tharoor's 23rd book is out|url=http://news.rediff.com/commentary/2021/oct/01/tharoors-23rd-book-is-out/3f4bd0df669a99c259b2386bb61f2e62|access-date=29 November 2021|website=news.rediff.com|language=en|archive-date=29 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129062417/https://news.rediff.com/commentary/2021/oct/01/tharoors-23rd-book-is-out/3f4bd0df669a99c259b2386bb61f2e62|url-status=live}}</ref>

Tharoor began writing at the age of 6,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/the-shastra-of-writing/article7117149.ece|title=The Shastra of Writing|work=The Hindu|date=19 April 2015|last1=Zachariah|first1=Preeti|access-date=19 February 2020|archive-date=28 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928091054/https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/the-shastra-of-writing/article7117149.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> and his first published story appeared in the Sunday edition of ''[[The Free Press Journal]]'', in Mumbai at age 10.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/shashi-tharoor-312409-2016-03-09|title=Shashi Tharoor|work=India Today|access-date=19 February 2020|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428101503/https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/shashi-tharoor-312409-2016-03-09|url-status=live}}</ref> His [[World War II]] [[adventure novel]] ''Operation Bellows'' about a RAF pilot Reginald Bellows, inspired by the [[Biggles]] books, was serialised in the Junior [[The Statesman (India)|Statesman]] starting a week before his 11th birthday.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tharoor|first=Shashi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jDj0OyH8VewC&dq=shashi+tharoor+statemen+operation+bellows&pg=PT9|title=The Five-Dollar Smile: Fourteen Early Stories and a Farce in Two Acts|date=31 January 2015|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-93-5118-099-9|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=31 May 1999|title=The World's Oldest Teenagers|url=https://www.himalmag.com/the-worlds-oldest-teenagers/|access-date=29 November 2021|website=Himal Southasian|language=en-GB|archive-date=29 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129061939/https://www.himalmag.com/the-worlds-oldest-teenagers/|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[The Great Indian Novel]]'' had had 43 reprints as of October 2014, and a Silver Jubilee special edition was issued on the book's 25th anniversary in October 2014, by Viking Penguin India.''The Elephant, the Tiger and the Cellphone'' has also undergone several hardback re-prints.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/shashi-tharoors-the-great-indian-novel-has-completed-25-years-in-print-the-silver-jubilee-was-celebrated-over-satire-sips/cid/1557477|title=Shashi Tharoor's The Great Indian novel has completed 25 years in print, the silver jubilee was celebrated over satire & sips|work=The Telegraph|location=Kolkota|access-date=19 February 2020|archive-date=6 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506224350/https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/shashi-tharoors-the-great-indian-novel-has-completed-25-years-in-print-the-silver-jubilee-was-celebrated-over-satire-sips/cid/1557477|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/shashi-tharoor-political-career-minister-of-state-for-external-affairs-cabiner-reshuffle-the-great-indian-novel-ready-reckoner-119895-2012-10-29|title=Shashi Tharoor: A ready-reckoner|work=India Today}}</ref> President [[Bill Clinton]] cited Shashi Tharoor's book ''India From Midnight to the Millennium'' in his speech to the Indian parliament in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gulfnews.com/news/asia/india/shashi-tharoor-a-man-who-courts-controversy-1.1398600|title=A man who courts controversy|website=Gulf News|access-date=15 April 2017|archive-date=15 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170415202938/http://gulfnews.com/news/asia/india/shashi-tharoor-a-man-who-courts-controversy-1.1398600|url-status=live}}</ref>

Tharoor has lectured widely on India,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.nd.edu/news/8766-former-un-diplomat-tharoor-to-deliver-hesburgh-lectures/|title=Former UN diplomat Tharoor to deliver Hesburgh Lectures|last=Chamberlin|first=Kyle|date=10 April 2007|publisher=University of Notre Dame|access-date=19 January 2014|archive-date=2 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202121350/http://news.nd.edu/news/8766-former-un-diplomat-tharoor-to-deliver-hesburgh-lectures/|url-status=live}}</ref> and is often quoted for his observations,{{citation needed |date=April 2012}} including, "India is not, as people keep calling it, an underdeveloped country, but rather, in the context of its history and cultural heritage, a highly developed one in an advanced state of decay."<ref>''The Great Indian Novel'', Viking: London, 1989, p.18.</ref> He also coined a comparison of India's "thali" to the American "melting pot": "If America is a [[melting pot]], then to me India is a [[thali]] – a selection of sumptuous dishes in different bowls. Each tastes different, and does not necessarily mix with the next, but they belong together on the same plate, and they complement each other in making the meal a satisfying repast".<ref>''The Elephant, the Tiger and the Cellphone'', Viking: New Delhi, 2007, p.62.</ref>

Shashi Tharoor's non-fiction work ''An Era of Darkness'', published later in the United Kingdom as ''Inglorious Empire: What the British Did to India'', arose out of a [[Shashi Tharoor's Oxford Union speech|speech]]<ref>{{Citation|title=Dr Shashi Tharoor MP – Britain Does Owe Reparations|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7CW7S0zxv4| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/f7CW7S0zxv4| archive-date=7 November 2021 | url-status=live|language=en|access-date=14 April 2020}}{{cbignore}}</ref> he made at the [[Oxford Union]], was published in 2016. It has sold over 100,000 copies in hardback reprints and continues to be a bestseller in the country. The British edition rose to Number 1 in the ''[[London Evening Standard]]'' bestseller lists. Since then, he has published two other non-fiction books: ''Why I Am A Hindu'' (2018) and ''The Paradoxical Prime Minister'' (2018), both of which have been published in the Indian subcontinent by the Aleph Book Company.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.alephbookcompany.com/book/why-i-am-a-hindu/|title=Why I am a Hindu|date=28 December 2017|access-date=19 November 2018|publisher=Aleph Book Company|archive-date=29 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129183146/http://www.alephbookcompany.com/book/why-i-am-a-hindu/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.alephbookcompany.com/book/the-paradoxical-prime-minister-narendra-modi-and-his-india/|title=The Paradoxical Prime Minister: Narendra Modi and His India|date=22 October 2018|access-date=19 November 2018|publisher=Aleph Book Company|archive-date=28 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028161813/http://www.alephbookcompany.com/book/the-paradoxical-prime-minister-narendra-modi-and-his-india/|url-status=live}}</ref> The two books, both mega-bestsellers in India, raised very important questions. ''Why I Am a Hindu'' makes the point that it is precisely because Hindus form the majority that India has survived as a plural, secular democracy, a status that come under threat in the present world. ''The Paradoxical Prime Minister'' was a critical study of the present Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] and the effect he has had on India, along with other questions about a leader who is reviled and worshipped in equal measure.

Victor Mallet in the ''[[Financial Times]]'' said Tharoor "wants us to understand the origins of the difficulties that confronted India" after [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Indian independence]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/1885a53e-07d4-11e7-97d1-5e720a26771b|title=''Inglorious Empire'' by Shashi Tharoor – the rapacious Raj|website=Financial Times|date=17 March 2017|access-date=22 March 2018|last1=Mallet|first1=Victor|archive-date=17 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171217014302/https://www.ft.com/content/1885a53e-07d4-11e7-97d1-5e720a26771b|url-status=live}}</ref> An article by the ''[[New Statesman]]'' said it was especially important for readers in Britain in the light of post-[[Brexit]] discussions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/brexit/2017/03/why-brexiteers-need-update-their-reading-colonial-history|title=Why Brexiteers need to update their reading of colonial history|date=17 March 2017|website=New Statesman|access-date=22 March 2018|archive-date=23 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323154745/https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/brexit/2017/03/why-brexiteers-need-update-their-reading-colonial-history|url-status=live}}</ref> Tharoor has called for the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] to pay "colonial [[Reparations (transitional justice)|reparations]]" to India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/e74fd646-285d-11e8-b27e-cc62a39d57a0|title=Shashi Tharoor: the writer who believes Britain should pay colonial reparations|last=Stacey|first=Kiran|date=22 March 2018|website=Financial Times|access-date=22 March 2018|archive-date=23 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323092619/https://www.ft.com/content/e74fd646-285d-11e8-b27e-cc62a39d57a0|url-status=live}}</ref>

In September 2019, he published a new book, ''The Hindu Way: An Introduction'', in line with his research into Hindu culture and ways of life of late.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/936390/does-shashi-tharoor-believe-in-reincarnation-and-karma-his-new-book-has-an-answer|title=Does Shashi Tharoor believe in reincarnation and karma? His new book has an answer|last=Tharoor|first=Shashi|website=Scroll.in|access-date=14 November 2019|archive-date=29 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929192902/https://scroll.in/article/936390/does-shashi-tharoor-believe-in-reincarnation-and-karma-his-new-book-has-an-answer|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2020 he published ''The New World Disorder And the Indian Imperative,'' co-authored with Samir Saran, President of the [[Observer Research Foundation]] (ORF), one of Asia's most influential think tanks. The book is a crucial study on the current state of chaos in international politics and identifies India's imminent role, as a non-hegemonic global power, in scripting an equitable ethic for a new international order.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Haidar|first=Suhasini|date=25 January 2020|title=Book review: The New World Disorder and the Indian Imperative by Shashi Tharoor and Samir Saran|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/book-review-the-new-world-disorder-and-the-indian-imperative-by-shashi-tharoor-and-samir-saran/article30644414.ece|access-date=29 November 2021|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=26 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126135106/https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/book-review-the-new-world-disorder-and-the-indian-imperative-by-shashi-tharoor-and-samir-saran/article30644414.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Tharoor's first wife was Tilottama Mukherji, a half-[[Bengalis|Bengali]] and half-[[Kashmiris|Kashmiri]] academic,<ref>{{cite news |title=Shashi Tharoor and his ladies |url=https://www.abplive.in/crime/shashi-tharoor-and-his-ladies-7697 |access-date=5 July 2019 |work=m.abplive.in |date=10 January 2015 |archive-date=5 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705211555/https://www.abplive.in/crime/shashi-tharoor-and-his-ladies-7697 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the granddaughter of politician [[Kailash Nath Katju]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Shashi Tharoor to marry third time |url=http://photogallery.indiatimes.com/news/india/shashi-tharoor-to-marry-third-time/Shashi-Tharoor/articleshow/5793527.cms |newspaper=The Times of India |date=13 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104103931/http://photogallery.indiatimes.com/news/india/shashi-tharoor-to-marry-third-time/Shashi-Tharoor/articleshow/5793527.cms |archive-date=4 November 2012 }}</ref> Tharoor and Mukherji had been college sweethearts and were married in 1981.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ganapathy |first1=Nirmala |title=End of the road for Minister Twitter? |url=https://www.asiaone.com/asia/end-road-minister-twitter?amp |website=AsiaOne |access-date=5 July 2019 |date=21 January 2014 |archive-date=18 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518052415/https://www.asiaone.com/asia/end-road-minister-twitter?amp |url-status=live }}</ref> After their marriage, Tilottama took her husband's last name and began teaching English at the [[Ngee Ann Polytechnic]] university and also worked as a freelance writer.<ref>{{cite web |title=The women in Shashi Tharoor's life |url=https://www.asiaone.com/asia/women-shashi-tharoors-life |website=AsiaOne |access-date=3 July 2019 |date=21 January 2014 |archive-date=3 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703175200/https://www.asiaone.com/asia/women-shashi-tharoors-life |url-status=live }}</ref> Their twin sons,<ref>{{cite news |title=Shashi Tharoor's son gets married |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/150817/nation-current-affairs/article/shashi-tharoor%E2%80%99s-son-gets-married |access-date=5 July 2019 |date=17 August 2015 |archive-date=22 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122190430/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/150817/nation-current-affairs/article/shashi-tharoor%E2%80%99s-son-gets-married |url-status=live }}</ref> Kanishk and Ishaan, were born prematurely in 1984 at the [[KK Hospital]] in Singapore.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=V.K. Santosh |title=KK Hospital saved his premature twins |url=https://www.tabla.com.sg/jrsrc/200418full/epage012013/TA20180420-TAB-012-00-013.html |access-date=5 July 2019 |work=tabla.com.sg |archive-date=5 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705213621/https://www.tabla.com.sg/jrsrc/200418full/epage012013/TA20180420-TAB-012-00-013.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title='Welcome to the family, Mother', Tharoor's sons welcome Sunanda Pushkar |work=Mid-Day |date=23 August 2010 |url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/welcome-to-the-family-amma-tharoor-s-sons-welcome-sunanda-46502 |access-date=18 January 2014 |archive-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201152306/http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/welcome-to-the-family-amma-tharoor-s-sons-welcome-sunanda-46502 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ishaan is a former senior editor at ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine, and now writes on foreign affairs for ''[[The Washington Post]]''.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Ishaan Tharoor|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/people/ishaan-tharoor/|access-date=22 July 2020|newspaper=Washington Post|language=en|archive-date=21 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721220958/https://www.washingtonpost.com/people/ishaan-tharoor/|url-status=live}}</ref> Kanishk is a former editor at Open Democracy and is the author of the highly praised short story collection ''Swimmer Among The Stars''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Meet literary hotshots and squad of two—Ishaan and Kanishk Tharoor|url=https://www.vogue.in/content/meet-literary-hotshots-and-squad-of-two-ishaan-and-kanishk-tharoor|access-date=29 November 2021|website=Vogue India|date=10 March 2016 |language=en-IN|archive-date=29 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129065944/https://www.vogue.in/content/meet-literary-hotshots-and-squad-of-two-ishaan-and-kanishk-tharoor|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=Ishaan Tharoor |url=http://world.time.com/author/itharoor |magazine=Time |access-date=19 January 2014 |archive-date=13 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213071815/http://world.time.com/author/itharoor/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Tilottama is currently a professor of humanities at [[New York University]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Tharoor & the tale of ex and estranged spouses, Neha Tara Mehta |work=[[India Today]] |date=14 April 2010 |url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/Tharoor+&+the+tale+of+ex+and+estranged+spouses/1/92750.html |access-date=3 December 2021 |archive-date=24 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224064425/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/Tharoor+%26+the+tale+of+ex+and+estranged+spouses/1/92750.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Tharoor and Tilottama were divorced at some point. In 2007, Tharoor married Christa Giles, a Canadian diplomat working at the United Nations.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://ekikrat.in/Shashi-Tharoor|title = Shashi Tharoor|access-date = 22 August 2010|publisher = Ekikrat|archive-date = 25 September 2009|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090925073927/http://ekikrat.in/Shashi-Tharoor|url-status = live}}</ref> This marriage was short-lived and childless. Tharoor next married Dubai-based businesswoman [[Sunanda Pushkar]] at his ancestral home in Elavanchery village in Kerala's [[Palakkad district]] on 22 August 2010. He became her third husband, and step-father to her son Shiv Menon, born of a previous marriage. On 17 January 2014, Pushkar (aged 51) died at The Leela Hotel in [[Chanakyapuri]], New Delhi, under mysterious circumstances.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/sunanda-pushkar-died-an-unnatural-sudden-death-say-aiims-doctors-body-cremated/story-8n8tfrlu60jSVJwntInl4N.html|title=Sunanda Pushkar died an unnatural sudden death say AIIMS doctors; body cremated|date=18 January 2014|website=Hindustan Times|access-date=16 April 2019|archive-date=16 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416111142/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/sunanda-pushkar-died-an-unnatural-sudden-death-say-aiims-doctors-body-cremated/story-8n8tfrlu60jSVJwntInl4N.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2018, Tharoor was charged with encouraging the suicide of his wife and marital cruelty under sections 306 and 498A of the Indian Penal Code.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Shashi Tharoor charged in Sunanda Pushkar death case|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/shashi-tharoor-charged-in-sunanda-pushkar-death-case/article23881302.ece|access-date=10 March 2021|website=@businessline|date=14 May 2018 |language=en|archive-date=18 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518045749/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/shashi-tharoor-charged-in-sunanda-pushkar-death-case/article23881302.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=10 October 2021|title=Shashi Tharoor abetted Sunanda Pushkar's suicide, says chargesheet |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/shashi-tharoor-abetted-sunanda-pushkars-suicide-says-chargesheet/articleshow/64166166.cms|access-date=10 March 2021|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109040646/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/shashi-tharoor-abetted-sunanda-pushkars-suicide-says-chargesheet/articleshow/64166166.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> On 18 August 2021, a court in Delhi discharged Tharoor from all the charges.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/sunanda-pushkar-death-case-delhi-court-clears-shashi-tharoor-of-all-charges/amp-11629265460504.html |title=Shashi Tharoor cleared from all Charges |date=18 August 2021 |work=Mint |access-date=18 August 2021 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818060529/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/sunanda-pushkar-death-case-delhi-court-clears-shashi-tharoor-of-all-charges/amp-11629265460504.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Tharoor is a vegetarian and he "abhors the idea of consuming the corpses of animals," although he claimed that he does not have a problem with those who do. He has stated that he is "very proud of being a [[Hindu]]" and that he's a "worshipping" and "believing Hindu". Tharoor also claims to have read a "fair amount" of the [[Upanishads]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ramesh|first1=M.|title=I am very proud of being a Hindu|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/i-am-very-proud-of-being-a-hindu/article8210101.ece|access-date=29 October 2017|work=Business Line|date=8 February 2016|archive-date=18 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518061727/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/i-am-very-proud-of-being-a-hindu/article8210101.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

In April 2019, Tharoor had an accident when praying during a [[Tulabhara|Thulabharam]] ritual at a temple in Thiruvananthapuram. After being discharged, he sought a probe by the government into the incident.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/out-of-hospital-shashi-tharoor-seeks-probe-into-temple-accident/story-LfrtCDrlb3eoTdHgV0PFQJ.html|title=Out of hospital, Shashi Tharoor seeks probe into temple accident|date=16 April 2019|website=Hindustan Times|access-date=17 April 2019|archive-date=16 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416131240/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/out-of-hospital-shashi-tharoor-seeks-probe-into-temple-accident/story-LfrtCDrlb3eoTdHgV0PFQJ.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

His mother-tongue is [[Malayalam]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s4CR7hQGmVU| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/s4CR7hQGmVU| archive-date=7 November 2021 | url-status=live|title=Dr. Shashi Tharoor on Religion & Personal Life (Malayalam)|via=www.youtube.com}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

=== Service and philanthropy ===
Shashi Tharoor was one of the first nine celebrities nominated in 2014 by the Prime Minister Narendra Modi to spread awareness regarding cleanliness, [[hygiene]] and good [[sanitation]] and make [[Swachh Bharat Mission]] a people's movement.<ref name="PM launches Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan">{{cite news|date=2 October 2014|title=PM launches Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan|url=http://www.narendramodi.in/pm-launches-swachh-bharat-abhiyaan/|access-date=2 October 2014|archive-date=16 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316220600/http://www.narendramodi.in/pm-launches-swachh-bharat-abhiyaan/|url-status=live}}</ref> He responded by cleaning the Vizhinjam port on the outskirts of [[Thiruvananthapuram]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 October 2014|title=Swachh Bharat: PM Modi ropes in celebrities for his 'Swachh Bharat' challenge {{!}} India News |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/PM-Modi-ropes-in-celebrities-for-his-Swachh-Bharat-challenge/articleshow/44121679.cms|access-date=31 July 2020|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112014515/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/PM-Modi-ropes-in-celebrities-for-his-Swachh-Bharat-challenge/articleshow/44121679.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=25 October 2014|title=Tharoor joins PM's 'Swachh Bharat' campaign|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/tharoor-joins-pm-s-swachh-bharat-campaign/story-s5lP1tb3AdLnFpkZ61KzBK.html|access-date=31 July 2020|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>

=== Advisor ===
Currently, he is on the [[Advisory board|Board of Advisors]] of [[I.I.M.U.N.|India's International Movement to Unite Nations (I.I.M.U.N.)]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=I.I.M.U.N. {{!}}{{!}} Board of Advisors|url=https://new.iimun.in/pages/BoA.html|access-date=17 July 2021|website=new.iimun.in|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717042250/https://new.iimun.in/pages/BoA.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Honours and awards==
[[File:Farooq Abdullah addressing after being conferred the Civilian Honour by the Spain Government on the occasion of the National Day of Spain, in New Delhi. The Ambassador of Spain to India.jpg|thumb|Ambassador of Spain to India Gustavo de Aristégui conferring [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Spain|Civilian Honour]] by [[Government of Spain]] on the occasion of the National Day of Spain to Tharoor and [[Farooq Abdullah]].]]

* 1976 – ''Rajika Kripalani Young Journalist Award'' for the Best Indian Journalist under 30.<ref name=Guide>{{cite book |title=South Asian Novelists in English: An A-To-Z Guide |first=Gita |last=Rajan |editor-first=Jaina C. |editor-last=Sanga |page=308 |isbn=0-313-31885-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qlpKOzsOc-IC&pg=PA281|year=2003 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing }}</ref>
* 1990 – Federation of Indian Publishers' Hindustan Times Literary Award for the Best Book of the Year for ''The Great Indian Novel''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/political-leaders/shashi-tharoor.html|title=Shashi Tharoor|publisher=India's first election website|access-date=19 February 2020|archive-date=4 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004051145/http://www.elections.in/political-leaders/shashi-tharoor.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 1991 – [[Commonwealth Writers' Prize]] for the Best Book of the Year in the Eurasian Region, for ''The Great Indian Novel''<ref name=Guide/>
* 1998 – ''Excelsior Award'' for excellence in literature, Association of Indians in America (AIA){{citation needed|date=February 2020}} and the [[Network of Indian Professionals]] (NetIP).<ref name=Guide/>
* 1998 – ''Global Leader of Tomorrow'', [[World Economic Forum]] in Davos, Switzerland<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2002/sga803.doc.htm|title=Appointment of Shashi Tharoor as under-secretary-general for communications and public information confirmed by secretary-general|publisher=United Nations|access-date=16 May 2018|archive-date=16 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516175014/https://www.un.org/press/en/2002/sga803.doc.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 2004 – [[Pravasi Bharatiya Samman]], India's highest honour for non-resident Indians (accepted 2007<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id=1756e2bb-7259-4d02-80a6-5fa5350b0fec&MatchID1=4461&TeamID1=10&TeamID2=6&MatchType1=2&SeriesID1=1108&PrimaryID=4461&Headline=Tharoor+gets+Pravasi+Samman
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930060932/http://hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id=1756e2bb-7259-4d02-80a6-5fa5350b0fec&MatchID1=4461&TeamID1=10&TeamID2=6&MatchType1=2&SeriesID1=1108&PrimaryID=4461&Headline=Tharoor+gets+Pravasi+Samman
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=30 September 2007
|date=9 May 2007 |title=Tharoor honoured with Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Award |access-date=10 May 2007 |work=Hindustan Times}}</ref>)
* 2009 – Zakir Hussain Memorial "Pride of India" Award.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/BSP/images/Shashitharoorbio.pdf|title=Shashi Tharoor biographical note|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=17 March 2014|archive-date=25 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325232442/http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/BSP/images/Shashitharoorbio.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 2009 – Inspiration of the Year Award at GQ's Man of the Year Awards.<ref>{{cite web|work=[[GQ]]|title=Gallery: GQ India's Men of the Year Awards 2009|url=http://travel.cnn.com/mumbai/play/gallery-gq-indias-men-year-awards-2009-827493/|publisher=CNN|access-date=29 October 2017|date=11 October 2009|archive-date=29 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029121044/http://travel.cnn.com/mumbai/play/gallery-gq-indias-men-year-awards-2009-827493/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 2009 – ''Hakim Khan Sur'' Award for National Integration, Maharana of [[Udaipur]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.meridian.org/profile/dr-shashi-tharoor/|title=Dr. Shashi Tharoor|publisher=Meridian news}}</ref>
* 2010 – ''Sarva Deshiya Prathibha'' Award, Pazhassiraja Charitable Trust, [[Kozhikode]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/12/01/stories/2009120154130400.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091205232137/http://www.hindu.com/2009/12/01/stories/2009120154130400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 December 2009 |title=Pazhassi awards announced |location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=1 December 2009}}</ref>
* 2010 – "New Age Politician of the Year" Award, at NDTV's Indian of the Year awards.<ref>{{cite web|title=Shashi Tharoor|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/litfest/delhi-litfest-2016/speakers/Shashi-Tharoor/articleshow/55050099.cms|work=The Times of India|access-date=29 October 2017|archive-date=25 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125084343/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/litfest/delhi-litfest-2016/speakers/Shashi-Tharoor/articleshow/55050099.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 2010 – Fifth IILM ''Distinguished Global Thinker Award'', New Delhi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indiaprwire.com/pressrelease/education/2010030845120.htm |title=Dr Shashi Tharoor receives the Fifth IILM Distinguished Global Thinker Award, 2010 |work=India PR Wire |access-date=9 March 2010 |archive-date=10 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310153231/http://www.indiaprwire.com/pressrelease/education/2010030845120.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2010 – ''Digital person of the year'', Indian Digital Media Awards (IDMA), for popularising the digital medium in India.<ref name="IDMA">{{cite web |url=http://www.exchange4media.com/e4m/izone1/izone_fullstory.asp?Section_id=4&News_id=37480&Tag=2859 |title=IDMA 2010: G2 Direct & Digital, Tata Tea, Anil Ambani, Shashi Tharoor among host of winners |work=exchange4media Mumbai Bureau |access-date=12 March 2010 |archive-date=15 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315072503/http://www.exchange4media.com/e4m/izone1/izone_fullstory.asp?Section_id=4&News_id=37480&Tag=2859 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2012 – {{Flag|Spain}} : [[File:ESP Charles III Order COM.svg|80px]] Commander of the [[Order of Charles III]] by [[King of Spain]]
* 2013 – First Sree Narayan Guru Global Secular and Peace Award at Thiruvananthapuram.
* 2013 – [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals|PETA]]'s "Person of the Year".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-12-27/news/45627050_1_peta-india-non-animal-methods-ethical-treatment |title=Shashi Tharoor PETA's 'person of the year' |work=The Economic Times |date=27 December 2013 |access-date=30 December 2013 |archive-date=30 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235830/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-12-27/news/45627050_1_peta-india-non-animal-methods-ethical-treatment |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2019 – [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] for his book, ''[[An Era of Darkness]]: The British Empire in India''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/lifestyle/people/story/shashi-tharoor-wins-sahitya-akademi-award-2019-for-an-era-of-darkness-1629374-2019-12-18|title=Shashi Tharoor wins Sahitya Akademi Award 2019 for An Era Of Darkness|date=18 December 2019|website=India Today|access-date=18 December 2019|archive-date=9 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109190907/https://www.indiatoday.in/lifestyle/people/story/shashi-tharoor-wins-sahitya-akademi-award-2019-for-an-era-of-darkness-1629374-2019-12-18|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 2022 – {{Flag|France}} : [[File:Legion Honneur Chevalier ribbon.svg|80px]] [[Legion of Honour|Chevalier de la Legion d’Honneur]], for his writings and speeches<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-11 |title=Delhi Confidential: Shashi Tharoor to receive Legion Of Honour, France's highest civilian award |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/delhi-confidential/delhi-confidential-shashi-tharoor-legion-of-honour-8083564/ |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-11 |title=Shashi Tharoor to receive France's highest civilian award, party leaders congratulate him |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/shashi-tharoor-to-receive-france-s-highest-civilian-award-party-leaders-congratulate-him-101660228690866.html |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

===Honorary degrees===
* Honorary [[Doctor of Letters]] in International Affairs from [[University of Puget Sound]]<ref name=Guide/>
* Doctor Honoris Causa in history from [[University of Bucharest]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.prsindia.org/mptrack/shashitharoor |title=MP Track: Shashi Tharoor |work=PRS Legislative Research |access-date=16 January 2016 |archive-date=28 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151128071849/http://www.prsindia.org/mptrack/shashitharoor |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Bibliography==
===Fiction===
* ''[[The Great Indian Novel]]'' (1989)<ref>{{cite book |title=The Great Indian Novel |work=Arcade Publishing |first=Shashi |last=Tharoor |page=423 |isbn=1-55970-194-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tyNahb9XtQsC|year=1993 |publisher=Arcade }}</ref>
* ''[[The Five Dollar Smile and Other Stories]]'' (1990)<ref>{{cite book |title=The Five Dollar Smile and Other Stories |first=Shashi |last=Tharoor |page=175 |isbn=1-55970-225-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V8xlAAAAMAAJ|year=1993 |publisher=Arcade Pub. }}</ref>
* ''[[Show Business (novel)|Show Business]]'' (1992)<ref>{{cite book |title=Show Business |first=Shashi |last=Tharoor |page=320 |isbn=978-1-61145-407-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7pCu5RD2JX0C |date=18 April 2011 |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing Company, Incorporated |access-date=11 August 2015 |archive-date=3 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203213848/https://books.google.com/books?id=7pCu5RD2JX0C |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''Riot'' (2001)<ref>{{cite book |title=Riot |work=Arcade Publishing |first=Shashi |last=Tharoor |year=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/riot00thar/page/272 272] |publisher=Arcade |isbn=1-55970-605-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/riot00thar/page/272 }}</ref>

===Non-fiction===
* ''Reasons of State'' (1985)<ref>{{cite book |title=Reasons of state: political development and India's foreign policy under Indira Gandhi |work=Vikas Pub. House |first=Shashi |last=Tharoor |year=1982 |page=438 |publisher=Vikas Publishing House |isbn=0-7069-1275-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n1RuAAAAMAAJ |access-date=11 August 2015 |archive-date=3 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203213839/https://books.google.com/books?id=n1RuAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''[[India: From Midnight to the Millennium]]'' (1997)<ref>{{cite book |title=India: From Midnight to the Millennium and Beyond |work=Arcade Publishing |first=Shashi |last=Tharoor |page=420 |isbn=1-55970-803-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRSC_uTGhZ8C |year=2006 |publisher=Arcade |access-date=11 August 2015 |archive-date=4 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204131427/https://books.google.com/books?id=fRSC_uTGhZ8C |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''[[Nehru: The Invention of India]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/nehruinventionof00thar|title=Nehru : the invention of India : Tharoor, Shashi, 1956– : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive|via=Internet Archive|year=2003|isbn=9781559706971|last1=Tharoor|first1=Shashi|publisher=Arcade }}</ref> Arcade Publishing (2003). New York. First edition. {{isbn|9781559706971}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Nehru: The Invention of India |work=Arcade Publishing |first=Shashi |last=Tharoor |page=282 |isbn=1-55970-697-X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3axLmUHCJ4cC |year=2003 |publisher=Arcade |access-date=11 August 2015 |archive-date=16 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516074004/http://books.google.com/books?id=3axLmUHCJ4cC |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''[[Bookless in Baghdad]]'' (2005)<ref>{{cite book |title=Bookless in Baghdad: Reflections on Writing and Writers |first=Shashi |last=Tharoor |page=288 |isbn=978-1-61145-408-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZkbZtvep8gC |date=April 2012 |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing |access-date=11 August 2015 |archive-date=3 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203213848/https://books.google.com/books?id=KZkbZtvep8gC |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''The Elephant, the Tiger, and the Cell Phone: Reflections on India – The Emerging 21st-Century Power'' (2007)<ref>{{cite book |title=The Elephant, the Tiger, and the Cell Phone: Reflections on India – The Emerging 21st-Century Power |work=W W Norton & Company Incorporated |first=Shashi |last=Tharoor |page=512 |isbn=978-1-61145-393-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uqvpZutXN7cC |year=2007 |publisher=Penguin Books India |access-date=29 November 2019 |archive-date=19 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319061103/https://books.google.com/books?id=uqvpZutXN7cC |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''Shadows Across the Playing Field: Sixty Years of India-Pakistan Cricket'' (2009) (with Shaharyar Khan)<ref>{{cite book |title=Shadows Across the Playing Field: 60 Years of India-Pakistan Cricket |first1=Shashi |last1=Tharoor |first2=Shaharyar Mohammed |last2=Khan |year=2009 |page=189 |publisher=Roli Books |isbn=978-81-7436-718-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sq0fQAAACAAJ |access-date=11 August 2015 |archive-date=3 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203213836/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sq0fQAAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''[[Pax Indica]]: India and the World of the 21st Century'' (2012)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tharoor|first=Shashi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URqYQxNYHBIC&q=pax+indica+shashi|title=Pax Indica: India and the World of the Twenty-first Century|date=15 June 2013|publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited|isbn=978-81-8475-693-7|language=en|access-date=29 November 2021|archive-date=3 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203213821/https://books.google.com/books?id=URqYQxNYHBIC&q=pax+indica+shashi|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''India: the Future is Now'' (Editor)(2013)
* ''India Shastra: Reflections on the Nation in our Time'' (2015)
* [[Inglorious Empire|''Inglorious Empire: What the British Did to India'']] (2017),<ref name="Inglorious Empire">{{cite web |url=http://www.hurstpublishers.com/book/inglorious-empire/ |title=New release: Inglorious Empire by Shashi Tharoor |last=Singh |first=Kanwal |date=3 March 2017 |access-date=4 March 2017 |archive-date=24 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424210326/https://www.hurstpublishers.com/book/inglorious-empire/ |url-status=live }}</ref> first published in India as ''An Era of Darkness: The British Empire in India'' (2016).<ref name="era_darkness">{{cite web |url=https://kitaab.org/2016/10/23/new-release-an-era-of-darkness-the-british-empire-in-india-by-shashi-tharoor/ |title=New release: An Era of Darkness: The British Empire in India by Shashi Tharoor |last=Sheikh |first=Aminah |date=23 October 2016 |access-date=16 November 2016 |archive-date=17 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117063020/https://kitaab.org/2016/10/23/new-release-an-era-of-darkness-the-british-empire-in-india-by-shashi-tharoor/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''[[Why I Am A Hindu]]'' (2018)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alephbookcompany.com/book/why-i-am-a-hindu/|title=Why I am a Hindu|date=28 December 2017|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=25 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180525105321/http://www.alephbookcompany.com/book/why-i-am-a-hindu/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[The Paradoxical Prime Minister]]'' (2018)
* ''The Hindu Way'' (2019)
* ''The New World Disorder and the Indian Imperative'' (2020), co-authored with Samir Saran.<ref>{{cite news | title=Book review: The New World Disorder and the Indian Imperative by Shashi Tharoor and Samir Saran | first=Suhasini | last=Haidar | url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/book-review-the-new-world-disorder-and-the-indian-imperative-by-shashi-tharoor-and-samir-saran/article30644414.ece | work=[[The Hindu]] | date=25 February 2020 | access-date=4 February 2020 | archive-date=26 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126135106/https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/book-review-the-new-world-disorder-and-the-indian-imperative-by-shashi-tharoor-and-samir-saran/article30644414.ece | url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''The Battle of Belonging'' (2020)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/the-battle-of-belonging-review-idea-of-india-in-peril/article33038704.ece|title='The Battle of Belonging' review: 'Idea of India' in peril|first=Mohammed|last=Ayoob|newspaper=The Hindu|date=8 November 2020|access-date=11 November 2020|archive-date=10 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110233141/https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/the-battle-of-belonging-review-idea-of-india-in-peril/article33038704.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>
*''[[Tharoorosaurus]]'' (2020)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tharoor|first=Shashi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsH4DwAAQBAJ&q=tharoorosaurus|title=Tharoorosaurus|date=1 September 2020|publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited|isbn=978-93-5305-951-4|language=en|access-date=23 November 2021|archive-date=3 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203213810/https://books.google.com/books?id=MsH4DwAAQBAJ&q=tharoorosaurus|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Kumar|first=K. c Vijaya|date=26 September 2020|title=Tharoorosaurus review: A to Z of Tharoor's rich lexicon|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/tharoorosaurus-review-a-to-z-of-tharoors-rich-lexicon/article32693514.ece|access-date=6 September 2021|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=15 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210915072943/https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/tharoorosaurus-review-a-to-z-of-tharoors-rich-lexicon/article32693514.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>
*''Pride, Prejudice and Punditry: The Essential Shashi Tharoor'' (2021)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/books-and-literature/hindutva-is-like-a-british-football-team-hooligan-shashi-tharoor-pride-prejudice-and-punditry-book-7628663/|title='Hindutva is like a British football-team hooligan': Shashi Tharoor|date=18 November 2021|website=The Indian Express|access-date=22 November 2021|archive-date=22 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122191458/https://indianexpress.com/article/books-and-literature/hindutva-is-like-a-british-football-team-hooligan-shashi-tharoor-pride-prejudice-and-punditry-book-7628663/|url-status=live}} {{ISBN|9390652278}}</ref>
* ''[[The Struggle for India's Soul: Nationalism and the Fate of Democracy]]'' (2021)<ref>Tunku Varadarajan, "'The Struggle for India's Soul' Review: Nationalism in New Delhi: An Indian politician and writer calls for a return to liberal ideals." [https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-struggle-for-indias-soul-book-review-shashi-tharoor-narendra-modi-nationalism-in-new-delhi-11638546520?mod=books_arts_featured_pos1 ''Wall Street Journal'' 3 Dec 2021]</ref>
* ''[[Ambedkar: A Life]]'' (2022)<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sampath |first=G. |date=2022-09-30 |title=Review of Shashi Tharoor's Ambedkar — A Life: Writing the constitutionalist |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/ambedkar-life-book-shashi-tharoor/article65940988.ece |access-date=2022-10-06 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

===Illustrated books===
* ''Kerala: God's Own Country'' (2002) (along with artist [[M.F. Husain]]).<ref>{{cite book |title=Kerala, God's own country |first=Shashi |last=Tharoor |date=January 2003 |page=57 |publisher=Books Today |isbn=81-87478-43-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BJluAAAAMAAJ |access-date=11 August 2015 |archive-date=3 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203213810/https://books.google.com/books?id=BJluAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''Inde'' (in French) or ''India'' (in English) (2008) along with photographer [[Ferrante Ferranti]].

==See also==
* [[Shashi Tharoor's Oxford Union speech]]
* [[List of Indian writers]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Shashi Tharoor}}
{{wikiquote|Shashi Tharoor}}
* {{Official website|http://www.shashitharoor.in/}}
* {{Instagram|id=shashitharoor|name=Shashi Tharoor}}
*
* [http://164.100.47.194/Loksabha/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=4569 Dr Shashi Tharoor] ''Official bio-data at Lok Sabha, Parliament of India''
* [http://archivepmo.nic.in/drmanmohansingh/pmsteam.php Cabinet of Prime Minister Manmohan Singh] ''Prime Ministers Office, Archived''
* [https://www.un.org/News/ossg/sg/stories/shashi_bio.asp Shashi Tharoor] at United Nations
* {{NYTtopic|people/t/shashi_tharoor}}
* [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/Shashi-Tharoor Shashi Tharoor] collected news and commentary at ''[[The Times of India]]''
*{{Cite video|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aCjYgVVd_po| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/aCjYgVVd_po| archive-date=7 November 2021 | url-status=live|title=Why Is PM Narendra Modi 'The Paradoxical Prime Minister'? {{!}} The Interview With Shashi Tharoor|type=Videotape|language=English|publisher=[[ET Now]]}}{{cbignore}}
* {{C-SPAN|57692}}
* {{IMDb name|0857076}}
* {{OL author|id=OL207696A}}
* [https://www.literaturfestival.com/medien/texte/eroeffnungsreden/tharoor-engl Globalization and the Human Imagination] ''Opening speech of the 3. international literature festival berlin''

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|in-lwr}}
{{s-bef
| before = [[Pannyan Raveendran]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Member of Parliament for [[Thiruvananthapuram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Thiruvananthapuram]]
| years = 2009
}}
{{s-inc
}}
{{s-dip}}
{{s-bef
| before = {{Not sure}}
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[United Nations Department of Public Information|Secretary-General UN Communications and Public Information]]
| years = 2001–2007
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Kiyotaka Akasaka]]
}}
{{s-end}}{{Malayalam Literature}}{{17th LS members from Kerala}}
{{16th LS members from Kerala}}
{{Cabinet of Manmohan Singh}}{{Portal bar|Biography|Literature|Politics|Socialism|Hinduism|India}}{{Authority control}}
{{portal bar|Biography|India|Literature|Politics}}
{{Sahitya Akademi Award for English}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tharoor, Shashi}}
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:British people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Writers from Palakkad]]
[[Category:Malayali politicians]]
[[Category:Indian diplomats]]
[[Category:Indian male novelists]]
[[Category:Under-Secretaries-General of the United Nations]]
[[Category:Indian officials of the United Nations]]
[[Category:The Fletcher School at Tufts University alumni]]
[[Category:Tufts University alumni]]
[[Category:India MPs 2009–2014]]
[[Category:English-language writers from India]]
[[Category:Delhi University alumni]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Kerala]]
[[Category:India MPs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Kerala]]
[[Category:Novelists from Kerala]]
[[Category:Indian political writers]]
[[Category:Indian writers]]
[[Category:Indian travel writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian journalists]]
[[Category:Indian male journalists]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:Journalists from Kerala]]
[[Category:The Times of India journalists]]
[[Category:Indian foreign policy writers]]
[[Category:Indian columnists]]
[[Category:India MPs 2019–present]]
[[Category:Union ministers of state of India]]
[[Category:Recipients of Pravasi Bharatiya Samman]]

Globe Theatre

2024-03-10T18:46:48Z

Asyncadr: /* History */ added archive.org link to the citation for wotton's letters

{{Short description|16th/17th-century theatre in London}}
{{About|the historic theatre|the modern reconstruction|Shakespeare's Globe|other uses}}
{{Pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox venue
| name = The Globe Theatre
| image = William Shakespeare, Sketch for inclusion in Wenceslas Hollar's "Long view of London", 1644, showing second Globe Theatre.jpg
| caption = The second Globe, preliminary sketch ({{circa|1638}}) for [[Wenceslas Hollar|Hollar's]] 1647 ''Long View of London''<ref name=Cooper2006/>
| address = Maiden Lane (now Park Street) [[London Borough of Southwark|Southwark]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wilson|first=Ian|author-link=Ian Wilson (writer)|title=Shakespeare the Evidence|publisher=Headline|location=London |year=1993|page=xiii|isbn=0-7472-0582-5|no-pp=true}}</ref>{{sfn|Bowsher|Miller|2009|page=87}}
| city = London
| country = England
| coordinates = {{Coord|51|30|24|N|00|5|41|W|type:landmark_region:GB-SWK|display=inline,title}}
| type = [[Elizabethan theatre]]
| opened = {{Start date|1599|df=y}}
| rebuilt = 1614
| closed = 1642
| demolished = 1644–45
| owner = [[Lord Chamberlain's Men]]
}}

The '''Globe Theatre''' was a theatre in London associated with [[William Shakespeare]]. It was built in 1599 at [[Southwark]], close to the south bank of the Thames, by Shakespeare's [[playing company]], the [[Lord Chamberlain's Men]]. It was destroyed by fire on 29 June 1613. A second Globe Theatre was built on the same site by June 1614 and stayed open until the [[London theatre closure 1642|London theatre closures of 1642]]. As well as plays by Shakespeare, early works by [[Ben Jonson]], [[Thomas Dekker (writer)|Thomas Dekker]] and [[John Fletcher (playwright)|John Fletcher]] were first performed here.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fact Sheet: The First Globe |url=https://teach.shakespearesglobe.com/fact-sheet-first-globe#:~:text=What%20plays%20were%20performed%20at,Macbeth%20and%20Antony%20and%20Cleopatra. |website=Teach Shakespeare |publisher=[[Shakespeare's Globe]] |access-date=27 January 2023 |language=en |date=4 December 2015}}</ref>

A modern reconstruction of the Globe, named "[[Shakespeare's Globe]]", opened in 1997 approximately {{convert|230|m|ft|order=flip}} from the site of the original theatre.<ref name="Measuredusing">Measured using [[Google Earth]]</ref>

==Location==
Examination of old [[lease]]s and parish records has identified the plot of land acquired for building The Globe as extending from the west side of modern-day [[Southwark Bridge Road]] eastwards as far as Porter Street and from Park Street southwards as far as the back of Gatehouse Square.{{Sfn|Mulryne|Shewring|1997|p=69}}{{sfn|Braines|1924|pp=17–45}} It was being offered for rent by [[Thomas Brend]], who was a neighbour to [[John Heminges]] and [[Henry Condell]], actors with the Chamberlain's Men.{{Sfn|Shapiro|2005|page=3}}

The precise location of the building remained unknown until a small part of the foundations, including one original pier base, was discovered in 1989 by the Department of Greater London Archaeology (now [[Museum of London Archaeology]]) beneath the car park at the rear of [[Anchor Terrace]] on Park Street.{{sfn|McCudden|1990}} The shape of the foundations is now replicated on the surface. As the majority of the foundations lies beneath 67–70 Anchor Terrace, a [[listed building]], no further excavations have been permitted.{{sfn|Bowsher|Miller|2009|page=4}}

==History==
[[File:Hollar Long View detail.png|thumb|Second Globe Theatre, detail from Hollar's ''View of London'', 1647. Hollar sketched the building from life (see top), but only later assembled the drawings into this ''View'', when he mislabelled his images of The Globe and the nearby [[Hope Theatre|Bear Garden]]. Here the correct label has been restored. The small building to the left supplied food- and ale-sellers at the theatre.<ref name=Cooper2006>{{cite book |year=2006 |editor=Cooper, Tarnya|title=Searching for Shakespeare |publisher=[[National Portrait Gallery (London)|National Portrait Gallery]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-300-11611-3 |pages=92–93 |chapter=A view from St Mary Overy, Southwark, looking towards Westminster, c. 1638}}</ref>{{sfn|Bowsher|Miller|2009|page=112}}<ref name=Mulryne75/>]][[File:Theater bankside.jpg|thumb|Detail from the [[Visscher panorama]] of 1616 showing The Globe (right) and the Bear Garden (left)]][[File:London theatres C16—C17, Red Lion.jpg|thumb|The Globe Theatre is shown at the bottom centre of this London street map.<ref>Location taken from {{harvnb|Bowsher|Miller|2009|page=107}}</ref>]]
[[File:Globe Southwark street plan.png|thumb|Position on modern street plan]]

The Globe was owned by actors who were also shareholders in the [[Lord Chamberlain's Men]]. Two of the six Globe shareholders, [[Richard Burbage]] and his brother [[Cuthbert Burbage]], owned double shares of the whole, or 25 per cent each; the other four men, Shakespeare, John Heminges, [[Augustine Phillips]], and [[Thomas Pope (16th-century actor)|Thomas Pope]], owned a single share, or 12.5 per cent. (Originally [[William Kempe]] was intended to be the seventh partner, but he sold out his share to the four minority sharers, leaving them with more than the originally planned 10 per cent).{{Sfn|Gurr|1991|pages=45–46}} These initial proportions changed over time as new sharers were added. Shakespeare's share diminished from 1/8 to 1/14 (roughly 7 per cent), over the course of his career.{{Sfn|Schoenbaum|1991|pp=648–649}}

The Globe was built in 1599 using [[Lumber|timber]] from an earlier theatre, [[The Theatre]], which had been built by Richard Burbage's father, [[James Burbage]], in [[Shoreditch]] in 1576. The Burbages originally had a 21-year lease of the site on which the theatre was built but owned the building outright. However, the landlord, Giles Allen, claimed that the building had become his with the expiry of the lease. On 28 December 1598, while Allen was celebrating Christmas at his country home, carpenter [[Peter Street (carpenter)|Peter Street]], supported by the players and their friends, dismantled The Theatre beam by beam and transported it to Street's waterfront warehouse near [[Bridewell]].{{Sfn|Shapiro|2005|page=7}} With the onset of more favourable weather in the following spring, the material was ferried over the [[River Thames|Thames]] to reconstruct it as The Globe on some marshy gardens to the south of Maiden Lane, Southwark. While only a hundred yards from the congested shore of the Thames, the piece of land was situated close by an area of farmland and open fields.{{Sfn|Shapiro|2005|pages=122-123, 129}} It was poorly drained and, notwithstanding its distance from the river, was liable to flooding at times of particularly high tide; a "wharf" (bank) of raised earth with timber [[Revetment#Freshwater revetments|revetments]] had to be created to carry the building above the flood level.<ref name =BM90>{{harvnb|ps=.|Bowsher|Miller|2009|page=90}}</ref> The new theatre was larger than the building it replaced, with the older timbers being reused as part of the new structure; the Globe was not merely the old Theatre newly set up at Bankside.<ref>Allen's court proceedings against Street and the Burbages noted that the timber from The Theatre was "sett up…in an other forme" at Bankside. Quoted in {{harvnb|ps=.|Bowsher|Miller|2009|page=90}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Adams |first=John Cranford |year=1961 |title=The Globe Playhouse. Its design and equipment |edition=2 |publisher=John Constable |location=London |oclc=556737149}}</ref> It was probably completed by the summer of 1599, possibly in time for the opening production of ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'' and its famous reference to the performance crammed within a "wooden O".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bate |first1=Jonathan |author-link1=Jonathan Bate |year=2007 |last2=Rasmussen |first2=Eric |title=William Shakespeare Complete Works |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |isbn=978-0-230-00350-7 |page=1030}}</ref> [[Dover Wilson]], however, defers the opening date until September 1599, taking the "wooden O" reference to be disparaging and thus unlikely to be used in the Globe's inaugural staging. He suggests that the account of [[Thomas Platter the Younger|Thomas Platter]], a Swiss tourist, describing a performance of ''[[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar]]'' witnessed on 21 September 1599 describes the more likely first production.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dover Wilson |first=John |author-link=John Dover Wilson |year=1968 |title=The Works of Shakespeare{{snd}}Julius Caesar |series=Cambridge New Shakespeare |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=0-521-09482-8 |page=ix}}</ref> The first performance for which a firm record remains was [[Ben Jonson|Jonson's]] ''[[Every Man out of His Humour]]''—with its first scene welcoming the "gracious and kind spectators"—at the end of the year.<ref name="BM90" /><ref name= "Sanders2010">{{Cite book |last=Stern |first=Tiffany |year=2010 |editor=Sanders, Julie |title=Ben Jonson in Context |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-0-521-89571-2 |page=113 |chapter=The Globe Theatre and the open-air amphitheatres}}</ref>

On 29 June 1613, the Globe Theatre went up in flames during a performance of ''[[Henry VIII (play)|Henry VIII]]''.{{sfn|Nagler|1958|p=8}} A theatrical cannon, set off during the performance, misfired, igniting the wooden beams and thatching. According to one of the few surviving documents of the event, no one was hurt except a man whose burning breeches were put out with a bottle of ale.<ref name="wotton">{{Cite book |last=Wotton |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Wotton |url=https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofsir02smitiala/page/32/mode/2up |title=The Life and Letters of Sir Henry Wotton |date=2 July 1613 |publisher=Clarendon Press |editor=Smith, Logan Pearsall |editor-link=Logan Pearsall Smith |volume=Two |location=Oxford, England |pages=32–33 |chapter=Letters of Wotton}}</ref> It was rebuilt in the following year.

Like all the other theatres in London, the Globe was closed down by the outbreak of the [[First English Civil War]], when the [[Long Parliament]] [[London theatre closure 1642|closed all London theatres]] by an ordinance dated 2 September 1642.<ref name=Milling>{{cite book|author1=Jane Milling|author2=Peter Thomson|title=The Cambridge History of British Theatre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_cGBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA439|year= 2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521650403|pages=439, 459}}</ref> It was pulled down in 1644–45 (the commonly cited document dating the act to 15 April 1644 is not reliable<ref>This is no more than a pencil note in the margin of a copy of [[John Stow]]'s 1598 ''Survay of London'' in the library of [[Thomas Phillipps]]: see {{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Joseph Quincy |author1-link=Joseph Quincy Adams |title=Shakespearean Playhouses a history of English theatres from the beginnings to the restoration |date=1917 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |location=Boston MA |oclc=1072672737 |page=264}}</ref>) to make room for [[tenement]]s.<ref name=Mulryne75>{{harvnb|ps=.|Mulryne|Shewring|1997|p=75}}</ref>

A modern reconstruction of the theatre, named "[[Shakespeare's Globe]]", opened in 1997, with a production of ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]''. It is an academic approximation of the original design, based on available evidence of the 1599 and 1614 buildings,<ref>Martin, Douglas. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DEFD6133DF93BA1575AC0A9659C8B63&n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/Subjects/D/Deaths%20(Obituaries) "John Orrell, 68, Historian On New Globe Theater, Dies"], ''[[The New York Times]]'', 28 September 2003, accessed 19 December 2012</ref> and is located approximately {{convert|230|m|ft|order=flip}} from the site of the original theatre.<ref name="Measuredusing" />

==Layout==
[[File:Hodge's conjectural Globe reconstruction.jpg|thumb|Conjectural reconstruction of the Globe theatre by C. Walter Hodges based on archaeological and documentary evidence]][[File:Original Globe.jpg|thumb|Site of the Globe Theatre, from Park Street; the dark line in the centre marks the foundation line. The white wall beyond is the rear of Anchor Terrace.]]
The Globe's detailed dimensions are unknown, but its shape and size can be estimated from scholarly inquiry over the last two centuries.<ref name=Egan>{{harvnb|ps=.|Egan|1999|pp=1–16}}</ref> The evidence suggests that it was a three-storey, open-air [[amphitheatre]] approximately {{convert|100|ft|m}} in diameter that could house up to 3,000 spectators.{{sfn|Orrell|1989}} The Globe is shown as round on [[Wenceslas Hollar]]'s sketch of the building, later incorporated into his etched ''[[Long View of London from Bankside]]'' in 1647. However, in 1988–89 the uncovering of a small part of the Globe's foundation suggested that it was a polygon of 20 sides.<ref>Mulryne; Shewring (1997: 37; 44)</ref><ref name=Egan2>{{harvnb|ps=.|Egan|2004|pp=5.1–22}}</ref>

At the base of the stage and surrounding it on three sides, there was an area called the ''yard'', the name deriving from the old [[Inn-yard theatre|inn-yards]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Astington |first1=John |editor1-last=Gurr |editor1-first=Andrew |editor2-last=Karim-Cooper |editor2-first=Farah |editor1-link=Andrew Gurr |title=Moving Shakespeare Indoors Performance and Repertoire in the Jacobean Playhouse |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139629195 |page=21 |chapter=Why the theatres changed}}</ref><ref name=Dekker1609>[[Thomas Dekker (poet)|Dekker, Thomas]] (1609), reprinted 1907, {{ISBN|0-7812-7199-1}}. ''The Gull’s Hornbook'': "the stage[…]will bring you to most perfect light[…]though the scarecrows in the yard hoot at you".</ref> where, for a penny, people (the "groundlings") would stand on the [[Juncaceae|rush]]-strewn earthen floor to watch the performance.<ref name=Dekker1609/> During the excavation of the Globe in 1989 a layer of nutshells was found, pressed into the dirt flooring so as to form a new surface layer.{{sfn|McCudden|1990}} Vertically around the yard were three levels of more expensive [[Stadium-style seating|stadium-style seats]]. A rectangular [[thrust stage|stage platform]], also known as an [[apron stage]], thrust out into the middle of the open-air yard. The stage was approximately {{convert|43|ft|m|0}} in width, {{convert|27|ft|m|0}} in depth and was raised about {{convert|5|ft|m|1}} off the ground. On this stage, there was a [[trapdoor]] for use by performers to enter from the "cellarage" area beneath the stage.{{sfn|Nagler|1958|pp=23–24}}

The back wall of the stage had two or three doors on the main level, with a curtained inner stage in the centre (although not all scholars agree about the existence of this supposed "inner below"),<ref name="Kuritz1988">{{cite book |last=Kuritz |first=Paul |year=1988 |title=The making of theatre history |publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ |isbn=0-13-547861-8 |pages=189–91}}</ref> and a balcony above it. The doors entered into the "tiring house"<ref>from ''attiring''—dressing: {{cite book |year=1989 |title=Oxford English Dictionary |edition=2 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, England |chapter=tiring, n.3|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary }}</ref> (backstage area) where the actors dressed and awaited their entrances. The floors above may have been used as storage for costumes and [[Theatrical property|props]], and management offices.{{sfn|Bowsher|Miller|2009|pages=136–37}} The balcony housed the musicians, and could also be used for scenes requiring an upper space, such as the balcony scene in ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]''. Rush matting covered the stage, although this may only have been used if the setting of the play demanded it.<ref name="wotton" />

Large columns on either side of the stage supported a roof over the rear portion of the stage. The ceiling under this roof was called the "heavens," and was painted as a sky with clouds.{{Sfn|Mulryne|Shewring|1997|p=139}} A trapdoor in the heavens enabled performers to descend using some form of rope and harness.{{Sfn|Mulryne|Shewring|1997|p=166}} The stage was set in the south-east corner of the building so as to be in shade during afternoon performances in summer.<ref name= "lighting">{{Cite book |last=Egan |first=Gabriel |year=2015 |editor=Wells, Stanley |title=The Oxford Companion to Shakespeare|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=210|edition=2|isbn= 9780198708735}}</ref>

==Name, motto and flag==
The name of the Globe supposedly alludes to the Latin tag ''totus mundus agit histrionem'' ("all the world plays the player"), in turn derived from ''quod fere totus mundus exerceat histrionem''—"because all the world is a playground"—from [[Petronius]], the satirical Roman author who had wide circulation in England in the Burbages' time. ''Totus mundus agit histrionem'' was, according to this explanation, therefore adopted as the theatre's motto.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ingleby |first1=C. M. |last2=Smith |first2=Lucy Toulmin |author1-link=Clement Mansfield Ingleby |author2-link=Lucy Toulmin Smith |last3=Furnival |first3=Frederick |author-link3=Frederick Furnival |editor=Monro, John |title=The Shakespere allusion-book : a collection of allusions to Shakespere from 1591 to 1700 |publisher=Chatto and Windus |location=London |year=1909|volume=2 |page=373 |oclc=603995070}}</ref> It seems likely, however, that the link between the supposed motto from Petronius and the theatre was made only later, originating with the industrious early Shakespeare biographer [[William Oldys]], who claimed as his source a loaned copy of the [[Harley Lyrics|Harleian Manuscripts]] to which he once had access. This was repeated in good faith by his literary executor [[George Steevens]], but the tale is now thought "suspicious", with Oldys perpetrating a "hoax on his credulous public".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ingleby |first1=C. M. |last2=Smith |first2=Lucy Toulmin |title=Shakespeare's centurie of prayse |date=1874 |publisher=[[Nicholas Trübner|Trübner & Co]] |location=London |pages=409–410|oclc= 690802639|edition=2}}</ref> The Shakespearean editor [[Edmond Malone]] took Oldys's conjecture further, by reporting that the motto was on the theatre's flag of a globe of the Earth on the shoulders of [[Hercules]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stern |first=Tiffany |year=1997 |title=Was 'Totus mundus agit histrionem' ever the motto of the Globe Theatre? |journal=Theatre Notebook |publisher=The Society for Theatre Research |volume=51 |issue=3 |page=121 |issn=0040-5523}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Egan |first=Gabriel |year=2001 |editor=Dobson, Michael |editor2=Wells, Stanley |editor2-link=Stanley Wells |title=The Oxford Companion to Shakespeare |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00dobs |url-access=limited |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, England |isbn=978-0-19280614-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00dobs/page/n198 166] |chapter=Globe theatre}}</ref>

Another allusion, familiar to the contemporary theatre-goer, would have been to ''Teatrum Mundi'' ("Theatre of the World"), a meditation by the twelfth-century philosopher [[John of Salisbury]], in his ''[[Policraticus]]'', book three. This included a discourse on theatrical metaphors from the Bible and from many authors from [[Classics|classical antiquity]]. Reprinted in 1595, it was in wide circulation and much read. Critic [[Ernst Curtius]] has described how it was John of Salisbury's commentary, rather than the works of Petronius, that suggested the name.<ref name=Curtius>{{cite book |last1=Curtius |first1=Ernst Robert |title=European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages |date=1948|edition=1953|authorlink=Ernst Curtius|translator-last1=Trask|translator-first1=Willard R.|publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=139–140|isbn=0-691-09739-9|quotation=Not from Petronius, as some writers have averred, but from the ''Policraticus'' […]}}</ref>

There would have been a ready understanding of the classical derivation.<ref name=Gillies>{{cite book|last1=Gillies|first1=John|title=Shakespeare and the Geography of Difference|date=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=978-0521417198|page=76}}</ref> Shakespeare's complaint in ''[[Hamlet]]'' (act 2, scene 3) likening the child actors of the [[Blackfriars Theatre]] stealing the Globe's custom as "carrying off Hercules […] and his load too" alludes to the metaphor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dutton |first1=Richard |editor1-last=Wells |editor1-first=Stanley |editor1-link=Stanley Wells |title=Hamlet, an apology for actors, and the sign of the Globe |journal=[[Shakespeare Survey]] |date=1988 |volume=41 |pages=35–37 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> An elegy on the death of Globe actor [[Richard Burbage]] alludes to the god [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] on the theatre's flag, but in mythology the figures of Atlas and Hercules can be interchangeable, as one of the labours of Hercules was to relieve Atlas of his burden.<ref>{{cite book |last1=van den Berg |first1=Kent |title=Playhouse and cosmos : Shakespearean theater as metaphor |date=1985 |publisher=University of Delaware Press |location=Newark |isbn=0-87413-244-4 |page=38}}</ref> [[G. B. Harrison]], in his introduction to an edition of ''[[As You Like It]]'' ([[Penguin Books]], 1953), perceives that [[Jaques (As You Like It)|Jaques]] is making reference to the Globe Theatre's motto in his [[All the world's a stage|"All the world's a stage" speech]] (act 2 scene 7).<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Harrison |editor1-first=George |editor1-link=G. B. Harrison |title=As You Like It |date=1953 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=Harmondsworth, England |oclc= 700383178 |chapter=Introduction|quotation="This is Shakespeare's little essay on the motto of the new Globe Theatre which the company had just occupied." }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|London}}
* [[Curtain Theatre]]
* [[The Rose (theatre)|The Rose]]
* [[The Theatre]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last1=Bowsher|first1=Julian |last2=Miller |first2=Pat |title=The Rose and the Globe – playhouses of Shakespeare's Bankside, Southwark|year=2009|publisher=[[Museum of London]]|isbn=978-1-901992-85-4}}
* {{cite book
|title = The Site of the Globe Playhouse, Southwark
|last = Braines
|first = William Westmoreland
|year = 1924
|edition = 2nd
|publisher = [[Hodder and Stoughton]]
|location = London
|oclc = 3157657
|ol = 19680911M
|hdl = 2027/uc1.b4507942
}}
* {{cite book |last=Egan |first=Gabriel |title=Shakespeare Survey |year=1999 |chapter=Reconstructions of The Globe: A Retrospective |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521660747/page/1 1–16] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521660747/page/1 |isbn=0-521-66074-2 |doi=10.1017/CCOL0521660742.001 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/Reconstructions_of_the_Globe_a_retrospective/9328061 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Egan |first=Gabriel |year=2004 |title=The 1599 Globe and its modern replica: Virtual Reality modelling of the archaeological and pictorial evidence |journal=Early Modern Literary Studies |volume=13 |pages=5.1–22 |url=http://extra.shu.ac.uk/emls/si-13/egan/index.htm |issn=1201-2459 |access-date=25 July 2007 }}
* {{cite book|author=Gurr |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Gurr |year=1991 |title=The Shakespearean Stage 1574–1642 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-42240-X}}
* {{cite journal
|title = The Discovery of the Globe Theatre
|last = McCudden
|first = Simon
|journal = [[London Archaeologist]]
|date = Spring 1990
|volume = 6
|issue = 6
|pages = 143–144
|url = http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archiveDS/archiveDownload?t=arch-457-1/dissemination/pdf/vol06/vol06_06/06_06_143_144.pdf
}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mulryne |first1=J. R. |last2=Shewring |first2=Margaret |title=Shakespeare's Globe Rebuilt |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521599887 |url-access=registration |year=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-59988-1 }}
* {{cite book |author=Nagler |first=A.M. |year=1958 |title=Shakespeare's Stage |url=https://archive.org/details/shakespearesstag0000nagl |url-access=registration |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |isbn=0-300-02689-7 }}
* {{cite web |last=Orrell |first=John |author-link=John Orrell |year=1989 |title=Reconstructing Shakespeare's Globe |work=History Trails |publisher=University of Alberta |url=https://www.ualberta.ca/ALUMNI/history/peopleh-o/89sumorrell.htm |access-date=10 December 2007 |archive-date=6 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306215031/http://www.ualberta.ca/ALUMNI/history/peopleh-o/89sumorrell.htm |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book|author=Schoenbaum |first=Samuel|author-link=Samuel Schoenbaum|year=1991|title=Shakespeare's Lives|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-818618-5|url=https://archive.org/details/shakespeareslive00scho_0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Shapiro |first1=James |author1-link=James S. Shapiro |title=1599 : a year in the life of William Shakespeare |date=2005 |publisher=Faber and Faber |location=London |isbn=0-571-21480-0 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Globe Theatre, Southwark}}
* ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/22397 Shakespearean Playhouses]'', by [[Joseph Quincy Adams, Jr.]] from [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://www.shakespearesglobe.com/ ''Shakespeare's Globe''] The 1996 reconstruction
* [https://www.sydney.edu.au/dam/corporate/images/news-and-opinion/news/2017/july/Card-model-from-Hollar's-point-of-view.JPG/_jcr_content/renditions/cq5dam.web.1280.1280.jpeg "A reconstruction of the second Globe"]{{snd}}The structure of the Globe by extrapolation from Hollar's sketch. University of Sydney.
* [http://www.shakespearestudyguide.com/Globe.html#Globe Comprehensive Guide to Shakespeare's Globe Theatre]

{{Shakespeare|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1599 establishments in England]]
[[Category:1613 disestablishments]]
[[Category:1614 establishments in England]]
[[Category:1642 disestablishments]]
[[Category:16th century in London]]
[[Category:17th century in London]]
[[Category:17th-century disestablishments in England]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in London]]
[[Category:Brend family]]
[[Category:Burned buildings and structures in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Burned theatres]]
[[Category:Demolished theatres in London]]
[[Category:Former buildings and structures in the London Borough of Southwark]]
[[Category:Former theatres in London]]
[[Category:Outdoor theatres]]
[[Category:Theatres completed in 1599]]
[[Category:Theatres completed in 1614]]
[[Category:William Shakespeare]]

American Airlines Flight 587

2024-02-23T20:08:05Z

Asyncadr: /* Investigation */ Removed unavailable youtube video link

{{Short description|Aviation accident in November 2001, New York, USA}}
{{good article}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{use American English|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox aircraft occurrence
| occurrence_type = Accident
| name = American Airlines Flight 687
| image = Airbus A300B4-605R, American Airlines JP5950383.jpg
| caption = N14053, the aircraft involved, taking off from [[Miami International Airport]], 10 months before the accident.
| date = {{start date and age|November 12, 2001}}
| summary = Structural failure and separation of vertical stabilizer caused by pilot error leading to loss of control
| type = Airbus A300B4-605R
| site = [[Belle Harbor, Queens]], New York City, United States
| coordinates = {{Coord|40|34|38|N|73|51|02|W|region:US-NY_type:landmark|display=inline,title|name=accident site}}
| total_fatalities = 265
| fatalities = 260
| aircraft_type = [[Airbus A300]]B4-605R
| origin = [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]], [[New York City]], United States
| destination = [[Las Américas International Airport]], [[Santo Domingo]], [[Dominican Republic]]
| aircraft_name =
| operator = [[American Airlines]]
| IATA = AA587
| ICAO = AAL587
| callsign = AMERICAN 587
| tail_number = N14053
| passengers = 251
| crew = 9
| survivors = 0
| occupants = 259
| ground_fatalities = 5
}}
'''American Airlines Flight 587''' was a regularly scheduled international passenger flight from [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]] to [[Las Américas International Airport]] in [[Santo Domingo]], the capital of the [[Dominican Republic]]. On November 12, 2001, the [[Airbus A300B4-605R]] flying the route crashed into the neighborhood of [[Belle Harbor, Queens|Belle Harbor]] on the [[Rockaway, Queens|Rockaway Peninsula]] of [[Queens]], New York City, shortly after [[takeoff]]. All 260 people aboard the plane (251 passengers and 9 crew members) were killed, as well as five people on the ground.<ref name="ASN" /> It is the second-deadliest aviation accident in U.S. history, behind the crash of [[American Airlines Flight 191]] in 1979,{{efn|name=fn2|Not counting the [[September 11 attacks]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ranter|first=Harro|title=United States of America air safety profile|url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/country/country.php?id=N|access-date=July 26, 2019|website=Aviation Safety Network|publisher=Flight Safety Foundation}}</ref>|group=}}<ref name="ASN" /> and the second-deadliest aviation incident involving an [[Airbus A300]], after [[Iran Air Flight 655]].<ref name="ASN" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ranter |first=Harro |title=Airbus A300 |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/types/Airbus-A300/index |access-date=July 26, 2019 |website=Aviation Safety Network |publisher=Flight Safety Foundation}}</ref>

The location of the accident, and the fact that it took place two months and one day after the [[September 11 attacks]] on the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] in nearby [[Manhattan]], initially spawned fears of another terrorist attack, but the [[National Transportation Safety Board]] (NTSB) attributed the disaster to the first officer's overuse of [[Rudder#Aircraft rudders|rudder]] controls in response to [[wake turbulence]] from a preceding [[Japan Airlines]] [[Boeing 747-400]] that took off minutes before it. According to the NTSB, the aggressive use of the rudder controls by the first officer stressed the [[vertical stabilizer]] until it separated from the aircraft. The airliner's two engines also separated from the aircraft before impact due to the intense forces.<ref name="AAR-04-04 Final Report" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ainonline.com/aviation-news/aviation-international-news/2007-02-01/ntsb-report-aa-587-spreads-blame|title=NTSB report on AA 587 Spreads Blame| last=Lowe|first=Paul|date=February 1, 2008|publisher=Aviation International News| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819125554/http://www.ainonline.com/aviation-news/aviation-international-news/2007-02-01/ntsb-report-aa-587-spreads-blame|archive-date=August 19, 2014| url-status=live|access-date=August 18, 2014}}</ref>

== Aircraft and crew ==
The accident aircraft, [[aircraft registration|registration]] {{Airreg|N|14053|,}} was an [[Airbus A300]] B4-605R delivered new to American Airlines in July 1988. The aircraft's first flight was in December 1987 and it was the first "R" model A300-600 built. On the day of the accident, it was in a two-class seating configuration with space for 251 passengers, and all seats were filled: 16 business-class seats and 235 economy-class seats.<ref name=vidoli/>{{rp|pages=412,414}} The aircraft was powered by two [[General Electric CF6|General Electric CF6-80C2A5]] engines.<ref name="ASN">{{cite web |last=Ranter |first=Harro |date=November 12, 2001 |title=ASN Aircraft accident Airbus A300B4-605R N14053 Belle Harbor, NY |url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20011112-0 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140420004450/http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20011112-0 |archive-date=April 20, 2014 |access-date=April 20, 2016 |website=Aviation Safety Network |publisher=[[Flight Safety Foundation]]}}</ref> On board were nine flight crew members, including 42-year-old captain Edward States, who was the pilot monitoring and undertaking radio communications, and 34-year-old first officer Sten Molin, who was the pilot flying.{{efn|name=fn3|Captain States had been a former U.S. Air Force pilot and joined American Airlines in 1985. He became a first officer on the Airbus A300 in 1988 and was promoted to an A300 captain 10 years later. States had 8,050 flight hours, including 3,448 hours on the Airbus A300. First Officer Molin had previously flown commuter and general aircraft prior to joining American Airlines in 1991. He became an Airbus A300 first officer in 1998 and had 4,403 flight hours, with 1,835 of them on the Airbus A300.<ref name="AAR-04-04 Final Report" />{{rp|pages=9–12}}|group=}}

== Accident ==
[[File:AA587 Tollbooth Video.JPG|thumb|right|Flight 587, circled in white, moving downward with a white streak behind the aircraft at 9:16:06, from a video of a toll-booth camera on the [[Marine Parkway–Gil Hodges Memorial Bridge]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/events/2001/aa587/board_mtg_anim.htm | title= Animations and Videos from Board Meeting | publisher=[[National Transportation Safety Board]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622075203/https://www.ntsb.gov/events/2001/AA587/board_mtg_anim.htm |archive-date=June 22, 2011}}</ref>]]
{{External media
| float =
| width =
| video1 = {{YouTube|id=a6raO52Wlu8|title=CCTV}}
}}
The aircraft taxied to Runway 31L behind a Japan Airlines (JAL) [[Boeing 747-400]] (JAL Flight 47) preparing for takeoff. The JAL flight was cleared for takeoff at 9:11:08 a.m. [[Eastern Time Zone|EST]]. At 9:11:36, the tower controller cautioned Flight 587 about potential wake turbulence from a preceding B747.<ref name="AAR-04-04 Final Report">{{cite report|url=https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/AAR0404.pdf|title=In-Flight Separation of Vertical Stabilizer, American Airlines Flight 587, Airbus Industrie A300-605R, N14053, Belle Harbor, New York, November 12, 2001|date=October 26, 2004|publisher=National Transportation Safety Board|id=NTSB/AAR-04/04|access-date=July 3, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430010317/https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/AAR0404.pdf|archive-date=April 30, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page=2}}

At 9:13:28, the A300 was cleared for takeoff and left the runway at 9:14:29, about one minute and 40 seconds after the JAL flight had departed. The aircraft climbed to an altitude of {{convert|500|feet|m}} and then entered a climbing left turn to a heading of 220°. At 9:15:00, the captain made initial contact with the departure controller, informing him that the airplane was at {{convert|1300|feet|m}} and climbing to {{convert|5000|feet|m}}. The controller instructed the aircraft to climb to and maintain {{convert|13000|feet|m}}.<ref name="AAR-04-04 Final Report" />{{rp|page=3}} The flight data recorder (FDR) showed that the events leading to the crash began when the aircraft hit wake turbulence from the JAL flight in front of it at 9:15:36. In response to the turbulence, Molin moved the rudder from the right to the left and back again in quick succession from 9:15:52, causing [[sideslip]] until the lateral force caused composite lugs that attached the vertical stabilizer to fail at 9:15:58.<ref name="AAR-04-04 Final Report" />{{rp|pages=xi,135}} The stabilizer separated from the aircraft and fell into [[Jamaica Bay]], about {{convert|1|mi|km}} north of the main wreckage site.

The aircraft pitched downward after the stabilizer loss. As the pilots struggled to control the aircraft, it entered a [[Spin (aerodynamics)#Modes|flat spin]]. The resulting aerodynamic loads sheared both engines from the aircraft, and they fell several blocks north and east of the main wreckage site, causing minor damage to a gas station and major damage to a home and a boat. The loss of engines cut power to the FDR at 9:16:01, while the [[Flight recorder|cockpit voice recorder]] (CVR), using an emergency bus, stopped at 9:16:14.8 upon impact with the ground. At 9:16:04, the stall warning sounded on the CVR.<ref name="AAR-04-04 Final Report" />{{rp|page=195}} The last recorded words were those of Molin saying "What the hell are we into, we're stuck in it" (9:16:07) and States replying "Get out of it, get out of it."<ref>{{cite news |title=Last Words on Doomed Plane – * 'Get out of it!' Pilot Shouted * Crew Made Tragic Error: Feds |url=https://nypost.com/2004/10/27/last-words-on-doomed-plane-get-out-of-it-pilot-shouted-crew-made-tragic-error-feds/ |work=New York Post |access-date= October 2, 2018 |date=October 27, 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115025410/http://nypost.com/2004/10/27/last-words-on-doomed-plane-get-out-of-it-pilot-shouted-crew-made-tragic-error-feds/ |archive-date=November 15, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CVR 990601 |url=http://planecrashinfo.com/cvr011112.htm |website=planecrashinfo.com |access-date=October 2, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929114505/http://planecrashinfo.com/cvr011112.htm |archive-date=September 29, 2018|url-status=live }}</ref> The aircraft slammed into the ground at Newport Avenue and Beach 131st Street.<ref name="AAR-04-04 Final Report" />{{rp|pages=48–50}}

== Investigation ==
[[File:American Airlines 587 taxiing at NYC.jpg|thumb|The accident aircraft taxiing to runway 31L at 8:59 am, moments before takeoff: The timestamp shown in the picture is displayed in [[daylight saving time]], which is not observed in November.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.ntsb.gov/events/2001/AA587/anim_587.htm |title= NTSB footage of takeoff from construction site |publisher=[[National Transportation Safety Board]] |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110622112510/https://www.ntsb.gov/events/2001/AA587/anim_587.htm |archive-date=June 22, 2011}}</ref>]]

=== Initial reactions and investigation ===
Because the crash occurred just two months and one day after the [[September 11 attacks]], which also took place in New York City, several major buildings, including the [[Empire State Building]] and the [[headquarters of the United Nations]], were evacuated. Rumors circulated that the plane had been destroyed in a terrorist plot.<ref>{{cite web| website= AIM.org |url= http://www.aim.org/media-monitor/rumors-about-flight-587/|title=Rumors about Flight 587|last1=Irvine|first1=Reed|last2=Kincaid|first2=Cliff|publisher= [[Accuracy in Media]]|date=February 6, 2002|access-date= October 16, 2013| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131022180348/http://www.aim.org/media-monitor/rumors-about-flight-587/ |archive-date=October 22, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title=Speculation about Flight 587 Crash Flourishes in Absence of Answers|newspaper=[[Boston Globe]] |date= November 13, 2001}}</ref>

In May 2002, a Kuwaiti national named [[Mohammed Jabarah]] agreed to cooperate with investigators as part of a [[plea bargain]]. Among the details that Jabarah offered to authorities was a claim that [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]]'s lieutenant had told him that [[Richard Reid]] and [[Abderraouf Jdey]] had been enlisted by al-Qaeda to execute identical shoe-bombing plots as part of a second wave of attacks against the United States. According to the lieutenant, Jdey's bomb had successfully destroyed Flight 587, while Reid's attempt had been foiled.<ref>{{cite web |date=August 28, 2004 |title=Terrorismo: Canada, accuse ad Al Qaida per aereo caduto a NY |trans-title=Terrorism: Canada accuses Al Qaeda of plane crash in NY |url=http://www.tio.ch/aa_pagine_comuni/articolo_interna.asp?idarticolo=179505&idtipo=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303062035/http://www.tio.ch/aa_pagine_comuni/articolo_interna.asp?idarticolo=179505&idtipo=2 |archive-date=March 3, 2012 |access-date=August 28, 2004 |website=tio.ch |publisher=Ticin Online |language=it}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bell |first1= Stewart |title=The Martyr's Oath: The Apprenticeship of a Homegrown Terrorist |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-73904-4 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=v17bfLK9qJgC&pg=PT215|page=215|language=en}}</ref><ref name="jem">{{cite news| url= http://circ.jmellon.com/docs/view.asp?id=693|title=Montreal man downed US plane, CSIS told|last=Bell|first=Stewart|newspaper=[[National Post]]|date= August 27, 2004|access-date=October 16, 2013| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131016064500/http://circ.jmellon.com/docs/view.asp?id=693 |archive-date= October 16, 2013}}</ref><ref name="swatch">{{cite news|last1=Schwach|first1=Howard|title=KSM Trial Raises Questions For AA 587| url= https://www.rockawave.com/articles/ksm-trial-raises-questions-for-aa-587/|work=The Rockaway Wave|publisher=Wave Publishing Company|access-date=July 5, 2017|date=November 29, 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180126104503/https://www.rockawave.com/articles/ksm-trial-raises-questions-for-aa-587/|archive-date=January 26, 2018| url-status=live}}</ref> According to a Canadian government memorandum, Jdey, a [[Canadian nationality law|naturalized Canadian citizen]], was to use his [[Canadian passport]] to board the flight.<ref name=swatch /> However, American Airlines' passenger manifest for Flight 587 did not list any passengers using Canadian passports.<ref name="Paxlist" /><ref name=swatch /> According to NTSB spokesman Ted Lopatkiewicz, the weight of the memo's veracity was questioned, as no evidence of a terrorist traveling on board was found. The evidence suggested that the aircraft was destroyed after a piece of the tail assembly, "the vertical fin, came off," while it did not indicate "any kind of event in the cabin."<ref name=jem />

=== NTSB investigation ===
[[File:Marion Blakey AA587.jpg|thumb|upright|NTSB employee Brian Murphy (second from right) updates NTSB Chairman Marion Blakey (third from right) on the investigation of the tail fin and rudder from AA flight 587 (February 11, 2002).]]
On the afternoon of the crash, the NTSB launched an investigation in search for a probable cause. Over the next three months, they conducted 349 interviews,<ref name="nytt"/> and collected and reconstructed pieces of the aircraft.<ref>{{cite news |title=Eighth Update on NTSB Investigation into Crash of American Airlines Flight 587 |url=http://www.breakingtravelnews.com/news/article/btn40000712/ |website=Breaking Travel News |date=June 4, 2002}}</ref> The Airbus A300 took off shortly after a JAL Boeing 747-400 using the same runway.<ref name="AAR-04-04 Final Report" />{{rp|page=47}} It flew into the larger jet's wake, an area of turbulent air. The first officer attempted to stabilize the aircraft with alternating aggressive rudder inputs.<ref name="AAR-04-04 Final Report" />{{rp|page=107}} The force of the air flowing against the moving rudder stressed the aircraft's [[vertical stabilizer]], and eventually snapped it off entirely, causing the aircraft to lose control and crash. The NTSB concluded that the enormous stress on the vertical stabilizer was due to the first officer's "unnecessary and excessive" rudder inputs, and not the [[wake turbulence]] caused by the 747. The NTSB further stated, "if the first officer had stopped making additional inputs, the aircraft would have stabilized".<ref name=NTSB10262004 /> Contributing factors were characteristics of the Airbus A300-600's sensitive rudder system design and elements of the American Airlines Advanced Aircraft Maneuvering Training Program.<ref name="alliedpilots.org">{{cite web|url=https://legacy.alliedpilots.org/Public/Topics/Issues/apa587finalsubmission.pdf|title=Submission of the Allied Pilots Association to the National Transportation Safety Board: Regarding the accident of American Airlines Flight 587 at Belle Harbor, New York November 12, 2001|publisher=[[Allied Pilots Association]]|access-date=January 13, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081931/https://legacy.alliedpilots.org/Public/Topics/Issues/apa587finalsubmission.pdf|archive-date=March 4, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The manner in which the vertical stabilizer separated concerned investigators. The vertical stabilizer is connected to the fuselage with six attaching points. Each point has two sets of attachment lugs, one made of [[composite material]], another of [[aluminum]], all connected by a [[titanium]] bolt; damage analysis showed that the bolts and aluminum lugs were intact, but not the composite lugs. This, coupled with two events earlier in the life of the aircraft, namely [[delamination]] in part of the vertical stabilizer prior to its delivery from Airbus's Toulouse factory, and an encounter with heavy turbulence in 1994, caused investigators to examine the use of composites.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/19/nyregion/a-workhorse-of-the-skies-perhaps-with-a-deadly-defect.html | work=[[The New York Times]] | title=A Workhorse of the Skies, Perhaps With a Deadly Defect | first1=Matthew L. | last1=Wald | first2=Al | last2=Baker | date= November 19, 2001 | access-date=April 23, 2010}}</ref> The possibility that the composite materials might not be as strong as previously supposed was a cause of concern, as they are used in other areas of the plane, including the engine mounting and the wings.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Griffioen |first1=Hans |title=Air Crash Investigations: The Crash of American Airlines Flight 587 |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-4092-8602-8|page=208|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q6ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA208|language=en}}</ref> Tests carried out on the vertical stabilizers from the accident aircraft, and from another similar aircraft, found that the strength of the composite material had not been compromised, and the NTSB concluded that the material had failed because it had been stressed beyond its design limit.<ref name="AAR-04-04 Final Report" />{{rp|pages=69–70}}

The crash was witnessed by hundreds of people, 349 of whom gave accounts of what they saw to the NTSB. About half (52%) reported a fire or explosion before the plane hit the ground. Others stated that they saw a wing detach from the aircraft, when in fact it was the vertical stabilizer.<ref name="nytt">{{cite news |last=Wald |first=Matthew L |date=June 23, 2002 |title=Ideas & Trends; For Air Crash Detectives, Seeing Isn't Believing |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/23/weekinreview/23WALD.html |url-status=live |access-date=October 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518210525/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/23/weekinreview/23WALD.html |archive-date=May 18, 2013 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinfield |first=N. R. |date=November 13, 2001 |title=The Crash of Flight 587: The Overview |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/13/nyregion/crash-flight-587-overview-260-jet-die-queens-crash-6-9-missing-12-homes-burn-us.html |url-status=live |access-date=January 13, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224215110/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/13/nyregion/crash-flight-587-overview-260-jet-die-queens-crash-6-9-missing-12-homes-burn-us.html |archive-date=December 24, 2015 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

After the crash, [[Floyd Bennett Field]]'s empty hangars were used as a makeshift [[morgue]] for the identification of crash victims.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/fdny/html/incidents/flight587/index.html|title= FDNY Responds: Flight 587 Crashes in the Rockaways|access-date=January 1, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130720044656/http://www.nyc.gov/html/fdny/html/incidents/flight587/index.html |archive-date=July 20, 2013 }}</ref>

==== Findings ====
[[File:Flight 587 NOAA Photo of Crash Site.jpg|thumb|left|Photo showing the crash site|alt=A black debris hole in the middle of a suburban neighborhood in Rockaway Park: The hole is surrounded by houses.]]
According to the official accident report, the first officer repeatedly moved the rudder from fully left to fully right. This caused increasing [[slip (aerodynamics)|sideslip angles]]. The resulting hazardous sideslip angle led to extremely high aerodynamic loads that separated the vertical stabilizer. If the first officer had stopped moving the rudder at any time before the vertical stabilizer failed, the aircraft would have leveled out on its own, and the accident would have been avoided.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/11/remembering-americas-second-deadliest-plane-crash/248313/|title=Remembering America's Second-Deadliest Plane Crash|last1=Bella|first1=Timothy|last2=Fearnow|first2=Benjamin|magazine=[[The Atlantic]]|date= November 11, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502051946/http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/11/remembering-americas-second-deadliest-plane-crash/248313/ |archive-date=May 2, 2014}}</ref> The aircraft performance study indicated that when the vertical stabilizer finally detached, the aerodynamic loads caused by the first officer's actions produced {{convert|203000|lbf|kN|abbr=off}} of force on the rudder, meaning that the vertical stabilizer did not fail until far in excess of the {{cvt|100000|lbf|kN}} of force defined by the design [[Flight envelope|envelope]].<ref name=Mayday>{{Cite episode |title=[[List of Mayday episodes#ep103|Queens Catastrophe]] |series=[[Mayday (Canadian TV series)|Mayday]] |publisher=[[Cineflix]] |network=[[Discovery (Canada)|Discovery Channel Canada]] |season=13 |number=5 |date=2014-01-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=National Transportation Safety Board Public Meeting of October 26, 2004 |url=https://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/ntsb/aircraft-accident-summaries/AAR04-04S.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/ntsb/aircraft-accident-summaries/AAR04-04S.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |access-date=January 16, 2019 |website= |via=libraryonline.erau.edu}}</ref> The vertical stabilizer's structural performance was determined to be consistent with design specifications and exceeded [[Type certificate|certification]] requirements.<ref>{{cite web |title=Structural Analysis for the American Airlines Flight 587 Accident Investigation – Global Analysis |date=January 2005 |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20050203842.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20050203842.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |publisher=NASA Langley Research Center |access-date=January 16, 2019}}</ref>

Contributing factors to the crash existed, as well. The first officer's predisposition to overreact to wake turbulence caused panic. American Airlines incorrectly taught pilots to use the rudder for wake turbulence recovery, resulting in the first officer's possible misunderstanding of the aircraft's response to full rudder at high airspeeds.<ref>{{cite journal |title=American Airlines flight 587 insight on rudder input |s2cid=12789039 }}</ref> Light rudder pedal forces and small pedal displacement of the A300-600 rudder pedal system increased the airplane's susceptibility to rudder misuse.<ref name="AAR-04-04 Final Report" />{{rp|page=151}}

[[File:American Airlines Flight 587 Accident animation.ogv|thumb|Animated accident reconstruction, showing the control inputs made by the copilot at the 4:00-minute mark.]]

Most aircraft require increased pressure on the rudder pedals to achieve the same amount of rudder control at a higher speed. The Airbus A300 and later [[Airbus A310]] models do not operate on a fly-by-wire [[flight control system]], but instead use conventional mechanical flight controls. The NTSB asserted that the A300-600 rudder control system was vulnerable to unnecessarily excessive rudder inputs.<ref name="NTSB10262004">{{cite press release |url=https://ntsb.gov/news/press-releases/Pages/NTSB_Says_Pilots_Excessive_Rudder_Pedal_Inputs_Led_to_Crash_of_American_Flight_587;_Airbus_Rudder_System_Design_Amp;_Eleme.aspx |title=NTSB SAYS PILOT'S EXCESSIVE RUDDER PEDAL INPUTS LED TO CRASH OF AMERICAN FLIGHT 587; AIRBUS RUDDER SYSTEM DESIGN & ELEMENTS OF AIRLINE'S PILOT TRAINING PROGRAM CONTRIBUTED |date=October 26, 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002135427/https://www.ntsb.gov/news/2004/041026.htm |archive-date=October 2, 2013 |access-date=December 6, 2005 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board}}</ref> The [[Allied Pilots Association]], in its submission to the NTSB, argued that the unusual sensitivity of the rudder mechanism amounted to a design flaw that Airbus should have communicated to the airline. The main rationale for their position came from a 1997 report that referenced ten incidents in which A300 tail fins had been stressed beyond their design limitation.<ref name="alliedpilots.org" /><ref>{{cite press release|author= |title=Aviation Safety and Pilot Control: Understanding and Preventing Unfavorable Pilot-Vehicle Interactions |url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=5469 |location=Washington, D.C |publisher=Washington National Academy Press |year=1997 |access-date=October 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017025716/http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=5469 |archive-date=October 17, 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Airbus charged that the crash was mostly American Airlines' fault, arguing that the airline did not train its pilots properly about the characteristics of the rudder. Aircraft tail fins are designed to withstand full rudder deflection in one direction when below [[maneuvering speed]], but this does not guarantee that they can withstand an abrupt shift in rudder from one direction to the other, let alone multiple abrupt shifts, like those generated by the first officer on this flight. The NTSB indicated that American Airlines' Advanced Aircraft Maneuvering Program (AAMP) tended to exaggerate the effects of wake turbulence on large aircraft, creating a simulation scenario whereby turbulence from a 747 creates a 90° roll (rather than the likely 5 to 10° roll, though not explaining this to the pilots) to maximize the training challenge.<ref name=Mayday/> Therefore, pilots were being inadvertently trained to react more aggressively than was necessary.<ref name=NTSB10262004 /> According to author Amy Fraher, this led to concerns of whether it was appropriate for the AAMP to be placing such importance on "the role of flight simulators in teaching airplane upset recovery at all."<ref name=fraher /> Fraher states that the key to understanding the crash of Flight 587 ultimately lay in "how the accident pilots' expectations about aircraft performance were erroneously established through 'clumsy' flight simulator training in American's AAMP."<ref name="fraher">{{cite journal|last1=Fraher|first1=Amy L.|title=Technology-Push, Market-Demand and the Missing Safety-Pull: A Case Study of American Airlines Flight 587|journal=New Technology, Work and Employment|date=July 4, 2015|volume=30|issue=2|page=124|doi=10.1111/ntwe.12050|s2cid=54520870|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===== Statement of probable cause =====
From the NTSB report of the accident:

<blockquote>The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the in-flight separation of the vertical stabilizer as a result of the loads beyond ultimate design that were created by the first officer's unnecessary and excessive rudder pedal inputs. Contributing to these rudder pedal inputs were characteristics of the Airbus A300-600 rudder system design and elements of the American Airlines Advanced Aircraft Maneuvering Program (AAMP).<ref name="AAR-04-04 Final Report" />{{rp|page=160}}</blockquote>

Since the NTSB's report, American Airlines has modified its pilot training program.<ref name="IASA">{{cite web |last=Miller |first=Leslie |date=October 27, 2004 |title=Pilot error blamed for Flight 587 crash |url=http://www.iasa.com.au/folders/Safety_Issues/RiskManagement/A300previous.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509001346/http://www.iasa.com.au/folders/Safety_Issues/RiskManagement/A300previous.html |archive-date=May 9, 2013 |access-date=February 7, 2008 |publisher=Associated Press}}</ref>

== Victims ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right; font-size:85%"
|+Victims' nationalities<ref name="Paxlist">{{cite news|title=Flight 587: Final Passenger List| url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/nov/15/airbuscrash.usa |work=The Guardian |agency= Associated Press|date=November 15, 2001|quote=The Foreign Office has said passenger Sylvie Greleau, identified as British by American Airlines, carried a French passport, and as far it was concerned she was French. Ms Greleau, a sales and marketing director for Menzies Aviation Group, was formerly based in London.|access-date=December 13, 2016| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161221134838/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/nov/15/airbuscrash.usa|archive-date=December 21, 2016|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Barry |first1=Dan |last2=Gootman |first2=Elissa |date=November 14, 2001 |title=The Crash of Flight 587: Belle Harbor; 5 Neighbors Gone, and a Jet Engine Where a Child's Bike Might Have Been |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/14/nyregion/crash-flight-587-belle-harbor-5-neighbors-gone-jet-engine-where-child-s-bike.html |url-status=live |access-date=May 13, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225061226/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/14/nyregion/crash-flight-587-belle-harbor-5-neighbors-gone-jet-engine-where-child-s-bike.html |archive-date=December 25, 2013 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
|-
! Nationality || Passengers || Crew || Ground || Total
|-
|{{flagicon|USA}} United States || style="text-align:center;" |176||style="text-align:center;"|9||style="text-align:center;"|5||style="text-align:center;"|190
|-
|{{flagicon|Dominican Republic}} Dominican Republic || style="text-align:center;" |68 ||{{n/a|-}}||{{n/a|-}}||style="text-align:center;"|68
|-
|{{flagicon|Taiwan}} Taiwan || style="text-align:center;" |3||{{n/a|-}}||{{n/a|-}}||style="text-align:center;"|3
|-
|{{flagicon|France|1974}} France{{efn|name=fn4|Passenger Sylvie Greleau, identified as British by American Airlines, carried a French passport, as did one additional passenger, Jean Heuze.<ref name="Paxlist" />}}|| style="text-align:center;" |2||{{n/a|-}}||{{n/a|-}}||style="text-align:center;"|2
|-
|{{flagicon|Haiti}} Haiti || style="text-align:center;" |1||{{n/a|-}}||{{n/a|-}}||style="text-align:center;"|1
|-
|{{flagicon|Israel}} Israel || style="text-align:center;" |1||{{n/a|-}}||{{n/a|-}}||style="text-align:center;"|1
|-
!Total||style="text-align:center;"|251||style="text-align:center;"|9||style="text-align:center;"|5||style="text-align:center;"|265
|}
All 260 people aboard the plane died in the crash. Five bystanders on the ground were also killed.<ref name= "vidoli">{{cite journal|last1=Vidoli|first1=Giovanna M.|last2=Mundorff|first2=Amy Z.|s2cid=26648513 |title= Victim Fragmentation Patterns and Seat Location Supplements Crash Data: American Airlines Flight 587|journal=Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine|date=April 1, 2012|volume=83|issue=4|pages=412–417|doi=10.3357/ASEM.3155.2012|pmid=22462369}}{{open access}}</ref> One of its victims, Hilda Yolanda Mayol, survived the [[September 11 attacks]] having escaped from the North Tower of the [[World Trade Center (1973-2001)|World Trade Center]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Younge |first1=Gary |title=Flight to the Death |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/246524101 |access-date=May 21, 2022 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=November 11, 2006 |page=63 |id={{ProQuest|246524101}} |quote=On board was Hilda Yolanda Mayol, 26, a waitress who had escaped from the north tower of the World Trade Centre and was heading to the Dominican Republic with her mother and children to take her mind off the trauma.|url-access=subscription|via=[[ProQuest]]}}</ref>

[[Las Américas International Airport]] officials created a private area for those who had come to the airport to meet passengers, some of whom were unaware that the airliner had crashed.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/americas/11/12/dominican.families/index.html|title=Shocked relatives gather at Dominican airport| website= [[CNN]].com |access-date=June 6, 2007|date=November 13, 2001| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081218213622/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/americas/11/12/dominican.families/index.html |archive-date=December 18, 2008}}</ref> The authorities at John F. Kennedy International Airport used the [[JFK Ramada Plaza]] to house relatives and friends of the victims of the crash.<ref name="CNNFamiliarTrag">{{cite news |date=November 17, 2011 |title=Hotel Near JFK Airport is Familiar With Airline Tragedy |website=CNN |url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0111/17/smn.21.html |access-date=March 9, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107122819/http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0111/17/smn.21.html |archive-date=January 7, 2012}}</ref> The family crisis center later moved to the [[Javits Center]] in [[Manhattan]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.qchron.com/editions/queenswide/jfk-s-ramada-hotel-once-again-becomes-makeshift-crisis-center/article_582561ba-518b-5376-b880-00ffa3ed79b4.html |title=JFK's Ramada Hotel Once Again Becomes Makeshift Crisis Center |newspaper=[[Queens Chronicle]] |last=Banduci |first=Lucy |date=November 15, 2011 |access-date=January 13, 2016 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20140309050715/http://www.qchron.com/editions/queenswide/jfk-s-ramada-hotel-once-again-becomes-makeshift-crisis-center/article_582561ba-518b-5376-b880-00ffa3ed79b4.html |archive-date= March 9, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Cultural background ===
{{See also|Caribbean immigration to New York City}}
In 2001, 51 weekly direct flights were made between JFK and the Dominican Republic, with additional flights in December. Most of the flights were offered by American Airlines,<ref name="Kugel 18 January 2001">{{cite news |last=Kugel| first=Seth| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/18/nyregion/now-boarding-dreams.html|title=Now Boarding, Dreams|date=November 18, 2001|newspaper= The New York Times |access-date=January 13, 2016 |url-status= live| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160307104458/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/18/nyregion/now-boarding-dreams.html|archive-date=March 7, 2016|issn= 0362-4331}}</ref>{{rp|page=1}}<ref>{{cite web |url= http://airlineroute.net/2011/01/23/aa-s11-update2/|title=American Airlines S11 International Operation changes as of 23JAN11| website= airlineroute.net |publisher=[[UBM plc]]|location= London|access-date=March 10, 2014|date=January 23, 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140310201500/http://airlineroute.net/2011/01/23/aa-s11-update2/ |archive-date=March 10, 2014}}</ref> and the airline was described as having a virtual monopoly on the route.<ref name="Kugel 18 January 2001" />{{rp|2}} Around 90% of the passengers on the accident flight were of [[People of the Dominican Republic|Dominican descent]].<ref name="Younge">{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2006/nov/11/weekend.garyyounge|title=Flight to the death|last=Younge|first=Gary|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=November 10, 2006|access-date=October 15, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113035208/http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2006/nov/11/weekend.garyyounge |archive-date= November 13, 2012}}</ref>

''[[The Guardian]]'' described the flight as having "cult status" in [[Washington Heights, Manhattan|Washington Heights]], a Dominican area of Manhattan.<ref name="Younge" /> Belkis Lora, a relative of a passenger on Flight 587, said, "Every Dominican in New York has either taken that flight or knows someone who has. It gets you there early. At home, there are songs about it."<ref name= "Younge" /> Seth Kugel, writing for ''The New York Times'', said, "For many Dominicans in New York, these journeys home are the defining metaphor of their complex push-pull relationship with their homeland; they embody, vividly and poignantly, the tug between their current lives and their former selves. That fact gave Monday's tragedy a particularly horrible resonance for New York's Dominicans."<ref name="Kugel 18 January 2001" />{{rp|1}} He added, "Even before Monday's crash, Dominicans had developed a complex love-hate relationship with American Airlines, complaining about high prices and baggage restrictions even while favoring the carrier over other airlines that used to travel the same route."<ref name="Kugel 18 January 2001" />{{rp|page=2}} David Rivas, a New York City travel agency owner, said, "For the Dominican to go to Santo Domingo during Christmas and summer is like the [[Muslims]] going to [[Mecca]]."<ref name= "Kugel 18 January 2001" />{{rp|page=4}}<ref>{{cite news| url= http://www.salon.com/2004/11/05/askthepilot110/ |title=Don't blame the pilot for the crash of Flight 587. The truth is much more complicated|last=Smith|first=Patrick|work= [[Salon.com]]| date=November 5, 2004|access-date= October 15, 2013|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111128213445/http://www.salon.com/2004/11/05/askthepilot110/ |archive-date= November 28, 2011}}</ref>

The crash did not affect bookings for the JFK–Santo Domingo route. Dominicans continued to book travel on the flights<ref name="Kugel 18 January 2001" />{{rp|page=4}} until American Airlines ended services between JFK and Santo Domingo on April 1, 2013.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.travelweekly.com/Caribbean-Travel/American-chops-two-DR-routes-from-New-York/|title=American chops two D.R. routes from New York|last= Myers|first=Gay Nagle|newspaper=Travel Weekly|date=January 28, 2013|access-date=October 15, 2013| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222152657/http://www.travelweekly.com/Caribbean-Travel/American-chops-two-DR-routes-from-New-York/|archive-date=December 22, 2015|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://airlineroute.net/2013/01/14/aa-jfkdr-apr13/|title=American Airlines Cancels New York – Santo Domingo / Santiago| website= airlineroute.net | publisher=[[UBM plc]]|location= London|access-date= March 10, 2014|date=January 14, 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140310200331/http://airlineroute.net/2013/01/14/aa-jfkdr-apr13/ |archive-date= March 10, 2014}}</ref>

=== Memorial ===
[[File:Rockaway Park - 1 (3478148838).jpg|thumb|right|The American Airlines Flight 587 memorial in Rockaway Park]]

A memorial was constructed in [[Rockaway Park, Queens|Rockaway Park]], the community adjoining Belle Harbor to the east, in memory of the 265 victims of the crash. It is situated beside the [[Rockaway Beach and Boardwalk]] at the south end of Beach 116th Street, a major commercial street in the area. It was dedicated on November 12, 2006, the fifth anniversary of the accident, in a ceremony attended by then-[[Mayor of New York City]] [[Michael Bloomberg]]. A ceremony commemorating the disaster is held annually at the memorial every November 12, featuring a reading of the names of those killed aboard the aircraft and on the ground, with a formal moment of silence observed at 9:16 am, the estimated time of the crash. The memorial wall, designed by Dominican artist [[Freddy Rodríguez (artist)|Freddy Rodríguez]] and Situ Studio, has windows and a doorway looking toward the nearby Atlantic Ocean and angled toward the Dominican Republic. It is inscribed with the names of the victims.<ref>{{cite news| url= http://www.wnyc.org/news/articles/68947| title= Flight 587 Memorial Dedicated in Rockaways| website= [[WNYC]].org| access-date= November 16, 2006 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081221014229/http://www.wnyc.org/news/articles/68947 |archive-date= December 21, 2008 }}</ref> Atop the memorial is a quotation, in both Spanish and English, from Dominican poet [[Pedro Mir]]: "{{lang|es|Después no quiero más que paz}}" (which translates to "Afterwards I want nothing more than peace").<ref>{{cite news|title=Families dedicate Flight 587 memorial on 5-year anniversary| url= http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2006/11/12/america/NA_GEN_US_Flight_587_Anniversary.php|work=The International Herald Tribune|agency= Associated Press |publisher= |date=November 12, 2006| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090201155045/http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2006/11/12/america/NA_GEN_US_Flight_587_Anniversary.php|archive-date=February 1, 2009}}</ref>

In a ceremony held on May 6, 2007, at [[Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)|Woodlawn Cemetery]] in [[the Bronx]], 889 unidentified fragments of human remains of the victims of the crash were entombed in a group of four [[mausoleum]] [[crypts]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lee |first1=Trymaine |date=May 7, 2007 |title=Only 4 Coffins, but 265 Victims Are Mourned at Mass in the Bronx |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/07/nyregion/07remains.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014092737/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/07/nyregion/07remains.html |archive-date=October 14, 2017 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

== Documentaries ==
Several documentaries have been made concerning the accident.

A 2006 episode of the [[National Geographic Channel]] program ''[[Seconds From Disaster]]'' examined the Flight 587 accident in detail. The episode was titled "Plane Crash in Queens" (also known as "New York Air Crash").<ref name="Seconds From Disaster">{{cite episode |title=New York Air Crash |series=[[Seconds From Disaster]] |network=[[National Geographic Channel]] |season=3 |date=2006}}</ref>

A 2006 episode of ''[[Modern Marvels]]'' on [[History (U.S. TV channel)|The History Channel]] aired an episode titled "Engineering Disasters 20", which featured detailed information on Flight 587.<ref name="Modern Marvels 20">{{Cite episode |title=Engineering Disasters 20|series=[[Modern Marvels]]|network=[[History (U.S. TV channel)|The History Channel]]|season=13|year=2006}}</ref> The [[Discovery Channel Canada]] / [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] series ''[[Mayday (Canadian TV series)|Mayday]]'' (also called ''Air Crash Investigation'' or ''Air Emergency'') dramatized the accident in a 2014 episode titled "Queens Catastrophe".<ref name="Mayday" /> The [[BBC]] program ''[[Horizon (BBC TV series)|Horizon]]'' also created an episode about the crash.<ref name="Horizon">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2003/flight587.shtml|title=Horizon: Flight 587|publisher=BBC Home|date=May 8, 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501020059/http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2003/flight587.shtml |archive-date=May 1, 2013}}</ref>

An episode of ''Aircrash Confidential'' on [[Discovery Channel]] also featured Flight 587. The episode was titled "Pilot Error".<ref>{{IMDb title|qid=Q123512030|title=Aircrash Confidential: Pilot Error}}</ref>

A 2011 episode of ''[[Why Planes Crash]]'' featured Flight 587. The episode was titled "Human Error" and was aired on MSNBC.<ref>{{IMDb title|qid=Q123512048|title=Why Planes Crash: Human Error}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft]]
* [[Japan Air Lines Flight 123]]
* "[[Clap When You Land]]" by [[Elizabeth Acevedo]], which is loosely based on Flight 587

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{NTSB}}
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{external media
| float = right
| width =
| image1 = [http://www.airliners.net/search?registrationActual=N14053&display=detail Photos of N14053 at Airliners.net]
| video1 = {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nPHtof6tHKE| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211115/nPHtof6tHKE| archive-date=2021-11-15 | url-status=live|title=Did a Poorly Trained Pilot Cause Flight 587's Crash?|publisher=[[Smithsonian Channel]]|date=2015-03-05}}{{cbignore}}
}}
{{Commons category|American Airlines Flight 587}}

*[https://data.ntsb.gov/Docket?ProjectID=53768 NTSB Docket] including Cockpit Voice Recorder Transcript (76.5 KB; [https://www.webcitation.org/6MCNbtwxj?url=http://web.archive.org/web/20040719190549/http://www.ntsb.gov/Events/2001/AA587/exhibits/241569.pdf Archive]; [https://web.archive.org/web/20040719190549/https://www.ntsb.gov/Events/2001/AA587/exhibits/241569.pdf Alternate of archive])
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20011113212228/http://www.aa.com/ Archive of AA.com on November 13, 2001]
* [[Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety]] – Reporting on behalf of European manufacturer Airbus
** "[http://www.bea.aero/anglaise/actualite/com011112.htm Accident on November 12, 2001 in New York]." ([https://web.archive.org/web/20030802063737/http://www.bea.aero/anglaise/actualite/com011112.htm Archive])
** {{in lang|fr}} "[http://www.bea.aero/francais/actualite/actu.htm Accident survenu le novembre 12, 2001 à New York]." ([https://web.archive.org/web/20021013105941/http://www.bea.aero/francais/actualite/actu.htm Archive])
* [http://www.airliners.net/search?registrationActual=N14053&display=detail Photos of the plane involved in the accident and of the crash scene] from [[Airliners.net]]
* {{cite web|url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/fund/html/projects/flight_587_memorial.shtml|title=The Mayor's Fund to Advance NYC – Flight 587 Memorial Project|publisher=New York City Government Website (NYC.gov)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309152028/http://www.nyc.gov/html/fund/html/projects/flight_587_memorial.shtml |archive-date=March 9, 2012}}
* {{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/sep/11/september112002.september1161|title=Hector Algarobba's essay on how he was affected by the disaster of AA587|journal=The Guardian|last1=Algarobba|first1=Hector|last2=Burkeman|first2=Oliver|date=September 11, 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113012541/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/sep/11/september112002.september1161 |archive-date=November 13, 2012|ref=none}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.rockawave.com/news/2002-07-20/Front_Page/D-Witnesses_Stories0720.html|title=A Wave Exclusive….Flight 587 Witnesses Speak Out At Wave Sponsored Meeting|date=July 20, 2002|publisher=[[Wave of Long Island|The Wave]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114120412/http://www.rockawave.com/news/2002-07-20/Front_Page/D-Witnesses_Stories0720.html |archive-date=November 14, 2012}}
* {{cite web|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20080008569.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20080008569.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|last=Switzer|first=George F.|title=Documentation for Three Wake Vortex Model Data Sets from Simulation of Flight 587 Wake Vortex Encounter Accident Case|publisher=[[NASA]]|date=January 2003|ref=none}}
*{{YouTube|id=HFik-ergoGY&t|title=American Airlines Flight 587 ATC recording}}

{{American Airlines}}
{{Aviation accidents and incidents in 2001}}
{{Aviation accidents and incidents in the United States in the 2000s}}
{{Portal bar|border=yes|Dominican Republic|Aviation|New York City}}

[[Category:2001 in New York City]]
[[Category:Accidents and incidents involving the Airbus A300]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by in-flight structural failure]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by pilot error]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents in New York City]]
[[Category:American Airlines accidents and incidents|587]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents caused by wake turbulence]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in New York City]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in the United States in 2001]]
[[Category:Dominican Republic–United States relations]]
[[Category:2000s in Queens]]
[[Category:November 2001 events in the United States]]
[[Category:Rockaway, Queens]]

YouTube

2024-01-18T06:55:36Z

Asyncadr: Undid revision 1196631664 by OHIO 97876 (talk) this is an unsubstantiated rumour. Author of ublock origin provides proof: https://twitter.com/gorhill/status/1746263759495077919

{{Short description|Video-sharing platform owned by Google}}
{{For|the company's channel on YouTube|YouTube (channel)}}
{{Pp|small=yes}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2023}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2021}}
{{Infobox website
| name = YouTube, LLC
| logo = YouTube Logo 2017.svg
| logo_caption = Logo used since 2017
| logo_size = 250px
| logo_alt = The YouTube logo is made of a red round-rectangular box with a white "play" button inside and the word "YouTube" written in black.
| screenshot =YouTube screenshot.webp
| caption = Screenshot of the video player on September 13, 2023
| collapsible =
| company_type = [[Subsidiary]]
| type = [[Online video platform]]
| founded = {{start date and age|2005|2|14}}
| location = 901 Cherry Avenue [[San Bruno, California]]
| country = United States
| area_served = Worldwide (excluding [[censorship of YouTube|blocked countries]])
| owner = [[Alphabet Inc.]]
| founder = {{ubl|[[Steve Chen]]|[[Chad Hurley]]|[[Jawed Karim]]}}
| key_people = {{ubl|[[Neal Mohan]] (CEO)|Chad Hurley (advisor)}}
| industry = {{ubl|[[Internet]]|[[Video hosting service]]}}
| products = {{ubl||[[YouTube Kids]]|[[YouTube Music]]|[[YouTube Premium]]|[[YouTube Shorts]]|[[YouTube TV]]}}
| revenue = {{increase}} {{USD|28.8 billion}} (2021)<ref name="Weprin">{{cite web |last=Weprin |first=Alex |date=February 1, 2022 |title=YouTube Ad Revenue Tops $8.6B, Beating Netflix in the Quarter |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/digital/youtube-ad-revenue-tops-8-6b-beating-netflix-in-the-quarter-1235085391/ |access-date=June 11, 2022 |website=The Hollywood Reporter |language=en-US |archive-date=June 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608081933/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/digital/youtube-ad-revenue-tops-8-6b-beating-netflix-in-the-quarter-1235085391/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| parent = [[Google LLC]] (2006–present)
| url = {{URL|https://youtube.com/}} (see [[#International and localization|list of localized domain names]])
| content_license = Uploader holds copyright (standard license); [[Creative Commons]] can be selected.
| programming_language = [[Python (programming language)|Python]] (core/API),<ref>{{cite web |last1=Claburn |first1=Thomas |title=Google's Grumpy code makes Python Go |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/01/05/googles_grumpy_makes_python_go/ |website=The Register |access-date=September 16, 2017 |language=en |date=January 5, 2017 |archive-date=December 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214142433/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/01/05/googles_grumpy_makes_python_go/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[C (programming language)|C]] (through [[CPython]]), [[C++]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]] (through [[Guice]] platform),<ref>{{cite web |first=Jesse |last=Wilson |title=Guice Deuce |url=https://googlecode.blogspot.no/2009/05/guice-deuce.html |website=Official Google Code Blog |date=May 19, 2009 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326225735/http://googlecode.blogspot.no/2009/05/guice-deuce.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://highscalability.com/blog/2008/3/12/youtube-architecture.html |title=YouTube Architecture |publisher=High Scalability |access-date=October 13, 2014 |archive-date=October 4, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141004091618/http://highscalability.com/blog/2008/3/12/youtube-architecture.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Go (programming language)|Go]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Golang Vitess: a database wrapper written in Go as used by Youtube |website=[[GitHub]] |url=https://github.com/youtube/vitess |date=October 23, 2018 |access-date=September 16, 2017 |archive-date=January 30, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130213332/https://github.com/youtube/vitess |url-status=live }}</ref> [[JavaScript]] (UI)
| advertising = [[Google AdSense]]
| registration = {{Collapsible list
| titlestyle = font-weight:normal; text-align:left; background-color:transparent
| title = Optional
| Not required to watch most videos; required for certain tasks such as uploading videos, viewing flagged (18+) videos, creating playlists, liking or disliking videos, and posting comments
}}
| users = {{decrease}} 2.514 billion [[Monthly active user|MAU]] (January 2023){{citation needed|date=November 2023}}
| launched = {{start date and age|2005|02|14}}
| current_status = Active
}}
'''YouTube''' is an American [[online video platform|online video sharing]] and [[social media]] platform owned by [[Google]]. Accessible worldwide,{{refn|Excluding [[Censorship of YouTube|blocked countries]].}} it was launched on February 14, 2005, by [[Steve Chen]], [[Chad Hurley]], and [[Jawed Karim]], three former employees of [[PayPal]]. Headquartered in [[San Bruno, California]], [[United States]], it is the [[List of most visited websites|second most visited]] website in the world, after [[Google Search]]. YouTube has more than 2.5 billion monthly users,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Top Social Media Statistics And Trends Of 2023 – Forbes Advisor |url=https://www.forbes.com/advisor/business/social-media-statistics/ |access-date=June 15, 2023 |website=Forbes |archive-date=June 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230614094637/http://www.forbes.com/advisor/business/social-media-statistics/ |url-status=live }}</ref> who collectively watch more than one billion hours of videos every day.<ref name="1 billion hours">{{cite web |last1=Goodrow |first1=Cristos |date=February 27, 2017 |title=You know what's cool? A billion hours |url=https://blog.youtube/news-and-events/you-know-whats-cool-billion-hours |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806062438/https://blog.youtube/news-and-events/you-know-whats-cool-billion-hours/ |archive-date=August 6, 2020 |access-date=April 19, 2021 |via=YouTube |language=en-US}}</ref> {{as of |May 2019}}, videos were being uploaded to the platform at a rate of more than 500 hours of [[Content (media)|content]] per minute.<ref name="500 hours per minute">{{cite news |last1=Loke Hale |first1=James |date=May 7, 2019 |title=More Than 500 Hours Of Content Are Now Being Uploaded To YouTube Every Minute |work=[[TubeFilter]] |location=Los Angeles, CA |url=https://www.tubefilter.com/2019/05/07/number-hours-video-uploaded-to-youtube-per-minute/ |access-date=June 10, 2019 |archive-date=January 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105143621/https://www.tubefilter.com/2019/05/07/number-hours-video-uploaded-to-youtube-per-minute/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Neufeld |first=Dorothy |date=January 27, 2021 |title=The 50 Most Visited Websites in the World |url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/the-50-most-visited-websites-in-the-world/ |access-date=December 6, 2021 |website=Visual Capitalist |language=en-US |archive-date=December 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211210024145/https://www.visualcapitalist.com/the-50-most-visited-websites-in-the-world/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In October 2006, YouTube was bought by Google for $1.65 billion (equivalent to ${{Inflation|index=US|value=1.65|start_year=2006|r=2}} billion in {{Inflation year|index=US}}).<ref>{{cite news |last=Hooker |first=Lucy |date=February 1, 2016 |title=How did Google become the world's most valuable company? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-35460398 |access-date=May 26, 2021 |archive-date=May 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526191009/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-35460398 |url-status=live }}</ref> Google's ownership of YouTube expanded the site's business model, expanding from generating revenue from [[Advertising|advertisements]] alone to offering paid content such as movies and [[List of YouTube Premium original programming|exclusive content]] produced by YouTube. It also offers [[YouTube Premium]], a paid subscription option for watching content without ads. YouTube also approved creators to participate in [[Google AdSense|Google's AdSense]] program, which seeks to generate more revenue for both parties. In 2021, YouTube's annual advertising revenue increased to $28.8 billion, an increase in revenue of $9 billion from the previous year.<ref name="Weprin"/> YouTube reported revenue of $29.2 billion in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=YouTube Revenue and Usage Statistics (2023) |url=https://www.businessofapps.com/data/youtube-statistics/ |access-date=August 9, 2023 |website=Business of Apps |language=en-US |archive-date=September 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906142643/https://www.businessofapps.com/data/youtube-statistics/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since its purchase by Google, YouTube has expanded beyond the core website into [[mobile app]]s, network television, and the [[Interoperability|ability to link]] with other platforms. Video categories on YouTube include [[music video]]s, [[video clip]]s, [[news]], [[short film]]s, [[feature film]]s, [[songs]], [[documentary film|documentaries]], [[trailer (promotion)|movie trailers]], [[teaser (trailer)|teasers]], [[live stream]]s, [[vlog]]s, and more. Most content is [[user-generated content|generated by individuals]], including collaborations between [[YouTuber]]s and corporate sponsors. Established media corporations such as [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]], [[Paramount Global|Paramount]], [[NBCUniversal]], and [[Warner Bros. Discovery]] have also created and expanded their corporate YouTube channels to advertise to a greater audience.

YouTube has had [[Social impact of YouTube|unprecedented social impact]], influencing popular culture, internet trends, and creating multimillionaire celebrities. Despite its growth and success, it has been widely criticized for allegedly facilitating the spread of [[misinformation]], the sharing of [[YouTube copyright issues|copyrighted content]], [[YouTube and privacy|routinely violating its users' privacy]], [[Censorship of YouTube|enabling censorship]], endangering [[child protection|child safety and wellbeing]], and for its inconsistent or incorrect implementation of platform guidelines.

{{TOC limit|3}}

== {{Anchor|Company history}}{{Anchor|Website history}}History ==
{{Main|History of YouTube}}

=== Founding and initial growth (2005–2006) ===
[[File:Youtube founders.jpg|thumb|center|upright=1.8|From left to right: [[Chad Hurley]], [[Steve Chen]], and [[Jawed Karim]], the founders of YouTube.]]

YouTube was founded by [[Steve Chen]], [[Chad Hurley]], and [[Jawed Karim]]. The trio were early employees of [[PayPal]], which left them enriched after the company was bought by [[eBay]].<ref name=":7" /> Hurley had studied design at the [[Indiana University of Pennsylvania]], and Chen and Karim studied [[computer science]] together at the [[University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign]].<ref>{{cite web |date=October 11, 2006 |title=YouTube founders now superstars |url=https://www.smh.com.au/technology/youtube-founders-now-superstars-20061011-gdokrc.html |access-date=March 18, 2021 |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |language=en |archive-date=April 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413152749/https://www.smh.com.au/technology/youtube-founders-now-superstars-20061011-gdokrc.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to a story that has often been repeated in the media, Hurley and Chen developed the idea for YouTube during the early months of 2005, after they had experienced difficulty sharing videos that had been shot at a dinner party at Chen's apartment in [[San Francisco]]. Karim did not attend the party and denied that it had occurred, but Chen remarked that the idea that YouTube was founded after a dinner party "was probably very strengthened by marketing ideas around creating a story that was very digestible".<ref name="YouTube gurus">{{cite magazine |last=Cloud |first=John |date=December 25, 2006 |title=The YouTube Gurus |url=https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1570795,00.html |magazine=Time |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=May 16, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516152014/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1570795,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Karim said the inspiration for YouTube came from the [[Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy]], when [[Janet Jackson]]'s breast was briefly exposed by [[Justin Timberlake]] during the halftime show. Karim could not easily find video clips of the incident and the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami]] online, which led to the idea of a video-sharing site.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jim |last=Hopkins |title=Surprise! There's a third YouTube co-founder |url=https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-10-11-youtube-karim_x.htm |website=[[USA Today]] |date=October 11, 2006 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=October 4, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004011143/https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-10-11-youtube-karim_x.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Hurley and Chen said that the original idea for YouTube was a video version of an [[online dating service]] and had been influenced by the website [[Hot or Not]].<ref name="YouTube gurus" /><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050428014715/https://www.youtube.com/ Earliest surviving version of the YouTube website] [[Wayback Machine]], April 28, 2005. Retrieved June 19, 2013.</ref> They created posts on [[Craigslist]] asking attractive women to upload videos of themselves to YouTube in exchange for a $100 reward.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAJEXUNmP5M |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/XAJEXUNmP5M |archive-date=December 21, 2021 |url-status=live |title=r | p 2006: YouTube: From Concept to Hypergrowth – Jawed Karim |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Difficulty in finding enough dating videos led to a change of plans, with the site's founders deciding to accept uploads of any video.<ref>{{cite news |first=Stuart |last=Dredge |title=YouTube was meant to be a video-dating website |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/mar/16/youtube-past-video-dating-website |work=The Guardian |date=March 16, 2016 |access-date=March 15, 2019 |archive-date=January 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128200940/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/mar/16/youtube-past-video-dating-website |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Youtube logo.jpg|thumb|The YouTube logo used from its launch until 2007;{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} it returned in 2008 before being removed again in 2010.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} Another version of this logo without the "Broadcast Yourself" slogan was used until 2011.]]

YouTube began as a [[venture capital]]–funded technology [[startup company|startup]]. Between November 2005 and April 2006, the company raised money from various investors, with [[Sequoia Capital]] and Artis Capital Management being the largest two.<ref name=":7">{{cite news |first1=Miguel |last1=Helft |first2=Matt |last2=Richtel |title=Venture Firm Shares a YouTube Jackpot |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/10/technology/10payday.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=October 10, 2006 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |id={{ProQuest|433418867}} |archive-date=March 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210311122613/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/10/technology/10payday.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Helft |first1=Miguel |title=San Francisco Hedge Fund Invested in YouTube |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/12/technology/12hedges.html |work=The New York Times |issue=Vol.156, Issue 53,730 |date=October 12, 2006 |id={{ProQuest|433422252}} |access-date=September 8, 2018 |archive-date=November 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109034144/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/12/technology/12hedges.html |url-status=live }}</ref> YouTube's early headquarters were situated above a pizzeria and a Japanese restaurant in [[San Mateo, California]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Sara |last=Kehaulani Goo |title=Ready for Its Close-Up |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/06/AR2006100600660.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=October 7, 2006 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=April 2, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402153534/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/06/AR2006100600660.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In February 2005, the company activated <code>www.youtube.com</code>.<ref>{{cite web |title=Whois Record for <code>www.youtube.com</code> |url=https://whois.domaintools.com/youtube.com |access-date=April 1, 2009 |publisher=DomainTools |archive-date=April 2, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402130611/http://whois.domaintools.com/youtube.com |url-status=live }}</ref> The first video was uploaded on April 23, 2005. Titled "[[Me at the zoo]]", it shows co-founder Jawed Karim at the [[San Diego Zoo]] and can still be viewed on the site.<ref>{{cite news |first=Richard |last=Alleyne |title=YouTube: Overnight success has sparked a backlash |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2480280/YouTube-Overnight-success-has-sparked-a-backlash.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2480280/YouTube-Overnight-success-has-sparked-a-backlash.html |archive-date=January 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=July 31, 2008 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=April 23, 2005 |title=Me at the zoo |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jNQXAC9IVRw |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/jNQXAC9IVRw |archive-date=December 21, 2021 |url-status=live |access-date=August 3, 2009 |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In May, the company launched a public beta and by November, a Nike ad featuring [[Ronaldinho]] became the first video to reach one million total views.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aRHk8ol0vTw |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051125105508/https://www.youtube.com/watch.php?v=aRHk8ol0vTw |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 25, 2005 |title=Ronaldinho: Touch of Gold – YouTube |work=[[Wayback Machine]] |date=November 25, 2005 |access-date=January 1, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/browse.php?s=mp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051102073554/https://www.youtube.com/browse.php?s=mp |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 2, 2005 |title=Most Viewed – YouTube |work=[[Wayback Machine]] |date=November 2, 2005 |access-date=January 1, 2017}}</ref> The site launched officially on December 15, 2005, by which time the site was receiving 8 million views a day.<ref>{{cite news |title=YouTube: a history |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/mediatechnologyandtelecoms/digital-media/7596636/YouTube-a-history.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/mediatechnologyandtelecoms/digital-media/7596636/YouTube-a-history.html |archive-date=January 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=April 17, 2010 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Megan Rose |last=Dickey |title=The 22 Key Turning Points in the History of YouTube |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/key-turning-points-history-of-youtube-2013-2 |website=[[Business Insider]] |date=February 15, 2013 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=May 12, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170512055717/http://www.businessinsider.com/key-turning-points-history-of-youtube-2013-2 |url-status=live }}</ref> Clips at the time were limited to 100 megabytes, as little as 30 seconds of footage.<ref>{{cite web |last=Graham |first=Jefferson |date=November 21, 2005 |title=Video websites pop up, invite postings |url=https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/techinnovations/2005-11-21-video-websites_x.htm |access-date=March 26, 2017 |website=[[USA Today]] |archive-date=April 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412064600/https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/techinnovations/2005-11-21-video-websites_x.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

YouTube was not the first video-sharing site on the Internet; [[Vimeo]] was launched in November 2004, though that site remained a side project of its developers from [[CollegeHumor]].<ref name="fortune vimeo">{{cite web |url=https://fortune.com/2011/02/23/how-vimeo-became-hipster-youtube/ |title=How Vimeo became hipster YouTube |first=John Patrick |last=Pullen |date=February 23, 2011 |access-date=May 8, 2020 |work=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] |archive-date=November 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108022616/https://fortune.com/2011/02/23/how-vimeo-became-hipster-youtube/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The week of YouTube's launch, NBC-Universal's ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' ran a skit "[[Lazy Sunday (The Lonely Island song)|Lazy Sunday]]" by [[The Lonely Island]]. Besides helping to bolster ratings and long-term viewership for ''Saturday Night Live'', "Lazy Sunday"'s status as an early [[viral video]] helped establish YouTube as an important website.<ref name=":8">{{cite web |url=https://paleofuture.gizmodo.com/heres-what-people-thought-of-youtube-when-it-first-laun-1832019272 |title=Here's What People Thought of YouTube When It First Launched in the Mid-2000s |first=Matt |last=Novak |date=February 14, 2020 |access-date=February 14, 2020 |work=[[Gizmodo]] |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126210158/https://paleofuture.gizmodo.com/heres-what-people-thought-of-youtube-when-it-first-laun-1832019272 |url-status=live }}</ref> Unofficial uploads of the skit to YouTube drew in more than five million collective views by February 2006 before they were removed when [[NBCUniversal]] requested it two months later based on copyright concerns.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/20/business/media/a-video-clip-goes-viral-and-a-tv-network-wants-to-control-it.html |title=A Video Clip Goes Viral, and a TV Network Wants to Control It |first=John |last=Biggs |date=February 20, 2006 |access-date=February 14, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308130248/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/20/business/media/a-video-clip-goes-viral-and-a-tv-network-wants-to-control-it.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite eventually being taken down, these duplicate uploads of the skit helped popularize YouTube's reach and led to the upload of more third-party content.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://variety.com/2015/tv/news/lazy-sunday-10th-anniversary-snl-1201657949/ |title='Lazy Sunday' Turns 10: 'SNL' Stars Recall How TV Invaded the Internet |first1=Andrew |last1=Wallenstein |first2=Todd |last2=Spangler |date=December 18, 2015 |access-date=April 27, 2019 |work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |archive-date=December 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214093508/https://variety.com/2015/tv/news/lazy-sunday-10th-anniversary-snl-1201657949/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/hollywood-flashback-snls-lazy-sunday-put-youtube-map-2005-1044829 |title=Hollywood Flashback: 'SNL's' 'Lazy Sunday' Put YouTube on the Map in 2005 |first=Bill |last=Higgens |date=October 5, 2017 |access-date=April 27, 2019 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |archive-date=November 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117164538/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/hollywood-flashback-snls-lazy-sunday-put-youtube-map-2005-1044829 |url-status=live }}</ref> The site grew rapidly; in July 2006, the company announced that more than 65,000 new videos were being uploaded every day and that the site was receiving 100 million video views per day.<ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube serves up 100 million videos a day online |url=https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-07-16-youtube-views_x.htm |website=[[USA Today]] |date=July 16, 2006 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=December 31, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231004209/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-07-16-youtube-views_x.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The choice of the name <code>www.youtube.com</code> led to problems for a similarly named website, <code>www.utube.com</code>. That site's owner, [[Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment]], filed a lawsuit against YouTube in November 2006, after being regularly overloaded by people looking for YouTube. Universal Tube subsequently changed its website to <code>www.utubeonline.com</code>.<ref>{{cite news |title=Help! YouTube is killing my business! |last1=Zappone |first1=Christian |publisher=CNN |url=https://money.cnn.com/2006/10/12/news/companies/utube/index.htm |access-date=November 29, 2008 |date=October 12, 2006 |archive-date=January 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109144540/https://money.cnn.com/2006/10/12/news/companies/utube/index.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Utube sues YouTube |last1=Blakely |first1=Rhys |work=The Times |location=London |url=https://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/media/article623050.ece |access-date=November 29, 2008 |date=November 2, 2006 |archive-date=April 3, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403234216/http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/media/article623050.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== "Broadcast Yourself" era (2006–2013) ===
[[File:901 Cherry Avenue.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|YouTube's headquarters in San Bruno, California]]
On October 9, 2006, [[Google]] announced that it had acquired YouTube for $1.65 billion in Google stock.<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul R. |last=La Monica |title=Google to buy YouTube for $1.65 billion |url=https://money.cnn.com/2006/10/09/technology/googleyoutube_deal/ |website=[[CNNMoney]] |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=October 9, 2006 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=March 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305094811/https://money.cnn.com/2006/10/09/technology/googleyoutube_deal/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Michael |last=Arrington |title=Google Has Acquired YouTube |url=https://techcrunch.com/2006/10/09/google-has-acquired-youtube/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=October 9, 2006 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=March 16, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316024815/https://techcrunch.com/2006/10/09/google-has-acquired-youtube/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The deal was finalized on November 13, 2006.<ref>{{cite web |first=Michael |last=Arrington |title=Google Closes YouTube Acquisition |url=https://techcrunch.com/2006/11/13/google-closes-youtube-acquisition/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=November 13, 2006 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=March 16, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316024500/https://techcrunch.com/2006/11/13/google-closes-youtube-acquisition/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Google closes $A2b YouTube deal |url=https://www.theage.com.au/news/Busness/Google-closes-A2b-YouTube-deal/2006/11/14/1163266548827.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071220214911/https://www.theage.com.au/news/Busness/Google-closes-A2b-YouTube-deal/2006/11/14/1163266548827.html |website=[[The Age]] |date=November 14, 2006 |archive-date=December 20, 2007 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref> Google's acquisition launched newfound interest in video-sharing sites; [[IAC (company)|IAC]], which now owned Vimeo, focused on supporting the content creators to distinguish itself from YouTube.<ref name="fortune vimeo" /> It is at this time YouTube issued the slogan "Broadcast Yourself".
The company experienced rapid growth. ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' wrote that in 2007, YouTube consumed as much [[bandwidth (computing)|bandwidth]] as the entire Internet in 2000.<ref>{{cite news |last=Carter |first=Lewis |date=April 7, 2008 |title=Web could collapse as video demand soars |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1584230/Web-could-collapse-as-video-demand-soars.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1584230/Web-could-collapse-as-video-demand-soars.html |archive-date=January 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=March 26, 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> By 2010, the company had reached a [[market share]] of around 43% and more than 14 billion views of videos, according to [[comScore]].<ref>{{cite web |title=comScore Releases May 2010 U.S. Online Video Rankings |url=https://www.comscore.com/Press_Events/Press_Releases/2010/6/comScore_Releases_May_2010_U.S._Online_Video_Rankings |access-date=June 27, 2010 |publisher=[[comScore]] |archive-date=June 26, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626124554/http://www.comscore.com/Press_Events/Press_Releases/2010/6/comScore_Releases_May_2010_U.S._Online_Video_Rankings |url-status=live }}</ref> That year, the company simplified its interface to increase the time users would spend on the site.<ref>{{cite news |title=YouTube redesigns website to keep viewers captivated |agency=Agence France-Presse |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jfGfKKsiwbxNv8XoUbm8ZlRZZWyw |access-date=April 1, 2010 |archive-date=February 26, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226120718/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jfGfKKsiwbxNv8XoUbm8ZlRZZWyw |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2011, more than three billion videos were being watched each day with 48 hours of new videos uploaded every minute.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 25, 2011 |title=YouTube moves past 3 billion views a day |url=https://www.cnet.com/uk/news/youtube-moves-past-3-billion-views-a-day/ |access-date=March 26, 2017 |publisher=[[CNET]] |archive-date=December 6, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206044204/https://www.cnet.com/uk/news/youtube-moves-past-3-billion-views-a-day/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Bryant |first=Martin |date=May 25, 2011 |title=YouTube hits 3 Billion views per day, 2 DAYS worth of video uploaded every minute |url=https://thenextweb.com/google/2011/05/25/youtube-hits-3-billion-views-per-day-2-days-worth-of-video-uploaded-every-minute/ |access-date=March 26, 2017 |website=The Next Web |archive-date=February 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225051205/https://thenextweb.com/google/2011/05/25/youtube-hits-3-billion-views-per-day-2-days-worth-of-video-uploaded-every-minute/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="48-60">{{cite news |last=Oreskovic |first=Alexei |date=January 23, 2012 |title=Exclusive: YouTube hits 4 billion daily video views |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-google-youtube-idUSTRE80M0TS20120123 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308105444/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-google-youtube-idUSTRE80M0TS20120123 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, most of these views came from a relatively small number of videos; according to a software engineer at that time, 30% of videos accounted for 99% of views on the site.<ref>{{cite news |last=Whitelaw |first=Ben |date=April 20, 2011 |title=Almost all YouTube views come from just 30% of films |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/8464418/Almost-all-YouTube-views-come-from-just-30-of-films.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/8464418/Almost-all-YouTube-views-come-from-just-30-of-films.html |archive-date=January 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=March 26, 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> That year, the company again changed its interface and at the same time, introduced a new logo with a darker shade of red.<ref>{{cite news |date=December 2, 2011 |title=YouTube's website redesign puts the focus on channels |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-16006524 |access-date=December 2, 2011 |archive-date=April 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416164337/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-16006524 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Cashmore |first1=Pete |date=October 26, 2006 |title=YouTube Gets New Logo, Facelift and Trackbacks – Growing Fast! |website=[[Mashable]] |url=https://mashable.com/2006/10/26/youtube-gets-new-logo-facelift-and-trackbacks-growing-fast/ |access-date=December 2, 2011 |archive-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403122830/https://mashable.com/2006/10/26/youtube-gets-new-logo-facelift-and-trackbacks-growing-fast/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A subsequent interface change, designed to unify the experience across desktop, TV, and mobile, was rolled out in 2013.<ref name="tnw-one">{{Cite news |last=Protalinski |first=Emil |date=June 5, 2013 |title=Google Rolls Out Redesigned YouTube 'One Channel' Layout to All |language=en |work=The Next Web |url=https://thenextweb.com/news/youtube-rolls-out-redesigned-one-channel-layout-to-all-users |access-date=July 20, 2023 |archive-date=May 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523124430/https://thenextweb.com/news/youtube-rolls-out-redesigned-one-channel-layout-to-all-users |url-status=live }}</ref> By that point, more than 100 hours were being uploaded every minute, increasing to 300 hours by November 2014.<ref>{{cite web |last=Welch |first=Chris |date=May 19, 2013 |title=YouTube users now upload 100 hours of video every minute |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/5/19/4345514/youtube-users-upload-100-hours-video-every-minute |access-date=March 26, 2017 |website=[[The Verge]] |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308194957/https://www.theverge.com/2013/5/19/4345514/youtube-users-upload-100-hours-video-every-minute |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=E. Solsman |first=Joan |date=November 12, 2014 |title=YouTube's Music Key: Can paid streaming finally hook the masses? |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/youtube-music-key-googles-stab-at-taking-paid-streaming-songs-mainstream/ |access-date=March 25, 2017 |publisher=[[CNET]] |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080226/https://www.cnet.com/news/youtube-music-key-googles-stab-at-taking-paid-streaming-songs-mainstream/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Logo of YouTube (2015-2017).svg|thumb|upright=0.9|YouTube logo from 2015 until 2017]]

During this time, the company also went through some organizational changes. In October 2006, YouTube moved to a new office in [[San Bruno, California]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wasserman |first1=Todd |date=February 15, 2015 |title=The revolution wasn't televised: The early days of YouTube |url=https://mashable.com/2015/02/14/youtube-history/ |access-date=July 4, 2018 |website=[[Mashable]] |archive-date=February 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213052612/https://mashable.com/2015/02/14/youtube-history/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Hurley announced that he would be stepping down as a chief executive officer of YouTube to take an advisory role and that [[Salar Kamangar]] would take over as head of the company in October 2010.<ref>{{cite news |date=October 29, 2010 |title=Hurley stepping down as YouTube chief executive |agency=Agence France-Presse |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ggtnJSISuXoPHgxu6HwPJJqVTT6g?docId=CNG.f7ff59e3829714d23524d35ed1afdd63.921 |access-date=October 30, 2010 |archive-date=February 26, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226121025/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ggtnJSISuXoPHgxu6HwPJJqVTT6g?docId=CNG.f7ff59e3829714d23524d35ed1afdd63.921 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In December 2009, YouTube partnered with [[Vevo]].<ref>{{cite news |date=December 7, 2009 |title=Music Industry Companies Opening Video Site |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/08/business/media/08vevo.html |last1=Stelter |first1=Brian |id={{ProQuest|1029889187}} |access-date=February 9, 2022 |archive-date=August 20, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820162901/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/08/business/media/08vevo.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2010, Lady Gaga's "[[Bad Romance]]" became the [[List of most-viewed YouTube videos|most viewed video]], becoming the first video to reach 200 million views on May 9, 2010.<ref>{{cite news |date=May 9, 2010 |url=https://pulse2.com/bad-romance-by-lady-gaga-becomes-first-youtube-video-to-hit-200-million-views/ |title=Bad Romance By Lady Gaga Becomes First YouTube Video To Hit 200 Million Views |access-date=February 9, 2022 |archive-date=January 1, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190101195642/https://pulse2.com/bad-romance-by-lady-gaga-becomes-first-youtube-video-to-hit-200-million-views/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Susan Wojcicki and going mainstream (2014–2018) ===
[[File:YouTube Logo 2017.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|YouTube logo since 2017]]
[[Susan Wojcicki]] was appointed [[chief executive officer|CEO]] of YouTube in February 2014.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Oreskovic |first1=Alexei |date=February 5, 2014 |title=Google taps longtime executive Wojcicki to head YouTube |language=en-IN |work=Reuters |url=https://in.reuters.com/article/us-google-youtube/google-taps-longtime-executive-wojcicki-to-head-youtube-idINBREA141Y420140205 |access-date=September 16, 2017 |archive-date=September 16, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916183049/http://in.reuters.com/article/us-google-youtube/google-taps-longtime-executive-wojcicki-to-head-youtube-idINBREA141Y420140205 |url-status=live }}</ref> In January 2016, YouTube expanded its headquarters in San Bruno by purchasing an office park for $215 million. The complex has 51,468 square metres (554,000 square feet) of space and can house up to 2,800 employees.<ref name="office_park">{{cite news |last=Avalos |first=George |date=January 20, 2016 |title=YouTube expansion in San Bruno signals big push by video site |work=Mercury News |url=https://www.mercurynews.com/business/ci_29405413/youtube-expansion-san-bruno-signals-big-push-by |access-date=February 3, 2016 |archive-date=January 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160122103350/http://www.mercurynews.com/business/ci_29405413/youtube-expansion-san-bruno-signals-big-push-by |url-status=live }}</ref> YouTube officially launched the "polymer" redesign of its user interfaces based on [[Material Design]] language as its default, as well a redesigned logo that is built around the service's play button emblem in August 2017.<ref>{{cite news |last=Popper |first=Ben |date=August 29, 2017 |title=YouTube has a new look and, for the first time, a new logo |work=The Verge |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/8/29/16216868/new-youtube-logo-redesign-font-color-app-design |access-date=May 7, 2018 |archive-date=January 6, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106091346/https://www.theverge.com/2017/8/29/16216868/new-youtube-logo-redesign-font-color-app-design |url-status=live }}</ref>

Through this period, YouTube tried several new ways to generate revenue beyond advertisements. In 2013, YouTube launched a pilot program for content providers to offer premium, subscription-based channels.<ref name="subscription">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-22474715 |title=YouTube launches pay-to-watch subscription channels |work=[[BBC News]] |date=May 9, 2013 |access-date=May 11, 2013 |archive-date=April 10, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410082148/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-22474715 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.mercurynews.com/business/ci_23184159/youtube-providers-could-begin-charging-fees-this-week |title=YouTube providers could begin charging fees this week |last=Nakaso |first=Dan |work=[[San Jose Mercury News|Mercury News]] |date=May 7, 2013 |access-date=May 10, 2013 |archive-date=March 12, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312084711/http://www.mercurynews.com/business/ci_23184159/youtube-providers-could-begin-charging-fees-this-week |url-status=live }}</ref> This effort was discontinued in January 2018 and relaunched in June, with US$4.99 channel subscriptions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Paid content discontinued January 1, 2018 – YouTube Help |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/7515570?hl=en |access-date=April 19, 2021 |publisher=Google Inc. |archive-date=April 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419185440/https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/7515570?hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Browne |first=Ryan |date=June 22, 2018 |title=YouTube introduces paid subscriptions and merchandise selling in bid to help creators monetize the platform |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/06/22/youtube-introduces-paid-channel-subscriptions-and-merchandise-selling.html |access-date=April 19, 2021 |publisher=CNBC |language=en |archive-date=March 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307214316/https://www.cnbc.com/2018/06/22/youtube-introduces-paid-channel-subscriptions-and-merchandise-selling.html |url-status=live }}</ref> These channel subscriptions complemented the existing Super Chat ability, launched in 2017, which allows viewers to donate between $1 and $500 to have their comment highlighted.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Parker |first1=Laura |date=April 12, 2017 |title=A Chat With a Live Streamer Is Yours, for a Price |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/12/technology/personaltech/paying-for-live-stream-chat.html |access-date=April 21, 2018 |archive-date=November 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112011619/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/12/technology/personaltech/paying-for-live-stream-chat.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2014, YouTube announced a subscription service known as "Music Key", which bundled ad-free streaming of music content on YouTube with the existing [[Google Play Music]] service.<ref>{{cite news |last=Newton |first=Casey |date=November 12, 2014 |title=YouTube announces plans for a subscription music service |work=The Verge |url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/11/12/7201969/youtube-music-key-new-subscription-service |access-date=May 17, 2018 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308192132/https://www.theverge.com/2014/11/12/7201969/youtube-music-key-new-subscription-service |url-status=live }}</ref> The service continued to evolve in 2015 when YouTube announced [[YouTube Red]], a new premium service that would offer ad-free access to all content on the platform (succeeding the Music Key service released the previous year), premium original series, and films produced by YouTube personalities, as well as background playback of content on mobile devices. YouTube also released [[YouTube Music]], a third app oriented towards streaming and discovering the music content hosted on the YouTube platform.<ref name="Youtubered">{{cite web |last1=Reader |first1=Ruth |date=October 21, 2015 |title=Google wants you to pay $9.99 per month for ad-free YouTube |url=https://venturebeat.com/2015/10/21/google-wants-you-to-pay-9-99-per-month-for-ad-free-youtube/ |access-date=October 22, 2015 |website=Venturebeat |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308075506/https://venturebeat.com/2015/10/21/google-wants-you-to-pay-9-99-per-month-for-ad-free-youtube/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Popper |first=Ben |date=October 21, 2015 |title=Exclusive: An inside look at the new ad-free YouTube Red |language=en-US |work=The Verge |url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/10/21/9566973/youtube-red-ad-free-offline-paid-subscription-service |access-date=May 17, 2018 |archive-date=April 4, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404133500/https://www.theverge.com/2015/10/21/9566973/youtube-red-ad-free-offline-paid-subscription-service |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Engadget-ytmusic">{{cite web |last=Ingraham |first=Nathan |date=November 12, 2015 |title=YouTube Music isn't perfect, but it's still heaven for music nerds |url=https://www.engadget.com/2015/11/12/youtube-music-app-hands-on/ |access-date=November 7, 2016 |website=Engadget |archive-date=November 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112022054/https://www.engadget.com/2015-11-12-youtube-music-app-hands-on.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The company also attempted to create products appealing to specific viewers. YouTube released a mobile app known as [[YouTube Kids]] in 2015, designed to provide an experience optimized for children. It features a simplified user interface, curated selections of channels featuring age-appropriate content, and parental control features.<ref>{{cite web |first=Sarah |last=Perez |title=Hands on With "YouTube Kids," Google's Newly Launched, Child-Friendly YouTube App |url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/23/hands-on-with-youtube-kids-googles-newly-launched-child-friendly-youtube-app/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=February 23, 2015 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=June 26, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626223616/https://techcrunch.com/2015/02/23/hands-on-with-youtube-kids-googles-newly-launched-child-friendly-youtube-app/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Also in 2015, YouTube launched YouTube Gaming—a [[video gaming]]-oriented vertical and app for videos and live streaming, intended to compete with the [[Amazon.com]]-owned [[Twitch (service)|Twitch]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Google launches YouTube Gaming to challenge Amazon-owned Twitch |work=The Guardian |first=Stuart |last=Dredge |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/aug/26/youtube-gaming-live-website-apps |date=August 26, 2015 |access-date=September 5, 2015 |archive-date=September 6, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906044745/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/aug/26/youtube-gaming-live-website-apps |url-status=live }}</ref>

The company was attacked on April 3, 2018, when [[2018 YouTube headquarters shooting|a shooting]] occurred at YouTube's headquarters in San Bruno, California, which wounded four and resulted in the death of the shooter.<ref name="shooting">{{cite news |date=April 4, 2018 |title=YouTube shooting: Suspect visited shooting range before attack |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-43645812 |access-date=April 9, 2018 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308085103/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-43645812 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Recent history (2019–present) ===

By February 2017, one billion hours of YouTube videos were being watched every day, and 400 hours worth of videos were uploaded every minute.<ref name="1 billion hours" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Lumb |first=David |date=February 27, 2017 |title=One billion hours of YouTube are watched every day |url=https://www.engadget.com/2017/02/27/youtube-one-billion-hours-watched-daily/ |access-date=March 26, 2017 |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |archive-date=May 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525081426/https://www.engadget.com/2017/02/27/youtube-one-billion-hours-watched-daily/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Two years later, the uploads had risen to more than 500 hours per minute.<ref name="500 hours per minute" /> During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], when most of the world was under [[stay-at-home order]]s, usage of services like YouTube significantly increased. One data firm{{which|date=October 2022}} estimated that YouTube was accounting for 15% of all [[internet traffic]], twice its pre-pandemic level.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rouse |first=Kevin |date=June 4, 2020 |title=Rabbit Hole, episode Eight: 'We Go All' |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/04/podcasts/rabbit-hole-qanon-youtube-tiktok-virus.html |access-date=May 10, 2021 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=May 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512060158/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/04/podcasts/rabbit-hole-qanon-youtube-tiktok-virus.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In response to EU officials requesting that such services reduce bandwidth as to make sure medical entities had sufficient bandwidth to share information, YouTube and [[Netflix]] stated they would reduce streaming quality for at least thirty days as to cut bandwidth use of their services by 25% to comply with the EU's request.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gold |first=Hadas |date=March 19, 2020 |title=Netflix and YouTube are slowing down in Europe to keep the internet from breaking |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/19/tech/netflix-internet-overload-eu/index.html |access-date=March 20, 2020 |publisher=[[CNN]] |archive-date=January 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128181816/https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/19/tech/netflix-internet-overload-eu/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> YouTube later announced that they would continue with this move worldwide: "We continue to work closely with governments and network operators around the globe to do our part to minimize stress on the system during this unprecedented situation."<ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube is reducing the quality of videos for the next month — and it's because increased traffic amid the coronavirus outbreak is straining internet bandwidth |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/youtube-reducing-video-quality-globally-coronavirus-streaming-bandwidth-2020-3 |access-date=March 24, 2020 |work=Business Insider |archive-date=June 15, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615151942/https://www.businessinsider.com/youtube-reducing-video-quality-globally-coronavirus-streaming-bandwidth-2020-3 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Following a 2018 complaint alleging violations of the [[Children's Online Privacy Protection Act]] (COPPA),<ref name=":13">{{cite news |last=Spangler |first=Todd |date=April 9, 2018 |title=YouTube Illegally Tracks Data on Kids, Groups Claim in FTC Complaint |language=en-US |work=Variety |url=https://variety.com/2018/digital/news/youtube-children-data-illegal-tracks-ftc-1202747401/ |access-date=April 27, 2018 |archive-date=June 8, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608030638/https://variety.com/2018/digital/news/youtube-children-data-illegal-tracks-ftc-1202747401/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the company was fined $170 million by the FTC for collecting personal information from minors under the age of 13.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike |first=Masnick |title=FTC's Latest Fine Of YouTube Over COPPA Violations Shows That COPPA And Section 230 Are On A Collision Course |url=https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20190905/17343942934/ftcs-latest-fine-youtube-over-coppa-violations-shows-that-coppa-section-230-are-collision-course.shtml |access-date=September 7, 2019 |website=Techdirt. |date=September 6, 2019 |archive-date=September 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906200850/https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20190905/17343942934/ftcs-latest-fine-youtube-over-coppa-violations-shows-that-coppa-section-230-are-collision-course.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> YouTube was also ordered to create systems to increase children's privacy.<ref name="verge-coppafine">{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Makena |date=September 4, 2019 |title=Google will pay $170 million for YouTube's child privacy violations |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/9/4/20848949/google-ftc-youtube-child-privacy-violations-fine-170-milliion-coppa-ads |access-date=September 4, 2019 |website=The Verge |archive-date=March 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307214341/https://www.theverge.com/2019/9/4/20848949/google-ftc-youtube-child-privacy-violations-fine-170-milliion-coppa-ads |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Fung |first=Brian |title=Google and FTC reach $170 million settlement over alleged YouTube violations of kids' privacy |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/04/tech/google-youtube-ftc-settlement/index.html |access-date=September 4, 2019 |website=[[CNN Business]] |date=September 4, 2019 |archive-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111115824/https://cnn.com/2019/09/04/tech/google-youtube-ftc-settlement/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Following criticisms of its implementation of those systems, YouTube started treating all videos designated as "made for kids" as liable under COPPA on January 6, 2020.<ref>{{cite web |last=Matthews |first=David |date=January 6, 2020 |title=YouTube rolls out new controls aimed at controlling children's content |url=https://www.techspot.com/news/83422-youtube-rolls-out-new-controls-aimed-controlling-children.html |access-date=January 9, 2020 |work=TechSpot |archive-date=April 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405095937/https://www.techspot.com/news/83422-youtube-rolls-out-new-controls-aimed-controlling-children.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Kelly |first=Makena |date=December 11, 2019 |title=YouTube calls for 'more clarity' on the FTC's child privacy rules |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/12/11/21011229/youtube-google-coppa-ftc-creators-videos-childrens-privacy-regulations |access-date=December 11, 2019 |website=The Verge |language=en |archive-date=March 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307214402/https://www.theverge.com/2019/12/11/21011229/youtube-google-coppa-ftc-creators-videos-childrens-privacy-regulations |url-status=live }}</ref> Joining the [[YouTube Kids]] app, the company created a supervised mode, designed more for [[Preadolescent|tweens]], in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Spangler |first1=Todd |date=February 24, 2021 |title=YouTube New 'Supervised' Mode Will Let Parents Restrict Older Kids' Video Viewing |url=https://variety.com/2021/digital/news/youtube-supervised-accounts-kid-controls-1234913968/ |access-date=April 19, 2021 |website=Variety |language=en-US |archive-date=March 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316045244/https://variety.com/2021/digital/news/youtube-supervised-accounts-kid-controls-1234913968/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, to compete with [[TikTok]], YouTube released [[YouTube Shorts]], a short-form video platform.

During this period, YouTube entered disputes with other tech companies. For over a year, in 2018 and 2019, no YouTube app was available for [[Amazon Fire TV|Amazon Fire]] products.<ref>{{cite web |last=Welch |first=Chris |date=April 18, 2019 |title=YouTube is finally coming back to Amazon's Fire TV devices |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/4/18/18412525/youtube-amazon-fire-tv-prime-video-chromecast-return-announcement |access-date=May 5, 2021 |website=The Verge |language=en |archive-date=April 18, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418172012/https://www.theverge.com/2019/4/18/18412525/youtube-amazon-fire-tv-prime-video-chromecast-return-announcement |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2020, [[Roku]] removed the YouTube TV app from its streaming store after the two companies were unable to reach an agreement.<ref>{{cite web |last=Solsman |first=Joan E. |date=April 30, 2021 |title=Roku: YouTube TV app removed from channel store as deal with Google ends |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/roku-youtube-tv-app-removed-from-channel-store-as-deal-with-google-ends/ |access-date=May 5, 2021 |publisher=CNET |language=en |archive-date=May 3, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503094719/https://www.cnet.com/news/roku-youtube-tv-app-removed-from-channel-store-as-deal-with-google-ends/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

After testing earlier in 2021, YouTube removed public display of dislike counts on videos in November 2021, claiming the reason for the removal was, based on its internal research, that users often used the dislike feature as a form of [[cyberbullying]] and [[vote brigading|brigading]].<ref name="BBC YouTube dislikes">{{cite web |date=November 12, 2021 |title=YouTube removing dislike 'discourages trolls' but 'unhelpful for users' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/newsbeat-59264070 |access-date=November 30, 2021 |website=BBC News |archive-date=November 30, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130131058/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/newsbeat-59264070 |url-status=live }}</ref> While some users praised the move as a way to discourage [[Internet troll|trolls]], others felt that hiding dislikes would make it harder for viewers to recognize clickbait or unhelpful videos and that other features already existed for creators to limit bullying. YouTube co-founder [[Jawed Karim]] referred to the update as "a stupid idea", and that the real reason behind the change was "not a good one, and not one that will be publicly disclosed." He felt that users' ability on a social platform to identify harmful content was essential, saying, "The process works, and there's a name for it: the [[wisdom of the crowd]]s. The process breaks when the platform interferes with it. Then, the platform invariably declines."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vincent |first1=James |date=November 17, 2021 |title=YouTube co-founder predicts 'decline' of the platform following removal of dislikes |url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/11/17/22787080/youtube-dislikes-criticism-cofounder-jawed-karim-first-video-description-zoo |access-date=November 18, 2021 |website=The Verge |archive-date=November 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117142742/https://www.theverge.com/2021/11/17/22787080/youtube-dislikes-criticism-cofounder-jawed-karim-first-video-description-zoo |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Binder |first1=Matt |date=November 17, 2021 |title=YouTube cofounder protests decision to remove 'dislikes' with an edit to first-ever YouTube upload |url=https://mashable.com/article/youtube-cofounder-protests-decision-to-remove-dislikes |access-date=November 18, 2021 |website=Mashable |archive-date=November 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118000227/https://mashable.com/article/youtube-cofounder-protests-decision-to-remove-dislikes |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Kan |first1=Michael |date=November 17, 2021 |title=YouTube Co-Founder Says Removing Dislike Counts Is a 'Stupid Idea' |url=https://uk.pcmag.com/social-media/137045/youtube-co-founder-says-removing-dislike-counts-is-a-stupid-idea |access-date=November 30, 2021 |website=PC Magazine |archive-date=May 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529055917/https://uk.pcmag.com/social-media/137045/youtube-co-founder-says-removing-dislike-counts-is-a-stupid-idea |url-status=live }}</ref> Shortly after the announcement, software developer Dmitry Selivanov created Return YouTube Dislike, an [[Open source|open-source]], third-party [[browser extension]] for [[Google Chrome|Chrome]] and [[Firefox]] that allows users to see a video's number of dislikes.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kan |first=Michael |date=November 29, 2021 |title=Browser Extension Brings Back Dislike Count to YouTube Videos |url=https://www.pcmag.com/news/browser-extension-brings-back-dislike-count-to-youtube-videos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130230749/https://www.pcmag.com/news/browser-extension-brings-back-dislike-count-to-youtube-videos |archive-date=November 30, 2021 |access-date=January 20, 2022 |work=[[PC Magazine]]}}</ref> In a letter published on January 25, 2022, by then YouTube CEO [[Susan Wojcicki]], acknowledged that removing public dislike counts was a controversial decision, but reiterated that she stands by this decision, claiming that "it reduced dislike attacks."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wojcicki |first1=Susan |date=January 25, 2022 |title=Letter from Susan: Our 2022 Priorities |url=https://blog.youtube/inside-youtube/letter-susan-our-2022-priorities/ |access-date=March 8, 2022 |website=YouTube Official Blog |archive-date=October 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006154605/https://blog.youtube/inside-youtube/letter-susan-our-2022-priorities/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2022, YouTube launched an experiment where the company would show users who watched longer videos on TVs a long chain of short un-skippable adverts, intending to consolidate all ads into the beginning of a video. Following public outrage over the unprecedented amount of un-skippable ads, YouTube "ended" the experiment on September 19 of that year.<ref>{{cite web |last=Livemint |date=September 19, 2022 |title=YouTube ends experiment that forced users to watch large unskippable ads |url=https://www.livemint.com/technology/tech-news/youtube-ends-experiment-that-forced-users-to-watch-large-unskippable-ads-11663572953523.html |access-date=September 21, 2022 |website=mint |language=en |archive-date=September 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921060005/https://www.livemint.com/technology/tech-news/youtube-ends-experiment-that-forced-users-to-watch-large-unskippable-ads-11663572953523.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In October, YouTube announced that they would be rolling out customizable user handles (e.g. @[[MrBeast6000]]) in addition to channel names, which would also become channel URLs.<ref>{{cite web |last=Krasnoff |first=Barbara |author-link=Barbara Krasnoff |date=October 15, 2022 |title=How to choose your YouTube handle |url=https://www.theverge.com/23403217/youtube-handle-url-how-to |access-date=December 15, 2022 |website=[[The Verge]] |archive-date=December 14, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221214230354/https://www.theverge.com/23403217/youtube-handle-url-how-to |url-status=live }}</ref>

On February 16, 2023, Wojcicki announced that she would step down as CEO, with [[Neal Mohan]] named as her successor. Wojcicki will take on an advisory role for Google and parent company [[Alphabet Inc.|Alphabet]].<ref name=":15">{{cite web |last1=Peters |first1=Jay |last2=Roth |first2=Emma |date=January 16, 2023 |title=YouTube CEO Susan Wojcicki steps down after nine years at the helm |url=https://www.theverge.com/2023/2/16/23602759/youtube-ceo-susan-wojcicki-stepping-down-neal-mohan-google |access-date=February 16, 2023 |website=[[The Verge]] |archive-date=February 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216185547/https://www.theverge.com/2023/2/16/23602759/youtube-ceo-susan-wojcicki-stepping-down-neal-mohan-google |url-status=live }}</ref>

In late October 2023, YouTube began cracking down on the use of [[ad blocker]]s on the platform. Users of ad blockers may be given a pop-up warning saying "Video player will be blocked after 3 videos". Users of ad blockers are shown a message asking them to allow ads or inviting them to subscribe to the ad-free [[YouTube Premium]] subscription plan. YouTube says that the use of ad blockers violates its terms of service.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Allow ads on videos that you watch - YouTube Help |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/14129599?hl=en |access-date=2023-11-09 |website=support.google.com |archive-date=November 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109171547/https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/14129599?hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Dave |first=Paresh |title=YouTube's Crackdown Spurs Record Uninstalls of Ad Blockers |language=en-US |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/story/youtubes-ad-blocker-crackdown-spurs-record-uninstalls/ |access-date=2023-11-09 |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=November 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109171547/https://www.wired.com/story/youtubes-ad-blocker-crackdown-spurs-record-uninstalls/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Senior leadership ==
YouTube has been led by a CEO since its founding in 2005, beginning with [[Chad Hurley]], who led the company until 2010. After Google's acquisition of YouTube, the CEO role was retained. [[Salar Kamangar]] took over Hurley's position and held the job until 2014. He was replaced by Susan Wojcicki, who later resigned in 2023.<ref name=":15" /> The current CEO is [[Neal Mohan]], who was appointed on February 16, 2023.<ref name=":15" />

== Features ==
=== Video technology ===

YouTube primarily uses the [[VP9]] and [[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC]] video codecs, and the [[Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP]] protocol.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barman |first1=Nabajeet |last2=Martini |first2=Maria G. |title=2017 Ninth International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) |chapter=H.264/MPEG-AVC, H.265/MPEG-HEVC and VP9 codec comparison for live gaming video streaming |date=May 2017 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1109/QoMEX.2017.7965686 |isbn=978-1-5386-4024-1 |s2cid=28395957}}</ref> [[MPEG-4 Part 2]] streams contained within [[3GP and 3G2|3GP]] containers are also provided for low bandwidth connections.<ref name=":11">{{cite web |year=2018 |title=Youtube video/audio codec list |url=https://gist.github.com/sidneys/7095afe4da4ae58694d128b1034e01e2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911001956/https://gist.github.com/sidneys/7095afe4da4ae58694d128b1034e01e2 |archive-date=September 11, 2021 |website=[[GitHub]] }} [https://etched.page/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fgist.github.com%2Fsidneys%2F7095afe4da4ae58694d128b1034e01e2 Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911015234/https://etched.page/?url=https://gist.github.com/sidneys/7095afe4da4ae58694d128b1034e01e2 |date=September 11, 2021 }}</ref> By January 2019, YouTube had begun rolling out videos in [[AV1]] format.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLyqf6gJt7KuHBmeVzZteZUlNUQAVLwrZS |title=AV1 Beta Launch Playlist |via=YouTube |access-date=January 14, 2019 |archive-date=February 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210216145744/https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLyqf6gJt7KuHBmeVzZteZUlNUQAVLwrZS |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2021 it was reported that the company was considering requiring AV1 in streaming hardware in order to decrease bandwidth and increase quality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Schoon |first=Ben |date=January 27, 2021 |title=YouTube may require AV1 support in the future |url=https://9to5google.com/2021/01/27/youtube-av1-netflix-requirement/ |access-date=May 5, 2021 |website=[[9to5Google]] |language=en-US |archive-date=April 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414062701/https://9to5google.com/2021/01/27/youtube-av1-netflix-requirement/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Video is usually streamed alongside the [[Opus (audio format)|Opus]] and [[Advanced Audio Coding|AAC]] audio codecs.<ref name=":11" />

At launch in 2005, viewing YouTube videos on a personal computer required the [[Adobe Flash Player]] plug-in to be installed in the browser.<ref>{{cite news |title=Flash moves on to smart phones |publisher=BBC |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8287239.stm |access-date=November 30, 2009 |date=October 5, 2009 |first=Jonathan |last=Fildes |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008233844/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8287239.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In January 2010, YouTube launched an experimental version of the site that used the built-in multimedia capabilities of Web browsers supporting the [[HTML5]] standard.<ref name=":10">{{cite web |last=Protalinski |first=Emil |date=January 27, 2015 |title=YouTube ditches Flash for HTML5 video by default |url=https://venturebeat.com/2015/01/27/youtube-ditches-flash-for-html5-video-by-default/ |access-date=May 5, 2021 |website=VentureBeat |language=en-US |archive-date=May 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505173316/https://venturebeat.com/2015/01/27/youtube-ditches-flash-for-html5-video-by-default/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This allowed videos to be viewed without requiring Adobe Flash Player or any other plug-in to be installed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.downloadsquad.com/2009/11/08/html5-youtube-viewer-close-but-not-quite-there/ |title=HTML5 YouTube viewer: close, but not quite there |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091110003012/https://www.downloadsquad.com/2009/11/08/html5-youtube-viewer-close-but-not-quite-there/ |archive-date=November 10, 2009 |access-date=December 1, 2017}}</ref> On January 27, 2015, YouTube announced that HTML5 would be the default playback method on [[HTML5 video support|supported browsers]].<ref name=":10" /> HTML5 video streams use [[Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP]] (MPEG-DASH), an HTTP-based adaptive bit-rate streaming solution optimizes the bitrate and quality for the available network.<ref>{{cite web |first=Rajeev |last=Tiwari |url=https://streamingcodecs.blogspot.hu/2013/01/mpeg-dash-support-in-youtube.html |title=Streaming Media and RTOS: MPEG-DASH Support in Youtube |publisher=Streamingcodecs.blogspot.hu |date=January 3, 2013 |access-date=March 13, 2014 |archive-date=March 3, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303041133/http://streamingcodecs.blogspot.hu/2013/01/mpeg-dash-support-in-youtube.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The platform can serve videos at optionally lower resolution levels starting at 144p for smoothening playback in areas and countries with limited [[Internet speed]]s, improving compatibility, as well as for the preservation of limited cellular [[data plan]]s. The resolution can be adjusted automatically based on detected connection speed or set manually.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/91449?hl=en |title=Change the quality of your video – YouTube Help |publisher=Google Inc. |access-date=April 10, 2021 |archive-date=April 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410115130/https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/91449?hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Conner |first1=Katie |date=July 1, 2019 |title=Make YouTube videos sharper or load faster |url=https://www.cnet.com/how-to/change-the-quality-of-youtube-videos-on-your-phone-tv-and-laptop/ |publisher=CNET |language=en |access-date=April 10, 2021 |archive-date=April 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410115130/https://www.cnet.com/how-to/change-the-quality-of-youtube-videos-on-your-phone-tv-and-laptop/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

From 2008 to 2017, users could add "annotations" to their videos, such as pop-up text messages and hyperlinks, which allowed for [[interactive video]]s. By 2019, all annotations had been removed from videos, breaking some videos that depended on the feature. YouTube introduced standardized [[Widget (GUI)|widgets]] intended to replace annotations in a cross-platform manner, including "end screens" (a customizable array of thumbnails for specified videos displayed near the end of the video).<ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube launches mobile-friendly "End Screens" feature to keep viewers watching more video |url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/10/26/youtube-launches-mobile-friendly-end-screens-feature-to-keep-viewers-watching-more-video/ |access-date=January 14, 2019 |website=TechCrunch |date=October 26, 2016 |language=en-US |archive-date=March 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316035117/https://techcrunch.com/2016/10/26/youtube-launches-mobile-friendly-end-screens-feature-to-keep-viewers-watching-more-video/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Porter |first=Jon |date=November 27, 2018 |title=YouTube annotations will disappear for good in January |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/11/27/18114581/youtube-annotations-discontinued-january-2019 |access-date=January 14, 2019 |website=The Verge |archive-date=March 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316035117/https://www.theverge.com/2018/11/27/18114581/youtube-annotations-discontinued-january-2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Statt |first=Nick |date=March 16, 2017 |title=YouTube to discontinue video annotations because they never worked on mobile |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/3/16/14953756/youtube-annotations-feature-discontinue-cards-end-screens |access-date=January 14, 2019 |website=The Verge |archive-date=March 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316035125/https://www.theverge.com/2017/3/16/14953756/youtube-annotations-feature-discontinue-cards-end-screens |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2018, YouTube became an [[International Standard Name Identifier]] (ISNI) registry, and announced its intention to begin creating ISNI identifiers to uniquely identify the musicians whose videos it features.<ref name="ISNIYouTube1">{{cite web |title=YouTube Adopts ISNI ID for Artists & Songwriters |url=https://www.isni.org/content/youtube-adopts-isni-id-artists-songwriters |access-date=June 1, 2018 |publisher=ISNI |archive-date=June 1, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180601234147/http://www.isni.org/content/youtube-adopts-isni-id-artists-songwriters |url-status=live }}</ref>

Users can verify their account, normally through a mobile phone, to gain the ability to upload videos up to 12 hours in length, as well as produce live streams.<ref name="videolength">[https://www.google.com/support/youtube/bin/answer.py?answer=71673 "Upload videos longer than 15 minutes"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102025406/http://www.google.com/support/youtube/bin/answer.py?answer=71673 |date=November 2, 2011 }} YouTube Help. Retrieved July 15, 2017.</ref><ref name="intro to live">[https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/2474026? "Introduction to live streaming"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010094743/https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/2474026 |date=October 10, 2017 }} YouTube Help. Retrieved September 22, 2017.</ref> Users who have built sufficient channel history and have a good track record of complying with the site's Community Guidelines will also gain access to these aforementioned features as well.<ref>[https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9891124#channelhistory "Unlock access to intermediate and advanced features"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519090608/https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9891124#channelhistory |date=May 19, 2023 }} YouTube Help. Retrieved May 19, 2023.</ref> When YouTube was launched in 2005, it was possible to upload longer videos, but a 10-minute limit was introduced in March 2006 after YouTube found that the majority of videos exceeding this length were unauthorized uploads of television shows and films.<ref>{{cite web |first=Ken |last=Fisher |title=YouTube caps video lengths to reduce infringement |url=https://arstechnica.com/uncategorized/2006/03/6481-2/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |date=March 29, 2006 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=February 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226200136/https://arstechnica.com/uncategorized/2006/03/6481-2/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The 10-minute limit was increased to 15 minutes in July 2010.<ref>{{cite web |first=Josh |last=Lowensohn |title=YouTube bumps video limit to 15 minutes |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/youtube-bumps-video-limit-to-15-minutes/ |publisher=[[CNET]] |date=July 29, 2010 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308013646/https://www.cnet.com/news/youtube-bumps-video-limit-to-15-minutes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Videos can be at most 256 [[gigabyte|GB]] in size or 12 hours, whichever is less.<ref name="videolength" /> {{Anchor|closed captioning}}{{As of|2021}}, automatic [[Closed captioning|closed captions]] using [[speech recognition]] technology when a video is uploaded are available in 13 languages, and can be [[machine translation|machine-translated]] during playback.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.androidheadlines.com/2021/05/youtube-automatic-translation-feature.html |title=YouTube Automatic Translation Feature Rolls Out For Some Users |date=May 6, 2021 |website=Android Headlines |first=Vinay |last=Patel |access-date=December 8, 2021 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407034654/https://www.androidheadlines.com/2021/05/youtube-automatic-translation-feature.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

YouTube also offers manual closed captioning as part of its creator studio.<ref name="captioning">{{cite web |title=Adding Captions to YouTube Videos |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |url=https://www.washington.edu/accessibility/videos/youtube/ |access-date=September 4, 2016 |author-link=University of Washington |archive-date=September 11, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911154901/http://www.washington.edu/accessibility/videos/youtube/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> YouTube formerly offered a 'Community Captions' feature, where viewers could write and submit captions for public display upon approval by the video uploader, but this was deprecated in September 2020.<ref name="community captions">{{cite web |title=Saying Goodbye to YouTube's Community Contributions feature after September 28, 2020 |publisher=Google Inc. |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/thread/61967856?hl=en |access-date=June 8, 2022 |archive-date=April 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422085739/https://support.google.com/youtube/thread/61967856?hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

YouTube accepts the most common [[Digital container format|container formats]], including [[MP4 file format|MP4]], [[Matroska]], [[Flash Video|FLV]], [[Audio Video Interleave|AVI]], [[WebM]], [[3GP and 3G2|3GP]], [[MPEG program stream|MPEG-PS]], and the [[QuickTime File Format]]. Some intermediate video formats (i.e., primarily used for professional video editing, not for final delivery or storage) are also accepted, such as [[Apple ProRes|ProRes]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Supported YouTube file formats – YouTube Help |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/troubleshooter/2888402?hl=en |access-date=November 24, 2020 |publisher=Google Inc. |archive-date=March 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210314162748/https://support.google.com/youtube/troubleshooter/2888402?hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref> YouTube provides recommended encoding settings.<ref>{{cite web |title=Recommended upload encoding settings – YouTube Help |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/1722171 |access-date=November 24, 2020 |publisher=Google Inc. |archive-date=February 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202163705/https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/1722171 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Each video is identified by an eleven-character [[case-sensitive]] alphanumerical [[Base64#URL applications|Base64]] string in the [[Uniform Resource Locator]] (URL) which can contain letters, digits, an underscore (<code>_</code>), and a dash (<code>-</code>).<ref>{{cite web |title=Here's Why YouTube Will Practically Never Run Out of Unique Video IDs |url=https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/77598/heres-why-youtube-will-never-run-out-unique-video-ids |website=mentalfloss.com |access-date=December 27, 2021 |language=en |date=March 23, 2016 |archive-date=December 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227003053/https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/77598/heres-why-youtube-will-never-run-out-unique-video-ids |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2018, YouTube added a feature called ''Premiere'' which displays a notification to the user mentioning when the video will be available for the first time, like for a live stream but with a prerecorded video. When the scheduled time arrives, the video is aired as a live broadcast with a two-minute countdown. Optionally, a premiere can be initiated immediately.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.howtogeek.com/367588/what-are-youtube-premiers-and-how-do-you-use-them/ |title=What are YouTube Premieres, and How Do You Use Them? |date=October 26, 2018 |access-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-date=June 24, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624013022/https://www.howtogeek.com/367588/what-are-youtube-premiers-and-how-do-you-use-them/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Quality and formats ====

YouTube originally offered videos at only one quality level, displayed at a resolution of 320×240 [[pixel]]s using the [[Sorenson codec|Sorenson Spark]] codec (a variant of [[H.263]]),<ref name="incomplete-h263">{{cite web |url=https://www.kaourantin.net/2005/08/quest-for-new-video-codec-in-flash-8.html |title=The quest for a new video codec in Flash 8 |first=Tinic |last=Uro |quote=We went this route before with Sorenson Spark which is an incomplete implementation of H.263 and it bit us badly when trying to implement certain solutions. |date=August 13, 2005 |access-date=January 27, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206142709/https://kaourantin.net/2005/08/quest-for-new-video-codec-in-flash-8.html |archive-date=February 6, 2009}}</ref><ref name="flash-video">{{cite web |url=https://download.macromedia.com/f4v/video_file_format_spec_v10_1.pdf |title=Adobe Flash Video File Format Specification Version 10.1 |publisher=Adobe Systems Incorporated |page=72 |quote=Sorenson H.263 |year=2010 |access-date=January 27, 2011 |archive-date=December 19, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219144646/http://download.macromedia.com/f4v/video_file_format_spec_v10_1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> with mono MP3 audio.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sorensonmedia.com/news/?n=379 |title=Market Demand for Sorenson Media's Sorenson Spark Video Decoder Expands Sharply |publisher=Sorenson Media |date=June 2, 2009 |access-date=July 31, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827160021/https://www.sorensonmedia.com/news/?n=379 |archive-date=August 27, 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In June 2007, YouTube added an option to watch videos in [[3GP and 3G2|3GP]] format on mobile phones.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.downloadsquad.com/2007/06/17/youtube-mobile-goes-live/ |title=YouTube Mobile goes live |date=June 17, 2007 |access-date=August 11, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070620083032/https://www.downloadsquad.com/2007/06/17/youtube-mobile-goes-live/ |archive-date=June 20, 2007}}</ref> In March 2008, a high-quality mode was added, which increased the resolution to 480×360 pixels.<ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube Videos in High Quality |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2008/03/youtube-videos-in-high-quality.html |website=Official YouTube Blog |date=March 14, 2008 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111220719/https://youtube.googleblog.com/2008/03/youtube-videos-in-high-quality.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In December 2008, [[720p]] [[high-definition video|HD]] support was added. At the time of the 720p launch, the YouTube player was changed from a [[4:3]] [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] to a [[widescreen]] [[16:9]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Josh |last=Lowensohn |title=YouTube videos go HD with a simple hack |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/youtube-videos-go-hd-with-a-simple-hack/ |publisher=[[CNET]] |date=November 20, 2008 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=January 6, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106152302/https://www.cnet.com/news/youtube-videos-go-hd-with-a-simple-hack/ |url-status=live }}</ref> With this new feature, YouTube began a switchover to [[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC]] as its default video compression format. In November 2009, [[1080p]] HD support was added. In July 2010, YouTube announced that it had launched a range of videos in [[4K resolution|4K]] format, which allows a resolution of up to 4096×3072 pixels.<ref>{{cite web |first=Ramesh |last=Sarukkai |title=What's bigger than 1080p? 4K video comes to YouTube |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2010/07/whats-bigger-than-1080p-4k-video-comes.html |website=Official YouTube Blog |date=July 9, 2010 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=November 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041523/https://youtube.googleblog.com/2010/07/whats-bigger-than-1080p-4k-video-comes.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Josh |last=Lowensohn |title=YouTube now supports 4K-resolution videos |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/youtube-now-supports-4k-resolution-videos/ |publisher=[[CNET]] |date=July 9, 2010 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=August 11, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811145936/https://www.cnet.com/news/youtube-now-supports-4k-resolution-videos/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 2010, support for [[2160p]] UHD was added, with the videos playing at 3840 × 2160 pixels.<ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube Announces Partner Grants Program, Support For 4K Video Resolution |url=https://techcrunch.com/2010/07/09/youtube-partner-program-4k/ |website=TechCrunch |access-date=December 27, 2021 |date=July 9, 2010 |archive-date=December 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227010116/https://techcrunch.com/2010/07/09/youtube-partner-program-4k/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2014, YouTube began to deploy support for [[high frame rate]] videos up to 60 [[frames per second]] (as opposed to 30 before), becoming available for user uploads in October. YouTube stated that this would enhance "motion-intensive" videos, such as [[video game]] footage.<ref>{{cite news |last=Brunner |first=Grant |date=June 27, 2014 |title=Will 60fps YouTube videos force game developers to prioritize frame rate? |url=https://www.extremetech.com/gaming/185454-will-60fps-youtube-videos-force-game-developers-to-prioritize-frame-rate |access-date=November 14, 2019 |website=ExtremeTech |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308090441/https://www.extremetech.com/gaming/185454-will-60fps-youtube-videos-force-game-developers-to-prioritize-frame-rate |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/10/29/7121143/youtube-adds-support-for-60fps-video-playback |title=YouTube now supports 60fps playback, and video games look amazing |last=Welch |first=Chris |date=October 29, 2014 |website=The Verge |language=en |access-date=November 14, 2019 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308101734/https://www.theverge.com/2014/10/29/7121143/youtube-adds-support-for-60fps-video-playback |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jun/27/battlefield-hardline-youtube-trailers-games |title=Battlefield Hardline ushers in era of smooth YouTube trailers |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=June 27, 2014 |access-date=June 29, 2014 |first=Keith |last=Stuart |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308103930/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jun/27/battlefield-hardline-youtube-trailers-games |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Greg |last=Kumparak |title=YouTube Can Now Play Videos at a Buttery 60 Frames Per Second |url=https://techcrunch.com/2014/10/29/60-fps-youtube/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=October 29, 2014 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=February 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224160242/https://techcrunch.com/2014/10/29/60-fps-youtube/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2015, support for [[8K resolution]] was added, with the videos playing at 7680×4320 pixels.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://mashable.com/2015/06/10/youtube-8k-video/ |title=You can watch an 8K video on YouTube – in theory |publisher=MashableUK |date=June 10, 2015 |access-date=July 2, 2015 |first=Stan |last=Schroeder |archive-date=July 3, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703043235/http://mashable.com/2015/06/10/youtube-8k-video/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In November 2016, support for [[High-dynamic-range video|HDR video]] was added which can be encoded with [[hybrid log–gamma]] (HLG) or [[perceptual quantizer]] (PQ).<ref>{{cite web |first1=Steven |last1=Robertson |first2=Sanjeev |last2=Verma |title=True colors: adding support for HDR videos on YouTube |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2016/11/true-colors-adding-support-for-hdr.html |website=Official YouTube Blog |date=November 7, 2016 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=June 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614154512/https://youtube.googleblog.com/2016/11/true-colors-adding-support-for-hdr.html |url-status=live }}</ref> HDR video can be encoded with the [[Rec. 2020]] color space.<ref>{{cite web |title=Upload High Dynamic Range (HDR) videos |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/7126552 |website=YouTube Help |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=February 3, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203175756/https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/7126552 |url-status=live }}</ref>

YouTube videos are available in a range of quality levels. Viewers only indirectly influence the video quality. In the mobile apps, users choose between "Auto", which adjusts resolution based on the internet connection, "High Picture Quality" which will prioritize playing high-quality video, "Data saver" which will sacrifice video quality in favor of low data usage and "Advanced" which lets the user choose a stream resolution.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 25, 2021 |title=How to adjust adjust video quality on YouTube |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/tech-news-technology/youtube-new-video-quality-settings-explained-7287426/ |access-date=May 30, 2021 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=June 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215246/https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/tech-news-technology/youtube-new-video-quality-settings-explained-7287426/ |url-status=live }}</ref> On desktop, users choose between "Auto" and a specific resolution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Change the quality of your video – YouTube Help |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/91449?hl=en&ref_topic=9257411 |access-date=December 29, 2021 |publisher=Google Inc. |archive-date=December 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229191924/https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/91449?hl=en&ref_topic=9257411 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is not possible for the viewer to directly choose a higher [[bitrate]] (quality) for any selected resolution.

Since 2009, viewers have had the ability to watch 3D videos.<ref>{{cite web |date=July 21, 2009 |title=YouTube in 3D |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ANcspdYh_U |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/5ANcspdYh_U |archive-date=December 21, 2021 |url-status=live |access-date=August 3, 2009 |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 2015, YouTube began natively supporting [[360-degree video]]. Since April 2016, it allowed live streaming 360° video, and both normal and 360° video at up to 1440p, and since November 2016 both at up to 4K (2160p) resolution.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bonnington |first=Christina |date=March 13, 2015 |title=You Can Now Watch and Upload 360-Degree Videos on YouTube |language=en-US |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2015/03/youtube-360-degree-video/ |access-date=May 10, 2021 |issn=1059-1028 |archive-date=July 9, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160709080447/http://www.wired.com/2015/03/youtube-360-degree-video/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Verge 2016" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://youtube-eng.googleblog.com/2016/04/new-youtube-live-features-live-360.html |title=New YouTube live features: live 360, 1440p, embedded captions, and VP9 ingestion |website=googleblog.com |publisher=YouTube Engineering and Developers Blog |access-date=December 26, 2021 |language=en |date=April 19, 2016 |archive-date=December 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201205447/https://youtube-eng.googleblog.com/2016/04/new-youtube-live-features-live-360.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> Citing the limited number of users who watched more than 90-degrees, it began supporting an alternative stereoscopic video format known as VR180 which it said was easier to produce,<ref>{{cite news |title=YouTube's "VR180" format cuts down on VR video's prohibitive requirements |language=en-us |work=Ars Technica |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2017/06/youtubes-vr180-format-makes-vr-video-more-accessible/ |access-date=September 26, 2017 |archive-date=March 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316035205/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2017/06/youtubes-vr180-format-makes-vr-video-more-accessible/ |url-status=live }}</ref> which allows users to watch any video using virtual reality headsets.<ref>{{cite web |last=Broida |first=Rick |title=Watch any YouTube video in VR mode |url=https://www.cnet.com/how-to/watch-any-youtube-video-in-vr-mode/ |access-date=May 10, 2021 |publisher=CNET |language=en |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511133658/https://www.cnet.com/how-to/watch-any-youtube-video-in-vr-mode/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In response to increased viewership during the COVID-19 pandemic, YouTube temporarily downgraded the quality of its videos.<ref>{{cite news |title=YouTube, Amazon and Netflix cut picture quality in Europe |url=https://www.ft.com/content/70333747-f180-4887-8a26-27ab6b230299 |access-date=March 20, 2020 |work=Financial Times |date=March 20, 2020 |last1=Espinoza |first1=Javier |last2=Fildes |first2=Nic |last3=Murphy |first3=Hannah |last4=Bradshaw |first4=Tim |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308010939/https://www.ft.com/content/70333747-f180-4887-8a26-27ab6b230299 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Alexander |first=Julia |date=March 24, 2020 |title=YouTube is reducing its default video quality to standard definition for the next month |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/3/24/21192384/youtube-video-quality-reduced-hd-broadband-europe-streaming |access-date=October 20, 2020 |website=The Verge |archive-date=February 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201043737/https://www.theverge.com/2020/3/24/21192384/youtube-video-quality-reduced-hd-broadband-europe-streaming |url-status=live }}</ref> YouTube developed its own chip, called Argos, to help with encoding higher resolution videos in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |last=Shankland |first=Stephen |title=Google supercharges YouTube with a custom video chip |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/google-supercharges-youtube-with-a-custom-video-chip/ |access-date=May 5, 2021 |publisher=CNET |language=en |archive-date=May 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505173316/https://www.cnet.com/news/google-supercharges-youtube-with-a-custom-video-chip/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In April 2023, YouTube began offering some videos in an enhanced bitrate "[[1080p]] Premium" option for YouTube Premium subscribers on iOS.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Roth |first=Emma |date=2023-04-10 |title=YouTube is giving Premium subscribers higher-quality video than everyone else |url=https://www.theverge.com/2023/4/10/23677141/youtube-premium-subscribers-higher-quality-video-1080p |access-date=2023-04-10 |website=The Verge |language=en-US}}</ref> In August 2023, the feature became available to subscribers on desktop platforms.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peters |first1=Jay |title=YouTube's 'enhanced' 1080p for Premium subscribers is now available on desktop web |url=https://www.theverge.com/2023/8/4/23820482/youtube-enhanced-bitrate-1080p-premium-desktop-web-living-room |website=The Verge |date=August 4, 2023 |access-date=23 December 2023}}</ref>

In certain cases, YouTube allows the uploader to upgrade the quality of videos uploaded a long time ago in poor quality. One such partnership with [[Universal Music Group]] included remasters of 1,000 music videos.<ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |title=YouTube partners with Universal to upgrade nearly 1,000 classic music videos to HD |url=https://techcrunch.com/2019/06/19/youtube-partners-with-universal-to-upgrade-nearly-1000-classic-music-videos-to-hd/ |date=June 19, 2019 |access-date=March 9, 2022 |website=TechCrunch |language=en |archive-date=March 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309091746/https://techcrunch.com/2019/06/19/youtube-partners-with-universal-to-upgrade-nearly-1000-classic-music-videos-to-hd/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Live streaming ====
YouTube carried out early experiments with [[live streaming]], including its [[YouTube Live]] event in 2008,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2008/11/jordan-queen-ra.html|title=JORDAN: Queen Rania receives YouTube award|date=15 November 2008|access-date=10 September 2016|archive-date=May 6, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506101452/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2008/11/jordan-queen-ra.html|url-status=live}}</ref> a concert by [[U2]] in 2009, and a question-and-answer session with US President [[Barack Obama]] in February 2010.<ref name="CNN 2010">{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2010/TECH/web/09/13/youtube.livestreaming/index.html?hpt=C2 |title=YouTube testing live streaming |last=Gross |first=Doug |date=September 13, 2010 |publisher=CNN |access-date=September 22, 2017 |archive-date=September 23, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923002722/http://edition.cnn.com/2010/TECH/web/09/13/youtube.livestreaming/index.html?hpt=C2 |url-status=live }}</ref> These tests had relied on technology from 3rd-party partners, but in September 2010, YouTube began testing its own live streaming infrastructure.<ref name="BBC 2010">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-11282240 |title=YouTube in two-day live video-streaming test |date=September 13, 2010 |newspaper=BBC News |access-date=July 21, 2018 |archive-date=November 10, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110052422/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-11282240 |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2011, YouTube announced the rollout of ''YouTube Live''. The creation of live streams was initially limited to select partners.<ref name="YT Blog 2011">{{cite web |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2011/04/youtube-is-going-live.html |title=YouTube is going LIVE |date=April 8, 2011 |website=YouTube Official Blog |access-date=September 22, 2017 |archive-date=September 23, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923002634/https://youtube.googleblog.com/2011/04/youtube-is-going-live.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It was used for real-time broadcasting of events such as the 2012 Olympics in London.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/2015/08/youtube-sleeping-giant-livestreaming/ |title=YouTube Is the Sleeping Giant of Livestreaming |last=Pierce |first=David |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |access-date=September 22, 2017 |date=August 17, 2015 |archive-date=November 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108112508/https://www.wired.com/2015/08/youtube-sleeping-giant-livestreaming/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In October 2012, more than 8 million people watched [[Felix Baumgartner]]'s [[Red Bull Stratos|jump from the edge of space]] as a live stream on YouTube.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newsday.com/news/nation/felix-baumgartner-s-jump-from-space-s-edge-watched-by-millions-1.4115479 |title=Felix Baumgartner's jump from space's edge watched by millions |agency=Associated Press |date=October 15, 2012 |access-date=October 15, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018071353/https://www.newsday.com/news/nation/felix-baumgartner-s-jump-from-space-s-edge-watched-by-millions-1.4115479 |archive-date=October 18, 2012}}</ref>

In May 2013, creation of live streams was opened to verified users with at least 1,000 subscribers; in August of the same year the number was reduced to 100 subscribers,<ref name="Verge 2013">{{cite web |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/8/3/4586624/youtube-live-streaming-now-available-to-channels-with-100-subscribers |title=YouTube opens up live streaming to anyone with 100 or more subscribers |last=Blagdon |first=Jeff |date=August 3, 2013 |website=[[The Verge]] |access-date=September 22, 2017 |archive-date=November 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112025730/http://www.theverge.com/2013/8/3/4586624/youtube-live-streaming-now-available-to-channels-with-100-subscribers |url-status=live }}</ref> and in December the limit was removed.<ref name="MacNN 2013">{{cite web |url=https://www.macnn.com/articles/13/12/13/youtube.abandons.100.subscriber.limit.for.live.streaming/ |title=YouTube opens live streaming for all verified accounts |date=December 13, 2013 |website=MacNN |access-date=September 22, 2017 |archive-date=September 23, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923003125/http://www.macnn.com/articles/13/12/13/youtube.abandons.100.subscriber.limit.for.live.streaming/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> In February 2017, live streaming was introduced to the official YouTube mobile app. Live streaming via mobile was initially restricted to users with at least 10,000 subscribers,<ref name="Ars Technica 2017-02-08">{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2017/02/youtube-now-lets-creators-with-10000-subscribers-live-stream-video-on-mobile/ |title=YouTube now lets creators with 10,000 subscribers live-stream video on mobile |last=Palladino |first=Valentina |date=February 8, 2017 |website=[[Ars Technica]] |access-date=September 22, 2017 |archive-date=November 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112031216/https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2017/02/youtube-now-lets-creators-with-10000-subscribers-live-stream-video-on-mobile/ |url-status=live }}</ref> but as of mid-2017 it has been reduced to 100 subscribers.<ref name="create live">[https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/2853700 "Create a live stream"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010095216/https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/2853700 |date=October 10, 2017 }} YouTube Help. Retrieved September 22, 2017.</ref> Live streams support HDR, can be up to 4K resolution at 60 fps, and also support 360° video.<ref name="Verge 2016">{{cite web |url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/11/30/13783272/youtube-update-4k-live-streaming-support-360-video |title=YouTube now supports 4K live-streaming for both 360-degree and standard video |last=Garun |first=Natt |date=November 30, 2016 |website=[[The Verge]] |access-date=September 23, 2017 |archive-date=December 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209043847/https://www.theverge.com/2016/11/30/13783272/youtube-update-4k-live-streaming-support-360-video |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Porter |first=Jon |date=December 8, 2020 |title=YouTube live streams now support HDR |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/12/8/22162889/youtube-live-stream-hdr-support |access-date=May 10, 2021 |website=The Verge |language=en |archive-date=May 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510172849/https://www.theverge.com/2020/12/8/22162889/youtube-live-stream-hdr-support |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== User features ===
==== Comment system {{anchor|User comments}} ====
{{See also|Criticism of Google#YouTube user comments}}

Most videos enable users to leave [[Comments section|comments]], which have attracted attention for the negative aspects of their form and content.{{Specify|date=March 2023}} In 2006, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' praised [[Web 2.0]] for enabling "community and collaboration on a scale never seen before", and added that YouTube "harnesses the stupidity of crowds as well as its wisdom. Some of the comments on YouTube make you weep for the future of humanity just for the spelling alone, never mind the obscenity and the naked hatred".<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Grossman |first=Lev |date=December 25, 2006 |title=You – Yes, You – Are TIME's Person of the Year |url=https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1570810,00.html |magazine=Time |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=March 4, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170304050538/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1570810,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[The Guardian]]'' in 2009 described users' comments on YouTube as:<ref>{{cite news |last=Owen |first=Paul |date=November 3, 2009 |title=Our top 10 funniest YouTube comments – what are yours? |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2009/nov/03/youtube-funniest-comments |access-date=March 13, 2014 |archive-date=March 11, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311005500/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2009/nov/03/youtube-funniest-comments |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{blockquote|Juvenile, aggressive, misspelt, [[sexist]], [[homophobic]], swinging from raging at the contents of a video to providing a pointlessly detailed description followed by a [[LOL]], YouTube comments are a hotbed of infantile debate and unashamed ignorance—with the occasional burst of wit shining through.}}

''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' commented in September 2008, that YouTube was "notorious" for "some of the most confrontational and ill-formed comment exchanges on the internet", and reported on YouTube Comment Snob, "a new piece of software that blocks rude and illiterate posts".<ref>{{cite news |last=Moore |first=Matthew |date=September 2, 2008 |title=YouTube's worst comments blocked by filter |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/2668997/YouTubes-worst-comments-blocked-by-filter.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/2668997/YouTubes-worst-comments-blocked-by-filter.html |archive-date=January 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=March 26, 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> ''[[The Huffington Post]]'' noted in April 2012 that finding comments on YouTube that appear "[[offensive content|offensive]], stupid and crass" to the "vast majority" of the people is hardly difficult.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rundle |first=Michael |date=April 7, 2012 |title=Policing Racism Online: Liam Stacey, YouTube And The Law Of Big Numbers |newspaper=[[HuffPost]] |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2012/04/06/policing-racism-online-liam-stacey-fabrice-muamba-abuse-twitter-youtube-facebook_n_1407795.html |access-date=June 1, 2012 |archive-date=May 28, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528093341/http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2012/04/06/policing-racism-online-liam-stacey-fabrice-muamba-abuse-twitter-youtube-facebook_n_1407795.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Google subsequently implemented a comment system oriented on Google+ on November 6, 2013, that required all YouTube users to use a [[Google+]] account to comment on videos. The stated motivation for the change was giving creators more power to moderate and block comments, thereby addressing frequent criticisms of their quality and tone.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/nov/07/youtube-comments-trolls-moderation-google "YouTube aims to tame the trolls with changes to its comments section"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209163014/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/nov/07/youtube-comments-trolls-moderation-google |date=February 9, 2017 }}, Stuart Dredge, ''The Guardian'', November 7, 2013. Retrieved November 9, 2013.</ref> The new system restored the ability to include [[URL]]s in comments, which had previously been removed due to problems with abuse.<ref>{{cite web |year=2009 |title=No more links in comments? |url=https://productforums.google.com/forum/#!topic/youtube/OdxWjrLvzYw |access-date=August 28, 2013 |work=Google product forums |archive-date=December 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203081016/https://productforums.google.com/forum/#!topic/youtube/OdxWjrLvzYw |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2013 |title=View and post comments |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/171666?hl=en-GB |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117041605/https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/171666 |archive-date=November 17, 2013 |access-date=November 11, 2013 |work=Google Support}}</ref> In response, YouTube co-founder Jawed Karim posted the question "why the fuck do I need a google+ account to comment on a video?" on his YouTube channel to express his negative opinion of the change.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hern |first=Alex |date=November 8, 2013 |title=YouTube co-founder hurls abuse at Google over new YouTube comments |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/nov/08/youtube-cofounder-why-the-fuck-do-i-need-a-google-account-to-comment |access-date=November 11, 2013 |archive-date=November 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112023951/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/nov/08/youtube-cofounder-why-the-fuck-do-i-need-a-google-account-to-comment |url-status=live }}</ref> The official YouTube announcement<ref>{{YouTube|bVGp8Z8Yb28|"Meet the new YouTube comments"|link=no}}, November 6, 2013. Retrieved November 9, 2013.</ref> received 20,097 "thumbs down" votes and generated more than 32,000 comments in two days.<ref>[https://www.ibtimes.com/youtube-founder-blasts-new-youtube-comments-jawed-karim-outraged-google-plus-requirement-1462814 "YouTube Founder Blasts New YouTube Comments: Jawed Karim Outraged At Google Plus Requirement"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005165356/https://www.ibtimes.com/youtube-founder-blasts-new-youtube-comments-jawed-karim-outraged-google-plus-requirement-1462814 |date=October 5, 2022 }}, Ryan W. Neal, ''International Business Times'', November 8, 2013. Retrieved November 9, 2013.</ref> Writing in the ''Newsday'' blog Silicon Island, Chase Melvin noted that "Google+ is nowhere near as popular a social media network like [[Facebook]], but it's essentially being forced upon millions of YouTube users who don't want to lose their ability to comment on videos" and added that "Discussion forums across the Internet are already bursting with the outcry against the new comment system". In the same article Melvin goes on to say:<ref>{{cite news |last=Chase |first=Melvin |date=November 20, 2013 |title=YouTube comments require Google+ account, Google faces uproar |newspaper=Newsday |url=https://www.newsday.com/business/technology/silicon-island-1.1521604/youtube-comments-require-google-account-google-faces-uproar-1.6429420 |access-date=February 17, 2022 |archive-date=November 12, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112195648/http://www.newsday.com/business/technology/silicon-island-1.1521604/youtube-comments-require-google-account-google-faces-uproar-1.6429420 |url-status=dead }}{{subscription required}} [https://www.amny.com/silicon-island-1.1521604/youtube-comments-require-google-account-google-faces-uproar-1.6429420 Alternate link] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000813/https://www.amny.com/silicon-island-1.1521604/youtube-comments-require-google-account-google-faces-uproar-1.6429420 |date=December 3, 2013 }}.</ref>

{{blockquote|Perhaps user complaints are justified, but the idea of revamping the old system isn't so bad.

Think of the crude, [[misogynistic]] and racially-charged mudslinging that has transpired over the last eight years on YouTube without any discernible moderation. Isn't any attempt to curb unidentified libelers worth a shot? The system is far from perfect, but Google should be lauded for trying to alleviate some of the damage caused by irate YouTubers hiding behind animosity and anonymity.}}

Later, on July 27, 2015, Google announced in a blog post that it would be removing the requirement to sign up to a Google+ account to post comments to YouTube.<ref>{{cite news |date=July 28, 2015 |title=Google unlinking Google+ from YouTube |work=BBC News |location=London |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-33687110 |access-date=July 29, 2015 |archive-date=July 28, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150728115333/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-33687110 |url-status=live }}</ref> On November 3, 2016, YouTube announced a trial scheme which allows the creators of videos to decide whether to approve, hide or report the comments posted on videos based on an [[algorithm]] that detects potentially offensive comments.<ref>{{cite web |last=E. Solsman |first=Joan |date=November 3, 2016 |title=YouTube helps creators blast trolls from comments |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/youtube-comments-new-tools-algorithmic-pinned-hearts-usernames/ |access-date=March 25, 2017 |publisher=[[CNET]] |archive-date=February 12, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170212192412/https://www.cnet.com/news/youtube-comments-new-tools-algorithmic-pinned-hearts-usernames/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Creators may also choose to keep or delete comments with links or hashtags in order to combat spam. They can also allow other users to moderate their comments.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jotham |first1=Immanuel |date=July 24, 2017 |title=New YouTube feature allows creators to automatically block spam |url=https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/new-youtube-feature-allows-creators-automatically-block-spam-1631665 |access-date=September 17, 2017 |website=International Business Times UK |language=en |archive-date=September 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917123752/http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/new-youtube-feature-allows-creators-automatically-block-spam-1631665 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In December 2020, it was reported that YouTube would launch a new feature that will warn users who post a comment that "may be offensive to others."<ref>{{cite web |last=Alexander |first=Julia |date=December 3, 2020 |title=YouTube will ask commenters to rethink posting if their message seems offensive |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/12/3/22150197/youtube-comments-posting-hurtful-hate-videos-discrimination-monetization-search |access-date=December 9, 2020 |website=The Verge |language=en |archive-date=December 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208170536/https://www.theverge.com/2020/12/3/22150197/youtube-comments-posting-hurtful-hate-videos-discrimination-monetization-search |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube introduces new feature to address toxic comments |url=https://techcrunch.com/2020/12/03/youtube-introduces-new-features-to-address-toxic-comments/ |last=Perez |first=Sarah |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205083858/https://techcrunch.com/2020/12/03/youtube-introduces-new-features-to-address-toxic-comments/  |archive-date=December 5, 2020 |access-date=December 9, 2020 |website=[[TechCrunch]] |date=December 3, 2020 |language=en-US }}</ref>

==== Community ====
On September 13, 2016, YouTube launched a [[public beta]] of Community, a [[social media]]-based feature that allows users to post text, images (including [[GIF]]s), live videos and others in a separate "Community" tab on their channel.<ref>{{cite web |first=Sarah |last=Perez |title=YouTube gets its own social network with the launch of YouTube Community |url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/09/13/youtube-gets-its-own-social-network-with-the-launch-of-youtube-community/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=September 13, 2016 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=March 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305062851/https://techcrunch.com/2016/09/13/youtube-gets-its-own-social-network-with-the-launch-of-youtube-community/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Prior to the release, several creators had been consulted to suggest tools Community could incorporate that they would find useful; these [[YouTuber]]s included [[Vlogbrothers]], [[AsapScience]], [[Lilly Singh]], [[MatPat|The Game Theorists]], [[Karmin]], [[The Key of Awesome]], The Kloons, [[Peter Hollens]], [[Rosianna Halse Rojas]], [[Sam Tsui]], [[Threadbanger]] and [[Jake Roper|Vsauce3]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Kiley |last=McEvoy |title=YouTube Community goes beyond video |url=https://youtube-creators.googleblog.com/2016/09/youtube-community-goes-beyond-video.html |website=YouTube Creators Blog |date=September 13, 2016 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=June 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614232155/https://youtube-creators.googleblog.com/2016/09/youtube-community-goes-beyond-video.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{primary source inline|date=July 2021}}

After the feature has been officially released, the ''community post'' feature gets activated automatically for every channel that passes a specific threshold of subscriber counts or already has more subscribers. This threshold was lowered over time,{{when|date=September 2019}} from 10,000 subscribers  to 1500 subscribers, to 1000 subscribers,<ref name="community-activate">{{cite web |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/7124474?co=GENIE.Platform=Desktop&hl=en |title=Create a Community post – Computer – YouTube Help |publisher=Google Inc. |access-date=September 11, 2019 |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301043946/https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/7124474?co=GENIE.Platform=Desktop&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref>{{primary source inline|date=July 2021}} to 500 subscribers.<ref>{{cite web |last=Peters |first=Jay |title=YouTube halves the number of subscribers you need to unlock Community posting |website=The Verge |date=September 9, 2021 |url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/9/9/22664973/youtube-community-posts-subscribers-halves |access-date=November 17, 2021 |archive-date=November 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117143836/https://www.theverge.com/2021/9/9/22664973/youtube-community-posts-subscribers-halves |url-status=live }}</ref>

Channels that the community tab becomes enabled for, get their channel discussions (previously known as channel comments) permanently erased, instead of co-existing or migrating.<ref name="community-help">{{cite web |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/7124175?co=GENIE.Platform=Desktop |title=Engage with creators on Community posts – Computer – YouTube Help |publisher=Google Inc. |access-date=September 11, 2019 |archive-date=February 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224202448/https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/7124175?co=GENIE.Platform=Desktop |url-status=live }}</ref>{{primary source inline|date=July 2021}}

==== TestTube ====
Experimental features of YouTube can be accessed in an area of the site named ''TestTube''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hidden features of Facebook, WhatsApp, Youtube and more |url=https://www.gadgetsnow.com/slideshows/hidden-features-of-facebook-whatsapp-youtube-and-more/youtube-testtube/photolist/57616832.cms |website=Gadgets Now |language=en |access-date=December 31, 2020 |archive-date=April 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413154208/https://www.gadgetsnow.com/slideshows/hidden-features-of-facebook-whatsapp-youtube-and-more/youtube-testtube/photolist/57616832.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube's Test Tube: What Is It? |url=https://goldengridsystem.com/youtubes-test-tube-what-is-it/ |website=Golden Grid System |date=January 8, 2020 |access-date=December 31, 2020 |archive-date=February 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205142110/https://goldengridsystem.com/youtubes-test-tube-what-is-it/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>
For example, in October 2009, a ''comment search'' feature accessible under <code>/comment_search</code> was implemented as part of this program. The feature was removed later.<ref>{{cite web |title=Google Testing Comment Search On YouTube |url=https://searchengineland.com/google-testing-youtube-comment-search-27900 |website=Search Engine Land |date=October 16, 2009 |access-date=December 31, 2020 |archive-date=December 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209151338/https://searchengineland.com/google-testing-youtube-comment-search-27900 |url-status=live }}</ref> Later the same year, ''YouTube Feather'' was introduced as a "lightweight" alternative website for countries with limited internet speeds.<ref>{{cite web |title=Slow YouTube? Try Feather, Made for India |url=https://www.gtricks.com/youtube/slow-youtube-feather-india/ |website=Gtricks |date=December 7, 2009 |access-date=December 31, 2020 |archive-date=February 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213032953/https://www.gtricks.com/youtube/slow-youtube-feather-india/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Content accessibility ===
YouTube offers users the ability to view its videos on web pages outside their website. Each YouTube video is accompanied by a piece of [[HTML]] that can be used to embed it on any page on the Web.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.athenswalk.net/_/Blog/Entries/2013/7/30_YouTube_embed_code_guide.html |title=YouTube embedded video guide |access-date=February 17, 2022 |archive-date=October 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010095422/http://www.athenswalk.net/_/Blog/Entries/2013/7/30_YouTube_embed_code_guide.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> This functionality is often used to embed YouTube videos in social networking pages and blogs. Users wishing to post a video discussing, inspired by, or related to another user's video can make a "video response". The eleven character YouTube video identifier (64 possible characters used in each position), allows for a theoretical maximum of 6411 or around 73.8 quintillion (73.8 billion billion) unique ids.

YouTube announced that it would remove video responses for being an underused feature on August 27, 2013.<ref>{{cite web |title=So long, video responses ... Next up: better ways to connect |url=https://youtube-creators.googleblog.com/2013/08/so-long-video-responsesnext-up-better.html |website=YouTube Creators Blog |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=June 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626231358/https://youtube-creators.googleblog.com/2013/08/so-long-video-responsesnext-up-better.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Embedding, rating, commenting and response posting can be disabled by the video owner.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/58123 |title=Control comments and video responses |work=Google Support |access-date=August 28, 2013 |archive-date=April 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420184841/https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9483359?visit_id=637545413213052699-3384595804&rd=2 |url-status=live }}</ref> YouTube does not usually offer a download link for its videos, and intends for them to be viewed through its website interface.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/t/terms |title=Terms of Use, 5.B |via=YouTube |access-date=August 25, 2010 |archive-date=March 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317013246/https://www.youtube.com/t/terms |url-status=live }}</ref> A small number of videos can be downloaded as [[MPEG-4 Part 14|MP4]] files.<ref>{{cite web |first=Josh |last=Lowensohn |title=(Some) YouTube videos get download option |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/some-youtube-videos-get-download-option/ |publisher=[[CNET]] |date=January 16, 2009 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308092222/https://www.cnet.com/news/some-youtube-videos-get-download-option/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Numerous third-party web sites, applications and browser [[Plug-in (computing)|plug-ins]] allow users to download YouTube videos.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/02/---mark-milian.html?cid=149000259 |title=YouTube looks out for content owners, disables video ripping |last1=Milian |first1=Mark |work=Los Angeles Times |date=February 19, 2009 |access-date=February 21, 2009 |archive-date=July 1, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090701134139/http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/02/---mark-milian.html?cid=149000259 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In February 2009, YouTube announced a test service, allowing some partners to offer video downloads for free or for a fee paid through [[Google Checkout]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Leena |last=Rao |title=YouTube Hopes To Boost Revenue With Video Downloads |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/02/12/AR2009021203239.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=February 12, 2009 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=January 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107151957/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/02/12/AR2009021203239.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2012, Google sent [[cease and desist]] letters threatening legal action against several websites offering online download and conversion of YouTube videos.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://torrentfreak.com/google-threatens-to-sue-huge-youtube-mp3-conversion-site-120619/ |title=Google Threatens To Sue Huge YouTube MP3 Conversion Site |work=Torrentfreak |date=June 19, 2012 |access-date=September 4, 2013 |archive-date=September 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901222315/http://torrentfreak.com/google-threatens-to-sue-huge-youtube-mp3-conversion-site-120619/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In response, [[Zamzar]] removed the ability to download YouTube videos from its site.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://blog.zamzar.com/2012/06/12/downloading-youtube-videos-no-longer-supported/ |title=Downloading YouTube videos – no longer supported |work=Zamzar |date=June 12, 2012 |access-date=September 4, 2013 |archive-date=September 5, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905192607/http://blog.zamzar.com/2012/06/12/downloading-youtube-videos-no-longer-supported/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Users retain copyright of their own work under the default Standard YouTube License,<ref>{{cite web |first=Jane |last=Park |title=YouTube launches support for CC BY and a CC library featuring 10,000 videos |url=https://creativecommons.org/2011/06/02/youtube-launches-support-for-cc-by-and-a-cc-library-featuring-10000-videos/ |work=Creative Commons |date=June 2, 2011 |access-date=July 20, 2019 |archive-date=February 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226162909/https://creativecommons.org/2011/06/02/youtube-launches-support-for-cc-by-and-a-cc-library-featuring-10000-videos/ |url-status=live }}</ref> but have the option to grant certain usage rights under any [[public copyright license]] they choose.

Since July 2012, it has been possible to select a [[Creative Commons]] attribution license as the default, allowing other users to reuse and remix the material.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Cathy |last1=Casserly |title=Here's your invite to reuse and remix the 4 million Creative Commons-licensed videos on YouTube |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2012/07/heres-your-invite-to-reuse-and-remix-4.html |website=Official YouTube Blog |date=July 25, 2012 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=June 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614215808/https://youtube.googleblog.com/2012/07/heres-your-invite-to-reuse-and-remix-4.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Platforms ====
Most modern [[smartphone]]s are capable of accessing YouTube videos, either within an application or through an optimized website. YouTube Mobile was launched in June 2007, using [[Real Time Streaming Protocol|RTSP]] streaming for the video.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/ |title=YouTube |via=YouTube |access-date=January 2, 2012 |archive-date=November 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101095632/https://www.youtube.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Not all of YouTube's videos are available on the mobile version of the site.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Alex |last1=Chitu |title=Mobile YouTube |url=https://googlesystem.blogspot.no/2007/06/mobile-youtube.html |website=Unofficial Google Blog |date=June 15, 2007 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326225828/http://googlesystem.blogspot.no/2007/06/mobile-youtube.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since June 2007, YouTube's videos have been available for viewing on a range of [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] products. This required YouTube's content to be transcoded into Apple's preferred video standard, [[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC|H.264]], a process that took several months. YouTube videos can be viewed on devices including [[Apple TV]], [[iPod Touch]] and the [[iPhone]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/06/20youtube.html |title=YouTube Live on Apple TV Today; Coming to iPhone on June 29 |publisher=[[Apple Inc.|Apple]] |date=June 20, 2007 |access-date=January 17, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081228063433/https://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/06/20youtube.html |archive-date=December 28, 2008}}</ref>

The mobile version of the site was relaunched based on [[HTML5]] in July 2010, avoiding the need to use Adobe Flash Player and optimized for use with touch screen controls.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.geek.com/articles/mobile/goodbye-flash-youtube-mobile-goes-html5-on-iphone-and-android-2010079/ |title=Goodbye Flash: YouTube mobile goes HTML5 on iPhone and Android |last1=Zibreg |first1=Christian |date=July 8, 2010 |access-date=January 9, 2012 |archive-date=April 27, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427221423/https://www.geek.com/articles/mobile/goodbye-flash-youtube-mobile-goes-html5-on-iphone-and-android-2010079 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The mobile version is also available as an app for the [[Android (operating system)|Android]] platform.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jason |last=Kincaid |title=YouTube Mobile Goes HTML5, Video Quality Beats Native Apps Hands Down |url=https://techcrunch.com/2010/07/07/youtube-iphone-mobile-html5/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=July 7, 2010 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=January 6, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106163605/https://techcrunch.com/2010/07/07/youtube-iphone-mobile-html5/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://googlemobile.blogspot.com/2010/12/youtube-21-app-now-available-on-android.html |title=YouTube 2.1 App Now Available on Android Market |date=December 8, 2010 |access-date=January 9, 2012 |archive-date=January 23, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123070836/http://googlemobile.blogspot.com/2010/12/youtube-21-app-now-available-on-android.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In September 2012, YouTube launched its first app for the iPhone, following the decision to drop YouTube as one of the preloaded apps in the [[iPhone 5]] and [[iOS 6]] operating system.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/appsblog/2012/sep/11/youtube-iphone-app |title=New YouTube iPhone app preempts iOS6 demotion |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=September 11, 2012 |access-date=September 11, 2012 |first=Stuart |last=Dredge |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308102341/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/appsblog/2012/sep/11/youtube-iphone-app |url-status=live }}</ref> According to [[GlobalWebIndex]], YouTube was used by 35% of smartphone users between April and June 2013, making it the third-most used app.<ref>{{cite web |first=Cooper |last=Smith |title=Google+ Is The Fourth Most-Used Smartphone App |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/google-smartphone-app-popularity-2013-9#infographic |website=[[Business Insider]] |date=September 5, 2013 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=June 20, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620041343/http://www.businessinsider.com/google-smartphone-app-popularity-2013-9#infographic |url-status=live }}</ref>

A [[TiVo]] service update in July 2008 allowed the system to search and play YouTube videos.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://gizmodo.com/5026092/tivo-getting-youtube-streaming-today |title=TiVo Getting YouTube Streaming Today |website=[[Gizmodo]] |date=July 17, 2007 |access-date=February 17, 2009 |archive-date=September 16, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916053726/https://gizmodo.com/5026092/tivo-getting-youtube-streaming-today |url-status=live }}</ref>

In January 2009, YouTube launched "YouTube for TV", a version of the website tailored for set-top boxes and other TV-based media devices with web browsers, initially allowing its videos to be viewed on the [[PlayStation 3]] and [[Wii]] [[video game console]]s.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/01/youtube-wii-ps3.html |title=YouTube video comes to Wii and PlayStation 3 game consoles |work=Los Angeles Times |date=January 15, 2009 |access-date=January 17, 2009 |archive-date=January 18, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090118131150/http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2009/01/youtube-wii-ps3.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Coming Up Next ... YouTube on Your TV |url=https://www.youtube.com/blog?entry=sDFlZe7FwJI |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090622121857/https://www.youtube.com/blog?entry=sDFlZe7FwJI |archive-date=June 22, 2009 |publisher=YouTube Blog |date=January 15, 2009 |access-date=May 10, 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

During the month of June that same year, YouTube XL was introduced, which has a simplified interface designed for viewing on a standard television screen.<ref>{{cite web |title=Experience YouTube XL on the Big Screen |url=https://www.youtube.com/blog?entry=ByKmsHdhra8 |work=YouTube Blog |via=YouTube |date=June 2, 2009 |access-date=June 20, 2009 |archive-date=January 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109092540/https://blog.youtube/?entry=ByKmsHdhra8 |url-status=live }}</ref> YouTube is also available as an app on [[Xbox Live]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Xbox Live Getting Live TV, YouTube & Bing Voice Search |url=https://mashable.com/2011/06/06/youtube-bing-tv-xbox-live/ |work=Mashable |date=June 6, 2011 |access-date=December 22, 2011}}</ref>

On November 15, 2012, Google launched an official app for the Wii, allowing users to watch YouTube videos from the Wii channel.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.techradar.com/news/gaming/consoles/youtube-app-wanders-onto-nintendo-wii-days-before-wii-u-launch-1112972 |title=YouTube app wanders onto Nintendo Wii days before Wii U launch |publisher=Techradar.com |date=November 15, 2012 |access-date=November 20, 2012 |archive-date=November 19, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119040115/http://www.techradar.com/news/gaming/consoles/youtube-app-wanders-onto-nintendo-wii-days-before-wii-u-launch-1112972 |url-status=live }}</ref> An app was available for [[Wii U]] and [[Nintendo 3DS]], but was discontinued in August 2019.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://en-americas-support.nintendo.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/47010/~/youtube-app-for-nintendo-3ds-discontinuation |title=YouTube App for Nintendo 3DS Discontinuation |work=Nintendo America |access-date=February 4, 2020 |archive-date=February 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221001615/https://en-americas-support.nintendo.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/47010/~/youtube-app-for-nintendo-3ds-discontinuation |url-status=live }}</ref> Videos can also be viewed on the [[Internet Browser (Wii U)|Wii U Internet Browser]] using HTML5.<ref>{{cite web |first=Sarah |last=Ali |title=Just for U: YouTube arrives on Wii U |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2012/11/just-for-u-youtube-arrives-on-wii-u.html |website=Official YouTube Blog |date=November 22, 2012 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=June 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614215940/https://youtube.googleblog.com/2012/11/just-for-u-youtube-arrives-on-wii-u.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2019}} Google made YouTube available on the [[Roku]] player on December 17, 2013,<ref>{{cite web |first=Todd |last=Spangler |title=YouTube Channel Now Playing on Roku |url=https://variety.com/2013/digital/news/youtube-channel-now-playing-on-roku-1200969005/ |website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |date=December 17, 2013 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308063701/https://variety.com/2013/digital/news/youtube-channel-now-playing-on-roku-1200969005/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and, in October 2014, the Sony [[PlayStation 4]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Richard |last=O'Grady |title=Pwn, share, repeat with YouTube on PlayStation 4 |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2014/10/pwn-share-repeat-with-youtube-on.html |website=Official YouTube Blog |date=October 28, 2014 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=December 10, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210093857/https://youtube.googleblog.com/2014/10/pwn-share-repeat-with-youtube-on.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

YouTube launched as a downloadable app for the [[Nintendo Switch]] in November 2018.<ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube for Nintendo Switch |url=https://www.nintendo.com/games/detail/youtube-switch |website=Nintendo Game Details |publisher=Nintendo of America |access-date=December 5, 2018 |archive-date=March 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210311113505/https://www.nintendo.com/games/detail/youtube-switch/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== International and localization ===

In early years of operation, Google faced some criticism for 'encouraging the dominance of US values', by prioritising English over other languages. On June 19, 2007, at a conference in Paris, Google CEO [[Eric Schmidt]] launched YouTube [[Internationalization and localization|localization]], with stated aims including customizing the YouTube experience by country, including country-specific comments, metrics, and video rankings. From 2007, YouTube's localization was rolled out.<ref name="local" /><ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube aux couleurs de la France |url=https://www.zdnet.fr/actualites/youtube-aux-couleurs-de-la-france-39370424.htm |language=fr |trans-title=YouTube in the colours of France|date=June 19, 2007|access-date=December 10, 2023 }}</ref>

A 2015 report on YouTube's localization showed it to be continuing, and expanding.<ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube: A Localization Strategy and What Comes Next |url=https://www.doz.com/media/youtube-global-local-strategy|date=March 11, 2015|access-date=January 4, 2024 }}</ref> In February 2023, YouTube made it possible to upload a single video in multiple languages. Prior to 2023, the only option for YouTubers to broaden their content's reach to audiences speaking different languages was to launch an entirely separate secondary channel for each language and upload dubbed versions of their videos across all those channels. MrBeast called multi-language dub tracks a “giant win” for creators. With the introduction of the dubbing localization option, many creators switched from uploading to separate channels to uploading to their main channel with dubbed versions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Creators can build big international audiences by dubbing their content in other languages. But what's the best way to dub? |url=https://www.tubefilter.com/2023/08/01/youtube-content-language-localization-air-media-tech/|trans-title=YouTube in the colours of France|date=August 1, 2023|access-date=December 20, 2023 }}</ref>

==== YouTube localization by country ====

As of 2023, the interface of YouTube is available with localized versions in 104 countries, one territory ([[Hong Kong]]) and a worldwide version.<ref>See the YouTube localization list at the bottom of the YouTube website.</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="margin: 1em auto;"
|+ Countries with YouTube localization
|-
! scope="col" | Country
! scope="col" | Language(s)
! scope="col" | Launch date
! scope="col" | {{Reference heading}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[United States]] (and worldwide launch)
| [[American English|English]], [[Spanish language in the United States|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | February 14, 2005
| <ref name="local" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Brazil]]
| [[Brazilian Portuguese|Portuguese]]
| style="text-align: right;" | June 19, 2007
| <ref name="local" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[France]]
| [[French language|French]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Basque language|Basque]]
| style="text-align: right;" | June 19, 2007
| <ref name="local">{{cite news |last=Sayer |first=Peter |date=June 19, 2007 |title=Google launches YouTube France News |url=https://www.techadvisor.com/article/725160/google-launches-youtube-france.html |publisher=[[International Data Group]] |website=[[PC Advisor]] |access-date=November 1, 2023 |archive-date=November 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101225353/https://www.techadvisor.com/article/725160/google-launches-youtube-france.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
| [[Hiberno-English|English]], [[Irish language|Irish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | June 19, 2007
| <ref name="local" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Italy]]
| [[Italian language|Italian]], [[German language|German]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]]
| style="text-align: right;" | June 19, 2007
| <ref name="local" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Japan]]
| [[Japanese language|Japanese]]
| style="text-align: right;" | June 19, 2007
| <ref name="local" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Netherlands]]
| [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
| style="text-align: right;" | June 19, 2007
| <ref name="local" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Poland]]
| [[Polish language|Polish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | June 19, 2007
| <ref name="local" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Spain]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Basque language|Basque]]
| style="text-align: right;" | June 19, 2007
| <ref name="local" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[United Kingdom]]
| [[British English|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | June 19, 2007
| <ref name="local" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Mexico]]
| [[Mexican Spanish|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | October 11, 2007
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/articulos/43235.html |title=Presentan hoy YouTube México |newspaper=[[El Universal (Mexico City)|El Universal]] |date=October 11, 2007 |access-date=September 9, 2010 |language=es |trans-title=YouTube México launched today |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090516063924/https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/articulos/43235.html |archive-date=May 16, 2009}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Hong Kong]]
| [[Traditional Chinese characters|Chinese]], [[Hong Kong English|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | October 17, 2007
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://stanley5.blogspot.com/2007/10/youtube.html |title=中文上線 – YouTube 香港中文版登場！ |publisher=Stanley5 |date=October 17, 2007 |access-date=January 2, 2012 |archive-date=October 11, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181011221455/https://stanley5.blogspot.com/2007/10/youtube.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Taiwan]]
| [[Traditional Chinese characters|Chinese]]
| style="text-align: right;" | October 18, 2007
| <ref>{{cite news |title=YouTube繁體中文版上線 |url=https://www.ithome.com.tw/node/45813 |work=IThome |date=October 18, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220518040112/https://www.ithome.com.tw/node/45813 |archive-date=May 18, 2022}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Australia]]
| [[Australian English|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" |October 22, 2007
| <ref name="AUS-NZ">{{cite news |first=Kristen |last=Nicole |url=https://mashable.com/2007/10/22/youtube-australia-new-zealand/ |title=YouTube Launches in Australia & New Zealand |publisher=[[Mashable]] |date=October 22, 2007 |access-date=August 3, 2009 |archive-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403142649/https://mashable.com/2007/10/22/youtube-australia-new-zealand/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[New Zealand]]
| [[New Zealand English|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" |October 22, 2007
| <ref name="AUS-NZ" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Canada]]
| [[Canadian English|English]], [[Canadian French|French]]
| style="text-align: right;" | November 6, 2007
| <ref>{{cite news |first=Kristen |last=Nicole |url=https://mashable.com/2007/11/06/youtube-canada/ |title=YouTube Canada Now Live |date=November 6, 2007 |publisher=[[Mashable]] |access-date=August 3, 2009 |archive-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403183030/https://mashable.com/2007/11/06/youtube-canada/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Germany]]
| [[German language|German]]
| style="text-align: right;" | November 8, 2007
| <ref>{{cite news |first=Adam |last=Ostrow |url=https://mashable.com/2007/11/08/youtube-germany/ |title=YouTube Germany Launches |publisher=[[Mashable]] |date=November 8, 2007 |access-date=August 3, 2009 |archive-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403120958/https://mashable.com/2007/11/08/youtube-germany/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Russia]]
| [[Russian language|Russian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | November 13, 2007
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/824940/ |title=YouTube перевелся на русский |language=ru |publisher=Kommersant Moscow |date=November 14, 2007 |access-date=March 22, 2012 |archive-date=December 2, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202230948/http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/824940/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[South Korea]]
| [[Korean language|Korean]]
| style="text-align: right;" | January 23, 2008
| <ref>{{cite magazine |first=Martyn |last=Williams |url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/141684/youtube_launches_korean_site.html |magazine=[[PC World]] |date=January 23, 2008 |access-date=March 22, 2012 |title=YouTube Launches Korean Site |archive-date=April 28, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120428184917/http://www.pcworld.com/article/141684/youtube_launches_korean_site.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[India]]
| [[Hindi]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Indian English|English]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Kannada]], [[Malayalam]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Urdu]]
| style="text-align: right;" | May 7, 2008
| <ref>{{cite news |first=Sandeep |last=Joshi |url=https://www.hindu.com/2008/05/08/stories/2008050857242200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510222042/https://www.hindu.com/2008/05/08/stories/2008050857242200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 10, 2008 |title=YouTube now has an Indian incarnation |date=May 8, 2008 |access-date=August 3, 2009 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Israel]]
| [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Arabic language in Israel|Arabic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | September 16, 2008
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Czech Republic]]
| [[Czech language|Czech]]
| style="text-align: right;" | October 9, 2008
| <ref>{{cite news |first=Petr |last=Bokuvka |url=https://czechdaily.wordpress.com/2008/10/12/czech-version-of-youtube-launched-and-its-crap-it-sucks/ |title=Czech version of YouTube launched. And it's crap. It sucks |work=The Czech Daily Word |publisher=Wordpress.com |date=October 12, 2008 |access-date=August 3, 2009 |archive-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403074947/https://czechdaily.wordpress.com/2008/10/12/czech-version-of-youtube-launched-and-its-crap-it-sucks/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Sweden]]
| [[Swedish language|Swedish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | October 22, 2008
| <ref>[https://www.kullin.net/2008/10/launch-video-unavailable-when-youtube-opens-up-in-sweden/ Launch video unavailable when YouTube opens up in Sweden] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180910233912/http://www.kullin.net/2008/10/launch-video-unavailable-when-youtube-opens-up-in-sweden/ |date=September 10, 2018 }} October 23, 2008. Retrieved December 7, 2012.</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[South Africa]]
| [[South African English|English]], [[Afrikaans]], [[Zulu language|Zulu]]
| style="text-align: right;" | May 17, 2010
| <ref name="local" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Argentina]]
| [[Rioplatense Spanish|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | September 8, 2010
| <ref name="countries">{{cite web |url=https://www.typeboard.com/2010/09/youtube-launches-in-argentina/ |title=YouTube launches in Argentina |date=September 9, 2010 |access-date=September 9, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100912172902/https://www.typeboard.com/2010/09/youtube-launches-in-argentina/ |archive-date=September 12, 2010}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Algeria]]
| [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]], [[French language|French]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 9, 2011
| <ref name="arabcrunch1">{{cite web |url=https://arabcrunch.com/2011/03/youtube-launches-local-version-for-algeria-egypt-jordan-morocco-saudi-arabia-tunisia-and-yemen.html |title=YouTube Launches Local Version For Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia and Yemen |publisher=ArabCrunch |access-date=March 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314234447/https://arabcrunch.com/2011/03/youtube-launches-local-version-for-algeria-egypt-jordan-morocco-saudi-arabia-tunisia-and-yemen.html |archive-date=March 14, 2011}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Egypt]]
| [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 9, 2011
| <ref name="arabcrunch1" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Jordan]]
| [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 9, 2011
| <ref name="arabcrunch1" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Morocco]]
| [[French language|French]], [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 9, 2011
| <ref name="arabcrunch1" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Saudi Arabia]]
| [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 9, 2011
| <ref name="arabcrunch1" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Tunisia]]
| [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]], [[French language|French]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 9, 2011
| <ref name="arabcrunch1" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Yemen]]
| [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 9, 2011
| <ref name="arabcrunch1" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Kenya]]
| [[English language|English]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]]
| style="text-align: right;" | September 1, 2011
| <ref>{{cite news |first=Nmachi |last=Jidenma |url=https://thenextweb.com/africa/2011/10/05/google-launches-youtube-in-kenya/ |title=Google launches YouTube in Kenya |publisher=The Next Web |date=September 1, 2011 |access-date=March 22, 2012 |archive-date=March 31, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331150238/https://thenextweb.com/africa/2011/10/05/google-launches-youtube-in-kenya/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Philippines]]
| [[Filipino language|Filipino]], [[Philippine English|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | October 13, 2011
| <ref name="philippines">{{cite news |first=Tam |last=Noda |url=https://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=737018&publicationSubCategoryId=200 |title=YouTube launches 'The Philippines' |newspaper=The Philippine Star |date=October 13, 2011 |access-date=October 13, 2011}}{{dead link|date=March 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Singapore]]
| [[Singapore English|English]], [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Simplified Chinese characters|Chinese]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| style="text-align: right;" | October 20, 2011
| <ref name="singapore">{{cite news |title=YouTube Launches Singapore Site |url=https://www.todayonline.com/Singapore/EDC111020-0000359/YouTube-launches-Singapore-site |access-date=September 23, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021221603/https://www.todayonline.com/Singapore/EDC111020-0000359/YouTube-launches-Singapore-site |archive-date=October 21, 2011}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Belgium]]
| [[Belgian French|French]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[German language|German]]
| style="text-align: right;" | November 16, 2011
| <ref name="local" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Colombia]]
| [[Colombian Spanish|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | November 30, 2011
| <ref>[https://thenextweb.com/la/2011/12/01/youtube-launches-localized-website-for-columbia/ YouTube launches localized website for Colombia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180910234415/https://thenextweb.com/la/2011/12/01/youtube-launches-localized-website-for-columbia/ |date=September 10, 2018 }} December 1, 2011. Retrieved December 1, 2011.</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Uganda]]
| [[Ugandan English|English]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]]
| style="text-align: right;" | December 2, 2011
| <ref>[https://pctechmagazine.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1069:google-launches-youtube-uganda&catid=1:latest-news&Itemid=162 Google Launches YouTube Uganda] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104043549/https://pctechmagazine.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1069%3Agoogle-launches-youtube-uganda&catid=1%3Alatest-news&Itemid=162 |date=January 4, 2012 }} December 2, 2011. Retrieved January 15, 2012.</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Nigeria]]
| [[Nigerian Standard English|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | December 7, 2011
| <ref>[https://www.techmtaa.com/2011/12/07/google-to-launch-youtube-nigeria-today/ Google to Launch YouTube Nigeria Today] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108001623/https://www.techmtaa.com/2011/12/07/google-to-launch-youtube-nigeria-today |date=January 8, 2012 }} December 7, 2011. Retrieved January 15, 2012.</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Chile]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | January 20, 2012
| <ref>[https://nextvlatam.com/index.php/5-otts/google-launches-youtube-chile/ Google launches YouTube Chile] March 19, 2012. Retrieved March 22, 2012. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325080121/https://nextvlatam.com/index.php/5-otts/google-launches-youtube-chile/ |date=March 25, 2012 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Hungary]]
| [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | February 29, 2012
| <ref>[https://kultura.hu/main.php?folderID=1094&articleID=323455&ctag=&iid=11 Google Launches Hungarian YouTube] March 12, 2012. Retrieved March 22, 2012. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117060628/https://kultura.hu/main.php?folderID=1094&articleID=323455&ctag=&iid=11 |date=January 17, 2013 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Malaysia]]
| [[Malaysian language|Malay]], [[Malaysian English|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 22, 2012
| <ref>[https://www.webpronews.com/youtube-launches-local-domain-for-malaysia-2012-03 YouTube Launches Local Domain For Malaysia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010094750/https://www.webpronews.com/youtube-launches-local-domain-for-malaysia-2012-03/ |date=October 10, 2017 }} March 22, 2012. Retrieved March 22, 2012.</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Peru]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 25, 2012
| <ref>[https://www.webpronews.com/youtube-peru-launched-expansion-continues-2012-03 YouTube Peru Launched, Expansion continues] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010095458/https://www.webpronews.com/youtube-peru-launched-expansion-continues-2012-03/ |date=October 10, 2017 }} March 27, 2012. Retrieved April 1, 2012.</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[United Arab Emirates]]
| [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]], [[English language|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | April 1, 2012
| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.emirates247.com/business/technology/uae-version-of-youtube-launched-2012-04-02-1.451741 |title=UAE version of YouTube launched |publisher=Emirates 247 |date=April 2, 2012 |access-date=February 14, 2014 |author=Bindu Suresh Rai |archive-date=February 25, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225032636/http://www.emirates247.com/business/technology/uae-version-of-youtube-launched-2012-04-02-1.451741 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Greece]]
| [[Greek language|Greek]]
| style="text-align: right;" | May 1, 2012
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Indonesia]]
| [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[English language|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | May 17, 2012
| <ref>[https://www.thejakartaglobe.com/home/youtube-launches-indonesian-version/524443 "YouTube Launches Indonesian Version"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117060608/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/home/youtube-launches-indonesian-version/524443 |date=January 17, 2013 }}, June 15, 2012. Retrieved July 8, 2012.</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ghana]]
| [[English language|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | June 5, 2012
| <ref>[https://www.humanipo.com/blog/713/Google-launches-YouTube-in-Ghana "Google launches YouTube in Ghana"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120624232254/https://www.humanipo.com/blog/713/Google-launches-YouTube-in-Ghana |date=June 24, 2012 }}, June 22, 2012. Retrieved July 8, 2012.</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Senegal]]
| [[French language|French]], [[English language|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | July 4, 2012
| <ref>[https://www.telecompaper.com/news/youtube-launches-local-portal-in-senegal "YouTube launches local portal in Senegal"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217112619/https://www.telecompaper.com/news/youtube-launches-local-portal-in-senegal |date=February 17, 2022 }}, 
{{note|media_type_table_note_3}}[3] itag 120 is for live streaming and has metadata referring to "Elemental Technologies Live". July 16, 2012. Retrieved July 25, 2012.</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Turkey]]
| [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | October 1, 2012
| <ref>[https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkiye/86446--g "YouTube's Turkish version goes into service"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905100141/http://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkiye/86446--g |date=September 5, 2015 }}, October 1, 2012. Retrieved October 1, 2012.</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ukraine]]
| [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | December 13, 2012
| <ref>{{cite news |first=Maryna |last=Tarasova |url=https://google-ukraine-blog.blogspot.com/2012/12/youtube.html |publisher=Google Ukraine Blog |title=YouTube приходить в Україну! (YouTube comes in Ukraine!) |date=December 13, 2012 |location=Ukraine |language=uk |access-date=February 17, 2022 |archive-date=August 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804014222/http://google-ukraine-blog.blogspot.com/2012/12/youtube.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Denmark]]
| [[Danish language|Danish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | February 1, 2013
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.iprospect.dk/youtube-lanceres-i-danmark |publisher=iProspect |title=YouTube lanceres i Danmark |access-date=April 17, 2013 |location=Denmark |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507094859/https://www.iprospect.dk/youtube-lanceres-i-danmark |archive-date=May 7, 2013}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Finland]]
| [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | February 1, 2013
| <ref>{{cite news |first=Vilja |last=Sormunen |url=https://www.klok.fi/blog/youtube-launches-in-the-nordics/ |publisher=KLOK |title=YouTube Launches in the Nordics |date=February 6, 2013 |access-date=February 11, 2013 |location=Nordic |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728163345/https://www.klok.fi/blog/youtube-launches-in-the-nordics/ |archive-date=July 28, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Norway]]
| [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | February 1, 2013
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.tono.no/YouTube+lansert+i+Norge.12888.cms |publisher=[[TONO]] |title=YouTube Launched in Norway |access-date=April 17, 2013 |location=Norway |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420134320/https://www.tono.no/YouTube+lansert+i+Norge.12888.cms |archive-date=April 20, 2013}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Switzerland]]
| [[German language|German]], [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 29, 2013
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/business/YouTube_goes_Swiss.html?cid=35450210 |publisher=[[swissinfo]] |title=YouTube goes Swiss |access-date=April 17, 2013 |location=Swiss |archive-date=December 3, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203070051/http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/business/YouTube_goes_Swiss.html?cid=35450210 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Austria]]
| [[German language|German]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 29, 2013
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wienerzeitung.at/themen_channel/wz_digital/digital_news/538498_YouTube.at-seit-Donnerstag-online.html |work=[[Wiener Zeitung]] |title=YouTube.at since Thursday online |access-date=April 17, 2013 |location=Austria |archive-date=May 2, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502151534/http://www.wienerzeitung.at/themen_channel/wz_digital/digital_news/538498_YouTube.at-seit-Donnerstag-online.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Romania]]
| [[Romanian language|Romanian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | April 18, 2013
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.zf.ro/zf-24/youtube-romania-se-lanseaza-intr-o-saptamana-10764820 |publisher=ZF.ro |title=Youtube România se lansează într-o săptămână |access-date=May 14, 2013 |location=Romania |archive-date=December 2, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202233402/http://www.zf.ro/zf-24/youtube-romania-se-lanseaza-intr-o-saptamana-10764820 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Portugal]]
| [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
| style="text-align: right;" | April 25, 2013
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.lusonoticias.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27764:google-lanca-versao-lusa-do-youtube&catid=343&Itemid=159 |publisher=Luso Noticias |title=Google lança versão lusa do YouTube |access-date=May 14, 2013 |location=Portugal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203003223/https://www.lusonoticias.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27764:google-lanca-versao-lusa-do-youtube&catid=343&Itemid=159 |archive-date=December 3, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Slovakia]]
| [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
| style="text-align: right;" | April 25, 2013
| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://vat.pravda.sk/obraz-a-zvuk/clanok/281254-slovaci-uz-mozu-oficialne-zarabat-na-tvorbe-videi-pre-youtube/ |title=Slováci už môžu oficiálne zarábať na tvorbe videí pre YouTube |publisher=Vat Pravda |date=May 21, 2013 |access-date=February 14, 2014 |author=tš |language=sk |archive-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403192145/https://vat.pravda.sk/obraz-a-zvuk/clanok/281254-slovaci-uz-mozu-oficialne-zarabat-na-tvorbe-videi-pre-youtube/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Bahrain]]
| [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | August 16, 2013
| <ref name="gcc">{{cite web |url=https://www.tbreak.ae/news/youtube-expands-monetization-partnership-gcc |title=YouTube expands monetization and partnership in GCC |publisher=tbreak Media |date=September 16, 2013 |access-date=February 14, 2014 |last1=Rego |first1=Nick |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140213233858/http://www.tbreak.ae/news/youtube-expands-monetization-partnership-gcc |archive-date=February 13, 2014}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Kuwait]]
| [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | August 16, 2013
| <ref name="gcc" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Oman]]
| [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | August 16, 2013
| <ref name="gcc" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Qatar]]
| [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | August 16, 2013
| <ref name="gcc" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
| [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 17, 2014
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Bulgaria]]
| [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 17, 2014
| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://newtrend.bg/digital-company/youtube/youtube-reklama-bulgaria |title=YouTube рекламата става достъпна и за България |publisher=New Trend |date=March 18, 2014 |access-date=April 5, 2014 |author=Ивелина Атанасова |language=bg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407082809/https://newtrend.bg/digital-company/youtube/youtube-reklama-bulgaria |archive-date=April 7, 2014}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Croatia]]
| [[Croatian language|Croatian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 17, 2014
| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://liderpress.hr/poslovna-znanja/oglasavanje-na-video-platformi-youtube-od-sad-dostupno-i-u-hrvatskoj/ |title=Oglašavanje na video platformi YouTube od sad dostupno i u Hrvatskoj |publisher=Lider |date=March 19, 2014 |access-date=April 5, 2014 |language=hr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111014509/https://liderpress.hr/poslovna-znanja/oglasavanje-na-video-platformi-youtube-od-sad-dostupno-i-u-hrvatskoj/ |archive-date=January 11, 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Estonia]]
| [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 17, 2014
| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.meedium.ee/blog/youtube-reklaamid-eestis |title=Youtube reklaamid – uued võimalused nüüd ka Eestis! |publisher=Meedium |date=March 19, 2014 |access-date=April 5, 2014 |first=Siiri |last=Oden |language=et |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407094928/https://www.meedium.ee/blog/youtube-reklaamid-eestis |archive-date=April 7, 2014}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Latvia]]
| [[Latvian language|Latvian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 17, 2014
| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://marketing.lv/tagad-reklamas-iespejas-youtube-kanala-iespejams-izmantot-ari-latvija/ |title=Tagad reklāmas iespējas Youtube kanālā iespējams izmantot arī Latvijā |publisher=Marketing |date=March 18, 2014 |access-date=April 5, 2014 |author=Marta |language=lv |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321170116/https://marketing.lv/tagad-reklamas-iespejas-youtube-kanala-iespejams-izmantot-ari-latvija/ |archive-date=March 21, 2014}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Lithuania]]
| [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 17, 2014
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[North Macedonia]]
| [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 17, 2014
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Montenegro]]
| [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 17, 2014
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Serbia]]
| [[Serbian language|Serbian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 17, 2014
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Slovenia]]
| [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 17, 2014
| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dnevnik.si/magazin/znanost-in-tehnologija/na-youtube-prihajajo-tudi-slovenski-video-oglasi |title=Na Youtube prihajajo tudi slovenski video oglasi |work=[[Dnevnik (Slovenia)|Dnevnik]] |date=March 18, 2014 |access-date=April 5, 2014 |author=STA |language=sl |archive-date=April 7, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407075431/http://www.dnevnik.si/magazin/znanost-in-tehnologija/na-youtube-prihajajo-tudi-slovenski-video-oglasi |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Thailand]]
| [[Thai language|Thai]]
| style="text-align: right;" | April 1, 2014
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nationmultimedia.com/business/YouTube-introduces-homepage-especially-30230795.html |title=YouTube introduces homepage especially |newspaper=[[The Nation (Thailand)|The Nation]] |date=April 3, 2014 |access-date=April 4, 2014 |first=Asina |last=Pornwasin |archive-date=July 25, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725161948/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/business/YouTube-introduces-homepage-especially-30230795.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Lebanon]]
| [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | May 1, 2014
| <ref name="gcc" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Puerto Rico]]
| [[Puerto Rican Spanish|Spanish]], [[American English|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | August 23, 2014
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Iceland]]
| [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 2014
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Luxembourg]]
| [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 2014
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Vietnam]]
| [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]
| style="text-align: right;" | October 1, 2014
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Libya]]
| [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | February 1, 2015
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Tanzania]]
| [[English language|English]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]]
| style="text-align: right;" | June 2, 2015
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Zimbabwe]]
| [[English language|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | June 2, 2015
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Azerbaijan]]
| [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]
| style="text-align: right;" | October 12, 2015
| <ref name="adriatics baltics">{{cite web |url=https://9to5google.com/2015/10/12/youtube-global-7-new-countries/ |title=YouTube continues global expansion w/ versions of its site in 7 new locales |first=Stephen |last=Hall |publisher=9to5 Google |date=October 12, 2015 |access-date=March 18, 2016 |archive-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403120846/https://9to5google.com/2015/10/12/youtube-global-7-new-countries/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Belarus]]
| [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Russian language|Russian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | October 12, 2015
| <ref name="adriatics baltics" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
| [[Georgian language|Georgian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | October 12, 2015
| <ref name="adriatics baltics" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Kazakhstan]]
| [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Russian language|Russian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | October 12, 2015
| <ref name="adriatics baltics" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Iraq]]
| [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | November 9, 2015
| {{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Nepal]]
| [[Nepali language|Nepali]]
| style="text-align: right;" | January 12, 2016
| <ref name="himalayan">{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/entertainment/youtube-launches-specific-homepages-for-nepal-pakistan-sri-lanka/ |title=YouTube launches Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka-specific homepages |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]] |date=January 13, 2016 |access-date=January 31, 2016 |archive-date=March 31, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331131306/https://thehimalayantimes.com/entertainment/youtube-launches-specific-homepages-for-nepal-pakistan-sri-lanka/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Pakistan]]
| [[Urdu]], [[Pakistani English|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | January 12, 2016
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1026164/youtube-launches-country-specific-homepages-for-pakistan/ |title=YouTube launches country-specific homepage for Pakistan |newspaper=[[The Express Tribune]] |date=January 12, 2016 |access-date=January 31, 2016 |archive-date=January 28, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128170842/http://tribune.com.pk/story/1026164/youtube-launches-country-specific-homepages-for-pakistan/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Sri Lanka]]
| [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Sri Lankan English|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | January 12, 2016
| <ref name="himalayan" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Jamaica]]
| [[Jamaican English|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | August 4, 2016
| {{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Malta]]
| [[English language|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | June 19, 2018
| <ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube Launches Local Domain For Malta |url=https://www.maltachamber.org.mt/en/youtube-launches-local-domain-for-malta |access-date=February 15, 2023 |website=maltachamber.org.mt |language=en |archive-date=March 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307214942/https://www.maltachamber.org.mt/en/youtube-launches-local-domain-for-malta |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Bolivia]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | January 30, 2019
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Costa Rica]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | January 30, 2019
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ecuador]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | January 30, 2019
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[El Salvador]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | January 30, 2019
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Guatemala]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | January 30, 2019
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Honduras]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | January 30, 2019
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Nicaragua]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | January 30, 2019
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Panama]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | January 30, 2019
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Uruguay]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | January 30, 2019
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Paraguay]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Guarani language|Guarani]]
| style="text-align: right;" | February 21, 2019
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Dominican Republic]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | February 21, 2019
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Cyprus]]
| [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 13, 2019
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Liechtenstein]]
| [[German language|German]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 13, 2019
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Venezuela]]
|[[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| style="text-align: right;" | March 10, 2020
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Papua New Guinea]]
| [[English language|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 2020
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Bangladesh]]
|[[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English language|English]]
| style="text-align: right;" | September 2, 2020
| {{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Cambodia]]
| [[Khmer language|Khmer]]
| style="text-align: right;" | August 25, 2022
| {{citation needed|date=October 2022}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Laos]]
|[[Lao language|Lao]]
| style="text-align: right;" | August 25, 2022
| {{citation needed|date=October 2022}}
|}
[[File:YouTube Localisation.svg|600px|thumb|center|Locations where YouTube is localized]]

The YouTube interface suggests which local version should be chosen based on the IP address of the user. In some cases, the message "This video is not available in your country" may appear because of copyright restrictions or inappropriate content.<ref>{{cite web |title=Learn More: Video not available in my country |url=https://www.google.com/support/youtube/bin/answer.py?hl=en-uk&answer=92571 |access-date=August 4, 2009 |archive-date=December 3, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203001609/http://www.google.com/support/youtube/bin/answer.py?hl=en-uk&answer=92571 |url-status=live }}</ref> The interface of the YouTube website is available in 76 language versions, including Amharic, Albanian, Armenian, Burmese, Haitian Creole, Kyrgyz, Malagasy, Mongolian, Persian, Samoan, Somali and Uzbek, which do not have local channel versions. Access to YouTube was blocked in [[Turkey]] between 2008 and 2010, following controversy over the posting of videos deemed insulting to [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] and some material offensive to Muslims.<ref>{{cite news |title=Turkey lifts two-year ban on YouTube |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-11659816 |date=October 30, 2010 |access-date=October 3, 2012 |archive-date=April 8, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408224644/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-11659816 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Turks censor YouTube censorship |last1=Danforth |first1=Nick |work=San Francisco Chronicle |url=https://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/07/30/ED68191LKM.DTL |date=July 31, 2009 |access-date=August 4, 2009 |archive-date=March 4, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304121851/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/07/30/ED68191LKM.DTL |url-status=live }}</ref> In October 2012, a local version of YouTube was launched in Turkey, with the domain <code>youtube.com.tr</code>. The local version is subject to the content regulations found in Turkish law.<ref>{{cite web |first=Dara |last=Kerr |title=YouTube cedes to Turkey and uses local Web domain |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/youtube-cedes-to-turkey-and-uses-local-web-domain/ |publisher=[[CNET]] |date=October 2, 2012 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=March 12, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312054330/http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3-57524907-93/youtube-cedes-to-turkey-and-uses-local-web-domain/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2009, a dispute between YouTube and the British royalty collection agency [[PRS for Music]] led to premium music videos being blocked for YouTube users in the United Kingdom. The removal of videos posted by the major record companies occurred after failure to reach an agreement on a licensing deal. The dispute was resolved in September 2009.<ref>{{cite news |first=Emma |last=Barnett |title=Music videos back on YouTube in multi-million pound PRS deal |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/6127624/Music-videos-back-on-YouTube-in-multi-million-pound-PRS-deal.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/6127624/Music-videos-back-on-YouTube-in-multi-million-pound-PRS-deal.html |archive-date=January 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=September 3, 2009 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In April 2009, a similar dispute led to the removal of premium music videos for users in Germany.<ref>{{cite news |title=Now YouTube stops the music in Germany |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/pda/2009/apr/01/youtube-digital-music-and-audio |date=April 1, 2009 |access-date=April 2, 2009 |archive-date=March 31, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331144358/https://www.theguardian.com/media/pda/2009/apr/01/youtube-digital-music-and-audio |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Videos ==
In January 2012, it was estimated that visitors to YouTube spent an average of 15 minutes a day on the site, in contrast to the four or five hours a day spent by a typical US citizen watching television.<ref name="seabrook20120116">{{cite news |last1=Seabrook |first1=John |date=January 16, 2012 |title=Streaming Dreams |magazine=The New Yorker |url=https://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2012/01/16/120116fa_fact_seabrook?currentPage=all |access-date=January 6, 2012 |archive-date=July 2, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702013528/http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2012/01/16/120116fa_fact_seabrook?currentPage=all |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2017, viewers on average watched YouTube on mobile devices for more than an hour every day.<ref>{{cite web |title=Updates from VidCon: more users, more products, more shows and much more |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2017/06/updates-from-vidcon-more-users-more.html |access-date=September 16, 2017 |website=Official YouTube Blog |archive-date=September 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917033123/https://youtube.googleblog.com/2017/06/updates-from-vidcon-more-users-more.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In December 2012, two billion views were removed from the view counts of Universal and [[Sony Music Entertainment|Sony]] music videos on YouTube, prompting a claim by ''[[The Daily Dot]]'' that the views had been deleted due to a violation of the site's terms of service, which ban the use of automated processes to inflate view counts. This was disputed by ''Billboard'', which said that the two billion views had been moved to Vevo, since the videos were no longer active on YouTube.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hoffberger |first=Chase |date=December 21, 2012 |title=YouTube strips Universal and Sony of 2 billion fake views |url=https://www.dailydot.com/news/youtube-universal-sony-fake-views-black-hat/ |access-date=January 10, 2014 |work=[[The Daily Dot]] |publisher=[[Complex Media, Inc.]] |archive-date=January 11, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111182922/http://www.dailydot.com/news/youtube-universal-sony-fake-views-black-hat/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Sabbagh |first=Dan |author-link=Dan Sabbagh |date=December 28, 2012 |title=Two billion YouTube music video views disappear ... or just migrate? |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/dec/28/youtube-video-views-disappear-migrate |access-date=January 10, 2014 |archive-date=March 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307215001/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/dec/28/youtube-video-views-disappear-migrate |url-status=live }}</ref> On August 5, 2015, YouTube patched the formerly notorious behavior which caused a video's view count to freeze at "301" (later "301+") until the actual count was verified to prevent [[Click fraud|view count fraud]].<ref name="numberphile">{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oIkhgagvrjI |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/oIkhgagvrjI |archive-date=December 21, 2021 |url-status=live |title=Why do YouTube views freeze at 301? |date=June 22, 2012 |last=Haran |first=Brady |author-link=Brady Haran |access-date=August 30, 2018 |work=[[Numberphile]] |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> YouTube view counts once again updated in real time.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Snyder |first=Benjamin |date=August 6, 2015 |title=YouTube Finally Fixed This Annoying Feature |url=https://time.com/3987570/youtube-301-views/ |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=March 26, 2017 |archive-date=February 12, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170212192853/http://time.com/3987570/youtube-301-views/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since September 2019, subscriber counts are abbreviated. Only three leading digits of channels' subscriber counts are indicated publicly, compromising the function of third-party real-time indicators such as that of [[Social Blade]]. Exact counts remain available to channel operators inside YouTube Studio.<ref>{{cite web |year=2019 |title=Abbreviated public-facing subscriber counts |url=https://youtube-eng.googleblog.com/2019/08/abbreviated-public-facing-subscriber.html |website=YouTube Engineering and Developers Blog |language=en |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=April 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413152915/https://youtube-eng.googleblog.com/2019/08/abbreviated-public-facing-subscriber.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>

On November 11, 2021, after testing out this change in March of the same year, YouTube announced it would start hiding dislike counts on videos, making them invisible to viewers. The company stated the decision was in response to experiments which confirmed that smaller YouTube creators were more likely to be targeted in dislike [[Vote brigading|brigading]] and harassment. Creators will still be able to see the number of likes and dislikes in the YouTube Studio dashboard tool, according to YouTube.<ref>{{cite web |last=Spangler |first=Todd |date=March 30, 2021 |title=YouTube Launches Test to Hide Video 'Dislike' Counts |url=https://variety.com/2021/digital/news/youtube-test-hide-dislike-counts-1234940845/ |access-date=March 30, 2021 |website=Variety |language=en-US |archive-date=March 30, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330172918/https://variety.com/2021/digital/news/youtube-test-hide-dislike-counts-1234940845/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube tests hiding dislike counts on videos |url=https://techcrunch.com/2021/03/30/youtube-tests-hiding-dislike-counts-on-videos/ |last=Perez |first=Sarah |access-date=March 30, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330192637/https://techcrunch.com/2021/03/30/youtube-tests-hiding-dislike-counts-on-videos/ |url-status=live |archive-date=March 30, 2021 |website=[[TechCrunch]] |date=March 30, 2021 |language=en-US }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=November 11, 2021 |title=YouTube to hide dislike counts for all videos on the platform: Here's all you need to know |url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/money/topstories/youtube-to-hide-dislike-counts-for-all-videos-on-the-platform-heres-all-you-need-to-know/ar-AAQAxJc |access-date=November 11, 2021 |publisher=MSN |language=en-US |archive-date=November 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111152412/https://www.msn.com/en-in/money/topstories/youtube-to-hide-dislike-counts-for-all-videos-on-the-platform-heres-all-you-need-to-know/ar-AAQAxJc |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Copyright issues ===
{{Main|YouTube copyright issues}}

{{further|#Revenue to copyright holders}}

YouTube has faced numerous challenges and criticisms in its attempts to deal with copyright, including the site's first viral video, [[Lazy Sunday (The Lonely Island song)|Lazy Sunday]], which had to be taken down, due to copyright concerns.<ref name=":8" /> At the time of uploading a video, YouTube users are shown a message asking them not to violate copyright laws.<ref>{{cite news |last=Marsden |first=Rhodri |date=August 12, 2009 |title=Why did my YouTube account get closed down? |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/features/rhodri-marsden-why-did-my-youtube-account-get-closed-down-1770618.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/features/rhodri-marsden-why-did-my-youtube-account-get-closed-down-1770618.html |archive-date=May 7, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=August 12, 2009}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Despite this advice, many unauthorized clips of copyrighted material remain on YouTube. YouTube does not view videos before they are posted online, and it is left to copyright holders to issue a [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act|DMCA]] [[takedown notice]] pursuant to the terms of the [[Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act]]. Any successful complaint about copyright infringement results in a [[YouTube copyright strike]]. Three successful complaints for [[copyright infringement]] against a user account will result in the account and all of its uploaded videos being deleted.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/t/copyright_strike Why do I have a sanction on my account?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120143234/http://www.youtube.com/t/copyright_strike |date=January 20, 2013 }} YouTube. Retrieved February 5, 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=May 21, 2010 |title=Is YouTube's three-strike rule fair to users? |work=BBC News |location=London |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/click_online/8696716.stm |access-date=February 5, 2012 |archive-date=July 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704094039/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/click_online/8696716.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> From 2007 to 2009 organizations including [[Viacom (2005–2019)|Viacom]], [[Mediaset]], and the English [[Premier League]] have filed lawsuits against YouTube, claiming that it has done too little to prevent the uploading of copyrighted material.<ref>{{cite news |date=March 13, 2007 |title=Viacom will sue YouTube for $1bn |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6446193.stm |access-date=May 26, 2008 |archive-date=January 15, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115123246/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6446193.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=July 30, 2008 |title=Mediaset Files EUR500 Million Suit Vs Google's YouTube |publisher=[[CNNMoney.com]] |url=https://money.cnn.com/news/newsfeeds/articles/djf500/200807301025DOWJONESDJONLINE000654_FORTUNE5.htm |access-date=August 19, 2009 |archive-date=September 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080908122120/http://money.cnn.com/news/newsfeeds/articles/djf500/200807301025DOWJONESDJONLINE000654_FORTUNE5.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=May 5, 2007 |title=Premier League to take action against YouTube |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/2312532/Premier-League-to-take-action-against-YouTube.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/2312532/Premier-League-to-take-action-against-YouTube.html |archive-date=January 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=March 26, 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

In August 2008, a US court ruled in ''[[Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.]]'' that copyright holders cannot order the removal of an online file without first determining whether the posting reflected [[fair use]] of the material.<ref>{{cite news |last=Egelko |first=Bob |date=August 20, 2008 |title=Woman can sue over YouTube clip de-posting |work=San Francisco Chronicle |url=https://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/08/20/MNU412FKRL.DTL |access-date=August 25, 2008 |archive-date=August 25, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080825003638/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/08/20/MNU412FKRL.DTL |url-status=live }}</ref> YouTube's owner Google announced in November 2015 that they would help cover the legal cost in select cases where they believe fair use defenses apply.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Finley |first=Klint |date=November 19, 2015 |title=Google Pledges to Help Fight Bogus YouTube Copyright Claims—for a Few |url=https://www.wired.com/2015/11/google-pledges-to-help-fight-bogus-youtube-copyright-claims-for-a-few/ |magazine=Wired |access-date=March 25, 2017 |archive-date=March 20, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320144102/https://www.wired.com/2015/11/google-pledges-to-help-fight-bogus-youtube-copyright-claims-for-a-few/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the 2011 case of ''[[Smith v. Summit Entertainment LLC]]'', professional singer Matt Smith sued Summit Entertainment for the wrongful use of copyright takedown notices on YouTube.<ref>{{cite case |court=Ohio Northern District Court |date=July 18, 2013 |url=https://www.docketalarm.com/cases/Ohio_Northern_District_Court/3--11-cv-00348/Smith__v_Summit_Entertainment_LLC/#q= |access-date=October 21, 2014 |title=Smith v. Summit Entertainment LLC |via=Docket Alarm, Inc.}}</ref> He asserted seven [[causes of action]], and four were ruled in Smith's favor.<ref>{{cite web |author=District Judge James G. Carr |date=June 6, 2011 |title=Order |url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=4653165041580834913 |access-date=November 7, 2011 |work=Smith v. Summit Entertainment LLC |publisher=United States District Court, N.D. Ohio, Western Division |archive-date=January 30, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130083207/http://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=4653165041580834913 |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2012, a court in Hamburg ruled that YouTube could be held responsible for copyrighted material posted by its users.<ref>{{cite news |date=April 20, 2012 |title=YouTube loses court battle over music clips |work=[[BBC News]] |location=London |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-17785613 |access-date=April 20, 2012 |archive-date=October 16, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016014454/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-17785613 |url-status=live }}</ref> On November 1, 2016, the dispute with GEMA was resolved, with Google content ID being used to allow advertisements to be added to videos with content protected by GEMA.<ref>{{cite news |date=November 1, 2016 |title=YouTube's seven-year stand-off ends |work=[[BBC News]] |location=London |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-37839038 |access-date=November 2, 2016 |archive-date=November 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103103021/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-37839038 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In April 2013, it was reported that [[Universal Music Group]] and YouTube have a contractual agreement that prevents content blocked on YouTube by a request from UMG from being restored, even if the uploader of the video files a DMCA counter-notice.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 5, 2013 |title=YouTube's Deal With Universal Blocks DMCA Counter Notices |url=https://torrentfreak.com/youtube-deal-with-universal-blocks-dmca-counter-notices-130405/ |access-date=April 5, 2013 |publisher=TorrentFreak |archive-date=April 7, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407164748/http://torrentfreak.com/youtube-deal-with-universal-blocks-dmca-counter-notices-130405/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Videos removed or blocked due to YouTube's contractual obligations |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=3045545 |access-date=April 5, 2013 |archive-date=May 14, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514115738/http://support.google.com/youtube/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=3045545 |url-status=live }}</ref> As part of YouTube Music, Universal and YouTube signed an agreement in 2017, which was followed by separate agreements other major labels, which gave the company the right to advertising revenue when its music was played on YouTube.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Aswad |first1=Jem |date=December 19, 2017 |title=YouTube Strikes New Deals With Universal and Sony Music |url=https://variety.com/2017/biz/news/universal-music-group-and-youtube-reach-new-global-multi-year-agreement-1202644815/ |access-date=April 22, 2021 |website=Variety |language=en-US |archive-date=April 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422152635/https://variety.com/2017/biz/news/universal-music-group-and-youtube-reach-new-global-multi-year-agreement-1202644815/ |url-status=live }}</ref> By 2019, creators were having videos taken down or demonetized when Content ID identified even short segments of copyrighted music within a much longer video, with different levels of enforcement depending on the record label.<ref name=":9">{{cite web |last=Alexander |first=Julia |date=May 24, 2019 |title=YouTubers and record labels are fighting, and record labels keep winning |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/5/24/18635904/copyright-youtube-creators-dmca-takedown-fair-use-music-cover |access-date=April 22, 2021 |website=The Verge |language=en |archive-date=April 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422152639/https://www.theverge.com/2019/5/24/18635904/copyright-youtube-creators-dmca-takedown-fair-use-music-cover |url-status=live }}</ref> Experts noted that some of these clips said qualified for fair use.<ref name=":9" />

==== Content ID ====
{{Main|Content ID}}

In June 2007, YouTube began trials of a system for automatic detection of uploaded videos that infringe copyright. Google CEO Eric Schmidt regarded this system as necessary for resolving lawsuits such as the one from [[Viacom (2005–2019)|Viacom]], which alleged that YouTube profited from content that it did not have the right to distribute.<ref>{{cite news |last=Delaney |first=Kevin J. |date=June 12, 2007 |title=YouTube to Test Software To Ease Licensing Fights |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://online.wsj.com/article/SB118161295626932114.html |access-date=December 4, 2011 |archive-date=February 20, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220085307/http://online.wsj.com/article/SB118161295626932114.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The system, which was initially called "Video Identification"<ref>{{Citation|last=YouTube Advertisers|title=Video Identification|date=February 4, 2008|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xWizsV5Le7s|access-date=August 29, 2018}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead YouTube link|date=February 2022}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite news |last=King |first=David |date=December 2, 2010 |title=Content ID turns three |language=en-US |work=Official YouTube Blog |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2010/12/content-id-turns-three.html |access-date=August 29, 2018}}</ref> and later became known as Content ID,<ref>{{cite web |date=September 28, 2010 |title=YouTube Content ID |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9g2U12SsRns |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/9g2U12SsRns |archive-date=December 21, 2021 |url-status=live |access-date=May 25, 2015 |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> creates an ID File for copyrighted audio and video material, and stores it in a database. When a video is uploaded, it is checked against the database, and flags the video as a copyright violation if a match is found.<ref name="youtube">[https://www.youtube.com/t/contentid_more More about Content ID] YouTube. Retrieved December 4, 2011.</ref> When this occurs, the content owner has the choice of blocking the video to make it unviewable, tracking the viewing statistics of the video, or adding advertisements to the video.

An independent test in 2009 uploaded multiple versions of the same song to YouTube and concluded that while the system was "surprisingly resilient" in finding copyright violations in the audio tracks of videos, it was not infallible.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Von Lohmann |first1=Fred |date=April 23, 2009 |title=Testing YouTube's Audio Content ID System |newspaper=Electronic Frontier Foundation |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2009/04/testing-youtubes-aud |access-date=December 4, 2011}}</ref> The use of Content ID to remove material automatically has led to [[YouTube copyright issues|controversy]] in some cases, as the videos have not been checked by a human for fair use.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Von Lohmann |first1=Fred |date=February 3, 2009 |title=YouTube's January Fair Use Massacre |newspaper=Electronic Frontier Foundation |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2009/01/youtubes-january-fair-use-massacre |access-date=December 4, 2011}}</ref> If a YouTube user disagrees with a decision by Content ID, it is possible to fill in a form disputing the decision.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/t/contentid_dispute Content ID disputes] YouTube. Retrieved December 4, 2011.</ref>

Before 2016, videos were not monetized until the dispute was resolved. Since April 2016, videos continue to be monetized while the dispute is in progress, and the money goes to whoever won the dispute.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hernandez |first1=Patricia |title=YouTube's Content ID System Gets One Much-Needed Fix |url=https://kotaku.com/youtubes-content-id-system-gets-one-much-needed-fix-1773643254 |access-date=September 16, 2017 |website=Kotaku |date=April 28, 2016}}</ref> Should the uploader want to monetize the video again, they may remove the disputed audio in the "Video Manager".<ref>{{cite web |title=Remove Content ID claimed songs from my videos – YouTube Help |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/2902117?hl=en |access-date=September 17, 2017 |publisher=Google Inc. |language=en}}</ref> YouTube has cited the effectiveness of Content ID as one of the reasons why the site's rules were modified in December 2010 to allow some users to upload videos of unlimited length.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Siegel |first1=Joshua |last2=Mayle |first2=Doug |date=December 9, 2010 |title=Up, Up and Away – Long videos for more users |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2010/12/up-up-and-away-long-videos-for-more.html |access-date=March 25, 2017 |website=Official YouTube Blog}}</ref>

=== Moderation and offensive content ===
{{See also|Criticism of Google#YouTube|Censorship by Google#YouTube}}
YouTube has a set of community guidelines aimed to reduce abuse of the site's features. The uploading of videos containing defamation, pornography, and material encouraging criminal conduct is forbidden by YouTube's "Community Guidelines".<ref name="guidelines">{{cite web |title=YouTube Community Guidelines |url=https://www.youtube.com/t/community_guidelines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170304150155/https://www.youtube.com/yt/policyandsafety/communityguidelines.html |archive-date=March 4, 2017 |access-date=November 30, 2008 |via=YouTube}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=August 2019}} Generally prohibited material includes sexually explicit content, videos of animal abuse, [[shock site|shock videos]], content uploaded without the copyright holder's consent, hate speech, spam, and predatory behavior.<ref name="guidelines" /> YouTube relies on its users to flag the content of videos as inappropriate, and a YouTube employee will view a flagged video to determine whether it violates the site's guidelines.<ref name="guidelines" /> Despite the guidelines, YouTube has faced criticism over aspects of its operations,<ref name=":6">{{cite web |last=Alexander |first=Julia |date=May 10, 2018 |title=The Yellow $: a comprehensive history of demonetization and YouTube's war with creators |url=https://www.polygon.com/2018/5/10/17268102/youtube-demonetization-pewdiepie-logan-paul-casey-neistat-philip-defranco |access-date=November 3, 2019 |website=Polygon |language=en}}</ref> its [[recommender system|recommendation algorithms]] perpetuating [[#Promotion of conspiracy theories and fringe discourse|videos that promote conspiracy theories]] and falsehoods,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wong |first1=Julia Carrie |author-link=Julia Carrie Wong |last2=Levin |first2=Sam |date=January 25, 2019 |title=YouTube vows to recommend fewer conspiracy theory videos |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/jan/25/youtube-conspiracy-theory-videos-recommendations |access-date=November 3, 2019 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> hosting videos ostensibly targeting children but containing [[Elsagate|violent or sexually suggestive content involving popular characters]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Orphanides |first=K. G. |date=March 23, 2018 |title=Children's YouTube is still churning out blood, suicide and cannibalism |magazine=Wired UK |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/youtube-for-kids-videos-problems-algorithm-recommend |access-date=November 3, 2019 |issn=1357-0978}}</ref> videos of minors attracting [[Pedophilia|pedophilic]] activities in their comment sections,<ref>{{cite news |last=Orphanides |first=K. G. |date=February 20, 2019 |title=On YouTube, a network of paedophiles is hiding in plain sight |magazine=Wired UK |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/youtube-pedophile-videos-advertising |access-date=November 3, 2019 |issn=1357-0978}}</ref> and fluctuating policies on the types of content that is eligible to be monetized with advertising.<ref name=":6" />

YouTube contracts companies to hire content moderators, who view content flagged as potentially violating YouTube's content policies and determines if they should be removed. In September 2020, a class-action suit was filed by a former content moderator who reported developing [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) after an 18-month period on the job. The former content moderator said that she was regularly made to exceed YouTube's stated limit of four hours per day of viewing graphic content. The lawsuit alleges that YouTube's contractors gave little to no training or support for its moderators' mental health, made prospective employees sign NDAs before showing them any examples of content they would see while reviewing, and censored all mention of trauma from its internal forums. It also purports that requests for extremely graphic content to be blurred, reduced in size or made monochrome, per recommendations from the [[National Center for Missing and Exploited Children]], were rejected by YouTube as not a high priority for the company.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kimball |first=Whitney |date=September 22, 2020 |title=Content Moderator Exposed to Child Assault and Animal Torture Sues YouTube |url=https://gizmodo.com/youtube-moderator-sues-over-ptsd-symptoms-lack-of-work-1845143110 |access-date=October 11, 2020 |work=Gizmodo}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Vincent |first=James |date=September 22, 2020 |title=Former YouTube content moderator sues the company after developing symptoms of PTSD |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/22/21450477/youtube-content-moderator-sues-lawsuit-ptsd-graphic-content-exposure |access-date=October 11, 2020 |work=The Verge}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Elias |first=Jennifer |date=September 22, 2020 |title=Former YouTube content moderator describes horrors of the job in new lawsuit |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/22/former-youtube-content-moderator-describes-horrors-of-the-job-in-lawsuit.html |access-date=October 11, 2020 |publisher=CNBC}}</ref>

To limit the spread of misinformation and fake news via YouTube, it has rolled out a comprehensive policy regarding how it plans to deal with technically manipulated videos.<ref>{{cite news |last=Alba |first=Davey |author-link=Davey Alba |date=February 3, 2020 |title=YouTube Says It Will Ban Misleading Election-Related Content |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/03/technology/youtube-misinformation-election.html |access-date=February 10, 2020}}</ref>

Controversial content has included material relating to [[Holocaust denial]] and the [[Hillsborough disaster]], in which 96 football fans from Liverpool were crushed to death in 1989.<ref>{{cite news |title=YouTube criticized in Germany over anti-Semitic Nazi videos |agency=Reuters |url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/898004.html |access-date=May 28, 2008 |archive-date=May 17, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517001126/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/898004.html |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Fury as YouTube carries sick Hillsboro video insult |url=https://icliverpool.icnetwork.co.uk/0100news/0100regionalnews/tm_headline=fury-as-youtube-carries-sick-hillsboro-video-insult%26method=full%26objectid=18729523%26page=1%26siteid=50061-name_page.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320021147/https://icliverpool.icnetwork.co.uk/0100news/0100regionalnews/tm_headline%3Dfury-as-youtube-carries-sick-hillsboro-video-insult%26method%3Dfull%26objectid%3D18729523%26page%3D1%26siteid%3D50061-name_page.html |archive-date=March 20, 2012 |access-date=November 29, 2015 |publisher=icLiverpool}}</ref> In July 2008, the Culture and Media Committee of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom stated that it was "unimpressed" with YouTube's system for policing its videos, and argued that "proactive review of content should be standard practice for sites hosting user-generated content". YouTube responded by stating:

{{blockquote|We have strict rules on what's allowed, and a system that enables anyone who sees inappropriate content to report it to our 24/7 review team and have it dealt with promptly. We educate our community on the rules and include a direct link from every YouTube page to make this process as easy as possible for our users. Given the volume of content uploaded on our site, we think this is by far the most effective way to make sure that the tiny minority of videos that break the rules come down quickly.<ref>{{cite news |first1=James |last1=Kirkup |first2=Nicole |last2=Martin |title=YouTube attacked by MPs over sex and violence footage |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/3358061/YouTube-attacked-by-MPs-over-sex-and-violence-footage.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/3358061/YouTube-attacked-by-MPs-over-sex-and-violence-footage.html |archive-date=2022-01-10 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=July 31, 2008 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> (July 2008)}}

In October 2010, U.S. Congressman [[Anthony Weiner]] urged YouTube to remove from its website videos of imam [[Anwar al-Awlaki]].<ref>{{cite news |date=October 25, 2010 |title=Al-Awlaki's YouTube Videos Targeted by Rep. Weiner |publisher=Fox News |url=https://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/10/25/rep-weiner-calls-youtube-al-awlakis-videos/ |access-date=November 13, 2010}}</ref> YouTube pulled some of the videos in November 2010, stating they violated the site's guidelines.<ref>{{cite news |last1=F. Burns |first1=John |last2=Helft |first2=Miguel |date=November 4, 2010 |title=YouTube Withdraws Cleric's Videos |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/05/world/05britain.html |access-date=March 26, 2017 |id={{ProQuest|1458411069}}}}</ref> In December 2010, YouTube added the ability to flag videos for containing terrorism content.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bennett |first=Brian |date=December 12, 2010 |title=YouTube is letting users decide on terrorism-related videos |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-youtube-terror-20101213,0,3375845.story |access-date=November 29, 2015}}</ref>

In 2018, YouTube introduced a system that would automatically add information boxes to videos that its algorithms determined may present conspiracy theories and other [[fake news]], filling the infobox with content from [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] and [[Wikipedia]] as a means to inform users to minimize misinformation propagation without impacting freedom of speech.<ref>{{cite web |last=Newton |first=Casey |date=March 13, 2018 |title=YouTube will add information from Wikipedia to videos about conspiracies |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/3/13/17117344/youtube-information-cues-conspiracy-theories-susan-wojcicki-sxsw |access-date=April 15, 2019 |work=[[The Verge]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Brown |first=David |date=March 14, 2018 |title=YouTube uses Wikipedia to fight fake news |language=en |work=[[The Times]] |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/youtube-fights-fake-news-with-wikipedia-frkpc8nm2 |url-status=live |access-date=July 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210927105159/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/youtube-fights-fake-news-with-wikipedia-frkpc8nm2 |archive-date=September 27, 2021 |issn=0140-0460}}</ref> In the wake of the [[Notre-Dame fire]] on April 15, 2019, several user-uploaded videos of the landmark fire were flagged by YouTube' system automatically with an Encyclopædia Britannica article on the false conspiracy theories around the [[September 11 attacks]]. Several users complained to YouTube about this inappropriate connection. YouTube officials apologized for this, stating that their algorithms had misidentified the fire videos and added the information block automatically, and were taking steps to remedy this.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bergen |first=Mark |date=April 15, 2019 |title=YouTube Flags Notre-Dame Fire as 9/11 Conspiracy, Says System Made 'Wrong Call' |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-15/youtube-flags-notre-dame-fire-as-9-11-conspiracy-in-wrong-call?srnd=technology-vp |access-date=April 15, 2019 |publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.]]}}</ref>

On April 18, 2023, YouTube revealed its changes in handling content associated with [[eating disorder]]s. This social media platform's Community Guidelines now prohibit content that could encourage emulation from at-risk users. This content includes behavior that shows severe calorie tracking and purging after eating. However, videos featuring positive behavior such as in the context of recovery will be permitted on the platform under two conditions—the user must have a registered (logged-in) account and must be older than 18.
This policy was created in collaboration with nonprofit organizations as well as the National Eating Disorder Association. Garth Graham, YouTube's Global Head of Healthcare revealed in an interview with CNN that this policy change was geared at ensuring that this video-sharing platform provides an avenue for "community recovery and resources" while ensuring continued viewer protection.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/04/18/tech/youtube-eating-disorder-policies/index.html |title=YouTube rolls out new policies for eating disorder content |publisher=CNN}}</ref>

==== Homophobia and transphobia ====
Five leading content creators whose channels were based on [[LGBTQ+]] materials filed a federal lawsuit against YouTube in August 2019, alleging that YouTube's algorithms divert discovery away from their channels, impacting their revenue. The plaintiffs claimed that the algorithms discourage content with words like "lesbian" or "gay", which would be predominant in their channels' content, and because of YouTube's near-monopolization of online video services, they are abusing that position.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bensinger |first1=Greg |last2=Albergotti |first2=Reed |date=August 14, 2019 |title=YouTube discriminates against LGBT content by unfairly culling it, suit alleges |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/08/14/youtube-discriminates-against-lgbt-content-by-unfairly-culling-it-suit-alleges/ |access-date=August 14, 2019 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref>

In June 2022, [[Media Matters]], a media watchdog group, reported that [[homophobic]] and [[transphobic]] content calling LGBT people [[LGBT grooming conspiracy theory|"predators" and "groomers"]] was becoming more common on YouTube.<ref name="lawton_20220623">{{cite web |url=https://www.mediamatters.org/google/right-wing-clickbait-pushing-anti-lgbtq-groomer-smears-are-increasingly-popular-youtube |title=Right-wing clickbait pushing anti-LGBTQ 'groomer' smears are increasingly popular on YouTube |website=Media Matters |last1=Lawton |first1=Sophie |date=June 23, 2022 |access-date=October 23, 2022}}</ref> The report also referred to common accusations in YouTube videos that LGBT people are [[mental illness|mentally ill]].<ref name="lawton_20220623" /> The report stated the content appeared to be in violation of YouTube's hate speech policy.<ref name="lawton_20220623" />

==== Animal torture ====

From 2020 on, the issue of videos featuring animal cruelty on YouTube has started to attract increasing attention in the media. In late 2020, animal welfare charity ''Lady Freethinker'' identified 2,053 videos on YouTube in which they stated animals were "deliberately harmed for entertainment or were shown to be under severe psychological distress, physical pain or dead."<ref>{{cite news|title=
YouTube must remove videos of animal cruelty, says charity|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/dec/19/youtube-must-remove-videos-of-animal-cruelty-says-charity |work=The GuardianTimes |access-date=December 5, 2023|date=December 19, 2020}}</ref>

In 2021, ''Lady Freethinker'' filed a lawsuit accusing YouTube of a breach of contract in allowing a large number of videos on its site showing animal abuse and failing to remove them when notified. YouTube responded by stating that they had "expanded its policy on animal abuse videos" in 2021, and since the introduction of the new policy "removed hundreds of thousands of videos and terminated thousands of channels for violations."<ref>{{cite news|title=Monkeys killed in blenders by sadistic torture ring that films abuse to sell online |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/19/technology/youtube-sued-animal-abuse.html |access-date=December 4, 2023 |work=The New York Times|date=October 19, 2021}}</ref>

In 2022, Google defeated the ''Lady Freethinker'' lawsuit, with a judge ruling that YouTube was protected by Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act, that shields internet platforms from lawsuits based on content posted by their users.<ref>{{cite news|title=Google Defeats Lawsuit Decrying Animal Abuse Videos on YouTube|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-08-04/google-defeats-lawsuit-decrying-animal-abuse-videos-on-youtube |access-date=December 5, 2023 |work=The New York Times|date=August 4, 2022}}</ref>

In 2023, YouTube stated that animal abuse "has no place on their platforms, and they are working to remove content (of that nature)".<ref name="telegraph/monkey-torture-women-arrested">{{cite news |last1=Newey |first1=Sarah |title=Monkeys killed in blenders by sadistic torture ring that films abuse to sell online |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2023/06/20/monkey-torture-ring-three-women-arrested-britain-bbc/ |access-date=June 23, 2023 |work=The Telegraph |date=June 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230620211907/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2023/06/20/monkey-torture-ring-three-women-arrested-britain-bbc/ |archive-date=June 20, 2023}}</ref><ref name="bbc/Iot1dIWVS5">{{cite web |title=Hunting the monkey torturers |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/extra/Iot1dIWVS5/hunting-the-monkey-torturers |website=BBC News |access-date=June 23, 2023}}</ref><ref name="express.co.uk/1503840">{{cite news |last1=Pritchard-Jones |first1=Oliver |title=YouTube hosts HUNDREDS of 'disgusting' animal cruelty videos |url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/1503840/youtube-news-baby-monkey-torture-animal-cruelty |access-date=June 23, 2023 |work=Daily Express |date=October 10, 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="bbc.co.uk/m001n32l">{{cite web |title=The Monkey Haters |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m001n32l |website=BBC Three |publisher=BBC |access-date=June 23, 2023}}</ref><ref name="bbc.co.uk/w3ct5j1p">{{cite web |title=The monkey haters |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3ct5j1p |website=The Documentary |publisher=BBC World Service |access-date=June 23, 2023}}</ref><ref name="vice/custom-baby-monkey-torture-videos">{{cite web |last1=Geiger |first1=Gabriel |title=People Buy Custom Baby Monkey Torture Videos on World's Worst Forum |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/7kvqgx/people-buy-custom-baby-monkey-torture-videos-on-worlds-worst-forum |website=Vice |access-date=June 23, 2023 |language=en |date=August 13, 2021}}</ref>

==== YouTube as a tool to promote conspiracy theories and far-right content{{anchor|Promotion_of_conspiracy_theories_and_fringe_discourse|Conspiracy_theories_and_fringe_discourse}} ====
YouTube has been criticized for using an algorithm that gives great prominence to videos that promote conspiracy theories, falsehoods and incendiary fringe discourse.<ref name=":1">{{cite news |last=Nicas |first=Jack |date=February 7, 2018 |title=How YouTube Drives People to the Internet's Darkest Corners |language=en-US |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-youtube-drives-viewers-to-the-internets-darkest-corners-1518020478 |access-date=June 16, 2018 |issn=0099-9660}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=As Germans Seek News, YouTube Delivers Far-Right Tirades |newspaper=The New York Times |date=September 7, 2018 |language=en |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/07/world/europe/youtube-far-right-extremism.html |access-date=September 8, 2018 |last1=Fisher |first1=Max |last2=Bennhold |first2=Katrin}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite news |last1=Ingram |first1=Matthew |title=YouTube's secret life as an engine for right-wing radicalization |language=en |work=Columbia Journalism Review |issue=September 19, 2018 |url=https://www.cjr.org/the_media_today/youtube-conspiracy-radicalization.php |access-date=March 26, 2019}}</ref> According to an investigation by ''The Wall Street Journal'', "YouTube's recommendations often lead users to channels that feature conspiracy theories, partisan viewpoints and misleading videos, even when those users haven't shown interest in such content. When users show a political bias in what they choose to view, YouTube typically recommends videos that echo those biases, often with more-extreme viewpoints."<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Lewis |first1=Rebecca |date=September 2018 |title=Alternative Influence: Broadcasting the Reactionary Right on YouTube |url=https://datasociety.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/DS_Alternative_Influence.pdf |access-date=March 26, 2019 |website=datasociety.net |publisher=Data and Society}}</ref> When users search for political or scientific terms, YouTube's search algorithms often give prominence to hoaxes and conspiracy theories.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite news |title=YouTube wants the news audience, but not the responsibility |language=en |work=Columbia Journalism Review |url=https://www.cjr.org/innovations/youtube-wants-the-news-audience-but-not-the-responsibility.php |access-date=September 23, 2018}}</ref> After YouTube drew controversy for giving top billing to videos promoting falsehoods and conspiracy when people made breaking-news queries during the [[2017 Las Vegas shooting]], YouTube changed its algorithm to give greater prominence to mainstream media sources.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Nicas |first=Jack |date=October 6, 2017 |title=YouTube Tweaks Search Results as Las Vegas Conspiracy Theories Rise to Top |language=en-US |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/youtube-tweaks-its-search-results-after-rise-of-las-vegas-conspiracy-theories-1507219180 |access-date=June 16, 2018 |issn=0099-9660}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Here's How YouTube Is Spreading Conspiracy Theories About The Vegas Shooting |language=en |work=BuzzFeed |url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/charliewarzel/heres-how-youtube-is-spreading-conspiracy-theories-about |access-date=June 16, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The Big Tech Platforms Still Suck During Breaking News |language=en |work=BuzzFeed |url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/charliewarzel/the-big-tech-platforms-are-still-botching-breaking-news |access-date=June 16, 2018}}</ref> In 2018, it was reported that YouTube was again promoting fringe content about breaking news, giving great prominence to conspiracy videos about [[Anthony Bourdain]]'s death.<ref>{{cite news |last=Alba |first=Davey |date=June 16, 2018 |title=YouTube Is Spreading Conspiracy Theories about Anthony Bourdain's Death |language=en |work=[[BuzzFeed News]] |url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/daveyalba/conspiracy-theories-about-anthony-bourdains-death-are |access-date=June 16, 2018}}</ref>

In 2017, it was revealed that advertisements were being placed on extremist videos, including videos by rape apologists, anti-Semites, and hate preachers who received ad payouts.<ref name=":2">{{cite news |date=March 20, 2017 |title=Google apologises as M&S pulls ads |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-39325916 |access-date=June 16, 2018}}</ref> After firms started to stop advertising on YouTube in the wake of this reporting, YouTube apologized and said that it would give firms greater control over where ads got placed.<ref name=":2" />

[[Alex Jones]], known for right-wing conspiracy theories, had built a massive audience on YouTube.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lewis |first=Paul |date=February 2, 2018 |title='Fiction is outperforming reality': how YouTube's algorithm distorts truth |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/feb/02/how-youtubes-algorithm-distorts-truth |access-date=June 16, 2018 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> YouTube drew criticism in 2018 when it removed a video from [[Media Matters]] compiling offensive statements made by Jones, stating that it violated its policies on "harassment and bullying".<ref>{{cite news |last=Levin |first=Sam |date=April 23, 2018 |title=YouTube under fire for censoring video exposing conspiracy theorist Alex Jones |language=en |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/apr/23/youtube-alex-jones-sandy-hook-media-matters-video |access-date=June 16, 2018}}</ref> On August 6, 2018, however, YouTube removed Alex Jones' YouTube page following a content violation.<ref>Salinas, Sara (August 6, 2018). [https://www.cnbc.com/2018/08/06/youtube-removes-alex-jones-account-following-earlier-bans.html "YouTube removes Alex Jones' page, following bans from Apple and Facebook."] [[CNBC]]. Retrieved October 15, 2018.</ref>

University of North Carolina professor [[Zeynep Tufekci]] has referred to YouTube as "The Great Radicalizer", saying "YouTube may be one of the most powerful radicalizing instruments of the 21st century."<ref>{{cite news |title=Opinion {{!}} YouTube, the Great Radicalizer |newspaper=The New York Times |date=March 10, 2018 |language=en |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/10/opinion/sunday/youtube-politics-radical.html |access-date=June 16, 2018 |last1=Tufekci |first1=Zeynep |id={{ProQuest|2610860590}}}}</ref> Jonathan Albright of the Tow Center for Digital Journalism at Columbia University described YouTube as a "conspiracy ecosystem".<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Parkland shooting 'crisis actor' videos lead users to a 'conspiracy ecosystem' on YouTube, new research shows |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2018/02/25/parkland-shooting-crisis-actor-videos-lead-users-to-a-conspiracy-ecosystem-on-youtube-new-research-shows/ |access-date=September 23, 2018 |newspaper=The Washington Post |language=en}}</ref>

In January 2019, YouTube said that it had introduced a new policy starting in the United States intended to stop recommending videos containing "content that could misinform users in harmful ways." YouTube gave [[Modern flat Earth societies|flat earth theories]], miracle cures, and [[9/11 Truth movement|9/11 truther-isms]] as examples.<ref>{{cite news |last=Weill |first=Kelly |date=January 25, 2019 |title=YouTube Tweaks Algorithm to Fight 9/11 Truthers, Flat Earthers, Miracle Cures |language=en |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/youtube-tweaks-algorithm-to-fight-911-truthers-flat-earthers-miracle-cures |access-date=January 29, 2019}}</ref> Efforts within YouTube engineering to stop recommending borderline extremist videos falling just short of forbidden hate speech, and track their popularity were originally rejected because they could interfere with viewer engagement.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bergen |first1=Mark |date=April 2, 2019 |title=YouTube Executives Ignored Warnings, Letting Toxic Videos Run Rampant |work=Bloomberg News |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2019-04-02/youtube-executives-ignored-warnings-letting-toxic-videos-run-rampant |access-date=April 2, 2019}}</ref> In late 2019, the site began implementing measures directed towards "raising authoritative content and reducing borderline content and harmful misinformation."<ref name="YT blog">{{cite web |title=The Four Rs of Responsibility, Part 2: Raising authoritative content and reducing borderline content and harmful misinformation |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2019/12/the-four-rs-of-responsibility-raise-and-reduce.html |access-date=January 31, 2020 |website=Official YouTube Blog |via=YouTube}}</ref>

Multiple research studies have investigated cases of misinformation in YouTube. In a July 2019 study based on ten YouTube searches using the [[Tor Browser]] related to climate and climate change, the majority of videos were videos that communicated views contrary to the [[scientific consensus on climate change]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Allgaier |first=Joachim |date=July 25, 2019 |title=Science and Environmental Communication on YouTube: Strategically Distorted Communications in Online Videos on Climate Change and Climate Engineering |journal=Frontiers in Communication |volume=4 |doi=10.3389/fcomm.2019.00036 |issn=2297-900X |doi-access=free}}</ref> A May 2023 study found that YouTube was monetizing and profiting from videos that included misinformation about climate change.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 4, 2023 |title=Google profiting from climate misinformation on YouTube, report finds |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/google-youtube-climate-disinformation-ads-b2331573.html |access-date=August 27, 2023 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref> A 2019 BBC investigation of YouTube searches in ten different languages found that YouTube's algorithm promoted health misinformation, including fake cancer cures.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Carmichael |first1=Flora |last2=Gragani |first2=Juliana |others=Beyond Fake News & B.B.C. Monitoring |title=How YouTube makes money from fake cancer cure videos |work=BBC News |date=September 12, 2019 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-49483681 |access-date=September 27, 2019 |language=en}}</ref> In Brazil, YouTube has been linked to pushing pseudoscientific misinformation on health matters, as well as elevated far-right fringe discourse and conspiracy theories.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fisher |first1=Max |last2=Taub |first2=Amanda |date=August 11, 2019 |title=How YouTube Radicalized Brazil |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/11/world/americas/youtube-brazil.html |access-date=August 12, 2019 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In the Philippines, numerous channels disseminated misinformation related to the [[2022 Philippine general election|2022 Philippine elections]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Tuquero |first=Loreben |title=Red flag for 2022: Political lies go unchecked on YouTube showbiz channels |url=https://www.rappler.com/nation/elections/political-lies-unchecked-youtube-showbiz-channels-red-flag-candidates-2022 |access-date=September 23, 2021 |work=[[Rappler]] |publisher=Rappler Inc. |date=September 22, 2021 |location=[[Manila]], Philippines}}</ref> Additionally, research on the dissemination of [[Modern flat Earth beliefs|Flat Earth]] beliefs in social media, has shown that networks of YouTube channels form an echo chamber that polarizes audiences by appearing to confirm preexisting beliefs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Diaz Ruiz |first1=Carlos |last2=Nilsson |first2=Tomas |date=August 8, 2022 |title=Disinformation and Echo Chambers: How Disinformation Circulates on Social Media Through Identity-Driven Controversies |journal=Journal of Public Policy & Marketing |volume=42 |language=en |pages=18–35 |doi=10.1177/07439156221103852 |s2cid=248934562 |issn=0743-9156 |doi-access=}}</ref>

==== Use among white supremacists ====
Before 2019, YouTube took steps to remove specific videos or channels related to [[Supremacism|supremacist]] content that had violated its acceptable use policies but otherwise did not have site-wide policies against [[hate speech]].<ref name="youtubeblog june2019">{{cite web |date=June 5, 2019 |title=Our ongoing work to tackle hate |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2019/06/our-ongoing-work-to-tackle-hate.html |access-date=April 9, 2020 |via=YouTube}}</ref>

In the wake of the March 2019 [[Christchurch mosque attacks]], YouTube and other sites like Facebook and Twitter that allowed user-submitted content drew criticism for doing little to moderate and control the spread of hate speech, which was considered to be a factor in the rationale for the attacks.<ref>{{cite web |last=Robertson |first=Adi |date=March 15, 2019 |title=Questions about policing online hate are much bigger than Facebook and YouTube |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/3/15/18267638/new-zealand-christchurch-mass-shooting-online-hate-facebook-youtube |access-date=April 9, 2020 |work=[[The Verge]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Timberg |first1=Craig |last2=Harwell |first2=Drew |last3=Shaban |first3=Hamza |last4=Ba Tran |first4=Andrew |last5=Fung |first5=Brian |date=March 15, 2020 |title=The New Zealand shooting shows how YouTube and Facebook spread hate and violent images – yet again |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/03/15/facebook-youtube-twitter-amplified-video-christchurch-mosque-shooting/ |access-date=April 9, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref> These platforms were pressured to remove such content, but in an interview with ''[[The New York Times]]'', YouTube's chief product officer Neal Mohan said that unlike content such as [[ISIS]] videos which take a particular format and thus easy to detect through computer-aided algorithms, general hate speech was more difficult to recognize and handle, and thus could not readily take action to remove without human interaction.<ref>{{cite web |last=Roose |first=Kevin |date=March 29, 2019 |title=YouTube's Product Chief on Online Radicalization and Algorithmic Rabbit Holes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/29/technology/youtube-online-extremism.html |access-date=April 9, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>

YouTube joined an initiative led by France and New Zealand with other countries and tech companies in May 2019 to develop tools to be used to block [[online hate speech]] and to develop regulations, to be implemented at the national level, to be levied against technology firms that failed to take steps to remove such speech, though the United States declined to participate.<ref>{{cite web |last=Browne |first=Ryan |date=May 15, 2019 |title=New Zealand and France unveil plans to tackle online extremism without the US on board |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/05/15/new-zealand-france-unveil-plans-to-tackle-online-extremism-without-us.html |access-date=April 9, 2020 |publisher=[[CNBC]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Willsher |first=Kim |date=May 15, 2019 |title=Leaders and tech firms pledge to tackle extremist violence online |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/may/15/jacinda-ardern-emmanuel-macron-christchurch-call-summit-extremist-violence-online |access-date=April 9, 2020 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> Subsequently, on June 5, 2019, YouTube announced a major change to its terms of service, "specifically prohibiting videos alleging that a group is superior in order to justify discrimination, segregation or exclusion based on qualities like age, gender, race, caste, religion, sexual orientation or veteran status." YouTube identified specific examples of such videos as those that "promote or glorify Nazi ideology, which is inherently discriminatory". YouTube further stated it would "remove content denying that well-documented violent events, like the Holocaust or the shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary, took place."<ref name="youtubeblog june2019" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Newton |first=Casey |date=June 5, 2019 |title=YouTube just banned supremacist content, and thousands of channels are about to be removed |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/6/5/18652576/youtube-supremacist-content-ban-borderline-extremist-terms-of-service |access-date=April 9, 2020 |work=[[The Verge]]}}</ref>

In October 2019, YouTube banned the main channel of [[Red Ice]], a white supremacist multimedia company, for hate speech violations. The channel had about 330,000 subscribers. [[Lana Lokteff]] and Red Ice promoted a backup channel in an attempt to circumvent the ban.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ramirez |first1=Nikki McCann |date=October 18, 2019 |title=White nationalist Red Ice TV is promoting a backup channel to skirt its YouTube ban |language=en |work=[[Media Matters for America]] |url=https://www.mediamatters.org/white-nationalism/how-white-nationalist-red-ice-tv-working-around-its-youtube-ban |url-status=live |access-date=October 20, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020215745/https://www.mediamatters.org/white-nationalism/how-white-nationalist-red-ice-tv-working-around-its-youtube-ban |archive-date=October 20, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Gais |first1=Hannah |date=October 21, 2019 |title=YouTube Takes Down Red Ice's Main Channel |language=en |work=HateWatch |publisher=[[Southern Poverty Law Center]] |url=https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2019/10/21/youtube-takes-down-red-ices-main-channel |url-status=live |access-date=October 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022081513/https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2019/10/21/youtube-takes-down-red-ices-main-channel |archive-date=October 22, 2019}}</ref> A week later, the backup channel was also removed by YouTube.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gais |first1=Hannah |date=October 23, 2019 |title=YouTube Yanks Second Red Ice Channel |language=en |work=HateWatch |publisher=Southern Poverty Law Center |url=https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2019/10/23/youtube-yanks-second-red-ice-channel |url-status=live |access-date=October 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025010112/https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2019/10/23/youtube-yanks-second-red-ice-channel |archive-date=October 25, 2019}}</ref><ref name="DailyDot">{{cite news |last1=Katzowitz |first1=Josh |date=October 24, 2019 |title=Red Ice, a popular white supremacist YouTube channel, has been shut down |language=en |work=[[The Daily Dot]] |url=https://www.dailydot.com/layer8/red-ice-youtube-ban/ |url-status=live |access-date=November 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028205415/https://www.dailydot.com/layer8/red-ice-youtube-ban/ |archive-date=October 28, 2019}}</ref>

In June 2020, YouTube banned several channels associated with white supremacy, including those of [[Stefan Molyneux]], [[David Duke]], and [[Richard B. Spencer]], asserting these channels violated their policies on hate speech. The ban occurred the same day that [[Reddit]] announced the ban on several hate speech sub-forums including [[r/The Donald]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Alexander |first=Julia |date=June 29, 2020 |title=YouTube bans Stefan Molyneux, David Duke, Richard Spencer, and more for hate speech |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/6/29/21307303/youtube-bans-molyneux-duke-richard-spencer-conduct-hate-speech |access-date=June 29, 2020 |work=[[The Verge]]}}</ref>

==== Handling of COVID-19 pandemic and other misinformation ====
Following the dissemination via YouTube of [[misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic]] that [[5G]] communications technology was responsible for the spread of [[coronavirus disease 2019]] which led to multiple 5G towers in the United Kingdom being attacked by arsonists, YouTube removed all such videos linking 5G and the coronavirus in this manner.<ref name="guardian-youtube-to-suppress-content-spreading-coronavirus-5g-conspiracy-theory">{{cite news |last=Hern |first=Alex |date=April 5, 2020 |title=YouTube moves to limit spread of false coronavirus 5G theory |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/05/youtube-to-suppress-content-spreading-coronavirus-5g-conspiracy-theory |access-date=April 5, 2020}}</ref>

In September 2021, YouTube extended this policy to cover videos disseminating misinformation related to any vaccine, including those long approved against measles or Hepatitis B, that had received approval from local health authorities or the [[World Health Organization]].<ref name="WaPo20210929">{{cite news |last=Pannett |first=Rachel |date=January 29, 2021 |title=Russia threatens to block YouTube after German channels are deleted over coronavirus misinformation |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/09/29/russia-ban-youtube-german-coronavirus/ |access-date=September 30, 2021}}</ref><ref name="NYT20210929">{{cite news |last=Alba |first=Davey |author-link=Davey Alba |date=September 29, 2021 |title=YouTube bans all anti-vaccine misinformation |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/29/technology/youtube-anti-vaxx-ban.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/29/technology/youtube-anti-vaxx-ban.html |archive-date=December 28, 2021 |url-access=limited |access-date=September 30, 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The platform proceeded to remove the accounts of anti-vaccine campaigners such as [[Robert F. Kennedy Jr.]] and [[Joseph Mercola]].<ref name="NYT20210929" />

YouTube had extended this moderation to non-medical areas. In the weeks following the [[2020 United States presidential election]], the site added policies to remove or label videos promoting election fraud claims;<ref>{{cite news |url=https://apnews.com/article/youtube-election-misinformation-removal-74ca3738e2774c9a4cf8fbd1e977710f |title=Weeks after election, YouTube cracks down on misinformation |first=Barbara |last=Ortutay |date=December 9, 2020 |access-date=June 2, 2023 |work=[[Associated Press News]]}}</ref> however, it reversed this policy in June 2023, citing that the removal was necessary to "openly debate political ideas, even those that are controversial or based on disproven assumptions".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://apnews.com/article/youtube-election-misinformation-policy-42a6c1b7623c485dbc04eb76ad443247 |title=YouTube changes policy to allow false claims about past US presidential elections |date=June 1, 2023 |access-date=June 2, 2023 |work=[[Associated Press News]]}}</ref> Google and YouTube implemented policies in October 2021 to deny monetization or revenue to advertisers or content creators that promoted [[climate change denial]], which "includes content referring to climate change as a hoax or a scam, claims denying that long-term trends show the global climate is warming, and claims denying that greenhouse gas emissions or human activity contribute to climate change."<ref>{{cite web |last=Peters |first=Jay |date=October 7, 2021 |title=Google and YouTube will cut off ad money for climate change deniers |url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/10/7/22715102/google-youtube-climate-change-deniers-ads-monetization |work=[[The Verge]] |access-date=October 7, 2021}}</ref>

In July 2022, YouTube announced policies to combat misinformation surrounding [[abortion]], such as videos with instructions to perform abortion methods that are considered unsafe and videos that contain misinformation about the [[safety of abortion]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Elias |first=Jennifer |date=July 21, 2022 |title=YouTube says it will crack down on abortion misinformation and remove videos with false claims |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/21/youtube-says-it-will-crack-down-on-abortion-misinformation.html |access-date=July 21, 2022 |publisher=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>

==== Child safety and wellbeing ====
{{See also|FamilyOFive|Fantastic Adventures scandal|Elsagate}}
Leading into 2017, there was a significant increase in the number of videos related to children, coupled between the popularity of parents vlogging their family's activities, and previous content creators moving away from content that often was criticized or demonetized into family-friendly material. In 2017, YouTube reported that time watching family vloggers had increased by 90%.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Luscombe |first=Belinda |date=May 18, 2017 |title=The YouTube Parents Who are Turning Family Moments into Big Bucks |url=https://time.com/4783215/growing-up-in-public/ |access-date=June 21, 2019 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Alexander |first=Julia |date=June 21, 2019 |title=YouTube can't remove kid videos without tearing a hole in the entire creator ecosystem |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/6/21/18651223/youtube-kids-harmful-content-predator-comments-family-vlogging |access-date=June 21, 2019 |work=[[The Verge]]}}</ref> However, with the increase in videos featuring children, the site began to face several controversies related to [[Child protection|child safety]]. During Q2 2017, the owners of popular channel [[FamilyOFive]], which featured themselves playing "pranks" on their children, were accused of [[child abuse]]. Their videos were eventually deleted, and two of their children were removed from their custody.<ref name="Ohlheiser2017">{{cite news |last=Ohlheiser |first=Abby |date=April 26, 2017 |title=The saga of a YouTube family who pulled disturbing pranks on their own kids |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2017/04/25/the-saga-of-a-youtube-family-who-pulled-disturbing-pranks-on-their-own-kids/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref><ref name="Cresci2017">{{cite news |last=Cresci |first=Elena |date=May 7, 2017 |title=Mean stream: how YouTube prank channel DaddyOFive enraged the internet |language=en-GB |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/shortcuts/2017/may/07/when-youtube-pranks-go-horribly-wrong |access-date=June 7, 2017 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name="Dunphy2017">{{cite web |last=Dunphy |first=Rachel |date=April 28, 2017 |title=The Abusive 'Pranks' of YouTube Family Vloggers |url=https://nymag.com/selectall/2017/04/daddyofive-youtube-abuse-controversy-explained.html |access-date=July 9, 2017 |work=[[New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref name="Gajanan2017">{{cite magazine |last=Gajanan |first=Mahita |date=May 3, 2017 |title=YouTube Star DaddyOFive Loses Custody of 2 Children Shown in 'Prank' Videos |url=https://time.com/4763981/daddyofive-mike-martin-heather-martin-youtube-prank-custody/ |access-date=July 9, 2017 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> A similar case happened in 2019 when the owner of the channel [[Fantastic Adventures scandal|Fantastic Adventures]] was accused of abusing her adopted children. Her videos would later be deleted.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Eric |last1=Levenson |first2=Mel |last2=Alonso |title=A mom on a popular YouTube show is accused of pepper-spraying her kids when they flubbed their lines |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/03/20/us/youtube-fantastic-adventures-mom-arrest-trnd/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=March 20, 2019}}</ref>

Later that year, YouTube came under criticism for showing inappropriate videos targeted at children and often featuring popular characters in violent, sexual or otherwise disturbing situations, many of which appeared on [[YouTube Kids]] and attracted millions of views. The term "[[Elsagate]]" was coined on the Internet and then used by various news outlets to refer to this controversy.<ref>Ben Popper, [https://www.theverge.com/2017/2/20/14489052/youtube-kids-videos-superheroes-disney-characters-fart-jokes Adults dressed as superheroes is YouTube's new, strange, and massively popular genre], ''The Verge'', February 4, 2017</ref><ref>{{cite web |author= |date=March 31, 2017 |title=Report: Thousands of videos mimicking popular cartoons on YouTube Kids contain inappropriate content |url=https://news10.com/2017/03/31/report-thousands-of-videos-mimicking-popular-cartoons-on-youtube-kids-contain-inappropriate-content/ |access-date=April 30, 2017 |website=NEWS10 ABC}}</ref><ref name="NYT">{{cite web |last=Maheshwari |first=Sapna |date=November 4, 2017 |title=Child Friendly? Startling Videos Slip Past Filters |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/04/business/media/youtube-kids-paw-patrol.html |url-access=limited |website=The New York Times |id={{ProQuest|2463387110}}}}</ref><ref name="forbes">Dani Di Placido, [https://www.forbes.com/sites/danidiplacido/2017/11/28/youtubes-elsagate-illuminates-the-unintended-horrors-of-the-digital-age/ YouTube's "Elsagate" Illuminates The Unintended Horrors Of The Digital Age], ''[[Forbes (magazine)|Forbes]]'', November 28, 2017</ref> On November 11, 2017, YouTube announced it was strengthening site security to protect children from unsuitable content. Later that month, the company started to mass delete videos and channels that made improper use of family-friendly characters. As part of a broader concern regarding child safety on YouTube, the wave of deletions also targeted channels that showed children taking part in inappropriate or dangerous activities under the guidance of adults. Most notably, the company removed ''[[Toy Freaks]]'', a channel with over 8.5 million subscribers, that featured a father and his two daughters in odd and upsetting situations.<ref name="auto">Todd Spangler, [https://variety.com/2017/digital/news/youtube-toy-freaks-channel-terminated-1202617834/ YouTube Terminates Toy Freaks Channel Amid Broader Crackdown on Disturbing Kids' Content], ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'', November 17, 2017</ref><ref name="verge">{{cite news |last=Popper |first=Ben |date=November 9, 2017 |title=YouTube says it will crack down on bizarre videos targeting children |work=[[The Verge]] |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/11/9/16629788/youtube-kids-distrubing-inappropriate-flag-age-restrict |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116090955/https://www.theverge.com/2017/11/9/16629788/youtube-kids-distrubing-inappropriate-flag-age-restrict |archive-date=November 16, 2017 |quote=In August of this year, YouTube announced that it would no longer allow creators to monetize videos which "made inappropriate use of family-friendly characters." Today it's taking another step to try to police this genre.}}</ref><ref>Sarah Templeton, [https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/entertainment/2017/11/disturbing-elsagate-toy-freaks-videos-removed-from-youtube-after-abuse-allegations.html Disturbing 'ElsaGate', 'Toy Freaks' videos removed from YouTube after abuse allegations], ''[[Newshub]]'', November 22, 2017</ref><ref>[https://abcnews.go.com/US/youtube-crack-videos-showing-child-endangerment/story?id=51336368 YouTube to crack down on videos showing child endangerment], ''[[ABC News]]'', November 22, 2017</ref><ref>Charlie Warzel, [https://www.buzzfeed.com/charliewarzel/youtube-is-addressing-its-massive-child-exploitation-problem YouTube Is Addressing Its Massive Child Exploitation Problem] [[BuzzFeed]], November 22, 2017</ref> According to analytics specialist SocialBlade, it earned up to $11.2 million annually prior to its deletion in November 2017.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bridge |first1=Mark |last2=Mostrous |first2=Alexi |date=November 18, 2017 |title=Child abuse on YouTube |newspaper=The Times |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/child-abuse-on-youtube-q3x9zfkch |url-access=subscription |access-date=November 28, 2017}}</ref>

Even for content that appears to be aimed at children and appears to contain only child-friendly content, YouTube's system allows for anonymity of who uploads these videos. These questions have been raised in the past, as YouTube has had to remove channels with children's content which, after becoming popular, then suddenly include inappropriate content masked as children's content.<ref name="WSJ kids love">{{cite news |last1=Koh |first1=Yoree |last2=Morris |first2=Betsy |date=April 11, 2019 |title=Kids Love These YouTube Channels. Who Creates Them Is a Mystery. |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/kids-love-these-youtube-channels-who-creates-them-is-a-mystery-11554975000 |url-access=registration |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814180500/https://www.wsj.com/articles/kids-love-these-youtube-channels-who-creates-them-is-a-mystery-11554975000 |archive-date=August 14, 2019 |access-date=August 14, 2019}}</ref> Alternative, some of the most-watched children's programming on YouTube comes from channels that have no identifiable owners, raising concerns of intent and purpose. One channel that had been of concern was "[[Cocomelon – Nursery Rhymes|Cocomelon]]" which provided numerous mass-produced animated videos aimed at children. Up through 2019, it had drawn up to {{USD|10 million}} a month in ad revenue and was one of the largest kid-friendly channels on YouTube before 2020. Ownership of Cocomelon was unclear outside of its ties to "Treasure Studio", itself an unknown entity, raising questions as to the channel's purpose,<ref name="WSJ kids love" /><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Martineau |first=Paris |title=YouTube Has Kid Troubles Because Kids Are a Core Audience |url=https://www.wired.com/story/youtube-kid-troubles-kids-core-audience/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811205146/https://www.wired.com/story/youtube-kid-troubles-kids-core-audience/ |archive-date=August 11, 2019 |access-date=August 14, 2019 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Graham |first=Jefferson |date=June 22, 2019 |title=Why YouTube's kid issues are so serious |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/talkingtech/2019/06/22/nursery-rhymes-i-toy-story-porn-youtube-thats-kid-problem/1529724001/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814181002/https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/talkingtech/2019/06/22/nursery-rhymes-i-toy-story-porn-youtube-thats-kid-problem/1529724001/ |archive-date=August 14, 2019 |access-date=August 14, 2019 |website=USA Today}}</ref> but ''[[Bloomberg News]]'' had been able to confirm and interview the small team of American owners in February 2020 regarding "Cocomelon", who stated their goal for the channel was to simply entertain children, wanting to keep to themselves to avoid attention from outside investors.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bergan |first1=Mark |last2=Shaw |first2=Lucas |date=February 10, 2020 |title=YouTube's Secretive Top Kids Channel Expands Into Merchandise |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-10/popular-youtube-kids-channel-cocomelon-gets-into-merch-and-toys |access-date=June 15, 2020 |work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref> The anonymity of such channel raise concerns because of the lack of knowledge of what purpose they are trying to serve.<ref name="vice kids content">{{cite web |last=Haskins |first=Caroline |date=March 19, 2019 |title=YouTubers Are Fighting Algorithms to Make Good Content for Kids |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/mbznpy/youtubers-are-fighting-algorithms-to-make-good-content-for-kids |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814182839/https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/mbznpy/youtubers-are-fighting-algorithms-to-make-good-content-for-kids |archive-date=August 14, 2019 |access-date=August 14, 2019 |website=[[Vice Media|Vice]]}}</ref> The difficulty to identify who operates these channels "adds to the lack of accountability", according to Josh Golin of the [[Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood]], and educational consultant Renée Chernow-O'Leary found the videos were designed to entertain with no intent to educate, all leading to critics and parents to be concerned for their children becoming too enraptured by the content from these channels.<ref name="WSJ kids love" /> Content creators that earnestly make child-friendly videos have found it difficult to compete with larger channels, unable to produce content at the same rate as them, and lacking the same means of being promoted through YouTube's recommendation algorithms that the larger animated channel networks have shared.<ref name="vice kids content" />

In January 2019, YouTube officially banned videos containing "challenges that encourage acts that have an inherent risk of severe physical harm" (such as the [[Consumption of Tide Pods|Tide Pod Challenge]]) and videos featuring pranks that "make victims believe they're in physical danger" or cause emotional distress in children.<ref>{{cite web |last=Palladino |first=Valentina |date=January 16, 2019 |title=YouTube updates policies to explicitly ban dangerous pranks, challenges |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/01/youtube-updates-policies-to-explicitly-ban-dangerous-pranks-challenges/ |access-date=January 16, 2019 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us}}</ref>

==== Sexualization of children and pedophilia ====
{{See also|Elsagate}}

Also in November 2017, it was revealed in the media that many videos featuring children—often uploaded by the minors themselves, and showing innocent content such as the children playing with toys or performing gymnastics—were attracting comments from [[Pedophilia|pedophiles]]<ref>[https://www.theverge.com/2017/11/15/16656706/youtube-videos-children-comments YouTube videos of children are plagued by sexual comments], ''[[The Verge]]'', November 15, 2017</ref><ref name="habits">{{cite news |last1=Mostrous |first1=Alexi |last2=Bridge |first2=Mark |last3=Gibbons |first3=Katie |date=November 24, 2017 |title=YouTube adverts fund paedophile habits |newspaper=The Times |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/youtube-adverts-fund-paedophile-habits-fdzfmqlr5 |url-access=subscription |access-date=November 28, 2017}}</ref> with predators finding the videos through private YouTube playlists or typing in certain keywords in Russian.<ref name="habits" /> Other child-centric videos originally uploaded to YouTube began propagating on the [[dark web]], and uploaded or embedded onto forums known to be used by pedophiles.<ref>{{cite news |last=Tait |first=Amelia |date=April 24, 2016 |title=Why YouTube mums are taking their kids offline |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/culture/observations/2016/04/why-youtube-mums-are-taking-their-kids-offline |access-date=June 21, 2019 |work=[[New Statesman]]}}</ref>

As a result of the controversy, which added to the concern about "Elsagate", several major advertisers whose ads had been running against such videos froze spending on YouTube.<ref name="forbes" /><ref>Todd Spangler, [https://variety.com/2017/digital/news/youtube-ad-boycott-pedophile-sexual-children-videos-1202622790/ YouTube Faces Advertiser Boycott Over Videos With Kids That Attracted Sexual Predators], ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'', November 25, 2017</ref> In December 2018, ''[[The Times]]'' found more than 100 grooming cases in which children were manipulated into sexually implicit behavior (such as taking off clothes, adopting overtly sexual poses and touching other children inappropriately) by strangers.<ref name=":5">{{cite news |last=Bridge |first=Harry Shukman, Mark |date=December 10, 2018 |title=Paedophiles grooming children live on YouTube |language=en |work=The Times |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/paedophiles-grooming-children-live-on-youtube-3fv8gt730 |access-date=February 18, 2019 |issn=0140-0460}}</ref> After a reporter flagged the videos in question, half of them were removed, and the rest were removed after ''The Times'' contacted YouTube's PR department.<ref name=":5" />

In February 2019, YouTube vlogger Matt Watson identified a "wormhole" that would cause the YouTube recommendation algorithm to draw users into this type of video content, and make all of that user's recommended content feature only these types of videos.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lieber |first1=Chavie |title=YouTube has a pedophilia problem, and its advertisers are jumping ship |url=https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2019/2/27/18241961/youtube-pedophile-ring-child-safety-advertisers-pulling-ads |website=vox.com |date=March 1, 2019}}</ref> Most of these videos had comments from sexual predators commenting with timestamps of when the children were shown in compromising positions or otherwise making indecent remarks. In some cases, other users had re-uploaded the video in unlisted form but with incoming links from other videos, and then monetized these, propagating this network.<ref name="bloomberg mwatson">{{cite news |last1=Bergen |first1=Mark |last2=de Vynck |first2=Gerrit |last3=Palmeri |first3=Christopher |date=February 20, 2019 |title=Nestle, Disney Pull YouTube Ads, Joining Furor Over Child Videos |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-02-20/disney-pulls-youtube-ads-amid-concerns-over-child-video-voyeurs |access-date=February 20, 2019 |work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref> In the wake of the controversy, the service reported that they had deleted over 400 channels and tens of millions of comments, and reported the offending users to law enforcement and the [[National Center for Missing and Exploited Children]]. A spokesperson explained that "any content—including comments—that endangers minors is abhorrent and we have clear policies prohibiting this on YouTube. There's more to be done, and we continue to work to improve and catch abuse more quickly."<ref>{{cite web |last=Alexander |first=Julia |date=February 21, 2019 |title=YouTube terminates more than 400 channels following child exploitation controversy |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/2/21/18234494/youtube-child-exploitation-channel-termination-comments-philip-defranco-creators |access-date=February 21, 2019 |work=[[The Verge]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Brodkin |first=Jon |date=February 21, 2019 |title=YouTube loses advertisers over 'wormhole into pedophilia ring' |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2019/02/youtube-loses-advertisers-over-wormhole-into-pedophilia-ring/ |access-date=February 22, 2019 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us}}</ref> Despite these measures, [[AT&T]], [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]], [[Dr. Oetker]], [[Epic Games]], and [[Nestlé]] all pulled their advertising from YouTube.<ref name="bloomberg mwatson" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Haselton |first1=Todd |last2=Salinas |first2=Sara |date=February 21, 2019 |title=As fallout over pedophilia content on YouTube continues, AT&T pulls all advertisements |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/02/21/att-pulls-all-ads-from-youtube-pedophilia-controversy.html |access-date=February 21, 2019 |publisher=[[CNBC]]}}</ref>

Subsequently, YouTube began to demonetize and block advertising on the types of videos that have drawn these predatory comments. The service explained that this was a temporary measure while they explore other methods to eliminate the problem.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ingraham |first=Nathan |date=February 22, 2019 |title=YouTube is proactively blocking ads on videos prone to predatory comments |url=https://www.engadget.com/2019/02/22/youtube-blocking-ads-on-videos-predatory-comments/ |access-date=February 22, 2019 |work=[[Engadget]]}}</ref> YouTube also began to flag channels that predominantly feature children, and preemptively disable their comments sections. "Trusted partners" can request that comments be re-enabled, but the channel will then become responsible for moderating comments. These actions mainly target videos of toddlers, but videos of older children and teenagers may be protected as well if they contain actions that can be interpreted as sexual, such as gymnastics. YouTube stated it was also working on a better system to remove comments on other channels that matched the style of child predators.<ref>{{cite news |last=Fox |first=Chris |date=February 28, 2019 |title=YouTube bans comments on all videos of kids |language=en-GB |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-47408969 |access-date=March 2, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Alexander |first=Julia |date=February 28, 2019 |title=YouTube is disabling comments on almost all videos featuring children |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/2/28/18244954/youtube-comments-minor-children-exploitation-monetization-creators |access-date=February 28, 2019 |work=[[The Verge]]}}</ref>

A related attempt to algorithmically flag videos containing references to the string "CP" (an abbreviation of [[child pornography]]) resulted in some prominent false positives involving unrelated topics using the same abbreviation, including videos related to the mobile video game ''[[Pokémon Go]]'' (which uses "CP" as an abbreviation of the statistic "Combat Power"), and ''[[Club Penguin]]''. YouTube apologized for the errors and reinstated the affected videos.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gerken |first=Tom |date=February 19, 2019 |title=YouTube backtracks after Pokemon 'child abuse' ban |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-47278362 |access-date=February 20, 2019 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> Separately, online trolls have attempted to have videos flagged for takedown or removal by commenting with statements similar to what the child predators had said; this activity became an issue during the [[PewDiePie vs T-Series]] rivalry in early 2019. YouTube stated they do not take action on any video with these comments but those that they have flagged that are likely to draw child predator activity.<ref>{{cite web |last=Alexander |first=Julia |date=February 28, 2019 |title=Trolls are lying about child porn to try to get YouTube channels taken down |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/2/28/18241925/youtube-creator-comments-weaponized-trolling-child-exploitation-lies-controversy-lies |access-date=February 28, 2019 |work=[[The Verge]]}}</ref>

In June 2019, ''The New York Times'' cited researchers who found that users who watched erotic videos could be recommended seemingly innocuous videos of children.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fisher |first1=Max |last2=Taub |first2=Amanda |date=June 3, 2019 |title=On YouTube's Digital Playground, an Open Gate for Pedophiles |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/03/world/americas/youtube-pedophiles.html |access-date=June 6, 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> As a result, Senator [[Josh Hawley]] stated plans to introduce federal legislation that would ban YouTube and other video sharing sites from including videos that predominantly feature minors as "recommended" videos, excluding those that were "professionally produced", such as videos of televised talent shows.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ingraham |first=Nathan |date=June 6, 2019 |title=A Senator wants to stop YouTube from recommending videos featuring minors |url=https://www.engadget.com/2019/06/06/senator-youtube-bill-stop-featuring-minors-in-recommendations/ |access-date=June 6, 2019 |work=[[Engadget]]}}</ref> YouTube has suggested potential plans to remove all videos featuring children from the main YouTube site and transferring them to the [[YouTube Kids]] site where they would have stronger controls over the recommendation system, as well as other major changes on the main YouTube site to the recommended feature and auto-play system.<ref>{{cite web |last=Copeland |first=Rob |date=June 19, 2019 |title=YouTube, Under Fire, Considers Major Changes to Kids' Content |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/youtube-under-fire-considers-major-changes-to-kids-content-11560953721 |access-date=June 19, 2019 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref>

==== Misogyny ====
A January 2022 report by the social media analytics firm [[Bot Sentinel]] said that several online influencers were using YouTube to exclusively post negative content about [[Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex|Prince Harry]] and [[Meghan, Duchess of Sussex|Meghan Markle]], including [[conspiracy theories]] about the couple, in what it called "a lucrative hate-for-profit enterprise" where "racism and YouTube ad revenue are the primary motivators."{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}} Bot Sentinel also found that one of the most prominent accounts promoting a conspiracy theory that Meghan was never pregnant had accumulated nearly 19 million views and was earning around $44,000 a year. YouTube banned the account in March.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cockerell |first=Isobel |date=December 14, 2022 |title=Meghan never stood a chance against the internet |url=https://www.codastory.com/disinformation/information-war/harry-and-meghan-netflix-documentary-disinformation/ |access-date=December 26, 2022 |website=[[Coda Media]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

An August 2022 report by the [[Center for Countering Digital Hate]], a British think tank, found that harassment against women was flourishing on YouTube. It noted that channels espousing a similar ideology to that of [[Men's rights movement|men's rights influencer]] [[Andrew Tate]] were using YouTube to grow their audience, despite Tate being banned from the platform.<ref name=":14">{{cite news |last=Lorenz |first=Taylor |author-link=Taylor Lorenz |date=September 18, 2022 |title=YouTube remains rife with misogyny and harassment, creators say |language=en-US |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/09/18/you-tube-mysogyny-women-hate/ |access-date=December 26, 2022 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> In his 2022 book ''Like, Comment, Subscribe: Inside YouTube's Chaotic Rise to World Domination'', [[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]] reporter Mark Bergen said that many female content creators were dealing with harassment, bullying, and stalking.<ref name=":14" />

=== Russia ===

In 2021, two accounts linked to [[RT Deutsch]], the German channel of the Russian [[RT (TV network)|RT]] network were removed as well for breaching YouTube's policies relating to COVID-19.<ref name="WaPo20210929" /> Russia threatened to ban YouTube after the platform deleted two German RT channels in September 2021.<ref>{{cite news |date=September 29, 2021 |title=Russia threatens YouTube ban for deleting RT channels |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-58737433 |access-date=February 27, 2022}}</ref>

Shortly after the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] in 2022, YouTube removed all channels funded by the Russian state.<ref>{{cite news |date=March 3, 2022 |title=YouTube blocks Russian state-funded media channels globally |language=en-US |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/media-telecom/youtube-blocks-russian-state-funded-media-channels-globally-2022-03-11/ |access-date=December 5, 2023}}</ref> YouTube expanded the removal of Russian content from its site to include channels described as 'pro-Russian'. In June 2022, the ''War Gonzo'' channel run by Russian military blogger and journalist [[Semyon Pegov]] was deleted.<ref>{{cite news |date=June 21, 2022 |title=Youtube deletes Wargonzo channel |url=https://news.am/eng/news/708387.html|access-date=December 5, 2023}}</ref> In July 2023, YouTube removed the channel of British journalist [[Graham Phillips (journalist)|Graham Phillips]], active in covering the [[War in Donbas]] from 2014.<ref>{{cite news |title=British Pro-Russian YouTuber vows his assets shouldn't be frozen for promoting invasion |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/british-pro-russian-youtuber-vows-31457188 |access-date=5 December 2023 |work=[[Daily Mirror|The Mirror]] |date=16 November 2023 }}</ref>

In August 2023, a Moscow court fined Google 3 million rubles, around $35,000, for not deleting what it said was "fake news about the war in Ukraine".<ref>{{cite news |title=Russia fines Google for failing to delete 'false content' about Ukraine war |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/russia-fine-google-ukraine-war/ |access-date=10 December 2023 |work=[[Politico]] |date=17 August 2023 }}</ref>

=== April Fools gags ===
{{See also|List of Google April Fools' Day jokes}}
YouTube featured an [[April Fools' Day|April Fools]] prank on the site on April 1 of every year from 2008 to 2016. In 2008, all links to videos on the main page were redirected to [[Rick Astley]]'s music video "[[Never Gonna Give You Up]]", a prank known as "[[rickrolling]]".<ref>{{cite web |last=Arrington |first=Michael |date=March 31, 2008 |title=YouTube RickRolls Users |url=https://techcrunch.com/2008/03/31/youtube-rickrolls-users/ |access-date=March 26, 2017 |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Wortham |first=Jenna |date=April 1, 2008 |title=YouTube 'Rickrolls' Everyone |url=https://www.wired.com/2008/04/youtube-rickrol/ |magazine=Wired |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref> The next year, when clicking on a video on the main page, the whole page turned upside down, which YouTube claimed was a "new layout".<ref>{{cite web |author=Bas van den Beld |date=April 1, 2009 |title=April fools: YouTube turns the world up-side-down |url=https://www.searchcowboys.com/news/453 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090403054721/https://www.searchcowboys.com/news/453 |archive-date=April 3, 2009 |access-date=April 2, 2010 |publisher=searchcowboys.com}}</ref> In 2010, YouTube temporarily released a "TEXTp" mode which rendered video imagery into [[ASCII art]] letters "in order to reduce bandwidth costs by $1 per second."<ref>{{cite web |last=Pichette |first=Patrick |date=March 31, 2010 |title=TEXTp saves YouTube bandwidth, money |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2010/03/textp-saves-youtube-bandwidth-money.html |access-date=March 25, 2017 |website=Official YouTube Blog}}</ref>

The next year, the site celebrated its "100th anniversary" with a range of sepia-toned silent, early 1900s-style films, including a parody of [[Keyboard Cat]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Richmond |first=Shane |date=April 1, 2011 |title=YouTube goes back to 1911 for April Fools' Day |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/8421394/YouTube-goes-back-to-1911-for-April-Fools-Day.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/8421394/YouTube-goes-back-to-1911-for-April-Fools-Day.html |archive-date=January 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=March 26, 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 2012, clicking on the image of a DVD next to the site logo led to a video about a purported option to order every YouTube video for home delivery on DVD.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Carbone |first=Nick |date=April 1, 2012 |title=April Fools' Day 2012: The Best Pranks from Around the Web |url=https://newsfeed.time.com/2012/04/01/april-fools-day-2012-the-best-pranks-from-around-the-web/ |magazine=Time |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref>

In 2013, YouTube teamed up with satirical newspaper company ''[[The Onion]]'' to claim in an uploaded video that the video-sharing website was launched as a contest which had finally come to an end, and would shut down for ten years before being re-launched in 2023, featuring only the winning video. The video starred several [[Internet celebrity|YouTube celebrities]], including [[Antoine Dodson]]. A video of two presenters announcing the nominated videos streamed live for 12 hours.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Quan |first=Kristene |date=April 1, 2013 |title=WATCH: YouTube Announces It Will Shut Down |url=https://newsfeed.time.com/2013/04/01/watch-youtube-announces-it-will-shut-down/ |magazine=Time |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Murphy |first=Samantha |date=March 31, 2013 |title=YouTube Says It's Shutting Down in April Fools' Day Prank |url=https://mashable.com/2013/03/31/youtube-april-fools-day/?europe=true |access-date=November 8, 2019 |publisher=[[Mashable]]}}</ref>

In 2014, YouTube announced that it was responsible for the creation of all viral video trends, and revealed previews of upcoming trends, such as "Clocking", "Kissing Dad", and "Glub Glub Water Dance".<ref>{{cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Alexis |date=April 1, 2014 |title=YouTube Reveals Its Viral Secrets in April Fools' Day Video |newspaper=HuffPost |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/04/01/youtube-april-fools_n_5068694.html |access-date=April 1, 2014}}</ref> The next year, YouTube added a music button to the video bar that played samples from "[[Sandstorm (instrumental)|Sandstorm]]" by [[Darude]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Alba |first=Alejandro |date=April 1, 2015 |title=17 April Fools' pranks from tech brands, tech giants today |url=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/17-april-fool-pranks-tech-brands-tech-giants-today-article-1.2169557 |access-date=June 12, 2016 |website=Daily News|location=New York}}</ref> In 2016, YouTube introduced an option to watch every video on the platform in 360-degree mode with [[Snoop Dogg]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Sini |first=Rozina |date=April 1, 2016 |title=Snoopavision and other April Fools jokes going viral |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-35941866 |access-date=April 1, 2016}}</ref>

== Services ==

=== YouTube Premium ===
{{Main|YouTube Premium}}[[File:YouTube Premium logo.svg|thumb|Logo of YouTube Premium]]
YouTube Premium (formerly YouTube Red) is YouTube's premium subscription service. It offers advertising-free streaming, access to [[YouTube Originals|original programming]], and background and offline video playback on mobile devices.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/premium |title=YouTube Premium |via=YouTube}}</ref> YouTube Premium was originally announced on November 12, 2014, as "Music Key", a [[Comparison of on-demand music streaming services|subscription music streaming]] service, and was intended to integrate with and replace the existing Google Play Music "All Access" service.<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Trew |title=YouTube unveils Music Key subscription service, here's what you need to know |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/11/12/youtube-launches-music-key/ |website=[[Engadget]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=November 12, 2014 |access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Casey |last=Newton |title=YouTube announces plans for a subscription music service |url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/11/12/7201969/youtube-music-key-new-subscription-service |website=[[The Verge]] |date=November 12, 2014 |access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref><ref name="Variety Music Key">{{cite web |first=Todd |last=Spangler |title=YouTube Launches 'Music Key' Subscription Service with More Than 30 Million Songs |url=https://variety.com/2014/digital/news/youtube-launches-music-key-subscription-service-with-more-than-30-million-songs-1201354498/ |website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |date=November 12, 2014 |access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref> On October 28, 2015, the service was relaunched as YouTube Red, offering ad-free streaming of all videos and access to exclusive original content.<ref>{{cite web |first=Todd |last=Spangler |title=YouTube Red Unveiled: Ad-Free Streaming Service Priced Same as Netflix |url=https://variety.com/2015/digital/news/youtube-red-launches-ad-free-svod-netflix-1201623219/ |website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |date=October 21, 2015 |access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Ron |last=Amadeo |title="YouTube Red" offers premium YouTube for $9.99 a month, $12.99 for iOS users |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2015/10/youtube-red-offers-premium-youtube-for-9-99-a-month-12-99-for-ios-users/ |website=[[Ars Technica]] |date=October 21, 2015 |access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Ben |last=Popper |title=A first look at the ad-free YouTube Red subscription service |url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/10/21/9586656/youtube-red-subscription-service-hands-on-video-release-date |website=[[The Verge]] |date=October 21, 2015 |access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref> {{As of|2016|November}}, the service has 1.5 million subscribers, with a further million on a free-trial basis.<ref>{{cite web |first=Hannah |last=Roberts |title=YouTube's ad-free paid subscription service looks like it is struggling to take off |url=https://nordic.businessinsider.com/membership-of-youtubes-paid-subscription-service-is-low-2016-11 |website=[[Business Insider]] |date=November 3, 2016 |access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref> {{As of|2017|June}}, the first season of [[List of YouTube Premium original programming|YouTube Originals]] had received 250 million views in total.<ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube Red originals have racked up nearly 250 million views |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/6/22/15855570/youtube-red-originals-250-million-views |website=The Verge |access-date=September 16, 2017 |date=June 22, 2017}}</ref>

=== YouTube Kids ===
{{Main|YouTube Kids}}

[[File:YouTube Kids logo.svg|thumb|Logo of YouTube Kids]]
YouTube Kids is an American children's video app developed by YouTube, a subsidiary of [[Google]]. The app was developed in response to parental and government scrutiny on the content available to children. The app provides a version of the service-oriented towards children, with curated selections of content, parental control features, and filtering of videos deemed inappropriate viewing for children aged under 13, 8 or 5 depending on the age grouping chosen. First released on February 15, 2015, as an [[Android (operating system)|Android]] and [[iOS]] [[mobile app]], the app has since been released for [[LG Electronics|LG]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]], and [[Sony]] [[smart TV]]s, as well as for [[Android TV]]. On May 27, 2020, it became available on [[Apple TV]]. As of September 2019, the app is available in 69 countries, including Hong Kong and Macau, and one province. YouTube launched a web-based version of YouTube Kids on August 30, 2019.

=== YouTube Music ===
{{Main|YouTube Music}}

[[File:YT_Music.svg|thumb|Logo of YouTube Music]]
On September 28, 2016, YouTube named [[Lyor Cohen]], the co-founder of [[300 Entertainment]] and former [[Warner Music Group]] executive, the Global Head of Music.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/7525695/lyor-cohen-named-youtube-global-head-of-music |title=Lyor Cohen Named YouTube's Global Head of Music |magazine=Billboard |access-date=January 6, 2018}}</ref>

In early 2018, Cohen began hinting at the possible launch of YouTube's new subscription music streaming service, a platform that would compete with other services such as [[Spotify]] and [[Apple Music]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://fortune.com/2018/01/04/youtube-lyor-cohen/ |title=How YouTube Is Playing the Peacemaker With Musicians |work=Fortune |access-date=January 6, 2018 |language=en}}</ref> On May 22, 2018, the music streaming platform named "YouTube Music" was launched.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8457379/inside-youtube-new-subscription-music-streaming-service |title=Inside YouTube's New Subscription Music Streaming Service |magazine=Billboard |access-date=September 24, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/may/17/youtube-music-new-streaming-service-launch |title=YouTube to launch new music streaming service |last1=Snapes |first1=Laura |last2=Sweney |first2=Mark |date=May 17, 2018 |newspaper=The Guardian |language=en |access-date=September 24, 2018}}</ref>

=== YouTube Movies ===
YouTube Movies is a service by YouTube that shows movies via its website. Around 100–500 movies are free to view, with ads. Some new movies get added and some get removed, unannounced at a new month.<ref>{{cite web |date=November 16, 2018 |title=YouTube is now showing ad-supported Hollywood movies |url=https://adage.com/article/digital/youtube-starts-showing-free-hollywood-movies-ad-breaks/315631 |access-date=June 9, 2021 |website=[[Advertising Age]]}}</ref>

=== YouTube TV ===
{{Main|YouTube TV}}
[[File:YouTube TV logo.svg|thumb|YouTube TV logo]]
On February 28, 2017, in a press announcement held at YouTube Space Los Angeles, YouTube announced YouTube TV, an [[over-the-top content|over-the-top]] [[multichannel video programming distributor|MVPD]]-style subscription service that would be available for United States customers at a price of US$65 per month. Initially launching in five major markets ([[New York City]], [[Los Angeles]], [[Chicago]], [[Philadelphia]] and [[San Francisco]]) on April 5, 2017,<ref>{{cite news |title=YouTube TV launches today. It has some cool features and some big drawbacks |url=https://www.latimes.com/business/hollywood/la-fi-ct-youtube-tv-20170405-story.html |agency=Associated Press |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=April 5, 2017 |access-date=April 24, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube Is Officially in the Live TV Game Now |url=https://gizmodo.com/youtube-is-officially-in-the-live-tv-game-now-1794049030 |first=Christina |last=Warren |website=[[Gizmodo]] |publisher=Gizmodo Media Group |date=April 5, 2017 |access-date=April 24, 2017}}</ref> the service offers live streams of programming from the five major broadcast networks ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], [[CBS]], [[The CW]], [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] and [[NBC]]), as well as approximately 40 cable channels owned by the corporate parents of those networks, [[The Walt Disney Company]], [[CBS Corporation]], [[21st Century Fox]], [[NBCUniversal]] and [[Turner Broadcasting System]] (including among others [[Bravo (U.S. TV network)|Bravo]], [[USA Network]], [[Syfy]], [[Disney Channel]], [[CNN]], [[Cartoon Network]], [[E!]], [[Fox Sports 1]], [[Freeform (TV network)|Freeform]], [[FX (TV network)|FX]] and [[ESPN]]). Subscribers can also receive [[Showtime (TV network)|Showtime]] and [[Fox Soccer Plus]] as optional add-ons for an extra fee, and can access [[YouTube Premium]] original content.<ref>{{cite news |title=YouTube takes on cable with new TV service |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-39124092 |first=Dave |last=Lee |publisher=BBC |date=March 1, 2017 |access-date=March 1, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://fortune.com/2017/02/28/youtube-tv-live-streaming-subscription/ |title=Meet YouTube TV: Google's Live TV Subscription Service |first=Tom Jr |last=Huddleston |work=Fortune |date=March 1, 2017 |access-date=March 1, 2017}}</ref>

=== YouTube Go ===
[[File:YouTube Go.svg|thumb|Logo of YouTube Go]]
In September 2016, ''YouTube Go'' was announced,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Byford |first1=Sam |title=YouTube Go is a new app for offline viewing and sharing |url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/9/27/13070804/youtube-go-announced-india-offline |access-date=February 10, 2018 |work=The Verge |date=September 27, 2016}}</ref> as an [[Android (operating system)|Android]] app created for making YouTube easier to access on mobile devices in [[emerging market]]s. It was distinct from the company's main Android app and allowed videos to be downloaded and shared with other users. It also allowed users to preview videos, share downloaded videos through [[bluetooth]], and offered more options for mobile data control and [[Display resolution|video resolution]].<ref name="pd">{{cite news |last1=Dave |first1=Paresh |title=YouTube's emerging markets-focused app expands to 130 countries |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-alphabet-youtube/youtubes-emerging-markets-focused-app-expands-to-130-countries-idUSKBN1FL5ZI |access-date=February 10, 2018 |work=Reuters |date=February 1, 2018}}</ref>

In February 2017, ''YouTube Go'' was launched in [[India]], and expanded in November 2017 to 14 other countries, including [[Nigeria]], [[Indonesia]], [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], [[Vietnam]], the [[Philippines]], [[Kenya]], and [[South Africa]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Singh |first1=Manish |title=YouTube Go is finally here, kind of |url=https://mashable.com/2017/02/09/youtube-go-release-india/ |access-date=February 10, 2018 |work=Mashable |date=February 9, 2017}}</ref><ref name="mashhhh">{{cite news |last1=Ho |first1=Victoria |title=Data-friendly YouTube Go beta launches in Southeast Asia, Africa |url=https://mashable.com/2017/11/30/youtube-go-southeast-asia-africa |access-date=February 10, 2018 |work=Mashable |date=November 30, 2017}}</ref> On February 1, 2018, it was rolled out in 130 countries worldwide, including [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], [[Turkey]], and [[Iraq]]. Before it shut down, the app was available to around 60% of the world's population.<ref name=":0">{{cite news |url=https://techcrunch.com/2018/02/01/googles-data-friendly-app-youtube-go-expands-to-over-130-countries-now-supports-higher-quality-videos/ |title=Google's data-friendly app YouTube Go expands to over 130 countries, now supports higher quality videos |last=Perez |first=Sarah |work=TechCrunch |access-date=February 2, 2018 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://venturebeat.com/2018/02/01/googles-offline-first-youtube-go-app-launches-globally/ |title=Google's 'offline first' YouTube Go app launches in 130 new markets, but not the U.S. |website=VentureBeat |access-date=February 2, 2018 |date=February 2018}}</ref> In May 2022, Google announced that they would be shutting down ''YouTube Go'' in August 2022.<ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube Go is shutting down in August |url=https://techcrunch.com/2022/05/05/youtube-go-shutting-down-august/ |access-date=May 5, 2022 |last=Malik |first=Aisha |website=[[TechCrunch]] |date=May 5, 2022 |language=en-US }}</ref>

=== YouTube Shorts ===
{{Main|YouTube Shorts}}
[[File:TikTok and YouTube Shorts example.webm|right|thumb|An example video that is suitable for YouTube Shorts, showing [[Crew Dragon Endeavour|Crew Dragon ''Endeavour'']] docking at the [[International Space Station]]]]

In September 2020, YouTube announced that it would be launching a beta version of a new platform of 15-second videos, similar to [[TikTok]], called [[YouTube Shorts]].<ref>{{cite news |date=September 15, 2020 |title=YouTube's TikTok rival to be tested in India |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-54156997 |access-date=September 15, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube launches its TikTok rival, YouTube Shorts, initially in India |url=https://social.techcrunch.com/2020/09/14/youtube-launches-its-tiktok-rival-youtube-shorts-initially-in-india/ |access-date=September 15, 2020 |website=TechCrunch |date=September 14, 2020 |language=en-US |archive-date=April 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420184745/https://techcrunch.com/2020/09/14/youtube-launches-its-tiktok-rival-youtube-shorts-initially-in-india/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The platform was first tested in India but as of March 2021 has expanded to other countries including the United States with videos now able to be up to 1 minute long.<ref>{{cite web |last=Amadeo |first=Ron |date=March 1, 2021 |title=YouTube's TikTok clone, "YouTube Shorts," is live in the US |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2021/03/youtubes-tiktok-clone-youtube-shorts-is-live-in-the-us/ |access-date=May 4, 2021 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us}}</ref> The platform is not a standalone app, but is integrated into the main YouTube app. Like TikTok, it gives users access to built-in creative tools, including the possibility of adding licensed music to their videos.<ref>{{cite web |date=September 15, 2020 |title=YouTube Shorts launches in India after Delhi TikTok ban |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/sep/15/youtube-shorts-launches-in-india-after-delhi-tiktok-ban |access-date=September 15, 2020 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> The platform had its global beta launch in July 2021.<ref>{{cite web |date=July 13, 2021 |title=YouTube's TikTok competitor YouTube Shorts is rolling out globally |url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/7/13/22575063/youtube-shorts-global-roll-out-tiktok-short-form-video |access-date=July 13, 2021 |website=The Verge |language=en}}</ref>

=== YouTube Stories ===
In 2018, YouTube started testing a new feature initially called "YouTube Reels".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://econsultancy.com/what-is-youtube-stories-will-it-catch-on/ |title=What is YouTube Stories and will it catch on? |website=EConsultancy |last1=Gilliland |first1=Nikki |date=December 5, 2018 |access-date=October 14, 2020}}</ref> The feature is nearly identical to [[Instagram Stories]] and [[Snapchat#Stories and Discover|Snapchat Stories]]. YouTube later renamed the feature "YouTube Stories". It is only available to creators who have more than 10,000 subscribers and can only be posted/seen in the YouTube mobile app.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://creatoracademy.youtube.com/page/course/express-with-stories |title=Express yourself with Stories |website=Creator Academy |via=YouTube |date=November 25, 2019 |access-date=October 14, 2020}}</ref> On May 25, 2023, YouTube announced that it would be shutting down this feature on June 26, 2023.<ref name="Google Help">{{cite web |title=YouTube Stories are Going Away on 6/26/2023 – YouTube Community |website=Google Help |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/thread/217640760 |access-date=May 26, 2023}}</ref><ref name="Amadeo 2023">{{cite web |last=Amadeo |first=Ron |title=YouTube Stories, Google's clone of Snapchat, is dying on June 26 |website=Ars Technica |date=May 25, 2023 |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2023/05/youtube-is-killing-off-youtube-stories-its-snapchat-clone/ |access-date=May 26, 2023}}</ref>

== Social impact ==
{{Main|Social impact of YouTube}}

Private individuals<ref name="Reuters20070225" /> and large production corporations<ref name="WiredUK20131127">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-11/27/youtube-community |title=The rise and fall of YouTube's celebrity pioneers |last=Tufnell |first=Nicholas |date=November 27, 2013 |magazine=Wired UK |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110202429/https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-11/27/youtube-community |url-status=live |archive-date=January 10, 2014}}</ref> have used YouTube to grow their audiences. Indie creators have built grassroots followings numbering in the thousands at very little cost or effort, while mass retail and radio promotion proved problematic.<ref name="Reuters20070225">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-youtube-idUSN2518918320070226 |title=YouTube stars don't always welcome record deals |last=Bruno |first=Antony |date=February 25, 2007 |work=Reuters |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106071553/https://www.reuters.com/article/2007/02/26/us-youtube-idUSN2518918320070226 |archive-date=January 6, 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> Concurrently, [[old media]] celebrities moved into the website at the invitation of a YouTube management that witnessed early content creators accruing substantial followings and perceived audience sizes potentially larger than that attainable by television.<ref name="WiredUK20131127" /> While YouTube's revenue-sharing "Partner Program" made it possible to earn a substantial living as a video producer—its top five hundred partners each earning more than $100,000 annually<ref name="NewYorker20120116">{{cite news |url=https://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2012/01/16/120116fa_fact_seabrook?currentPage=all |title=Streaming Dreams / YouTube turns pro |magazine=The New Yorker |last=Seabrook |first=John |date=January 16, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108081333/https://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2012/01/16/120116fa_fact_seabrook?currentPage=all |archive-date=January 8, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and its ten highest-earning channels grossing from $2.5 million to $12 million<ref name="Forbes20151113">{{cite magazine |last1=Berg |first1=Madeline |title=The World's Top-Earning YouTube Stars 2015 |url=http://www3.forbes.com/business/the-worlds-top-earning-youtube-stars-2015/ |magazine=Forbes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407012054/https://www3.forbes.com/business/the-worlds-top-earning-youtube-stars-2015/ |archive-date=April 7, 2022 |url-status=live |date=November 2015}} • {{cite magazine |last1=Berg |first1=Madeline |title=The World's Top-Earning YouTube Stars 2015 / 1. PewDiePie: $12 million |url=http://www2.forbes.com/business/the-worlds-top-earning-youtube-stars-2015/11/ |magazine=Forbes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120132944/https://www3.forbes.com/business/the-worlds-top-earning-youtube-stars-2015/11/ |archive-date=January 20, 2021 |url-status=live |date=November 2015}}</ref>—in 2012 [[Complete Music Update|CMU]] business editor characterized YouTube as "a free-to-use ... promotional platform for the music labels."<ref name="BBC20121221">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-20812870 |title=Gangnam Style hits one billion views on YouTube |date=December 21, 2012 |work=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115080304/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-20812870 |archive-date=January 15, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2013 ''[[Forbes]]''{{'}} Katheryn Thayer asserted that digital-era artists' work must not only be of high quality, but must elicit reactions on the YouTube platform and social media.<ref name="Forbes20131029">{{cite news |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/katherynthayer/2013/10/29/the-youtube-music-awards-why-artists-should-care/ |title=The Youtube Music Awards: Why Artists Should Care |last=Thayer |first=Katheryn |date=October 29, 2013 |website=Forbes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102005910/https://www.forbes.com/sites/katherynthayer/2013/10/29/the-youtube-music-awards-why-artists-should-care/ |archive-date=November 2, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Videos of the 2.5% of artists categorized as "mega", "mainstream" and "mid-sized" received 90.3% of the relevant views on YouTube and Vevo in that year.<ref name="NextBigSound2013YearInRewind">{{cite web |url=https://www.nextbigsound.com/industryreport/2013/ |title=2013: Year in Rewind (report title) / Mapping the Landscape (specific section title) |date=January 2014 |publisher=[[Next Big Sound]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140121225546/https://www.nextbigsound.com/industryreport/2013 |archive-date=January 21, 2014 |url-status=dead}} "Developing" artists 6.9%; "Undiscovered" artists 2.8%.</ref> By early 2013, ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' had announced that it was factoring YouTube streaming data into calculation of the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] and related genre charts.<ref name="Billboard20130220">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1549399/hot-100-news-billboard-and-nielsen-add-youtube-video-streaming-to-platforms |title=Hot 100 News: Billboard and Nielsen Add YouTube Video Streaming to Platforms |date=February 20, 2013 |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129170847/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1549399/hot-100-news-billboard-and-nielsen-add-youtube-video-streaming-to-platforms |archive-date=January 29, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Jordan Hoffner at the 68th Annual Peabody Awards for YouTube.jpg|thumb|Jordan Hoffner at the 68th Annual [[Peabody Awards]] accepting for YouTube]]

Observing that face-to-face communication of the type that online videos convey has been "fine-tuned by millions of years of evolution", [[TED (conference)|TED]] curator [[Chris Anderson (entrepreneur)|Chris Anderson]] referred to several YouTube contributors and asserted that "what [[Johannes Gutenberg|Gutenberg]] did for writing, online video can now do for face-to-face communication."<ref name="TED201007Anderson">{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/chris_anderson_how_web_video_powers_global_innovation.html |title=How web video powers global innovation |last=Anderson |first=Chris |date=July 2010 |publisher=[[TED (conference)]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202000212/https://www.ted.com/talks/chris_anderson_how_web_video_powers_global_innovation.html |archive-date=December 2, 2013 |url-status=dead}} (click on "Show transcript" tab) • Corresponding [https://web.archive.org/web/20131231115225/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LnQcCgS7aPQ YouTube video] from official TED channel was titled "How YouTube is driving innovation."</ref> Anderson asserted that it is not far-fetched to say that online video will dramatically accelerate scientific advance, and that video contributors may be about to launch "the biggest learning cycle in human history."<ref name="TED201007Anderson" /> In education, for example, the [[Khan Academy]] grew from YouTube video tutoring sessions for founder Salman Khan's cousin into what ''Forbes{{'}}'' [[Michael Noer (editor)|Michael Noer]] called "the largest school in the world," with technology poised to [[disruptive innovation|disrupt]] how people learn.<ref name="Forbes20121102">{{cite news |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelnoer/2012/11/02/one-man-one-computer-10-million-students-how-khan-academy-is-reinventing-education/print/ |title=One Man, One Computer, 10 Million Students: How Khan Academy Is Reinventing Education |last=Noer |first=Michael |date=November 2, 2012 |website=Forbes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204052929/https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelnoer/2012/11/02/one-man-one-computer-10-million-students-how-khan-academy-is-reinventing-education/ |archive-date=December 4, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> YouTube was awarded a 2008 [[George Foster Peabody Award]],<ref>[https://www.peabodyawards.com/award-profile/youtube.com YouTube.com (award profile), "Winner 2008"], peabodyawards.com, May 2009. ({{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114050222/https://www.peabodyawards.com/award-profile/youtube.com |date=January 14, 2016 }} from the original on January 14, 2016).</ref> the website being described as a [[Speakers' Corner]] that "both embodies and promotes democracy."<ref>{{cite magazine |first=James |last=Poniewozik |title=Nonprofit Press Release Theater: Peabody Awards Announced |url=https://entertainment.time.com/2009/04/01/nonprofit-press-release-theater-peabody-awards-announced/ |magazine=Time |date=April 1, 2009 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref> ''The Washington Post'' reported that a disproportionate share of YouTube's most subscribed channels feature minorities, contrasting with mainstream television in which the stars are largely white.<ref>{{cite news |first=Haley |last=Tsukayama |title=In online video, minorities find an audience |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/in-online-video-minorities-find-an-audience/2012/04/20/gIQAdhliWT_story.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=April 20, 2012 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref> A [[Pew Research Center]] study reported the development of "visual journalism", in which citizen eyewitnesses and established news organizations share in content creation.<ref name="PEW20120716">{{cite web |url=https://www.journalism.org/2012/07/16/press-release-2/ |title=PEJ: YouTube & News: A New Kind of Visual Journalism Is Developing, but Ethics of Attribution Have Yet to Emerge |last=Journalism Project Staff |date=July 16, 2012 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231000334/https://www.journalism.org/2012/07/16/press-release-2/ |archive-date=December 31, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The study also concluded that YouTube was becoming an important platform by which people acquire news.<ref name="PewYTnews20120716">{{cite web |url=https://www.journalism.org/2012/07/16/youtube-news/ |title=YouTube and News: A New Kind of Visual News |last=Journalism Project Staff |date=July 16, 2012 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001742/https://www.journalism.org/2012/07/16/youtube-news/ |archive-date=December 31, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

YouTube has enabled people to more directly engage with government, such as in the [[CNN/YouTube presidential debates]] (2007) in which ordinary people submitted questions to U.S. presidential candidates via YouTube video, with a [[techPresident]] co-founder saying that Internet video was changing the political landscape.<ref>{{cite news |first=Katharine |last=Q. Seelye |title=New Presidential Debate Site? Clearly, YouTube |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/13/us/politics/13cnd-youtube.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=June 13, 2007 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref> Describing the [[Arab Spring]] (2010–2012), sociologist [[Philip N. Howard]] quoted an activist's succinct description that organizing the political unrest involved using "Facebook to schedule the protests, Twitter to coordinate, and YouTube to tell the world."<ref name="PacificStd20110223">{{cite web |url=https://www.psmag.com/navigation/politics-and-law/the-cascading-effects-of-the-arab-spring-28575 |title=The Arab Spring's Cascading Effects |last=Howard |first=Philip N. |date=February 23, 2011 |website=Pacific Standard |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108053257/https://www.psmag.com/navigation/politics-and-law/the-cascading-effects-of-the-arab-spring-28575/ |archive-date=January 8, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2012, more than a third of the U.S. Senate introduced a resolution condemning [[Joseph Kony]] 16 days after the "[[Kony 2012]]" video was posted to YouTube, with resolution co-sponsor Senator [[Lindsey Graham]] remarking that the video "will do more to lead to (Kony's) demise than all other action combined."<ref name="Politico20120322">{{cite web |url=https://dyn.politico.com/printstory.cfm?uuid=76ECD47B-6BE4-4703-BC79-E7955A4DE0D6 |title=Joseph Kony captures Congress' attention |last=Wong |first=Scott |date=March 22, 2012 |website=Politico |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108184459/https://dyn.politico.com/printstory.cfm?uuid=76ECD47B-6BE4-4703-BC79-E7955A4DE0D6 |archive-date=January 8, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:ObamaYouTubers307.png|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Leading YouTube content creators met at the White House with U.S. President Obama to discuss how government could better connect with the "YouTube generation."<ref name="Tubefilter20140302" /><ref name="WhiteHouse20140306">{{cite web |last=Jenkins |first=Brad L. |title=YouTube Stars Talk Health Care (and Make History) at the White House |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2014/03/06/youtube-stars-talk-health-care-and-make-history-white-house |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128005716/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2014/03/06/youtube-stars-talk-health-care-and-make-history-white-house |archive-date=January 28, 2017 |location=Washington, D.C. |date=March 6, 2014 |via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |publisher=[[White House]] |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

Conversely, YouTube has also allowed government to more easily engage with citizens, the [[White House]]'s official YouTube channel being the seventh top news organization producer on YouTube in 2012<ref name="PewWhiteHouse20120716">{{cite web |url=https://www.journalism.org/2012/07/16/youtube-video-creationa-shared-process/ |title=YouTube Video Creation – A Shared Process |last=Journalism Project Staff |date=July 16, 2012 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231055631/https://www.journalism.org/2012/07/16/youtube-video-creationa-shared-process/ |archive-date=December 31, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and in 2013 a healthcare exchange commissioned Obama impersonator [[Iman Crosson]]'s YouTube music video spoof to encourage young Americans to enroll in the [[Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act|Affordable Care Act (Obamacare)]]-compliant health insurance.<ref name="LATimes20131212">{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/nation/politics/politicsnow/la-pn-obamacare-hollywood-new-social-media-campaign-20131212,0,2435151.story |title=Round 2: Obamacare and Hollywood open new social media campaign |last=Reston |first=Maeve |date=December 12, 2013 |website=Los Angeles Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212184345/https://www.latimes.com/nation/politics/politicsnow/la-pn-obamacare-hollywood-new-social-media-campaign-20131212,0,2435151.story |archive-date=December 12, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In February 2014, U.S. President Obama held a meeting at the White House with leading YouTube content creators not only to promote awareness of Obamacare<ref name="Buzzfeed20140302">{{cite news |last=McMorris-Santoro |first=Evan |title=Obama Enlisted YouTube Personalities For Final Health Care Enrollment Push Last Week |url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/evanmcsan/obama-enlisted-youtube-personalities-for-final-health-care-e |website=Buzzfeed |date=March 2, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303172252/https://www.buzzfeed.com/evanmcsan/obama-enlisted-youtube-personalities-for-final-health-care-e |archive-date=March 3, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> but more generally to develop ways for government to better connect with the "YouTube Generation."<ref name="Tubefilter20140302">{{cite web |last=Cohen |first=Joshua |title=Obama Meets With YouTube Advisors on How To Reach Online Audiences |url=https://www.tubefilter.com/2014/03/02/obama-meets-with-youtube-advisors-on-how-to-reach-online-audiences/ |website=Tubefilter |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306020608/https://www.tubefilter.com/2014/03/02/obama-meets-with-youtube-advisors-on-how-to-reach-online-audiences/ |archive-date=March 6, 2014 |date=March 2, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Whereas YouTube's inherent ability to allow presidents to directly connect with average citizens was noted, the YouTube content creators' [[new media]] savvy was perceived necessary to better cope with the website's distracting content and fickle audience.<ref name="Tubefilter20140302" />

Some YouTube videos have themselves had a direct effect on world events, such as ''[[Innocence of Muslims]]'' (2012) which spurred [[Reactions to Innocence of Muslims|protests and related anti-American violence]] internationally.<ref name="CNN20120914">{{cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/09/13/world/meast/embassy-attacks-main/ |title=U.S. warns of rising threat of violence amid outrage over anti-Islam video |date=September 14, 2012 |publisher=CNN |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116033002/https://www.cnn.com/2012/09/13/world/meast/embassy-attacks-main/ |archive-date=November 16, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> TED curator Chris Anderson described a phenomenon by which geographically distributed individuals in a certain field share their independently developed skills in YouTube videos, thus challenging others to improve their own skills, and spurring invention and evolution in that field.<ref name="TED201007Anderson" /> Journalist [[Virginia Heffernan]] stated in ''The New York Times'' that such videos have "surprising implications" for the dissemination of culture and even the future of classical music.<ref>{{cite news |first=Virginia |last=Heffernan |title=Web Guitar Wizard Revealed at Last |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/27/arts/television/27heff.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=August 27, 2006 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |id={{ProQuest|93082065}}}}</ref>

A 2017 article in ''[[The New York Times Magazine]]'' posited that YouTube had become "the new [[Conservative talk radio|talk radio]]" for the [[Far-right politics|far right]].<ref name="NYTimes20170803">{{cite magazine |last1=Herrman |first1=John |title=For the New Far Right, YouTube Has Become the New Talk Radio |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/03/magazine/for-the-new-far-right-youtube-has-become-the-new-talk-radio.html |magazine=The New York Times Magazine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803175402/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/03/magazine/for-the-new-far-right-youtube-has-become-the-new-talk-radio.html |archive-date=August 3, 2017 |date=August 3, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Almost a year before YouTube's January 2019 announcement that it would begin a "gradual change" of "reducing [[Recommender system|recommendations]] of borderline content and content that could misinform users in harmful ways",<ref name="YTblog20190125">{{cite web |title=Continuing our work to improve recommendations on YouTube |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2019/01/continuing-our-work-to-improve.html |website=YouTube.GoogleBlog.com |date=January 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125163130/https://youtube.googleblog.com/2019/01/continuing-our-work-to-improve.html |archive-date=January 25, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Zeynep Tufekci had written in ''The New York Times'' that, "(g)iven its billion or so users, YouTube may be one of the most powerful radicalizing instruments of the 21st century".<ref name="NYTimes20180310">{{cite news |last1=Tufekci |first1=Zeynep |title=YouTube, the Great Radicalizer |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/10/opinion/sunday/youtube-politics-radical.html |work=The New York Times |date=March 10, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122035903/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/10/opinion/sunday/youtube-politics-radical.html |archive-date=January 22, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Under YouTube's changes to its recommendation engine, the most recommended channel evolved from conspiracy theorist [[Alex Jones]] (2016) to [[Fox News]] (2019).<ref name="NYTimes_20201103">{{cite news |last1=Nicas |first1=Jack |title=YouTube Cut Down Misinformation. Then It Boosted Fox News / To battle false information, YouTube cut its recommendations to fringe channels and instead promoted major networks, especially Fox News. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/03/technology/youtube-misinformation-fox-news.html |work=The New York Times |date=November 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104015452/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/03/technology/youtube-misinformation-fox-news.html |archive-date=November 4, 2020}}</ref> According to a 2020 study, "An emerging journalistic consensus theorizes the central role played by the video 'recommendation engine,' but we believe that this is premature. Instead, we propose the 'Supply and Demand' framework for analyzing politics on YouTube."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Munger |first1=Kevin |last2=Phillips |first2=Joseph |date=October 21, 2020 |title=Right-Wing YouTube: A Supply and Demand Perspective |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1940161220964767 |journal=The International Journal of Press/Politics |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=186–219 |doi=10.1177/1940161220964767 |s2cid=226339609 |issn=1940-1612}}</ref> A 2022 study found that "despite widespread concerns that YouTube's algorithms send people down 'rabbit holes' with recommendations to extremist videos, little systematic evidence exists to support this conjecture", "exposure to alternative and extremist channel videos on YouTube is heavily concentrated among a small group of people with high prior levels of gender and racial resentment.", and "contrary to the 'rabbit holes' narrative, non-subscribers are rarely recommended videos from alternative and extremist channels and seldom follow such recommendations when offered."<ref name="ChenEtAl_20220422">* {{cite arXiv |last1=Chen |first1=Annie Y. |last2=Nyhan |first2=Brendan |last3=Reifler |first3=Jason |last4=Robertson |first4=Ronald E. |last5=Wilson |first5=Christo |title=Subscriptions and external links help drive resentful users to alternative and extremist YouTube videos |date=April 22, 2022 |class=cs.SI |eprint=2204.10921}}
* {{cite magazine |last1=Wolfe |first1=Liz |title=YouTube Algorithms Don't Turn Unsuspecting Masses Into Extremists, New Study Suggests / A new study casts doubt on the most prominent theories about extremism-by-algorithm |url=https://reason.com/2022/04/26/youtube-algorithms-dont-turn-unsuspecting-masses-into-extremists-new-study-suggests/ |magazine=Reason |date=April 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426124312/https://reason.com/2022/04/26/youtube-algorithms-dont-turn-unsuspecting-masses-into-extremists-new-study-suggests/ |archive-date=April 26, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

''[[The Legion of Extraordinary Dancers]]''<ref name="TED201002LXD">{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/the_lxd_in_the_internet_age_dance_evolves.html |title=The LXD: In the Internet age, dance evolves |last=Chu |first=Jon M. |date=February 2010 |publisher=[[TED (conference)]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104063431/https://www.ted.com/talks/the_lxd_in_the_internet_age_dance_evolves.html |archive-date=January 4, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and the [[YouTube Symphony Orchestra]]<ref name="Reuters20090414" /> selected their membership based on individual video performances.<ref name="TED201007Anderson" /><ref name="Reuters20090414">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-youtube-idUSTRE53D4PE20090414 |title=YouTube orchestra prepares for Carnegie debut |last1=Nichols |first1=Michelle (reporter) |editor-last=Simao |editor-first=Paul |date=April 14, 2009 |work=Reuters |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140921182641/https://www.reuters.com/article/2009/04/14/us-youtube-idUSTRE53D4PE20090414 |archive-date=September 21, 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> Further, the cyber-collaboration charity video "[[We Are the World 25 for Haiti (YouTube edition)]]" was formed by mixing performances of 57 globally distributed singers into a single musical work,<ref name="CNNtranscripts201003">{{cite news |url=https://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1003/06/cnr.02.html |title=CNN Newsroom |last=Levs |first=((Josh (interviewer))) |date=March 6, 2010 |publisher=CNN |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100313010623/https://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1003/06/cnr.02.html |archive-date=March 13, 2010 |url-status=dead}} Also [https://web.archive.org/web/20100313004701/https://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1003/06/smn.01.html CNN Saturday Morning News] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20101023042008/https://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1003/07/sm.01.html CNN Sunday Morning] (archives).</ref> with ''The Tokyo Times'' noting the "We Pray for You" YouTube cyber-collaboration video as an example of a trend to use crowdsourcing for charitable purposes.<ref name="TokyoTimes20110511">{{cite web |url=https://www.tokyotimes.jp/post/en/1829/Crowdsourcing+After+Quakebook+We+Pray+For+You.html |title=Crowdsourcing: After Quakebook, We Pray For You |last=Smart |first=Richard |date=May 11, 2011 |website=The Tokyo Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612153700/https://www.tokyotimes.jp/post/en/1829/Crowdsourcing+After+Quakebook+We+Pray+For+You.html |archive-date=June 12, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
The anti-bullying [[It Gets Better Project]] expanded from a single YouTube video directed to discouraged or [[Suicide among LGBT youth|suicidal LGBT teens]],<ref name="SFChronicle20101008">{{cite news |url=https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Dan-Savage-overwhelmed-by-gay-outreach-s-response-3171312.php |title=Dan Savage overwhelmed by gay outreach's response |last=Hartlaub |first=Peter |date=October 8, 2010 |website=San Francisco Chronicle |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104120324/https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Dan-Savage-overwhelmed-by-gay-outreach-s-response-3171312.php |archive-date=November 4, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> that within two months drew video responses from hundreds including U.S. President [[Barack Obama]], Vice President Biden, White House staff, and several cabinet secretaries.<ref name="WhiteHouseItGetsBetter">{{cite web |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/it-gets-better |title=It Gets Better |publisher=White House |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102042529/https://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/it-gets-better |archive-date=January 2, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Similarly, in response to fifteen-year-old [[Suicide of Amanda Todd|Amanda Todd]]'s video "My story: Struggling, bullying, suicide, self-harm", legislative action was undertaken almost immediately after her suicide to study the prevalence of bullying and form a national anti-bullying strategy.<ref name="CanadaTV20121014">{{cite web |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/in-wake-of-amanda-todd-suicide-mps-to-debate-anti-bullying-motion-1.995254 |title=In wake of Amanda Todd suicide, MPs to debate anti-bullying motion |date=October 14, 2012 |publisher=CTV News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029213910/https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/in-wake-of-amanda-todd-suicide-mps-to-debate-anti-bullying-motion-1.995254 |archive-date=October 29, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In May 2018, after London [[Metropolitan Police]] claimed that [[UK drill|drill music]] videos glamorizing violence gave rise to [[Gang#Gang violence|gang violence]], YouTube deleted 30 videos.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/may/29/youtube-deletes-30-music-videos-after-met-link-with-gang-violence |title=YouTube deletes 30 music videos after Met link with gang violence |last=Waterson |first=Jim |date=May 28, 2018 |newspaper=The Guardian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321160833/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/may/29/youtube-deletes-30-music-videos-after-met-link-with-gang-violence |archive-date=March 21, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Finances ==
Prior to 2020, Google did not provide detailed figures for YouTube's running costs, and YouTube's revenues in 2007 were noted as "[[materiality (auditing)|not material]]" in a regulatory filing.<ref name="Moneyclip">{{cite news |first=Yi-Wyn |last=Yen |date=March 25, 2008 |url=https://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2008/03/25/youtube-looks-for-the-money-clip/ |title=YouTube Looks For the Money Clip |access-date=March 26, 2008 |publisher=CNN |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170212192446/https://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2008/03/25/youtube-looks-for-the-money-clip/ |archive-date=February 12, 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In June 2008, a ''Forbes'' magazine article projected the 2008 revenue at $200 million, noting progress in advertising sales.<ref name="Forbes08">{{cite news |first1=Quentin |last1=Hardy |first2=Evan |last2=Hessel |url=https://www.forbes.com/forbes/2008/0616/050.html |title=GooTube |work=Forbes |date=May 22, 2008 |access-date=August 3, 2009}}</ref> In 2012, YouTube's revenue from its ads program was estimated at $3.7 billion.<ref name="Wall Street Journal 5.6 Billion Annual revenue" /> In 2013, it nearly doubled and estimated to hit $5.6 billion according to e-Marketer,<ref name="Wall Street Journal 5.6 Billion Annual revenue">{{cite news |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2013/12/11/streaming-video-means-streaming-dollars-for-youtube/ |title=YouTube Growing Faster Than Thought, Report Says |last1=Winkler |first1=Rolfe |date=December 11, 2013 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |access-date=March 28, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Youtube earns 5.6 Billion Yahoo">{{cite web |title=YouTube's ad revenue estimated at $5.6 billion |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/video/youtubes-ad-revenue-estimated-5-195900788.html |publisher=YAHOO |access-date=March 28, 2016}}</ref> while others estimated $4.7 billion.<ref name="Wall Street Journal 5.6 Billion Annual revenue" /> The vast majority of videos on YouTube are free to view and supported by advertising.<ref name="subscription" /> In May 2013, YouTube introduced a trial scheme of 53 subscription channels with prices ranging from $0.99 to $6.99 a month.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/05/09/youtube_subscription_channels/ |title=YouTube launches subscriptions with 53 paid channels |work=The Register |first=Neil |last=McAllister |date=May 9, 2013 |access-date=May 20, 2013}}</ref> The move was seen as an attempt to compete with other providers of online subscription services such as [[Netflix]], [[Amazon Prime Video|Amazon Prime]], and Hulu.<ref name="subscription" />

Google first published exact revenue numbers for YouTube in February 2020 as part of Alphabet's 2019 financial report. According to Google, YouTube had made {{USD|15.1 billion}} in ad revenue in 2019, in contrast to {{USD|8.1 billion}} in 2017 and {{USD|11.1 billion}} in 2018. YouTube's revenues made up nearly 10% of the total Alphabet revenue in 2019.<ref name="verge 15b">{{cite web |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/3/21121207/youtube-google-alphabet-earnings-revenue-first-time-reveal-q4-2019 |title=YouTube is a $15 billion-a-year business, Google reveals for the first time |first=Nick |last=Statt |date=February 3, 2020 |access-date=February 3, 2020 |work=[[The Verge]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |url=https://abc.xyz/investor/static/pdf/2019Q4_alphabet_earnings_release.pdf?cache=05bd9fe |title=Alphabet Announces Fourth Quarter and Fiscal Year 2019 Results |date=February 3, 2020 |access-date=February 3, 2020 |publisher=[[Alphabet Inc.]]}}</ref> These revenues accounted for approximately 20 million subscribers combined between YouTube Premium and YouTube Music subscriptions, and 2 million subscribers to YouTube TV.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2020/02/03/youtube-premium-and-music-20-million-subscribers/ |title=YouTube Premium and Music have 20 million subscribers |first=Jon |last=Fingas |date=February 3, 2020 |access-date=February 3, 2020 |work=[[Engadget]]}}</ref>

YouTube had $29.2 billion ads revenue in 2022, up by $398 million from the prior year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=goog-20221231 |url=https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1652044/000165204423000016/goog-20221231.htm |access-date=2024-01-12 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref>

=== Partnership with corporations ===
YouTube entered into a marketing and advertising partnership with [[NBC]] in June 2006.<ref>{{cite news |title=Online Video: The Market Is Hot, but Business Models Are Fuzzy |url=https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article.cfm?articleid=1519 |work=Knowledge@wharton |access-date=July 19, 2012}}</ref> In March 2007, it struck a deal with [[BBC]] for three channels with BBC content, one for news and two for entertainment.<ref>{{cite news |first=Tim |last=Weber |title=BBC strikes Google-YouTube deal |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6411017.stm |website=[[BBC News]] |date=March 2, 2007 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref> In November 2008, YouTube reached an agreement with [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|MGM]], [[Lions Gate Entertainment]], and [[CBS]], allowing the companies to post full-length films and television episodes on the site, accompanied by advertisements in a section for U.S. viewers called "Shows". The move was intended to create competition with websites such as Hulu, which features material from NBC, [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]], and [[Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures|Disney]].<ref>{{cite news |first1=Brad |last1=Stone |first2=Brooks |last2=Barnes |title=MGM to Post Full Films on YouTube |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/10/business/media/10mgm.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=November 9, 2008 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |id={{ProQuest|897152483}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Staci |last=D. Kramer |title=It's Official: Disney Joins News Corp., NBCU In Hulu; Deal Includes Some Cable Nets |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/30/AR2009043001853.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |publisher=[[Jeff Bezos|Nash Holdings LLC]] |date=April 30, 2009 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref> In November 2009, YouTube launched a version of "Shows" available to UK viewers, offering around 4,000 full-length shows from more than 60 partners.<ref>{{cite news |title=YouTube launches UK TV section with more than 60 partners |last1=Allen |first1=Katie |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/nov/19/youtube-uk-full-length-shows |access-date=December 13, 2009 |date=November 19, 2009}}</ref> In January 2010, YouTube introduced an online film rentals service,<ref>{{cite news |first=Miguel |last=Helft |title=YouTube Takes a Small Step into the Film Rental Market |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/21/technology/internet/21youtube.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=January 20, 2010 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |id={{ProQuest|1458355634}}}}</ref> which is only available to users in the United States, Canada, and the UK as of 2010.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8471635.stm |title=YouTube turns to movie rental business |access-date=May 7, 2010 |date=January 21, 2010 |work=BBC News |first=Maggie |last=Shiels}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-15214939 |title=YouTube to offer film rentals in the UK |work=BBC News |date=October 7, 2011 |access-date=October 7, 2011}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=October 2021|reason=Is it now available in other countries?}} The service offers over 6,000 films.<ref>{{cite web |first=Alexia |last=Tsotsis |title=Google Partners With Sony Pictures, Universal And Warner Brothers For YouTube Movies |url=https://techcrunch.com/2011/05/09/google-partners-with-sony-pictures-nbc-universal-and-warner-brothers-for-youtube-movies/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=May 9, 2011 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref>

==== 2017 advertiser boycott ====
In March 2017, the government of the United Kingdom pulled its advertising campaigns from YouTube, after reports that its ads had appeared on videos containing extremist content. The government demanded assurances that its advertising would "be delivered safely and appropriately". ''[[The Guardian]]'' newspaper, as well as other major British and U.S. brands, similarly suspended their advertising on YouTube in response to their advertising appearing near [[offensive content]]. Google stated that it had "begun an extensive review of our advertising policies and have made a public commitment to put in place changes that give brands more control over where their ads appear".<ref name="Bloomberg-adsextremist">{{cite news |title=Google Ad Crisis Spreads as Biggest Marketers Halt Spending |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-22/at-t-halts-spending-on-some-google-ads-after-youtube-controversy |access-date=March 23, 2017 |newspaper=Bloomberg.com |date=March 22, 2017}}</ref><ref name="bbc-youtubeadsuk">{{cite news |date=March 17, 2017 |title=YouTube: UK government suspends ads amid extremism concerns |newspaper=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-39301712 |access-date=March 23, 2017}}</ref> In early April 2017, the YouTube channel [[h3h3Productions]] presented evidence claiming that a ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' article had fabricated screenshots showing major brand advertising on an offensive video containing [[Johnny Rebel (singer)|Johnny Rebel]] music overlaid on a [[Chief Keef]] music video, citing that the video itself had not earned any ad revenue for the uploader. The video was retracted after it was found that the ads had been triggered by the use of copyrighted content in the video.<ref name="and-youtubestar">{{cite news |last1=Collins |first1=Ben |date=April 4, 2017 |title=A YouTube Star, Reddit Detectives, and the Alt-Right Call Out a Fake News Story. Turns Out It Was Real. |newspaper=The Daily Beast |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2017/04/04/fake-news-blows-up-in-trolls-faces.html |access-date=April 5, 2017}}</ref><ref name="mashable-h3h3youtube">{{cite web |title=How one little screenshot drove YouTube to the brink |url=https://mashable.com/2017/04/04/youtube-h3h3-what-happened-wsj/ |access-date=April 10, 2017 |website=Mashable |date=April 4, 2017}}</ref>

On April 6, 2017, YouTube announced that to "ensure revenue only flows to creators who are playing by the rules", it would change its practices to require that a channel undergo a policy compliance review, and have at least 10,000-lifetime views, before they may join the Partner Program.<ref name="verge-10kviewsrule">{{cite web |date=April 6, 2017 |title=YouTube will no longer allow creators to make money until they reach 10,000 views |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/6/15209220/youtube-partner-program-rule-change-monetize-ads-10000-views |access-date=April 6, 2017 |website=The Verge }}</ref>

=== YouTuber earnings ===
[[File:2017- Top earners on YouTube - column chart.svg|thumb|upright=1.25| Total annual earnings of the top ten YouTuber accounts, and the income of the single highest-earning account.]]
In May 2007, YouTube launched its Partner Program (YPP), a system based on [[AdSense]] which allows the uploader of the video to share the revenue produced by advertising on the site.<ref>{{cite web |first=John |last=Biggs |title=YouTube Launches Revenue Sharing Partners Program, but no Pre-Rolls |url=https://techcrunch.com/2007/05/04/youtube-launches-revenue-sharing-partners-program-but-no-pre-rolls/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |date=May 4, 2007 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref> YouTube typically takes 45 percent of the advertising revenue from videos in the Partner Program, with 55 percent going to the uploader.<ref>{{cite web |first=Tim |last=Carmody |title=It's not TV, it's the Web: YouTube partners complain about Google ads, revenue sharing |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/3/4/4062810/youtube-partners-complain-revenue-sharing-google-ads |website=[[The Verge]] |date=March 4, 2013 |access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The biggest stars on YouTube make huge incomes ... yet they can't keep the vast majority of it |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/money-youtube-stars-actually-make-2014-2 |website=Business Insider |access-date=September 16, 2017 |language=en}}</ref>

There are over two million members of the YouTube Partner Program.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lyons |first=Kim |date=23 August 2021 |title= YouTube says its Partner Program now has 2 million members|url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/8/23/22636827/youtube-partner-program-2-million-members-creators|work=The Verge|access-date=23 October 2023}}</ref> According to [[TubeMogul]], in 2013 a pre-roll advertisement on YouTube (one that is shown before the video starts) cost advertisers on average $7.60 per 1000 views. Usually, no more than half of the eligible videos have a pre-roll advertisement, due to a lack of interested advertisers.<ref name="nyt">{{cite news |first=Leslie |last=Kaufman |title=Chasing Their Star, on YouTube |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/02/business/chasing-their-star-on-youtube.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=February 1, 2014 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |id={{ProQuest|1943327539}}}}</ref>

YouTube's policies restrict certain forms of content from being included in videos being monetized with advertising, including videos containing violence, strong language, sexual content, "controversial or sensitive subjects and events, including subjects related to war, political conflicts, natural disasters and tragedies, even if graphic imagery is not shown" (unless the content is "usually newsworthy or comedic and the creator's intent is to inform or entertain"),<ref name="verge-advertiserfriendly">{{cite news |last1=Robertson |first1=Adi |title=Why is YouTube being accused of censoring vloggers? |url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/9/1/12753108/youtube-is-over-party-advertising-monetization-censorship |access-date=March 19, 2017 |work=The Verge |date=September 1, 2016}}</ref> and videos whose user comments contain "inappropriate" content.<ref name="tubefilter-inappropriatecomments">{{cite web |url=https://www.tubefilter.com/2019/02/22/youtube-videos-demonetized-inappropriate-comments/ |title=After Child Video Scandal, YouTube Says Ad-Friendly Videos Can Be Demonetized For Inappropriate Comments |date=February 22, 2019 |website=Tubefilter |access-date=February 22, 2019}}</ref>

In 2013, YouTube introduced an option for channels with at least a thousand subscribers to require a paid subscription in order for viewers to watch videos.<ref>{{cite web |last1=McCue |first1=TJ |title=Google's YouTube Introduces Paid Content Subscriptions |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/tjmccue/2013/01/30/google-youtube-introduces-paid-content-subscriptions/ |website=Forbes |access-date=September 16, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction to paid content – YouTube Help |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/3249127?hl=en |publisher=Google Inc. |access-date=September 16, 2017 |language=en}}</ref> In April 2017, YouTube set an eligibility requirement of 10,000 lifetime views for a paid subscription.<ref name ="ypp">{{cite web |title=Additional Changes to the YouTube Partner Program (YPP) to Better Protect Creators |url=https://youtube-creators.googleblog.com/2018/01/additional-changes-to-youtube-partner.html |via=YouTube |access-date=January 16, 2018 |language=en}}</ref> On January 16, 2018, the eligibility requirement for monetization was changed to 4,000 hours of watch-time within the past 12 months and 1,000 subscribers.<ref name ="ypp" /> The move was seen as an attempt to ensure that videos being monetized did not lead to controversy, but was criticized for penalizing smaller YouTube channels.<ref name="ypp_guardian">{{cite news |first=Sam |last=Levin |title=YouTube's small creators pay price of policy changes after Logan Paul scandal |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/jan/18/youtube-creators-vloggers-ads-logan-paul |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=January 18, 2018 |access-date=January 19, 2018}}</ref>

[[YouTube Play Button]]s, a part of the YouTube Creator Rewards, are a recognition by YouTube of its most popular channels.<ref>{{cite web |ref={{sfnRef|"YouTube Creator Rewards"|n.d.}} |url=https://www.youtube.com/yt/creators/rewards.html |title=YouTube Creator Rewards |via=YouTube |access-date=August 14, 2017}}</ref> The trophies made of nickel plated copper-nickel alloy, golden plated brass, silver plated metal, ruby, and red tinted crystal glass are given to channels with at least one hundred thousand, a million, ten million, fifty million subscribers, and one hundred million subscribers, respectively.<ref>{{cite AV media |date=December 3, 2016 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yHA2HbNtcG4 |title=What is the Gold Play Button REALLY made of?!? |publisher=JerryRigEverything |via=YouTube |access-date=March 27, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317141729/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yHA2HbNtcG4 |archive-date=March 17, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=YouTube Sends PewDiePie Custom Ruby Play Button To Commemorate 50 Million Subscribers |url=https://www.tubefilter.com/2016/12/19/pewdiepie-ruby-play-button-youtube-50-million-subscribers/ |website=Tubefilter |access-date=September 16, 2017 |date=December 19, 2016}}</ref>

YouTube's policies on "[[Censorship by Google#Advertiser-friendly content|advertiser-friendly content]]" restrict what may be incorporated into videos being monetized; this includes strong violence, language,<ref name="Spangler Spangler 2019">{{cite news |last=Spangler |first=Todd |date=January 14, 2019 |title=YouTube Explains Which Profanities and 'Inappropriate Language' Are Not OK for Ad-Supported Videos |newspaper=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |url=https://variety.com/2019/digital/news/yo'utube-profanity-ad-supported-video-demonetized-1203107619/ |access-date=January 4, 2020}}</ref> sexual content, and "controversial or sensitive subjects and events, including subjects related to war, political conflicts, natural disasters and tragedies, even if graphic imagery is not shown", unless the content is "usually newsworthy or comedic and the creator's intent is to inform or entertain".<ref>{{cite web |last=Robertson |first=Adi |date=September 1, 2016 |title=Why is YouTube being accused of censoring vloggers? |url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/9/1/12753108/youtube-is-over-party-advertising-monetization-censorship |access-date=March 25, 2017 |website=[[The Verge]] }}</ref> In September 2016, after introducing an enhanced notification system to inform users of these violations, YouTube's policies were criticized by prominent users, including [[Phillip DeFranco]] and [[Vlogbrothers]]. DeFranco argued that not being able to earn advertising revenue on such videos was "censorship by a different name". A YouTube spokesperson stated that while the policy itself was not new, the service had "improved the notification and appeal process to ensure better communication to our creators".<ref>{{cite web |last=Guynn |first=Jessica |date=September 2, 2016 |title=YouTubers protest 'advertiser friendly' policy |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/news/2016/09/01/youtube-creators-advertisers-controversy/89728728/ |access-date=March 26, 2017 |website=[[USA Today]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mulkerin |first=Tim |date=September 1, 2016 |title=A bunch of famous YouTubers are furious at YouTube right now – here's why |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/youtube-stars-advertiser-friendly-content-guidelines-2016-9 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=E. Solsman |first=Joan |date=September 1, 2016 |title=Pause the #YouTubeIsOverParty: YouTube isn't pulling more ads from stars' videos |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/pause-the-youtubeisoverparty-youtube-isnt-pulling-more-ads-from-stars-videos/ |access-date=March 25, 2017 |publisher=[[CNET]] }}</ref> ''[[Boing Boing]]'' reported in 2019 that LGBT keywords resulted in demonetization.<ref name="Beschizza 2019">{{cite web |last=Beschizza |first=Rob |date=October 2, 2019 |title=YouTube demonetizing videos where LGBTQ keywords are said |url=https://boingboing.net/2019/10/02/youtube-demonetizing-videos-wh.html |access-date=January 4, 2020 |website=[[Boing Boing]]}}</ref>

As of November 2020 in the United States, and June 2021 worldwide,<ref>{{cite web |title=YouTube announces changes in its terms of services |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/business/youtube-announces-changes-in-its-terms-of-services/cid/1816154 |access-date=May 23, 2021 |website=The Telegraph (India)}}</ref> YouTube reserves the right to monetize any video on the platform, even if their uploader is not a member of the YouTube Partner Program. This will occur on channels whose content is deemed "advertiser-friendly", and all revenue will go directly to Google without any share given to the uploader.<ref>{{cite web |last=Graham |first=Megan |date=November 19, 2020 |title=YouTube will put ads on non-partner videos but won't pay the creators |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/11/19/youtube-will-put-ads-on-non-partner-videos-but-wont-pay-the-creators.html |access-date=May 23, 2021 |publisher=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>

=== Revenue to copyright holders ===
{{further|#Copyrighted material}}
The majority of YouTube's advertising revenue goes to the publishers and video producers who hold the rights to their videos; the company retains 45% of the ad revenue.<ref>Garett Sloane, [https://adage.com/article/digital/youtube-ad-revenue-disclosed-google-first-time-topped-15-billion-2019/2233811 YouTube Ad Revenue, disclosed by Google for the first time, topped $15 billion in 2019], ''Advertising Age'' (February 3, 2020).</ref> In 2010, it was reported that nearly a third of the videos with advertisements were uploaded without permission of the copyright holders. YouTube gives an option for copyright holders to locate and remove their videos or to have them continue running for revenue.<ref>{{cite news |first=Claire Cain |last=Miller |title=YouTube Ads Turn Videos into Revenue |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/03/technology/03youtube.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=September 2, 2010 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |id={{ProQuest|1461135701}}}}</ref> In May 2013, [[Nintendo]] began enforcing its copyright ownership and claiming the advertising revenue from video creators who posted screenshots of its games.<ref>{{cite web |first=Keza |last=MacDonald |title=Nintendo enforces copyright on YouTube Let's Plays |url=https://www.ign.com/articles/2013/05/16/nintendo-enforces-copyright-on-youtube-lets-plays |website=[[IGN]] |publisher=[[j2 Global]] |date=May 16, 2013 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref> In February 2015, Nintendo agreed to share the revenue with the video creators through the Nintendo Creators Program.<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Tassi |title=Nintendo Updates Their Bad YouTube Policies By Making Them Worse |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/insertcoin/2015/02/06/nintendo-updates-their-bad-youtube-policies-by-making-them-worse/ |website=[[Forbes]] |date=February 6, 2015 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Eric |last=Johnson |title=Nintendo Wants YouTubers to Pretend Its Competitors' Games Don't Exist |url=https://www.recode.net/2015/2/4/11558648/nintendo-wants-youtubers-to-pretend-its-competitors-games-dont-exist |website=[[Recode]] |date=February 4, 2015 |access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Patricia |last=Hernandez |title=Nintendo's YouTube Plan Is Already Being Panned By YouTubers [Update] |url=https://kotaku.com/nintendos-youtube-plan-is-already-being-panned-by-youtu-1682527904 |website=[[Kotaku]] |publisher=[[Univision Communications]] |date=January 29, 2015 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref> On March 20, 2019, Nintendo announced on Twitter that the company will end the Creators program. Operations for the program ceased on March 20, 2019.<ref>{{cite web |last=Plunkett |first=Luke |date=November 28, 2018 |title=Nintendo's Controversial Creators Program Is Shutting Down |url=https://kotaku.com/nintendos-controversial-creators-program-is-shutting-do-1830728813 |access-date=October 20, 2021 |website=Kotaku |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Kent |first=Emma |date=November 29, 2018 |title=Nintendo scraps controversial Creators Program, making life easier for YouTubers |url=https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2018-11-29-nintendo-scraps-creators-program-making-life-much-easier-for-youtubers |access-date=October 20, 2021 |website=Eurogamer |language=en}}</ref>

== Censorship and bans ==
{{Main|Censorship of YouTube}}
[[File:YouTube Availability.png|thumb|300px|Availability of YouTube as of August 2022: 
{{legend|#008000|Has local YouTube version}}
{{legend|#B2B2B2|Accessible (Worldwide version)}}
{{legend|#FF0000|Currently blocked}}
{{legend|#FF8888|Previously blocked}}]]
YouTube has been censored, filtered, or banned for a variety of reasons, including:<ref name="ONIYouTubeCensored">[https://opennet.net/youtube-censored-a-recent-history "YouTube Censored: A Recent History"], OpenNet Initiative. Retrieved September 23, 2012.</ref>
* Limiting public access and exposure to content that may ignite social or political unrest.
* Preventing criticism of a ruler (e.g. in [[North Korea]]), government (e.g. in [[Internet censorship in China|China]]) or its actions (e.g. in [[Morocco]]), government officials (e.g. in [[Turkey]] and [[Libya]]), or religion (e.g. in [[Pakistan]]).
* Morality-based laws, e.g. in [[Internet censorship in Iran|Iran]].
Access to specific videos is sometimes prevented due to copyright and intellectual property protection laws (e.g. [[Blocking of YouTube videos in Germany|in Germany]]), violations of hate speech, and preventing access to videos judged inappropriate for youth,<ref>{{cite news |title=The disturbing YouTube videos that are tricking children |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-39381889 |newspaper=BBC News |access-date=September 16, 2017 |date=March 27, 2017}}</ref> which is also done by YouTube with the [[YouTube Kids]] app and with "[[Censorship by Google#Censorship of sexual content in Restricted Mode|restricted mode]]".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Shu |first1=Catherine |title=YouTube responds to complaints that its Restricted Mode censors LGBT videos |url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/03/19/youtube-lgbt-restricted-mode/ |website=TechCrunch |date=March 20, 2017 |access-date=September 16, 2017 |language=en}}</ref> Businesses, schools, government agencies, and other private institutions often block social media sites, including YouTube, due to its bandwidth limitations<ref>{{cite web |author1=David Meerman Scott |title=Facebook and YouTube blocked by paranoid corporations at their own peril |url=https://www.webinknow.com/2008/06/facebook-and-yo.html |access-date=September 16, 2017 |language=en |author1-link=David Meerman Scott}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hannaford |first1=Kat |title=US Military Bans YouTube, Amazon and 11 Other Websites to Free Up Bandwidth for Japan Crisis |url=https://gizmodo.com/5782886/us-military-bans-youtube-amazon-and-11-other-websites-to-free-up-bandwidth-for-japan-crisis |website=Gizmodo |date=March 17, 2011 |access-date=September 16, 2017 |language=en}}</ref> and the site's potential for distraction.<ref name="ONIYouTubeCensored" /><ref>{{cite news |last1=Strom |first1=Stephanie |title=YouTube Finds a Way Off Schools' Banned List |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/10/education/youtube-finds-a-way-off-schools-banned-list.html?mcubz=0 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=September 16, 2017 |date=March 9, 2012}}</ref>

{{As of|2018}}, public access to YouTube is blocked in many countries, including [[China]], [[North Korea]], [[Iran]], [[Turkmenistan]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Turkmenistan |url=https://rsf.org/en/news/turkmenistan-1 |website=[[Reporters Without Borders]] |language=en |date=March 11, 2011}}</ref> [[Uzbekistan]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Syundyukova |first1=Nazerke |title=Uzbekistan has blocked YouTube social network |url=https://qazaqtimes.com/en/article/48743 |access-date=January 23, 2019 |work=The Qazaq Times |date=October 9, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Маҳаллий ОАВ: Ўзбекистонда Facebook ва YouTube яна ўчириб қўйилди |trans-title=Local Media: YouTube and Facebook once again blocked in Uzbekistan |url=https://www.ozodlik.org/a/29713088.html |access-date=January 23, 2019 |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty's Uzbek Service |date=January 16, 2019 |language=uz}}</ref> [[Tajikistan]], [[Eritrea]], [[Sudan]] and [[South Sudan]]. In some countries, YouTube is blocked for more limited periods of time such as during periods of unrest, the run-up to an election, or in response to upcoming political anniversaries. In cases where the entire site is banned due to one particular video, YouTube will often agree to remove or limit access to that video in order to restore service.<ref name="ONIYouTubeCensored" />

Reports emerged that since October 2019, comments posted with Chinese characters insulting the [[Chinese Communist Party]] ([[wikt:共匪|共匪]] "communist bandit" or [[wikt:五毛|五毛]] "[[50 Cent Party]]", referring to [[State-sponsored Internet propaganda|state-sponsored commentators]]) were being automatically deleted within 15 seconds.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Vincent |first1=James |title=YouTube is deleting comments with two phrases that insult China's Communist Party |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/26/21270290/youtube-deleting-comments-censorship-chinese-communist-party-ccp |work=The Verge |date=May 26, 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

Specific incidents where YouTube has been blocked include:
* [[Thailand]] blocked access in April 2007 over a video said to be insulting the [[Monarchy of Thailand|Thai king]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Thailand Bans YouTube |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/05/business/worldbusiness/05tube.html |work=The New York Times |date=April 5, 2007}}</ref>
* Morocco blocked access in May 2007, possibly as a result of videos critical of [[Political status of Western Sahara|Morocco's occupation of Western Sahara]].<ref>{{cite news |title=YouTube site 'blocked' in Morocco |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6702973.stm |access-date=December 25, 2013 |date=May 29, 2007}}</ref> YouTube became accessible again on May 30, 2007, after ''Maroc Telecom'' unofficially announced that the denied access to the website was a mere "technical glitch".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ar.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=22322 |title=YouTube again accessible via Maroc Telecom |date=May 30, 2007 |access-date=May 30, 2007 |publisher=Reporters Without Borders |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130416003945/http://ar.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=22322 |archive-date=April 16, 2013}}</ref>
* Turkey blocked access between 2008 and 2010 after controversy over videos deemed insulting to [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Jeffrey |last=Rosen |title=Google's Gatekeepers |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/30/magazine/30google-t.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=November 28, 2008 |access-date=March 26, 2017 |id={{ProQuest|905061951}}}}</ref><ref name="bbc turkey">{{cite news |title=Turkey goes into battle with Google |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/10480877.stm |work=BBC News |date=July 2, 2010 |access-date=July 3, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Turkey lifts two-year ban on YouTube |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-11659816 |date=October 30, 2010 |access-date=October 31, 2010}}</ref> In November 2010, a video of the Turkish politician [[Deniz Baykal]] caused the site to be blocked again briefly, and the site was threatened with a new shutdown if it did not remove the video.<ref>{{cite news |title=Turkey Reinstates YouTube Ban |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704462704575590420251199614.html?mod=googlenews_wsj |date=November 2, 2010 |access-date=November 2, 2010 |first=Marc |last=Champion}}</ref> During the two and a half-year block of YouTube, the video-sharing website remained the eighth-most-accessed site in Turkey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Turkey report |date=September 24, 2012 |url=https://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2012/turkey#_ftn21 |work=Freedom on the Net 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927235933/https://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2012/turkey#_ftn21 |url-status=dead |publisher=Freedom House |archive-date=September 27, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/TR |title=Top Sites in Turkey |publisher=[[Alexa Internet]] |access-date=February 17, 2022 |archive-date=February 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217112619/https://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/TR |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, Turkey blocked the access for the second time, after "a high-level intelligence leak."<ref>{{cite web |first=Michael |last=B. Kelley |title=YouTube Blocked in Turkey Amid High-Level Intelligence Leak |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/youtube-blocked-in-turkey-2014-3 |website=[[Business Insider]] |date=March 27, 2014 |access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-26773702 |title=Turkey moves to block YouTube access after 'audio leak' |newspaper=BBC News|publisher=[[BBC]] |date=March 27, 2014 |access-date=March 27, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/youtube-banned-turkey-n63776 |title=YouTube Banned in Turkey |publisher=[[NBC News]] |date=March 27, 2014 |access-date=March 27, 2014 |last1=Wagstaff |first1=Keith}}</ref>
* Pakistan blocked access on February 23, 2008, because of "offensive material" towards the Islamic faith, including display of the [[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy|Danish cartoons]] of [[Muhammad]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Pakistan blocks YouTube website |publisher=BBC |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7261727.stm |access-date=November 30, 2008 |date=February 24, 2008}}</ref> This led to a near global blackout of the YouTube site for around two hours, as the Pakistani block was inadvertently transferred to other countries. On February 26, 2008, the ban was lifted after the website had removed the objectionable content from its servers at the request of the government.<ref name="PAK-ban-lifted">{{cite news |title=Pakistan lifts YouTube ban |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/02/27/2173501.htm?section=world |agency=Agence France-Presse |publisher=[[ABC News (Australia)]] |date=February 26, 2008 |access-date=February 26, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Pakistan lifts the ban on YouTube |publisher=BBC |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7262071.stm |access-date=November 30, 2008 |date=February 26, 2008}}</ref> Many Pakistanis circumvented the three-day block by using [[virtual private network]] software.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pakistan web users get round YouTube ban |publisher=Silicon Republic |url=https://www.siliconrepublic.com/news/news.nv?storyid=single10381 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629065235/https://www.siliconrepublic.com/news/news.nv?storyid=single10381 |archive-date=June 29, 2008 |access-date=November 30, 2008}}</ref> In May 2010, following the [[Everybody Draw Mohammed Day]], Pakistan again blocked access to YouTube, citing "growing sacrilegious content".<ref>{{cite news |title=Pakistan blocks access to YouTube in internet crackdown |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/10130195.stm |access-date=May 20, 2010 |date=May 20, 2010}}</ref> The ban was lifted on May 27, 2010, after the website removed the objectionable content from its servers at the request of the government. However, individual videos deemed offensive to Muslims posted on YouTube will continue to be blocked.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McCabe |first=Joanne |date=May 27, 2010 |title=YouTube ban lifted by Pakistan authorities |work=Metro |publisher=Associated Newspapers Limited |url=https://www.metro.co.uk/news/828161-youtube-ban-lifted-by-pakistan-authorities |url-status=dead |access-date=September 18, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100722062958/http://www.metro.co.uk/news/828161-youtube-ban-lifted-by-pakistan-authorities |archive-date=July 22, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=May 27, 2010 |title=Pakistan lifts ban on YouTube |work=The Times of India |url=https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-05-27/pakistan/28304621_1_blasphemous-caricatures-blasphemous-material-sacrilegious-content |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507082318/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-05-27/pakistan/28304621_1_blasphemous-caricatures-blasphemous-material-sacrilegious-content|archive-date=May 7, 2013 }}</ref> Pakistan again placed a ban on YouTube in September 2012, after the site refused to remove the film ''[[Innocence of Muslims]]''. The ban was lifted in January 2016 after YouTube launched a Pakistan-specific version.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pakistan unblocks access to YouTube |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-35345872 |access-date=January 27, 2016 |work=BBC News |date=January 18, 2016}}</ref>
* Libya blocked access on January 24, 2010, because of videos that featured demonstrations in the city of [[Benghazi]] by families of detainees who were killed in [[Abu Salim prison]] in 1996, and videos of family members of Libyan leader [[Muammar Gaddafi]] at parties. The blocking was criticized by [[Human Rights Watch]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gMqNCaIpcd74x_33F16sT_6IDriw |title=Watchdog urges Libya to stop blocking websites |agency=Agence France-Presse |access-date=February 7, 2010}}</ref> In November 2011, after the [[2011 Libyan Civil War|Libyan Civil War]], YouTube was once again allowed in Libya.<ref>{{Citation |title=Libya |date=September 24, 2012 |url=https://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2012/libya |work=Freedom on the Net 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927235826/https://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2012/libya |url-status=dead |publisher=Freedom House |archive-date=September 27, 2012}}</ref>
* [[Afghanistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Sudan]] blocked access in September 2012 following [[Reactions to Innocence of Muslims|controversy]] over a 14-minute trailer for the film ''[[Innocence of Muslims]]'' which had been posted on the site.<ref>{{Cite news |date=December 1, 2012 |title=Afghanistan to unblock YouTube |work=Afghanistan Times |url=https://www.afghanistantimes.af/news_details.php?id=1654&&cid=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117060611/https://www.afghanistantimes.af/news_details.php?id=1654&&cid=1 |archive-date=January 17, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Arghandiwal |first=Miriam |date=September 12, 2012 |title=Afghanistan bans YouTube to block anti-Muslim film |work=Reuters |location=Kabul |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-youtube-idUSBRE88B0SC20120912 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924170643/https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/09/12/us-afghanistan-youtube-idUSBRE88B0SC20120912 |archive-date=September 24, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=September 18, 2012 |title=YouTube blocked in Bangladesh over Prophet Mohamed video |work=The Independent |agency=Associated Press |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/youtube-blocked-in-bangladesh-over-prophet-mohamed-video-8152056.html |access-date=August 22, 2017 |archive-date=August 24, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824171641/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/youtube-blocked-in-bangladesh-over-prophet-mohamed-video-8152056.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Haley |last=Tsukayama |title=YouTube blocked in Pakistan |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/youtube-blocked-in-pakistan/2012/09/17/30081fa2-00ea-11e2-b257-e1c2b3548a4a_story.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=September 17, 2012 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Pakistan, Bangladesh Block YouTube Amid Islam Film Protests |publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-09-18/pakistan-bangladesh-block-youtube-to-restrict-anti-islam-film.html |access-date=September 18, 2012 |date=September 18, 2012 |first=Arun |last=Devnath}}</ref> A court in the southern Russian Republic of [[Chechnya]] ruled that ''Innocence of Muslims'' should be banned.<ref>{{cite news |title=Russian court bans anti-Islam film |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-1-134721-Russian-court-bans-anti-Islam-film |newspaper=The News |date=September 29, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117060611/https://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-1-134721-Russian-court-bans-anti-Islam-film |archive-date=January 17, 2013}}</ref> In Libya and [[Egypt]], it was blamed for violent protests. YouTube stated: "This video—which is widely available on the Web—is clearly within our guidelines and so will stay on YouTube. However, given the very difficult situation in Libya and Egypt we have temporarily restricted access in both countries."<ref>{{cite news |title='Innocence of Muslims': Mystery shrouds film's California origins |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://articles.latimes.com/2012/sep/12/world/la-fg-libya-filmmaker-20120913 |access-date=March 1, 2019 |date=September 12, 2012 |first1=Phil |last1=Willon |first2=Rebecca |last2=Keegan}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=YouTube restricts video access over Libyan violence |publisher=CNN |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/12/tech/web/youtube-violence-libya/index.html?hpt=hp_c3 |access-date=September 13, 2012 |date=September 12, 2012}}</ref>
* Following the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] in February 2022, YouTube announced on March 1 the immediate removal of RT (and other Russian-government funded outlets) from its platform in Europe. The removal was soon expanded globally.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/youtube-block-channels-linked-russias-rt-sputnik-across-europe-2022-03-01/ |title=YouTube to block channels linked to Russia's RT and Sputnik across Europe |work=Reuters |date=March 1, 2022 |access-date=March 1, 2022}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Companies|Internet|San Francisco Bay Area|United States}}
{{div col}}
* [[Invidious]], a free and open-source alternative frontend to YouTube
* [[Alternative media]]
* [[BookTube]]
* [[BreadTube]]
* [[CNN/YouTube presidential debates]]
* Lists
** [[Comparison of video hosting services]]
** [[List of Google Easter eggs#YouTube]]
** [[List of Internet phenomena]]
** [[List of most-disliked YouTube videos]]
** [[List of most-liked YouTube videos]]
** [[List of most-viewed YouTube videos]]
** [[List of most-subscribed YouTube channels]]
** [[List of online video platforms]]
** [[List of YouTubers]]
* Lawsuits
** ''[[Viacom International Inc. v. YouTube, Inc.]]''
** ''[[Garcia v. Google, Inc.]]''
** ''[[Ouellette v. Viacom International Inc.]]''
* [[YouTube copyright issues]]
* [[Reply girl]]
* [[YouTube Awards]]
* [[YouTube Creator Awards]]
* [[YouTube Instant]]
* [[YouTube Live]]
* [[Multi-channel network]]
* [[YouTube Music Awards]]
* [[YouTube Rewind]]
* [[YouTube Theater]]
* [[YouTube poop]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Bergen |first=Mark |year=2022 |title=Like, Comment, Subscribe: Inside YouTube's Chaotic Rise to World Dominance |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1zhTEAAAQBAJ |location=New York |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-593-29634-9 |oclc=1289250597}}* {{cite web |last=Dickey |first=Megan Rose |title=The 22 Key Turning Points in the History of YouTube |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/key-turning-points-history-of-youtube-2013-2 |website=[[Business Insider]] |date=February 15, 2013 |access-date=March 25, 2017}}
* {{cite web |last=Haran |first=Brady |title=Why do YouTube views freeze at 301? |url=https://www.numberphile.com/videos/301_views.html |work=Numberphile |publisher=Brady Haran |author-link=Brady Haran |author2=Hamilton, Ted |access-date=April 8, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226033151/https://www.numberphile.com/videos/301_views.html |archive-date=December 26, 2016 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |last=Kelsey |first=Todd |title=Social Networking Spaces: From Facebook to Twitter and Everything In Between |url=https://archive.org/details/socialnetworking0000kels |url-access=registration |year=2010 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |isbn=978-1-4302-2596-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Lacy |first=Sarah |title=The Stories of Facebook, YouTube and MySpace: The People, the Hype and the Deals Behind the Giants of Web 2.0 |year=2008 |publisher=Crimson |location=Richmond |isbn=978-1-85458-453-3}}
* {{cite news |last=Walker |first=Rob |title=On YouTube, Amateur Is the New Pro |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/01/magazine/on-youtube-amateur-is-the-new-pro.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=June 28, 2012 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links}}
{{Scholia|topic}}
* {{Official website}}

{{YouTube navigation}}
{{Google LLC}}
{{Alphabet Inc.}}
{{Video digital distribution platforms}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Video game live streaming services}}

[[Category:YouTube| ]]
[[Category:2005 establishments in California]]
[[Category:2006 mergers and acquisitions]]
[[Category:Advertising video on demand]]
[[Category:Alphabet Inc.]]
[[Category:American companies established in 2005]]
[[Category:Android (operating system) software]]
[[Category:Companies based in San Mateo County, California]]
[[Category:Proprietary software programmed in Go]]
[[Category:Google acquisitions]]
[[Category:Google services]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2005]]
[[Category:IOS software]]
[[Category:Multilingual websites]]
[[Category:PlayStation 4 software]]
[[Category:PlayStation 5 software]]
[[Category:Recommender systems]]
[[Category:Social media]]
[[Category:Transactional video on demand]]
[[Category:Video game streaming services]]
[[Category:Video hosting]]

YouTube

2024-01-17T07:49:54Z

Asyncadr: /* Recent history (2019–present) */ removed disputed rumour about sabotage of adblock users

Navajo Generating Station

2024-01-10T05:05:58Z

Asyncadr: Changed link to point to specific article about coal-fired power stations, not the one for fossil power stations in general

{{Short description|Former coal-fired power plant in Arizona, USA}}
{{Infobox power station
| name = Navajo Generating Station
| image = Navajo Generating Station from the south.JPG
| image_caption = Navajo Generating Station
| country = United States
| location = [[Navajo Nation]], near [[Page, Arizona]]
| coordinates = {{coord|36|54|12|N|111|23|25|W|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| commissioned = {{Start date and age|1974|p=yes}} {{Start date and age|1975|p=yes}} {{Start date and age|1976|p=yes}}
| decommissioned = November 18, 2019
| cost = $650 million (1976)
(${{format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|650e6|1976}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US-GDP}} dollars{{Inflation-fn|US-GDP}})
| owner = [[United States Bureau of Reclamation|U.S. Bureau of Reclamation]] (24.3%) [[Salt River Project]] (21.7%) [[Los Angeles Department of Water and Power|LADWP]] (former) (21.2%) [[Arizona Public Service]] (14.0%) [[NV Energy]] (11.3%) [[Tucson Electric Power]] (7.5%)
| operator = Salt River Project
| status = Shutdown
| th_fuel_primary = [[Coal]]
| th_combined_cycle =
| ps_units_operational = 3 × {{nowrap|803 MW}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Existing Electric Generating Units in the United States, 2007|publisher=[[Energy Information Administration]], U.S. Department of Energy|year=2007|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/page/capacity/capacity.html|format=Excel|access-date=2009-07-09}}</ref>
| ps_units_manu_model =
| ps_units_uc =
| ps_units_planned =
| ps_units_cancelled =
| ps_units_decommissioned=
| ps_thermal_capacity =
| ps_heating_capacity =
| ps_electrical_capacity = 2,250
| ps_electrical_cap_fac =
| ps_annual_generation = 12,059 GW·h (2016)
}}

'''Navajo Generating Station''' was a 2.25-gigawatt (2,250 [[megawatt|MW]]), [[Coal-fired power station|coal-fired power plant]] located on the [[Navajo Nation]], near [[Page, Arizona|Page]], [[Arizona]], [[United States]]. This plant provided [[Electric power|electrical power]] to customers in Arizona, [[Nevada]], and [[California]]. It also provided the power for pumping Colorado River water for the [[Central Arizona Project]], supplying about 1.5 million acre feet (1.85 km3) of water annually to central and southern Arizona. As of 2017 permission to operate as a conventional coal-fired plant was anticipated until 2017–2019,<ref name=randaz1/> and to December 22, 2044, if extended.<ref name=DOI72613 /> However, in 2017, the utility operators of the power station voted to close the facility when the lease expires in 2019.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Randazzo|first1=Ryan|title=Utilities vote to close Navajo coal plant at end of 2019|url=http://www.azcentral.com/story/money/business/energy/2017/02/13/utilities-vote-close-navajo-generating-station-coal-plant-2019/97866668/|access-date=April 19, 2017|work=AZCentral|agency=Arizona Republic|publisher=USA Today Network|date=February 13, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|page=A1 |publisher=Navajo Times | title=2018: Year of Schism |date=December 27, 2018 | author=Cindy Yurth}}</ref> In March 2019, the Navajo Nation ended efforts to buy the plant and continue running it after the lease expires.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/money/business/energy/2019/03/22/navajo-nation-ends-bid-buy-navajo-generating-station-coal-power-plant/3246913002/|title=Navajo Nation votes to end efforts to purchase coal-fired power plant, sealing its fate|last1=Randazzo|first1=Ryan|last2=Smith|first2=Noel Lyn|newspaper=Arizona Republic|date=March 22, 2019|access-date=August 16, 2019}}</ref>

On November 18, 2019, the plant ceased commercial generation. Full decommissioning of the site is projected to take approximately three years.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nhonews.com/news/2019/nov/18/navajo-generating-station-shuts-down-permanently/|title=Navajo Generating Station shuts down permanently|last=Locke|first=Katherine|publisher=Navajo-Hopi Oberserver|date=November 18, 2019|access-date=November 19, 2019}}</ref> On December 18, 2020, the three smokestacks were demolished.<ref name="AZCentral">{{cite news |last1=Randazzo |first1=Ryan |title=3 massive coal stacks that long towered over Lake Powell demolished as crowds watched |url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/money/business/energy/2020/12/18/coal-stacks-navajo-generating-station-arizona-demolished/3905369001/ |access-date=18 December 2020 |publisher=AZ Central |date=18 December 2020}}</ref>

==History==
In the 1950s and 1960s, there was a need for new electric generation in the [[Southwestern United States|Southwest]] to supply power to growing populations in southern California, Arizona and Nevada. The US Bureau of Reclamation also needed a large source of power for running the pumps of the planned Central Arizona Project (CAP).

A number of power projects were initially considered to fill these needs, most notably [[Bridge Canyon Dam|Bridge Canyon]] and [[Marble Canyon Dam|Marble Canyon]] hydroelectric dams on the [[Colorado River]]. However, the proximity of the proposed dams to the [[Grand Canyon]] raised opposition, initially from the [[National Park Service]] and then more vigorously from a coalition of environmental groups which promoted construction of a thermal or nuclear power plant as an alternative.<ref name="CAPhistory">{{cite web|title=The Central Arizona Project|work=Bureau of Reclamation History Program|author=Jennifer E. Zuniga|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|year=2000|url= http://www.usbr.gov/projects//ImageServer?imgName=Doc_1303158888395.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120224031232/http://www.usbr.gov/projects//ImageServer?imgName=Doc_1303158888395.pdf |archive-date=February 24, 2012|url-status=dead|access-date=April 17, 2017}}</ref> As a result, the proposed dams were abandoned in favor of the Navajo Power Project, consisting of the Navajo [[Power station|Generating Station]] (NGS) along with the [[Kayenta Mine|Kayenta mine]], [[Black Mesa and Lake Powell Railroad|Black Mesa & Lake Powell]] (BM&LP) Railroad, and {{convert|800|mi|km}} of 500 kV [[Electric power transmission|transmission]] lines.

[[File:Navajo Generating Plant Under Construction – NARA – 549640.tiff|left|thumb|Railroad track hopper, boiler structures and stack during plant construction]]
The site selected for the new power plant was about six miles (10 km) east of [[Glen Canyon Dam]] and three miles (5 km) south of [[Lake Powell]] on {{convert|1,786|acre}} of land leased from the Navajo Nation. The site was close to a source of competitively priced fuel and a reliable source of surface water for cooling. The nearby city of Page and [[U.S. Route 89|U.S. Highway 89]] provided existing infrastructure to support construction and operation of the project.
The contract for engineering and construction was awarded to [[Bechtel|Bechtel Corporation]], which began construction on the site in April, 1970.<ref name="NGS enviro plan status 1970">{{cite book|title=Environmental Planning for the Navajo Generating Station Status Report|others=Prepared by Bechtel Corporation, The Navajo Project|year=1970|oclc=4711442|pages= 1–3|chapter= Chapter I. Introduction and History of the Navajo Project}}</ref>
Generating units 1, 2, and 3 were completed in 1974, 1975, and 1976 respectively at a total cost of about $650 million.

Between 1977 and 1990, following Clean Air Act amendments for assessing and protecting visibility in national parks and wilderness areas, the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]], Salt River Project and other entities cooperated in visibility studies to assess possible effects that NGS emissions might have on those areas.

The series of studies culminated in the Winter Haze Intensive Tracer Experiment (WHITEX) and the Navajo Generating Station Visibility Study (NGSVS). Those studies indicated that controlling [[sulfur dioxide]] (SO2) emissions might improve winter visual range in the Grand Canyon by 2% to 7%, which prompted the EPA to propose a rule requiring NGS to reduce SO2 emissions by 70%.

NGS and environmental groups, however, negotiated an approach that would achieve a greater degree of improvement at lower cost. They agreed to, and recommended a requirement of a 90% reduction in SO2 emissions based on an annual average, with installation to be completed in 1999. The EPA accepted the recommendation and implemented those conditions in its final rule.<ref name="NGS SO2 visibility history">{{cite web|title=RA BART (Reasonably Attributable Best Available Retrofit Technology) Case Study, Navajo Generating Station, Appendix C|others=prepared for WESTAR (Western States Air Resources Council) RA BART Working Group|author=Mike Sundblom, Arizona Department of Environmental Quality|publisher=Western Regional Air Partnership|url= http://www.wrapair.org/forums/amc/projects/ra_bart_case/Navajo-C.doc |access-date=2011-08-22}}</ref>

The technology selected for [[flue gas desulfurization]] (FGD) were wet SO2 [[Carbon dioxide scrubber|scrubber]]s with forced oxidation. Stone & Webster, the architect-engineering firm for the scrubber project, began construction in 1994 and completed the work on Units 3, 2, and 1 in 1997, 1998, and 1999 respectively.<ref name="NGS operating permit">{{cite web|title=Part 71 Federal Operating Permit Statement of Basis – Navajo Generating Station, Permit No. NN-ROP-05-06|publisher=Navajo Nation Environmental Protection Agency|year=2006|page=2|url=http://www.navajonationepa.org/airqty/Pdf_files/NGS_sob052708.pdf|access-date=2011-08-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402222353/http://www.navajonationepa.org/airqty/Pdf_files/NGS_sob052708.pdf|archive-date=2012-04-02|url-status=dead}}</ref> The cost of the scrubber project was about $420 million.

During spring overhauls in 2003 through 2005, the [[electrostatic precipitator]]s were completely gutted and rebuilt for reliability and optimum performance. The original collecting plates and weighted wire electrodes were replaced with improved collecting plates and rigid discharge electrodes. Control equipment was replaced with upgraded automatic voltage controls and rappers.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Detailed Planning Saves Six Weeks in Precipitator Retrofit Schedule |first=Robert |last=Candelaria |magazine=Power Engineering |date=2004-06-01 |url=http://www.power-eng.com/articles/print/volume-108/issue-6/features/detailed-planning-saves-six-weeks-in-precipitator-retrofit-schedule.html |access-date=2012-09-26}}</ref>

In 2007, an analysis of [[nitrogen oxide]] (NOx) emissions and control options was conducted for SRP in support of [[Clean Air Act (United States)|Clean Air Act]] regional haze reduction efforts, although there were no (NOx) reduction requirements on NGS at the time. The analysis concluded that Low NOx burners with separated overfire air (SOFA) would provide the [[Best Available Retrofit Technology]] (BART) alternative in accordance with EPA BART guidelines.<ref name="NGS NOx BART analysis">{{cite web |title=BART Analysis for the Navajo Generating Station Units 1 - 3|author=ENSR Corporation - AECOM |publisher= Western Regional Air Partnership |year=2007 |pages= 6–1 & 6–2 |url= http://www.wrapair.org/forums/ssjf/documents/bart/2007-11_SRP_Navajo_BART_Analysis_Report.pdf |access-date=2011-08-27}}</ref><ref>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. (2005-07-06). "Regional Haze Regulations and Guidelines for Best Available Retrofit Technology (BART) Determinations; Final rule." ''Federal Register,'' {{usfr|70|39103}}</ref> Consequently, the plant voluntarily installed low NOx-SOFA burners on units 3, 2, and 1 during eight-week outages in February through March 2009, 2010, and 2011 respectively.

The [[Los Angeles Department of Water and Power]] withdrew from the project in 2016. After the rise of [[shale gas in the United States]], natural gas power prices ($32/MWh) fell under the cost of coal power for NGS ($38/MWh), and NGS production decreased.<ref>{{cite report |title=Navajo Generating Station & Federal Resource Planning |chapter=Volume 1: Sectoral, Technical, and Economic Trends |chapter-url=http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy17osti/66506.pdf |date=November 2016 |publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy |location=Golden, CO |id=NREL/TP-6A20-66506 |page=148 |quote=Electricity produced at NGS is currently more expensive than electricity purchased on the wholesale spot market.}}</ref><ref name=randaz1>{{cite web|url= http://www.azcentral.com/story/money/business/energy/2017/01/04/navajo-generating-station-threatened-closure/96164528/ |title=Navajo Generating Station threatened with closure |first=Ryan |last=Randazzo |date=2017-01-04 |work=[[The Arizona Republic]] |access-date=2017-02-02 |quote=The glut of cheap natural gas sweeping the country has made the plant's electricity more expensive than simply buying power from natural-gas-fired plants.}}</ref><ref name=COWAN1>{{cite news |url= http://azdailysun.com/news/local/page-area-looks-to-life-beyond-coal-plant/article_c77687a8-2903-52e2-b1bb-8e803e1384c2.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170202134316/http://azdailysun.com/news/local/page-area-looks-to-life-beyond-coal-plant/article_c77687a8-2903-52e2-b1bb-8e803e1384c2.html |first=Emery |last=Cowan |title=Page area looks to life beyond coal plant |date=2017-01-07 |archive-date=2017-02-02 |work=[[Arizona Daily Sun]] |access-date=2017-02-02 |url-status=live}}</ref> The owners require a potential new owner (such as the Navajo Nation) to assume responsibility of future cleanups.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lee |first1=Stephen |title=Navajo Coal-Fired Plant Could Award Cleanup Contracts Next Month |url=https://news.bloombergenvironment.com/environment-and-energy/navajo-coal-fired-plant-dismantling-could-start-next-month |website=news.bloombergenvironment.com |date=19 March 2019|access-date=22 March 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Navajo Generating Station Implosion - 6.jpg|right|thumb|Demolition of Navajo Generating Station, December 2020]]

==Design and specifications==
The plant had three identical 750 MW steam electric generating units. Major components of each unit included a boiler, turbine, generator, closed-cycle cooling system, and environmental control equipment.

The boilers were [[Tangential firing|tangentially fired]], balanced draft, reheat type steam generators, supplied by [[Combustion Engineering]]. Designed for [[Supercritical steam generator|supercritical]] operation, each boiler supplied up 5,410,000 pounds of steam per hour to the turbines at 3500 psi (241 bar) and 1000 °F (537 °C).<ref name="EIA-860 2011">{{cite web|title=Annual Electric Generator Report EIA-860 for 2011|publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration|url=http://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/eia860/index.html|access-date=2012-10-03}}</ref>

The main turbines are General Electric (GE) tandem compound reheat turbines, each directly coupled to a generator and designed to rotate at 3600 rpm.

Steam discharged from the turbines entered a [[surface condenser|condenser]] where water circulating through tubes cools and condensed it, producing a vacuum that maximized the pressure drop across the turbine. The heat picked up by the circulating water was removed by evaporation in six induced-draft cross flow [[cooling tower]]s (two per unit).
The plant used about {{convert|26,000|acre.ft|m3|lk=in}} of water per year from Lake Powell, or about 1/2 gallon (1.9L) per kWh, mainly for cooling water and scrubber operation; see section [[#Wastewater handling]].<ref name="UCRB-AZ water use">{{cite web|title=Arizona Portion of the Upper Colorado River Basin Consumptive Uses and Losses Reports|year=1996–1999|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|url=http://www.usbr.gov/uc/library/envdocs/reports/crs/az/index.html|access-date=2013-04-04}}</ref>

The plant consumed about 8 million tons of low sulfur bituminous coal each year, supplied by [[Peabody Energy]]'s [[Kayenta Mine]] near [[Kayenta, Arizona]]. The coal was hauled 75 miles from mine silos to the plant by the [[Black Mesa and Lake Powell Railroad]] that is owned and operated by the plant. Characteristics of the coal in 2011 included a sulfur content of 0.64%, an ash content of 10.6%, and higher heating value (HHV) of 10,774 Btu/lb.<ref name="EIA-923 2011">{{cite web|title= Power Plant Operations Report EIA-923 for 2011 (generation and fuel data)|publisher= U.S. Energy Information Administration|url= http://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/eia923/|access-date=2012-10-30}}Plant ID 4941</ref>{{rp|p3}}

The plant had three 775 ft (236 meter) tall [[flue gas stack]]s, listed among the [[List of tallest structures in the United States#Arizona|tallest structures in Arizona]]. The stacks were constructed of reinforced concrete, supporting an internal metal liner. The plant's original stacks were demolished in the late 1990s after being replaced by larger diameter stacks of the same height, resulting in the plant having up to six stacks visible for a time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbase.com/dougsherman/image/94939647 |title=Navajo power plant being retrofit with SO2 scrubber smoke stacks (Photo showing six stacks, one unit in operation with un-scrubbed flue gas coming out of its original stack.)|work=Pbase photo gallery|author=Doug Sherman|access-date=2011-07-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbase.com/dougsherman/image/94908369 |title=Navajo coal powered electric generating plant with sulfur dioxide scrubbers (Photo showing last original stack being dismantled, and flue gas saturated with water vapor being emitted from new stacks due to scrubber operation.)|work=Pbase photo gallery|author=Doug Sherman|access-date=2011-07-07}}</ref>

The new stacks were required to accommodate cooler flue gas saturated with water vapor that resulted when wet SO2 scrubbers were added.

==Performance==
The plant had a net nameplate capacity of 2250 MW or 750 MW net per unit, the rated power output leaving the plant through the transmission lines. The gross capacity was 2409.3 (MW) or 803.1 MW per unit, the rated power output at the generator that includes power used internally in the operation of the plant.<ref>{{cite web|title=Navajo Generating Station|publisher=SRP|url = http://www.srpnet.com/about/stations/navajo.aspx|access-date= 2013-01-04}}</ref>

Annual net energy generation in 2011 was 16.9 terawatt-hours ([[TWh]]), with a net [[capacity factor]] of 86%. Annual gross generation was 18.3 TWh. Fuel consumed ([[primary energy]]) in 2011 provided {{convert|170.5e12|Btu|TWh|lk=in|abbr=on|order=flip}} of heat input, resulting in a net heat rate of 34% or {{convert|10,060|Btu/kWh|kWh/kWh|abbr=on|order=flip}}.<ref name="EIA-923 2011"/>

In 2014, generation fell to 72% of capacity, and to 61% in 2016.<ref name=randaz1/> In the first 11 months of 2016, the plant consumed {{convert|111.6e12|Btu|TWh|lk=in|abbr=on|order=flip}} and produced 10.7  TWh of power, giving 33% efficiency.<ref name="EIA-923 2011"/>

==Environmental controls==

===Flue gas emissions===
[[Fly ash]] particulate was removed from the flue gas by hot-side electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) and SO2 scrubbers. The ESPs, constructed as part of the original plant, removed 99% of particulate. Scrubbers removed an additional 50% of what remained in the flue gas after passing through the ESPs.

[[File:Navajo Generating Station flue gas stacks and scrubber absorber.jpg|right|thumb|Scrubber absorber vessel and flue gas stacks]]

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions were controlled by forced oxidation wet scrubbers. The scrubbers consisted of two countercurrent–flow absorber vessels on each unit, using limestone slurry sprays to remove more than 92% of SO2 from the flue gas.<ref name="EIA-860 2011"/> The three scrubbers in total consumed about 24 MW of power, and used 130,000 tons of limestone and {{convert|3000|acre ft|m3|lk=on}} of water per year, producing 200,000 tons of gypsum per year.<ref name="UCRB-AZ water use"/>

Prior to installation of the scrubbers, SO2 emissions were about 71,000 tons per year.<ref>{{cite web|title= Estimated Benefits and Costs of the Navajo Generating Station's (SO2) Emissions Limit, Report# GAO/RCED-98-28|date=January 1998|publisher= U.S. General Accounting Office|url= http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GAOREPORTS-RCED-98-28/pdf/GAOREPORTS-RCED-98-28.pdf|access-date=2013-01-16}}</ref>{{rp|p.4}}

Nitrogen oxide emissions were controlled in the combustion process by the use of low-NOx SOFA burners. Prior to 2009 when installation of the new burners began, NOx emissions were about 34,000 tons per year.<ref>{{cite web|title=National Emissions Inventory (Facility Emissions Summaries - Facility-level by Pollutant database)|year=2008|publisher= U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|url= http://www.epa.gov/ttnchie1/net/2008inventory.html|access-date=2012-04-18}}</ref>
The new burners reduced NOx emissions by about 14,000 tons per year, or more than 40%.

Fine particulate measuring 2.5 micrometers or less ([[National Ambient Air Quality Standards|PM2.5]]), of concern for its potential effect on health and visibility, primarily results from reactions of SO2 and NOx in the atmosphere to form sulfate and nitrate aerosols. NGS combined permit limits for these precursors has been {{convert|0.34|lb/MMBtu|kg/MWh|lk=on}}, lower than 94% of all U.S. coal steam units, while the actual NGS rate in 2011 was {{convert|0.29|lb/MMBtu|kg/MWh}}.<ref name="EPA needs data">{{cite web|title=EPA National Electric Energy Data System (NEEDS) Version 4.10 Ptox Database|publisher= U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|url=http://www.epa.gov/airmarkt/progsregs/epa-ipm/docs/NEEDSv410_PTox.xlsx|access-date=2012-09-28}}</ref>

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from NGS were seventh highest of all U.S facilities in 2015, largely a result of the amount of energy it produced. In the same year, however, its CO2 emissions per unit of energy generated were lower than 75% of all U.S. coal fired power plants. The plant's low CO2 emissions per electric output, compared to other coal fired plants, were attributable to a relatively low heat rate combined with exclusive use of bituminous coal, which creates less CO2 per heat output than other types of coal.<ref>{{cite web|title=2015 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Large Facilities|publisher= U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|url=http://ghgdata.epa.gov/ghgp/main.do|access-date=2013-04-15}}</ref><ref name="EIA-923 2015">{{cite web|title= Power Plant Operations Report EIA-923 for 2015 (generation and fuel data)|publisher= U.S. Energy Information Administration|url= http://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/eia923/|access-date=2017-02-18}}Plant ID 4941</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Emission Factors for Greenhouse Gas Inventories|date=2015-11-19|publisher= U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-11/.../emission-factors_nov_2015.pdf|access-date=2017-02-18}}</ref>

Mercury emissions in 2011 were {{convert|586|lb|kg}} or {{val|3.4|u=[[Pound (mass)|pounds]] per 1012 [[British thermal unit|Btu]] }} ({{val|5.3|u=kg/[[TWh]]}}).<ref name="EIA-923 2011"/><ref name=TRI>{{cite web|title=EPA Toxics Release Inventory Program|year=2011|publisher= U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|url=http://iaspub.epa.gov/triexplorer/release_fac?p_view=COFA&trilib=TRIQ1&sort=_VIEW_&sort_fmt=1&state=04&county=04005&chemical=All+chemicals&industry=2211&year=2011&tab_rpt=1&fld=RELLBY&fld=TSFDSP&OTHOFFD=Y&fld=&OFFDISPD=Y&ONDISPD=Y&OTHDISPD=Y|access-date=2013-01-03}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Emissions (2011)<ref>{{cite web|title=Coal Unit Characteristics 2011|year=2012|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|url=http://www.epa.gov/airmarkt/images/CoalUnitCharacteristics2011.xls|access-date=2012-12-26}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|title=2011 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Large Facilities|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|url=http://ghgdata.epa.gov/ghgp/main.do|access-date=2013-04-15}}</ref>
!Component!!Rate (lb/million Btu)!!Rate (lb/MWh)!!Annual plant total (short tons/year)
|-
!SO2||0.054||0.548||4,641
|-
!NOx||0.233||2.340||19,837
|-
!CO2e||219||2,201||18,660,820
|}

====Air quality effects====
[[File:Navajo generating station Page 2.jpg|thumbnail|Navajo Generating Station vapor emissions]]
Northern Arizona and the Colorado Plateau have consistently met [[National Ambient Air Quality Standards]] (NAAQS) established to protect public health.<ref>{{cite web|title= Green Book – Counties Designated Nonattainment for Clean air Act's National Ambient Air Quality Standards map|publisher= U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|url=http://www.epa.gov/oaqps001/greenbk/mapnpoll.html|access-date=2012-09-19}}</ref>

The EPA's Air Quality Index (AQI), showing air quality on a daily basis, lists no unhealthy days for the general population in all of northern Arizona and southern Utah counties.<ref>{{cite web|title= AirCompare County and State Air Quality Comparisons, Monthly Averages|date=2007–2011|publisher= U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|url= http://www.epa.gov/aircompare/compare-trip.htm|access-date=2012-09-19}}</ref>
Unhealthy days for ozone-sensitive groups – those with asthma or lung disease – are also rare in these counties despite high natural background levels in the [[Intermountain West]]. Coconino County, with the highest occurrences, averages less than two unhealthy days per year, these occurring between March and June, suggesting a correlation with spring stratospheric ozone intrusions.<ref>{{cite web|title= Background Ozone in the U.S. - WESTAR Conference on Western Ozone Transport|date=2012-10-11|publisher= Western States Air Resources Council (WESTAR)|url= http://www.westar.org/12%20Tech%20Conf/Presentations/Dolwick.pdf|access-date=2013-02-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Atmospheric Environment|date=December 2011|volume=45|issue =37
|pages=6772–6774|doi =10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.07.054|title=Improved Estimate of the Policy-Relevant Background Ozone in the United States using the GEOS-Chem Global Model over North America|last1=Zhang|first1=Lin|last2=Jacob|first2=Daniel J.|last3=Downey|first3=Nicole V.|last4=Wood|first4=Dana A.|last5=Blewitt|first5=Doug|last6=Carouge|first6=Claire C.|last7=van Donkelaar|first7=Aaron|last8=Jones|first8=Dylan B.A.|last9=Murray|first9=Lee T.|last10=Wang|first10=Yuxuan|s2cid=15711821 |url=http://acmg.seas.harvard.edu/publications/zhang2011.pdf}}</ref> NGS emissions are unlikely to have contributed to high ozone occurrences, as the plant is located at the northern border of Coconino County, and prevailing southwesterly winds in the spring blow toward counties to the north and east, which have not reported any days with unhealthy ozone levels.<ref name="NREL visibility">{{cite web|title=Navajo Generating Station and Air Visibility Regulations: Alternatives and Impacts|date= 2012-01-08|publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory|url= http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy12osti/53024.pdf|access-date=2012-07-09}}</ref>{{rp|p.82}}
Moreover, Coconino County's two ozone monitoring sites – Grand Canyon Hance Camp and Page – show significant differences within the county (the sites being 70 miles apart). During periods when ozone readings have been highest, peak concentrations in Page were noted to be more than 10 percent lower than those at the Grand Canyon.<ref name="ADOT Coconino air quality">{{cite web|title= Air Quality Sustainability Program in Coconino County|date=2004-07-15|publisher=Arizona Department of Transportation|url=http://www.azdot.gov/mpd/air_quality/pdf/FinalReport04.pdf|access-date=2011-09-27}}</ref>{{rp|p.8}}

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) levels in the Page area average about 3 ppb, 94 percent lower than the NAAQS standard of 53 ppb. Carbon monoxide (CO) levels have also been far below the standards.<ref name="ADOT Coconino air quality"/>{{rp|p.11, 8}}

Fine particulate (PM2.5) levels in the Grand Canyon region have been among the lowest in the nation since before NGS completed installation of SO2 scrubbers and low NOx-SOFA burners.<ref name="IMPROVE viewer">
{{cite web|title=US Annual Spatial and Seasonal Patterns of PM2.5, Light Extinction and Contributions of Major Aerosol Types, 1996 – 1998|publisher=Colorado State University - Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) program|url=http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/improve/Data/Graphic_Viewer/seasonal.htm|access-date=2011-06-27|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100801171200/http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/improve/Data/Graphic_Viewer/seasonal.htm|archive-date=2010-08-01}} Note: Fine particulate PM-2.5 is shown by clicking on Grand Canyon's location on the map and selecting "Fine Mass" from dropdown box above the map. Visibility is indicated by selecting "Deciview" or "Visual Range" from the dropdown box.</ref>
Annual mean levels for PM2.5 in the Page area are about 3 micrograms/cubic meter (µg/m3) – one-quarter of the NAAQS standard of 12 µg/m3 and as low or lower than the cleanest U.S. cities listed by the World Health Organization.<ref>{{cite web|title=Particulate Matter Science for Policy Makers: A NARSTO Assessment|date=April 2004|author=P. McMurry, M. Shepherd, and J. Vickery, eds.|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|url=ftp://narsto.esd.ornl.gov/pub/PM_Assessment/13Ch64.30.pdf|access-date=2013-01-02}}{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>{{rp|p.206}}<ref>{{cite web|title= WHO Urban Outdoor Air Pollution Database|date=September 2011|publisher= World Health Organization
|url=https://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/OAP_database.xls|access-date=2011-12-13}}</ref>

Visibility in the Grand Canyon region has also been among the best in the nation since before NGS installed scrubbers and low NOx-SOFA burners.<ref name="IMPROVE viewer"/>
Within Coconino County, visibility is generally better in the Page/Glen Canyon area at the north end of the county than at the Grand Canyon and areas further south (Sunset Crater, Walnut Canyon, Wupatki National Monuments). Visibility in the Page/Glen Canyon area averages 3.5 deciviews above natural background conditions, within less than one deciview of the best visibility listed in the contiguous U.S. (The DV scale is near zero for a pristine atmosphere, with a change of one deciview being a just noticeable change.)<ref>{{cite web|title=IMPROVE Newsletter|date=April 1993|publisher=Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere (CIRA), Colorado State University|url=http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/improve/publications/NewsLetters/apr_93.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100801210258/http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/improve/Publications/NewsLetters/apr_93.pdf|archive-date=2010-08-01|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=5-Year Average Visibility Estimates for 2006 – 2010 (comparing Coconino County sites GLCA, GRCA, SUCR, WACA, and WUPA)|date=2012-04-10|publisher=National Park Service|url=http://www.nature.nps.gov/air/Maps/AirAtlas/docs/Air_Atlas_Values_Tables/Visibility/NPS_AQC_Vis_0610_web.pdf|access-date=2013-01-14}}</ref>

In 2012, a fish consumption advisory was issued for striped bass in lower Lake Powell, raising concerns about mercury emissions from the plant.<ref>{{cite web|title=Utah Fish Consumption Advisory for Striped Bass in Lake Powell - Fact Sheet|date=2012-10-25|publisher=State of Utah|url=http://www.fishadvisories.utah.gov/docs/2013/LakePowelladvisoryfactsheet.pdf|access-date=2013-01-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127133302/http://fishadvisories.utah.gov/docs/2013/LakePowelladvisoryfactsheet.pdf|archive-date=2013-01-27|url-status=dead}}</ref> NGS emissions, however, were found to contribute less than 2% of atmospheric deposition of mercury on the Colorado River watershed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kayenta Mine Permit Renewal Environmental Assessment, Appendix E - Atmospheric deposition of metals from Navajo Generating Station|date=August 2011|publisher=Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement|url=http://www.wrcc.osmre.gov/Current_Initiatives/Kayenta_Mine/Renewal/EA-AppE.pdf|access-date=2012-09-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130215124406/http://www.wrcc.osmre.gov/Current_Initiatives/Kayenta_Mine/Renewal/EA-AppE.pdf|archive-date=2013-02-15|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{rp|p.E-2}}
Atmospheric deposition, furthermore, accounts for only a part of the mercury loading, much of it coming from natural geological deposits. The natural weathering of rock in the [[Green River (Colorado River)|Green River]] catchment, for example, alone contributes about 40% of the mercury loading in Lake Powell.<ref>{{cite book|title=Colorado River Ecology and Dam Management Symposium Proceedings|date=1990-05-24|publisher=National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/1832|isbn=978-0-309-04535-3|url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=1832&page=90|access-date=2012-12-10}}</ref>

====Updated Emissions Requirements====
The EPA's Mercury and Air Toxics Standard (MATS) that took effect in 2015 required that the plant reduce mercury emissions to {{val|1.2|u=[[Pound (mass)|pounds]] per 1012 [[British thermal unit|Btu]] }} ({{val|1.9|u=kg/[[TWh]]}}) or {{convert|0.013|lb/GWh|kg/TWh}} on a gross basis.<ref>{{cite web|title=Federal Register vol. 77, no. 32, Feb 16, 2012, page 9367|date=2012-02-16|publisher= U.S. Government Printing Office|url=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2012-02-16/pdf/2012-806.pdf|access-date=2013-01-04}}</ref>

On January 4, 2013, [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]], the EPA, and [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy]] announced plans to jointly develop a plan for the future of the plant that maintains its energy, water, and economic benefits. The plan would outline short term investments in the plant to meet environmental goals, and long term plans for transitioning to cleaner energy options, such that short term and long term plans work together.<ref>{{cite web|title=Joint Federal Agency Statement Regarding Navajo Generating Station|date=2013-01-04|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|url=http://epa.gov/air/tribal/pdfs/130103_statement_ngs.pdf|access-date=2013-01-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205223308/http://epa.gov/air/tribal/pdfs/130103_statement_ngs.pdf|archive-date=2013-02-05|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On January 17, 2013, the EPA proposed a [[Best Available Retrofit Technology|BART ruling]] to further reduce NOx emissions:<blockquote>The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is proposing a source-specific federal implementation plan (FIP) requiring the Navajo Generating Station (NGS), located on the Navajo Nation, to reduce emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NO X) under the Best Available Retrofit Technology (BART) provision of the Clean Air Act (CAA or Act) in order to reduce visibility impairment resulting from NGS at 11 National Parks and Wilderness Areas. NGS, which was built over 35 years ago, is the largest coal-fired power plant in the West in terms of generating capacity. It is central to the economies of the Navajo Nation and Hopi Tribe and supplies power to the states of Arizona, Nevada, and California. Electricity produced by NGS is also used to power the Central Arizona Project, which supplies surface water to three counties and numerous Indian tribes in Arizona. NGS is projected to continue operating at least until 2044. EPA is proposing to require NGS to achieve a nearly 80 percent reduction of its current overall NO X emission rate. Our analysis indicates that installation of controls to achieve this reduction would result in significant visibility improvement that is well-balanced with the cost of those controls. For a number of reasons, including the importance of NGS to numerous Indian tribes located in Arizona and the federal government's reliance on NGS to meet the requirements of water settlements with several tribes, EPA is proposing an alternative to BART that would provide flexibility to NGS in the schedule for the installation of new control equipment. We also describe other compliance schedules for consideration and comment. We recognize that there may be other approaches that could result in equivalent or better visibility benefits over time and that there may be changes in energy demand, supply or other developments over the next several decades that may change electricity generation on the Navajo Nation. EPA encourages a robust public discussion of our proposed BART determination and alternative, the additional alternatives described herein, and other possible approaches. EPA is prepared to issue a supplemental proposal if approaches other than the proposed BART determination or proposed alternative articulated in this notice are identified as satisfying the requirements of the Clean Air Act and meeting the needs of the stakeholders. EPA is committed to continuing to engage with stakeholders to develop a final FIP that maintains benefits to tribes and the regional economy while improving visibility in many of our nation's most treasured National Parks and Wilderness Areas.<ref name=EPS020513>{{cite web|title=Proposed rule.|url=http://www.regulations.gov/#!documentDetail;D=EPA-R09-OAR-2013-0009-0013|publisher=Regulations.gov|access-date=July 27, 2013|date=February 5, 2013}}</ref></blockquote> The ruling would require the plant to reduce NOx emissions to no more than {{convert|0.055|lb/MMBtu|g/MWh|lk=on}} by 2023, necessitating the installation of [[Selective Catalytic Reduction]] (SCR) equipment. The SCRs would need to reduce NOx by about 15,000 tons per year. Along with the existing Low-NOx burners, the total reduction would be about 29,000 tons per year below 2008 levels.<ref>{{cite web|title= EPA Pacific Southwest Air Actions, Navajo Nation|date=2013-01-17|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|url=http://www.epa.gov/region9/air/navajo/index.html#station |access-date=2013-01-04}}</ref>

The SCRs would use a catalyst and ammonia to react with NOx to form diatomic nitrogen and water. SCRs would also increase sulfuric acid mist levels by causing SO2 to oxidize to SO3. The high sulfuric acid levels could require dry sorbent injection (DSI) – a system that injects a powdered sorbent such as [[trona]] to absorb the acid mist - and the addition of baghouses and booster fans to capture the resulting particulate.<ref name="SCR cost est">{{cite web|title=Navajo Generating Station SCR and Baghouse Capital Cost Estimate Report, S&L report# SL-010214, revision D|date=2010-08-17|publisher=Salt River Project|url=http://www.ngspower.com/pdfx/Jan2013/Sgt-Lundy_Cost_Study.pdf|access-date=2011-10-26}}{{Dead link|date=April 2017}}</ref>{{rp|p.1-1, 3-8}}

SCRs without baghouses are expected to cost about $600 million to construct and about $12 million per year to operate and maintain. SCRs with baghouses would cost about $1.1 billion to construct and about $20 million per year to operate and maintain.<ref name="SCR cost est"/>{{rp|p.9-4,9-7}}

The SCRs by themselves would need about 15 MW to operate, requiring the burning of an additional 50,000 tons of coal per year and increasing CO2 emissions by 125,000 tons per year. If baghouses are also needed, the systems would need about 30 MW to operate, requiring an additional 100,000 tons of coal per year and increasing CO2 emissions by 250,000 tons per year.<ref name="SCR cost est"/>{{rp|p.4–8}}
The operation would also consume some 40,000 pounds of anhydrous ammonia daily.<ref name="SCR cost est"/>{{rp|p.2-1}}

The plant faced a number of hurdles to retrofitting SCRs in the allotted time. Before the plant's owners could invest in SCRs, they will have to resolve the site lease, rights-of-way for the railroad, transmission and water lines, and the coal supply agreement. One participant – LADWP – cannot invest in the improvements due to California law prohibiting long term investment in coal-fired power plants, and plans to sell its share in the plant by 2015.<ref>{{cite web|title= State of California Senate Bill No. 1368|date=2006-09-29|publisher= California Energy Commission|url=http://www.energy.ca.gov/emission_standards/documents/sb_1368_bill_20060929_chaptered.pdf|access-date=2013-04-02}}</ref>

NV Energy announced it also intends to pull out of participation in the plant, planning to divest its interest by 2019.
Extension of the plantsite lease with the Navajo Nation requires the approval of the [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]], who cannot approve it until environmental assessments required by the [[National Environmental Policy Act]] (NEPA) and the [[Endangered Species Act]] (ESA) are completed. The current lease expired in 2019 and the environmental assessments are expected to take about five years to complete.

After the EPA issued a proposed BART rule<ref name="EPS020513"/> it solicited input from stakeholders: the [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]], the [[Central Arizona Project]], the [[Navajo Nation]], the [[Gila River Indian Community]], the [[Salt River Project]], the [[Environmental Defense Fund]], and Western Resources Advocates who as a technical working group negotiated a "Reasonable Progress Alternative to BART" which was submitted by the Department of the Interior to the EPA on July 26, 2013, for consideration in development of a final rule:<ref name=DOI72613>{{cite news|title=Historic Agreement Reached for Navajo Generating Station: Plan Proposes Collaborative Path Forward for Reduced Emissions, Continued Power Generation, and Clean Energy Development|url=http://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/historic-agreement-reached-for-navajo-generating-station.cfm|access-date=July 27, 2013|newspaper=Department of the Interior|date=July 26, 2013|format=press release}}</ref><ref name=ICT72613>{{cite news|title=Coming Clean: Historic Agreement Reached for Navajo Generating Station|url=http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2013/07/26/historic-agreement-reached-navajo-generating-station-150606|access-date=July 27, 2013|newspaper=Indian Country Today|date=July 26, 2013|author=ICTMN Staff|archive-date=July 28, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728114718/http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2013/07/26/historic-agreement-reached-navajo-generating-station-150606|url-status=dead}}</ref> <blockquote>The Parties shall submit this Agreement to EPA and request that EPA: adopt the Reasonable Progress Alternative to BART set forth in Appendix B as the Final BART Rule;<ref name=NGSalternative>{{cite web|title=TECHNICAL WORK GROUP AGREEMENT RELATED TO NAVAJO GENERATING STATION (NGS)|url=http://www.doi.gov/upload/7-25-2013-NGS-TWG-Agreement-FINAL_Executed.pdf|publisher=Department of the Interior|format=contract|date=July 25, 2013}}</ref></blockquote>
The agreement contains a commitment by the current owners of NGS to cease their operation of conventional coal-fired generation at NGS no later than December 22, 2044.<ref name=DOI72613 />

===Wastewater handling===
NGS was built with one of the first zero liquid discharge (ZLD) systems in a power plant, recovering all cooling tower blow-down and runoff from developed areas of the site. The waste water is processed through three brine concentrators and a crystallizer, which remove the solids and produce distilled water for re-use within the plant.<ref name="GE zld">{{cite web|title=GE Water & Process Technologies – RCC Thermal Products & ZLD|publisher=General Electric|url=http://www.gewater.com/pdf/events/2009/power_ind/GE-Thermal-Products-ZLD.pdf|access-date=2011-05-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402222353/http://www.gewater.com/pdf/events/2009/power_ind/GE-Thermal-Products-ZLD.pdf|archive-date=2012-04-02|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Several lined ponds are used in conjunction with the ZLD system to capture and regulate the flow of waste water to the system.

=== Byproducts handling ===
The plant sold about 500,000 tons of [[fly ash]] per year for use in the manufacture of concrete and Flexcrete insulating block building product.<ref name="navajoflexcrete">{{cite web|title=Navajo Flexcrete Building Systems|publisher=Navajo Housing Authority|url=http://www.navajoflexcrete.biz/|access-date=2011-05-25}}</ref>
Bottom ash and gypsum, a byproduct of the scrubber operation, are dewatered in the removal process; and, along with any fly ash not sold, were landfilled on-site as solids.

The plant's ash handling contract required the landfilled ash be covered with a minimum of two feet of native soil cover at closure, and be contoured to contain a 100-year storm runoff event to prevent erosion, although the original lease had only specified covering it with six inches of native soil.<ref name="ISG ash agreement">{{cite web|title=ISG Replacement Agreement for Management of Ash and Other Byproducts Generated at Navajo Generating Station|date=2002-01-01|url=http://www.techagreements.com/agreement-preview.aspx?title=Headwaters%20-%20Isg%20Replacement%20Agreement%20For%20Management%20of%20Ash&num=393328}}</ref>{{rp|p.11}}<ref name="NGS lease">{{cite web|title= Navajo Project Indenture of Lease, Navajo Units 1, 2 and 3|date= 1969-12-22|publisher=EN3 Professionals, LLC|url= https://docs.google.com/file/d/0BzAD-1g8l2r1MjRkMWE2MTQtZDQ2Yi00ZDY5LWJhYmItYTBmNDBmZTBlN2Q1/edit?hl=en&pli=1 |access-date= 2013-05-24}}</ref>{{rp|p.35}}

==Economic aspects==
[[File:Colorado, Page, Navajo generating station.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|Lake Powell, Page city area on the right and Navajo generating station in the background]]

Economic benefits of the plant resulted from NGS wages and site leases, as well as Kayenta Mine wages and royalties that result from NGS coal purchases, NGS being the sole source of revenue for the mine. The plant and mine annually pay out about $100 million in direct wages and $50 million in leases and royalties.

The majority owners of the NGS did not plan to keep the plant running past 2019, because natural-gas fired electricity is a cheaper nationwide trend. The Navajo Nation has petitioned the federal government to keep the plant open and preserve Navajo jobs. This would likely require relaxation of emissions standards and/or direct subsidy.<ref>"Trump's support for coal faces first test in Arizona", ''Wall Street Journal'', A4, Feb 17, 2017</ref>

===Plant employment, leases, and payments===
NGS had 538 employees, and paid about $52 million per year in total wages.<ref name="NREL visibility"/>{{rp|p.93}}

The 1,786 acres for the plant site is leased from the Navajo Nation.<ref name="NGS lease"/>

Rights-of-way and easements on tribal lands, permitted under a 25 U.S.C. §323 grant, include the plant site, 78 miles of railroad right-of-way covering 1,309 acres, and 96 miles of transmission line right-of-way covering 3,850 acres.<ref name="NGS lease"/><ref>{{cite web|title= U.S. Code Title 25 Chapter 8 – Rights-of-Way through Indian Lands|publisher= U.S. House of Representatives|url= http://uscode.house.gov/download/pls/25C8.txt|access-date= 2013-06-04|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121215134824/http://uscode.house.gov/download/pls/25C8.txt|archive-date= 2012-12-15|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Application and Grant of Rights-of-Way and Easements (25 U.S.C. §323) Navajo Project|date=1969-05-27|publisher=EN3 Professionals, LLC| url= https://docs.google.com/file/d/0BzAD-1g8l2r1NjNkMWNkYWUtOGIxZi00NTE4LWJkYTEtYjAzYjIxNTY4ODg5/edit?hl=en&pli=1 |access-date= 2013-05-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Application for Federal Right-of-Way and Easements (Navajo Project Coal Haul Railroad)|date=1970-09-24|publisher=EN3 Professionals, LLC|url=https://docs.google.com/file/d/0BzAD-1g8l2r1YjFlNjg0NGUtOWFjZC00ZDFjLTg3MDgtM2YwZThjNzBhNDYy/edit?hl=en&pli=1|access-date=2013-05-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Grant of Federal Rights-of-Way and Easements (25 U.S.C. §323) Navajo Project Coal Haul Railroad|date=1971-01-19|publisher=EN3 Professionals, LLC| url=https://docs.google.com/file/d/0BzAD-1g8l2r1ZTBlYTI0MTktNDhmYi00NGQ1LThhYzUtZGQwYWM4YjI4YzJm/edit?hl=en&pli=1|access-date= 2013-05-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Supplemental Agreement to the Navajo Project Coal Haul Railroad Right-of-Way granted January 19, 1971|date=1973-09-17|publisher=EN3 Professionals, LLC| url=https://docs.google.com/file/d/0BzAD-1g8l2r1MWZkNWZmYzMtYzE2My00ODgyLTk0NmMtMTljYmNlM2I0MmZk/edit?hl=en&pli=1|access-date=2013-05-24}}</ref>

Annual lease payments to the Navajo Nation were $608,000 as of 2012.<ref>Linear rights-of-way on federal BLM land in Coconino county lease for about $8.50 an acre per year. BLM leases for non-linear easements in Coconino County are twice the linear right-of-way rate.</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=Bureau of Land Management Update of Linear Right-of-Way Schedule; Final Rule (county zones on page 65076, rent schedules on page 65051)|date=2008-10-31|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Land Management| url=http://www.blm.gov/pgdata/etc/medialib/blm/wo/MINERALS__REALTY__AND_RESOURCE_PROTECTION_/cost_recovery.Par.81666.File.dat/ROW_Final_Rule_FR_Notice.pdf|access-date=2013-04-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424222014/http://www.blm.gov/pgdata/etc/medialib/blm/wo/MINERALS__REALTY__AND_RESOURCE_PROTECTION_/cost_recovery.Par.81666.File.dat/ROW_Final_Rule_FR_Notice.pdf|archive-date=2012-04-24|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Paragon-Bisti Solar Energy Ranch Feasibility Study|date= 2011-08-23|author1=Raymond Max|author2=Scott Prosuch|author3=Annette Blue| publisher=U.S. Department of Energy|url= http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/tribalenergy/pdfs/tribal_business/paragon-bisti_0811.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|p.22}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Company dumps big Laughlin solar project, says market won't support it |date=2013-06-14|first=Conor |last=Shine|publisher=Las Vegas Sun|url= http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2013/jun/14/company-dumps-big-laughlin-solar-project-says-mark/#axzz2ZMwwnghb|access-date=2013-07-15}}</ref>

Air permit fees paid to the Navajo Nation EPA were about $400,000 per year.<ref name="NREL visibility"/>{{rp|p.100}}

Property taxes paid to the State of Arizona were about $4.8 million per year. Since 2011, payments in lieu of taxes have also been paid to the Navajo Nation at half the Arizona tax rate, or about $2.4 million per year.<ref name="NN Council SS1">{{cite web|title=Navajo Nation Council Summer Session 2013, Legislation No. 0177-13 (beginning at minute 44:24)|date=2013-07-17|publisher=Navajo Nation Office of Broadcast Services|url=http://www.ustream.tv/recorded/35970309|access-date=2013-07-17}}{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Lease extension===
Plant owners and the Navajo Nation negotiated terms for a 25-year extension to the original lease that ended in December 2019. Proposed lease payments under the extended lease would increase to $9 million per year beginning in 2020.
The terms also include 'Additional Payments' in lieu of taxes and other compensation, starting at $10 million per year following approval by the tribe and escalating to $34 million in 2020, although prorated if one or more units are retired or permanently de-rated.<ref name="NN Council SS1"/>
Payment terms, stated in 2011 dollars, would be adjusted annually based on the [[consumer price index]] (CPI). Due to CPI adjustments, actual payments by 2020 had been projected to be around $52 million/year.<ref name="ASU-NN report">{{cite web|title=Navajo Generating Station & Kayenta Mine: An Economic Impact Analysis for the Navajo Nation|date=2013-04-09|author1=A. Evans|author2=T. James|author3=Melissa Gamez|author4=Eva Madly|name-list-style=amp|publisher=L. William Seidman Research Institute, W.P. Carey School of Business, Arizona State University| url=http://ngspower.com/pdfx/NGS_ASU_Report_April_2013.pdf|access-date= 2013-04-10}}</ref>{{rp|p.8}} As of 2013 permission to operate as a conventional coal-fired plant was anticipated until December 22, 2044.<ref name=DOI72613 /> Because the new lease was not approved, the station would shut down by the end of 2017 if [[wikt:decommission|decommission]]ing is to be finished by original lease end in 2019.<ref name=randaz1/>

===Mine employment and royalties===
The Kayenta mine has 430 employees, and pays about $47 million per year in total wages.

Coal royalties are paid at 12.5% of gross proceeds, as on federal BLM lands.<ref>{{cite web| title=U.S. Bureau of Land Management Coal Operations|date=2010-12-03|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Land Management|url=http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/energy/coal_and_non-energy.html|access-date=2011-09-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919194244/http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/energy/coal_and_non-energy.html|archive-date=2011-09-19|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The royalties and other mine payments amount to about $50 million per year, $37 million paid to the Navajo Nation and $13 million to the Hopi tribe.<ref name="NREL visibility"/>{{rp|p.V,95}}

===Impact on regional economies===
NGS and Kayenta Mine payments in 2012 accounted for about a quarter of the Navajo Nation's revenues, and 65% of the Hopi Tribe's revenues.<ref name="FY13 NN budget">{{cite web|title=Navajo Nation Fiscal Year 2013 Budget Presentation|date=2012-07-06|publisher=Navajo Nation Office of Management and Budget|url=http://www.omb.navajo-nsn.gov/files/GF%20Documents/FY%2013%20Budget%20Pwrpt%20Pres%207.6.12.pdf|access-date=2013-07-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913110454/http://www.omb.navajo-nsn.gov/files/GF%20Documents/FY%2013%20Budget%20Pwrpt%20Pres%207.6.12.pdf|archive-date=2012-09-13| url-status=dead}}</ref>{{rp|p.6}}<ref name="NREL comments">{{cite web|title=Comments on NREL Phase 1 Report ("Navajo Generating Station and Air Visibility Regulations: Alternatives and Impacts") |year=2012|publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior|url=http://www.doi.gov/navajo-gss/upload/NREL-Comments-ALL_Final2012.pdf|access-date=2012-07-09}}</ref>{{rp|p.24}}
Native American tribal members, mainly Navajo, make up 83% of plant employees and 93% of mine employees, resulting in about 850 direct tribal positions.<ref name="NREL visibility"/>{{rp|p.93}}

Indirectly, plant and mine operations support the equivalent of about 1,600 full-time positions.<ref name="NREL visibility"/>{{rp|p.IV,106}} With increased lease and royalty payments, by 2020 the plant and mine had been expected to generate more than 2,100 indirect jobs for the Navajo Nation alone, if all three units continued running.<ref name="ASU-NN report"/>{{rp|p.1}}

The cumulative economic impact on the state of Arizona as a whole for the time period 2011–2044 was expected to be $20 billion in gross state product, or about $330 million per year in disposable income and $20 million per year in state tax revenues, also assuming all three units continued running.<ref>{{cite web|title=Navajo Generating Station and Kayenta Mine: An Economic Impact Study|date=2012-02-02|author1=M. Croucher, A. Evans|author2=T. James|name-list-style=amp|publisher=L. William Seidman Research Institute, W.P. Carey School of Business, Arizona State University|url=http://www.ngspower.com/pdfx/SRPASUNGS.pdf|access-date=2012-08-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618043923/http://ngspower.com/pdfx/SRPASUNGS.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-18|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{rp|p.23}}

Regional effects of installing SCR and baghouses would include increasing CAP water rates by as much as 32% for agricultural users and Indian tribes. If the plant were to shut down, those rates were expected to increase as much as 66%.<ref name="NREL visibility"/>{{rp|p.V,68}}

In 2012, NGS and the Navajo Tribal Utility Authority (NTUA) formed a partnership to extend electrical power to 62 homes in the area surrounding the nearby community of LeChee. Since NGS participants have no jurisdiction for supplying electricity on the reservation (that authority belonging solely to the NTUA), NGS and the NTUA would jointly fund the project, and the NTUA would build it.<ref>{{cite web|title=NTUA & NGS Create Partnership for LeChee Community|date=2012-02-06| publisher=Navajo Tribal Utility Authority|url=http://www.ngspower.com/pdfx/NTUA-NGS-Prtnrshp2012.pdf |access-date=2012-11-12}}{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Water service contract===
Water used by the plant is supplied from Arizona's annual allocation of 50,000 acre-feet of upper basin Colorado River water through Water Service Contract No. 14-06-400-5003 with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and Arizona Department of Water Resources permit A-3224.<ref name="ISG ash agreement"/>{{rp|p.3}}<ref>{{cite web|title=The Law of the River|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation| url=http://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/g1000/lawofrvr.html|access-date=2010-05-01|url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626204917/http://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/g1000/lawofrvr.html|archive-date=2012-06-26}}</ref>

Water payment rate had been $7 an acre-foot, resulting in payments to the U.S. of about $180,000 per year.<ref>{{cite web|title= Glen Canyon Unit Colorado River Storage Project Contract for Water Service from Lake Powell (for the Navajo Power Project)|date=1969-01-17|publisher=EN3 Professionals LLC|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0BzAD-1g8l2r1N2M5M2FhMDYtMDI0Ny00MzFjLWIyODgtZjRiYzEyODMzM2Qz&hl=en|access-date= 2013-06-20}}</ref>{{rp|p.7}}Payments were set to increase to $90 an acre-foot in 2014, or about $2.4 million per year. By comparison, water rates and leases in the Four Corners region are typically $40 to $155 per acre-foot.<ref>{{cite web|title=LeChee, (U.S. Bureau of) Reclamation negotiate water deal|date=2008-06-24|author=Bob Phillips|publisher=Lake Powell Chronicle| url=http://www.lakepowellchronicle.com/V2_news_articles.php?heading=0&story_id=1304&..|access-date=2013-04-22| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424182739/http://www.lakepowellchronicle.com/v2_news_articles.php?heading=0|archive-date=2013-04-24|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Water Service Contract between The United States and the Navajo Nation/ NTUA, Final Environmental Assessment and FONSI (950 acre-feet for the community of LeChee, Arizona)|date=May 2009|publisher= U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|url=http://www.usbr.gov/uc/envdocs/ea/LeChee/|access-date= 2013-04-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=Central Arizona Project Final Water Rate Schedule 2013 – 2018|date=2012-06-07| publisher=Central Arizona Project|url=http://www.cap-az.com/Portals/1/Documents/2012-06/Approved%202013-2018%20CAWCD%20Final%20Water%20Rate%20Schedule.pdf|access-date=2013-04-29| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013053625/http://www.cap-az.com/Portals/1/Documents/2012-06/Approved%202013-2018%20CAWCD%20Final%20Water%20Rate%20Schedule.pdf| archive-date=2013-10-13|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Sale and Leasing of Water Rights in Western States: an Update to Mid-2003| date=April 2004|author1=Jennifer Adams|author2=Dotti Crews|author3=Ronald Cummings| publisher=Georgia State University|url=http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwenv/waterPDF/W2004004.pdf|access-date=2013-04-22}}</ref>

[[File:Page to LeChee, Arizona panorama looking east, including Navajo Generating Station.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|Winter panorama showing the city of Page, the Navajo Generating Station, and [[LeChee Rock]] (left to right, looking east near center). Water vapor from the plant's stacks and cooling towers forms a large plume due to the cold air and relative humidity.]]
[[File:Page Arizona.jpg|thumb|center|500px|Satellite photo showing Page, Lake Powell, Glen Canyon Dam, Navajo Generating Station and Colorado River (North towards bottom, see arrow at lower right)]]

=== Production ===
Navajo Generating Station's production is as follows.<ref name=eia_4941>{{cite web |url=http://eia.gov/electricity/data/browser/#/plant/4941 |title=Navajo generating station, annual |work=Electricity Data Browser |author=[[Energy Information Administration]] |access-date=March 22, 2019}}</ref>

{| class=wikitable
|-
!Year!!GW·h
|-
|2011||16,952
|-
|2012||15,888
|-
|2013||17,132
|-
|2014||17,297
|-
|2015||13,573
|-
|2016||12,059
|-
|2017||13,781
|-
|2018||13,017
|}

==Popular Culture==

Navajo Generating Station featured extensively in one of the sequences in the 1982 film [[Koyaanisqatsi]].

==See also==
*[[List of largest power stations in the United States]]

==References==
{{reflist|22em}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Navajo Generating Station}}
* [https://www.srpnet.com/about/stations/ngs/default.aspx NGS Website]
* [http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/IMPROVE/Publications/GrayLit/031_NGS/NGS_Brochure.pdf NGS Plant Tour Brochure with process diagram and description]
* {{Structurae|id=20013991|title=Navajo Generating Station Chimneys}}
* [https://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&source=s_q&hl=en&geocode=&sll=37.0625,-95.677068&sspn=50.111473,114.169922&ie=UTF8&ll=36.904985,-111.388535&spn=0.024914,0.055747&t=h&z=15 Google Earth]

{{Generating stations in Arizona}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Coconino County, Arizona]]
[[Category:Former coal-fired power stations in the United States]]
[[Category:Energy infrastructure completed in 1974]]
[[Category:Energy infrastructure completed in 1975]]
[[Category:Energy infrastructure completed in 1976]]
[[Category:1974 establishments in Arizona]]
[[Category:2019 disestablishments in Arizona]]
[[Category:Former power stations in Arizona]]
[[Category:Navajo Nation]]

Black & Decker DustBuster

2023-12-04T01:28:42Z

Asyncadr:

[[File:Spill Buster Black and Decker.JPG|thumb|right|upright|Spillbuster 2000 from 1998]]


The '''Black & Decker DustBuster''' (now stylized as '''DUSTBUSTER''') is a cordless [[vacuum cleaner]] that was introduced in January 1979.

Mark Proett and Carroll Gantz are listed as the inventors on the utility and design patents, respectively, assigned to [[Black & Decker]] for a cordless vacuum cleaner.<ref>{{Cite patent|country=US|number=4011624|pubdate=1977-03-15|title=Cordless vacuum cleaner|assign1=[[Black%2BDecker|The Black and Decker Manufacturing Co.]]|inventor1-last=Proett|inventor1-first=Mark Anton}}</ref><ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=D257661|pubdate=1980-12-23|title=Portable vacuum cleaner|assign1=[[Black%2BDecker|Black & Decker Inc.]]|inventor1-last=Gantz|inventor1-first=Carroll M.}}</ref> Mark Proett was an engineer whose utility patent was for B&D's Model 9321 cordless vacuum cleaner, called the Spot Vac, a component of the Mod 4 series of power tools (shrub trimmer, lantern, grass shear, drill, and Spot Vac), all powered by a single, rechargeable, and interchangeable "energy pak" handle with batteries. The device uses [[suction power]] to pick up fine [[dirt]] and debris including pet hair.

The design originated from the Apollo space mission, where [[NASA]] required a portable, self-contained drill capable of extracting core samples from the lunar surface. [[Black & Decker]] was tasked with the job, and developed a computer program to optimize the design of the drill's motor and ensure minimal power consumption. That computer program led to the development of a cordless miniature vacuum cleaner.<ref name=Spinoff1981>{{cite book | author = NASA | title = Spinoff | location = Washington, DC | publisher = [[U.S. Government Printing Office]] | date = 1981 | url = http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/back_issues_archives/1981.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090327045110/http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/back_issues_archives/1981.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2009-03-27 }}</ref>

The Mod 4 series was introduced in 1974 but was generally not successful in the marketplace. However, in post-mortem consumer research, the Spot Vac was highly successful with women, who borrowed it from their husband's workbench in the basement to clean up minor spills in the kitchen and upstairs. This inspired the design of a new household product specifically for use upstairs by women. The product appearance was completely redesigned by Gantz's design patent, the first design patent ever filed by B&D, renamed the Dustbuster and introduced in January 1979 as a household product, not a power tool. Gantz was Manager of the Black & Decker the United States Consumer Power Tool Division's Industrial Design Department at the time.<ref name="Gantz">{{cite book |author1=Carroll Gantz|author2=Victoria Kasuba Matranga |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXxUAAAAMAAJ |title=Design Chronicles: Significant Mass-produced Designs of the 20th Century |publisher=Schiffer Pub. |year=2005 |isbn=9780764322235 |pages=53 |accessdate=2009-01-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.idsa.org/dustbuster-1979 |title=The Dustbuster: 1979 |publisher=[[Industrial Designers Society of America]] |accessdate=2013-09-09 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908050544/http://www.idsa.org/dustbuster-1979 |archivedate=2013-09-08 }}</ref> Over a million Dustbusters were sold in its first year, four times that of the traditional handheld vacuum market and its success enabled B&D to establish a new Household Products Division, which in 1983, acquired and merged with General Electric Housewares Operations in [[Bridgeport, Connecticut]]. By 1985, B&D had the majority share of cordless vacuum cleaner market and the Dustbuster sold 7 million units annually.{{Clarify|date=January 2009|US or global market?}}

The product has been redesigned several times, and as of 2016 Black and Decker still used the name in its handheld vacuum products.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blackanddecker.com/ProductGuide/CategoryOverview.aspx?cPath=1499.2210 |title=Cordless Hand Vacuums from Black and Decker |publisher=[[Black and Decker]] |accessdate=2009-01-04 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222082112/http://www.blackanddecker.com/ProductGuide/CategoryOverview.aspx?cPath=1499.2210 |archivedate=2008-12-22 }}</ref> In 1995, the Smithsonian acquired a 1979 Dustbuster and placed it in their electrical collection at the National Museum of American History. By this time, it is estimated that over 100 million "Dustbusters" had been sold. "Dustbuster" has become a [[genericized trademark]] for a handheld vacuum cleaner in some parts of the world, due to its success as a design and worldwide recognition. In 2009, the original 1979 Dustbuster was selected and published as a detailed "Catalyst" case study by the Industrial Designers Society of America (IDSA) to illustrate the power of design to achieve commercial success and to effect positive change in the marketplace.<ref>"Catalyst 2009 Case Studies," IDSA</ref>

The 1990-1996 [[General Motors]] [[minivan]]s (the [[Chevrolet Lumina APV]], [[Pontiac Trans Sport]] and [[Oldsmobile Silhouette]]) had styling that were frequently likened to the DustBusters.

==See also==
* {{portal-inline|Technology}}
* [[List of vacuum cleaners]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official website|http://blackanddecker.com/dustbuster/}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Black and Decker Dustbuster}}
[[Category:NASA spin-off technologies]]
[[Category:Vacuum cleaners]]
[[Category:Products introduced in 1979]]

Rebecca Watson

2023-11-05T02:29:40Z

Asyncadr: /* Personal life */ Removed "better source needed" - reviewed the source and it directly mentions that the subject is married

{{Short description|American atheist blogger (born 1980)}}
{{pp-pc1}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{BLP primary sources|date=August 2020}}
{{Outdated as of|2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rebecca Watson
| image = Aust Skeptic Con 2014 Randi SGU Hrab1 (cropped).jpg
| alt = Cropped image of Watson on a convention panel
| caption = Watson in 2014
| birth_name = Rebecca Watson
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|October 18, 1980}}<ref name="Watson 2018">{{Cite tweet |last=Watson |first=Rebecca |number=1053370368340058112 |user=rebeccawatson |title=yesterday I turned 38 and I’m not into the idea of plastic surgery so feeling pretty blessed to live in the same time period as the iphone X camera |date=October 19, 2018 |access-date=June 23, 2021}}</ref>
| birth_place = United States
| alma mater = [[Boston University]]
| years_active = 2005–present
| known_for = Skeptical Rogue to [[Steven Novella]] on ''[[The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe]]'' podcast, [[science communication]], [[atheism]], [[feminism]]
| website = {{URL|skepchick.org}}
}}
'''Rebecca Watson''' is an American [[atheist]] [[blogger]]<ref name="Scheidt 2021">{{cite book |last1=Scheidt |first1=Hannah K. |title=Practicing Atheism: Culture, Media, and Ritual in the Contemporary Atheist Network |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-753696-4 |pages=73, 90}}</ref>{{r|Hess 2015}}<ref name="Brewster 2021">{{cite book |last1=Brewster |first1=Melanie Elyse |last2=Motulsky |first2=Wei |last3=Chan |first3=Andy |editor1-last=Bullivant |editor1-first=Stephen |editor2-last=Ruse |editor2-first=Michael |title=The Cambridge History of Atheism |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-0090-4021-1 |page=1070 |doi=10.1017/9781108562324.058 |chapter=Intersectional Atheisms: Race, Gender, and Sexuality}}</ref> and [[YouTuber]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Blanchard |first=Kathryn |date=2019-09-05 |title=To the YouTuber Who Called My Chronic Lyme Disease a 'Scam' |url=https://www.yahoo.com/lifestyle/youtuber-called-chronic-lyme-disease-115510712.html |access-date=2023-05-28 |website=Yahoo Life |language=en-US}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=May 2023|reason=personal reflection/opinion essay}} She is the founder of the blog '''''Skepchick''''' and former co-host of ''[[The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe]]'' podcast. She also previously co-hosted the ''[[Little Atoms]]'' podcast.<ref name="Simpson 2007">{{cite news |last=Simpson |first=Neal |date=September 27, 2007 |title=Blogger looks to take her war on pseudoscience to the airwaves |department=Wicked Local |work=Brookline TAB |location=Framingham, Mass. |url=http://www.wickedlocal.com/brookline/archive/x1429055418 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130209120521/http://www.wickedlocal.com/brookline/archive/x1429055418 |archive-date=February 9, 2013}}</ref><ref name="Mouallem 2008">{{cite news |last=Mouallem |first=Omar |author-link=Omar Mouallem |date=August 2008 |title=Making a Living of Bullshit Detecting |work=[[Vue Weekly]] |issue=671 |url=http://www.vueweekly.com/article.php?id=9429 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912125609/http://www.vueweekly.com/article.php?id=9429 |archive-date=September 12, 2008}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Born in 1980,{{r|Schmadel 2012|Watson 2018}} Rebecca Watson grew up in New Jersey.<ref name="Potash 2006">{{cite news |last=Potash |first=Larry |title=Be skeptical or be an April fool |url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2006-03-31/news/0603310344_1_fools-day-fool-s-errand-magician |work=Chicago Tribune |access-date=August 24, 2013 |date=March 31, 2006}}</ref>{{r|Simpson 2007}}
She graduated from [[Boston University]] in 2002, where she majored in [[Communication studies|communications]].{{r|Potash 2006|Simpson 2007}}
Watson says she had little interest in science until she began working
as a [[Magic (illusion)|magician]] while at university and meeting other skeptics including magician [[James Randi]].<ref name="Watson Sep 2011">{{cite web |author=Watson, Rebecca |title=Mom, don't read this |url=http://skepchick.org/2011/09/mom-dont-read-this/ |work=Skepchick |date=September 29, 2011 |access-date=August 24, 2013}}</ref>

==Career==
Watson blogs about [[atheism]] and [[feminist]] politics, and has been particularly active in critiquing the modern atheist movement (sometimes called "[[New Atheism]]") from within, especially regarding the lack of attention given to the role of women in the movement. Primarily active online, she was described by ''[[BuzzFeed]]'' as "the first major atheist whose rise has occurred on the [[World Wide Web|web]]".<ref name="Meagher 2018">{{cite book |last=Meagher |first=Richard J. |title=Atheists in American Politics: Social Movement Organizing from the Nineteenth to the Twenty-First Centuries |date=2018 |publisher=Lexington Books |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-4985-5858-7 |pages=96–97}}</ref>

===''Skepchick''===
Inspired after attending the James Randi's [[The Amaz!ng Meeting]],<ref name="Cohen 2009">{{cite news |last=Cohen |first=Georgiana |title=Not-so-sure guys |url=http://thephoenix.com/Boston/life/78548-not-so-sure-guys/ |access-date=August 24, 2013 |newspaper=The Boston Phoenix |date=March 19, 2009}}</ref> Watson founded the blog ''Skepchick'' in 2005,{{r|Meagher 2018}}<ref name="Huff pxxxi">{{cite book |last1=Huff |first1=Peter A. |title=Atheism and Agnosticism: Exploring the Issues |date=2021 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4408-7083-5 |page=xxxi}}</ref> describing it as "an organization dedicated to promoting skepticism and critical thinking among women around the world".<ref name="Skepchick Index">{{cite web |title=Index |url=http://www.skepchick.org/index.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051124160701/http://www.skepchick.org/index.html |website=Skepchick |archive-date=November 24, 2005}}</ref> The same year, Watson released ''The Skepchick Calendar'', a [[pin-up]] calendar featuring pictures of [[Philosophical skepticism|skeptical]] women for every month. Proceeds provided the attendance fee for several female applicants to attend The Amaz!ng Meeting.<ref name="Plait 2005">{{cite web |last=Plait |first=Phil |author-link=Phil Plait |date=September 19, 2005 |url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/2005/09/18/skepchicks/ |title=Skepchicks |work=Discover |department=Bad Astronomy |archive-date=October 19, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019220425/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/2005/09/18/skepchicks/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Originally the site consisted of a forum and a monthly online magazine, ''Skepchick Magazine'', which was launched in January 2006.<ref name="Skepchick Home">{{cite web |title=Home page |url=http://www.skepchick.org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051223110704/http://www.skepchick.org/ |website=Skepchick |archive-date=December 23, 2005}}</ref> In February 2006, Watson created a blog titled ''Memoirs of a Skepchick'', as an addition to the magazine.<ref name="Watson 2006">{{cite web |last=Watson |first=Rebecca |url=http://skepchick.org/2006/02/hello-world/ |title=It's snowing, so I started a blog. |date=February 12, 2006 |website=Skepchick}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=August 2020}} Eventually the blog, now simply titled ''Skepchick'', became the main site, as Skepchick Magazine was discontinued in July 2006.
''Skepchick'' has a focus on science and skepticism in general rather than atheism in particular. {{As of|2017}}, the site, whose stated goal is "to discuss women's issues from a skeptical standpoint", hosts over 20 bloggers from around the world.{{r|Meagher 2018}}

In 2010, ''Skepchick'' partnered with the Women Thinking Free Foundation to host a vaccination drive with the help of the "Hug Me!" campaign at the [[Dragon*Con]] convention in [[Atlanta, Georgia]].<ref name="Saunders 2010">{{Cite podcast |number=99 |last1=Saunders |first1=Richard |author-link1=Richard Saunders (skeptic) |last2=Dunlop |first2=Rachael |author-link2=Rachael Dunlop |last3=Atkinson |first3=Bill |title=The Skeptic Zone #99 - 10.Sep.2010 |website=The Skeptic Zone |time=0:30:20 |url=http://skepticzone.libsyn.com/the-skeptic-zone-99-10-sep-2010 |date=10 September 2010 |access-date=August 20, 2013}}</ref>{{self-published source|date=March 2023}} Public health staff allowed members of the public to receive a [[DPT vaccine|TDAP]] vaccination free of charge, as well as educational literature promoting immunization.<ref name="Hug Me">{{Cite web |title=Hug Me! I'm Vaccinated! |publisher=Women Thinking Free Foundation |url=http://hugmeimvaccinated.org/newsarchives.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130919031446/http://hugmeimvaccinated.org/newsarchives.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-09-19}}</ref> In 2011, ''Skepchick'', the [[James Randi Educational Foundation]] (JREF), and the Women Thinking Free Foundation partnered to offer a similar vaccination clinic at The Amaz!ng Meeting 9 in [[Las Vegas, Nevada]].<ref name="Hug Me" />
The site was the 2012 winner of The [[Ockham Awards]] for Best Skeptic Blog.<ref name="Ockhams 2012">{{cite news |title=The Ockhams 2012 |url=https://www.skeptic.org.uk/the-ockham-awards/the-ockhams-2012/ |work=[[The Skeptic (UK magazine)|The Skeptic]] |date=June 27, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216061314/https://www.skeptic.org.uk/the-ockham-awards/the-ockhams-2012/ |url-status=live |archive-date=16 December 2019}}</ref>

===''The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe''===
Watson co-hosted the ''[[Skeptics' Guide to the Universe]]'' podcast for nine years.<ref name="Novella 2018">{{cite book |last1=Novella |first1=Steven |title=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake |date=2018 |publisher=Grand Central Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-1-5387-6051-2 |chapter=Acknowledgements}}</ref> Her first appearance was on episode 33 (March 9, 2006), where she was interviewed about her work on ''Skepchick''. She returned on episode 36 (March 29, 2006) as a regular member of the panel.<ref name="Skeptics' Guide">{{cite web |url=http://www.theskepticsguide.org/archive.asp |work=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe |title=Archive of Shows |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081018180403/http://www.theskepticsguide.org/archive.asp |archive-date=October 18, 2008}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=August 2020}} On December 27, 2014, she announced that she had recorded her final show prior to leaving the organization.<ref name="Watson Dec 2014">{{cite web |last=Watson |first=Rebecca |title=Why I've Left SGU |date=December 27, 2014 |url=http://skepchick.org/2014/12/why-ive-left-sgu/ |website=Skepchick |access-date=31 December 2014}}</ref>

===Public Radio Talent Quest===
In May 2007, Watson entered the Public Radio Talent Quest, a contest aimed to find new public radio hosts.<ref name="Watson May 2007">{{cite news |last=Watson |first=Rebecca |date=May 15, 2007 |url=http://skepchick.org/2007/05/a-very-special-audio-blog-posting-vote-for-me/ |title=A very special audio blog posting. Vote for me! |website=Skepchick}}</ref> The contest reported receiving more than 1,400 entries.<ref name="PRX Projects">{{cite web |title=PRX Projects |url=https://exchange.prx.org/projects |publisher=Public Radio Exchange |access-date=22 August 2020}}</ref> Watson's entries won the popular vote in every round,<ref name="PRX Announces">{{cite web |url=http://www.publicradioquest.com/node/2640 |title=PRX Announces Winners of Public Radio Talent Quest |date=October 27, 2007 |publisher=Public Radio Exchange |archive-date=March 30, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330211748/http://www.publicradioquest.com/node/2640}}</ref> and she was declared one of three winners who each would receive $10,000 to produce a public radio pilot.<ref name="Simon Jan 2008">{{cite news |last=Simon |first=Clea |date=January 11, 2008 |title=Showing a talent for radio |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |url=http://www.boston.com/ae/tv/articles/2008/01/11/showing_a_talent_for_radio/ |access-date=October 30, 2008}}</ref>

Watson's pilot, ''Curiosity, Aroused'',<ref name="Watson Dec 2007">{{cite web |url=http://curiosityaroused.wordpress.com/2007/12/16/hello-world/ |title=Curiosity, Aroused: The Pilot |date=December 16, 2007 |last=Watson |first=Rebecca |via=[[WordPress]] |access-date=November 6, 2008}}</ref> was an hour-long program focused on science and skepticism.<ref name="Simon Jan 2008" /> It featured interviews with [[Richard Saunders (skeptic)|Richard Saunders]] of Australian Skeptics and Mystery Investigators, and [[Richard Wiseman]], author of Quirkology and Professor of the Public Understanding of Psychology at the [[University of Hertfordshire]]. She also investigated claims of poisonous amounts of lead in lipstick, went on a ghost tour in [[Boston]] and visited a Psychic Fair.

Her show was the only one among the three winners not to receive funding by the [[Corporation for Public Broadcasting]] for being turned into a one-year show.<ref name="Big News">{{cite press release |url=http://www.publicradioquest.com/node/2710 |title=Big News from PRX and CPB |date=June 26, 2008 |publisher=Public Radio Exchange |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418145719/http://www.publicradioquest.com/node/2710 |archive-date=April 18, 2012}}</ref><ref name="Simon Jul 2008">{{cite news |last=Simon |first=Clea |date=July 2008 |title=At WCRB, it's a grand old tradition |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |url=http://www.boston.com/ae/tv/articles/2008/07/03/at_wcrb_its_a_grand_old_tradition/ |access-date=October 30, 2008}}</ref>

==="Elevatorgate"===

{{Over-quotation|section|date=August 2020}}

[[file:Rebecca Watson NECSS 2011.jpg|thumb|Watson speaking at [[Northeast Conference on Science and Skepticism|NECSS]] 2011]]

The controversy that came to be known as "Elevatorgate" originated with a video Watson made following the June 2011 [[World Atheist Convention (2011)|World Atheist Convention]] in Dublin, Ireland, where she appeared on a panel about [[sexism]] within the atheist community.{{r|Scheidt 2021|pp=90–91}}<ref name="Huff p66">{{cite book |last1=Huff |first1=Peter A. |title=Atheism and Agnosticism: Exploring the Issues |date=2021 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4408-7083-5 |page=66 |chapter=Dawkins, Richard}}</ref> In the video, Watson described speaking at the convention about her experience of being [[sexualized]] as a woman within the movement,{{r|Meagher 2018|pp=100–101}}<ref name="Watson 2012">{{cite web |last=Watson |first=Rebecca |title=It Stands to Reason, Skeptics Can Be Sexist Too |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/double_x/doublex/2012/10/sexism_in_the_skeptic_community_i_spoke_out_then_came_the_rape_threats.single.html |website=Slate |access-date=August 22, 2020 |date=24 October 2012}}</ref> and said that a man from a group of conference attendees had later followed her from the hotel bar into an elevator and sexually propositioned her as she was returning to her room early in the morning.<ref name="LeDrew 2016">{{cite book |last=LeDrew |first=Stephen |title=The Evolution of Atheism: The Politics of a Modern Movement |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-022517-9 |pages=198–199}}</ref> She advised her viewers, "Just a word to the wise here, guys, don't do that",{{r|Scheidt 2021|p=91}} and went on to say:

{{blockquote |I was a single woman, in a foreign country, at {{nowrap|4 a.m.}}, in a hotel elevator with you{{mdash}}just you{{mdash}}and don't invite me back to your hotel room, right after I have finished talking about how it creeps me out and makes me uncomfortable when men sexualize me in that manner.{{r|Meagher 2018|p=101}}<ref name="Watson Jun 2011">{{cite web |author=Watson, Rebecca |date=June 29, 2011 |title=About Mythbusters, Robot Eyes, Feminism, and Jokes |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uKHwduG1Frk?t=319 |time=5:19 |via=YouTube}}</ref>}}

Reactions to the video varied, with some supporting Watson's desire for privacy and others criticizing Watson for overreacting.{{r|Scheidt 2021|pp=90–91}} Writer and biologist [[PZ Myers]] supported Watson with a post about the incident on his blog ''[[Pharyngula (blog)|Pharyngula]]''.{{r|Scheidt 2021|pp=90–91}} A negative response by the online atheist community to Watson's account of the elevator incident, which was a brief part of a longer video about other topics,{{r|LeDrew 2016}} soon spread across several websites, including [[Reddit]], and became highly polarized and heated.<ref name="Miller 2013">{{cite journal |last=Miller |first=Ashley F. |title=The non-religious patriarchy: why losing religion HAS NOT meant losing white male dominance |journal=CrossCurrents |volume=63 |issue=2 |date=June 2013 |doi=10.1111/cros.12025 |pages=211–226|s2cid=170686171 }}</ref><ref name="Winston 2011">{{cite news |last=Winston |first=Kimberly |title=Atheists address sexism issues |date=September 15, 2011 |work=USA Today |agency=Religion News Service |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/religion/story/2011-09-15/atheist-sexism-women/50416454/1 |access-date=August 6, 2013}}</ref>{{Explain|date=August 2020}} The debate steadily grew to include the overall status of women within the secular movement, with most of the movements's prominent figures offering their opinion on whether the elevator incident was [[sexual harassment]]. The discussion spurred a continued backlash, with commenters online labeling women who spoke up on the subject as "[[feminazi]]s" and other misogynistic slurs.{{r|LeDrew 2016}} Watson experienced death threats,{{r|Meagher 2018|p=101}} with commenters on her blog saying in graphic terms how she should be raped and murdered{{r|LeDrew 2016}} and one man publishing a [[website]] threatening to kill her.<ref name="Hess 2015">{{cite book |last1=Hess |first1=Amanda |editor1-last=Holt |editor1-first=Sid |title=The Best American Magazine Writing 2015 |date=2015 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-54071-1 |jstor=10.7312/asme16959.6 |page=57 |chapter=Women Aren't Welcome Here|doi=10.7312/asme16959 }}</ref>

The controversy attracted mainstream media attention when biologist [[Richard Dawkins]] joined the debate.{{r|LeDrew 2016}} Although Watson had not compared the incident to sexism within [[Islam]],<ref name="Klug 2022">{{cite book |last1=Klug |first1=Petra |title=Anti-Atheist Nation: Religion and Secularism in the United States |date=2022 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |at=Endnote 47 |isbn=978-1-000-80442-3 |chapter=America Versus the Atheist}}</ref> Dawkins used the occasion to satirize the supposed indifference of Western feminists to the plight of oppressed Muslim women.{{r|Scheidt 2021|pp=91–92}}<ref name="Hussein 2019">{{cite book |last=Hussein |first=Shakira |title=From Victims to Suspects: Muslim Women Since 9/11 |date=2019 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-23042-0 |page=127}}</ref> In the comments section of Myers's blog, he wrote:

{{quote |Dear Muslima{{pb}}Stop whining, will you. Yes, yes, I know you had your genitals mutilated with a razor blade, and ... yawn ... .don't tell me yet again, I know you aren't allowed to drive a car, and you can't leave the house without a male relative, and your husband is allowed to beat you, and you'll be stoned to death if you commit adultery. But stop whining, will you. Think of the suffering your poor American sisters have to put up with.{{pb}}Only this week I heard of one, she calls herself Skep 'chick', and do you know what happened to her? A man in a hotel elevator invited her back to his room for coffee. I am not exaggerating. He really did. He invited her back to his room for coffee. Of course she said no, and of course he didn't lay a finger on her, but even so...{{pb}}And you, Muslima, think you have misogyny to complain about! For goodness sake grow up, or at least grow a thicker skin.{{pb}}Richard{{r|LeDrew 2016}} }}

Dawkins' comments led to accusations of [[misogyny]] and [[Islamophobia]].{{r|Huff p66}} He explained that, in his view, Watson had not suffered any injury, comparing Watson's experience with the annoyance one might feel while riding an elevator with someone chewing gum.{{r|LeDrew 2016|pp=199–200}}

Several commentators argued that the incident showed Dawkins' insensitivity to gender-related issues such as sexual violence.{{r|LeDrew 2016|p=200}}<ref name="McAnulla 2018">{{cite book |last1=McAnulla |first1=Stuart |last2=Kettell |first2=Steven |last3=Schulzke |first3=Marcus |title=The Politics of New Atheism |publisher=Routledge |date=2018 |isbn=978-1-317-19833-8 |pages=}}{{page needed|date=March 2023}}</ref> Religious scholar [[Stephen LeDrew (academic)|Stephen LeDrew]] writes that "For the first time since the New Atheism had risen to prominence, [Dawkins] found himself under attack by many of those who had viewed him as a respected leader".{{r|LeDrew 2016|p=200}} [[David Allen Green]] criticized Dawkins for dismissing lesser wrongs because bigger wrongs exist.<ref name="Green 2011">{{cite web |author=Green, David Allen |title=Sharing a lift with Richard Dawkins |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2011/07/richard-dawkins-chewing-gum |date=6 July 2011 |work=New Statesman |access-date=14 March 2023}}</ref> Steven Tomlins and [[Lori G. Beaman]] argue that the incident highlights a schism within atheism over the role of feminism, some saying it should take a prominent place in the movement and others calling it divisive.<ref name="Beaman">{{cite book |editor1-last=Beaman |editor1-first=Lori G. |editor2-last=Tomlins |editor2-first=Steven |title=Atheist Identities – Spaces and Social Contexts |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-09602-5 |page=6}}</ref>

Watson said of Dawkins, "to have my concerns{{mdash}}and more so the concerns of other women who have survived rape and sexual assault{{mdash}}dismissed thanks to a rich white man comparing them to the plight of women who have been mutilated, is insulting to all of us".{{r|LeDrew 2016|p=200}} She stated that she would no longer buy or endorse his books and lectures,<ref name="Watson Jul 2011">{{Cite web |url=http://skepchick.org/2011/07/the-privilege-delusion |title=The Privilege Delusion |author=Watson, Rebecca |date=July 5, 2011 |website=Skepchick}}</ref> writing:

{{quote |[Dawkins] therefore will no longer be rewarded with my money, my praise, or my attention. I will no longer recommend his books to others, buy them as presents, or buy them for my own library. I will not attend his lectures or recommend that others do the same. ... But those of us who are humanists and feminists will find new, better voices to promote and inspire, and Dawkins will be left alone to fight the terrible injustice of standing in elevators with gum-chewers.<ref name="Watson Jul 2011"/>}}

The result of this exchange led to an extended [[Flaming (Internet)|internet flame war]]{{r|Meagher 2018|p=101}} that several reports dubbed "Elevatorgate"<ref name="Rousseau 2011">{{cite web |url=https://synapses.co.za/elevatorgate-power-words/ |title=Elevatorgate and the power of words |first=Jacques |last=Rousseau |website=Synapses |date=July 14, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Band 2011">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/jul/24/richard-dawkins-women-chilly-climate |title=Richard Dawkins, check the evidence on the 'chilly climate' for women |first=Emily |last=Band |work=The Guardian |date=July 24, 2011 |access-date=August 23, 2018}}</ref> and which has been the subject of [[Internet meme]]s.{{r|Huff p66}} In the wake of this and an incident at a [[Center for Inquiry]]-sponsored event, where female atheists reported gender bias and inappropriate behavior, organizations including the [[Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science|Richard Dawkins Foundation]] have reviewed their policies regarding sexual harassment and non-discrimination.<ref name="Miller 2013" /> Dawkins later apologized,{{r|Huff p66|McAnulla 2018}} stating, "There should be no rivalry in victimhood, and I'm sorry I once said something similar to American women complaining of harassment, inviting them to contemplate the suffering of Muslim women by comparison".<ref name="Dawkins 2014">{{cite web |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |title=Who is 'belittling' what? |url=https://richarddawkins.net/2014/08/who-is-belittling-what/ |publisher=Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science; Center for Inquiry |access-date=19 January 2015 |date=6 August 2014}}</ref> Watson tweeted in response, "Richard Dawkins just did the blog-equivalent of coughing into his hand while mumbling 'sorry' to me. Eh, I'll take it."<ref name="Watson Aug 2014">{{cite Tweet |first=Rebecca |last=Watson |title=Richard Dawkins just did the blog-equivalent of coughing into his hand while mumbling 'sorry' to me. Eh I'll take it. http://ow.ly/A2aVW |user=rebeccawatson |date=August 6, 2014 |number=497087309805027328}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Watson married Sid Rodrigues in a surprise ceremony during The Amaz!ng Meeting in July 2009.<ref name="Bug_girl 2009">{{cite web |url=http://skepchick.org/2009/07/congrats-becca-and-sid/ |title=Congrats Becca and Sid |date=July 11, 2009 |website=Skepchick |author=Bug_girl}}</ref> In April 2011, she announced that she and Rodrigues were separated and seeking a divorce.<ref name="Watson Apr 2011">{{cite web |url=http://skepchick.org/2011/04/a-note-about-my-personal-life/ |work=Skepchick |title=A Note About My Personal Life |date=April 8, 2011 |first=Rebecca |last=Watson}}</ref> She later remarried.<ref name="Watson May 2023">{{cite web |last1=Watson |first1=Rebecca |title=Why Losers Like Steven Crowder Hate No-Fault Divorce |url=https://skepchick.org/2023/05/why-losers-like-steven-crowder-hate-no-fault-divorce/ |website=Skepchick |access-date=28 May 2023 |date=26 May 2023}}</ref>

==Honors==
An [[Asteroid group#The asteroid belt|outer main-belt]] [[asteroid]] discovered by [[David H. Healy]] on March 22, 2001 was named [[153289 Rebeccawatson]] in her honor.<ref name="Schmadel 2012">{{cite book |last1=Schmadel |first1=Lutz D. |title=Dictionary of Minor Planet Names |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-642-29718-2 |page=1271}}</ref><ref name="Asteroids Named for Skeptics">{{cite magazine |author1= |title=News and Comment {{!}} Asteroids Named for Skeptics, Authors, Science Educators |url=https://skepticalinquirer.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/29/2008/11/p05.pdf |magazine=Skeptical Inquirer |volume=32 |issue=6 |date=November 2008 |page=9 |issn=0194-6730}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Greta Christina]], atheist blogger

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [http://skepchick.org/ Skepchick]
* [http://teenskepchick.org/ Teen Skepchick] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717181622/http://teenskepchick.org/ |date=July 17, 2011 }}
* [https://exchange.prx.org/users/44855-skepchick Rebecca Watson's PRTQ page] with streaming of all her entries and ''Curiosity, Aroused'' pilot

{{DEFAULTSORT:Watson, Rebecca}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American bloggers]]
[[Category:American feminists]]
[[Category:American women podcasters]]
[[Category:American podcasters]]
[[Category:American skeptics]]
[[Category:Feminist bloggers]]
[[Category:American atheist writers]]
[[Category:Boston University College of Communication alumni]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Writers from New Jersey]]
[[Category:Victims of cyberbullying]]
[[Category:1980 births]]
[[Category:21st-century American women]]

Metropolitan Detention Center, Brooklyn

2023-11-03T03:48:48Z

Asyncadr: /* Notable inmates */ Fixed massive picture

{{short description|United States federal administrative detention facility in Brooklyn, New York City}}
{{for|the city jail|Brooklyn Detention Complex}}
{{for|the other federal administrative detention facility in New York City|Metropolitan Correctional Center, New York}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox prison
| prison_name = Metropolitan Detention Center, Brooklyn
| image = [[File:Fed29jail5bbtjeh.JPG|275px]]
| location = 80 29th Street [[Brooklyn]], [[New York (state)|NY]] 11232
| coordinates =
| status = Operational

| classification = Administrative facility (all security levels)
| population = 1,712
| opened =
| closed =
| managed_by = [[Federal Bureau of Prisons]]
| warden =Heriberto Tellez
}}

The '''Metropolitan Detention Center, Brooklyn (MDC Brooklyn)''' is a [[List of United States federal prisons#Administrative facilities|United States federal administrative detention facility]] in the [[Sunset Park, Brooklyn|Sunset Park]] neighborhood of [[Brooklyn]], [[New York City]]. It holds male and female prisoners of all security levels. It is operated by the [[Federal Bureau of Prisons]], a division of the [[United States Department of Justice]].

Most prisoners held at MDC Brooklyn have pending cases in the [[United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York]]. MDC Brooklyn also holds prisoners serving brief sentences.<ref>{{cite web|title=MDC Brooklyn|url=http://www.bop.gov/locations/institutions/bro/index.jsp|publisher=Federal Bureau of Prisons}}</ref> As of April 2022, 1,712 prisoners are held in MDC Brooklyn.

In 2019, one former warden, Cameron Lindsay said that "The M.D.C. was one of the most troubled, if not the most troubled facility in the Bureau of Prisons."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Correal |first1=Annie |last2=Goldstein |first2=Joseph |title='It's Cold as Hell': Inside a Brooklyn Jail's Weeklong Collapse |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/09/nyregion/brooklyn-jail-no-heat-inmates.html |access-date=10 February 2019 |newspaper=New York Times |date=9 February 2019}}</ref>

==History==
MDC Brooklyn occupies land that was originally part of Bush Terminal (now [[Industry City]]), a historic [[Intermodal freight transport|intermodal]] shipping, warehousing, and manufacturing complex.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EBgzAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA21|title=Metropolitan Detention Center, Brooklyn: Environmental Impact Statement|author=United States. Bureau of Prisons|year=1991|page=21|language=en|access-date=November 21, 2018}}</ref> The [[Federal Bureau of Prisons]] initially proposed converting two buildings at Industry City into a federal jail in 1988, due to overcrowding at the [[Metropolitan Correctional Center, New York]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25826830/feds_need_more_space_to_house_the_bad/|title=Feds need more space to house the bad eggs|last=Farrell|first=Bill|date=March 25, 1988|work=New York Daily News|access-date=November 29, 2018|page=70|via=newspapers.com}} {{open access}}</ref> There was large opposition from members of the local community, who feared that traffic congestion in the area would rise.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/02/06/nyregion/jail-is-planned-for-brooklyn-and-foes-rise.html|title=Jail Is Planned For Brooklyn, And Foes Rise|last=Prial|first=Frank J.|date=February 6, 1991|website=The New York Times|access-date=November 21, 2018}}</ref> Critics feared that the facility, with its staff, inmates, visitors, and supply deliveries, would overburden neighborhood traffic and water and sewer systems.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lambert |first=Bruce |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/12/19/nyregion/neighborhood-report-sunset-park-us-to-open-jail-despite-snags.html |title=Lambert, Bruce, "U.S. to Open Jail, Despite Snags" |date= December 19, 2003 |work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25826976/sunset_park_rains_on_jail/|title=Sunset Park rains on jail|last=McMorris|first=Frances|date=May 22, 1991|work=New York Daily News|access-date=November 29, 2018|page=361|via=newspapers.com}} {{open access}}</ref> To make room for MDC Brooklyn, one of the original Bush Terminal loft buildings—Federal Building No. 1, formerly occupied by the [[United States Coast Guard]]—was demolished in a [[controlled explosion]] in August 1993.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25880505/wrecking_crew_clears_way_for_detention/|title=Wrecking crew clears way for detention ctr.|last=Allen|first=Michael O.|date=August 16, 1993|work=New York Daily News|access-date=December 1, 2018|page=341|via=newspapers.com}} {{open access}}</ref>

MDC Brooklyn opened in the early 1990s. It was built to hold 1,000 inmates awaiting [[arraignment]] or trial at the federal court in the [[Eastern District of New York]].<ref name="plan">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/02/06/nyregion/jail-is-planned-for-brooklyn-and-foes-rise.html?pagewanted=1|title=Jail Is Planned For Brooklyn, And Foes Rise|last=Prial|first=Frank J.|date=February 6, 1991|work=The New York Times|access-date=February 26, 2010}}</ref> By 2019, according to ''[[The New York Times]]'', it held 1600 inmates.<ref name="NYT_Correal_20190202">{{Cite news| first1 = Annie |last1=Correal| first2 = Andy |last2=Newman |first3=Christina |last3=Goldbaum| title = Protesters Try to Storm Brooklyn Jail With Little Heat or Electricity |newspaper= The New York Times| access-date = February 5, 2019| date = February 2, 2019| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/02/nyregion/brooklyn-federal-jail-heat.html}}</ref>

In 1999, a second facility was opened adjacent to the original complex to house inmates who have already been sentenced and are awaiting transfer to a permanent facility. This brought the total number of inmates to close to 3,000 and made MDC Brooklyn the largest detention center in the United States.

In June 2015, a lawsuit filed in 2002 against high-ranking officials of [[George W. Bush|George W. Bush's]] presidential administration, including former Attorney General [[John Ashcroft]] and former [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|F.B.I.]] Director [[Robert Mueller|Robert S. Mueller]] III, brought by eight, mostly Muslim immigrant detainees, was allowed to go forward by a three-judge federal panel. It alleged that the plaintiffs were subject to chronic arbitrary abuses including beatings, strip searches and solitary confinement. The Second Circuit Court of Appeals decision included one dissent.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/18/us/immigrants-suit-over-detention-after-9-11-is-revived.html Immigrants' Lawsuit Over Post 9/11 Detention Is Revived], [[New York Times]], Adam Liptak, June 17, 2015. Retrieved June 20, 2015.</ref>

==Notable incidents==
===Inmate assault===
On June 29, 2009, Ronald Atkinson (62416-054), an inmate at MDC Brooklyn who had been arrested in connection with six bank robberies twelve days earlier, committed an allegedly unprovoked assault on a correctional officer, punching him in the head multiple times until he was restrained by correctional officers. As a result of the assault, the officer, whom the Bureau of Prisons did not identify, suffered serious injuries, including a broken nose, broken facial bones, a fractured eye socket, a laceration requiring stitches and two slipped discs in his neck. An 18-year veteran of the Bureau of Prisons, the officer was forced to take a medical retirement as a result of his injuries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Defendant Sentenced to 151 Months' Imprisonment for Assaulting Correctional Counselor at the Metropolitan Correctional Center|url=https://www.fbi.gov/newyork/press-releases/2013/defendant-sentenced-to-151-months-imprisonment-for-assaulting-correctional-counselor-at-the-metropolitan-correctional-center|publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation|access-date=September 24, 2013|date=July 19, 2013}}</ref>

Atkinson was subsequently sentenced to 7 years in federal prison for the bank robberies. On July 19, 2013, he was sentenced to an additional 12 years in prison in connection with the assault. Atkinson is scheduled for release in 2031.<ref>{{cite web|title=Inmate Locator - Ronald Atkinson|url=http://www.bop.gov/iloc2/InmateFinderServlet?Transaction=IDSearch&needingMoreList=false&IDType=IRN&IDNumber=62416-054&x=89&y=20|publisher=Federal Bureau of Prisons|access-date=October 28, 2013}}</ref> Atkinson is currently housed at [[United States Penitentiary, Victorville|USP Victorville]].

===Ronell Wilson===
On February 5, 2013, New York media outlets reported that Nancy Gonzalez, a former federal correction officer, had engaged in a sexual relationship with [[Ronell Wilson]], an inmate at MDC Brooklyn, and that Gonzalez was carrying Wilson's child. Wilson, who was convicted and sentenced to death in 2007 for the 2003 murders of NYPD Detectives Rodney Andrews and James Nemorin, was awaiting a resentencing hearing in Brooklyn federal court after his original death sentence was overturned in 2010, when he began a relationship with Gonzalez. Gonzalez was terminated and arraigned in federal court on charges of sexual abuse of a person in custody, because an inmate cannot legally consent to sex.<ref>{{cite news|last=Secret|first=Mosi|title=Impregnated by Prisoner, Guard Now Faces Charges|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/06/nyregion/police-killers-jailer-now-pregnant-with-his-child-is-charged.html?ref=ronellwilson&_r=0|access-date=October 28, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 5, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Marzulli|first=John|title=Convicted cop killer Ronell Wilson impregnanted female guard in twisted plan to avoid death penalty|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/killer-ronell-wilson-impregnanted-female-guard-avoid-death-penalty-article-1.1255731|access-date=October 28, 2013|newspaper=New York Daily News|date=February 5, 2013}}</ref> Wilson was subsequently transferred to the [[Metropolitan Correctional Center, New York City|Metropolitan Correctional Center in Manhattan]]. Gonzalez pleaded guilty to unlawful sexual abuse of a ward on July 3, 2013.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hays|first=Tom|title=Nancy Gonzalez, New York Jail Guard, Admits To Affair With Convicted Cop Killer Ronell Wilson|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/04/nancy-gonzalez-jail-guard-affair-ronell-wilson-cop-killer_n_3546155.html|work=Huffington Post|access-date=October 28, 2013|date=July 3, 2013}}</ref> Gonzalez was sentenced to a year and a day by Federal Judge [[Brian Cogan]] on February 9, 2014. Cogan remarked, "[Gonzalez has] severe emotional dysfunction".<ref>{{cite web|last=Marzulli|first=John|title=Ronnell Wilson's baby-mama gets prison time|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/ronell-wilson-baby-mama-prison-time-article-1.1619996|newspaper=New York Daily News|date=February 9, 2014}}</ref>

Wilson was sentenced to death again on September 10, 2013. During the hearing, US District Court Judge [[Nicholas Garaufis]] called for a formal investigation by the Justice Department's inspector general into the management of MDC Brooklyn, where, he said, Mr. Wilson was "permitted to treat the MDC as his own private fiefdom."<ref>{{cite news|last=Secret|first=Mosi|title=For the Second Time, a Killer of Two Detectives Is Sentenced to Death|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/11/nyregion/for-second-time-killer-of-two-detectives-is-sentenced-to-death.html?_r=0|access-date=October 5, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=September 10, 2013}}</ref>

=== Winter 2019 heating and power issues ===
In January and February 2019, over 1,600 inmates were kept with little to no heat and power for a week during the [[January 2019 North American cold wave]]. Numerous inmates reported ill health and were seen banging on windows for help. Activists and some New York officials became involved in seeking to improve conditions.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rosenblatt |first1=Kalhan |title=Outrage grows over reports of Brooklyn prison with little heat, electricity during frigid week |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/outrage-grows-over-reports-brooklyn-prison-little-heat-electricity-during-n966186 |access-date=February 3, 2019 |work=NBC News |date=February 2, 2019}}</ref><ref name="NYTimes-NoHeat-2019"/> The incident started on the weekend of January 26–27 with a power outage. A problematic electrical panel was repaired but caught fire the next day.<ref name="NYTimes-NoHeat-2019">{{cite web |last1=Correal |first1=Annie |title=No Heat for Days at a Jail in Brooklyn Where Hundreds of Inmates Are Sick and 'Frantic' |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/01/nyregion/mdc-brooklyn-jail-heat.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=February 4, 2019 |date=February 1, 2019}}</ref> Power was restored on the evening of February 3,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Nessen |first1=Stephen |title=Power Restored To Brooklyn Jail Where Inmates Went A Week Without Heat |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/02/04/691260314/power-restored-to-brooklyn-jail-where-inmates-went-a-week-without-heat |publisher=NPR |access-date= February 4, 2019 |language=en |date=February 4, 2019}}</ref> and the Department of Justice planned to investigate the incident.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Walker |first1=Julie |title=Justice Department to probe federal jail in NYC |url=https://www.apnews.com/a0e287e2243e4cb0aaa6912ed218bb08 |publisher=AP News |access-date=February 4, 2019 |date=February 3, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news| issn = 0362-4331| last1 = Weiser| first1 = Benjamin| last2 = Correal| first2 = Annie| title = Brooklyn Jail to Be Visited by Federal Judge After Heat and Power Crisis| work = The New York Times| access-date = February 5, 2019| date = February 5, 2019| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/04/nyregion/lawsuit-brooklyn-jail.html}}</ref> Inmates, family members and lawyers have said that those inmates involved in protesting these harsh conditions through non-violent disobedience and hunger strikes have faced draconian reprisals from jail staff, including being pepper sprayed, subjected to solitary confinement and having toilets shut off. According to a report in ''[[The Intercept]]'':

<blockquote>On all three of those housing units where men collectively refused food, jail staff shut off the valves to the toilets in all of the cells, according to accounts relayed to lawyers. Confined to their cells on lockdown, deprived of light, the men on these units now found themselves shivering on their bunks with their heads inches from toilet bowls nearly overflowing with festering feces.<ref>{{cite news |last1= Whitford|first1=Emma|last2= Pinto|first2=Nick|date=February 16, 2019|title=Locked Inside a Freezing Federal Jail, They United to Protest Their Conditions — Only to Face Reprisals|url=https://theintercept.com/2019/02/16/metropolitan-detention-center-mdc-brooklyn-jail/|work=[[The Intercept]] |access-date=February 17, 2019}}</ref></blockquote>

==Notable inmates==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!width=14%|Inmate Name
!width=9%|Number
!width=5%|Photo
!width=22%|Status
!width=55%|Details
|-
|[[Juan Orlando Hernández|Juan Orlando Hernández Alvarado]]
|91441-054
|[[File:Juan_Orlando_Hernandez-Enrique_Peña_(cropped).jpg|frameless|180x180px]]
|Awaiting trial.
|Former President of Honduras 2014-2022 (both periods allegedly by fraudulent elections)
Hernández is charged with three counts:
(1) conspiring to import cocaine into the United States, which carries a mandatory minimum sentence of 10 years and a maximum sentence of life in prison;
(2) using and carrying machine guns and destructive devices during, and possessing machine guns and destructive devices in furtherance of, the cocaine importation conspiracy, which carries a mandatory minimum sentence of 30 years and a maximum sentence of life in prison; and
(3) conspiring to use and carry machine guns and destructive devices during, and to possess machine guns and destructive devices in furtherance of, the cocaine importation conspiracy, which carries a maximum sentence of life in prison.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-21 |title=Juan Orlando Hernández, Former President of Honduras, Indicted on Drug-Trafficking and Firearms Charges, Extradited to the United States from Honduras |url=https://hn.usembassy.gov/juan-orlando-hernandez-former-president-of-honduras-indicted-on-drug-trafficking-and-firearms-charges-extradited-to-the-united-states-from-honduras/ |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=U.S. Embassy in Honduras |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
Frank James
| style="text-align:center;"|83999-053
| style="text-align:center;"|

| Booked in after being transferred from the 9th precinct.
| Perpetrator of the [[2022 New York City Subway attack]].
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
[[Sam Bankman-Fried]]
| style="text-align:center;"|37244-510
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:Sam Bankman-Fried.png|frameless|180x180px]]
| [[United States v. Bankman-Fried|On trial]]. Imprisoned after bail conditions were revoked for alleged witness tampering.
| Charged with wire fraud, wire fraud conspiracy, securities fraud, securities fraud conspiracy. and money laundering with relation to the collapse of [[FTX]].
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{sortname|Vincent|Basciano}}
| style="text-align:center;"| [http://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/ 30694-054]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Vincent Basciano.jpg|border|124x124px]]
| Transferred to [[USP Coleman]]. Serving two consecutive life sentences.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Marzulli|first1=John|title=EXCLUSIVE: Mobster Vinny Gorgeous rewarded with move from Colorado Supermax|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/nyc-crime/exclusive-mobster-rewarded-move-colo-supermax-article-1.2335280|access-date=7 October 2015|publisher=New York Daily News|date=August 24, 2015}}</ref>
| Former boss of the [[Bonanno Crime Family]] in 2004 after Boss [[Joseph Massino]] was arrested; convicted in 2006 of murder, [[conspiracy (crime)|conspiracy]] and [[racketeering]]; convicted in 2011 of ordering the 2004 murder of Bonanno associate Randolph Pizzolo.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/10/nyregion/10gorgeous.html | work=The New York Times | first=William K. | last=Rashbaum | title=Former Salon Owner Is Convicted of Racketeering, but Not Murder | date=2006-05-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/02/nyregion/vincent-basciano-sentenced-to-life-not-death.html | work=The New York Times | first=Anahad | last=O'Connor | title=Vincent Basciano Sentenced to Life, Not Death | date=2011-06-01}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[6ix9ine]]
| style="text-align:center;"| 86335-054
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:6ix9ine June 2018 (cropped).jpg|80px]]
| Moved to a different facility as a safety precaution,<ref>{{cite web |title=Is Tekashi 6ix9ine out of jail? Rapper transferred after reportedly receiving death threats|url=https://www.newsweek.com/tekashi-6ix9ine-new-jail-out-transfer-death-threats-real-name-1229151 |website=NewsWeek.com}}</ref> released to home confinement on April 2, 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/02/tekashi-6ix9ine-prison-released-coronavirus|title=Tekashi 6ix9ine: rapper released from prison early over coronavirus fears|date=April 3, 2020|website=the Guardian}}</ref>
| Rapper, birth name Daniel Hernandez, charged with racketeering and firearm offenses<ref>{{cite web |title=Brooklyn rapper 6ix9ine arrested on racketeering charges |url=https://www.apnews.com/2ae2d334712a4f5792420084bc1e39f6 |website=APNews.com}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Allison Mack]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [https://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/# 90838-053]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Allison Mack at ComicCon 2009 NN.jpg|80px]]
| Released to home confinement in 2018. Sentenced in 2021 to 3 years' imprisonment, served at [[Federal Correctional Institution, Dublin|FCI Dublin]]. Released on July 3, 2023.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Moses |first1=Claire |title='Smallville' Actress Who Recruited Women for Nxivm Is Released From Prison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/05/us/allison-mack-released-nxivm.html |access-date=23 July 2023 |work=New York Times |date=5 July 2023}}</ref>
|Actress; Pled guilty in 2019 to [[racketeering]] and racketeering conspiracy as part of [[NXIVM]] cult.<ref>{{cite news | title = Actress Who Recruited Women for Nxivm Sentenced to 3 Years in Prison | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/30/nyregion/allison-mack-nxivm-sentencing.html | first = Colin | last = Moynihan | work = The New York Times | date = 30 June 2021}}</ref>
|-
|style="text-align:center;"|[[R. Kelly]]
|style="text-align:center;"|09627-035
|style="text-align:center;"|[[File:R. Kelly mug shot.jpg|80px]]
|Serving a 31 year sentence, now at [[Federal Correctional Complex, Butner|FCI Butner Medium I]]. Scheduled for release on December 21, 2045.
|Singer; Racketeering, [[child sexual abuse]], [[kidnapping]], [[bribery]], and [[sex trafficking]] charges. Arrested in [[Chicago]] and brought to Brooklyn to face trial; Convicted in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Aratani|first1=Lauren|last2=Oladipo|first2=Gloria|date=2021-09-27|title=R Kelly found guilty on racketeering and sex trafficking charges|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/sep/27/r-kelly-racketeering-sex-trafficking|access-date=2021-09-27|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|style="text-align:center;"|[[Fetty Wap]]
|style="text-align:center;"|71943-509
|
|Serving a 72 month sentence
|Charged with Conspiracy to distribute and possess controlled substances
|-
|style="text-align:center;"|[[Frank Cali]]
|style="text-align:center;"|75768-053
|
|Released in 2009
|Charged with extortion
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Martin Shkreli]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [https://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/# 87850-053]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Martin Shkreli House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform 2016.jpg|80px]]
| Moved to [[FCI Allenwood Low]]; released on May 18, 2022.
| Former [[CEO]] of [[Turing Pharmaceuticals]]; convicted in 2017 of [[securities fraud]];<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://money.cnn.com/2017/08/04/news/martin-shkreli-verdict/index.html|title=Martin Shkreli convicted of securities fraud, conspiracy|last=Horowitz|first=Aaron Smith and Julia|date=August 4, 2017|website=CNNMoney|access-date=February 3, 2019}}</ref> his bail was subsequently revoked after he made a [[Facebook]] post offering his followers $5,000 for [[Hillary Clinton]]'s hair.<ref>{{cite news|author=Merle, Renae|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/business/wp/2017/09/13/martin-shkreli-apologizes-for-facebook-post-about-hillary-clinton/|title=Martin Shkreli jailed after Facebook post about Hillary Clinton|newspaper=[[Washington Post]]|date=2017-09-13|access-date=2017-09-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/09/14/martin-shkrelis-new-jailhouse-home-is-not-where-you-want-to-be.html|title=Martin Shkreli's new jailhouse home is 'not where you want to be'|last=Mangan|first=Dan|date=September 14, 2017|website=www.cnbc.com|access-date=February 3, 2019}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Vincent Asaro]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [https://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/# 83223-053]
|
| Released on April 20, 2020
| Asaro is New York City mobster and capo in the [[Bonanno crime family]]. Asaro was found guilty in a vehicle arson case.<ref>[http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/queens/vincent-asaro-john-gotti-grandson-plead-guilty-car-arson-case-article-1.3282579 Gangster Vincent Asaro admits he ordered man's vehicle torched, John Gotti’s grandson cops to driving getaway car] - Daily News New York(07/03/2017)</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Keith Raniere]]
| style="text-align:center;"| 57005-177
|[[File:US_v._Raniere_GovtExhibit_GX46.JPG|center|frameless|101x101px]]
|Sentenced to 120 years in prison, now at [[United States Penitentiary, Tucson|USP Tucson]]
|Founder of the [[NXIVM]] sex cult. [[NXIVM Corp. v. Ross Institute|Convicted]] in 2019 for two counts of sex trafficking, racketeering, forced labor conspiracy, attempted sex trafficking, and [[Mail and wire fraud|wire fraud]] conspiracy.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Hong|first1=Nicole|last2=Piccoli|first2=Sean|date=2020-10-27|title=Keith Raniere, Leader of Nxivm Sex Cult, Is Sentenced to 120 Years in Prison|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/27/nyregion/nxivm-cult-keith-raniere-sentenced.html|access-date=2021-08-22|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Gavin|first=Robert|date=2019-06-19|title=NXIVM founder Raniere guilty on all counts|url=https://www.timesunion.com/news/article/NXIVM-founder-Raniere-guilty-on-all-counts-14018002.php|access-date=2021-08-22|website=Times Union|language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Jam Master Jay|Ronald Washington]]
| style="text-align:center;"| 68635-053
|
|Serving a sentence for drug possession and robbery bought to New York to stand trial
| rowspan="2" |Accused of shooting [[Run-DMC]] DJ [[Jam Master Jay]] in 2002, charged in 2020.
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Jam Master Jay|Karl Jordan Jr.]]
| style="text-align:center;"| 05124-509
|
|Awaiting Trial, Co-Defendant of Ronald Washington
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Philadelphia basement kidnapping|Linda Weston]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [http://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/# 68897-066]
|
| Now at [[Federal Correctional Institution, Hazelton|FCI Hazelton]]
| Indicted in 2013 for murder, [[racketeering]], [[hate crimes]] and other charges for leading a group who held mentally disabled individuals against their will between 2001 and 2011 in order to steal their [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] benefits, two of whom died as a result of abuse.<ref>{{cite web|title=Philadelphia "Basement of Horrors": 5 charged in hate crime, murder of mentally disabled victims|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-504083_162-57565611-504083/philadelphia-basement-of-horrors-5-charged-in-hate-crime-murder-of-mentally-disabled-victims/|publisher=CBS News|access-date=October 28, 2013|date=January 24, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Federal charges allege captors held adults with disabilities in subhuman conditions to carry out social security fraud|url=https://www.justice.gov/usao/pae/News/2013/Jan/weston_release.htm|publisher=US Department of Justice|access-date=October 28, 2013|date=January 23, 2013}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[2009 New York City Subway and United Kingdom plot|Abid Naseer]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [http://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/# 05770-748]
|
| Now at [[Federal Correctional Institution, Three Rivers|FCI Three Rivers]]
| Alleged [[Al-Qaeda]] operative; extradited from the [[United Kingdom]] in 2012 to face charges that he took part in an international conspiracy to conduct bombings in the United States and Europe; sentenced in 2015 to 40 years; three co-conspirators were convicted in 2010 and 2012.<ref>{{cite news|last=Secret|first=Mosi|title=Pakistani in Terror Case Is Extradited to New York|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/04/nyregion/abid-naseer-extradited-on-terror-charges-to-new-york-from-britain.html?_r=0|access-date=October 28, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=January 3, 2013}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Casanova (rapper)|Caswell Senior]]
| style="text-align:center;"| 20180-509
|
|Detained at MDC while awaiting trial. Sentenced to 188 months in prison on June 27, 2023.
|Rapper known as Casanova, surrendered to authorities in December 2020 for racketeering, murder, narcotics, firearms and fraud offenses.
|-
|style="text-align:center;"|[[GypsyCrusader|Paul Nicholas Miller]]
|style="text-align:center;"|[https://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/ 32607-509]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Paul Miller Mugshot (March 2021).jpg|80px]]
|Was serving a 41-month sentence; released on July 3, 2023.
|American [[Far-right politics|far-right]] political commentator and streamer, known online as 'GypsyCrusader'. Miller is best known for his cosplays of various characters, most notably [[Joker (character)|Joker]]. Miller was indicted on charges of possessing a firearm as convicted felon and possession of unregistered rifle on February 25, 2021, stemming from an incident that took place in January 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-09-28|title=Florida Man Who Called for Race-Based Civil War Sentenced on Multiple Firearms Offenses|url=https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdfl/pr/florida-man-who-called-race-based-civil-war-sentenced-multiple-firearms-offenses|access-date=2021-11-05|website=www.justice.gov|language=en}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Al Sharpton]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [http://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/# 21458-069]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Al Sharpton January 2015.jpg|80px]]
| Served 90 days at MDC Brooklyn in 2001.
| Baptist minister, political activist and current [[MSNBC]] television host; convicted of trespassing on federal property for protesting against the [[United States Navy in Vieques, Puerto Rico|US military presence on the island of Vieques, Puerto Rico]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Feuer |first=Alan |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/12/nyregion/sleeker-by-14-pounds-sharpton-fights-on.html |title=Sleeker by 14 Pounds, Sharpton Fights On |newspaper=NYTimes.com |date=June 12, 2001 |access-date=April 29, 2010}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Megan Rice]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [http://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/# 88101-020]
|
| Released from custody on April 16, 2015.
| Anti-nuclear activist and Roman Catholic nun; convicted in 2013 of [[sabotage]] for unlawfully entering the [[Y-12 National Security Complex]] and vandalizing a facility housing weapons-grade [[uranium]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Three Individuals Convicted of Sabotage at the Y-12 National Security Complex Sentenced|url=https://www.fbi.gov/knoxville/press-releases/2014/three-individuals-convicted-of-sabotage-at-the-y-12-national-security-complex-sentenced|publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation|access-date=April 27, 2014|date=February 19, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Reuters|title=Tennessee: Nun Is Sentenced for Peace Protest|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/19/us/tennessee-nun-is-sentenced-for-peace-protest.html?_r=0|access-date=April 27, 2014|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 18, 2014}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Michael Cohen (lawyer)|Michael Cohen]]
| style="text-align:center;"| 86067-054
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Michael Cohen in 2019.png|80px]]
| Serving a sentence of three years. His sentence started at [[Federal Correctional Institution, Otisville|FCI Otisville]] in May 2019, but was transferred to home confinement in May 2020 due to [[Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on prisons|the COVID-19 pandemic]]. In July 2020, he was taken back into federal custody over disputed conditions. Released again later that month.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/07/09/ex-president-trump-lawyer-michael-cohen-back-federal-custody/5407422002/|title=Former Trump lawyer Michael Cohen back at NY fed prison in dispute over release conditions|first=Kevin|last=Johnson|website=USA TODAY}}</ref>
| Former [[The Trump Organization|Trump Organization]] lawyer. Pled guilty in 2018 tax evasion, making false statements to a financial institution, willfully causing an unlawful corporate contribution, an excessive campaign contribution, making false statements to a congressional committee.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sisak |first1=Michael |last2=Mustian |first2=Jim |title=Cohen's prison reality: A bunk bed in barrack-style hall |url=https://apnews.com/0cc2f99ad85240b3a9a626d66b700576 |access-date=May 5, 2019 |work=AP |date=May 3, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.boston.com/news/national-news/2019/05/03/michael-cohen-otisville-prison-life
|title=Here's a look at Michael Cohen's upcoming prison life
|first1=Michael R.
|last1=Sisak
|first2=Jim
|last2=Mustian
|publisher=Boston.com / AP
|date=May 3, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-46546238|title=Ex-Trump lawyer Cohen jailed for 36 months|date=December 12, 2018|work=BBC News|access-date=December 12, 2018|language=en-GB }}</ref>
|-
|style="text-align:center;"| [[Ghislaine Maxwell]]
|style="text-align:center;"| [http://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/# 02879-509]
|style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Ghislaine Maxwell.jpg|80px]]
| Transferred on July 6, 2020, to [[Federal Correctional Institution, Tallahassee|Tallahassee FCI]]. Serving a 20-year sentence.
| Was on trial for helping procure underage girls for [[Jeffrey Epstein]] to sexually abuse.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Scannell|first1=Kara|last2=Orden|first2=Erica|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/07/02/us/ghislaine-maxwell-jeffrey-epstein/index.html|title=Ghislaine Maxwell, Jeffrey Epstein's longtime associate, has been charged with enticement of minors|work=CNN|date=2 July 2020|access-date=7 July 2020}}</ref>
|-
|style="text-align:center;"| Rudolph Meredith
|style="text-align:center;"| [http://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/# 01481-138]
|style="text-align:center;"|
| Released on May 8, 2023.
| Former [[Yale University]] women's soccer coach. Convicted of wire fraud for his role in the [[Varsity Blues scandal]].
|-
|[[Guo Wengui]]
|49134-510
|[[File:Guo Wen-gui in April 2017.jpg|106x106px]]
|Awaiting trial.
|Former Chinese Businessman.
Awaiting trial for various wire fraud, securities fraud, bank fraud, and money laundering charges.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-15 |title=Ho Wan Kwok, A/K/A "Miles Guo," Arrested For Orchestrating Over $1 Billion Dollar Fraud Conspiracy |url=https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/pr/ho-wan-kwok-aka-miles-guo-arrested-orchestrating-over-1-billion-dollar-fraud-conspiracy |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=www.justice.gov |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|Adley Abdulwahab
|[http://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/ 77373-279]
|
|Serving a 60-year sentence; scheduled for release in 2069.
|[[Hedge fund]] manager and part owner of A&O Resources Management; convicted in 2011 of stealing $100 million from 800 victims by misrepresenting details about the company and concealing his prior criminal history; several co-conspirators were also sentenced to prison; the story was featured on the [[CNBC]] television program ''[[American Greed]]''.<ref>{{cite web |date=June 10, 2011 |title=Hedge Fund Manager of A&O Entities Convicted in $100 Million Fraud Scheme |url=https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2011/June/11-crm-765.html |access-date=15 May 2013 |publisher=US Department of Justice}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Associated Press |date=October 23, 2012 |title=Former Costa Rican businessman convicted in $485M fraud scheme sentenced in Va. to 60 years |url=http://www.foxnews.com/us/2012/10/23/former-costa-rican-businessman-convicted-in-485m-fraud-scheme-sentenced-in-va/ |access-date=15 May 2013 |publisher=Fox News}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=O'Dell |first=Larry |date=September 30, 2011 |title=Texas Man Sentenced to 60 Years for $100M Insurance Fraud |journal=Insurance Journal}}</ref>
|-
|[[Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters|Anthony “Harv” Ellison]]
|[https://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/ 86282-054]
|
|Serving a 24-year sentence, scheduled for release in 2039.
|Member of the [[Nine Trey Gangsters]], orchestrated the kidnapping and robbery of rapper [[6ix9ine]] in 2018.
|}

==See also==
* [[List of U.S. federal prisons]]
* [[Federal Bureau of Prisons]]
* [[Incarceration in the United States]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.bop.gov/locations/institutions/bro/BRO_aohandbook.pdf MDC Brooklyn Admission and Orientation Manual]
* [http://www.bop.gov/locations/institutions/bro/index.jsp Prison Information]

{{Portal bar|New York City|United States|Politics}}
{{Federal Bureau of Prisons}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Federal Bureau of Prisons Administrative Facilities|Brooklyn]]
[[Category:Government buildings in Brooklyn]]
[[Category:Detention centers]]
[[Category:Prisons in New York (state)]]
[[Category:Sunset Park, Brooklyn]]
[[Category:1991 establishments in New York City]]
{{Coord|40|39|37|N|74|00|16|W|display=title}}

Steve Gibson (computer programmer)

2023-10-21T22:36:28Z

Asyncadr: /* GRC products */ Added entry for new utility, validrive

{{short description|Computer enthusiast, software engineer and security researcher}}
{{other people|Steve Gibson}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Steve Gibson
| image = SteveG.jpg
| caption = Gibson in 2007
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1955|3|26}}<ref name="twit">{{cite web |url=http://twit.tv/show/security-now/500 |title=Security Now 500 |publisher=TWiT.TV |access-date=May 15, 2015}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Dayton, Ohio]], U.S.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.grc.com/sn/sn-076.txt |title=Security Now! #76, January 25, 2007, Listener Feedback Q&A #15 |access-date=August 12, 2019}}</ref>
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = American
| known_for = ''[[Security Now|Security Now!]]'' podcast on [[TWiT.tv (network)|TWiT.tv]]
| education = [[University of California, Berkeley]]
| employer =
| occupation = [[Software engineer]] and security analyst
| website = {{URL|https://www.grc.com/}}
}}

'''Steven'''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://businesssearch.sos.ca.gov/CBS/SearchResults?SearchType=CORP&SearchCriteria=gibson+research+corporation&SearchSubType=Keyword |title=California Business Search for "gibson research corporation" |website=California Secretary of State |access-date=2017-11-03}}</ref> "'''Steve Tiberius'''"<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.grc.com/sn/sn-700.htm |title=Security Now! Transcript of Episode #700 |website=www.grc.com |access-date=2019-02-12}}</ref> '''Gibson''' (born March 26, 1955) is an American [[software engineer]], security researcher, and IT security proponent. In the early 1980s, he worked on [[light pen]] technology for use with Apple and Atari systems, and in 1985, founded '''Gibson Research Corporation''', best known for its [[SpinRite]] software.

==Early life==
Gibson started working on computers as a teenager, and got his first computing job with [[Stanford University]]'s [[artificial intelligence]] lab when he was 15 years old.<ref name=MillarGuardian/> He then studied electrical engineering and computer science at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].{{cn|date=November 2022}}

==Career==
Gibson was hired as a programmer for [[California Pacific Computer Company]] in 1980, where he worked on copy protection for the company's products.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Knudsen |first=Richard |title=Exec California Pacific: Innovative Marketing Budges |url=http://www.softalkapple.com/sites/default/files/Softalk_V1.05_draft.pdf |journal=Softalk Magazine |date=January 1981 |volume=1 |number=5 |page=34}}</ref> He then founded Gibson Laboratories in [[Laguna Hills, California]], in 1981, which developed a [[light pen]] for the [[Apple II series|Apple II]], Atari, and other platforms before going out of business in 1983.<ref name=GibsonResume>{{cite web |first=Steve |last=Gibson |url=https://www.grc.com/resume.htm |title=Steve's Resumé |work=GRC.com |access-date=February 8, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ei4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA61 |title=Hardware: Light Pen Technology looks to the Micro |last=Mace |first=Scott |date=December 26, 1983 |page=61 |work=InfoWorld |access-date=January 27, 2015 |quote=The Gibson Light Pen has been developed for Atari home computers.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=InfoWorld Aug 9, 1982 / P13-17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NDAEAAAAMBAJ&q=david+needle+lps+II&pg=PA13|website=books.google.com|date = August 9, 1982|publisher=Popular Computing Inc|access-date=February 24, 2016}}</ref>

In 1985, Gibson founded Gibson Research Corporation (GRC), a computer [[software development]] firm,<ref name=GibsonResume/> and from 1986 to 1993, he wrote the "Tech Talk" column for ''[[InfoWorld]]'' magazine.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ToEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA102 |title=SpinRite upgrade |date=October 11, 1993 |work=InfoWorld |quote=...Steve Gibson, whose Tech Talk column has run in InfoWorld for close to eight years...}}</ref>

In 1999, Gibson created one of the first [[adware]] removal programs, which he called OptOut.<ref>{{cite web |author=Lavasoft |url=http://www.lavasoft.com/mylavasoft/securitycenter/articles/spyware-history |title=The History of Spyware |work=Lavasoft.com |access-date=February 8, 2015}}</ref> In 2001, he predicted that Microsoft's implementation of the [[raw socket|SOCK_RAW]] protocol in the initial release of [[Windows XP]] would lead to widespread chaos by making it easier for Windows XP users to create [[denial of service]] (DoS) attacks.<ref>{{cite news |first=Deborah |last=Radcliff |work=Computerworld |date=October 22, 2001 |url=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2585406/operating-systems/windows-xp--is-it-safe-.html |title=Windows XP: Is it safe?}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |type=video |url=http://www.vpwsys.net/download/grc_low.wma |title=Raw Sockets Debate: Steve Gibson with Tom C. Greene |year=2001 |work=Online Tonight with David Lawrence |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040855/http://www.vpwsys.net/download/grc_low.wma |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |url-status=bot: unknown |access-date=February 7, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Seth |last=Fogie |work=InformIT |date=June 21, 2002 |url=http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=27289 |title=Raw Sockets Revisited: What Happened to the End of the Internet?}}</ref> That year, his company's website was brought down by DoS attacks<ref name=MillarGuardian /> which continued for two weeks. Gibson blogged about the attacks and his (ultimately successful) efforts to track down the hacker.<ref name=MillarGuardian>{{cite news |first=Stuart |last=Millar |work=The Guardian |date=June 5, 2001 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2001/jun/05/hacking.security |title=Teenage hackers}}</ref> Three years after the Windows XP release, Microsoft limited raw socket support in [[Windows XP#Service Pack 2|Service Pack 2]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Ian |last=Griffiths |work=IanG on Tap |date=August 12, 2004 |url=http://www.interact-sw.co.uk/iangblog/2004/08/12/norawsockets |title=Raw Sockets Gone in XP SP2}}</ref>

In 2005, he launched a weekly [[podcast]] called ''[[Security Now]]'' with [[Leo Laporte]] on [[TWiT.tv]], with its archives hosted on GRC's website.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.grc.com/sn/past/2005.htm |title=Security Now! Episode Archive |work=GRC.com |publisher=Gibson Research Corporation |access-date=February 8, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Andy |last=Bowers |work=Slate |date=December 9, 2005 |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/podcasts/podcasts/2005/12/slates_podcast_roundup.html |title=Slate's Podcast Roundup}}</ref>

In 2006, Gibson raised the possibility that the [[Windows Metafile vulnerability]] bug was actually a [[Backdoor (computing)|backdoor]] intentionally engineered into the system.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.grc.com/sn/sn-022.htm |title=Security Now! Episode Archive |work=GRC.com |publisher=Gibson Research Corporation |access-date=December 12, 2017}}</ref> A response by Microsoft,<ref>{{cite news|last=Toulouse|first=Stephen|date=January 13, 2006|title=Looking at the WMF issue, how did it get there?|work=Microsoft Security Response Center|url=http://blogs.technet.com/msrc/archive/2006/01/13/417431.aspx|url-status=dead|access-date=October 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116042756/http://blogs.technet.com/msrc/archive/2006/01/13/417431.aspx|archive-date=January 16, 2006}}</ref> and by [[Mark Russinovich]] on Microsoft's ''Technet'' blog,<ref>{{cite news|last=Helweg|first=Otto|date=January 18, 2006|title=Inside the WMF Backdoor|work=Mark Russinovich's Blog|url=http://blogs.technet.com/markrussinovich/archive/2006/01/18/inside-the-wmf-backdoor.aspx|access-date=October 29, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061218003852/http://blogs.technet.com/markrussinovich/archive/2006/01/18/inside-the-wmf-backdoor.aspx|archive-date=December 18, 2006}}</ref> stated that the bug appeared to be coding error and that Gibson's reasoning was based upon Microsoft's abort procedure documentation being misleading.

In 2013, he proposed [[SQRL]] as a way to simplify the process of authentication without the risk of revelation of information about the transaction to a third party.<ref>{{cite web |work=GRC.com |url= https://www.grc.com/sqrl/demo.htm |title=Secure Quick Reliable Login |first=Steve |last=Gibson |date=October 2013}}</ref>

===GRC products===
GRC has created a number of [[utility software|utilities]], most of which are [[freeware]].<ref>{{cite news |first=John |last=Luo |url=http://www.currentpsychiatry.com/fileadmin/cp_archive/pdf/0303/0303_Psyberpsy.pdf |title=Open-source and general public license programs cost little or nothing. Are they right for your practice? |work=Current Psychiatry |date=March 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Daniel S. |last=Coolidge |work=GPSolo Magazine |date=January–February 2006 |url=http://www.americanbar.org/newsletter/publications/gp_solo_magazine_home/gp_solo_magazine_index/cybervermin.html |title=Cyber-Vermin: Dealing with Dangerous Fauna Infesting the Internet}}</ref>

* DNS Benchmark, freeware that lets users test the performance of the domain name servers used by their internet service providers.<ref>{{cite news |author=Softpedia |url=http://www.softpedia.com/get/Network-Tools/Network-Testing/DNS-Benchmark.shtml |title=DNS Benchmark |work=Softpedia |access-date=February 8, 2015}}</ref>
* Securable, freeware to test whether a pre-[[Windows 7]] computer is 64-bit compatible. It also tells the user whether [[Data Execution Prevention]] is enabled.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jorge |last=Orchilles |title=Microsoft Windows 7 Administrator's Reference: Upgrading, Deploying, Managing, and Securing Windows 7 |publisher=Syngress |year=2010 |isbn=9781597495622 |page=10}}</ref>
* [[ShieldsUP]], a free browser-based firewall testing service; one of the oldest available<ref>{{cite web |first=J. D. |last=Biersdorfer |work=The New York Times |date=April 6, 2010 |url=http://gadgetwise.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/04/06/qatorching-your-firewall-on-purpose/?_r=0 |title=Q.&A.: Torching Your Firewall — On Purpose}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Woody |last=Leonhard |title=Windows XP Timesaving Techniques For Dummies |url=https://archive.org/details/windowsxptimesav00leon |url-access=registration |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2005 |isbn=9780764596179 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/windowsxptimesav00leon/page/429 429–30]}}</ref>
* [[SpinRite]], a [[hard disk]] scanning and [[data recovery]] utility first released in 1988.<ref name="pcmag1">{{cite news |title=First Looks |first1=Edward |last1=Mendelson |author-link1=Edward Mendelson |first2=Craig L. |last2= Stark |work=PC Magazine |date=October 11, 1988 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_H7d93IWwogC&q=spinrite&pg=PA38}}</ref> {{as of|2019|01}} the current version was 6.0,<ref name=SpinRite>{{cite web |work=GRC.com |url=https://www.grc.com/sr/spinrite.htm |title=SpinRite |access-date=February 8, 2015}}</ref> which was first released in 2004.<ref>{{cite news |first=Tom |last=Mainelli |work=PCWorld |date=August 2, 2004 |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/117080/article.html |title=Review: SpinRite 6 to the Rescue}}</ref> SpinRite is a commercial product, costing {{US$|89}} {{as of|2021|07|lc=y}}.<ref name=SpinRite/> Gibson's work on SpinRite has led to him being considered an expert on hard drive failure.<ref>{{cite news |first=Nate |last=Anderson |work=Ars Technica |date=February 25, 2007 |url=https://arstechnica.com/uncategorized/2007/02/8917/ |title=Experts: No cure in sight for unpredictable hard drive loss}}</ref>
* Spoofarino, freeware released in 2006 and promised since the controversy over the launch of Windows XP in 2001, it enables users to test whether their internet service providers allow them to send forged or "spoofed" packets of data to Gibson's Web site.<ref name=SpoofarinoLaunch>{{cite news |first=Rob |last=Rosenberger |work=Spyware Point |date=April 1, 2006 |url=http://www.spywarepoint.com/steve-gibson-finally-releases-ddos-attack-tool-t56793.html |title=Steve Gibson finally releases DDoS attack tool}}</ref>
* Never10, standalone freeware program that toggles registry values in Windows 7, 8, and 8.1, which either disables or enables Microsoft's Get Windows 10 app and automatic OS upgrade. As of version 1.3, it also triggers the removal of any previously downloaded [[Windows 10]] upgrade files as part of the disable function.<ref>{{cite news|title=Steve Gibson's Never 10 Helps You Turn Off the Windows 10 Upgrade|url=https://www.thurrott.com/windows/windows-10/65706/steve-gibsons-never-10-helps-turn-off-windows-10-upgrade-announcement|website=thurrott.com|date=March 28, 2016|access-date=April 30, 2016|last1=Thurrott |first1=Paul }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=This simple app will block Microsoft from downloading Windows 10 on your PC|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/never-10-stops-windows-10-upgrade-2016-3|access-date=April 30, 2016|publisher=businessinsider.com}}</ref> He has also stated that he is producing "Never11", to stop automatic upgrading to [[Windows 11]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.grc.com/sn/sn-857.htm|title=Security Now! Transcript of Episode #857}}</ref>
* InSpectre, a utility that examines a computer's vulnerability to the [[Meltdown (security vulnerability)|Meltdown]] and [[Spectre (security vulnerability)|Spectre]] attacks.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.windowscentral.com/inspectre-lets-you-quickly-check-if-your-pc-vulnerable-meltdown-and-spectre |title=InSpectre will quickly check if your PC is vulnerable to Meltdown and Spectre |last=Thorp-Lancaster |first=Dan |date=January 17, 2017 |work=Windows Central |publisher=Mobile Nations |access-date=January 17, 2018}}</ref>
* InitDisk, a tool that was developed for GRC's next release of SpinRite(6.1). It's a safe [[USB]] drive formatter that allows the user to reformat any USB device and make it bootable.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.grc.com/initdisk.htm |title=GRC InitDisk}}</ref>
* ReadSpeed, an accurate benchmark for PC [[mass storage]]. The tool measures stability and repeatability to a precision of more than 4 significant digits.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.grc.com/readspeed.htm |title=GRC ReadSpeed}}</ref>
* InControl, a tool which allows managing Windows 10 and 11 out-of-control updating and upgrading. It is the successor to Never10.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.grc.com/incontrol.htm |title=GRC InControl }}</ref>
* ValiDrive, a tool that validates whether or not [[USB flash drive]]s or other [[Removable media]] are actually capable of storing the amount of data that they claim to <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.grc.com/validrive.htm | title=GRC ValiDrive}}</ref>

==Works==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book | last1 = Gibson | first1 = Steve | author-mask1 = 1 | date = 1991 | title = A Passion for Technology, 1986 - 1990 Cumulative Index and 1986 | location = Aliso Viejo, California | publisher = Gibson Research Corporation | isbn = 978-1880814864 | ol = OL28048112M | oclc = 1245623144 }}
*{{cite book | last1 = Gibson | first1 = Steve | author-mask1 = 1 | date = 1991 | title = A Passion for Technology 1987 | location = Aliso Viejo, California | publisher = Gibson Research Corporation | volume = One | isbn = 978-1880814871 | oclc = 1245623144 }}
*{{cite book | last1 = Gibson | first1 = Steve | author-mask1 = 1 | date = 1991 | title = A Passion for Technology 1988 | url = https://archive.org/details/passionfortechno0000gibs | access-date = 2022-01-01 | location = Aliso Viejo, California | publisher = Gibson Research Corporation | volume = Two |isbn = 978-1880814888
| oclc = 1245623144 | ol = OL27971346M | via = [[Internet Archive]] | df = dmy-all}}
*{{cite book | last1 = Gibson | first1 = Steve | author-mask1 = 1 | date = 1991 | title = A Passion for Technology 1989 | location = Aliso Viejo, California | publisher = Gibson Research Corporation | volume = Three | isbn = 978-1880814895 | oclc = 1245623144 | ol = OL27971314M }}
*{{cite book | last1 = Gibson | first1 = Steve | author-mask1 = 1 | date = 1991 |title = A Passion for Technology 1990 | location = Aliso Viejo, California | publisher = Gibson Research Corporation | volume = Four | isbn = 978-1880814901 | oclc = 1245623144 }}
{{refend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*{{official website|https://www.grc.com/}}
*{{Triangulation|144|Steve Gibson}}
*http://www.computerhistory.org/collections/catalog/102674112

{{TWiT podcasts}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gibson, Steve}}
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American computer programmers]]
[[Category:American podcasters]]
[[Category:Computer security specialists]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Dayton, Ohio]]
[[Category:People from Orange County, California]]
[[Category:UC Berkeley College of Engineering alumni]]
[[Category:TWiT.tv people]]
[[Category:Chief executives in the technology industry]]
[[Category:American chief executives]]
[[Category:20th-century American businesspeople]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from California]]

Challenger 2

2023-03-05T19:15:30Z

Asyncadr: Undid revision 1143058481 by 31.148.149.246 (talk) - revision broke the page

{{Short description|British main battle tank}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2013}}
{{Infobox weapon
| is_vehicle = yes
| name = FV 4034 Challenger 2
| image = Challenger 2 Main Battle Tank patrolling outside Basra, Iraq MOD 45148325.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = A Challenger 2 tank patrolling outside [[Basra]], Iraq, during [[Operation Telic]], 2003
| type = [[Main battle tank]]
| origin = United Kingdom
| is_UK = yes
| used_by = {{ubl|[[British Army]]|[[Royal Army of Oman]]}}
| service = 1998–present
| wars = [[Iraq War]]
| designer =
| design_date = 1986–1993
| manufacturer = {{ubli|[[Alvis plc]]|[[Vickers plc]]|[[BAE Systems Land & Armaments]]}}
| production_date = {{ubl|1990 (prototypes)|1993–2002 (main production)}}
| unit_cost = £4,217,000<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.armedforces.co.uk/army/listings/l0023.html |title=Challenger 2 |publisher=armedforces.co.uk |access-date=16 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509150124/http://www.armedforces.co.uk/army/listings/l0023.html |archive-date=9 May 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| number = about 447
| length = {{ubli
| {{convert|8.3|m|ftin|abbr=on}},
| {{convert|13.50|m|ftin|abbr=on}} gun forward
}}
| width = {{ubli
| {{convert|3.5|m|ftin|abbr=on}},
| {{convert|4.2|m|ftin|abbr=on}} with appliqué armour
}}
| height = {{convert|2.49|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
| weight = {{ubli
| {{convert|64|t|abbr=on|lk=on}},<ref name="Workshop Manual">{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Dick |date=2018 |title=Challenger 2 Main Battle Tank Owners' Workshop Manual: 1998 to Present |page=181 |publisher=J H Haynes & Co Ltd |language=en}}</ref>
| {{convert|75|t|abbr=on}} with combat armour modules
}}
| suspension = [[Hydropneumatic suspension|Hydropneumatic]]
| transmission = [[David Brown Ltd.|David Brown]] TN54E [[Epicyclic gearing|epicyclic]] transmission (6 fwd., 2 rev.)
| speed = {{ubli
| {{convert|59|km/h|mph|abbr=on|disp=flip}} on-road,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.army.mod.uk/documents/general/285986_ARMY_VEHICLESEQUIPMENT_V12.PDF_web.pdf|title=British Army Vehicles and Equipment|publisher=Army.mod.uk|access-date=30 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101119164824/http://www.army.mod.uk/documents/general/285986_ARMY_VEHICLESEQUIPMENT_V12.PDF_web.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2010}}</ref>
| {{convert|40|km/h|mph|abbr=on|disp=flip}} off-road<ref name="Janes143">{{cite book|last=Foss|first=Chris |title=Jane's Armour and Artillery 2005–2006|year=2005 |url=https://archive.org/details/mainbattletanksl00cffo |url-access=limited |isbn=0-7106-2686-X|publisher=Jane's Information Group|page=[https://archive.org/details/mainbattletanksl00cffo/page/n141 143]}}</ref>
}}
| clearance = {{convert|0.5|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="Janes143"/>
| vehicle_range = {{ubli
| {{convert|550|km|mi|abbr=on}} on-road,<ref name="youtube.com">{{citation|last=Maginnis |first=Chris |title=Tankfest 2013 Challenger 2 MBT (Ultra Modern Version) |date=6 July 2013 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JC1mtAR5uK0&feature=player_embedded |via=YouTube |access-date=27 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413061355/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JC1mtAR5uK0&feature=player_embedded |archive-date=13 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| {{convert|250|km|mi|abbr=on}} off-road on internal fuel<ref name="Janes143"/>
}}
| primary_armament = [[Royal Ordnance L30|L30A1 120 mm]] [[rifling|rifled]] gun {{avoid wrap|with 47 rounds<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.army.mod.uk/equipment/23236.aspx |title=Combat Vehicles |access-date=4 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006150636/http://www.army.mod.uk/equipment/23236.aspx |archive-date=6 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.army-technology.com/projects/challenger2/ |title=Challenger 2 Main Battle Tank |access-date=24 December 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051211173044/http://www.army-technology.com/projects/challenger2/ |archive-date=11 December 2005 |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
| secondary_armament = {{ubli|7.62 mm [[Coaxial weapon|coaxial]] [[L94A1 chain gun]]|7.62 mm [[L7 (machine gun)|L37A2]] loader–operator hatch machine gun}}
| armour = [[Chobham armour|Chobham]]{{\}}Dorchester Level 2 (classified)
| engine = [[Perkins Engines|Perkins]] CV12-6A [[V engine|V12]] [[diesel engine|diesel]] {{cvt|26.1|L|cuin}}
| crew = 4 (commander, gunner, loader–operator, driver)
| engine_power = {{convert|1200|bhp|kW|abbr=on}}
| pw_ratio = {{ubli
| 18.7 hp/t (13.9 kW/t) at 64 t;
| 16.0 hp/t (11.9 kW/t) at 75 t
}}
| fuel_capacity = {{convert|1592|L|impgal usgal}}<ref name="Janes143"/>
}}

The '''FV4034 Challenger 2''' (MoD designation "CR2") is a [[List of main battle tanks by generation#Third generation|third generation]] British [[main battle tank]] (MBT) in service with the armies of the United Kingdom and [[Oman]]. It was designed and built by the British company [[Vickers plc|Vickers Defence Systems]], since renamed [[BAE Systems Land & Armaments]].<ref name="BAE">{{cite web |url=http://www.baesystems.com/ProductsServices/l_and_a_ls_challenger.html |title=Products & Services Challenger 2 |publisher=BAE Systems |date=14 February 2008 |access-date=16 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621210618/http://www.baesystems.com/ProductsServices/l_and_a_ls_challenger.html |archive-date=21 June 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 1986 Vickers Defence Systems began a follow-up to the [[Challenger 1]] as a private venture. The Ministry of Defence ordered a prototype in December 1988. In June 1991, the MoD placed an order for 140 vehicles, with a further 268 ordered in 1994. Production began in 1993 and the unit's tanks were delivered in July 1994, replacing the Challenger 1. After a production delay, the tank entered service with the British Army in 1998, with the last delivered in 2002. The Challenger 2 was also exported to [[Oman]].

The Challenger 2 is an extensive redesign of the Challenger 1. Although the hull and automotive components seem similar, they are of a newer design than for the Challenger 1 and only about 3% of components are interchangeable.<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://www.armyrecognition.com/united_kingdom_british_army_heavy_armoured_tank_uk/challenger_2_main_battle_tank_technical_data_sheet_description_information_specifications_uk.html|title=Challenger 2 main battle tank|publisher=Army Recognition|access-date=30 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923230914/http://www.armyrecognition.com/united_kingdom_british_army_heavy_armoured_tank_uk/challenger_2_main_battle_tank_technical_data_sheet_description_information_specifications_uk.html|archive-date=23 September 2015|url-status=live}}
</ref> A visual recognition feature is the armoured housing for the TOGS thermal gunsight: the Challenger 2 has this above the gun barrel, the Challenger 1 has it at the right hand side of the turret. The tank has a {{convert|550|km|mi}} range and maximum road speed of {{convert|59|km/h|mph}}.

The Challenger 2 is equipped with a {{convert|120|mm|in|adj=on}} 55-[[caliber (artillery)|calibre]] long [[Royal Ordnance L30|L30A1]] tank gun,<ref name="janes.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/defence/land_forces/news/misc/jaa_challenger2_mbt.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040804224012/http://www.janes.com/defence/land_forces/news/misc/jaa_challenger2_mbt.shtml |title=Vickers Defence Systems Challenger 2 MBT |archive-date=4 August 2004}}</ref> the successor to the [[Royal Ordnance L11|L11 gun]] used on the [[Chieftain tank|Chieftain]] and Challenger 1. Uniquely among [[NATO]] main battle tank guns, the L30A1 is [[rifling|rifled]], because the British Army continues to place a premium on the use of [[high-explosive squash head]] (HESH) rounds in addition to [[armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding-sabot|armour-piercing fin-stabilised discarding-sabot]] rounds. The Challenger 2 is also armed with a [[L94A1 chain gun|L94A1]] EX-34 7.62 mm [[chain gun]] and a 7.62 mm [[FN MAG|L37A2]] (GPMG) machine gun. Fifty main armament rounds<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.army-technology.com/projects/challenger2/|website=army-technology.com|title=Challenger 2 Main Battle Tank|access-date=24 December 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051211173044/http://www.army-technology.com/projects/challenger2/|archive-date=11 December 2005|url-status=live}}</ref> and 4,200 rounds of 7.62 mm ammunition are carried.

The Challenger 2 has a four-man crew. The turret and hull are protected with second generation [[Chobham armour]], also known as Dorchester. To date, the only time a tank has been destroyed during operations was by another Challenger 2 in a [[friendly fire]] ("blue on blue") [[#Basra 2003|2003 incident at Basra]] when the destroyed tank had its hatch open at the time of the incident.{{cn|date=April 2022}}

It has seen operational service in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Kosovo]] and Iraq.<ref>{{Cite web|last=[[British Army]]|title=Combat Vehicles|url=https://www.army.mod.uk/equipment/combat-vehicles/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324062935/https://www.army.mod.uk/equipment/combat-vehicles/|archive-date=24 March 2021|access-date=11 April 2021|website=army.mod.uk|language=en-GB}}</ref>

Since entering service, various upgrades have sought to improve the Challenger 2's protection, mobility and lethality, the most recent of which was the [[Challenger 2#CSP / LEP / Challenger 3|Life Extension Programme (LEP)]]. In March 2021, the British Army announced plans to upgrade 148 Challenger 2s under the LEP with the aim to extend its service life to at least 2035. These upgraded models will be known as [[Challenger 3]]. It is not planned to upgrade all Challenger 2s, the balance will be retired.<ref name="DIACA">{{cite book |date=March 2021 |title=Defence in a Competitive Age|page=54|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/971859/_CP_411__-_Defence_in_a_competitive_age.pdf|url-status=live |issue=CP 411 |access-date=22 March 2021 |agency=Her Majesty’s Stationery Office |publisher=Ministry of Defence |isbn=978-1-5286-2462-6 |last=Wallace |first=Ben}}</ref>

== History ==
The Challenger 2 is the third vehicle of this name, the first being the [[Cruiser Mk VIII Challenger|A30 Challenger]], a [[World War II]] design using the [[Cromwell tank]] chassis with a [[Ordnance QF 17 pounder|17-pounder]] gun. The second was the Persian [[Gulf War]] era [[Challenger 1]], which was the British army's main battle tank (MBT) from the early 1980s to the mid-1990s.

Vickers Defence Systems began to develop a successor to Challenger 1 as a private venture in 1986. Following the issue of a Staff Requirement for a next-generation tank, Vickers submitted its plans for the Challenger 2 to the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] (MoD). Vickers' indigenous design was received skeptically by some senior MoD officials, and was evaluated against the American [[M1 Abrams]] offered by [[General Dynamics]]. After some supportive lobbying by [[David Young, Baron Young of Graffham|Baron Young]], the [[Third Thatcher ministry|Thatcher government]] chose to proceed with the Challenger 2 in December 1988.<ref name="Abrams evaluation">{{cite news |last=Lohr |first=Steve |date=20 December 1988 |title=Thatcher Picks British Tank Over Rival American Model |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/21/business/thatcher-picks-british-tank-over-rival-american-model.html |access-date=26 August 2018 |work=The New York Times |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826080812/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/21/business/thatcher-picks-british-tank-over-rival-american-model.html |archive-date=26 August 2018}}</ref> Vickers received a £90 million contract for a demonstrator vehicle to be delivered by September 1990.<ref name="Simon Dunstan page 5">{{cite book |last1=Dunstan |first1=Simon |last2=Bryan |first2=Tony |title=Challenger 2 Main Battle Tank 1987–2006 |page=5}}</ref><ref name="Abrams evaluation"/> The demonstration phase had three milestones for progress, with dates of September 1989, March 1990, and September 1990. At the last of these milestones, Vickers was to have met 11 key criteria for the tank's design.<ref name="Simon Dunstan page 5"/>

The Challenger 1's performance in the Gulf War bolstered the MoD's confidence in British armour.<ref name="leclerc"/> The MoD evaluated the American M1A2 Abrams, the French [[Leclerc tank|Leclerc]], and the West German [[Leopard 2]] against the Challenger 2.<ref name="leclerc">{{cite news |title=Company News; Britain Selects Tank Produced By Vickers |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/06/22/business/company-news-britain-selects-tank-produced-by-vickers.html?searchResultPosition=4 |access-date=11 November 2021 |work=The New York Times |agency=Reuters |date=22 June 1991}}</ref> The MoD rejected these alternatives, and in June 1991<ref name="leclerc"/> the MoD placed a £520 million order for 127 MBTs and 13 driver training vehicles.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} An order for a further 259 tanks and 9 driver trainers worth £800 million was placed in 1994.

Vickers struggled to market the tank for export.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gow |first=David |title=Vickers and French form tank alliance |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/260071674/?terms=leclerc%20challenger%202&match=1 |access-date=11 November 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=12 January 1999}}</ref> Its one success led to Oman ordering 38 Challenger 2s; 18 in June 1993 <ref name="Oman 1993">{{cite news |last1=Beavis |first1=Simon |title=Oman orders Vickers Tank |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/260345870/?terms=challenger%202%20oman&match=1 |access-date=11 November 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=23 June 1993}}</ref> and a further 20 in November 1997.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} Both batches ordered by Oman contain notable differences to the UK version: a larger cooling group and rear towing eyes, running gear and bazooka plates similar to Challenger 1, and a loader's Browning 0.5 Calibre M2 Heavy Machine Gun. Deliveries of Challenger 2 to Oman were completed in 2001.

Production began in 1993 at two primary sites: [[Elswick, Tyne and Wear]] and Barnbow, [[Leeds]], with over 250 subcontractors involved. The first tanks were delivered in July 1994.

The Challenger 2 failed its acceptance trials in 1994, and it was forced into the Progressive Reliability Growth Trial in 1995. Three vehicles were tested for 285 simulated battlefield days.

[[File:Challenger2-Bergen-Hohne-Training-Area-2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A Challenger 2 Tank of the [[Royal Scots Dragoon Guards]] (Squadron D) during live fire training exercises on [[Bergen-Hohne Training Area]] (Germany)]]
The tank was then accepted into service in 1998. An equally important milestone was the In-Service Reliability Demonstration (ISRD) in 1998. The CR2 In-Service Reliability Demonstration (ISRD) milestone was successfully achieved in January 1999. The ISRD took place from September to December 1998. 12 fully crewed tanks were tested at the [[Bovington]] test tracks and the [[Lulworth]] Bindon ranges. The tank exceeded all staff requirements.

The Challenger 2 entered service with the British Army in June 1998, with the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, with the last delivered in 2002. After the [[Army 2020]] restructuring, only three Challenger 2 Tank Regiments will remain: the [[Queen's Royal Hussars]], the King's Royal Hussars and the [[Royal Tank Regiment]], each of which is the tank regiment of an Armoured Infantry Brigade. A single [[Army Reserve (United Kingdom)|Army Reserve]] regiment, [[The Royal Wessex Yeomanry]], will provide reservist Challenger crews to the regular regiments.

The Trojan minefield breaching vehicle and the Titan bridge-laying vehicle based on the chassis of the Challenger 2 were shown in November 2006. 66 are to be supplied by BAE Systems to the [[Royal Engineers]], at a cost of £250 million.<ref>[http://www.armedforces.co.uk/projects/raq3f54d8aee2e57 Trojan and Titan Armoured Engineer Vehicles] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002301/http://www.armedforces.co.uk/projects/raq3f54d8aee2e57 |date=4 March 2016}} armedforces.co.uk</ref>

A British military document from 2001 indicated that the British Army would not procure a replacement for the Challenger 2 because of a lack of foreseeable conventional threats in the future.<ref name="Challenger 2 last">{{cite book|title=Gender, War, and Militarism: Feminist Perspectives|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-39143-9|pages=40|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=om3yy1JoS34C&q=%22Main+battle+tank%22|author1=Laura Sjoberg|author2=Sandra Via|author3=Cynthia Enloe|access-date=3 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101183946/http://books.google.com/books?id=om3yy1JoS34C&vq=isbn&dq=%22Main+battle+tank%22&source=gbs_navlinks_s|archive-date=1 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> However, [[IHS Jane's 360]] reported in September 2015 that following discussions with senior Army officers and procurement officials at DSEI 2015 and the head of the British Army, [[Nick Carter (British Army officer)|General Sir Nick Carter]], that the British Army was looking at either upgrading the Challenger 2 or outright replacing it. Sources confirmed that the future of the MBT was being considered at the highest levels of the Army.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.janes.com/article/54672/dsei-2015-british-army-considers-new-mbt-in-response-to-russia-s-armata |title=Janes | Latest defence and security news |access-date=21 September 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501233926/http://www.janes.com/article/54672/dsei-2015-british-army-considers-new-mbt-in-response-to-russia-s-armata |archive-date=1 May 2016}}</ref>

This stemmed from the British Army's concern with the new Russian [[T-14 Armata]] main battle tank and the growing ineffectiveness of the ageing L30 rifled gun and the limited types of ammunition supported. It was confirmed that numerous armoured vehicle manufacturers had discussions with the MoD about a potential replacement for the Challenger 2.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.janes.com/article/54672/dsei-2015-british-army-considers-new-mbt-in-response-to-russia-s-armata |title=Janes | Latest defence and security news |access-date=21 September 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501233926/http://www.janes.com/article/54672/dsei-2015-british-army-considers-new-mbt-in-response-to-russia-s-armata |archive-date=1 May 2016}}</ref> Shortly after, the British Army decided that purchasing a new tank would be too expensive and chose to proceed with the Challenger 2 Life Extension Project (LEP).<ref>[http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/land/vehicles/2015/10/11/uk-army-extend-life-challenger-2-new-tank-too-costly/73410010/ UK Army To Extend Life of Challenger 2; New Tank Too Costly ]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} - Defensenews.com, 11 October 2015</ref> The Challenger 2 is expected to remain in service until 2025.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gizmag.com/bae-systems-britain-main-ballte-tank/43713/ |title=BAE Systems bid provides glimpse into the future of Britain's battle tanks |work=Gizmag |author=David Szondy |date=7 June 2016 |access-date=8 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609114830/http://www.gizmag.com/bae-systems-britain-main-ballte-tank/43713/ |archive-date=9 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The maintenance contract [[Rheinmetall BAE Systems Land#Challenger 2 Life Extension Project (C2 LEP)|was let sometime in 2021]].
{{As of|2022}} maintenance and overhaul of the Challenger 2 is undertaken by the [[Babcock Defence Support Group]]. Design authority for the tank is held by [[Rheinmetall BAE Systems Land]] (RBSL). Engineering work is to be completed by RBSL and integration work by Babcock.<ref name=amu/> This complicated two-part project is [[Challenger 2#Upgrades|detailed below]]. The initial operating capability for the upgraded [[Challenger 3]] tanks is expected by 2027.<ref name=dnci/>

In May 2021, the UK MoD published a [[command paper]] entitled ''[[Defence in a Competitive Age]]''. In it, the MoD proposed to retire 79 tanks from the current fleet of 227, with the remaining 148 vehicles upgraded to Challenger 3 status.<ref>{{cite book|date=March 2021|title=Defence in a Competitive Age|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/971859/_CP_411__-_Defence_in_a_competitive_age.pdf|url-status=live|accessdate=22 March 2021|publisher=Ministry of Defence|isbn=978-1-5286-2462-6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210322183107/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/971859/_CP_411__-_Defence_in_a_competitive_age.pdf |archive-date=2021-03-22}}</ref>

===Supply of Challenger 2 to Ukraine===

After the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russian invasion of Ukraine]] in spring 2022, the then British Prime Minister, [[Boris Johnson]], declined Ukrainian requests for Challenger 2 tanks to be part of the military aid packages arranged by the United Kingdom and other NATO countries. British [[Secretary of State for Defence|Defence Secretary]] [[Ben Wallace (politician)|Ben Wallace]] had said that the idea "wouldn't work".<ref name="eatb">{{cite news |title=British Tanks To Fight Russia? UK Defense Secretary Says Giving Tanks To Ukraine 'Wouldn't Work' |url=https://eurasiantimes.com/british-tanks-to-fight-russia-uk-says-giving-tanks-to-ukraine/ |publisher=The EurAsian Times |date=27 March 2022}}</ref> In April 2022, Johnson and his German counterpart [[Olaf Scholz]] stated that both Western European allies would withhold their MBTs from the war. Johnson instead chose to deploy British Challenger 2 tanks to Poland to backfill the Polish Army and allowing the Polish government to donate Soviet-era [[T-72]]s to Ukraine.<ref name="pcg">{{cite news |last1=GALLARDO |first1=CRISTINA |title=UK and Germany won't send tanks to Ukraine |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/uk-germany-rule-out-send-tanks-ukraine/ |work=Politico |date=8 April 2022}}</ref><ref name="dmbg">{{cite news |last1=Glaze |first1=Ben |title=Tories plan to scrap Army tanks despite sending some to Poland after Ukraine invasion |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/politics/tories-plan-scrap-army-tanks-27003396 |work=Daily Mirror |publisher=Reach plc |date=18 May 2022}}</ref>

On 14 January 2023, the British government confirmed reports that in light of the developing situation in Ukraine, it had reversed its position on the supply of Challenger 2 tanks to Ukraine. An initial commitment of 14 vehicles was announced, alongside 30 [[AS-90]] 155 mm self-propelled guns, and armoured repair and recovery vehicles. A spokesperson for the British Prime Minister, [[Rishi Sunak]], described the move as reflecting "the UK's ambition to intensify support". These tanks were the first Western MBTs offered to Ukraine, supplementing donations of Western manufactured infantry fighting vehicles, armoured personnel carriers, and self-propelled artillery;<ref>{{Cite web |title= UK Is Considering Sending Battle Tanks to Ukraine, Officials Say |first1= Alex |last1=Wickham |first2=Daryna |last2=Krasnolutska |date= 9 January 2023|access-date= 9 January 2023 |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-09/uk-considering-sending-battle-tanks-to-ukraine-officials-say |website= bloomberg.com |language=en-AU}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Sabbagh |first1=Dan |title=UK considers supplying handful of Challenger 2 tanks to Ukraine |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/09/uk-considers-supplying-handful-of-challenger-2-tanks-to-ukraine-war-russia |work=The Guardian |access-date=9 January 2023 |date=9 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Beale |first1=Jonathan |last2=Andersson |first2=Jasmine |title=UK to send Challenger 2 tanks to Ukraine, Rishi Sunak confirms |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-64274755 |access-date=15 January 2023 |agency=BBC News |publisher=BBC |date=15 January 2023}}</ref> A number of other countries have subsequently announced that they would supply Ukraine with Western-manufactured MBTs; specifically the American [[M1 Abrams]] and German-made [[Leopard 1]] and [[Leopard 2]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=What makes Germany's Leopard 2 tank the best fit for Ukraine? |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2023/01/25/what-makes-germanys-leopard-2-tank-the-best-fit-for-ukraine |access-date=2023-01-26 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref>

On 29 January 2023, the UK Ministry of Defence announced that the first Ukrainian troops had arrived in the UK to begin training on Challenger 2.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ukrainians arrive in UK to begin training on British Challenger 2 tanks |url=https://www.forces.net/ukraine/ukrainians-arrive-uk-begin-training-british-challenger-2-tanks |access-date=30 January 2023 |agency=Forces News |publisher=BFBS}}</ref> On 8 February, Sunak and Ukrainian President [[Volodymyr Oleksandrovych Zelenskyy|Zelensky]] paid a visit to Ukrainian soldiers at [[Lulworth Camp]] where they were being trained on Challenger 2 tanks by British soldiers from the [[Royal Tank Regiment]] and the [[Queen's Royal Hussars]]. Sunak used the opportunity to reaffirm the British intention to have the first Challenger 2 tanks delivered to Ukraine by March 2023.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mitchell |first1=Ben |title=Sunak and Zelensky meet Ukrainian soldiers training on tanks at Dorset camp |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/volodymyr-zelensky-dorset-one-british-army-challenger-b2278461.html |access-date=13 February 2023 |work=The Independent |date=8 February 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

== Design ==
=== Armament ===
[[File:Challenger 2 Tank Firing a Shell MOD 45157421.jpg|thumb|A Challenger 2 firing its main armament during an exercise. The shell is visible to the left of the smoke cloud.]]
[[File:Challenger 2 main battle tank.jpg|thumb|Close-up of muzzle showing rifling]]
[[File:Challenger 2 Tank Firing at BATUS MOD 45157782.jpg|thumb|A row of Challenger 2 on a firing range at [[British Army Training Unit Suffield|BATUS]], Canada]]

The Challenger 2 is equipped with a {{convert|120|mm|in|adj=on}} 55-[[caliber (artillery)|calibre]] long [[Royal Ordnance L30|L30A1]] tank gun,<ref name="janes.com"/> the successor to the L11 gun used on [[Chieftain tank|Chieftain]] and Challenger 1. The gun is made from high strength [[electro-slag remelting]] (ESR) steel with a chromium alloy lining. Like earlier British 120 mm guns, it is insulated by a [[thermal sleeve]]. It is fitted with a muzzle reference system and [[fume extractor]], and is controlled by an all-electric control and stabilisation system. The turret has a rotation time of 9 seconds through 360 degrees.

Uniquely among [[NATO]] main battle tank guns, the L30A1 is [[Rifling|rifled]] and along with its predecessor, the [[Royal Ordnance L11A5]], the only Third Generation Main Battle Tank Guns to use a rifled barrel. This is because the British Army continues to place a premium on the use of [[high explosive squash head]] (HESH) rounds in addition to [[armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding-sabot]] rounds. HESH rounds have a longer range (up to {{convert|8|km|mi|0|disp=or}} further) than APFSDS, and are more effective against buildings and thin-skinned vehicles.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kaplan|first1=Philip|title=Rolling Thunder: A Century of tank Warfare|date=2013|publisher=Pen and Sword|page=161}}</ref>

Forty-nine main armament rounds are carried in the turret and hull. These are a mix of L27A1 [[armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding-sabot|APFSDS]] (also referred to as CHARM 3), L31 HESH and L34 [[white phosphorus]] smoke rounds, depending on the situation. As with earlier versions of the 120 mm gun, the propellant charges are loaded separately from the shell or KE projectile. A combustible rigid charge is used for the APFSDS rounds and a combustible hemicylindrical bag charge for the HESH and smoke rounds. An electrically fired vent tube is used to initiate firing of the main armament rounds. The main armament ammunition is described to be "three-part ammunition", consisting of the projectile, charge and vent tube. The separation of ammunition pieces aids in ensuring lower chances of unfired [[cooking off|ammunition detonating prematurely]].

The Challenger 2 is also armed with a [[L94A1 chain gun|L94A1]] EX-34 7.62 mm [[chain gun]] coaxially to the left of the main gun, and a 7.62 mm [[L7 (machine gun)|L37A2]] (GPMG) machine gun mounted on a pintle on the loader's hatch ring. 4,200 rounds of 7.62 mm ammunition are carried. The Challenger can also mount a Leonardo "Enforcer" [[Remote controlled weapon station|remote control weapons system]], bearing a 7.62 mm [[L7 (machine gun)|L37A2]] (GPMG) machine gun, a 12.7 mm heavy machine gun or a 40 mm automatic grenade launcher.<ref>{{cite web|title=Enforcer Remote Control Weapons System Data Sheet|url=http://www.leonardocompany.com/documents/63265270/66465238/mm08109_Enforcer_RWS_LQ_.pdf|website=Leonardo Company|access-date=28 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301044344/http://www.leonardocompany.com/documents/63265270/66465238/mm08109_Enforcer_RWS_LQ_.pdf|archive-date=1 March 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Fire control and sights ====
[[File:Challenger 2 Tankfest 2009.jpg|thumb|A close up view of a Challenger 2]]

The digital fire control computer from [[General Dynamics|Computing Devices Co]] of Canada contains two 32-bit processors with a MIL STD1553B databus. It has capacity for additional systems, such as a Battlefield Information Control System.

The commander has a panoramic [[SAGEM]] VS 580-10 gyrostabilised sight with [[laser rangefinder]]. The elevation range is +35° to −35°. The commander's station is equipped with eight [[periscope]]s for 360° vision.

The Thermal Observation and Gunnery Sight II (TOGS II), from [[Thales Group|Thales]], provides [[night vision]]. The thermal image is displayed on both the gunner's and commander's sights and monitors. The gunner has a stabilised primary sight using a laser rangefinder, with a range of {{convert|200|m|abbr=on}} to {{convert|10|km|abbr=on}}. The driver's position is equipped with a Thales Optronics image-intensifying Passive Driving Periscope (PDP) for night driving and a rear view thermal camera.

=== Protection ===
[[File:Challenger Main Battle Tank with Improved Armour MOD 45149015.jpg|thumb|right|Challenger 2 with armour upgrades to the sides of the turret, skirts, bar armour to rear. Smoke grenade launchers visible on turret front. [[Counter-IED equipment|Counter-IED]] ECM antennas are on the platform on the turret, and additional [[electronic countermeasure|ECM]] equipment overhangs the left and right front fenders. A remote controlled weapon systems (RCWS) has also been fitted to the turret.]]

The Challenger 2 is a heavily armoured and well protected tank.<ref name="Fprado">{{cite web |url=http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/chall2.htm |title=Main Battle Tank: Challenger 2 |publisher=Fprado.com |access-date=16 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070522041934/http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/chall2.htm |archive-date=22 May 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> The turret and hull are protected by second-generation [[Chobham armour]], also known as Dorchester, the details of which are classified but which is said to have a mass efficiency more than twice that of [[rolled homogeneous armour]] against [[high-explosive anti-tank]] (HEAT) projectiles. Crew safety was paramount in the design. It uses a [[Solid-state electronics|solid state electric drive]] for turret and gun motion, instead of hydraulic systems that can leak fluid into the crew compartment.

[[Explosive reactive armour]] kits and additional [[bar armour]] may be fitted as needed. The nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) protection system is located in the turret bustle. The tank's shape is designed to minimise its radar signature. On each side of the turret are five L8 [[smoke grenade]] dischargers. The Challenger 2 can create smoke by injecting diesel fuel into the exhaust manifolds.

=== Drive system ===
[[File:A British Royal Scots Dragon Guards, Challenger 2 MBT.JPG|thumb|A Royal Scots Dragoon Guards Challenger 2 climbing an obstacle during a training exercise November 2008, Basra, Iraq]]

The tank's drive system comprises:
* Engine: [[Perkins Engines|Perkins]] 26.1 litre, 60° vee, twin turbocharged, CV12-6A four-stroke, four-valve-per-cylinder (pushrod), direct-injection [[diesel engine]] delivering {{convert|1200|bhp|kW|abbr=on}} at 2300 rpm. Torque 4126 Nm at 1700 rpm.<ref>https://www.thefreelibrary.com/building challenger 2.-a09038700</ref> The engine and gearbox are controlled by a Petards Vehicle Integrated Control System (VICS).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.petards.com/our-solutions/defence-services/control-systems|title=Control Systems|publisher=Petards Group|access-date=10 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313031444/http://www.petards.com/our-solutions/defence-services/control-systems/|archive-date=13 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Gearbox: [[David Brown Limited|David Brown]] Santasalo TN54E epicyclical transmission (6 fwd, 2 rev.) rated at 1200 bhp and upgradable to 1500 bhp.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dbsantasalo.com/industries/defence/land-defence/tn54-tracked-vehicle-transmission/ |title=TN54E Tracked Vehicle Transmission |access-date=19 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180220033059/https://dbsantasalo.com/industries/defence/land-defence/tn54-tracked-vehicle-transmission/ |archive-date=20 February 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* Suspension: Horstman Defence Systems second-generation [[Hydropneumatic suspension|hydrogas]] suspension units (HSU).
* Track: William Cook Defence hydraulically adjustable TR60 414FS double-pin.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.william-cook.co.uk/gb/news/cook-defence-systems-is-track-supplier-of-choice-at-dsei-2019|title=Cook Defence Systems is track supplier of choice at DSEI 2019|publisher=William Cook|date=10 September 2019|access-date=7 January 2020}}</ref>
* Maximum speed: {{convert|37|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} on road; {{convert|25|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} cross country
* Range: {{convert|342|mi|km|abbr=on|disp=or}} on road with external fuel; {{convert|156|mi|km|-1|abbr=on}} cross country on internal fuel.

The tank is fitted with an Extel Systems Wedel auxiliary power unit, an APU, also referred to as a generating unit engine (GUE), based on a 38 kW Perkins P404C-22 diesel engine. It has a 600 A electrical output, which can be used to power the vehicle's electrical systems when it is stationary and the main engine is switched off. This replaces the Perkins P4.108 engine fitted when the tank was first introduced.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ted.europa.eu/udl?uri=TED:NOTICE:411049-2016:TEXT:EN:HTML&src=0|title=Repair of Challenger 2 ESW APU|publisher=Official Journal of the EU|date=22 November 2016|access-date=8 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310010421/http://ted.europa.eu/udl?uri=TED:NOTICE:411049-2016:TEXT:EN:HTML&src=0|archive-date=10 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The use of an APU allows fuel consumption to be reduced, and lowers the audio and thermal signature of the vehicle.

By 2013 the British Army had, at various events featuring the Challenger 2, begun to state the on-road range as 550 km as opposed to an earlier stated value of 450 km.<ref name="youtube.com"/> They also publicly stated a maximum road speed of 59 km/h while equipped with 15 tons of additional modules.<ref name="youtube.com"/>

=== Crew and accommodation ===
The British Army maintained its requirement for a four-man crew, including a loader, after risk analysis of the incorporation of an [[autoloader|automatic loader]] suggested that autoloaders reduced battlefield survivability. Mechanical failure and the time required for repair were prime concerns.

Similar to every British tank since the [[Centurion tank|Centurion]], and most other British AFVs, Challenger 2 contains a [[boiling vessel]] (BV) for water, for use preparing and heating food and drink.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/apr/07/iraq.military|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017155330/http://www.guardian.co.uk/Iraq/Story/0%2C%2C931139%2C00.html|url-status=dead|title=A brew brings coalition forces closer together|date=7 April 2003|archive-date=17 October 2007|website=The Guardian}}</ref>

===Maintenance===
Challenger 2 tanks require two sets of tools, as the hull is built using imperial measurements and the turret is built to metric measurements. <ref>{{cite news |title=Leopard 2: Inside the beer-balancing German tank, and why Ukraine desperately wants them |author1=Joe Barnes |author2= Dominic Nicholls |author3=Jorg Luyken |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2023/01/20/ukraine-invasion-germany-tanks-leopards-russia-war-europe-weapons/ |access-date=31 January 2023 |agency=The Telegraph}}</ref>

== Operational history ==
{{Blockquote|quote=[The tank was] well armoured but in an operational theatre it's not the case that you can have absolute protection. This was not in any way new technology – the device involved was the same type of shaped charge that we have seen used very regularly. No one has ever said Challenger tanks are impenetrable. We have always said that a big enough bomb will defeat any armour and any vehicle.|source=MoD spokesman, speaking in regard to the Challenger 2<ref>{{cite news |title= Iraq bombing damages British tank |publisher= BBC News |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/6583607.stm |date= 23 April 2007 |access-date= 23 April 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070424034103/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/6583607.stm |archive-date= 24 April 2007 |url-status= live}}</ref>}}
[[File:Kosovo Battle Group Deploys. 05-09-2000. MOD 45137687.jpg|thumb|Challenger 2 tanks deployed in Kosovo, September 2000]]

The first operational deployments of Challenger 2 tanks were to support peacekeeping operations in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[Kosovo]].

Challenger 2 was first used in combat in March 2003 during the [[invasion of Iraq]]. The 120 tanks of [[7th Armoured Brigade (United Kingdom)|7th Armoured Brigade]], part of [[1st (United Kingdom) Division|1st Armoured Division]], went into action around [[Basra]]. The type saw extensive use during the siege of the city, providing fire support to the British forces and knocking out Iraqi tanks, mainly [[T-54/55]]s.

The tanks deployed to Iraq had been 'desertised' in an effort to avoid the difficulties that had been identified in Challenger 2 during [[Saif Sareea II|Exercise Saif Sareea II]] in [[Oman]] 18 month earlier. The addition of sand filters and other modifications through a series of Urgent Operational Requirements substantially improved the platform's [[operational availability]].

[[File:Challenger 2 at speed, Oman, 25-09-2001. MOD 45140649.jpg|thumb|Challenger 2 in Oman during [[Saif Sareea II|Exercise Saif Sareea II]] in September 2001]]

[[File:A Challenger 2 crosses into Iraq. 21-03-2003 MOD 45142823.jpg|thumb|A Challenger 2 in Iraq, 2003]]
During the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], the Challenger 2 tanks suffered no tank losses to Iraqi fire. In one encounter within an urban area, a Challenger 2 came under attack from irregular forces with machine guns and [[rocket propelled grenade]]s (RPGs). The driver's sight was damaged and while attempting to back away under the commander's directions, the other sights were damaged and the tank threw its tracks entering a ditch. It was hit by 14 [[RPG-7]]s from close range and a [[MILAN]] [[anti-tank guided missile]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/2908679.stm |title=Dragoon guards survive ambush |publisher=BBC News |date=2 April 2003 |access-date=16 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110417191537/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/2908679.stm |archive-date=17 April 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> The crew survived, safe within the tank until it was recovered for repairs, the worst damage being to the sighting system. It was back in operation six hours later. According to the British army, one Challenger 2 operating near Basra survived being hit by 70 RPGs in another incident.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2905817.stm |title=Tanks and artillery 'face MoD axe' |publisher=BBC News |date=3 April 2003 |access-date=16 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070526084254/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2905817.stm |archive-date=26 May 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{anchor|Basra 2003}}25 March 2003: A [[friendly fire]] ("blue-on-blue") incident in Basra in which one Challenger 2 of the Black Watch Battlegroup ([[2nd Royal Tank Regiment]]) mistakenly engaged another Challenger 2 of the [[Queen's Royal Lancers]] after detecting what was believed to be an enemy flanking manoeuvre on thermal equipment. The attacking tank's second HESH round hit the open commander's hatch lid of the QRL tank sending hot fragments into the turret, killing two crew members. The hit caused a fire that eventually ignited the stowed ammunition, destroying the tank. This is the only Challenger 2 to be destroyed on operations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mod.uk/NR/rdonlyres/C2384518-7EBA-4CFF-B127-E87871E41B51/0/boi_challenger2_25mar03.pdf |title=UK Ministry of Defence : Army Board of Inquiry Report |access-date=16 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608011154/http://www.mod.uk/NR/rdonlyres/C2384518-7EBA-4CFF-B127-E87871E41B51/0/boi_challenger2_25mar03.pdf |archive-date=8 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
|title=Challenger 2 of the Queen's Royal Lancers destroyed by "friendly fire" from another Challenger - Basra 2003
|website=Reddit
|format=photo of the destroyed tank
|url=https://www.reddit.com/r/DestroyedTanks/comments/3dgqoj/challenger_2_of_the_queens_royal_lancers/
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author1=Rory McCarthy|title=Friendly fire kills two UK tank crew|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/26/iraq.rorymccarthy1|website=[[The Guardian]]|date=26 March 2003|access-date=21 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180522111212/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/26/iraq.rorymccarthy1|archive-date=22 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Challenger 2 Main Battle Tank patrolling outside Basra, Iraq MOD 45148321.jpg|thumb|A Challenger 2 on patrol outside Basra in June 2004]]
* August 2006: An RPG-29 capable of firing a [[tandem-charge]] penetrated the frontal lower underbelly armour of a Challenger 2 commanded by Captain Thomas Williams of The Queens's Royal Hussars south east of [[Amarah|al-Amarah]], southern Iraq. Its driver, Trooper Sean Chance, lost part of his foot in the blast; two more of the crew were slightly injured. Chance was able to reverse the vehicle {{convert|1.5|mi|km|abbr=on}} to the regimental aid post despite his injuries.<ref>{{cite web|first=Sean|last=Rayment|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1551418/MoD-kept-failure-of-best-tank-quiet.html|work=The Daily Telegraph |title=MoD kept failure of best tank quiet |date=12 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803190029/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1551418/MoD-kept-failure-of-best-tank-quiet.html|archive-date=3 August 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref> The incident was not made public until May 2007; in response to accusations that crews had been told the tank was impervious to the insurgents' weapons, the MoD said "We have never claimed that the Challenger 2 is impenetrable."<ref name=telegraph1551418>{{cite news |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1551418/MoD-kept-failure-of-best-tank-quiet.html |title= MoD kept failure of best tank quiet |work= [[The Daily Telegraph]] |first= Sean |last= Rayment |date= 13 May 2007 |access-date= 12 May 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150704200640/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1551418/MoD-kept-failure-of-best-tank-quiet.html |archive-date= 4 July 2015 |url-status= live}}</ref> Since then, the [[explosive reactive armour]] has been replaced with [[Chobham Armour]] and the steel underbelly lined with armour as part of the ''Streetfighter'' upgrade as a direct response to this incident.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}
* 6 April 2007: in Basra, Iraq, a [[shaped charge]] from an [[improvised explosive device]] (IED) penetrated the underside of a tank resulting in the driver losing a leg and causing minor injuries to another soldier.<ref>{{cite web |first=Patrick |last=Foster |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/improvised-bomb-hits-british-tank-5ctnfgvbzp9 |work=The Times |title=Improvised bomb hits British tank |date=23 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031005243/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/improvised-bomb-hits-british-tank-5ctnfgvbzp9|archive-date=31 October 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Caroline |last=Wyatt |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8291969.stm |publisher=BBC News |title=Injured troops battle bureaucracy |date=6 October 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105065249/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8291969.stm |archive-date=5 November 2009}}</ref>

[[File:B Sqn Bridge 2.gif|thumb|A Challenger 2 of B Squadron [[Royal Dragoon Guards]], near Basra in 2008]]

[[File:Challenger_2_FV4034_-_Megatron_(7527723404).jpg|thumb|A Challenger 2 with added explosive reactive armour panels, manufactured by [[Rafael Advanced Defense Systems]]<ref name="ReferenceA"/> on display at [[The Tank Museum]]]]
To help prevent incidents of this nature, Challenger 2s have been upgraded with a new passive armour package, including the use of add-on armour manufactured by [[Rafael Advanced Defense Systems]] of Israel.<ref name="ReferenceA">''British Next Generation Armour'', Tankograd British Special no. 9009, Dan Hay</ref> When deployed on operations the Challenger 2 is now normally upgraded to Theatre Entry Standard (TES), which includes a number of modifications including armour and weapon system upgrades.

Since 2017, the UK has regularly deployed Challenger 2 tanks, alongside [[Warrior IFV|Warrior Infantry Fighting Vehicles]], to [[Estonia]] as part of [[NATO Enhanced Forward Presence#United Kingdom|Operation Cabrit]]. The two squadrons of tanks currently deployed, form part of the British contribution to the [[NATO Enhanced Forward Presence]] multinational battlegroup in the Baltics.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brooke-Holland |first1=Louisa |title=UK forces in Estonia |date=21 November 2022 |publisher=House of Commons Library |pages=1–10 |url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9639/CBP-9639.pdf |access-date=15 January 2023 |format=Commons Library Research Briefing}}</ref>

[[File:QRH Challenger 2s in Estonia MOD 45167100.jpg|thumb|A Challenger 2 of the [[Queen's Royal Hussars]] on exercise in Estonia, November 2020]]

In July 2022, a squadron of 14 Challenger 2 tanks of the [[Queen's Royal Hussars]] were sent to [[Poland]] on an initial 6 month deployment. The squadron is to be integrated into a Polish battlegroup under Polish command. The move is designed to 'backfill' Polish capability after Polish [[T-72]] tanks were [[List of foreign aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War#P|donated to Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Olver |first1=Rob |title=British Challenger 2 tanks stored at Sennelager head to Poland |url=https://www.forces.net/operations/germany/challenger-2-tanks-stored-sennelager-are-being-sent-poland |access-date=15 January 2023 |publisher=Forces.net |date=5 July 2022}}</ref>

== Upgrades ==
=== CLIP ===
The Challenger Lethality Improvement Programme (CLIP) was a programme to replace the current L30A1 rifled gun with the smoothbore [[Rheinmetall 120 mm gun]] currently used in the [[Leopard 2]] and [[M1 Abrams]]. The use of a smoothbore weapon would have allowed Challenger 2 to use NATO standard ammunition, including tungsten-based [[kinetic energy penetrator]]s which do not have the same political and environmental objections as [[depleted uranium]] rounds. The production lines for rifled 120{{nbs}}mm ammunition in the UK have been closed for some years so existing stocks of ammunition for the L30A1 are finite.<ref name=forecastinternational>{{cite web|url=http://www.forecastinternational.com/archive/or/vo0190.doc|title=ForecastInternational|format=doc|access-date=8 August 2009}} {{dead link|date=July 2013|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

[[File:The 120mm smooth bore tank gun, looking down the barrel. MOD 45146593.jpg|thumb|Challenger 2 fitted with 120 mm smoothbore gun for trials]]
A single Challenger 2 was fitted with the L55 and underwent trials in January 2006.<ref>{{cite news |title=100 Years of Firing At Lulworth Training Area |url=https://insidedio.blog.gov.uk/2016/07/25/100-years-of-firing-at-lulworth-training-area/ |access-date=28 March 2021 |agency=[[Defence Infrastructure Organisation]] |date=25 July 2016}}</ref> The smoothbore gun was the same length as the L30A1 and was fitted with the rifled gun's cradle, thermal sleeve, bore evacuator and muzzle reference system. Early trials apparently revealed that the German tungsten DM53 round was more effective than the depleted-uranium CHARM 3.<ref name="Fprado"/> The ammunition storage and handling arrangements had to be changed to cater for the single-piece smoothbore rounds, instead of the separate-loading rifled rounds. Other improvements were also considered, including a regenerative [[CBRN defense|NBC]] protection system.<ref>{{cite web |first=Christopher F |last=Foss |url=http://www.janes.com/defence/news/jdw/jdw060329_2_n.shtml |title=UK fields regenerative NBC system |work=Jane's Defence News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527151434/http://www.janes.com/defence/news/jdw/jdw060329_2_n.shtml |archive-date=27 May 2008}}</ref>

=== HAAIP ===

Updates to the automotive components of Challenger 2 are being undertaken as part of the ongoing Heavy Armour Automotive Improvement Programme (HAAIP), which is expected to continue until 2031, and expected to align with the Challenger 3 programme.<ref name="DVD 2018: BAE Systems' Challenger 2 demonstrator - Black Night">Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/clrF_-Il7zo Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200820213433/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=clrF_-Il7zo&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=clrF_-Il7zo|title=DVD 2018: BAE Systems' Challenger 2 demonstrator - Black Night|publisher=Jane's by IHS Markit|date=21 September 2018|access-date=22 September 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="The Procurement Of HAAIP Main Engine Cooling Fans – Annex A"/> The HAAIP programme "will be made to existing in-service Challenger 2 tanks to increase their mobility and stability, both of which are critical to providing the foundation for the new turret and systems that will upgrade the vehicle to a Challenger 3."<ref name="amu">{{cite news |title=Challenger 2 vehicles prepared for an upgrade |url=https://www.army.mod.uk/news-and-events/news/2021/07/challenger-2-vehicles-prepared-for-an-upgrade/ |publisher=army.mod.uk |date=29 July 2021}}</ref>

HAAIP has already led to upgrades to the air filtration system, through the use of cleanable air filters with increased operating life, which were tested in [[Exercise Saif Sareea 3]] in October 2018.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Bulletin - Winter 2018/9|access-date=21 August 2019|url=https://www.baesystems.com/en/download-en/20190304155957/1434610861920.pdf}}</ref> The HAAIP programme, awarded to BAE Systems, was intended to apply a common engine and suspension standard to Challenger 2, the DTT, [[Challenger 1#CRAARV|CRARRV]], Titan and Trojan, improving reliability.<ref name="Armoured Fighting Vehicles:Written question - HL271">{{cite web|url=https://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/written-questions-answers-statements/written-question/Lords/2020-01-09/HL271|title=Armoured Fighting Vehicles:Written question - HL271|publisher=UK Parliament|date=9 January 2020|access-date=5 March 2020}}</ref> However the Minister of State for Defence announced in April 2022 that a common engine (build standard) will be applied to Challenger 2, Challenger 3 and CRARRV only after a new refrigerant is found for the CTCS (Crew Temperature Control System).<ref name="Challenger Tanks: Engines (Qs.2)">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theyworkforyou.com/wrans/?id=2022-04-06.HL7764.h&s=speaker%3A25229#gHL7764.q0|title=Challenger Tanks: Engines (Qs.2)|website=TheyWorkForYou|publisher=UK Parliament|date=22 April 2022|access-date=24 April 2022}}</ref>

In terms of the powertrain, BAE Systems were evaluating whether to uprate the existing CV12 engine or swap this for alternative designs. The proposed CV12 upgrade by [[Caterpillar Inc.#Caterpillar Defense Products|Caterpillar Defense]] would fit electronically controlled common rail fuel injection and introduce engine health monitoring (HUMS). This would increase the maximum power output from 1,200{{nbs}}bhp (at 2,300 rpm) to 1,500{{nbs}}bhp (at 2,400 rpm), reduce battlefield smoke emissions, and improve fleet reliability and availability.<ref name="CV12 Military Engine">{{cite web |url=https://docs.tuyap.online/FDOCS/22431.pdf|title=CV12 Military Engine |publisher=Caterpillar |date=1 January 2018 |access-date=28 August 2020}}/</ref><ref name="Caterpillar Defense Vehicle Engines and Future Plans (IAV 2019)">Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/VMvQxl1dEq0 Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200820161508/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VMvQxl1dEq0&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VMvQxl1dEq0|title=Caterpillar Defense Vehicle Engines and Future Plans (IAV 2019)|publisher=Jane's by IHS Markit |date=6 February 2019 |access-date=21 August 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Since this information was released (February 2019) no further information in the public domain has been released regarding fitting Common Rail Fuel Injection and HUMS. The engines and transmission units have themselves also been remanufactured in recent years, with parts and equipment also purchased to convert CV12-6A engines to CV12-8A build standard.<ref name="United Kingdom-Bristol: Repair and maintenance services of military vehicles, 2014/S 172-305466">{{cite web |url=https://ted.europa.eu/udl?uri=TED:NOTICE:305466-2014:TEXT:EN:HTML&src=0|title=United Kingdom-Bristol: Repair and maintenance services of military vehicles, 2014/S 172-305466|publisher=Tenders Electronic Daily, OJEU |date=9 September 2014 |access-date=5 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="United Kingdom-Telford: Repair and maintenance services of vehicle transmissions, 2018/S 138-316646">{{cite web|url=https://ted.europa.eu/udl?uri=TED:NOTICE:316646-2018:TEXT:EN:HTML&src=0|title=United Kingdom-Telford: Repair and maintenance services of vehicle transmissions, 2018/S 138-316646|publisher=Tenders Electronic Daily, OJEU|date=20 July 2018|access-date=5 March 2020}}</ref> <ref name="United Kingdom-Telford: Repair, maintenance and associated services of vehicles and related equipment, 2020/S 034-081842">{{cite web|url=https://ted.europa.eu/udl?uri=TED:NOTICE:81842-2020:TEXT:EN:HTML&src=0|title=United Kingdom-Telford: Repair, maintenance and associated services of vehicles and related equipment, 2020/S 034-081842|publisher=Tenders Electronic Daily, OJEU |date=9 September 2014 |access-date=26 June 2021}}</ref> Publications in support of tender procurement for HAAIP indicate that a new CV12-9A engine build standard will be used for the Challenger 2s upgraded to become Challenger 3s, and for CRARRV.<ref name="The Procurement Of HAAIP Main Engine Cooling Fans – Annex F">{{Cite web|url= https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=https://www.contractsfinder.service.gov.uk/Notice/Attachment/13bc2498-35ba-41bb-be4b-89b4780972e1|title=Annex F – Government Furnished Information|website=UK MOD|date=13 August 2021|access-date=18 April 2022}}/</ref>

Work to update the base Challenger 2 hull and automotive components, undertaken by DE&S, RBSL and Babcock, commenced in July 2021 in advance of these being converted to Challenger 3s. Equipment replaced during HAAIP will be checked for serviceability, repaired if required, and returned for re-use in the existing Challenger 2 fleet. The hulls will also undergo ultrasonic testing, weld repairs and repainting.<ref name="Work begins to prepare Challenger 2 vehicles for upgrade programme">{{cite web|url=https://des.mod.uk/challenger-2-vehicles-upgrade-programme|title=Work begins to prepare Challenger 2 vehicles for upgrade programme|publisher=UK Ministry of Defence|date=28 July 2021 |access-date=1 August 2021}}</ref>

The overall scope of HAAIP includes:
* Upgraded CV12-9A engines for Challenger 3 and CRARRV<ref name="The Procurement Of HAAIP Main Engine Cooling Fans – Annex F"/><ref name="des.mod.uk">{{Cite web|url= https://des.mod.uk/des-secures-contract-for-armys-challenger-3-tank/|title= DE&S secures contract for Army's Challenger 3 tank|date=7 May 2021|website=UK MOD, Defence Equipment & Support|access-date=26 June 2021}}</ref>
* Third Generation Hydrogas Suspension<ref name="Gen 3 HydroGas Project">{{cite web|url=https://ted.europa.eu/udl?uri=TED:NOTICE:15192-2020:TEXT:EN:HTML&src=0|title=Gen 3 HydroGas Project|publisher=Tenders Electronic Daily - Supplement to the Official Journal of the EU|date=2020-01-12|access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="ted.europa.eu">{{cite web|url=https://ted.europa.eu/udl?uri=TED:NOTICE:333775-2020:TEXT:EN:HTML&src=0|title=Repair and Conversion Hydrogas Gen 3 Suspension Parts|publisher=Tenders Electronic Daily - Supplement to the Official Journal of the EU|date=2020-07-15|access-date=26 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="The Procurement Of HAAIP Main Engine Cooling Fans – Annex A">{{Cite web|url= https://contracts.mod.uk|title= Project: 701547382 - Procurement of HAAIP Main Engine Cooling Fans – Annex A, Contract Notice Supporting Information Document|date=26 April 2021|website=UK MOD, Defence Sourcing Portal|access-date=14 October 2021}}</ref>
* New Hydraulic Track Tensioners (HTT) with inline accumulators<ref name="The Procurement Of HAAIP Main Engine Cooling Fans – Annex A"/>
* Improved Electric Cold Start System (Intake Manifold Heater)<ref name="The Procurement Of HAAIP Main Engine Cooling Fans – Annex A"/>
* Unspecified new components fitted to improve the transmissions<ref name="Work begins to prepare Challenger 2 vehicles for upgrade programme"/>
* New Main Engine Air Intake Filters<ref>{{cite web|title=The Bulletin - Winter 2018/9|access-date=21 August 2019|url=https://www.baesystems.com/en/download-en/20190304155957/1434610861920.pdf}}</ref>
* Improved Main Engine/Transmission Cooling; fitting new high efficiency radiators (596 sets) and fans (294 triple fan sets with mountings and drive systems). These new more modern assemblies will increase cooling capacity and reduce engine fuel cutback mode (where engine power is reduced if cooling capacity for the main engine and transmission is exceeded) through improved air flow efficiency.<ref name="The Procurement Of HAAIP Main Engine Cooling Fans – Annex A"/><ref name="des.mod.uk"/><ref name="The Procurement of HAAIP Main Engine Cooling Fans">{{cite web |url=https://www.find-tender.service.gov.uk/Notice/008952-2021?origin=SearchResults&p=1|title=The Procurement of HAAIP Main Engine Cooling Fans|publisher=UK Government|date=26 April 2021|access-date=26 June 2021}}</ref><ref name="The Procurement of HAAIP Main Engine Cooling Fans (Corrigendum)">{{cite web |url=https://www.find-tender.service.gov.uk/Notice/019842-2021?origin=SearchResults&p=1|title=The Procurement of HAAIP Main Engine Cooling Fans|publisher=UK Government|date=13 August 2021|access-date=27 September 2021}}</ref><ref name="The procurement of HAAIP Main Engine Radiators">{{cite web|url=https://www.find-tender.service.gov.uk/Notice/012873-2021?origin=SearchResults&p=1|title= The procurement of HAAIP Main Engine Radiators |publisher= UK Government|date=8 June 2021|access-date=26 June 2021}}</ref> The contract for the new cooling fans has been awarded to AMETEK Airtechnology Group (the suppliers of the current design) and the contract for the new radiators awarded to Caterpillar.<ref name="AMETEK Airtechnology Group Awarded Engine Cooling Fans Contract for Challenger 2">{{cite web |url=https://www.ametek-airtechnology.com/newsevents/news/engine-cooling-fans-contract-for-challenger-2|title=AMETEK Airtechnology Group Awarded Engine Cooling Fans Contract for Challenger 2|date=24 January 2022|access-date=20 February 2022}}</ref><ref name="Awarded contract, HAAIP Main Engine Radiators">{{cite web |url=https://www.find-tender.service.gov.uk/Notice/012772-2022|title=Awarded contract, HAAIP Main Engine Radiators|date=17 May 2022|access-date=18 May 2022}}</ref>

As of January 2022 six Challenger 2s were reported to have received the automotive upgrades prior to conversion to Challenger 3s.<ref name="IAV 2022: Challenger 3 upgrade underway">{{cite web |url= https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/iav-2022-challenger-3-upgrade-under-way| author1=Nicholas Fiorenza|title= IAV 2022: Challenger 3 upgrade under way|publisher=Janes|date=28 January 2022 |access-date=19 April 2022}}</ref>

=== CSP / LEP / Challenger 3 ===
[[File:Challenger 2-Megatron MOD 45161557.jpg|thumb|Challenger 2 TES "Megatron", the British Theatre Entry Standard reference vehicle, at Bovington fitted with a Mobile Camouflage System (MCS) in 2016]]
[[File:QRH Challenger 2s in Estonia MOD 45167094.jpg|thumb|QRH Challenger 2 fitted with dozer blade in Estonia, 2020]]
In 2005, the MoD recognised a need for a Capability Sustainment Programme (CSP) to extend the service life of the Challenger 2 into the mid-2030s and upgrade its mobility, lethality and survivability.<ref name="DIS2005">{{cite book |title=Defence Industrial Strategy: Defence White Paper |date=2005 |publisher=[[The Stationery Office]] |location=[[London]] |isbn=0101669720 |page=79 |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/272203/6697.pdf |access-date=29 March 2021}}</ref> The CSP was planned to be complete by 2020 and was to combine all the upgrades from CLIP, including the fitting of a 120 mm smoothbore gun.<ref name="KRHRJ">{{cite book |title=The King's Royal Hussars: Regimental Journal 2007 |url=https://www.krh.org.uk/uploads/4/5/0/9/45090939/krh_2007.pdf |access-date=29 March 2021}}</ref><ref name="CSDP">{{cite book |title=Case Studies in Defence Procurement and Logistics |date=2014 |page=236 |url=https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au/bitstream/handle/10072/63083/97211_1.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=29 March 2021}}</ref>

By 2014, the CSP programme had been replaced by the Life Extension Programme (LEP) which shared a similar scope of replacing obsolete components and extending the tank's service life from 2025 to 2035, however the 120 mm smoothbore gun had seemingly been abandoned.<ref name="2014LEP">{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/40057/dvd-2014-uk-challenger-2-lep-numbers-may-drop|title=DVD 2014: UK Challenger 2 LEP numbers may drop|publisher=Janes.com|access-date=30 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030150006/http://www.janes.com/article/40057/dvd-2014-uk-challenger-2-lep-numbers-may-drop|archive-date=30 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://rusi.org/event/dynamic-security-threats-and-british-army |title=Dynamic Security Threats and the British Army - Presentation to RUSI by Sir Nick Carter CGS of the British Army |access-date=22 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329141808/https://rusi.org/event/dynamic-security-threats-and-british-army |archive-date=29 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Defence Equipment Plan 2017|access-date=7 March 2018 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/677999/20180125-EP17_Final.pdf}}</ref>

In 2015, the British Army provided an insight into the scope of the LEP, dividing it into four key areas, namely:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.royaltankregiment.com/Uploads/Files/en-GB/RAC_Newsletter_Dec_2015.PDF |title=Archived copy of RTR December 2015 Newsletter |access-date=5 May 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105073703/http://www.royaltankregiment.com/Uploads/Files/en-GB/RAC_Newsletter_Dec_2015.PDF |archive-date=5 November 2016}}</ref>
* Surveillance and target acquisition: Upgrades to the commander's primary sight and gunner's primary sight, as well as the replacement of the thermal observation and gunnery sights (TOGS) with third-generation thermal imaging.
* Weapon control system: Upgrades to the fire control computer, fire control panel and gun processing unit.
* Mobility: Upgrades including third-generation hydrogas suspension, improved air filtration, CV-12 common rail fuel injection, transmission and cooling.
* Electronic architecture: Upgrades to the gunner's control handles, video distribution architecture, generic vehicle architecture compliant interfaces, increased onboard processing and improved human machine interface.

The MoD also began assessing [[active protection system]]s (APS) on the Challenger 2, including [[MUSS (countermeasure)|MUSS]] and Rheinmetall's ROSY Rapid Obscurant System.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/543458/20160801-Letter_to_Maj_Gen_Gaunt_from_CGS.pdf|title=Armour MBT 2025 programme: SRO appointment letter|publisher=UK Ministry of Defence|access-date=3 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919021931/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/543458/20160801-Letter_to_Maj_Gen_Gaunt_from_CGS.pdf|archive-date=19 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/active-protection-for-our-armed-forces|title=Active Protection for our Armed Forces|publisher=DSTL / UK Government|date=5 July 2016|access-date=15 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730154359/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/active-protection-for-our-armed-forces|archive-date=30 July 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/75743/challenger-2-trialled-with-rosy-iron-fist-aps|title=Challenger 2 trialled with ROSY, Iron Fist APS|publisher=Jane's International Defence Review|date=16 November 2017|access-date=15 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113125635/https://www.janes.com/article/75743/challenger-2-trialled-with-rosy-iron-fist-aps|archive-date=13 November 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In August 2016, the MoD awarded assessment phase contracts to several companies for the Life Extension Programme. These included Team Challenger 2 (a consortium led by BAE Systems and including [[General Dynamics UK]]),<ref name="TeamCR2">{{cite news |title=BAE Systems' Team Challenger® 2 awarded Assessment Phase for Life Extension Project |url=https://www.baesystems.com/en-uk/article/bae-systems--team-challenger--2-awarded-assessment-phase-for-life-extension-project |access-date=29 March 2021 |agency=BAE Systems |date=22 December 2016}}</ref> [[CMI Defence]] and [[Ricardo plc]], [[Rheinmetall]] and [[Lockheed Martin UK]].<ref name="assessmentphase">{{cite news |title=UK Announces Life Extension Project |url=https://battle-updates.com/uk-mod-announces-challenger-2-life-extension-projectlep-by-julian-nettlefold/ |access-date=29 March 2021 |work=Battlespace |date=22 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="Final bids in for Challenger 2 LEP">{{cite web |url=https://janes.ihs.com/Janes/Display/1761650|title=Several contenders line up for Challenger 2 life extension programme|publisher=IHS Jane's |date=11 August 2016 |access-date=14 November 2016}}</ref> In November, the MoD shortlisted two teams led by BAE Systems and Rheinmetall to compete for the LEP which was then estimated to be worth £650 million ($802 million).<ref name="Field Narrows for UK Battle Tank Modernization">{{cite web |url=http://www.defensenews.com/articles/field-narrows-for-uk-battle-tank-modernization|title=Field Narrows for UK Battle Tank Modernization|publisher=Defense News Andrew Chute |date=2 November 2016 |access-date=14 November 2016}}</ref><ref name="Challenger 2 LEP contracts due in December">{{cite web |url=https://janes.ihs.com/Janes/Display/1788580|title=Challenger 2 LEP contracts due in December|publisher=IHS Jane's |date=14 November 2016 |access-date=14 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/mod-awards-46m-to-start-challenger-2-tank-life-extension-project-competition|title=MOD awards £46M to start Challenger 2 Tank life extension project competition|publisher=gov.uk|access-date=22 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223065857/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/mod-awards-46m-to-start-challenger-2-tank-life-extension-project-competition|archive-date=23 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

In October 2018, BAE Systems unveiled its proposed Challenger 2 LEP technology demonstrator, the "Black Night".<ref name="bk1">{{cite news |last1=Allison |first1=George |title=BAE unveils 'Black Night' – the first fully-upgraded Challenger 2 tank |url=https://ukdefencejournal.org.uk/bae-unveils-black-knight-the-first-fully-upgraded-challenger-2-tank/ |access-date=29 March 2021 |work=[[UK Defence Journal]] |date=8 October 2018}}</ref> The new improvements included a [[Safran]] PASEO commander's sight, [[Leonardo S.p.A.|Leonardo]] thermal imager for the gunner and Leonardo DNVS 4 night sight. The turret also received modifications to improve the speed of traverse and to provide greater space as well as regenerative braking to generate and store power. Other enhancements included a laser warning system and an active protection system.<ref name="bk1"/><ref>{{cite news |title=BAE Systems unveils Black Night Challenger 2 MBT for British Army |url=https://www.army-technology.com/news/bae-black-night-challenger-2-army/ |access-date=29 March 2021 |work=Army Technology |date=5 October 2018}}</ref> Months later, in January 2019, Rheinmetall unveiled its proposal which included the development of a completely new turret with fully digital electronic architecture, day and night sights for the commander and gunner, and a Rheinmetall L55 120{{nbs}}mm smoothbore gun. Whilst a more substantial upgrade than Black Night, the turret was developed on Rheinmetall's initiative and was not funded by the UK MoD, nor was it part of the MoD's LEP requirements.<ref name="Rheinmetall, BAE Systems launch joint venture for military vehicles.">{{Cite web|url= https://www.defensenews.com/global/europe/2019/01/21/rheinmetall-bae-systems-launch-joint-venture-for-military-vehicles/|title=Rheinmetall, BAE Systems launch joint venture for military vehicles|date=21 January 2019|publisher=Defense News|access-date=25 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="BAE Systems sells control of vehicles arm to Rheinmetall.">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-46946413|title=BAE Systems sells control of vehicles arm to Rheinmetall|publisher=BBC News|date=21 January 2019|access-date=25 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124073058/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-46946413|archive-date=24 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="IAV 2019: Rheinmetall unveils proposal for Challenger 2 LEP.">{{Cite web|url= https://janes.ihs.com/Janes/Display/FG_1520905-JDW|title=IAV 2019: Rheinmetall unveils proposal for Challenger 2 LEP|publisher=Jane's JDW|access-date=25 January 2019 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

In June 2019, BAE Systems and Rheinmetall formed a joint venture company, based in the UK, named [[Rheinmetall BAE Systems Land]] (RBSL).<ref name="RBSL Home">{{cite web |url=https://rbsl.com/ |title=RBSL website home page for navigation |publisher=RBSL|access-date=14 January 2021}}</ref> Despite the merger, the company was still expected to present two separate proposals for the LEP contract,<ref>{{cite news |title=Challenger 2 Upgrade Decision Will Not Be Made Until 2021 |url=https://www.forces.net/news/technology/challenger-2-upgrade-decision-will-not-be-made-until-2021 |access-date=29 March 2021 |work=Forces News |date=1 July 2019}}</ref> however, at [[DSEI]] 2019, RBSL instead opted to only showcase the Rheinmetall proposal.<ref>{{cite news |title=DSEI 2019: RBSL's Challenger 2 LEP contender comes out in the open |url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/dsei-2019-rbsls-challenger-2-lep-contender-comes-out-in-the-open |access-date=29 March 2021 |work=Forces News |date=12 September 2019}}</ref>

In October 2020, the MoD argued against buying a new main battle tank from overseas instead of pursuing the Challenger 2 LEP, stating that an upgraded Challenger 2 would be "comparable – and in certain areas superior" to a Leopard 2 or Abrams.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://committees.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/12523/pdf/ |title=Written evidence submitted by the Ministry of Defence HCDC Inquiry: Progress in delivering the British Army's armoured vehicle |author= |date=6 October 2020 |website=committees.parliament.uk/ |publisher=House of Commons Defence Committee |access-date=30 October 2020 |quote=The Challenger 2 Life Extension Project will be the first significant upgrade since it entered service in 1998 ... it will be comparable ... in certain areas superior – to the latest version of Leopard 2 and Abrams.}}</ref>

On 22 March 2021, the MoD published its long-awaited [[command paper]], ''[[Defence in a Competitive Age]]'', which confirmed the British Army's plans to upgrade 148 Challenger 2 tanks and designate them [[Challenger 3]].<ref name="DIACAb">{{cite book|date=March 2021|title=Defence in a Competitive Age|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/971859/_CP_411__-_Defence_in_a_competitive_age.pdf|access-date=22 March 2021|publisher=Ministry of Defence|isbn=978-1-5286-2462-6}}</ref><ref name="FSTBA">{{cite news |title=Future Soldier: Transforming the British Army |url=https://www.army.mod.uk/media/11826/20210322-army-future_soldier-publication-final.pdf |access-date=28 March 2021 |agency=[[British Army]] |date=22 March 2021}}</ref> The MoD confirmed the contract with RBSL had been signed, valued at £800 million (US$1 billion), on 7 May 2021. Rheinmetall's more extensive upgrade proposal, including the new 120 mm smoothbore gun, had been accepted. The [[initial operating capability]] for the upgraded tanks is expected by 2027, with full operation capability expected to be declared by 2030.<ref name=dnci>{{citation |url=https://www.defensenews.com/industry/2021/05/07/britain-awards-1-billion-contract-to-upgrade-challenger-2-tanks/ |title=Britain awards $1 billion contract to upgrade Challenger 2 tanks |work=[[Defense News]]|date= 7 May 2021}}</ref>

=== Other in-service upgrades ===

On 15 December 2017, BAE Systems was awarded a contract to maintain the Challenger 2's thermal imaging system as part of a £15.4 million interim solution separate to the LEP.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ted.europa.eu/TED/notice/udl?uri=TED:NOTICE:500141-2017:TEXT:EN:HTML&WT.mc_id=RSS-Feed&WT.rss_f=Materials+and+Products&WT.rss_a=500141-2017&WT.rss_ev=a|title=Challenger 2 Thermal imaging sustainment project. Reference number: AVPISP/00113|publisher=Official Journal of the EU|date=15 December 2017|access-date=1 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306023338/http://ted.europa.eu/TED/notice/udl?uri=TED:NOTICE:500141-2017:TEXT:EN:HTML&WT.mc_id=RSS-Feed&WT.rss_f=Materials+and+Products&WT.rss_a=500141-2017&WT.rss_ev=a|archive-date=6 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2019, it was announced that [[Thales Group|Thales]] would be supplying their Catherine Megapixel (MP) thermal imaging camera.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.janes.com/article/91854/thales-uk-supplying-new-ti-camera-for-challenger-2-tanks|title=Thales UK supplying new TI camera for Challenger 2 tanks|publisher=Janes by IHS Markit|date=11 October 2019|access-date=20 October 2019}}</ref>

==Variants==
=== Challenger 2 Driver Training Tank ===
[[File:Modified tanks, Bovington training grounds, Dorset - geograph.org.uk - 587792.jpg|thumb|Challenger 2 DTTs on exercise at [[Bovington Camp]] in 2007]]
The Challenger 2 Driver Training Tank (DTT) is based on the Challenger 2 hull. The turret has been replaced with a fixed weighted superstructure to accommodate an instructor and up to 4 trainees. The design is similar to the Challenger 1 derived Challenger Training Tank (CTT). Weighting the superstructure replicates the weight (and therefore also the driving characteristics) of the standard tank in operational service. 22 DTTs are in British service, with 2 in service with Oman.

=== Titan ===
[[File:TITAN Armoured Vehicle Launcher Bridge.jpg|thumb|Titan Bridge Launcher with No. 12 Bridge on exercise on [[Salisbury Plain]]]]

The Titan [[Armoured vehicle-launched bridge|armoured bridge layer]] is based on aspects of the Challenger 2 running gear and replaced the ''Chieftain Armoured Vehicle Launched Bridge'' (ChAVLB). The Titan came into service in 2006 with the Royal Engineers, with 33 in service. Titan can carry a single 26-metre-long bridge or two 12-metre-long bridges. It can also be fitted with a bulldozer blade.

=== Trojan ===
[[File:Trojan AVRE - Tankfest 2009.jpg|thumb|Trojan AVRE]]
{{main|Trojan Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers}}

The Trojan [[Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers]] is a [[combat engineering vehicle]] designed as a replacement for the ''Chieftain AVRE'' (ChAVRE). It uses the Challenger 2 chassis, and carries an articulated excavator arm, a dozer blade, and attachment rails for [[fascine]]s. Entering service in 2007, 33 were produced.

=== Challenger 2E ===
The Challenger 2E is an export version of the tank. It has a new integrated weapon control and battlefield management system, which includes a gyrostabilised panoramic SAGEM MVS 580-day/thermal sight for the commander and SAGEM SAVAN 15 gyrostabilised day/thermal sight for the gunner, both with eye-safe laser rangefinder. This allows hunter/killer operations with a common engagement sequence. An optional servo-controlled overhead weapons platform can be slaved to the commander's sight to allow operation independent from the turret.

The power pack has been replaced by a new {{convert|1500|hp|kW|abbr=on}} [[EuroPowerPack]] with a transversely mounted [[MTU Friedrichshafen|MTU]] MT883 diesel engine coupled to [[Renk]] HSWL 295TM automatic transmission. The increase in both vehicle performance and durability is significant. The smaller volume but more powerful EuroPowerPack additionally incorporates as standard a cooling system and air intake filtration system proved in desert use.

The free space in the hull is available for ammunition stowage or for fuel, increasing the vehicle's range to {{convert|550|km|abbr=on}}. This power pack was previously installed on the French Leclerc tanks delivered to the UAE as well as the recovery tank version of the Leclerc in service with the French Army. Further developed versions of the EuroPowerPack have more recently been installed in the latest serial produced Korean [[K2 Black Panther]] tank.

BAES announced in 2005 that development and export marketing of 2E would stop. This has been linked by the media to the failure of the 2E to be selected for the [[Hellenic Army]] in 2002, a competition won by the [[Leopard 2]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.janes.com/defence/land_forces/news/jdi/jdi050518_1_n.shtml |title=Challenger nears end of the line |publisher=Jane's Land Forces News |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070214142612/http://www.janes.com/defence/land_forces/news/jdi/jdi050518_1_n.shtml |archive-date=14 February 2007}}</ref>

=== CRARRV ===
{{main|Challenger Armoured Repair and Recovery Vehicle}}
[[File:Urgent Operational Requirement (UOR)Equipment Demonstration MOD 45149026.jpg|thumb|A CRARRV on exercise on [[Salisbury Plain]] in 2008]]
The [[Challenger Armoured Repair and Recovery Vehicle]] (CRARRV) is an [[armoured recovery vehicle]] based on the Challenger 1 hull, designed to repair and recover damaged tanks on the battlefield. Ordered in 1985, and delivered between 1988 and 1993, the CRARRV has subsequently been updated to use a Challenger 2 powertrain consisting of a CV12-5C/6C engine<ref name="Challenger Tanks: Engines (Qs.1)">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theyworkforyou.com/wrans/?id=2022-04-06.HL7761.h&s=speaker%3A25229#gHL7761.q0|title=Challenger Tanks: Engines (Qs.1)|website=TheyWorkForYou|publisher=UK Parliament|date=22 April 2022|access-date=24 April 2022}}</ref> with TN54E transmission. The British Army ordered 80 vehicles. Four CRARRVs were purchased by Oman to complement their acquisition of Challenger 2 tanks.

CRARRVs were first deployed in action in the lead up to the [[First Gulf War]], [[Operation Granby]] in 1991. They were subsequently deployed during the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], [[Operation Telic]] in 2003, alongside standard Challenger 2 MBTs.

== Operators ==
=== Current operators ===
[[File:Challenger 2 operators.svg|thumb|300x300px|A map of Challenger 2 operators]]
* {{Flag|United Kingdom}}: [[British Army]] – 386 delivered (227 operational) + 22 driver training units<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/558207/20160915-FOI08139-77597_CR2.pdf|title=Number of tanks based on the Challenger 2 chassis within the British Army|archive-date=27 September 2016|website=assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Oman}}: [[Royal Army of Oman]] – 38 delivered

=== Future operators ===
* {{Flag|Ukraine}}: [[Ukrainian Army|Ukrainian Ground Forces]] – in January 2023 it was confirmed that the United Kingdom will supply Ukraine with 14 Challenger 2 main battle tanks along with support vehicles.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sabbagh |first1=Dan |title=UK considers supplying handful of Challenger 2 tanks to Ukraine |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/09/uk-considers-supplying-handful-of-challenger-2-tanks-to-ukraine-war-russia |work=The Guardian |access-date=9 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Barnes |first1=Joe |last2=Day |first2=Matthew |date=2023-01-11 |title=Britain planning to provide tanks to Ukraine, Downing Street confirms |language=en-GB |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2023/01/11/poland-piles-pressure-germany-release-battle-tanks-ukraine/ |access-date=2023-01-12 |issn=0307-1235}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Beale |first1=Jonathan |last2=Andersson |first2=Jasmine |title=UK to send Challenger 2 tanks to Ukraine, Rishi Sunak confirms |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-64274755 |access-date=15 January 2023 |agency=BBC News |publisher=BBC |date=15 January 2023}}</ref> On January 26, [[Minister of State for Defence Procurement (UK)|Minister of State for Defence Procurement]] [[Alex Chalk]] stated that the tanks would be delivered in late March.<ref>{{cite news |last1=James |first1=William |title=Britain wants Challenger tanks in Ukraine by end of March - minister |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/britain-wants-challenger-tanks-ukraine-by-end-march-minister-2023-01-26/ |access-date=26 January 2023 |work=Reuters |date=26 January 2023}}</ref> On January 29, the first Ukrainian troops arrived in the UK to begin training on Challenger 2 tanks.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ukrainians arrive in UK to begin training on British Challenger 2 tanks |url=https://www.forces.net/ukraine/ukrainians-arrive-uk-begin-training-british-challenger-2-tanks |access-date=30 January 2023 |agency=Forces News |publisher=BFBS}}</ref>

== Accidents and incidents ==
* In July 2001, the commander and operator-loader of a Challenger 2 were killed in an accident in the [[Salisbury Plain Training Area|training area]] on [[Salisbury Plain]], near [[Imber]]. Their tank rolled over after falling off the edge of a track, crushing both men who suffered fatal injuries. At the subsequent [[Inquests in England and Wales|inquest]], the jury returned a verdict of accidental death, and called for improvements in training given to inexperienced tank crews.<ref>{{cite news |title=Army deaths were accident |url=https://www.gazetteandherald.co.uk/news/7340248.army-deaths-were-accident/ |access-date=11 January 2023 |work=Wiltshire Gazette and Herald |date=12 September 2001}}</ref>
* On 1 June 2015, a Challenger 2 on exercise in [[Lippe (district)]], near [[Paderborn]], Germany, crushed the car of a learner driver who pulled out in front of a column of British armoured vehicles. The driver was unhurt.<ref>{{cite news |title=British tank crushes learner driver's car in Germany |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/newsbeat-32973341 |access-date=11 January 2023 |agency=BBC News |publisher=BBC News |date=2 June 2015}}</ref>
* On 14 June 2017, a Challenger 2 from The Royal Tank Regiment suffered an ammunition explosion during live firing exercises at the [[Castlemartin Training Area|Castlemartin Range]] in Pembrokeshire. The tank was firing 120 mm practice shells with a standard propellant charge. The explosion critically injured the four-man crew, with two later dying of their wounds in hospital. The incident resulted in all British Army tank firing exercises being suspended for 48 hours while the cause of the explosion was investigated.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-south-west-wales-40300599|title=Two Soldiers Dead in Castlemartin Accident|date=16 June 2017|publisher=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010193608/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-south-west-wales-40300599|archive-date=10 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> It was later determined that a bolt vent axial (BVA) seal assembly had been removed during an earlier exercise and had not been replaced at the time of the incident, allowing explosive gases to enter the turret space; the lack of a written process for removal and replacement of the seal assembly meant that the crew at the time of the incident were unaware of its absence, and it was also noted that inadequate consideration had been given during the production of the L30 gun as to whether it could be fired without the seal assembly. A second explosion that occurred during the incident was attributed to the detonation of bag charges that had not been stowed in the internal ammunition bins, as required by correct procedure.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-44861558|title=Army tank explosion deaths caused by design flaw|date=17 July 2018|publisher=BBC News|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717143325/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-44861558|archive-date=17 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Classified specifications leak===
In July 2021, excerpts of the tank's ''Army Equipment Support Publication'' (i.e. the user manual), containing technical specifications of the vehicle, were posted on the official forums of the war simulation game ''[[War Thunder]]''; the poster, allegedly a Challenger 2 tank commander, said he had done so in the hope that developer [[Gaijin Entertainment]] would modify the performance of the in-game tank to match the specifications detailed in the document.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Allison|first=George|date=2021-07-16|title=Classified Challenger tank specs leaked online for videogame|url=https://ukdefencejournal.org.uk/classified-challenger-tank-specs-leaked-online-for-videogame/|website=ukdefencejournal.org.uk|access-date=2023-01-15|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207145137/https://ukdefencejournal.org.uk/classified-challenger-tank-specs-leaked-online-for-videogame/|archive-date=2022-12-07|url-status=live}}</ref> The leaked excerpts of the AESP document had been edited to appear as though it had been [[declassification|declassified]] under the UK's [[Freedom of Information Act 2000]]. However, the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|MoD]] confirmed that the information was in fact still [[classified information|classified]], and that if Gaijin were to disseminate the tank's specifications, they would be liable to prosecution under the [[Official Secrets Act 1989|Official Secrets Act]]. Due to these possible legal penalties, Gaijin refused to handle or utilise the leaked specifications.<ref>{{Cite web|title=War Thunder Forum|url=https://forum.warthunder.com/index.php?/topic/442882-challenger-2/&do=findComment&comment=9047584|website=forum.warthunder.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716195246/https://forum.warthunder.com/index.php?/topic/442882-challenger-2/&do=findComment&comment=9047584|archive-date=2021-07-16 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Future replacement==
Following Britain's exit from the European Union, early in 2021 the United Kingdom entered talks to be allowed into the [[European Main Battle Tank]] project as an observer. This may have a bearing on a future replacement of the [[Challenger 3]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.defensenews.com/global/europe/2021/01/11/british-military-looks-to-the-eurotank-as-it-weighs-its-hardware-options/|title=British military looks to the 'Eurotank' as it weighs its hardware options|first1=Andrew |last1=Chuter |first2= Sebastian |last2=Sprenger |date=11 January 2021|website=Defense News}}</ref>

== Vehicles on display ==
Many of the pre-production prototype Challenger 2 vehicles are on display in the United Kingdom:
[[File:FV4034 Challenger 2 ’06 SP 93’ “Cyclops” (52020256636).jpg|thumb|Challenger 2 on display outside the [[National Army Museum]], London]]

[[File:Challenger 2 tank outside the Discovery Museum September 2022.jpg|thumb|Challenger 2 on display outside the [[Discovery Museum]] in September 2022]]
* The third and fifth prototype vehicles are displayed at [[The Tank Museum]], [[Bovington Camp|Bovington]], Dorset.
* The fourth prototype is a [[gate guardian]] outside the Royal Armoured Corps Gunnery School, [[Lulworth Camp]], Dorset.
* The seventh prototype vehicle has been plinthed outside the [[National Army Museum]] in [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea]], London, since 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Tank in Chelsea |url=https://chelseasociety.org.uk/a-tank-in-chelsea/ |website=The Chelsea Society |publisher=The Chelsea Society |access-date=11 January 2023}}</ref> This vehicle also appeared in Vickers' original sales marketing.<ref>{{Cite tweet |author=Jon Hawkes |user=@JonHawkes275 |number=1393846702319312899 |title=Here some scans of one of my original Vickers brochure from the time}}</ref>
* The eighth prototype is in the teaching collection of the [[Defence Academy of the United Kingdom|Defence Academy]], Shrivenham, Oxfordshire.
* The ninth prototype vehicle has been displayed outside the [[Discovery Museum]] in [[Newcastle upon Tyne]] since 2014. It was previously displayed outside the [[Vickers plc|Vickers]] Elswick plant in the city.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Henderson |first1=Tony |title=Challenger tank given to Newcastle museum to mark Tyneside's industrial legacy |url=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north-east-news/challenger-tank-given-newcastle-museum-8053525 |website=Chronicle Live |publisher=Evening Chronicle (Newcastle) |access-date=11 January 2023 |date=5 November 2014}}</ref>
* A Challenger 2, likely a prototype, is plinthed outside Allenby Barracks, [[Bovington Camp]], Dorset.
* The prototype CRARRV is on display at The [[REME Museum]] at [[MoD Lyneham]], Wiltshire.<ref>{{cite web |title=A 21st Century Military Museum |url=https://www.rememuseum.org.uk/News/a-21st-century-military-museum |website=The REME Museum |publisher=The REME Museum |access-date=11 January 2023 |date=17 March 2017}}</ref>

In 2021, the then UK [[Minister of State for Defence Procurement|Minister for Defence Procurement]], [[Jeremy Quin]], acknowledged in a written answer, that were no current plans to dispose of a production vehicle to a museum, but that the UK MoD were aware that [[The Tank Museum]] intend to secure one for their collection.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tank Museum: Challenger Tanks: Question for Ministry of Defence, UIN 44214, tabled on 7 September 2021 |url=https://questions-statements.parliament.uk/written-questions/detail/2021-09-07/44214# |website=Written questions, answers and statements |publisher=UK Parliament |access-date=11 January 2023 |date=13 September 2021}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Tanks}}
* [[List of main battle tanks by generation]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1551418/MoD-kept-failure-of-best-tank-quiet.html |title=MoD kept failure of best tank quiet |access-date=9 August 2007 |first=Sean |last=Rayment |quote=One of the British Army's Challenger 2 tanks was pierced by an Iraqi insurgent missile more than eight months earlier than the Government has previously admitted |date=12 May 2007 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London}}
* {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2519005.stm |title=Fact file: Challenger 2 |access-date=9 July 2008 |date=7 January 2003 |publisher=BBC News}}
* {{cite news |first=Simon |last=Houston |title=Dragoon guards survive ambush |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/2908679.stm |work=Daily Record |publisher=BBC News |date=2 April 2003 |access-date=14 September 2008}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Challenger 2 tanks}}
* {{Official website|www.army.mod.uk/equipment/23236.aspx}}, British Army

{{ModernUKAFVsNav|style=wide}}
{{Post–Cold War tanks|style=wide}}

[[Category:Main battle tanks of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Post–Cold War tanks of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Post–Cold War main battle tanks]]
[[Category:Military vehicles introduced in the 1990s]]

User talk:81.247.100.24

2022-10-09T21:26:13Z

Asyncadr:

[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello. This is a message to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/81.247.100.24|your recent contributions]], such as the edit(s) you made to [[:Gasoline]], did not appear to be constructive and have been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]]. Please take some time to familiarise yourself with our [[Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines|policies and guidelines]]. You can find information about these at our [[Help:Getting started|welcome page]] which also provides further information about [[Wikipedia:Contributing to Wikipedia|contributing constructively to this encyclopedia]]. If you only meant to make test edits, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]] for that. If you think I made a mistake, or if you have any questions, you may leave a message on [[User_talk:Asyncadr|my talk page]]. Thank you. [[User:Asyncadr|Asyncadr]] ([[User talk:Asyncadr|talk]]) 21:25, 9 October 2022 (UTC)

User talk:81.247.100.24

2022-10-09T21:25:59Z

Asyncadr: ←Created page with '{{subst:Uw-disruptive1|article}} ~~~~'

[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello. This is a message to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/81.247.100.24|your recent contributions]], such as the edit(s) you made to [[:article]], did not appear to be constructive and have been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]]. Please take some time to familiarise yourself with our [[Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines|policies and guidelines]]. You can find information about these at our [[Help:Getting started|welcome page]] which also provides further information about [[Wikipedia:Contributing to Wikipedia|contributing constructively to this encyclopedia]]. If you only meant to make test edits, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]] for that. If you think I made a mistake, or if you have any questions, you may leave a message on [[User_talk:Asyncadr|my talk page]]. Thank you. [[User:Asyncadr|Asyncadr]] ([[User talk:Asyncadr|talk]]) 21:25, 9 October 2022 (UTC)

Gasoline

2022-10-09T21:23:27Z

Asyncadr: Undid revision 1115107307 - removing Dutch-language vandalism by 81.247.100.24 (talk)

{{Short description|Liquid fuel derived from petroleum}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Redirect|Petrol}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use American English|date=April 2016}}
[[File:Gasoline in mason jar.jpg|thumb|Gasoline]]
[[File:GasCan.jpg|thumb|A gasoline can]]
[[File:GasolineContainer.JPG|thumb|A typical [[gas can|gasoline container]] commonly referred to as a gas can in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://ww3.arb.ca.gov/msprog/spillcon/gascanfs/gascanfs.htm | title=Gas Can Fact Sheet }}</ref>]]'''Gasoline''' ([[American English]] and [[Canadian English]]; {{IPAc-en|ˈ|g|æ|s|ə|l|iː|n}}) or '''petrol''' ([[British English]] and [[Australian English]]; {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɛ|t|r|ə|l}}) (see [[#Etymology|Etymology]] for naming differences and geographic usage) is a transparent, [[petroleum]]-derived [[flammable liquid]] that is used primarily as a [[fuel]] in most [[Spark-ignition engine|spark-ignited]] [[internal combustion engine]]s (also known as [[petrol engine]]s). It consists mostly of [[organic compound]]s obtained by the [[fractional distillation]] of [[petroleum]], enhanced with a variety of [[Gasoline additive|additives]]. On average, U.S. refineries produce, from a [[Oil barrel|barrel]] of [[Petroleum|crude oil]], about 19 to 20 gallons of gasoline; 11 to 13 gallons of distillate fuel most of which is sold as diesel fuel; and 3 to 4 gallons of jet fuel. The product ratio depends on the processing in an [[oil refinery]] and the [[crude oil assay]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/oil-and-petroleum-products/refining-crude-oil.php#:~:text=On%20average%2C%20U.S.%20refineries%20produce%2C%20from%20a%2042-gallon,and%203%20to%204%20gallons%20of%20jet%20fuel | title=Refining crude oil - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) }}</ref> A barrel of oil is defined as holding 42 US gallons, which is about 159 liters or 35 imperial gallons.

The characteristic of a particular gasoline blend to resist igniting too early (which causes [[Engine knocking|knocking]] and reduces efficiency in [[reciprocating engines]]) is measured by its [[octane rating]], which is produced in several grades. [[Tetraethyl lead]] and other lead compounds, once widely used to increase octane ratings, are no longer used except in aviation,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why small planes still use leaded fuel decades after phase-out in cars |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/business/business-news/leaded-gas-was-phased-out-25-years-ago-why-are-n1264970 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213708/https://www.nbcnews.com/business/business-news/leaded-gas-was-phased-out-25-years-ago-why-are-n1264970 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2 June 2021 |website=[[NBC News]]}}</ref> off-road and auto-racing applications.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Race Fuel 101: Lead and Leaded Racing Fuels |url=https://www.sunocoracefuels.com/tech-article/race-fuel-101-lead-leaded-racing-fuels#:~:text=For%20racing%20fuels%2C%20lead%20is,a%20very%20effective%20octane%20booster. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025013618/https://www.sunocoracefuels.com/tech-article/race-fuel-101-lead-leaded-racing-fuels#:~:text=For%20racing%20fuels%2C%20lead%20is,a%20very%20effective%20octane%20booster. |archive-date=25 October 2020 |access-date=July 30, 2020}}</ref> Other chemicals are frequently added to gasoline to improve chemical stability and performance characteristics, control corrosiveness, and provide fuel system cleaning. Gasoline may contain oxygen-containing chemicals such as [[ethanol]], [[MTBE]], or [[ETBE]] to improve [[combustion]].

Gasoline can enter the environment (uncombusted), both as liquid and as vapor, from leakage and handling during production, transport, and delivery (e.g., from storage tanks, from spills, etc.). As an example of efforts to control such leakage, many underground storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent such leaks.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 October 2014 |title=Preventing and Detecting Underground Storage Tank (UST) Releases |url=https://www.epa.gov/ust/preventing-and-detecting-underground-storage-tank-ust-releases |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210005946/https://www.epa.gov/ust/preventing-and-detecting-underground-storage-tank-ust-releases |archive-date=10 December 2020 |access-date=14 November 2018 |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref> Gasoline contains known [[carcinogen]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Evaluation of the Carcinogenicity of Unleaded Gasoline |url=http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=36176#Download |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100627032708/http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=36176#Download |archive-date=27 June 2010 |work=epa.gov |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mehlman |first1=MA |date=1990 |title=Dangerous properties of petroleum-refining products: carcinogenicity of motor fuels (gasoline). |journal=Teratogenesis, Carcinogenesis, and Mutagenesis |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=399–408 |doi=10.1002/tcm.1770100505 |pmid=1981951}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baumbach |first1=JI |last2=Sielemann |first2=S |last3=Xie |first3=Z |last4=Schmidt |first4=H |date=15 March 2003 |title=Detection of the gasoline components methyl tert-butyl ether, benzene, toluene, and m-xylene using ion mobility spectrometers with a radioactive and UV ionization source. |journal=Analytical Chemistry |volume=75 |issue=6 |pages=1483–90 |doi=10.1021/ac020342i |pmid=12659213}}</ref> Burning {{Convert|1|l|USgal|sp=us|spell=in}} of gasoline emits about {{Convert|2.3|kg|lb}} of {{CO2|link=yes}}, a [[greenhouse gas]], contributing to [[human-caused climate change]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2008 |title=Releases or emission of CO2 per Liter of fuel (Gasoline, Diesel, LPG) |url=https://www.econology.info/Emissions-co2-liter-fuel-gasoline-or-diesel-gpl/#:~:text=One%20liter%20of%20gasoline%20that%20weighs%200%2C74%20kg,8%20%2B%202%29%20%3D%20114%20grams%20%2F%20mole |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801054030/https://www.econology.info/Emissions-co2-liter-fuel-gasoline-or-diesel-gpl/#:~:text=One%20liter%20of%20gasoline%20that%20weighs%200%2C74%20kg,8%20%2B%202%29%20%3D%20114%20grams%20%2F%20mole |archive-date=1 August 2021 |access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Global Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet |url=https://climate.nasa.gov/ |url-status=live |publisher=NASA |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024024 |s2cid=250675802 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411121502/https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024024 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |access-date=16 September 2021}}</ref>

==Etymology==
"Gasoline" is an American word that denotes fuel for [[automobile]]s. The term is thought to have been influenced by the trademark "Cazeline" or "Gazeline", named after the surname of British publisher, coffee merchant, and social campaigner [[John Cassell]]. On 27 November 1862, Cassell placed an advertisement in ''[[The Times]]'' of London:

{{blockquote|The Patent Cazeline Oil, safe, economical, and brilliant [...] possesses all the requisites which have so long been desired as a means of powerful artificial light.<ref name="The etymology of gasoline">{{cite web|title=The etymology of gasoline|url=http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2012/04/the-origin-of-gasoline/|website=[[Oxford English Dictionary]]|access-date=30 July 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729091400/http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2012/04/the-origin-of-gasoline/|archive-date=29 July 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>}}

This is the earliest occurrence of the word to have been found. Cassell discovered that a shopkeeper in Dublin named Samuel Boyd was selling counterfeit cazeline and wrote to him to ask him to stop. Boyd did not reply and changed every 'C' into a 'G', thus coining the word "gazeline".<ref name="The etymology of gasoline2">{{cite web |title=The etymology of gasoline |url=http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2012/04/the-origin-of-gasoline/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729091400/http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2012/04/the-origin-of-gasoline/ |archive-date=29 July 2017 |access-date=30 July 2017 |website=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' dates its first recorded use to 1863 when it was spelled "gasolene". The term "gasoline" was first used in North America in 1864.<ref>See:

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180112054147/https://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2012/04/11/the-origin-of-gasoline/ Oxford Dictionaries (blog): The etymology of gasoline]
* 38th Congress. Sessions I. Chapter 173: An Act to provide Internal Revenue to support the Government, to pay Interest on the Public Debt, and for other Purposes, 1864, p. 265. " … ; ''And provided, also,'' That naphtha of specific gravity exceeding eighty degrees, according to Baume's hydrometer, and of the kind usually known as gasoline, shall be subject to a tax of five per centum ad valorem." See [https://www.loc.gov/law/help/statutes-at-large/38th-congress/session-1/c38s1ch173.pdf Library of Congress (US)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113081507/https://www.loc.gov/law/help/statutes-at-large/38th-congress/session-1/c38s1ch173.pdf|date=13 November 2018}}
* See also: Stevens, Levi, [http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?docid=00045568&PageNum=1&IDKey=16AA8FEE495E "Improved apparatus for vaporizing and aerating volatile hydrocarbon,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180827075312/http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?docid=00045568&PageNum=1&IDKey=16AA8FEE495E|date=27 August 2018}} U.S. Patent no. 45,568 (issued: 20 December 1864). From p. 2 of the text: "One of the products obtained from the distillation of petroleum is a colorless liquid having an ethereal odor and being the lightest in specific gravity of all known liquids. This material is known now in commerce by the term "gasoline." "</ref>

In most [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries (except Canada), the product is called "petrol", rather than "gasoline". The word ''[[petroleum]]'', originally used to refer to various types of [[mineral oil]]s and literally meaning "rock oil", comes from [[Medieval Latin]] {{Lang|la-x-medieval|petroleum}} (''[[wiktionary:petra#Latin|petra]]'', "rock", and ''[[wiktionary:oleum#Latin|oleum]]'', "oil").<ref>[https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=petroleum "petroleum"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516164428/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=petroleum|date=16 May 2020}}, in the American Heritage Dictionary</ref><ref>Medieval Latin: literally, rock oil = Latin petr(a) rock (< Greek pétra) + oleum oil {{cite dictionary |title=Petroleum |dictionary=The Free Dictionary |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/petroleum |access-date=16 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110024856/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/petroleum |archive-date=10 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> "Petrol" was used as a product name in about 1870, as the name of a refined mineral oil product sold by British wholesaler [[Carless Refining and Marketing Ltd|Carless, Capel & Leonard]], which marketed it as a [[solvent]].<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20110628204613/http://vintagegarage.co.uk/histories/carless%20capel%20%26%20leonard.htm Carless, Capel & Leonard]", vintagegarage.co.uk, accessed 5 August 2012</ref> When the product later found a new use as a motor fuel, [[Frederick Richard Simms|Frederick Simms]], an associate of [[Gottlieb Daimler]], suggested to John Leonard, the owner of Carless, that they register the trademark "Petrol",<ref>"[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=084-dbccl&cid=0#0 Carless, Capel and Leonard Ltd Records: Administrative History] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130629214535/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=084-dbccl&cid=0|date=29 June 2013}}", The National Archives, accessed 5 August 2012</ref> but by that time the word was already in general use, possibly inspired by the French ''pétrole'',<ref name="oed2">'''gasoline,''' ''n.'', and '''gasoline,''' ''n.,'' Oxford English Dictionary online edition</ref> and the registration was not allowed because the word was a general descriptor; Carless was still able to defend its use of "Petrol" as a product name due to their having sold it under that name for many years by then. Carless registered a number of alternative names for the product, but "petrol" nonetheless became the common term for the fuel in the British Commonwealth.<ref name="etymonline2">{{cite web |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=gasoline |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060109025338/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=gasoline |archive-date=9 January 2006 |work=etymonline.com |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hincks |first=Ron |year=2004 |title=Our Motoring Heritage: gasoline & Oil |journal=Chrysler Collector |issue=154 |pages=16–20}}</ref>

British refiners originally used "motor spirit" as a generic name for the automotive fuel and "aviation spirit" for [[Avgas|aviation gasoline]]. When Carless was denied a trademark on "petrol" in the 1930s, its competitors switched to the more popular name "petrol". However, "motor spirit" had already made its way into laws and regulations, so the term remains in use as a formal name for petrol.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kemp |first1=John |date=18 March 2017 |title=India's thirst for gasoline helps spur global oil demand: Kemp |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/india-gasoline-kemp-idUSL5N16Q3EX |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830214917/https://www.reuters.com/article/india-gasoline-kemp-idUSL5N16Q3EX |archive-date=30 August 2017 |quote=India's drivers used 500,000 barrels per day of motor spirit in the 12 months ending in February 2016, according to the Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell of the Ministry of Petroleum. |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=National Energy Advisory Committee (Australia) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x0ANAQAAIAAJ |title=Motor Spirit: Vehicle Emissions, Octane Ratings and Lead Additives: Further Examination, March 1981 |publisher=Australian Government Publishing Service |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-642-06672-5 |page=11 |language=en |quote=Based on estimated provided by the oil refining industry, the Department of National Development and Energy has estimated that the decision to reduce the RON of premium motor spirit from 98 to 97 has resulted in an annual saving equivalent to about 1.6 million barrels of crude oil. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217140909/https://books.google.com/books?id=x0ANAQAAIAAJ |archive-date=17 February 2017 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The term is used most widely in Nigeria, where the largest petroleum companies call their product "premium motor spirit".<ref>{{cite web |title=Premium Motor Spirit |url=http://www.oandoplc.com/oando-marketing/products/premium-motor-spirits/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217070556/http://www.oandoplc.com/oando-marketing/products/premium-motor-spirits/ |archive-date=17 February 2017 |publisher=Oando PLC |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Although "petrol" has made inroads into Nigerian English, "premium motor spirit" remains the formal name that is used in scientific publications, government reports, and newspapers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Udonwa |first1=N. E. |last2=Uko |first2=E. K. |last3=Ikpeme |first3=B. M. |last4=Ibanga |first4=I. A. |last5=Okon |first5=B. O. |date=2009 |title=Exposure of Petrol Station Attendants and Auto Mechanics to Premium Motor Sprit Fumes in Calabar, Nigeria |journal=Journal of Environmental and Public Health |volume=2009 |pages=281876 |doi=10.1155/2009/281876 |pmc=2778824 |pmid=19936128 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The use of the word ''gasoline'' instead of ''petrol'' is uncommon outside North America,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Difference Between Gasoline and Petrol |url=https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-gasoline-and-vs-petrol/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515034738/https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-gasoline-and-vs-petrol/ |archive-date=15 May 2021 |access-date=2021-05-15 |website=Compare the Difference Between Similar Terms |language=en-US}}</ref> although ''gasolina'' is used in Spanish and Portuguese.

In many languages, the name of the product is derived from [[benzene]], such as ''Benzin'' in Persian and German or ''benzina'' in Italian; but in Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay, the colloquial name ''nafta'' is derived from that of the chemical [[naphtha]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Nafta in English – Spanish to English Translation |url=http://www.spanishdict.com/translate/nafta |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100206210120/http://www.spanishdict.com/translate/nafta |archive-date=6 February 2010 |work=SpanishDict |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Some languages, like French and Italian, use the respective words for gasoline to indicate [[diesel fuel]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Gasolio |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/gasolio/ |access-date=18 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gazole |url=http://dictionnaire.sensagent.leparisien.fr/gazole/fr-fr/ |access-date=18 March 2022}}</ref>

==History==
The first internal combustion engines suitable for use in transportation applications, so-called [[Otto engine]]s, were developed in Germany during the last quarter of the 19th century. The fuel for these early engines was a relatively volatile [[hydrocarbon]] obtained from [[coal gas]]. With a [[boiling point]] near {{convert|85|C|F}} ([[N-octane|''n''-octane]] boils about {{convert|40|C|F}}higher), it was well-suited for early [[carburetor]]s (evaporators). The development of a "spray nozzle" carburetor enabled the use of less volatile fuels. Further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher [[compression ratio]]s, but early attempts were blocked by the premature explosion of fuel, known as [[Engine knocking|knocking]].

In 1891, the [[Shukhov cracking process]] became the world's first commercial method to break down heavier hydrocarbons in crude oil to increase the percentage of lighter products compared to simple distillation.

===1903 to 1914===
The evolution of gasoline followed the evolution of oil as the dominant source of energy in the industrializing world. Before World War One, Britain was the world's greatest industrial power and depended on its navy to protect the shipping of raw materials from its colonies. Germany was also industrializing and, like Britain, lacked many natural resources which had to be shipped to the home country. By the 1890s, Germany began to pursue a policy of global prominence and began building a navy to compete with Britain's. Coal was the fuel that powered their navies. Though both Britain and Germany had natural coal reserves, new developments in oil as a fuel for ships changed the situation. Coal-powered ships were a tactical weakness because the process of [[Coaling (ships)|loading coal]] was extremely slow and dirty and left the ship completely vulnerable to attack, and unreliable supplies of coal at international ports made long-distance voyages impractical. The advantages of petroleum oil soon found the navies of the world converting to oil, but Britain and Germany had very few domestic oil reserves.<ref>Daniel Yergen, ''The Prize, The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power'', Simon & Schuster, 1992, pp. 150–63.</ref> Britain eventually solved its naval oil dependence by securing oil from [[Royal Dutch Shell]] and the [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company]] and this determined from where and of what quality its gasoline would come.

During the early period of gasoline engine development, aircraft were forced to use motor vehicle gasoline since aviation gasoline did not yet exist. These early fuels were termed "straight-run" gasolines and were byproducts from the distillation of a single crude oil to produce [[kerosene]], which was the principal product sought for burning in [[kerosene lamp]]s. Gasoline production would not surpass kerosene production until 1916. The earliest straight-run gasolines were the result of distilling eastern crude oils and there was no mixing of distillates from different crudes. The composition of these early fuels was unknown and the quality varied greatly as crude oils from different oil fields emerged in different mixtures of hydrocarbons in different ratios. The engine effects produced by abnormal combustion ([[engine knocking]] and [[pre-ignition]]) due to inferior fuels had not yet been identified, and as a result, there was no rating of gasoline in terms of its resistance to abnormal combustion. The general specification by which early gasolines were measured was that of [[specific gravity]] via the [[Baumé scale]] and later the [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatility]] (tendency to vaporize) specified in terms of boiling points, which became the primary focuses for gasoline producers. These early eastern crude oil gasolines had relatively high Baumé test results (65 to 80 degrees Baumé) and were called "Pennsylvania high-test" or simply "high-test" gasolines. These were often used in aircraft engines.

By 1910, increased automobile production and the resultant increase in gasoline consumption produced a greater demand for gasoline. Also, the growing electrification of lighting produced a drop in kerosene demand, creating a supply problem. It appeared that the burgeoning oil industry would be trapped into over-producing kerosene and under-producing gasoline since simple distillation could not alter the ratio of the two products from any given crude. The solution appeared in 1911 when the development of the [[Burton process]] allowed [[thermal cracking]] of crude oils, which increased the percent yield of gasoline from the heavier hydrocarbons. This was combined with the expansion of foreign markets for the export of surplus kerosene which domestic markets no longer needed. These new thermally "cracked" gasolines were believed to have no harmful effects and would be added to straight-run gasolines. There also was the practice of mixing heavy and light distillates to achieve the desired Baumé reading and collectively these were called "blended" gasolines.<ref name="Matthew Van Winkle 1944, pp. 12">Matthew Van Winkle, ''Aviation Gasoline Manufacture'', McGraw-Hill, 1944, pp. 1–4.</ref>

Gradually, volatility gained favor over the Baumé test, though both continued to be used in combination to specify a gasoline. As late as June 1917, [[Standard Oil]] (the largest refiner of crude oil in the United States at the time) stated that the most important property of a gasoline was its volatility.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bKo7AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA2 |title=Farm Implements |publisher=Farm Implement Publishing Company |year=1917 |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129203450/https://books.google.com/books?id=bKo7AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA2 |archive-date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> It is estimated that the rating equivalent of these straight-run gasolines varied from 40 to 60 octane and that the "high-test", sometimes referred to as "fighting grade", probably averaged 50 to 65 octane.<ref>Matthew Van Winkle, ''Aviation Gasoline Manufacture'', McGraw-Hill, 1944, p. 10.</ref>

===World War I===
Prior to the [[American entry into World War I]], the European Allies used fuels derived from crude oils from Borneo, Java, and Sumatra, which gave satisfactory performance in their military aircraft. When the U.S. entered the war in April 1917, the U.S. became the principal supplier of aviation gasoline to the Allies and a decrease in engine performance was noted.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schlaifer |first1=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lo9TAAAAMAAJ&pg=GBS.PA575 |title=Development of Aircraft Engines: Two Studies of Relations Between Government and Business |year=1950 |page=569 |access-date=4 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131232203/https://books.google.com/books?id=lo9TAAAAMAAJ&pg=GBS.PA575 |archive-date=31 January 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Soon it was realized that motor vehicle fuels were unsatisfactory for aviation, and after the loss of several combat aircraft, attention turned to the quality of the gasolines being used. Later flight tests conducted in 1937 showed that an octane reduction of 13 points (from 100 down to 87 octane) decreased engine performance by 20 percent and increased take-off distance by 45 percent.<ref>Matthew Van Winkle, ''Aviation Gasoline Manufacture'', McGraw-Hill, 1944, p. 252</ref> If abnormal combustion were to occur, the engine could lose enough power to make getting airborne impossible and a take-off roll became a threat to the pilot and aircraft.

On 2 August 1917, the [[United States Bureau of Mines|U.S. Bureau of Mines]] arranged to study fuels for aircraft in cooperation with the Aviation Section of the [[U.S. Army Signal Corps]] and a general survey concluded that no reliable data existed for the proper fuels for aircraft. As a result, flight tests began at Langley, McCook and Wright fields to determine how different gasolines performed under different conditions. These tests showed that in certain aircraft, motor vehicle gasolines performed as well as "high-test" but in other types resulted in hot-running engines. It was also found that gasolines from aromatic and naphthenic base crude oils from California, South Texas, and Venezuela resulted in smooth-running engines. These tests resulted in the first government specifications for motor gasolines (aviation gasolines used the same specifications as motor gasolines) in late 1917.<ref>Matthew Van Winkle, ''Aviation Gasoline Manufacture'', McGraw-Hill, 1944, p. 3.</ref>

=== U.S., 1918–1929 ===
Engine designers knew that, according to the [[Otto cycle]], power and efficiency increased with compression ratio, but experience with early gasolines during World War I showed that higher compression ratios increased the risk of abnormal combustion, producing lower power, lower efficiency, hot-running engines, and potentially severe engine damage. To compensate for these poor fuels, early engines used low compression ratios, which required relatively large, heavy engines with limited power and efficiency. The [[Wright brothers]]' first gasoline engine used a compression ratio as low as 4.7-to-1, developed only {{convert|12|hp|kW|order=flip}} from {{convert|201|cuin|cc|sp=us|order=flip}}, and weighed {{convert|180|lb|kg|order=flip}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1903 Wright Engine |url=http://www.wright-brothers.org/Information_Desk/Just_the_Facts/Engines_&_Props/1903_Engine.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704220455/http://www.wright-brothers.org/Information_Desk/Just_the_Facts/Engines_%26_Props/1903_Engine.htm |archive-date=4 July 2018 |access-date=25 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Evaluation of Wright Flyer's Engine | Internal Combustion Engine | Vehicle Parts |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/111256746/Evaluation-of-Wright-Flyer-s-Engine |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728070600/https://www.scribd.com/document/111256746/Evaluation-of-Wright-Flyer-s-Engine |archive-date=28 July 2020 |access-date=16 June 2018}}</ref> This was a major concern for aircraft designers and the needs of the aviation industry provoked the search for fuels that could be used in higher-compression engines.

Between 1917 and 1919, the amount of thermally cracked gasoline utilized almost doubled. Also, the use of [[natural gasoline]] increased greatly. During this period, many U.S. states established specifications for motor gasoline but none of these agreed and they were unsatisfactory from one standpoint or another. Larger oil refiners began to specify [[Saturated and unsaturated compounds|unsaturated]]<nowiki/> material percentage (thermally cracked products caused gumming in both use and storage while unsaturated hydrocarbons are more reactive and tend to combine with impurities leading to gumming). In 1922, the U.S. government published the first specifications for aviation gasolines (two grades were designated as "fighting" and "domestic" and were governed by boiling points, color, sulfur content, and a gum formation test) along with one "motor" grade for automobiles. The gum test essentially eliminated thermally cracked gasoline from aviation usage and thus aviation gasolines reverted to fractionating straight-run naphthas or blending straight-run and highly treated thermally cracked naphthas. This situation persisted until 1929.<ref>Matthew Van Winkle, ''Aviation Gasoline Manufacture'', McGraw-Hill, 1944, pp. 6–9.</ref>

The automobile industry reacted to the increase in thermally cracked gasoline with alarm. Thermal cracking produced large amounts of both [[Olefin|mono-]] and [[diolefin]]s (unsaturated hydrocarbons), which increased the risk of gumming.<ref>Matthew Van Winkle, ''Aviation Gasoline Manufacture'', McGraw-Hill, 1944, p. 74.</ref> Also, the volatility was decreasing to the point that fuel did not vaporize and was sticking to [[spark plug]]s and fouling them, creating hard starting and rough running in winter and sticking to cylinder walls, bypassing the pistons and rings, and going into the crankcase oil.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vincent |first1=J. G. |title=SAE Technical Paper Series |year=1920 |volume=1 |page=346 |chapter=Adapting Engines to the Use of Available Fuels |doi=10.4271/200017}}</ref> One journal stated, "on a multi-cylinder engine in a high-priced car we are diluting the oil in the crankcase as much as 40 percent in a {{Convert|200|mi|km|sp=us|adj=on|disp=sqbr}} run, as the analysis of the oil in the oil-pan shows".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pogue |first=Joseph E. |date=September 1919 |title=The Engine-Fuel Problem |url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=Gcg6AQAAMAAJ&rdid=book-Gcg6AQAAMAAJ&rdot=1 |url-status=live |journal=The Journal of the Society of Automotive Engineers |page=232 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728070608/https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=Gcg6AQAAMAAJ&rdid=book-Gcg6AQAAMAAJ&rdot=1 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |access-date=18 June 2018}}</ref>

Being very unhappy with the consequent reduction in overall gasoline quality, automobile manufacturers suggested imposing a quality standard on the oil suppliers. The oil industry in turn accused the automakers of not doing enough to improve vehicle economy, and the dispute became known within the two industries as "the fuel problem". Animosity grew between the industries, each accusing the other of not doing anything to resolve matters, and their relationship deteriorated. The situation was only resolved when the [[American Petroleum Institute]] (API) initiated a conference to address the fuel problem and a cooperative fuel research (CFR) committee was established in 1920, to oversee joint investigative programs and solutions. Apart from representatives of the two industries, the [[Society of Automotive Engineers]] (SAE) also played an instrumental role, with the [[U.S. Bureau of Standards]] being chosen as an impartial research organization to carry out many of the studies. Initially, all the programs were related to volatility and fuel consumption, ease of starting, crankcase oil dilution, and acceleration.<ref>{{cite web |last=Marshall |first=E. L. |title=Early Liquid Fuels and the Controversial Octane Number Tests |url=https://www.newcomen.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Chapter-11-Marshall.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617015249/https://www.newcomen.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Chapter-11-Marshall.pdf |archive-date=17 June 2018 |website=newcomen.com |page=227}}</ref>

===Leaded gasoline controversy, 1924–1925===
{{Cleanup|section|small=left|reason=Correction of units of measurement is needed (gram per liter: 'grams per liter' to 'g/L'; ounce per United States gallon: 'oz/U.S. gal' to 'oz / U.S. gal').|date=June 2022}}
With the increased use of thermally cracked gasolines came an increased concern regarding its effects on abnormal combustion, and this led to research for antiknock additives. In the late 1910s, researchers such as A.H. Gibson, [[Harry Ricardo]], [[Thomas Midgley Jr.]], and Thomas Boyd began to investigate abnormal combustion. Beginning in 1916, [[Charles F. Kettering]] of General Motors began investigating additives based on two paths, the "high percentage" solution (where large quantities of [[ethanol]] were added) and the "low percentage" solution (where only 0.53-1.1 g/L or 0.071-0.147 oz / U.S. gal were needed). The "low percentage" solution ultimately led to the discovery of [[tetraethyllead]] (TEL) in December 1921, a product of the research of Midgley and Boyd and the defining component of leaded gasoline. This innovation started a cycle of improvements in [[fuel efficiency]] that coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide more products in the boiling range of gasoline. Ethanol could not be patented but TEL could, so Kettering secured a patent for TEL and began promoting it instead of other options.

The dangers of compounds containing [[lead]] were well-established by then and Kettering was directly warned by Robert Wilson of MIT, Reid Hunt of Harvard, Yandell Henderson of Yale, and Erik Krause of the University of Potsdam in Germany about its use. Krause had worked on tetraethyllead for many years and called it "a creeping and malicious poison" that had killed a member of his dissertation committee.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Water Network | by AquaSPE |url=https://thewaternetwork.com/article-FfV/a-creeping-and-malicious-poison-W8Gx1ojp1oQjUZtgCKL1jQ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603215551/https://thewaternetwork.com/article-FfV/a-creeping-and-malicious-poison-W8Gx1ojp1oQjUZtgCKL1jQ |archive-date=3 June 2020 |access-date=17 June 2018}}</ref><ref name="Kovarik2">{{Cite journal |last=Kovarik |first=William |date=2005-10-01 |title=Ethyl-leaded Gasoline: How a Classic Occupational Disease Became an International Public Health Disaster |journal=International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=384–397 |doi=10.1179/oeh.2005.11.4.384 |issn=1077-3525 |pmid=16350473 |s2cid=44633845}}</ref> On 27 October 1924, newspaper articles around the nation told of the workers at the Standard Oil refinery near [[Elizabeth, New Jersey|Elizabeth]], New Jersey who were producing TEL and were suffering from [[lead poisoning]]. By 30 October, the death toll had reached five.<ref name="Kovarik2" /> In November, the New Jersey Labor Commission closed the Bayway refinery and a grand jury investigation was started which had resulted in no charges by February 1925. Leaded gasoline sales were banned in New York City, Philadelphia, and New Jersey. [[General Motors]], [[DuPont]], and Standard Oil, who were partners in [[Ethyl Corporation]], the company created to produce TEL, began to argue that there were no alternatives to leaded gasoline that would maintain fuel efficiency and still prevent engine knocking. After several industry-funded flawed studies reported that TEL-treated gasoline was not a public health issue, the controversy subsided.<ref name="Kovarik2" />

===U.S., 1930–1941===
In the five years prior to 1929, a great amount of experimentation was conducted on different testing methods for determining fuel resistance to abnormal combustion. It appeared engine knocking was dependent on a wide variety of parameters including compression, ignition timing, cylinder temperature, air-cooled or water-cooled engines, chamber shapes, intake temperatures, lean or rich mixtures, and others. This led to a confusing variety of test engines that gave conflicting results, and no standard rating scale existed. By 1929, it was recognized by most aviation gasoline manufacturers and users that some kind of antiknock rating must be included in government specifications. In 1929, the [[octane rating]] scale was adopted, and in 1930, the first octane specification for aviation fuels was established. In the same year, the [[U.S. Army Air Force]] specified fuels rated at 87 octane for its aircraft as a result of studies it had conducted.<ref>Matthew Van Winkle, ''Aviation Gasoline Manufacture'', McGraw-Hill, 1944, p. 22.</ref>

During this period, research showed that hydrocarbon structure was extremely important to the antiknocking properties of fuel. Straight-chain [[Alkane|paraffins]] in the boiling range of gasoline had low antiknock qualities while ring-shaped molecules such as [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s (for example [[benzene]]) had higher resistance to knocking.<ref>Matthew Van Winkle, ''Aviation Gasoline Manufacture'', McGraw-Hill, 1944, p. 20.</ref> This development led to the search for processes that would produce more of these compounds from crude oils than achieved under straight distillation or thermal cracking. Research by the major refiners led to the development of processes involving isomerization of cheap and abundant [[butane]] to [[isobutane]], and [[Alkylation unit|alkylation]] to join isobutane and [[butylene]]s to form isomers of [[octane]] such as "[[isooctane]]", which became an important component in aviation fuel blending. To further complicate the situation, as engine performance increased, the altitude that aircraft could reach also increased, which resulted in concerns about the fuel freezing. The average temperature decrease is {{convert|3.6|F|C|order=flip}} per {{convert|1000|ft|m|sp=us|adj=on|order=flip}} increase in altitude, and at {{convert|40000|ft|m|sp=us|order=flip}}, the temperature can approach {{convert|-70|F|C|order=flip}}. Additives like benzene, with a freezing point of {{convert|42|F|C|order=flip}}, would freeze in the gasoline and plug fuel lines. Substituted aromatics such as [[toluene]], [[xylene]], and [[cumene]], combined with limited benzene, solved the problem.<ref>Matthew Van Winkle, ''Aviation Gasoline Manufacture'', McGraw-Hill, 1944, p. 34.</ref>

By 1935, there were seven different aviation grades based on octane rating, two Army grades, four Navy grades, and three commercial grades including the introduction of 100-octane aviation gasoline. By 1937, the Army established 100-octane as the standard fuel for combat aircraft, and to add to the confusion, the government now recognized 14 different grades, in addition to 11 others in foreign countries. With some companies required to stock 14 grades of aviation fuel, none of which could be interchanged, the effect on the refiners was negative. The refining industry could not concentrate on large capacity conversion processes for so many different grades and a solution had to be found. By 1941, principally through the efforts of the Cooperative Fuel Research Committee, the number of grades for aviation fuels was reduced to three: 73, 91, and 100 octane.<ref>Matthew Van Winkle, ''Aviation Gasoline Manufacture'', McGraw-Hill, 1944, pp. 12–19.</ref>

The development of 100-octane aviation gasoline on an economic scale was due in part to [[Jimmy Doolittle]], who had become Aviation Manager of Shell Oil Company. He convinced Shell to invest in refining capacity to produce 100-octane on a scale that nobody needed since no aircraft existed that required a fuel that nobody made. Some fellow employees would call his effort "Doolittle's million-dollar blunder" but time would prove Doolittle correct. Before this, the Army had considered 100-octane tests using pure octane but at {{Convert|25|$/USgal|$/l|sp=us|order=flip}}, the price prevented this from happening. In 1929, Stanavo Specification Board Inc. was organized by the Standard Oil companies of California, Indiana, and New Jersey to improve aviation fuels and oils and by 1935 had placed their first 100 octane fuel on the market, Stanavo Ethyl Gasoline 100. It was used by the Army, engine manufacturers and airlines for testing and for air racing and record flights.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.aia-aerospace.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/THE-1936-AIRCRAFT-YEAR-BOOK.pdf |title=The Aircraft Year Book for 1936 |date=1936 |publisher=Aeronautical Chamber of Commerce of America |editor-last=Mingos |editor-first=Howard |edition=18th |location=New York |access-date=2 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102155126/https://www.aia-aerospace.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/THE-1936-AIRCRAFT-YEAR-BOOK.pdf |archive-date=2 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> By 1936, tests at Wright Field using the new, cheaper alternatives to pure octane proved the value of 100 octane fuel, and both Shell and Standard Oil would win the contract to supply test quantities for the Army. By 1938, the price was down to {{Convert|0.175|$/USgal|$/l|sp=us|order=flip}}, only {{Convert|0.025|$/USgal|$/l|abbr=values|sp=us|order=flip}} more than 87 octane fuel. By the end of WWII, the price would be down to {{Convert|0.16|$/USgal|$/l|sp=us|order=flip}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bishop |first=Benjamin W. |url=https://media.defense.gov/2017/Nov/21/2001847256/-1/-1/0/DP_0017_BISHOP_JIMMY_DOOLITTLE.PDF |title=Jimmy Doolittle: The Commander Behind the Legend |date=December 2014 |publisher=Air University Press |isbn=978-1-58566-245-6 |series=The Drew Papers |location=Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama |access-date=29 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329211722/https://media.defense.gov/2017/Nov/21/2001847256/-1/-1/0/DP_0017_BISHOP_JIMMY_DOOLITTLE.PDF |archive-date=29 March 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1937, [[Eugene Houdry]] developed the Houdry process of [[catalytic cracking]], which produced a high-octane base stock of gasoline which was superior to the thermally cracked product since it did not contain the high concentration of olefins.<ref name="Matthew Van Winkle 1944, pp. 12" /> In 1940, there were only 14 Houdry units in operation in the U.S.; by 1943, this had increased to 77, either of the Houdry process or of the Thermofor Catalytic or Fluid Catalyst type.<ref>Matthew Van Winkle, ''Aviation Gasoline Manufacture'', McGraw-Hill, 1944, pp. 94–95.</ref>

The search for fuels with octane ratings above 100 led to the extension of the scale by comparing power output. A fuel designated grade 130 would produce 130 percent as much power in an engine as it would running on pure iso-octane. During WWII, fuels above 100-octane were given two ratings, a rich and a lean mixture, and these would be called 'performance numbers' (PN). 100-octane aviation gasoline would be referred to as 130/100 grade.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/51-100/AFD-090601-038.pdf |title=Aviation Gasoline Production and Control |date=September 1947 |publisher=Army Air Forces Historical Studies |location=Air Historical Office Headquarters, Army Air Forces |page=2 |access-date=10 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129203452/https://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/51-100/AFD-090601-038.pdf |archive-date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live |number=65}}</ref>

===World War II===
====Germany====
Oil and its byproducts, especially high-octane aviation gasoline, would prove to be a driving concern for how Germany conducted the war. As a result of the lessons of World War I, Germany had stockpiled oil and gasoline for its [[blitzkrieg]] offensive and had annexed Austria, adding {{Convert|18000|oilbbl|m3 cuft}} per day of oil production, but this was not sufficient to sustain the planned conquest of Europe. Because captured supplies and oil fields would be necessary to fuel the campaign, the German high command created a special squad of oilfield experts drawn from the ranks of domestic oil industries. They were sent in to put out oilfield fires and get production going again as soon as possible. But capturing oilfields remained an obstacle throughout the war. During the [[Invasion of Poland]], German estimates of gasoline consumption turned out to be vastly too low. [[Heinz Guderian]] and his [[Panzer division]]s consumed nearly {{convert|1|USgal/mi|L/km|sp=us|order=flip}} of gasoline on the drive to [[Vienna]]. When they were engaged in combat across open country, gasoline consumption almost doubled. On the second day of battle, a unit of the XIX Corps was forced to halt when it ran out of gasoline.<ref>Robert W. Czeschin, ''The Last Wave; Oil, War, and Financial Upheaval in the 1990s'', Agora Inc., 1988, pp. 13–14.</ref> One of the major objectives of the Polish invasion was their oil fields but the Soviets invaded and captured 70 percent of the Polish production before the Germans could reach it. Through the [[German–Soviet Commercial Agreement (1940)]], Stalin agreed in vague terms to supply Germany with additional oil equal to that produced by now Soviet-occupied Polish oilfields at Drohobych and Boryslav in exchange for hard coal and steel tubing.

Even after the Nazis conquered the vast territories of Europe, this did not help the gasoline shortage. This area had never been self-sufficient in oil before the war. In 1938, the area that would become Nazi-occupied produced {{Convert|575000|oilbbl|m3 cuft}} per day. In 1940, total production under German control amounted to only {{convert|234550|oilbbl|m3 cuft}}.<ref>Robert W. Czeschin, ''The Last Wave; Oil, War, and Financial Upheaval in the 1990s'', Agora Inc., 1988, p. 17.</ref> By early 1941 and the depletion of German gasoline reserves, [[Adolf Hitler]] saw the invasion of Russia to seize the Polish oil fields and the Russian oil in the Caucasus as the solution to the German gasoline shortage. As early as July 1941, following the 22 June start of [[Operation Barbarossa]], certain Luftwaffe squadrons were forced to curtail ground support missions due to shortages of aviation gasoline. On 9 October, the German quartermaster general estimated that army vehicles were {{convert|24000|oilbbl|m3 cuft}} short of gasoline requirements.<ref>Robert W. Czeschin, ''The Last Wave; Oil, War, and Financial Upheaval in the 1990s'', Agora Inc., 1988, p. 19.</ref>

Virtually all of Germany's aviation gasoline came from synthetic oil plants that hydrogenated coals and coal tars. These processes had been developed during the 1930s as an effort to achieve fuel independence. There were two grades of aviation gasoline produced in volume in Germany, the B-4 or blue grade and the C-3 or green grade, which accounted for about two-thirds of all production. B-4 was equivalent to 89-octane and the C-3 was roughly equal to the U.S. 100-octane, though lean mixture was rated around 95-octane and was poorer than the U.S. version. Maximum output achieved in 1943 reached {{Convert|52200|oilbbl|m3 cuft}} a day before the Allies decided to target the synthetic fuel plants. Through captured enemy aircraft and analysis of the gasoline found in them, both the Allies and the Axis powers were aware of the quality of the aviation gasoline being produced and this prompted an octane race to achieve the advantage in aircraft performance. Later in the war, the C-3 grade was improved to where it was equivalent to the U.S. 150 grade (rich mixture rating).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kurfürst - TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 145-45 MANUFACTURE OF AVIATION GASOLINE IN GERMANY |url=http://kurfurst.org/Engine/Fuel/German_fuel_specifications_and_production.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106063331/http://kurfurst.org/Engine/Fuel/German_fuel_specifications_and_production.html |archive-date=6 November 2018 |access-date=10 November 2018}}</ref>

====Japan====
Japan, like Germany, had almost no domestic oil supply and by the late 1930s, produced only seven percent of its own oil while importing the rest—80 percent from the U.S.. As Japanese aggression grew in China ([[USS Panay incident]]) and news reached the American public of Japanese bombing of civilian centers, especially the bombing of Chungking, public opinion began to support a U.S. embargo. A Gallup poll in June 1939 found that 72 percent of the American public supported an embargo on war materials to Japan. This increased tensions between the U.S. and Japan, and it led to the U.S. placing restrictions on exports. In July 1940, the U.S. issued a proclamation that banned the export of 87 octane or higher aviation gasoline to Japan. This ban did not hinder the Japanese as their aircraft could operate with fuels below 87 octane and if needed they could add [[Tetraethyllead|TEL]] to increase the octane. As it turned out, Japan bought 550 percent more sub-87 octane aviation gasoline in the five months after the July 1940 ban on higher octane sales.<ref>Daniel Yergin, ''The Prize'', Simon & Schuster, 1992, pp. 310–12</ref> The possibility of a complete ban of gasoline from America created friction in the Japanese government as to what action to take to secure more supplies from the Dutch East Indies and demanded greater oil exports from the exiled Dutch government after the [[Battle of the Netherlands]]. This action prompted the U.S. to move its Pacific fleet from Southern California to Pearl Harbor to help stiffen British resolve to stay in Indochina. With the [[Japanese invasion of French Indochina]] in September 1940, came great concerns about the possible Japanese invasion of the Dutch Indies to secure their oil. After the U.S. banned all exports of steel and iron scrap, the next day, Japan signed the [[Tripartite Pact]] and this led Washington to fear that a complete U.S. oil embargo would prompt the Japanese to invade the Dutch East Indies. On 16 June 1941 Harold Ickes, who was appointed Petroleum Coordinator for National Defense, stopped a shipment of oil from Philadelphia to Japan in light of the oil shortage on the East coast due to increased exports to Allies. He also telegrammed all oil suppliers on the East coast not to ship any oil to Japan without his permission. President Roosevelt countermanded Ickes's orders telling Ickes that the "I simply have not got enough Navy to go around and every little episode in the Pacific means fewer ships in the Atlantic".<ref>Daniel Yergin, ''The Prize'', Simon & Schuster, 1992, pp. 316–17</ref> On 25 July 1941, the U.S. froze all Japanese financial assets and licenses would be required for each use of the frozen funds including oil purchases that could produce aviation gasoline. On 28 July 1941, Japan invaded southern Indochina.

The debate inside the Japanese government as to its oil and gasoline situation was leading to invasion of the Dutch East Indies but this would mean war with the U.S., whose Pacific fleet was a threat to their flank. This situation led to the decision to attack the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor before proceeding with the Dutch East Indies invasion. On 7 December 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, and the next day the Netherlands declared war on Japan, which initiated the [[Dutch East Indies campaign]]. But the Japanese missed a golden opportunity at Pearl Harbor. "All of the oil for the fleet was in surface tanks at the time of Pearl Harbor", Admiral Chester Nimitz, who became Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet, was later to say. "We had about {{convert|4+1/2|e6oilbbl|e6m3 e6cuft|disp=sqbr}} of oil out there and all of it was vulnerable to .50 caliber bullets. Had the Japanese destroyed the oil," he added, "it would have prolonged the war another two years."<ref>Daniel Yergen, ''The Prize, The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power'', Simon & Schuster, 1992, p. 327</ref>

====U.S.====
Early in 1944, William Boyd, president of the American Petroleum Institute and chairman of the Petroleum Industry War Council said: "The Allies may have floated to victory on a wave of oil in World War I, but in this infinitely greater World War II, we are flying to victory on the wings of petroleum". In December 1941 the U.S. had 385,000 oil wells producing {{Convert|1.6|e9oilbbl|e9m3 e9cuft}} barrels of oil a year and 100-octane aviation gasoline capacity was at {{Convert|40000|oilbbl|m3 cuft}} a day. By 1944, the U.S. was producing over {{Convert|1.5|e9oilbbl|e9m3 e9cuft}} a year (67 percent of world production) and the petroleum industry had built 122 new plants for the production of 100-octane aviation gasoline and capacity was over {{Convert|400000|oilbbl|m3 cuft}} a day—an increase of more than ten-fold. It was estimated that the U.S. was producing enough 100-octane aviation gasoline to permit the dropping of {{convert|18000|ST|t|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} ({{convert|{{convert|18000|ST|t|disp=output number only}}|t|ST LT|sp=us|disp=output only}}) of bombs on the enemy every day of the year. The record of gasoline consumption by the Army prior to June 1943 was uncoordinated as each supply service of the Army purchased its own petroleum products and no centralized system of control nor records existed. On 1 June 1943, the Army created the Fuels and Lubricants Division of the Quartermaster Corps, and, from their records, they tabulated that the Army (excluding fuels and lubricants for aircraft) purchased over {{Convert|2.4|e9USgal|e9l|sp=us|order=flip}} of gasoline for delivery to overseas theaters between 1 June 1943 through August 1945. That figure does not include gasoline used by the Army inside the U.S.<ref>Erna Risch and Chester L. Kieffer, ''United States Army in World War II'', The Technical Services, The Quartermaster Corps: Organization, Supply, and Services, Office of the CHief of Military History, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C., 1955, p. 128-129</ref> Motor fuel production had declined from {{Convert|701|e6oilbbl|e6m3 e6cuft}}in 1941 down to {{Convert|208|e6oilbbl|e6m3 e6cuft}} in 1943.<ref>Robert E. Allen, Director of Information, American Petroleum Institute, ''The American Year Book – 1946'', Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1947, p. 499</ref> World War II marked the first time in U.S. history that gasoline was rationed and the government imposed price controls to prevent inflation. Gasoline consumption per automobile declined from {{Convert|755|USgal|l|sp=us|order=flip}} per year in 1941 down to {{Convert|540|USgal|l|sp=us|order=flip}}in 1943, with the goal of preserving rubber for tires since the Japanese had cut the U.S. off from over 90 percent of its rubber supply which had come from the Dutch East Indies and the U.S. synthetic rubber industry was in its infancy. Average gasoline prices went from a record low of {{Convert|0.1275|$/USgal|$/l|sp=us|order=flip}} ({{Convert|0.1841|$/USgal|$/l|abbr=values|sp=us|order=flip}} with taxes) in 1940 to {{Convert|0.1448|$/USgal|$/l|sp=us|order=flip}} ({{Convert|0.2050|$/USgal|$/l|abbr=values|sp=us|order=flip}} with taxes) in 1945.<ref>Robert E. Allen, Director of Information, American Petroleum Institute, ''The American Year Book – 1946'', Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1947, pp. 512–18</ref>

Even with the world's largest aviation gasoline production, the U.S. military still found that more was needed. Throughout the duration of the war, aviation gasoline supply was always behind requirements and this impacted training and operations. The reason for this shortage developed before the war even began. The free market did not support the expense of producing 100-octane aviation fuel in large volume, especially during the Great Depression. Iso-octane in the early development stage cost {{Convert|30|$/USgal|$/l|sp=us|order=flip}}, and, even by 1934, it was still {{Convert|2|$/USgal|$/l|sp=us|order=flip}}compared to {{Convert|0.18|$/USgal|$/l|abbr=values|sp=us|order=flip}} for motor gasoline when the Army decided to experiment with 100-octane for its combat aircraft. Though only three percent of U.S. combat aircraft in 1935 could take full advantage of the higher octane due to low compression ratios, the Army saw that the need for increasing performance warranted the expense and purchased 100,000 gallons. By 1937, the Army established 100-octane as the standard fuel for combat aircraft and by 1939 production was only {{Convert|20000|oilbbl|m3 cuft}} a day. In effect, the U.S. military was the only market for 100-octane aviation gasoline and as war broke out in Europe this created a supply problem that persisted throughout the duration.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/51-100/AFD-090601-038.pdf |title=Aviation Gasoline Production and Control |date=September 1947 |publisher=Army Air Forces Historical Studies |location=Air Historical Office Headquarters, Army Air Forces |page=3 |access-date=10 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129203452/https://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/51-100/AFD-090601-038.pdf |archive-date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live |number=65}}</ref><ref>Robert E. Allen, Director of Information, American Petroleum Institute, ''The American Year Book – 1944'', Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1945, p. 509</ref>

With the war in Europe a reality in 1939, all predictions of 100-octane consumption were outrunning all possible production. Neither the Army nor the Navy could contract more than six months in advance for fuel and they could not supply the funds for plant expansion. Without a long-term guaranteed market, the petroleum industry would not risk its capital to expand production for a product that only the government would buy. The solution to the expansion of storage, transportation, finances, and production was the creation of the Defense Supplies Corporation on 19 September 1940. The Defense Supplies Corporation would buy, transport and store all aviation gasoline for the Army and Navy at cost plus a carrying fee.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/51-100/AFD-090601-038.pdf |title=Aviation Gasoline Production and Control |date=September 1947 |publisher=Army Air Forces Historical Studies |location=Air Historical Office Headquarters, Army Air Forces |page=4 |access-date=10 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129203452/https://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/51-100/AFD-090601-038.pdf |archive-date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live |number=65}}</ref>

When the Allied breakout after D-Day found their armies stretching their supply lines to a dangerous point, the makeshift solution was the [[Red Ball Express]]. But even this soon was inadequate. The trucks in the convoys had to drive longer distances as the armies advanced and they were consuming a greater percentage of the same gasoline they were trying to deliver. In 1944, General George Patton's Third Army finally stalled just short of the German border after running out of gasoline. The general was so upset at the arrival of a truckload of rations instead of gasoline he was reported to have shouted: "Hell, they send us food, when they know we can fight without food but not without oil."<ref>Robert E. Allen, Director of Information, American Petroleum Institute, ''The American Year Book – 1946'', Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1947, p. 498</ref> The solution had to wait for the repairing of the railroad lines and bridges so that the more efficient trains could replace the gasoline-consuming truck convoys.

===U.S., 1946–present===
{{Cleanup|section|small=left|reason=Correction of units of measurement is needed (horse power per cubic inch: 'hp/cu in' to 'hp/in3').|date=June 2022}}
The development of jet engines burning kerosene-based fuels during WWII for aircraft produced a superior performing propulsion system than internal combustion engines could offer and the U.S. military forces gradually replaced their piston combat aircraft with jet powered planes. This development would essentially remove the military need for ever increasing octane fuels and eliminated government support for the refining industry to pursue the research and production of such exotic and expensive fuels. Commercial aviation was slower to adapt to jet propulsion and until 1958, when the [[Boeing 707]] first entered commercial service, piston powered airliners still relied on aviation gasoline. But commercial aviation had greater economic concerns than the maximum performance that the military could afford. As octane numbers increased so did the cost of gasoline but the incremental increase in efficiency becomes less as compression ratio goes up. This reality set a practical limit to how high compression ratios could increase relative to how expensive the gasoline would become.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kavanagh |first1=F. W. |last2=MacGregor |first2=J. R. |last3=Pohl |first3=R. L. |last4=Lawler |first4=M. B. |year=1959 |title=The economics of HIGH-OCTANE GASOLINES |journal=SAE Transactions |volume=67 |pages=343–350 |jstor=44547538}}</ref> Last produced in 1955, the [[Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major]] was using 115/145 Aviation gasoline and producing {{Convert|1|hp/cuin|kW/cc|sp=us|order=flip}} at 6.7 compression ratio (turbo-supercharging would increase this) and {{Convert|1|lb|kg|order=flip}} of engine weight to produce {{Convert|1.1|hp|kW|order=flip}}. This compares to the Wright Brothers engine needing almost {{Convert|17|lb|kg|order=flip}} of engine weight to produce {{Convert|1|hp|kW|order=flip}}.

The U.S. automobile industry after WWII could not take advantage of the high octane fuels then available. Automobile compression ratios increased from an average of 5.3-to-1 in 1931 to just 6.7-to-1 in 1946. The average octane number of regular-grade motor gasoline increased from 58 to 70 during the same time. Military aircraft were using expensive turbo-supercharged engines that cost at least 10 times as much per horsepower as automobile engines and had to be overhauled every 700 to 1,000 hours. The automobile market could not support such expensive engines.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sanders |first=Gold V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7SADAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA2 |title=Popular Science |date=June 1946 |pages=124–126 |access-date=4 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129203453/https://books.google.com/books?id=7SADAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA2 |archive-date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> It would not be until 1957 that the first U.S. automobile manufacturer could mass-produce an engine that would produce one horsepower per cubic inch, the Chevrolet 283 hp/283 cubic inch V-8 engine option in the Corvette. At $485, this was an expensive option that few consumers could afford and would only appeal to the performance-oriented consumer market willing to pay for the premium fuel required.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MotorCities - One Horsepower per Cubic Inch: 1957 Chevy Corvette | 2018 | Story of the Week |url=https://www.motorcities.org/story-of-the-week/2018/one-horsepower-per-cubic-inch-1957-chevy-corvette |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130141739/https://motorcities.org/story-of-the-week/2018/one-horsepower-per-cubic-inch-1957-chevy-corvette |archive-date=30 November 2020 |access-date=4 May 2019}}</ref> This engine had an advertised compression ratio of 10.5-to-1 and the 1958 AMA Specifications stated that the octane requirement was 96–100 RON.<ref>{{cite web |last=Williams |first=Duke |date=1 July 2012 |title=Tuning Vintage Corvette Engines for Maximum Performance and Fuel Economy |url=http://www.metroli.org/pdf/2012%20Nationals%20tuningseminar.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129203451/http://www.metroli.org/pdf/2012 |archive-date=29 January 2020 |access-date=16 September 2021 |website=metroli.org}}</ref> At {{convert|535|lb|kg|order=flip}} (1959 with aluminum intake), it took {{convert|1.9|lb|kg|order=flip}} of engine weight to make {{convert|1|hp|kW|order=flip}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Engine Weight FYI |url=http://www.team.net/sol/tech/engine.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723141734/http://www.team.net/sol/tech/engine.html |archive-date=23 July 2020 |access-date=4 May 2019}}</ref>

In the 1950s, oil refineries started to focus on high octane fuels, and then detergents were added to gasoline to clean the jets in carburetors. The 1970s witnessed greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the phasing out of TEL and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems.<ref name="Ullmann2">Werner Dabelstein, Arno Reglitzky, Andrea Schütze and Klaus Reders "Automotive Fuels" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'' 2007, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a16_719.pub2}}</ref>

==Chemical analysis and production==
[[File:GasolineComp.png|right|thumb|Some of the components of gasoline: [[isooctane]], [[butane]], 3-[[ethyltoluene]], and the octane enhancer [[MTBE]]]]
[[File:Nodding_donkey.jpg|thumb|A [[pumpjack]] in the U.S.]]
[[File:Gulf_Offshore_Platform.jpg|thumb|An [[oil rig]] in the [[Gulf of Mexico]]]]
Commercial gasoline is a mixture of a large number of different hydrocarbons.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydrocarbon Gas Liquids Explained - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/hydrocarbon-gas-liquids/ |access-date=2022-08-05 |website=www.eia.gov}}</ref> Gasoline is produced to meet a host of engine performance specifications and many different compositions are possible. Hence, the exact chemical composition of gasoline is undefined. The performance specification also varies with season, requiring more volatile blends (due to added butane) during winter, in order to be able to start a cold engine. At the refinery, the composition varies according to the crude oils from which it is produced, the type of processing units present at the refinery, how those units are operated, and which hydrocarbon streams (blendstocks) the refinery opts to use when blending the final product.<ref name="hedl2">{{cite journal |last1=Huess Hedlund |first1=Frank |last2=Boier Pedersena |first2=Jan |last3=Sinc |first3=Gürkan |last4=Garde |first4=Frits G. |last5=Kragha |first5=Eva K. |last6=Frutiger |first6=Jérôme |date=February 2019 |title=Puncture of an import gasoline pipeline—Spray effects may evaporate more fuel than a Buncefield-type tank overfill event |url=https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/files/160875647/1_s2.0_S0957582018306153_main.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Process Safety and Environmental Protection |volume=122 |pages=33–47 |doi=10.1016/j.psep.2018.11.007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102115932/https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/files/160875647/1_s2.0_S0957582018306153_main.pdf |archive-date=2 November 2021 |access-date=18 September 2021}}</ref>

Gasoline is produced in [[Oil refinery|oil refineries]]. Roughly {{convert|19|USgal|L|sp=us|order=flip}} of gasoline is derived from a {{convert|42|USgal|L|sp=us|adj=on|order=flip}}barrel of [[crude oil]].<ref>{{cite web |author= |date=12 August 2016 |title=Gasoline—a petroleum product |url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=gasoline_home |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170524145355/https://www.eia.gov/Energyexplained/index.cfm?page=gasoline_home |archive-date=24 May 2017 |access-date=15 May 2017 |website=U.S. Energy Information Administration website |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Material separated from crude oil via [[distillation]], called virgin or straight-run gasoline, does not meet specifications for modern engines (particularly the [[octane rating]]; see below), but can be pooled to the gasoline blend.

The bulk of a typical gasoline consists of a homogeneous mixture of small, relatively lightweight [[hydrocarbon]]s with between 4 and 12 [[carbon]] atoms per molecule (commonly referred to as C4–C12).<ref name="Ullmann2" /> It is a mixture of paraffins ([[alkane]]s), olefins ([[alkene]]s), and [[cycloalkane]]s (naphthenes). The usage of the terms ''paraffin'' and ''olefin'' in place of the standard chemical nomenclature ''alkane'' and ''alkene'', respectively, is particular to the oil industry. The actual ratio of molecules in any gasoline depends upon:

* the oil refinery that makes the gasoline, as not all refineries have the same set of processing units;
* the [[crude oil]] feed used by the refinery;
* the grade of gasoline (in particular, the octane rating).

The various refinery streams blended to make gasoline have different characteristics. Some important streams include the following:

* '''Straight-run gasoline''', commonly referred to as ''naphtha'', is distilled directly from crude oil. Once the leading source of fuel, its low octane rating required lead additives. It is low in aromatics (depending on the grade of the crude oil stream) and contains some cycloalkanes (naphthenes) and no olefins (alkenes). Between 0 and 20 percent of this stream is pooled into the finished gasoline because the quantity of this fraction in the crude is less than fuel demand and the fraction's [[Octane rating#Research Octane Number (RON)|Research Octane Number]] (RON) is too low. The chemical properties (namely RON and [[Reid vapor pressure]] (RVP)) of the straight-run gasoline can be improved through [[Catalytic reforming|reforming]] and [[Isomerisation|isomerization]]. However, before feeding those units, the naphtha needs to be split into light and heavy naphtha. Straight-run gasoline can also be used as a feedstock for steam-crackers to produce olefins.
* '''Reformate''', produced in a [[catalytic reformer]], has a high octane rating with high aromatic content and relatively low olefin content. Most of the [[benzene]], [[toluene]], and [[xylene]] (the so-called [[BTX (chemistry)|BTX]] hydrocarbons) are more valuable as chemical feedstocks and are thus removed to some extent.
* '''Catalytic cracked gasoline''', or catalytic cracked [[Petroleum naphtha|naphtha]], produced with a [[Fluid catalytic cracking|catalytic cracker]], has a moderate octane rating, high olefin content, and moderate aromatic content.
* '''Hydrocrackate''' (heavy, mid, and light), produced with a [[hydrocracker]], has a medium to low octane rating and moderate aromatic levels.
* '''Alkylate''' is produced in an [[alkylation]] unit, using [[isobutane]] and olefins as feedstocks. Finished alkylate contains no aromatics or olefins and has a high MON ([[Motor octane number|Motor Octane Number]]).
* '''Isomerate''' is obtained by isomerizing low-octane straight-run gasoline into iso-paraffins (non-chain alkanes, such as [[isooctane]]). Isomerate has a medium RON and MON, but no aromatics or olefins.
* '''Butane''' is usually blended in the gasoline pool, although the quantity of this stream is limited by the RVP specification.

The terms above are the jargon used in the oil industry, and the terminology varies.

Currently, many countries set limits on gasoline [[aromatic]]s in general, benzene in particular, and olefin (alkene) content. Such regulations have led to an increasing preference for alkane isomers, such as isomerate or alkylate, as their octane rating is higher than n-alkanes. In the European Union, the benzene limit is set at one percent by volume for all grades of automotive gasoline. This is usually achieved by avoiding feeding C6, in particular [[cyclohexane]], to the reformer unit, where it would be converted to benzene. Therefore, only (desulfurized) heavy virgin naphtha (HVN) is fed to the reformer unit <ref name="hedl2" />

Gasoline can also contain other [[organic compound]]s, such as [[organic ether]]s (deliberately added), plus small levels of contaminants, in particular [[organosulfur]] compounds (which are usually removed at the refinery).

==Physical properties==
[[File:GasStationHiroshima.jpg|thumb|A [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] [[Gasoline station|station]] in [[Hiroshima]], [[Japan]]]]

===Density===
The [[specific gravity]] of gasoline ranges from 0.71 to 0.77,<ref>{{cite web |author=Bell Fuels |title=Lead-Free gasoline Material Safety Data Sheet |url=http://www.sefsc.noaa.gov/HTMLdocs/Gasoline.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020820074636/http://www.sefsc.noaa.gov/HTMLdocs/Gasoline.htm |archive-date=20 August 2002 |publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> with higher densities having a greater volume fraction of aromatics.<ref>{{cite book |last=Demirel |first=Yaşar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TsY8gJP7b58C&pg=PA33 |title=Energy: Production, Conversion, Storage, Conservation, and Coupling |date=26 January 2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4471-2371-2 |page=33 |access-date=31 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728070621/https://books.google.com/books?id=TsY8gJP7b58C&pg=PA33 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Finished marketable gasoline is traded (in Europe) with a standard reference of {{Convert|0.755|kg/L|lb/U.S.gal|abbr=|sp=us}}, and its price is escalated or de-escalated according to its actual density.{{clarify|reason=Denser gasoline is more expensive or less expensive?|date=May 2019}} Because of its low density, gasoline floats on water, and therefore water cannot generally be used to extinguish a gasoline fire unless applied in a fine mist.

===Stability===
Quality gasoline should be stable for six months if stored properly, but as gasoline is a mixture rather than a single compound, it will break down slowly over time due to the separation of the components. Gasoline stored for a year will most likely be able to be burned in an internal combustion engine without too much trouble. However, the effects of long-term storage will become more noticeable with each passing month until a time comes when the gasoline should be diluted with ever-increasing amounts of freshly made fuel so that the older gasoline may be used up. If left undiluted, improper operation will occur and this may include engine damage from misfiring or the lack of proper action of the fuel within a [[fuel injection]] system and from an onboard computer attempting to compensate (if applicable to the vehicle). Gasoline should ideally be stored in an airtight container (to prevent [[oxidation]] or water vapor mixing in with the gas) that can withstand the [[vapor pressure]] of the gasoline without venting (to prevent the loss of the more volatile fractions) at a stable cool temperature (to reduce the excess pressure from liquid expansion and to reduce the rate of any decomposition reactions). When gasoline is not stored correctly, gums and solids may result, which can corrode system components and accumulate on wet surfaces, resulting in a condition called "stale fuel". Gasoline containing ethanol is especially subject to absorbing atmospheric moisture, then forming gums, solids, or two phases (a hydrocarbon phase floating on top of a water-alcohol phase).

The presence of these degradation products in the fuel tank or fuel lines plus a carburetor or fuel injection components makes it harder to start the engine or causes reduced engine performance. On resumption of regular engine use, the buildup may or may not be eventually cleaned out by the flow of fresh gasoline. The addition of a fuel stabilizer to gasoline can extend the life of fuel that is not or cannot be stored properly, though removal of all fuel from a fuel system is the only real solution to the problem of long-term storage of an engine or a machine or vehicle. Typical fuel stabilizers are proprietary mixtures containing [[mineral spirits]], [[isopropyl alcohol]], [[1,2,4-trimethylbenzene]] or [[Gasoline additive|other additives]]. Fuel stabilizers are commonly used for small engines, such as lawnmower and tractor engines, especially when their use is sporadic or seasonal (little to no use for one or more seasons of the year). Users have been advised to keep gasoline containers more than half full and properly capped to reduce air exposure, to avoid storage at high temperatures, to run an engine for ten minutes to circulate the stabilizer through all components prior to storage, and to run the engine at intervals to purge stale fuel from the carburetor.<ref name="Ullmann2" />

Gasoline stability requirements are set by the standard [[ASTM International|ASTM]] D4814. This standard describes the various characteristics and requirements of automotive fuels for use over a wide range of operating conditions in ground vehicles equipped with spark-ignition engines.

===Combustion energy content===
{{Cleanup|section|small=left|reason=Correction of units of measurement is needed (liter: 'l' to 'L'; megajoule per United States gallon: 'MJ/U.S. gal' to 'MJ / U.S. gal'; British termal unit per United States gallon: 'BTU/U.S. gal' to 'BTU / U.S. gal').|date=June 2022}}
A gasoline-fueled internal combustion engine obtains energy from the [[combustion]] of gasoline's various hydrocarbons with [[oxygen]] from the ambient air, yielding [[carbon dioxide]] and [[water]] as exhaust. The combustion of [[octane]], a representative species, performs the chemical reaction:

: {{chem2|2 C8H18 + 25 O2 -> 16 CO2 + 18 H2O}}

By weight, combustion of gasoline releases about {{convert|46.7|MJ/kg|kWh/kg MJ/lb|lk=on}} or by volume {{convert|33.6|MJ/L|kWh/L MJ/USgal BTU/USgal|lk=in|sp=us}}, quoting the [[lower heating value]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Energy Information Administration |url=http://www.eia.gov/Energyexplained/?page=about_energy_units |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151215012732/http://www.eia.gov/Energyexplained/?page=about_energy_units |archive-date=15 December 2015 |website=www.eia.gov |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Gasoline blends differ, and therefore actual energy content varies according to the season and producer by up to 1.75 percent more or less than the average.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fuel Properties Comparison |url=http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/fuel_comparison_chart.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031034323/http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/fuel_comparison_chart.pdf |archive-date=31 October 2016 |access-date=31 October 2016 |website=Alternative Fuels Data Center |df=dmy-all}}</ref> On average, about {{Convert|74|l|USgal|sp=us}} of gasoline are available from a barrel of crude oil (about 46 percent by volume), varying with the quality of the crude and the grade of the gasoline. The remainder is products ranging from tar to [[naphtha]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Oil Industry Statistics from Gibson Consulting |url=http://www.gravmag.com/oil.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912232920/http://www.gravmag.com/oil.html |archive-date=12 September 2008 |access-date=31 July 2008 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

A high-octane-rated fuel, such as [[liquefied petroleum gas]] (LPG), has an overall lower power output at the typical 10:1 [[compression ratio]] of an engine design optimized for gasoline fuel. An engine [[Engine tuning|tuned]] for [[Autogas|LPG]] fuel via higher compression ratios (typically 12:1) improves the power output. This is because higher-octane fuels allow for a higher compression ratio without knocking, resulting in a higher cylinder temperature, which improves [[Heat engine|efficiency]]. Also, increased mechanical efficiency is created by a higher compression ratio through the concomitant higher expansion ratio on the power stroke, which is by far the greater effect. The higher expansion ratio extracts more work from the high-pressure gas created by the combustion process. An [[Atkinson cycle]] engine uses the timing of the valve events to produce the benefits of a high expansion ratio without the disadvantages, chiefly detonation, of a high compression ratio. A high expansion ratio is also one of the two key reasons for the efficiency of [[diesel engine]]s, along with the elimination of pumping losses due to throttling of the intake airflow.

The lower energy content of LPG by liquid volume in comparison to gasoline is due mainly to its lower density. This lower density is a property of the lower [[molecular weight]] of [[propane]] (LPG's chief component) compared to gasoline's blend of various hydrocarbon compounds with heavier molecular weights than propane. Conversely, LPG's energy content by weight is higher than gasoline's due to a higher [[hydrogen]]-to-[[carbon]] ratio.

Molecular weights of the species in the representative octane combustion are C8H18 114, O2 32, CO2 44, H2O 18; therefore {{Convert|1|kg|lb|spell=in}} of fuel reacts with {{Convert|3.51|kg|lb}} of oxygen to produce {{Convert|3.09|kg|lb}} of carbon dioxide and {{Convert|1.42|kg|lb}} of water.

==Octane rating==
{{main|Octane rating}}

[[Spark-ignition engine]]s are designed to burn gasoline in a controlled process called [[deflagration]]. However, the unburned mixture may autoignite by pressure and heat alone, rather than igniting from the [[spark plug]] at exactly the right time, causing a rapid pressure rise that can damage the engine. This is often referred to as [[engine knocking]] or end-gas knock. Knocking can be reduced by increasing the gasoline's resistance to [[Autoignition temperature|autoignition]], which is expressed by its octane rating.

Octane rating is measured relative to a mixture of [[2,2,4-Trimethylpentane|2,2,4-trimethylpentane]] (an [[isomer]] of [[octane]]) and n-[[heptane]]. There are different conventions for expressing octane ratings, so the same physical fuel may have several different octane ratings based on the measure used. One of the best known is the research octane number (RON).

The octane rating of typical commercially available gasoline varies by country. In [[Finland]], [[Sweden]], and [[Norway]], 95 RON is the standard for regular unleaded gasoline and 98 RON is also available as a more expensive option.

In the United Kingdom, over 95 percent of gasoline sold has 95 RON and is marketed as Unleaded or Premium Unleaded. Super Unleaded, with 97/98 RON and branded high-performance fuels (e.g., Shell V-Power, BP Ultimate) with 99 RON make up the balance. Gasoline with 102 RON may rarely be available for racing purposes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Quality of petrol and diesel fuel used for road transport in the European Union (Reporting year 2013) |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52015DC0070&rid=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422161209/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52015DC0070&rid=1 |archive-date=22 April 2021 |access-date=July 31, 2020 |publisher=European Commission}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Types Of Car Fuel |url=https://www.simplemotoring.co.uk/car-fuel-types/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925104546/https://www.simplemotoring.co.uk/car-fuel-types/ |archive-date=25 September 2020 |access-date=July 31, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sunoco CFR Racing Fuel |url=https://aaoil.co.uk/product/sunoco-cfr-102-ron-90mon-2-2-oxygen/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021192041/https://aaoil.co.uk/product/sunoco-cfr-102-ron-90mon-2-2-oxygen/ |archive-date=21 October 2020 |access-date=July 31, 2020}}</ref>

In the U.S., octane ratings in unleaded fuels vary between 85<ref>{{cite web |author=Ryan Lengerich Journal staff |title=85-octane warning labels not posted at many gasoline stations |url=http://rapidcityjournal.com/news/local/octane-warning-labels-not-posted-at-many-gas-stations/article_681e07bc-3cd3-5e0c-a3c7-c06fcc4d319c.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615025518/http://rapidcityjournal.com/news/local/octane-warning-labels-not-posted-at-many-gas-stations/article_681e07bc-3cd3-5e0c-a3c7-c06fcc4d319c.html |archive-date=15 June 2015 |work=Rapid City Journal |df=dmy-all}}</ref> and 87 AKI (91–92 RON) for regular, 89–90 AKI (94–95 RON) for mid-grade (equivalent to European regular), up to 90–94 AKI (95–99 RON) for premium (European premium).
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|
|91
|92
|93
|94
|95
|96
|97
|98
|99
|100
|101
|102
|-
|Scandinavian
| colspan="4" scope="row" |
|Regular
|
|
|Premium
|
|-
|UK
| colspan="4" scope="row" |
|Regular
|
| colspan="2" scope="row" |Premium
|Super
|
|
|High-performance
|-
|USA
| colspan="2" scope="row" |Regular
|
| colspan="2" scope="row" |Mid-grade
| colspan="4" scope="row" |Premium
|}
As South Africa's largest city, [[Johannesburg]], is located on the [[Highveld]] at {{convert|1753|m|ft|sp=us}} above sea level, the [[Automobile Association of South Africa]] recommends 95-octane gasoline at low altitude and 93-octane for use in Johannesburg because "The higher the altitude the lower the air pressure, and the lower the need for a high octane fuel as there is no real performance gain".<ref>{{cite web |title=95/93 – What is the Difference, Really? |url=http://www.aa.co.za/about/press-room/press-releases/9593-what-is-the-difference-reallyij.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229112643/https://www.aa.co.za/about/press-room/press-releases/9593-what-is-the-difference-reallyij.html |archive-date=29 December 2016 |access-date=26 January 2017 |publisher=Automobile Association of South Africa (AA) |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Octane rating became important as the military sought higher output for [[aircraft engine]]s in the late 1930s and the 1940s. A higher octane rating allows a higher [[compression ratio]] or [[supercharger]] boost, and thus higher temperatures and pressures, which translate to higher power output. Some scientists{{who|date=August 2018}} even predicted that a nation with a good supply of high-octane gasoline would have the advantage in air power. In 1943, the [[Rolls-Royce Merlin]] aero engine produced {{Convert|1320|hp|kW|order=flip}} using 100 RON fuel from a modest {{Convert|27|l|USgal|sp=us}} displacement. By the time of [[Operation Overlord]], both the RAF and USAAF were conducting some operations in Europe using 150 RON fuel (100/150 [[avgas]]), obtained by adding 2.5 percent [[aniline]] to 100-octane avgas.<ref name="Magazines19362">{{cite journal |author=Hearst Magazines |date=April 1936 |title=Popular Mechanics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lNsDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA524 |url-status=live |journal=Popular Mechanics |publisher=Hearst Magazines |pages=524– |issn=0032-4558 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619054026/http://books.google.com/books?id=lNsDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA524 |archive-date=19 June 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> By this time, the Rolls-Royce Merlin 66 was developing {{Convert|2000|hp|kW|order=flip}} using this fuel.

==Additives==
{{See also|List of gasoline additives}}

===Antiknock additives===

====Tetraethyl lead====
{{main|Tetraethyl lead}}
{{self-contradictory|date=April 2022}}

Gasoline, when used in high-[[Compression (physical)|compression]] internal combustion engines, tends to auto-ignite or "detonate" causing damaging [[engine knocking]] (also called "pinging" or "pinking"). To address this problem, [[Tetraethyllead|tetraethyl lead]] (TEL) was widely adopted as an additive for gasoline in the 1920s. With a growing awareness of the seriousness of the extent of environmental and health damage caused by lead compounds, however, and the incompatibility of lead with [[catalytic converter]]s, governments began to mandate reductions in gasoline lead.

In the U.S., the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] issued regulations to reduce the lead content of leaded gasoline over a series of annual phases, scheduled to begin in 1973 but delayed by court appeals until 1976. By 1995, leaded fuel accounted for only 0.6 percent of total gasoline sales and under {{convert|2000|ST|t|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} ({{convert|{{convert|2000|ST|t|disp=output number only}}|t|ST LT|sp=us|disp=output only}}) of lead per year. From 1 January 1996, the [[Clean Air Act (United States)|U.S. Clean Air Act]] banned the sale of leaded fuel for use in on-road vehicles in the U.S. The use of TEL also necessitated other additives, such as [[dibromoethane]].

European countries began replacing lead-containing additives by the end of the 1980s, and by the end of the 1990s, leaded gasoline was banned within the entire European Union. The UAE started to switch to unleaded in the early 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UAE switches to unleaded fuel |url=https://gulfnews.com/uae/uae-switches-to-unleaded-fuel-1.343442 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412131951/https://gulfnews.com/uae/uae-switches-to-unleaded-fuel-1.343442 |archive-date=12 April 2020 |access-date=12 April 2020}}</ref>

Reduction in the average lead content of human blood may be a major cause for falling violent crime rates around the world<ref name="WashingtonPostCrime2">{{cite news |last=Matthews |first= Dylan |date=22 April 2013 |title=Lead abatement, alcohol taxes and 10 other ways to reduce the crime rate without annoying the NRA |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/04/22/lead-abatement-alcohol-taxes-and-10-other-ways-to-reduce-the-crime-rate-without-annoying-the-nra/ |url-status=live |access-date=23 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512052321/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/04/22/lead-abatement-alcohol-taxes-and-10-other-ways-to-reduce-the-crime-rate-without-annoying-the-nra/ |archive-date=12 May 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> including South Africa.<ref name="BusinessDayCrime2">{{cite web |last=Marrs |first= Dave |date=22 January 2013 |title=Ban on lead may yet give us respite from crime |url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/opinion/columnists/2013/01/22/ban-on-lead-may-yet-give-us-respite-from-crime |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406072130/http://www.bdlive.co.za/opinion/columnists/2013/01/22/ban-on-lead-may-yet-give-us-respite-from-crime |archive-date=6 April 2013 |access-date=23 May 2013 |publisher=Business Day |df=dmy-all}}</ref> A study found a correlation between leaded gasoline usage and violent crime.<ref name="Reyes2">Reyes, J. W. (2007). [http://www.amherst.edu/~jwreyes/papers/LeadCrimeNBERWP13097.pdf "The Impact of Childhood Lead Exposure on Crime". National Bureau of Economic Research.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929131323/http://www.amherst.edu/~jwreyes/papers/LeadCrimeNBERWP13097.pdf|date=29 September 2007}} "a" ref citing Pirkle, Brody, et al. (1994). Retrieved 17 August 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=28 October 2007 |title=Ban on leaded petrol 'has cut crime rates around the world' |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/green-living/ban-on-leaded-petrol-has-cut-crime-rates-around-the-world-398151.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829032830/https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/green-living/ban-on-leaded-petrol-has-cut-crime-rates-around-the-world-398151.html |archive-date=29 August 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Other studies found no correlation.({{crossref|See [[Lead–crime hypothesis]]}})

In August 2021, the [[United Nations Environment Programme|UN Environment Programme]] announced that leaded petrol had been eradicated worldwide, with [[Algeria]] being the last country to deplete its reserves. [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|UN Secretary-General]] [[António Guterres]] called the eradication of leaded petrol an "international success story". He also added: "Ending the use of leaded petrol will prevent more than one million premature deaths each year from heart disease, strokes and cancer, and it will protect children whose IQs are damaged by exposure to lead". [[Greenpeace]] called the announcement "the end of one toxic era".<ref>{{cite web |date=31 August 2021 |title=Highly polluting leaded petrol now eradicated from the world, says UN |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-58388810 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125025414/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-58388810 |archive-date=25 January 2022 |access-date=16 September 2021 |work=BBC News}}</ref> However, leaded gasoline continues to be used in aeronautic, auto racing, and off-road applications.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Miranda |first1=Leticia |last2=Farivar |first2=Cyrus |date=12 April 2021 |title=Leaded gas was phased out 25 years ago. Why are these planes still using toxic fuel? |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/business/business-news/leaded-gas-was-phased-out-25-years-ago-why-are-n1264970 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210915233641/https://www.nbcnews.com/business/business-news/leaded-gas-was-phased-out-25-years-ago-why-are-n1264970 |archive-date=15 September 2021 |access-date=16 September 2021 |work=NBC News}}</ref> The use of leaded additives is still permitted worldwide for the formulation of some grades of [[aviation gasoline]] such as [[100LL]], because the required octane rating is difficult to reach without the use of leaded additives.

Different additives have replaced lead compounds. The most popular additives include [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s, [[ether]]s([[MTBE]] and [[ETBE]]), and [[Alcohol as a fuel|alcohols]], most commonly [[ethanol]].

====Lead replacement petrol====
Lead replacement petrol (LRP) was developed for vehicles designed to run on leaded fuels and incompatible with unleaded fuels. Rather than tetraethyllead, it contains other metals such as [[potassium]] compounds or [[methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl]] (MMT); these are purported to buffer soft exhaust valves and seats so that they do not suffer recession due to the use of unleaded fuel.

LRP was marketed during and after the phaseout of leaded motor fuels in the United Kingdom, [[Australia]], [[South Africa]], and some other countries.{{vague|date=August 2016}} Consumer confusion led to a widespread mistaken preference for LRP rather than unleaded,<ref>{{cite news |last=Seggie |first=Eleanor |date=5 August 2011 |title=More than 20% of SA cars still using lead-replacement petrol but only 1% need it |work=[[Engineering News (Creamer Media)|Engineering News]] |location=South Africa |url=http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/cleaner-fuels-for-sa-2011-08-05 |url-status=dead |access-date=30 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013195145/http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/cleaner-fuels-for-sa-2011-08-05 |archive-date=13 October 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> and LRP was phased out 8 to 10 years after the introduction of unleaded.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Clark |first1=Andrew |date=14 August 2002 |title=Petrol for older cars about to disappear |work=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/aug/15/oil.business |url-status=live |access-date=30 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229112618/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/aug/15/oil.business |archive-date=29 December 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Leaded gasoline was withdrawn from sale in Britain after 31 December 1999, seven years after [[European Economic Community|EEC]] regulations signaled the end of production for cars using leaded gasoline in member states. At this stage, a large percentage of cars from the 1980s and early 1990s which ran on leaded gasoline were still in use, along with cars that could run on unleaded fuel. However, the declining number of such cars on British roads saw many gasoline stations withdrawing LRP from sale by 2003.<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 August 2002 |title=AA warns over lead replacement fuel |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/news/2717637/AA-warns-over-lead-replacement-fuel.html |url-status=live |access-date=30 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421115246/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/news/2717637/AA-warns-over-lead-replacement-fuel.html |archive-date=21 April 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

====MMT====
[[Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl]] (MMT) is used in Canada and the U.S. to boost octane rating.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hollrah |first1=Don P. |last2=Burns |first2=Allen M. |date=11 March 1991 |title=MMT Increases Octane While Reducing Emissions |url=http://www.ogj.com/articles/print/volume-89/issue-10/in-this-issue/refining/mmt-increases-octane-while-reducing-emissions.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117072536/http://www.ogj.com/articles/print/volume-89/issue-10/in-this-issue/refining/mmt-increases-octane-while-reducing-emissions.html |archive-date=17 November 2016 |website=www.ogj.com |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Its use in the U.S. has been restricted by regulations, although it is currently allowed.<ref>{{cite web |date=5 October 2015 |title=EPA Comments on the Gasoline Additive MMT |url=https://www.epa.gov/gasoline-standards/epa-comments-gasoline-additive-mmt |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117070650/https://www.epa.gov/gasoline-standards/epa-comments-gasoline-additive-mmt |archive-date=17 November 2016 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Its use in the European Union is restricted by Article 8a of the Fuel Quality Directive<ref>{{cite web |title=Directive 2009/30/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:140:0088:0113:EN:PDF |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160922172330/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:140:0088:0113:EN:PDF |archive-date=22 September 2016 |access-date=July 31, 2020}}</ref> following its testing under the Protocol for the evaluation of effects of metallic fuel-additives on the emissions performance of vehicles.<ref>{{cite web |title=Protocol for the Evaluation of Effects of Metallic Fuel-Additives on the Emissions Performance of Vehicles |url=https://ec.europa.eu/clima/sites/clima/files/transport/fuel/docs/fuel_metallic_additive_protocol_en.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301173052/https://ec.europa.eu/clima/sites/clima/files/transport/fuel/docs/fuel_metallic_additive_protocol_en.pdf |archive-date=1 March 2021 |access-date=July 31, 2020}}</ref>

===Fuel stabilizers (antioxidants and metal deactivators)===
[[File:Antioxidant.png|thumb|Substituted [[phenol]]s and derivatives of [[phenylenediamine]] are common antioxidants used to inhibit gum formation in gasoline]]
Gummy, sticky resin deposits result from [[Oxidation|oxidative]] degradation of gasoline during long-term storage. These harmful deposits arise from the oxidation of [[alkene]]s and other minor components in gasoline (see [[drying oil]]s). Improvements in refinery techniques have generally reduced the susceptibility of gasolines to these problems. Previously, catalytically or thermally cracked gasolines were most susceptible to oxidation. The formation of gums is accelerated by copper salts, which can be neutralized by additives called [[metal deactivator]]s.

This degradation can be prevented through the addition of 5–100 ppm of [[antioxidant]]s, such as [[phenylenediamine]]s and other [[amine]]s.<ref name="Ullmann2" /> Hydrocarbons with a [[bromine number]] of 10 or above can be protected with the combination of unhindered or partially hindered [[phenol]]s and oil-soluble strong amine bases, such as hindered phenols. "Stale" gasoline can be detected by a [[colorimetric]] [[enzymatic]] test for [[organic peroxide]]s produced by oxidation of the gasoline.<ref>{{patent|AU|2000/72399 A1|Gasoline test kit}}</ref>

Gasolines are also treated with [[metal deactivator]]s, which are compounds that sequester (deactivate) metal salts that otherwise accelerate the formation of gummy residues. The metal impurities might arise from the engine itself or as contaminants in the fuel.

===Detergents===
Gasoline, as delivered at the pump, also contains additives to reduce internal engine carbon buildups, improve [[combustion]] and allow easier starting in cold climates. High levels of detergent can be found in [[Top Tier Detergent Gasoline]]s. The specification for Top Tier Detergent Gasolines was developed by four automakers: [[General Motors|GM]], [[Honda]], [[Toyota]], and [[BMW]]. According to the bulletin, the minimal U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] requirement is not sufficient to keep engines clean.<ref>"Top Tier Detergent Gasoline (Deposits, Fuel Economy, No Start, Power, Performance, Stall Concerns)", GM Bulletin, 04-06-04-047, 06-Engine/Propulsion System, June 2004</ref> Typical detergents include [[Amine#Classification of amines|alkylamines]] and [[alkyl phosphate]]s at a level of 50–100 ppm.<ref name="Ullmann2" />

===Ethanol===
{{see also|Ethanol fuel|Common ethanol fuel mixtures}}

====European Union====
In the EU, 5 percent [[ethanol]] can be added within the common gasoline spec (EN 228). Discussions are ongoing to allow 10 percent blending of ethanol (available in Finnish, French and German gasoline stations). In Finland, most gasoline stations sell 95E10, which is 10 percent ethanol, and 98E5, which is 5 percent ethanol. Most gasoline sold in Sweden has 5–15 percent ethanol added. Three different ethanol blends are sold in the Netherlands—E5, E10 and hE15. The last of these differs from standard ethanol–gasoline blends in that it consists of 15 percent [[hydrous ethanol]] (i.e., the ethanol–water [[azeotrope]]) instead of the anhydrous ethanol traditionally used for blending with gasoline.

====Brazil====
The [[Brazilian National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels]] (ANP) requires gasoline for automobile use to have 27.5 percent of ethanol added to its composition.<ref>{{cite web |title=MEDIDA PROVISÓRIA nº 532, de 2011 |url=http://www.senado.gov.br/atividade/materia/detalhes.asp?p_cod_mate=100053 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919030421/http://www.senado.gov.br/atividade/materia/detalhes.asp?p_cod_mate=100053 |archive-date=19 September 2011 |work=senado.gov.br |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Pure hydrated ethanol is also available as a fuel.

====Australia====
Legislation requires retailers to label fuels containing ethanol on the dispenser, and limits ethanol use to 10 percent of gasoline in Australia. Such gasoline is commonly called [[Common ethanol fuel mixtures|E10]] by major brands, and it is cheaper than regular unleaded gasoline.

==== U.S. ====
The federal [[Renewable Fuel Standard]] (RFS) effectively requires refiners and blenders to blend renewable [[biofuel]]s(mostly ethanol) with gasoline, sufficient to meet a growing annual target of total gallons blended. Although the mandate does not require a specific percentage of ethanol, annual increases in the target combined with declining [[gasoline consumption]] have caused the typical ethanol content in gasoline to approach 10 percent. Most fuel pumps display a sticker that states that the fuel may contain up to 10 percent ethanol, an intentional disparity that reflects the varying actual percentage. Until late 2010, fuel retailers were only authorized to sell fuel containing up to 10 percent ethanol (E10), and most vehicle warranties (except for flexible fuel vehicles) authorize fuels that contain no more than 10 percent ethanol.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} In parts of the U.S., ethanol is sometimes added to gasoline without an indication that it is a component.

====India====
In October 2007, the [[Government of India]] decided to make five percent ethanol blending (with gasoline) mandatory. Currently, 10 percent ethanol blended product (E10) is being sold in various parts of the country.<ref name="Government to take a call on ethanol price soon2">{{cite news |date=21 November 2011 |title=Government to take a call on ethanol price soon |work=The Hindu |location=Chennai, India |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2647940.ece |url-status=live |access-date=25 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505123807/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2647940.ece |archive-date=5 May 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="India to raise ethanol blending in gasoline to 10%2">{{cite news |date=22 November 2011 |title=India to raise ethanol blending in gasoline to 10% |url=http://www.commodityonline.com/news/india-to-raise-ethanol-blending-in-gasoline-to-10-43892-3-43893.html |url-status=dead |access-date=25 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407231713/http://www.commodityonline.com/news/india-to-raise-ethanol-blending-in-gasoline-to-10-43892-3-43893.html |archive-date=7 April 2014 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Ethanol has been found in at least one study to damage catalytic converters.<ref>{{cite web |title=European Biogas Association |url=http://european-biogas.eu/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/022013_Fuel-impact-on-the-aging-of-TWC%E2%80%99s-under-real-driving-conditions_Winkler-et-al.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324165803/http://european-biogas.eu/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/022013_Fuel-impact-on-the-aging-of-TWC%E2%80%99s-under-real-driving-conditions_Winkler-et-al.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2016 |access-date=2016-03-16 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Dyes===
{{Main|Fuel dyes}}

Though gasoline is a naturally colorless liquid, many gasolines are dyed in various colors to indicate their composition and acceptable uses. In Australia, the lowest grade of gasoline (RON 91) was dyed a light shade of red/orange and is now the same color as the medium grade (RON 95) and high octane (RON 98), which are dyed yellow.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Color of Australian Unleaded Petrol Is Changing To Red/Orange |url=http://www.aip.com.au/topics/mr_pdf/AIP_media_release_280912.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409211243/http://www.aip.com.au/topics/mr_pdf/AIP_media_release_280912.pdf |archive-date=9 April 2013 |access-date=2012-11-22 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> In the U.S., aviation gasoline ([[avgas]]) is dyed to identify its octane rating and to distinguish it from kerosene-based jet fuel, which is clear.<ref>{{cite web |date=17 May 2008 |title=EAA – Avgas Grades |url=http://www.eaa.org/autofuel/avgas/grades.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517022056/http://www.eaa.org/autofuel/avgas/grades.asp |archive-date=17 May 2008}}</ref> In Canada, the gasoline for marine and farm use is dyed red and is not subject to sales tax.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fuel Taxes & Road Expenditures: Making the Link |url=https://umanitoba.ca/faculties/management/ti/media/docs/Fuel_Taxes_Road_Expenditures_1999.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410200621/http://umanitoba.ca/faculties/management/ti/media/docs/Fuel_Taxes_Road_Expenditures_1999.pdf |archive-date=10 April 2014 |access-date=26 September 2017 |page=2 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Oxygenate blending===
[[Oxygenate]] blending adds [[oxygen]]-bearing compounds such as [[Methyl tert-butyl ether|MTBE]], [[Ethyl tert-butyl ether|ETBE]], [[Tert-Amyl methyl ether|TAME]], [[Tert-Amyl ethyl ether|TAEE]], [[ethanol]], and [[biobutanol]]. The presence of these oxygenates reduces the amount of [[carbon monoxide]] and unburned fuel in the exhaust. In many areas throughout the U.S., oxygenate blending is mandated by EPA regulations to reduce smog and other airborne pollutants. For example, in Southern California fuel must contain two percent oxygen by weight, resulting in a mixture of 5.6 percent ethanol in gasoline. The resulting fuel is often known as reformulated gasoline (RFG) or oxygenated gasoline, or, in the case of California, California reformulated gasoline. The federal requirement that RFG contain oxygen was dropped on 6 May 2006 because the industry had developed [[Volatile organic compound|VOC]]-controlled RFG that did not need additional oxygen.<ref>{{cite web |date=22 February 2006 |title=Removal of Reformulated Gasoline Oxygen Content Requirement (national) and Revision of Commingling Prohibition to Address Non-0xygenated Reformulated Gasoline (national) |url=http://www.epa.gov/otaq/rfg_regs.htm#usage |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050920073346/http://www.epa.gov/otaq/rfg_regs.htm#usage |archive-date=20 September 2005 |publisher=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

MTBE was phased out in the U.S. due to groundwater contamination and the resulting regulations and lawsuits. Ethanol and, to a lesser extent, ethanol-derived ETBE are common substitutes. A common ethanol-gasoline mix of 10 percent ethanol mixed with gasoline is called [[Ethanol fuel|gasohol]] or E10, and an ethanol-gasoline mix of 85 percent ethanol mixed with gasoline is called [[E85]]. The most extensive use of ethanol takes place in [[Brazil]], where the ethanol is derived from [[sugarcane]]. In 2004, over {{convert|3.4|e9USgal|e9l|sp=us|order=flip}} of ethanol was produced in the U.S. for fuel use, mostly from [[Maize|corn]] and sold as E10. E85 is slowly becoming available in much of the U.S., though many of the relatively few stations vending E85 are not open to the general public.<ref>{{cite web |title=Alternative Fueling Station Locator |url=http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/stations_locator.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080714060953/http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/stations_locator.html |archive-date=14 July 2008 |access-date=14 July 2008 |publisher=[[U.S. Department of Energy]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The use of [[bioethanol]] and bio-methanol, either directly or indirectly by conversion of ethanol to bio-ETBE, or methanol to bio-MTBE is encouraged by the European Union [[Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport]]. Since producing bioethanol from fermented sugars and starches involves [[distillation]], though, ordinary people in much of Europe cannot legally ferment and distill their own bioethanol at present (unlike in the U.S., where getting a [[BATF]] distillation permit has been easy since the [[1973 oil crisis]]).

==Safety==
[[File:DOT_hazmat_class_3_(alt_3).svg|thumb|HAZMAT class 3 gasoline]]

===Toxicity===
The [[safety data sheet]] for a 2003 [[Texas|Texan]] unleaded gasoline shows at least 15 hazardous chemicals occurring in various amounts, including [[benzene]] (up to five percent by volume), [[toluene]] (up to 35 percent by volume), [[naphthalene]] (up to one percent by volume), [[1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene|trimethylbenzene]] (up to seven percent by volume), [[Methyl tert-butyl ether|methyl ''tert''-butyl ether]] (MTBE) (up to 18 percent by volume, in some states), and about 10 others.<ref>[http://firstfuelbank.com/msds/Tesoro.pdf Material safety data sheet] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928104058/http://firstfuelbank.com/msds/Tesoro.pdf|date=28 September 2007}} Tesoro petroleum Companies, Inc., U.S., 8 February 2003</ref> Hydrocarbons in gasoline generally exhibit low acute toxicities, with [[LD50]] of 700–2700 mg/kg for simple aromatic compounds.<ref>Karl Griesbaum et al. "Hydrocarbons" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a13_227}}</ref> Benzene and many antiknocking additives are [[carcinogenic]].

People can be exposed to gasoline in the workplace by swallowing it, breathing in vapors, skin contact, and eye contact. Gasoline is toxic. The [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH) has also designated gasoline as a carcinogen.<ref>{{cite web |title=CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Gasoline |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0299.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016080051/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0299.html |archive-date=16 October 2015 |access-date=3 November 2015 |website=www.cdc.gov |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Physical contact, ingestion, or inhalation can cause health problems. Since ingesting large amounts of gasoline can cause permanent damage to major organs, a call to a local poison control center or emergency room visit is indicated.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=E Reese and R D Kimbrough |date=December 1993 |title=Acute toxicity of gasoline and some additives |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=101 |issue=Suppl 6 |pages=115–131 |doi=10.1289/ehp.93101s6115 |pmc=1520023 |pmid=8020435}}</ref>

Contrary to common misconception, swallowing gasoline does not generally require special emergency treatment, and inducing vomiting does not help, and can make it worse. According to poison specialist Brad Dahl, "even two mouthfuls wouldn't be that dangerous as long as it goes down to your stomach and stays there or keeps going". The U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]]'s [[Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry]] says not to induce vomiting, [[lavage]], or administer [[Activated carbon|activated charcoal]].<ref>{{Citation |author=University of Utah Poison Control Center |title=Dos and Don'ts in Case of Gasoline Poisoning |date=24 June 2014 |url=https://healthcare.utah.edu/the-scope/shows.php?shows=0_g9tzppx4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108090627/https://healthcare.utah.edu/the-scope/shows.php?shows=0_g9tzppx4 |publisher=[[University of Utah]] |access-date=15 October 2018 |archive-date=8 November 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |author=Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry |title=Medical Management Guidelines for Gasoline (Mixture) CAS# 86290-81-5 and 8006-61-9 |date=21 October 2014 |url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/MMG/MMG.asp?id=465&tid=83 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114004205/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/MMG/MMG.asp?id=465&tid=83 |publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] |access-date=13 December 2018 |archive-date=14 November 2020 |author-link=Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Inhalation for intoxication===
[[Inhalant|Inhaled]] (huffed) gasoline vapor is a common intoxicant. Users concentrate and inhale gasoline vapor in a manner not intended by the manufacturer to produce [[euphoria]] and [[Substance intoxication|intoxication]]. Gasoline inhalation has become epidemic in some poorer communities and indigenous groups in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and some Pacific Islands.<ref name="gasoline Sniffing Fact File2">[http://www.abc.net.au/health/library/stories/2005/24/11/1831506.htm gasoline Sniffing Fact File]{{Dead link|date=December 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} Sheree Cairney, www.abc.net.au, Published 24 November 2005. Retrieved 13 October 2007, a modified version of [http://www.abc.net.au/health/library/gasoline_ff.htm the original article] {{dead link|date=August 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, now archived [http://www.abc.net.au/health/library/gasoline_ff.htm]{{Dead link|date=December 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> The practice is thought to cause severe organ damage, along with other effects such as [[intellectual disability]] and various [[cancer]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Low IQ and Gasoline Huffing: The Perpetuation Cycle |year=2005 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.162.5.1020-a |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7873998 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814215234/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7873998_Low_IQ_and_Gasoline_Huffing_The_Perpetuation_Cycle |archive-date=14 August 2017 |df=dmy-all|last1=Yip |first1=Leona |last2=Mashhood |first2=Ahmed |last3=Naudé |first3=Suné |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=162 |issue=5 |pages=1020–1021 |pmid=15863813 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=16 May 2013 |title=Rising Trend: Sniffing Gasoline – Huffing & Inhalants |url=https://www.addiction.com/3385/gas-sniffing-form-substance-abuse/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220203248/https://www.addiction.com/3385/gas-sniffing-form-substance-abuse/ |archive-date=20 December 2016 |access-date=12 December 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Petrol Sniffing / Gasoline Sniffing |url=http://alcoholrehab.com/drug-addiction/petrol-sniffing-gasoline-sniffing/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221072052/http://alcoholrehab.com/drug-addiction/petrol-sniffing-gasoline-sniffing/ |archive-date=21 December 2016 |access-date=12 December 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Benzene and Cancer Risk |url=https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-causes/benzene.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125204501/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-causes/benzene.html |archive-date=25 January 2021 |access-date=7 December 2020 |website=[[American Cancer Society]]}}</ref>

In Canada, Native children in the isolated Northern Labrador community of [[Davis Inlet, Newfoundland and Labrador|Davis Inlet]] were the focus of national concern in 1993, when many were found to be sniffing gasoline. The Canadian and provincial [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] governments intervened on several occasions, sending many children away for treatment. Despite being moved to the new community of [[Natuashish, Newfoundland and Labrador|Natuashish]] in 2002, serious inhalant abuse problems have continued. Similar problems were reported in [[Sheshatshiu, Newfoundland and Labrador|Sheshatshiu]] in 2000 and also in [[Pikangikum First Nation]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Lauwers |first=Bert |date=1 June 2011 |title=The Office of the Chief Coroner's Death Review of the Youth Suicides at the Pikangikum First Nation, 2006–2008 |url=http://www.mcscs.jus.gov.on.ca/english/DeathInvestigations/office_coroner/PublicationsandReports/Pikangikum/PIK_report.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120930122313/http://www.mcscs.jus.gov.on.ca//english/DeathInvestigations/office_coroner/PublicationsandReports/Pikangikum/PIK_report.html |archive-date=30 September 2012 |access-date=2 October 2011 |publisher=Office of the Chief Coroner of Ontario}}</ref> In 2012, the issue once again made the news media in Canada.<ref>{{cite web |title=Labrador Innu kids sniffing gas again to fight boredom |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/story/2012/06/18/nl-natuashish-sniffing-618.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618224149/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/story/2012/06/18/nl-natuashish-sniffing-618.html |archive-date=18 June 2012 |access-date=18 June 2012 |publisher=[[CBC.ca]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

{{see also|Indigenous Australian#Substance abuse}}

Australia has long faced a petrol (gasoline) sniffing problem in isolated and impoverished [[Australian Aborigines|aboriginal]] communities. Although some sources argue that sniffing was introduced by U.S. [[Soldier|servicemen]] stationed in the nation's [[Top End]] during [[World War II]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wortley |first=R.P. |date=29 August 2006 |title=Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Land Rights (Regulated Substances) Amendment Bill |url=http://www.parliament.sa.gov.au/SAN/Attachments/Hansard/2006/LC/WH290806.LC.htm |journal=Legislative Council (South Australia) |publisher=Hansard |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929121901/http://www.parliament.sa.gov.au/SAN/Attachments/Hansard/2006/LC/WH290806.LC.htm |archive-date=29 September 2007 |access-date=27 December 2006}}</ref> or through experimentation by 1940s-era [[Cobourg Peninsula]] sawmill workers,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brady |first=Maggie |date=27 April 2006 |title=Community Affairs Reference Committee Reference: Petrol sniffing in remote Aboriginal communities |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/hansard/senate/commttee/S9271.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Official Committee Hansard (Senate) |publisher=Hansard |page=11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060912011023/http://www.aph.gov.au/hansard/senate/commttee/S9271.pdf |archive-date=12 September 2006 |access-date=20 March 2006}}</ref> other sources claim that inhalant abuse (such as glue inhalation) emerged in Australia in the late 1960s.<ref>{{cite report |url=http://archives.drugabuse.gov/pdf/monographs/148.pdf |title=Epidemiology of Inhalant Abuse: An International Perspective |publisher=National Institute on Drug Abuse |id=NIDA Research Monograph 148 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005024204/http://archives.drugabuse.gov/pdf/monographs/148.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2016 |url-status=dead |year=1995 |editor-first=Nicholas |editor-last=Kozel |editor2-first=Zili |editor2-last=Sloboda |editor3=Mario De La Rosa}}</ref> Chronic, heavy petrol sniffing appears to occur among remote, impoverished [[Indigenous Australians|indigenous]] communities, where the ready accessibility of petrol has helped to make it a common substance for abuse.

In Australia, petrol sniffing now occurs widely throughout remote Aboriginal communities in the [[Northern Territory]], [[Western Australia]], northern parts of [[South Australia]], and [[Queensland]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Petrol-sniffing reports in Central Australia increase as kids abuse low aromatic Opal fuel |newspaper=ABC News |date=10 May 2022 |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-05-11/petrol-sniffing-concerns-rise-in-central-australia-/101052088 |access-date=16 May 2022}}</ref> The number of people sniffing petrol goes up and down over time as young people experiment or sniff occasionally. "Boss", or chronic, sniffers may move in and out of communities; they are often responsible for encouraging young people to take it up.<ref>{{cite web |last=Williams |first=Jonas |date=March 2004 |title=Responding to petrol sniffing on the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Lands: A case study |url=http://www.humanrights.gov.au/social_justice/sj_report/sjreport03/chap4.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070831173214/http://humanrights.gov.au/social_justice/sj_report/sjreport03/chap4.html |archive-date=31 August 2007 |access-date=27 December 2006 |work=Social Justice Report 2003 |publisher=Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission |df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 2005, the [[Government of Australia]] and [[BP|BP Australia]] began the usage of [[Opal (fuel)|Opal fuel]] in remote areas prone to petrol sniffing.<ref>[http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/Committee/clac_ctte/petrol_sniffing/submissions/sub03.pdf Submission to the Senate Community Affairs References Committee by BP Australia Pty Ltd] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614103002/http://www.aph.gov.au/Senate/committee/clac_ctte/petrol_sniffing/submissions/sub03.pdf|date=14 June 2007}} Parliament of Australia Web Site. Retrieved 8 June 2007.</ref> Opal is a non-sniffable fuel (which is much less likely to cause a high) and has made a difference in some indigenous communities.

===Flammability===
[[File:Gasoline-fire.png|thumb|Uncontrolled burning of gasoline produces large quantities of [[soot]] and [[carbon monoxide]].]]
Gasoline is extremely flammable due to its low [[flash point]] of {{Convert|-23|C|F}}. Like other hydrocarbons, gasoline burns in a limited range of its vapor phase, and, coupled with its volatility, this makes leaks highly dangerous when sources of ignition are present. Gasoline has a [[lower explosive limit]] of 1.4 percent by volume and an [[upper explosive limit]] of 7.6 percent. If the concentration is below 1.4 percent, the air-gasoline mixture is too lean and does not ignite. If the concentration is above 7.6 percent, the mixture is too rich and also does not ignite. However, gasoline vapor rapidly mixes and spreads with air, making unconstrained gasoline quickly flammable.

===Gasoline exhaust===
{{Cleanup|section|small=left|reason=Correction of units of measurement is needed (gram per cubic meter: 'grams per cubic meter' to 'g/m3'; ounce per cubic foot: 'oz/cu ft' to 'oz/ft3').|date=June 2022}}
The exhaust gas generated by burning gasoline not only does serious harm to the environment but also to people's health. After CO is inhaled into the human body, it is very easy to combine with hemoglobin in the blood, and its affinity is 300 times that of oxygen. Therefore, the hemoglobin in the lungs does not combine with oxygen but with CO, causing the human body to be hypoxic, causing headaches, dizziness, vomiting, and other poisoning symptoms. In severe cases, it may lead to death.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Carbon Monoxide Poisoning |url=https://www.osha.gov/sites/default/files/publications/carbonmonoxide-factsheet.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101071121/http://www.osha.gov/sites/default/files/publications/carbonmonoxide-factsheet.pdf |archive-date=1 January 2022 |access-date=12 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Carbon monoxide poisoning - Symptoms and causes |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/carbon-monoxide/symptoms-causes/syc-20370642 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212225133/https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/carbon-monoxide/symptoms-causes/syc-20370642 |archive-date=12 December 2021 |access-date=2021-12-12 |website=Mayo Clinic |language=en}}</ref> Hydrocarbons only affect the human body when their concentration is quite high, and their toxicity level depends on the chemical composition. The hydrocarbons produced by incomplete combustion include alkanes, aromatics, and aldehydes. Among them, a concentration of methane and ethane over {{Convert|35|g/m3|oz/cuft|sp=us}} will cause loss of consciousness or suffocation, a concentration of pentane and hexane over {{Convert|45|g/m3|oz/cuft|sp=us}} will have an anesthetic effect, and aromatic hydrocarbons will have more serious effects on health, blood toxicity, neurotoxicity, and cancer. If the concentration of benzene exceeds 40 ppm, it can cause leukemia, and xylene can cause headache, dizziness, nausea, and vomiting. Human exposure to large amounts of aldehydes can cause eye irritation, nausea, and dizziness. In addition to carcinogenic effects, long-term exposure can cause damage to the skin, liver, kidneys, and cataracts.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=x-engineer.org |title=Effects of vehicle pollution on human health – x-engineer.org |url=https://x-engineer.org/effects-vehicle-pollution-human-health/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212225153/https://x-engineer.org/effects-vehicle-pollution-human-health/ |archive-date=12 December 2021 |access-date=2021-12-12 |language=en-US}}</ref> After NOx enters the alveoli, it has a severe stimulating effect on the lung tissue. It can irritate the conjunctiva of the eyes, cause tearing, and cause pink eyes. It also has a stimulating effect on the nose, pharynx, throat, and other organs. It can cause acute wheezing, breathing difficulties, red eyes, sore throat, and dizziness causing poisoning.<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=NOx gases in diesel car fumes: Why are they so dangerous? |url=https://phys.org/news/2015-09-nox-gases-diesel-car-fumes.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212225135/https://phys.org/news/2015-09-nox-gases-diesel-car-fumes.html |archive-date=12 December 2021 |access-date=2021-12-12 |website=phys.org |language=en}}</ref>

== Environmental impact ==
In recent years, with the rapid development of the motor vehicle economy, the production and use of motor vehicles have increased dramatically, and the pollution by motor vehicle exhaust to the environment has become more and more serious. The air pollution in many large cities has changed from coal-burning pollution to "motor vehicle pollution". In the U.S., transportation is the largest source of carbon emissions, accounting for 30 percent of the total carbon footprint of the U.S.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Facts About Gasoline |url=https://www.coltura.org/gasfacts |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209181408/https://www.coltura.org/gasfacts |archive-date=9 December 2021 |access-date=2021-12-12 |website=Coltura - moving beyond gasoline |language=en-US}}</ref> Combustion of gasoline produces {{convert|2.35|kg/L|lb/USgal|sp=us}} of carbon dioxide, a [[greenhouse gas]].<ref>{{cite magazine |date=1 November 2006 |title=How Gasoline Becomes CO2 |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2152685/ |url-status=live |magazine=Slate Magazine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110820030124/http://www.slate.com/id/2152685/ |archive-date=20 August 2011 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="US Energy Information Administration2">{{citation-attribution|1={{cite web |title=How much carbon dioxide is produced by burning gasoline and diesel fuel? |url=http://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=307&t=11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027195801/http://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=307&t=11 |archive-date=27 October 2013 |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |df=dmy-all}} }}</ref>

Unburnt gasoline and [[Automobile emissions control#Evaporative emissions control|evaporation from the tank]], when in the [[atmosphere]], react in [[sunlight]] to produce [[photochemical smog]]. Vapor pressure initially rises with some addition of ethanol to gasoline, but the increase is greatest at 10 percent by volume.<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=V. F. Andersen |author2=J. E. Anderson |author3=T. J. Wallington |author4=S. A. Mueller |author5=O. J. Nielsen |date=May 21, 2010 |title=Vapor Pressures of Alcohol−Gasoline Blends |journal=Energy Fuels |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=3647–3654 |doi=10.1021/ef100254w}}</ref> At higher concentrations of ethanol above 10 percent, the vapor pressure of the blend starts to decrease. At a 10 percent ethanol by volume, the rise in vapor pressure may potentially increase the problem of photochemical smog. This rise in vapor pressure could be mitigated by increasing or decreasing the percentage of ethanol in the gasoline mixture. The chief risks of such leaks come not from vehicles, but gasoline delivery truck accidents and leaks from storage tanks. Because of this risk, most (underground) storage tanks now have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent any such leaks, such as monitoring systems (Veeder-Root, Franklin Fueling).

Production of gasoline consumes {{convert|0.63|USgal/mi|L/km|sp=us|order=flip}} of [[water]] by driven distance.<ref>{{cite web |title=Water Intensity of Transportation |url=http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Webber-water-in-transportation.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130915174902/http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Webber-water-in-transportation.pdf |archive-date=15 September 2013 |access-date=6 October 2016}}</ref>

Gasoline use causes a variety of deleterious effects to the human population and to the climate generally. The harms imposed include a higher rate of premature death and ailments, such as [[asthma]], caused by [[air pollution]], higher healthcare costs for the public generally, decreased [[crop yields]], missed work and school days due to illness, increased [[flood]]ing and other [[extreme weather]] events linked to [[global climate change]], and other social costs. The costs imposed on society and the planet are estimated to be $3.80 per gallon of gasoline, in addition to the price paid at the pump by the user. The damage to the health and climate caused by a gasoline-powered vehicle greatly exceeds that caused by electric vehicles.<ref>Phys.Org, 4 Mar. 2015 [https://phys.org/news/2015-03-yield-clearer-picture-emissions-true.html "New Models Yield Clearer Picture of Emissions' True Costs"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125024316/https://phys.org/news/2015-03-yield-clearer-picture-emissions-true.html|date=25 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shindell |first1=Drew T. |year=2015 |title=The social cost of atmospheric release |journal=Climatic Change |volume=130 |issue=2 |pages=313–326 |bibcode=2015ClCh..130..313S |doi=10.1007/s10584-015-1343-0 |doi-access=free |s2cid=41970160}}</ref>

===Carbon dioxide===
{{Cleanup|section|small=left|reason=Correction of units of measurement is needed (pound per United States gallon: 'lb/US gal' to 'lb / U.S. gal').|date=June 2022}}
About {{convert|19.64|lb/USgal|kg/L|sp=us|order=flip}} of [[carbon dioxide]] (CO2) are produced from burning gasoline that does not contain ethanol.<ref name="US Energy Information Administration2" /> Most of the retail gasoline now sold in the U.S. contains about 10 percent fuel ethanol (or E10) by volume.<ref name="US Energy Information Administration2" /> Burning E10 produces about {{convert|17.68|lb/USgal|kg/L|sp=us|order=flip}} of CO2 that is emitted from the fossil fuel content. If the CO2 emissions from ethanol combustion are considered, then about {{convert|18.95|lb/USgal|kg/L|sp=us|order=flip}} of CO2 are produced when E10 is combusted.<ref name="US Energy Information Administration2" />

Worldwide 7 liters of gasoline are burnt for every 100 km driven by cars and vans.<ref name="IEA 2021">{{Cite web |date=November 2021 |title=Fuel Consumption of Cars and Vans – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/fuel-consumption-of-cars-and-vans |website=IEA |language=en-GB |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503043712/https://www.iea.org/reports/fuel-consumption-of-cars-and-vans# |archive-date=3 May 2022}}</ref> Despite increasing sales of electric cars and falling sales of gasoline cars, those gasoline cars that are sold tend to be larger and heavier as more are SUVs, thus gasoline combustion and carbon dioxide emissions per km have not fallen significantly.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Growing preference for SUVs challenges emissions reductions in passenger car market – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/commentaries/growing-preference-for-suvs-challenges-emissions-reductions-in-passenger-car-market |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref>

Also the [[International Energy Agency]] said in 2021 that: "To ensure fuel economy and CO2 emissions standards are effective, governments must continue regulatory efforts to monitor and reduce the gap between real-world fuel economy and rated performance."<ref name="IEA 2021" />

===Contamination of soil and water===
Gasoline enters the environment through the soil, groundwater, surface water, and air. Therefore, humans may be exposed to gasoline through methods such as breathing, eating, and skin contact. For example, using gasoline-filled equipment, such as lawnmowers, drinking gasoline-contaminated water close to gasoline spills or leaks to the soil, working at a gasoline station, inhaling gasoline volatile gas when refueling at a gasoline station is the easiest way to be exposed to gasoline.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gasoline, Automotive {{!}} ToxFAQs™ {{!}} ATSDR |url=https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxFAQs/ToxFAQsDetails.aspx?faqid=467&toxid=83 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212225136/https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxFAQs/ToxFAQsDetails.aspx?faqid=467&toxid=83 |archive-date=12 December 2021 |access-date=2021-12-12 |website=wwwn.cdc.gov}}</ref>

==Use and pricing==
{{Main|Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing|Peak oil}}The [[International Energy Agency]] said in 2021 that "road fuels should be taxed at a rate that reflects their impact on people’s health and the climate".<ref name="IEA 2021"/>

===Europe===
Countries in Europe impose substantially higher [[Fuel tax|taxes]] on fuels such as gasoline when compared to the U.S. The price of gasoline in Europe is typically higher than that in the U.S. due to this difference.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=August 2011 |title=Fuel Prices and New Vehicle Fuel Economy in Europe |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4430849.pdf |url-status=live |journal=MIT Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113231114/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4430849.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2020 |access-date=20 April 2020}}</ref>

=== U.S. ===
{{update-section|date=April 2016}}
[[File:USRegularGasolinePricesUpto2019.png|thumb|U.S. Regular Gasoline Prices through 2018]]
From 1998 to 2004, the price of gasoline fluctuated between {{convert|1|and|2|$/USgal|sp=us|order=flip|$/l}}.<ref name="FE.gov2">{{cite web |title=Gas Prices: Frequently Asked Questions |url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/gasprices/faq.shtml#History |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110121193757/http://fueleconomy.gov/feg/gasprices/FAQ.shtml#History |archive-date=21 January 2011 |access-date=16 August 2009 |work=fueleconomy.gov |df=dmy-all}}</ref> After 2004, the price increased until the average gasoline price reached a high of {{Convert|4.11|$/USgal|$/l|sp=us|order=flip}} in mid-2008 but receded to approximately {{Convert|2.60|$/USgal|$/l|sp=us|order=flip}} by September 2009.<ref name="FE.gov2" /> The U.S. experienced an upswing in gasoline prices through 2011,<ref name="taxfoundation.org2">{{cite web |title=Fiscal Facts |url=http://www.taxfoundation.org/UserFiles/Image/Fiscal%20Facts/gas-tax-690px.jpg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706073258/http://www.taxfoundation.org/UserFiles/Image/Fiscal%20Facts/gas-tax-690px.jpg |archive-date=6 July 2009 |access-date=12 June 2009}}</ref> and, by 1 March 2012, the national average was {{Convert|3.74|$/USgal|$/l|sp=us|order=flip}}. California prices are higher because the California government mandates unique California gasoline formulas and taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Regional gasoline price differences - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/gasoline/regional-price-differences.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115150945/https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/gasoline/regional-price-differences.php |archive-date=15 November 2021 |access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref>

In the U.S., most consumer goods bear pre-tax prices, but gasoline prices are posted with taxes included. Taxes are added by federal, state, and local governments. {{As of|2009}}, the federal tax was {{Convert|0.184|$/USgal|$/l|sp=us|order=flip}} for gasoline and {{Convert|0.244|$/USgal|$/l|sp=us|order=flip}} for [[Diesel fuel|diesel]] (excluding [[red diesel]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=When did the Federal Government begin collecting the gas tax?—Ask the Rambler — Highway History |url=http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/gastax.cfm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529003035/http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/gastax.cfm |archive-date=29 May 2010 |access-date=17 October 2010 |publisher=FHWA |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

About nine percent of all gasoline sold in the U.S. in May 2009 was premium grade, according to the Energy Information Administration. ''[[Consumer Reports]]'' magazine says, "If [your owner's manual] says to use regular fuel, do so—there's no advantage to a higher grade."<ref>{{cite web |title=New & Used Car Reviews & Ratings |url=http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/tires-auto-parts/car-maintenance/save-at-the-pump/overview/save-at-the-pump-ov.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130223032546/http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cars/tires-auto-parts/car-maintenance/save-at-the-pump/overview/save-at-the-pump-ov.htm |archive-date=23 February 2013 |work=Consumer Reports |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The ''Associated Press'' said premium gas—which has a higher octane rating and costs more per gallon than regular unleaded—should be used only if the manufacturer says it is "required".<ref>{{cite web |date=19 August 2009 |title=Gassing up with premium probably a waste |url=http://www.philly.com/philly/business/personal_finance/081909_premium_gas.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090821162543/http://www.philly.com/philly/business/personal_finance/081909_premium_gas.html |archive-date=21 August 2009 |work=philly.com}}</ref> Cars with [[Turbocharger|turbocharged]] engines and high compression ratios often specify premium gasoline because higher octane fuels reduce the incidence of "knock", or fuel pre-detonation.<ref>{{cite web |last=Biello |first=David |title=Fact or Fiction?: Premium Gasoline Delivers Premium Benefits to Your Car |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fact-or-fiction-premium-g |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012015036/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fact-or-fiction-premium-g |archive-date=12 October 2012 |work=Scientific American |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The price of gasoline varies considerably between the summer and winter months.<ref>{{cite web |date=6 June 2008 |title=Why is summer fuel more expensive than winter fuel? |url=http://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/fuel-consumption/summer-fuel.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530115419/http://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/fuel-consumption/summer-fuel.htm |archive-date=30 May 2015 |access-date=30 May 2015 |publisher=[[HowStuffWorks]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

There is a considerable difference between summer oil and winter oil in gasoline vapor pressure (Reid Vapor Pressure, RVP), which is a measure of how easily the fuel evaporates at a given temperature. The higher the gasoline volatility (the higher the RVP), the easier it is to evaporate. The conversion between the two fuels occurs twice a year, once in autumn (winter mix) and the other in spring (summer mix). The winter blended fuel has a higher RVP because the fuel must be able to evaporate at a low temperature for the engine to run normally. If the RVP is too low on a cold day, the vehicle will be difficult to start; however, the summer blended gasoline has a lower RVP. It prevents excessive evaporation when the outdoor temperature rises, reduces ozone emissions, and reduces smog levels. At the same time, vapor lock is less likely to occur in hot weather.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-06-06 |title=Why Is Gas More Expensive in the Summer Than in the Winter? |url=https://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/fuel-consumption/summer-fuel.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024171528/https://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/fuel-consumption/summer-fuel.htm |archive-date=24 October 2021 |access-date=2021-10-13 |website=HowStuffWorks |language=en}}</ref>

==Gasoline production by country==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Gasoline production (per day; 2014)<ref>{{cite web |title=Gasoline production - Country rankings |url=https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/rankings/gasoline_production/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922202533/https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/rankings/gasoline_production/ |archive-date=22 September 2020 |access-date=7 March 2019}}</ref>
! rowspan=2 | Country
! colspan=4 | Gasoline production
|-
! Barrels (thousands) !! m3 (thousands) !! ft3 (thousands) !! kL
|-
! U.S.
| {{convert|9571|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! China
| {{convert|2578|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Japan
| {{convert|920|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Russia
| {{convert|910|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! India
| {{convert|755|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Canada
| {{convert|671|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Brazil
| {{convert|533|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Germany
| {{convert|465|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Saudi Arabia
| {{convert|441|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Mexico
| {{convert|407|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! South Korea
| {{convert|397|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Iran
| {{convert|382|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! UK
| {{convert|364|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Italy
| {{convert|343|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Venezuela
| {{convert|277|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! France
| {{convert|265|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Singapore
| {{convert|249|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Australia
| {{convert|241|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Indonesia
| {{convert|230|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Taiwan
| {{convert|174|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Thailand
| {{convert|170|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Spain
| {{convert|169|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Netherlands
| {{convert|148|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! South Africa
| {{convert|135|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Argentina
| {{convert|122|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Sweden
| {{convert|112|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Greece
| {{convert|108|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Belgium
| {{convert|105|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Malaysia
| {{convert|103|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Finland
| {{convert|100|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Belarus
| {{convert|92|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Turkey
| {{convert|92|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Colombia
| {{convert|85|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Poland
| {{convert|83|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Norway
| {{convert|77|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Kazakhstan
| {{convert|71|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Algeria
| {{convert|70|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Romania
| {{convert|70|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Oman
| {{convert|69|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Egypt
| {{convert|66|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! UAE
| {{convert|66|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Chile
| {{convert|65|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Turkmenistan
| {{convert|61|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Kuwait
| {{convert|57|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Iraq
| {{convert|56|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Vietnam
| {{convert|52|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Lithuania
| {{convert|49|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Denmark
| {{convert|48|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|-
! Qatar
| {{convert|46|oilbbl|m3 cuft kL|disp=table}}
|}

==Comparison with other fuels==
{{More citations needed section|date=December 2020}}{{See also|Energy content of biofuel}}

Below is a table of the [[energy density]] (per volume) and [[specific energy]] (per mass) of various transportation fuels as compared with gasoline. In the rows with [[Higher heating value|gross]] and [[Lower heating value|net]], they are from the [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]'s Transportation Energy Data Book.<ref name="TEDB2">{{cite web |title=Appendix B – Transportation Energy Data Book |url=http://cta.ornl.gov/data/appendix_b.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718143536/http://cta.ornl.gov/data/appendix_b.shtml |archive-date=18 July 2011 |access-date=8 July 2011 |work=ornl.gov |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! rowspan=3 | Fuel type !! colspan=4 | Energy density !! colspan=4 | Specific energy !! rowspan=3 | [[Octane rating|RON]]
|-
! colspan=2 | Gross !! colspan=2 | Net !! colspan=2 | Gross !! colspan=2 | Net
|-
! MJ/L !! BTU{{\}}U.S. gal !! MJ/L !! BTU{{\}}U.S. gal !! MJ/kg !! BTU/lb !! MJ/kg !! BTU/lb
|-
| Conventional gasoline || {{convert|34.8|MJ/L|BTU/USgal|disp=table}} || {{convert|115400|BTU/USgal|MJ/L|order=flip|disp=table}} || {{convert|44.4|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}}<ref name="Thomas2">{{Cite web |author=George Thomas |title=Overview of Storage Development DOE Hydrogen Program |url=http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/storage.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221185632/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/storage.pdf |archive-date=21 February 2007}} {{small|(99.6 KB)}}. Livermore, California. Sandia National Laboratories. 2000.</ref> || {{convert|41.1|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} || 91–98
|-
| [[Autogas]] ([[Liquified petroleum gas|LPG]]){{Efn|Consisting mostly of C3 and C4 hydrocarbons}} || {{convert|26.8|MJ/L|BTU/USgal|disp=table}} || || || {{convert|46|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} || || || 108
|-
| [[Ethanol fuel|Ethanol]] || {{convert|21.2|MJ/L|BTU/USgal|disp=table}}<ref name="Thomas2" /> || {{convert|75700|BTU/USgal|MJ/L|order=flip|disp=table}} || {{convert|26.8|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}}<ref name="Thomas2" /> || {{convert|26.7|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} || 108.7<ref name="Fuel 89 (2010) 2713-27202">{{cite journal |last1=Eyidogan |first1=Muharrem |last2=Ozsezen |first2=Ahmet Necati |last3=Canakci |first3=Mustafa |last4=Turkcan |first4=Ali |year=2010 |title=Impact of alcohol–gasoline fuel blends on the performance and combustion characteristics of an SI engine |journal=Fuel |volume=89 |issue=10 |page=2713 |doi=10.1016/j.fuel.2010.01.032}}</ref>
|-
| [[Methanol]] || {{convert|17.9|MJ/L|BTU/USgal|disp=table}} || {{convert|56600|BTU/USgal|MJ/L|order=flip|disp=table}} || {{convert|22.6|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} || {{convert|19.9|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} || 123
|-
| [[Butanol fuel|Butanol]] || {{convert|29.2|MJ/L|BTU/USgal|disp=table}} || || || {{convert|36.6|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} || || || 91–99{{Clarify|date=June 2009|reason=need specific compositions of each fuel, plus cites, to avoid vagueness in numbers; pure n-butanol only has one rating; otherwise split into two Butanol mixes}}
|-
| [[Alcohol fuel|Gasohol]] || {{convert|31.2|MJ/L|BTU/USgal|disp=table}} || {{convert|112400|BTU/USgal|MJ/L|order=flip|disp=table}} || || || || || 93–94{{Clarify|date=June 2009|reason=can only be one figure, cites would help}}
|-
| [[Diesel fuel|Diesel]]{{Efn|Diesel fuel is not used in a gasoline engine, so its low octane rating is not an issue; the relevant metric for diesel engines is the [[cetane number]].}} || {{convert|38.6|MJ/L|BTU/USgal|disp=table}} || {{convert|128700|BTU/USgal|MJ/L|order=flip|disp=table}} || {{convert|45.4|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} || {{convert|42.2|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} || 25
|-
| [[Biodiesel]] || {{convert|33.3|–|35.7|MJ/L|BTU/USgal|disp=table}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Extension Forestry |url=http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/forestry/biomass/pubs/WB0008.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122142254/http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/forestry/biomass/pubs/WB0008.pdf |archive-date=22 November 2012 |publisher=North Carolina Cooperative Extension}}</ref>{{Clarify|date=June 2009|reason=need specific composition, plus cite, to avoid vagueness in numbers; otherwise remove this as uninformative}} || {{convert|117100|BTU/USgal|MJ/L|order=flip|disp=table}} || || || || ||
|-
| [[Avgas]] (high octane gasoline) || {{convert|33.5|MJ/L|BTU/USgal|disp=table}} || {{convert|112000|BTU/USgal|MJ/L|order=flip|disp=table}} || {{convert|46.8|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} || {{convert|43.3|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} ||
|-
| [[Aviation fuel#Energy content|Jet fuel (kerosene based)]] || {{convert|35.1|MJ/L|BTU/USgal|disp=table}} || || || {{convert|43.8|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} || || ||
|-
| [[Aviation fuel#Energy content|Jet fuel (naphtha)]] || {{convert|127500|BTU/USgal|MJ/L|order=flip|disp=table}} || {{convert|118700|BTU/USgal|MJ/L|order=flip|disp=table}} || || || || ||
|-
| [[Liquefied natural gas]] || {{convert|25.3|MJ/L|BTU/USgal|disp=table}} || || || {{convert|55|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} || || ||
|-
| [[Liquefied petroleum gas]] || {{convert|91300|BTU/USgal|MJ/L|order=flip|disp=table}} || {{convert|83500|BTU/USgal|MJ/L|order=flip|disp=table}} || {{convert|46.1|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} || {{convert|42.3|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} ||
|-
| [[Hydrogen]]{{Efn|at {{convert|{{convert|20|K|C|disp=output number only}}|C|F}}}} || {{convert|10.1|MJ/L|BTU/USgal|disp=table}} || {{convert|130|BTU/USgal|MJ/L|order=flip|disp=table}}<ref>{{cite web |date=25 November 2005 |title=Frequently Asked Questions |url=http://www.hydrogenassociation.org/general/faqs.asp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051125094124/http://www.hydrogenassociation.org/general/faqs.asp |archive-date=25 November 2005 |publisher=The National Hydrogen Association}}</ref> || {{convert|142|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} || {{convert|0.506|MJ/kg|BTU/lb|disp=table}} ||
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
{{cmn|
* {{annotated link|Aviation fuel}}
* {{annotated link|Butanol fuel}} – replacement fuel for use in unmodified gasoline engines
* {{annotated link|Biogasoline}} - petrol derived from biomass such as algae
* {{annotated link|Diesel fuel}}
* {{annotated link|Filling station}}
* {{annotated link|Fuel dispenser}}
* {{annotated link|Fuel saving device}}
* {{annotated link|Gas to liquids}}
* {{annotated link|Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing}}
* {{annotated link|Gasoline gallon equivalent}}
* {{annotated link|Hydrogen fuel}}
* {{annotated link|Internal combustion engine|abbreviation=ICE}}
* {{annotated link|Jerrycan}}
* {{annotated link|List of automotive fuel retailers}}
* {{annotated link|List of gasoline additives}}
* {{annotated link|Natural-gas condensate#Drip gas}}
* {{annotated link|Synthetic gasoline}}
* {{annotated link|Octane rating}}
* {{annotated link|World oil market chronology from 2003}}
}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===

{{refbegin}}
* Gold, Russell. ''The Boom: How Fracking Ignited the American Energy Revolution and Changed the World'' (Simon & Schuster, 2014).
* Yergin, Daniel. ''[[The Quest: Energy, Security, and the Remaking of the Modern World]]'' (Penguin, 2011).
* Yergin, Daniel. ''[[The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power]]'' (Buccaneer Books, 1994; latest edition: Reissue Press, 2008).
* [http://zfacts.com/p/35.html Graph of inflation-corrected historic prices, 1970–2005. Highest in 2005] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050923171110/http://zfacts.com/p/35.html |date=23 September 2005 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070917190316/http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/edu/pubs/consumer/autos/aut12.shtm The Low-Down on High Octane Gasoline]
* [http://www.epa.gov/otaq/regs/fuels/additive/mmt_cmts.htm MMT-US EPA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050920000828/http://www.epa.gov/otaq/regs/fuels/additive/mmt_cmts.htm |date=20 September 2005 }}
* An [http://www.gasresources.net/Introduction.htm introduction to the modern petroleum science] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050404212240/http://www.gasresources.net/Introduction.htm |date=4 April 2005 }}, and to the Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, [[abiotic petroleum]] origins.
* [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/041008.html What's the difference between premium and regular gas?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041019020018/http://www.straightdope.com/columns/041008.html |date=19 October 2004 }} (from [[The Straight Dope]])
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051109151831/http://www.gtz.de/en/themen/umwelt-infrastruktur/transport/10285.htm International Fuel Prices 2005] with diesel and gasoline prices of 172 countries
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20010815085245/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/oog/info/gdu/gasdiesel.asp EIA—Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Update]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060614021021/http://soc.hfac.uh.edu/artman/publish/article_375.shtml World Internet News: "Big Oil Looking for Another Government Handout", April 2006.]
* [http://journeytoforever.org/biofuel_library/ethanol_motherearth/me2.html#table Durability of various plastics: Alcohols vs. Gasoline] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041028080312/http://journeytoforever.org/biofuel_library/ethanol_motherearth/me2.html#table |date=28 October 2004 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030221233432/http://www.gasresources.net/DisposalBioClaims.htm Dismissal of the Claims of a Biological Connection for Natural petroleum.]
* [https://www.epa.gov/OMSWWW/rfgecon.htm Fuel Economy Impact Analysis of RFG] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022034002/http://www.epa.gov/OMSWWW/rfgecon.htm |date=22 October 2012 }} i.e. reformulated gasoline. Has lower heating value data, actual energy content is higher see [[higher heating value]]
* [https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/430113/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204235224/https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/430113/ |date=4 February 2021 }}, 'A Refiner's Viewpoint on Motor Fuel Quality' About the fuel specs refiners can control. Holaday W, and Happel J. (SAE paper 430113, 1943).
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Gasoline}}
{{Wiktionary|gasoline}}
* [https://money.cnn.com/pf/features/lists/global_gasprices/ CNN/Money: Global gas prices]
* [http://www.energy.eu/#Prices EEP: European gas prices]
* [http://cta.ornl.gov/data/index.shtml Transportation Energy Data Book]
* [http://www.energysupplylogistics.com/terminals Energy Supply Logistics Searchable Directory of US Terminals]
* [http://robotpig.net/__automotive/fuel.php High octane fuel, leaded and LRP gasoline—article from robotpig.net]
* [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0299.html CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
* [http://www.globalair.com/airport/fuelmap.aspx Aviation Fuel Map]
* [https://www.buildpriceoption.com/comparison-of-regular-midgrade-and-premium-fuel/ Comparison of Regular, Midgrade, and Premium Fuel]
;Images
* ''[https://archive.org/movies/details-db.php?collection=prelinger&collectionid=19334&from=collectionSpotlight Down the Gasoline Trail]'' Handy Jam Organization, 1935 (Cartoon)

{{Motor fuel}}
{{Portal bar|Energy|Ecology|Environment|Science|Renewable energy|Engineering|Aviation|Trains|Chemistry|History of science|Cars}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:IARC Group 2B carcinogens]]
[[Category:Liquid fuels]]
[[Category:Petroleum products]]
[[Category:Inhalants]]

User talk:Asyncadr

Asyncadr:

Mark Morton (guitarist)

2022-08-01T03:08:03Z

Asyncadr: /* Amplifiers & Cabinets */ Corrected link to `Wrath` to link to the page for the album, instead of for the emotion

{{short description|American musician (born 1972)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Mark Morton
| image = 2015 RiP Lamb of God - Mark Morton by 2eight - DSC5322.jpg
| caption = Morton performing at [[Rock im Park]] 2015
| background = non_vocal_instrumentalist
| birth_name = Mark Duane Morton
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1972|11|25}}
| birth_place = United States
| genre = {{flatlist|
* [[Heavy metal music|Heavy metal]]
* [[groove metal]]
* [[metalcore]]
* [[thrash metal]]
* [[hard rock]]
}}
| instrument = Guitar
| years_active = 1989–present
| associated_acts = [[Lamb of God (band)|Lamb of God]]
| occupation = {{flatlist|
* Musician
* songwriter
}}
| label = {{flatlist|
* [[Prosthetic Records|Prosthetic]]
* [[Epic Records|Epic]]
* {{nowrap|[[Nuclear Blast]]}}
* [[Spinefarm Records|Spinefarm]]
}}
| website = {{URL|lamb-of-god.com}}
}}

'''Mark Duane Morton''' (born November 25, 1972) is an American musician and digital projects manager who is the [[lead guitar]]ist and one of the founding members of the [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band [[Lamb of God (band)|Lamb of God]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Demasi|first= Vincent |date=January 1, 2007 |title=All God's children: Lamb of God's Willie Adler and Mark Morton spread the gospel of American metal|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-155736590/all-god-children-lamb.html|website=Accessmylibrary.com}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Morton grew up near [[Williamsburg, Virginia]]. His first band was Axis, which was composed of other local youth, one being Ryan Lake of [[Alabama Thunderpussy]] fame. Morton played rhythm guitar. The band became a popular local act winning the local battle of the bands competition, known as Stockwood, in 1988.
[[File:Mark Morton in Axis circa 1988.jpg|thumb|upright|Morton with Axis, March 1988. Ryan Lake on left.]]

==Career==

Morton, [[Chris Adler (drummer)|Chris Adler]], and [[John Campbell (bassist)|John Campbell]] met in 1990 at [[Virginia Commonwealth University]] where they were room mates. Several years later, they formed a band under the name "Burn the Priest". Morton soon left to pursue a master's degree, and the band added guitarist Abe Spear, and vocalist, [[Randy Blythe]]. After a couple years apart, Morton rejoined the group and Burn the Priest released a self titled full-length album. He was credited as "Duane" on the album "New American Gospel" Lamb of God's first major release.

Morton frequently utilizes [[pentatonic scale]]s and [[harmonic minor scale]]s, and it has been noted that he has a [[blues]] style to his music. He composes and plays almost all of Lamb of God's guitar solos and forms many of the heavy groove rhythms.

Morton is known for writing some of Lamb of God's less conventional songs. These include, "Descending", "Vigil", and "Remorse is for the Dead". In the DVD documenting the making of Sacrament, he made the point that he likes to "toss in the wildcard, the oddball, 'cause for every three you toss in, one of 'em winds up being real special because it's that different." Morton has also written some of the band's more traditional metal songs, such as "Now You've Got Something to Die For", "Redneck", and "Walk with Me in Hell".
[[Image:Lamb of God-0355-Mark Morton.jpg|thumb|Morton performing at [[Download Festival]] in 2007]]
In March 2012, Morton collaborated with [[DevilDriver]] frontman [[Dez Fafara]] on a new project called Born of the Storm. Two songs were released, "Nowhere Fast" and "Dust". Fafara's vocals are different from his trademark DevilDriver vocals on these songs and Morton's guitar sound is more original and incorporates [[Blues|bluesy]] rock riffs, a style that Morton is making into his own.

On July 19, 2012, Morton released his own song titled "To Make Sure2". He announced the release of his song through his [[Facebook]] page. He wrote: "heres a tune i worked on with some friends the other night....sumthin different....hope you enjoy."

In December 2018, Morton announced his solo debut album, ''[[Anesthetic (album)|Anesthetic]]'' to be released on March 1, 2019, through [[Spinefarm Records]]. A single from the album titled "The Truth Is Dead" was released following the announcement and features Morton's [[Lamb of God (band)|Lamb of God]] bandmate [[Randy Blythe]] as well as [[Arch Enemy]] frontwoman [[Alissa White-Gluz]] on vocals.<ref name="morton debut">{{cite web |title=LAMB OF GOD Guitarist's 'Anesthetic' Solo Album To Feature Guest Appearances By LINKIN PARK, PAPA ROACH Members |url=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/lamb-of-god-guitarists-anesthetic-solo-album-to-feature-guest-appearances-by-linkin-park-papa-roach-members/ |website=[[Blabbermouth]] |date=December 14, 2018 |accessdate=December 14, 2018}}</ref> The album also features a posthumous collaboration with late [[Linkin Park]] frontman [[Chester Bennington]],<ref name="chester1">{{cite web |last1=Kaufman |first1=Spencer |title=Lamb of God's Mark Morton to release album featuring Chester Bennington, Randy Blythe, Myles Kennedy, and more |url=https://consequenceofsound.net/2018/12/lamb-of-god-mark-morton-album-chester-bennington-randy-blythe-myles-kennedy/ |website=[[Consequence of Sound]] |date=December 14, 2018 |accessdate=December 14, 2018}}</ref> which was teased all the way back to April 2017.<ref name="chester2">{{cite web |last1=Rosenberg |first1=Axl |title=Lamb of God's Mark Morton Collaborating with Linkin Park's Chester Bennington |url=http://www.metalsucks.net/2017/04/12/lamb-of-gods-mark-morton-collaborating-with-linkin-parks-chester-bennington/ |website=[[MetalSucks]] |date=April 12, 2017 |accessdate=December 14, 2018}}</ref> The song titled "Cross Off" was released as the album's second single on January 8, 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wallofsoundau.com/2018/12/18/lamb-of-gods-mark-morton-announces-solo-collaborative-album-anesthetic-featuring-a-stack-of-guests/|title=Lamb of God's Mark Morton announces solo collaborative album 'Anesthetic' featuring a STACK OF GUESTS!!!|last=brownypaul|date=December 18, 2018|website=Wall Of Sound|language=en-US|access-date=January 8, 2019}}</ref>

==Equipment==
Morton's performing gear consists mostly of various [[Jackson Guitars|Jackson guitars]], including a Rhoads style and Swee-Tone archtop (both seen in the ''[[Killadelphia (DVD)|Killadelphia]]'' DVD) and, most often, his own signature model, the Jackson Dominion strung with GHS Boomer Strings 10-46 tuned to [[Drop D tuning|drop-D]], loaded with a Seymour Duncan '59 in the bridge and a Duncan Jazz in the neck. He has recently developed a signature "Dominion" pickup with Dimarzio, which he is now using in his signature guitars.<ref name="setups">{{cite web |title=Setups - Mark Morton (Lamb of God) |url=https://www.seymourduncan.com/artists/setups/mark_morton_lam/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024133237/https://www.seymourduncan.com/artists/setups/mark_morton_lam/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 24, 2007 |website=[[Seymour Duncan]] |accessdate=December 14, 2018}}</ref> Onstage, Morton uses two Dual Mesa Boogie Mark V heads [[Instrument amplifier|amplifiers]] with Mesa 4X12 cabinets His rack gear includes a [[Sennheiser]] wireless system, a DBX 266XL [[Dynamic range compression|compressor]] / [[noise gate]], and a splitter box. He only uses a few pedals on stage, [[Dunlop Cry Baby|Original Cry Baby]] Wah Pedal, MXR [[Eddie Van Halen]] Phase 90 which "makes his solos sear", MXR GT-OD overdrive pedal, and a Boss tuning pedal. Recently, it has been rumored that a signature Cry Baby wah might be in production.

===Guitars===
* [[Jackson Guitars|Jackson]] Mark Morton Dominion<ref name="jackson">{{cite web |last1=Kirkland |first1=Eric |title=Jackson Pro Series "Dominion" Mark Morton Signature Guitar |url=https://www.guitarworld.com/article/jackson_pro_series_dominion_mark_morton_signature_guitar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513101126/https://www.guitarworld.com/article/jackson_pro_series_dominion_mark_morton_signature_guitar |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 13, 2007 |website=[[Guitar World]] |accessdate=December 14, 2018}}</ref>
* [[Jackson Rhoads|Jackson RR5]] (Rarely uses it since acquiring his Signature with Jackson. Only used on "Ruin")
* [[Jackson King V]] (Only used on the ''New American Gospel'' recordings)
* Jackson USA Custom Shop Swee-Tone
* Jackson Warrior
* Jackson Soloist SL2H (used on the recent No Fear Energy Tour)
* Jackson Adrian Smith San Dimas DK (used on the recent No Fear Energy Tour)
* [[Gibson Les Paul]] Standard Gold
* [[Framus]] Renegade Pro (With neck pickup removed)
* Framus Camarillo Custom
* [[Jackson Rhoads|Jackson RR24]]
* JAW Custom Les Paul Style
* Jackson Soloist custom (originally built for [[Joe Duplantier]] from [[Gojira (band)|Gojira]]. Seen in Desolation music video)

===Amplifiers & Cabinets===
* [[Mesa Boogie]] Mark IV Amplifier
* [[Mesa Boogie]] Royal Atlantic
* [[Mesa Boogie]] 4x12 Cabinets (x9) (2 loaded, 7 unloaded)
* [[Marshall Amplification]] Hot-Rodded head (Only used on ''[[Wrath_(Lamb_of_God_album)|Wrath]]'')
* [[Marshall Amplification]] 4x12 Cabinets (Only used on ''Wrath'')
* [[Orange Amplification]] 4x12 Cabinets (Only used on ''Wrath'')
* [[Mesa Boogie]] Mark V Amplifier
* [[Mesa Boogie]] Triple Rectifier (added to his rig in 2008)

===Accessories===
* [[Dimarzio]] Dominion and Breed pickups
* Various [[Seymour Duncan]] pickup models with the Duncan SH-1 '59 set prominent
* [[Sennheiser]] Wireless System
* [[Boss Corporation|Boss TU-2 Chromatic Tuner]]
* [[Boss Corporation|Boss NS-2 Noise Gate]]
* [[Dunlop Manufacturing|Dunlop]] Crybaby Wylde Wah
* [[Dunlop Manufacturing|Dunlop]] Crybaby Rack
* [[Dunlop Manufacturing|MXR]] EVH Phase 90
* [[Dunlop Manufacturing|Dunlop]] Crybaby JC95 Jerry Cantrell Wah
* [[Dunlop Manufacturing|MXR]] Kerry King 10 Band EQ
* [[Dunlop Manufacturing|MXR]] Carbon Copy Delay
* Way Huge Green Rhino Overdrive
* Rocktron Hush Super C
* DBX 266xl Compressor/Gate
* GHS Boomer Strings 10-48
* 1.14 mm Dunlop Tortex picks

===Guitar rig and signal flow===
A detailed gear diagram of Morton's 2005 Lamb of God guitar rig is well-documented.<ref>Cooper, Adam (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20150902135334/http://www.guitargeek.com/mark-morton-lamb-of-god-guitar-rig-and-gear-setup-2005/ "Mark Morton's 2005 Lamb of God Guitar Rig"]. GuitarGeek.Com.</ref>

==Discography==
===Solo===
====Studio albums====
*''[[Anesthetic (album)|Anesthetic]]'' (2019, Spinefarm Records)

====EPs====
*''Ether'' (2020, Rise Records)

====Singles====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Title
! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Year
! colspan="4" scope="col" | Peak chart positions
! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Album
|-
!style="width:4em;font-size:75%"|US Airplay <ref name="BB Air">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/chester-bennington/chart-history/rka/|title = Chester Bennington| magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] }}</ref>
!style="width:4em;font-size:75%"|[[Mainstream Rock (chart)|US Main.]] <ref name="BB Main">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/mark-morton/chart-history/rtt/|title = Mark Morton| magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] }}</ref>
!style="width:4em;font-size:75%"|[[Hot Rock Songs|US Rock]] <ref name="BB HRS">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/mark-morton/chart-history/ark/|title=Mark Morton|magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] }}</ref>
!style="width:4em;font-size:75%"|[[Billboard charts#Rock|US Hard Rock Digital]] <ref name="BB Main"/>
|-
! scope="row"| "The Truth Is Dead" (featuring [[Randy Blythe]] and [[Alissa White-Gluz]])
| 2018
| —
| —
| —
| —
|rowspan="3"| ''Anesthetic''
|-
! scope="row"| "Cross Off" (featuring [[Chester Bennington]])
|rowspan="2"| 2019
| 25
| 7
| 37
| 11
|-
! scope="row"| "Save Defiance" (featuring [[Myles Kennedy]])
| —
| —
| —
| —
|-
!scope="row"|"All I Had to Lose" (featuring Mark Morales)
|2020
|—
|—
|—
|—
|''Ether''
|-
| colspan="7" style="font-size:8pt;" | "—" denotes a release that did not chart.
|}

===With Burn the Priest===

* Demo Tape (1995, Independently Released)
* Split with ZED (1997, [[Goatboy Records]])
* Split with Agents of Satan (1998, Deaf American Recordings)
* ''[[Sevens and More]]'' (1998, [[mp3.com]])
*''[[Burn the Priest (album)|Burn the Priest]]'' (1999, [[Legion Records]])
*''[[Legion: XX]]'' (2018, Epic / Nuclear Blast)

===With Lamb of God===
*''[[New American Gospel]]'' (2000, Prosthetic Records) (credited under his middle name, Duane)
*''[[As the Palaces Burn]]'' (2003, Prosthetic Records)
*''[[Ashes of the Wake]]'' (2004, Epic Records)
*''[[Killadelphia (album)|Killadelphia]]'' (2005, Epic Records)
*''[[Sacrament (album)|Sacrament]]'' (2006, Epic Records)
*''[[Wrath (Lamb of God album)|Wrath]]'' (2009, Roadrunner Records/Epic Records)
*''[[Resolution (Lamb of God album)|Resolution]]'' (2012, Roadrunner Records/Epic Records)
*''[[VII: Sturm und Drang]]'' (2015, Epic Records/Nuclear Blast Records)
*''[[Lamb of God (album)|Lamb of God]]'' (2020, Epic Records/Nuclear Blast Records)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Further reading===
*[https://www.loudersound.com/news/lamb-of-god-s-mark-morton-reveals-pain-behind-embers Lamb Of God's Mark Morton reveals pain behind Embers]
*[https://www.fuse.tv/2015/12/lamb-of-god-interview-mark-morton LAMB OF GOD'S MARK MORTON TALKS GRAMMY NOM & TOURING AFTER PARIS ATTACKS: INTERVIEW]
*[https://www.jacksonguitars.com/features/mark-morton Mark Morton] at [[Jackson Guitars]]

{{Commons category|Mark Morton}}

{{Lamb of God}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Morton, Mark}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1972 births]]
[[Category:Lead guitarists]]
[[Category:Musicians from Richmond, Virginia]]
[[Category:Lamb of God (band) members]]
[[Category:Virginia Commonwealth University alumni]]
[[Category:American heavy metal guitarists]]
[[Category:American people of German descent]]
[[Category:21st-century American guitarists]]

Capital punishment in the United States

2022-05-15T00:16:18Z

Asyncadr: /* Moratorium on executions */ Changed to Latin plural for "moratorium"

{{Short description|Overview of capital punishment in the United States}}
{{About|an overview of capital punishment amongst all jurisdictions in the United States|capital punishment by the federal government|Capital punishment by the United States federal government}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2020}}
[[File:Death penalty in the United States with hiatuses.svg|thumb|250px|'''Without the death penalty:'''
{{Legend|#4daf4a|Capital punishment repealed, never instituted, or struck down as unconstitutional (27){{efn|Map only displays the status of the death penalty for crimes committed in the present and future. Some abolitionist states may still allow one to be sentenced to death for crimes committed before the abolition of the capital punishment in that state.}}}}
'''With the death penalty:'''
{{Legend|#377eb8|Capital punishment in statute, but executions formally suspended (8)}}
{{Legend|#ffff33|Capital punishment in statute, but no executions within the last 10 years (9)}}
{{Legend|#984ea3|Capital punishment in statute, but executions informally suspended ([[Capital punishment in Ohio|1]])}}
{{Legend|#e41a1c|Executions carried out within the last 10 years (12)}}]]
[[File:Capital Punishment in the United States by State Since 1970.gif|thumb|250px|Map displaying the status of capital punishment since 1970 by jurisdiction. {{Legend|#000000|Capital punishment abolished or struck down}}{{Legend|#cccccc|Capital punishment is a legal penalty.}}]]

In the United States, [[capital punishment]] is a legal penalty in 27 states, [[Capital punishment in American Samoa|American Samoa]],{{efn|Although capital punishment is, in theory, a legal punishment, there are currently no statutes that govern the execution of a sentence of death, resulting in a situation where life imprisonment is the [[de facto]] highest punishment in American Samoa.}} by the [[Capital punishment by the United States federal government|federal government]], and the [[Capital punishment by the United States military|military]], and is abolished in 23 states.<ref>{{cite news |title=States and capital punishment |publisher=National Conference of State Legislatures |url=http://www.ncsl.org/research/civil-and-criminal-justice/death-penalty.aspx |access-date=June 23, 2017}}</ref> Capital punishment is, in practice, only applied for aggravated murder. Although it is a legal penalty in 27 states, only 20 states have the ability to execute [[death]] sentences, with the other seven, as well as the federal government, being subject to different types of moratoriums. The existence of capital punishment in the United States can be traced to early [[colonial Virginia]]. Along with [[Capital punishment in Japan|Japan]], [[Capital punishment in Taiwan|Taiwan]], and [[Capital punishment in Singapore|Singapore]], the United States is one of four advanced democracies and the only [[Western nation]] that applies the death penalty regularly.<ref name="Bienen2010">{{cite book |author=Leigh B. Bienen |title=Murder and Its Consequences: Essays on Capital Punishment in America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vmpEQUhpNXUC&pg=PA143 |edition=2nd |date=2010 |publisher=Northwestern University Press |isbn=978-0-8101-2697-8 |page=143}}</ref><ref name="Reichert2011">{{cite book |author=Elisabeth Reichert |title=Social Work and Human Rights: A Foundation for Policy and Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2LylU2Yp6NYC&pg=PA89 |year=2011 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-52070-6 |page=89}}</ref><ref name="Durrant2013">{{cite book |author=Russil Durrant|title=An Introduction to Criminal Psychology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mIpMUpsoy90C&pg=PA268 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-23434-7|page=268}}</ref><ref name="BryantPeck2009">{{cite book|author1=Clifton D. Bryant|author2=Dennis L. Peck|title=Encyclopedia of Death & Human Experience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LFOn7rpkVdQC&pg=PA144 |year=2009 |publisher=Sage Publications |isbn=978-1-4129-5178-4|page=144}}</ref><ref name="Roberson2015">{{cite book|author=Cliff Roberson|title=Constitutional Law and Criminal Justice, Second Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oHu9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA188|year=2015|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4987-2120-2|page=188}}</ref>
It is one of [[Capital punishment by country|54 countries worldwide]] applying it, and was the first to develop [[lethal injection]] as a method of execution, which has since been adopted by five other countries.<ref>{{cite web |title= Lethal injection. |url=http://www.capitalpunishmentuk.org/injection.html |publisher=capitalpunishmentuk.org |quote=China...Guatemala, Philippines, Thailand...Vietnam |access-date= March 16, 2016}}</ref> The [[Capital punishment in the Philippines|Philippines]] has since abolished executions, and [[Capital punishment in Guatemala|Guatemala]] has done so for civil offenses, leaving the United States as one of four countries to still use this method (along with [[Capital punishment in China|China]], [[Capital punishment in Thailand|Thailand]], and [[Capital punishment in Vietnam|Vietnam]]). It is common practice for the condemned to be administered sedatives prior to execution, regardless of the method used.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudi-arabia-how-kingdom-treats-people-it-going-execute-a6692671.html |title=The brutal way Saudi Arabia treats the people it is going to execute |date=October 13, 2015 |website=The Independent}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.news.com.au/world/asia/the-confronting-truth-behind-executions/news-story/915acd2c920f5404b742c086e13644c3 |title=The confronting truth behind executions |date=February 17, 2015 |publisher=NewsComAu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://helenair.com/news/state-and-regional/states-give-sedatives-to-inmates-before-execution/article_142a411a-be65-5a6d-9068-7c2bb3b490e9.html |title=States give sedatives to inmates before execution |first=Andrew |last=Welsh-Huggins |agency=Associated Press |date=November 5, 2006 |website=Helena Independent Record}}</ref>

There were no executions in the United States between 1967 and 1977. In 1972, the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] struck down capital punishment statutes in ''[[Furman v. Georgia]]'', reducing all pending death sentences to life imprisonment at the time.<ref name="Latzer">Barry Latzer (2010), ''Death Penalty Cases: Leading U.S. Supreme Court Cases on Capital Punishment'', Elsevier, p. 37.</ref> Subsequently, a majority of states enacted new death penalty statutes, and the court affirmed the legality of capital punishment in the 1976 case ''[[Gregg v. Georgia]]''. Since then, more than 7,800 defendants have been sentenced to death;<ref name="DPIC-sentencing">{{cite web |title=Death Sentences in the United States From 1977 By State and By Year |url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/death-sentences-united-states-1977-present |publisher=[[Death Penalty Information Center]] |access-date= April 24, 2017}}</ref> of these, more than 1,500 have been executed.<ref name="Update">{{cite web |title=Execution Statistics Summary – State and Year |url=http://people.smu.edu/rhalperi/summary.html |publisher=people.smu.edu/rhalperi/ |access-date= January 26, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/06/20/us/marion-wilson-execution-georgia/index.html |title=Georgia inmate is the 1,500th person executed in the US since the death penalty was reinstated |date=June 21, 2019 |publisher=CNN |access-date=June 21, 2019}}</ref> At least 185 people who were sentenced to death since 1972 have since been exonerated, about 2.4% or one in 42.<ref name="DPIC-innocence-list">{{cite web |title=Innocence: List of Those Freed From Death Row |url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/innocence-list-those-freed-death-row |publisher=[[Death Penalty Information Center]] |access-date=May 13, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513153319/https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/innocence-list-those-freed-death-row |archive-date=May 13, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Dwyer-Moss, 760">Dwyer-Moss, Jessica (2013). "Flawed Forensics and the Death Penalty: Junk Science and Potentially Wrongful Executions", ''Seattle Journal for Social Justice'': Vol. 11, Iss. 2, Article 10. p. 760.</ref> As of December 16, 2020, 2,591 convicts are still on death row.<ref>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Death Penalty in 2020: Year End Report|url=https://reports.deathpenaltyinfo.org/year-end/YearEndReport2020.pdf|access-date=February 2, 2021|website=|publisher=[[Death Penalty Information Center]]|page=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2013/07/19/us/death-penalty-fast-facts/index.html|title=Death Penalty Fast Facts|first=CNN Editorial|last=Research|website=CNN|date=July 19, 2013}}</ref>

The [[Trump administration]]'s Department of Justice announced its plans to resume executions for federal crimes in 2019. On July 14, 2020, [[Daniel Lewis Lee]] became the first inmate executed by the federal government since 2003.<ref name="LewisLeeExecution">{{cite web|url= https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/us-executes-first-federal-prisoner-daniel-lewis-lee-convicted-of-murder-in-17-years-2262779 |title= US Executes First Federal Prisoner, Convicted Of Murder, In 17 Years |website= www.ndtv.com |access-date=July 14, 2020}}</ref> {{as of|2022|1}}, there were 44 inmates on federal death row.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/state-and-federal-info/federal-death-penalty/list-of-federal-death-row-prisoners#list |title= List of Federal Death-Row Prisoners |website= deathpenaltyinfo.org |publisher= Death Penalty Information Center|access-date=May 11, 2021}}</ref> Thirteen federal death row inmates have been executed since federal executions resumed in July 2020. The last and most recent federal execution was of [[Dustin Higgs]], who was executed on January 16, 2021. Higgs' execution was also the last under the [[presidency of Donald Trump]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-executions/u-s-carries-out-13th-and-final-execution-under-trump-administration-idUSKBN29L06J|title=U.S. carries out 13th and final execution under Trump administration|first1=Jonathan|last1=Allen|first2=Bhargav|last2=Acharya|publisher=Reuters|date=January 16, 2021|access-date=January 16, 2021}}</ref> It is currently unknown if federal executions will continue during the [[presidency of Joe Biden]], although Biden does oppose capital punishment in the United States.<ref name="joebidencp">{{Cite web|url=https://joebiden.com/justice/|title=Joe Biden's Criminal Justice Policy | Joe Biden|website=Joe Biden for President}}</ref>

Democrats introduced the [[Federal Death Penalty Abolition Act of 2021]] on January 4, 2021. The bill is currently before the [[United States House Committee on the Judiciary|House Judiciary Committee]].

The Human Rights Measurement Initiative<ref>{{Cite web|title=Human Rights Measurement Initiative|url=https://humanrightsmeasurement.org/|access-date=2022-02-08|website=Human Rights Measurement Initiative|language=en-US}}</ref> gives the US a score of 4.4 out of 10 for the right to freedom from the death penalty.<ref>{{Cite web|title=United States - HRMI Rights Tracker|url=https://rightstracker.org/|access-date=2022-02-08|website=rightstracker.org|language=en}}</ref>

==History==
===Pre-''Furman'' history===
[[File:Usa-executions.svg|thumb|right|350px|Executions in the United States from 1608 to 2020]]

The first recorded death sentence in the British North American colonies was carried out in 1608 on Captain George Kendall,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/part-i-history-death-penalty |title=Part I: History of the Death Penalty, Death Penalty Information Center |author=Death Penalty Information Center |year=2010 |access-date=April 12, 2011}}</ref> who was executed by firing squad<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lawenforcementtoday.com/tag/captain-george-kendall/|title=Is there a Death Penalty in America?|author=david waksman|access-date=December 28, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230232544/http://lawenforcementtoday.com/tag/captain-george-kendall/|archive-date=December 30, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> at the [[Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown colony]] for [[spying]] on behalf of the Spanish government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.antideathpenalty.org/history.html |title=History of the Death Penalty in America |publisher=Antideathpenalty.org |access-date=December 1, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116172949/http://www.antideathpenalty.org/history.html |archive-date=November 16, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Executions in colonial America were also carried out by [[Hanging in the United States|hanging]]. The hangman's noose was one of the various banishments the [[Puritans]] of the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] applied to enforce religious and intellectual comformity on the whole community.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Merrill |first1=Louis Taylor |title=The Puritan Policeman |journal=American Sociological Review |publisher=American Sociological Association |date=1945 |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=766–776 |doi=10.2307/2085847 |jstor=2085847 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2085847}}</ref>

The [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]] adopted in 1789 included the [[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighth Amendment]] which prohibited [[cruel and unusual punishment]]. The [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment]] was drafted with language implying a possible use of the death penalty, requiring a grand jury indictment for "capital crime" and a due process of law for deprivation of "life" by the government.<ref name="ReferenceScaliaBaze">{{cite web |title= BAZE v. REES (No. 07-5439) [April 16, 2008] Justice Scalia, with whom Justice Thomas joins, concurring in the judgment |url= https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/07-5439.ZC2.html|publisher= law.cornell.edu |access-date= April 7, 2016}}</ref> The [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] adopted in 1868 also requires a due process of law for deprivation of life by any states.

The ''Espy file'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=8&did=269 |title=Espy file |publisher=Deathpenaltyinfo.org |access-date=December 1, 2011 |archive-date=September 5, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905090951/http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=8&did=269 |url-status=dead }}</ref> compiled by [[M. Watt Espy]] and John Ortiz Smykla, lists 15,269 people executed in the United States and its predecessor colonies between 1608 and 1991. From 1930 to 2002, there were 4,661 executions in the U.S., about two-thirds of them in the first 20 years.<ref name="US DoJ">[http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/cp.htm Department of Justice] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091211212953/http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/cp.htm |date=December 11, 2009 }} of the United States of America</ref> Additionally, the [[United States Army]] executed 135 soldiers between 1916 and 1961 (the most recent).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?did=180 |title=The U.S. Military Death Penalty |publisher=Deathpenaltyinfo.org |access-date=December 1, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080522175848/http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?did=180 |archive-date=May 22, 2008 }}</ref><ref>[[John A. Bennett]]</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=32&did=988 |title=Executions in the Military |publisher=Deathpenaltyinfo.org |access-date=December 1, 2011 |archive-date=August 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080808084901/http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=32&did=988 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Early abolition movement===
{{more citations needed | section | date = October 2021}}
Three states abolished the death penalty for murder during the 19th century: [[Capital punishment in Michigan|Michigan]] (which has never executed a prisoner since achieving statehood), in 1847, [[Capital punishment in Wisconsin|Wisconsin]], in 1853 and [[Capital punishment in Maine|Maine]], in 1887. [[Capital punishment in Rhode Island|Rhode Island]] is also a state with a long abolitionist background, having repealed the death penalty in 1852, though it was theoretically available for murder committed by a prisoner between 1872 and 1984.

Other states which abolished the death penalty for murder before ''[[Gregg v. Georgia]]'' include [[Minnesota]] in 1911, [[Capital punishment in Vermont|Vermont]] in 1964, [[Iowa]] and [[Capital punishment in West Virginia|West Virginia]] in 1965, and [[North Dakota]] in 1973. [[Hawaii]] abolished the death penalty in 1948 and [[Alaska]] in 1957, both before their statehood. [[Capital punishment in Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]] repealed it in 1929 and the [[Capital punishment in the District of Columbia|District of Columbia]] in 1981. Arizona and Oregon abolished the death penalty by [[Suffrage|popular vote]] in 1916 and 1964 respectively, but both reinstated it, again by popular vote, some years later; Arizona reinstated the death penalty in 1918 and Oregon in 1978. In Oregon, the measure reinstating the death penalty was overturned by the [[Oregon Supreme Court]] in 1981, but Oregon voters again reinstated the death penalty in 1984.<ref name="Ballotpedia">{{cite web|url=https://ballotpedia.org/Death_penalty_on_the_ballot|title= Death penalty on the ballot |publisher= ballotpedia.org |access-date=April 6, 2016}}</ref> Puerto Rico and Michigan are the only two U.S. jurisdictions to have explicitly prohibited capital punishment in their constitutions: in 1952 and 1964, respectively.

===Constitutional law developments===
Capital punishment was used by only 5 of 50 states in 2020. They were Alabama, Georgia, Missouri, Tennessee and Texas. Government executions, as reported by [[Amnesty International]], took place in only 20 of the world's 195 countries. The federal government, however, which had not executed for 16 years prior, did so in 2020, pushed by Donald Trump and his nominee Attorney General William Barr.
Executions for various crimes, especially murder and rape, occurred from the creation of the United States up to the beginning of the 1960s. Until then, "save for a few mavericks, no one gave any credence to the possibility of ending the death penalty by judicial interpretation of constitutional law", according to abolitionist [[Hugo Adam Bedau|Hugo Bedau]].<ref>The Courts, the Constitution, and Capital Punishment 118 (1977)</ref>

The possibility of challenging the constitutionality of the death penalty became progressively more realistic after the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] decided on ''[[Trop v. Dulles]]'' in 1958. The Supreme Court declared explicitly, for the first time, that the Eighth Amendment's [[cruel and unusual punishment]] clause must draw its meaning from the "evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society", rather than from its original meaning. Also in the 1932 case ''[[Powell v. Alabama]]'', the court made the first step of what would later be called "death is different" jurisprudence, when it held that any indigent defendant was entitled to a court-appointed attorney in capital cases – a right that was only later extended to non-capital defendants in 1963, with ''[[Gideon v. Wainwright]]''.

===Capital punishment suspended (1972)===
{{Further|Furman v. Georgia}}In ''Furman v. Georgia'', the U.S. Supreme Court considered a group of consolidated cases. The lead case involved an individual convicted under Georgia's death penalty statute, which featured a "unitary trial" procedure in which the jury was asked to return a verdict of guilt or innocence and, simultaneously, determine whether the defendant would be punished by death or life imprisonment. The last pre-''Furman'' execution was that of [[Luis Monge (mass murderer)|Luis Monge]] on June 2, 1967.

In a 5–4 decision, the Supreme Court struck down the impositions of the death penalty in each of the consolidated cases as unconstitutional in violation of the [[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighth]] and [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth]] Amendments of the [[United States Constitution]]. The Supreme Court has never ruled the death penalty to be ''per se'' unconstitutional. The five justices in the majority did not produce a common opinion or rationale for their decision, however, and agreed only on a short statement announcing the result. The narrowest opinions, those of [[Byron White]] and [[Potter Stewart]], expressed generalized concerns about the inconsistent application of the death penalty across a variety of cases, but did not exclude the possibility of a constitutional death penalty law. Stewart and [[William O. Douglas]] worried explicitly about [[Race and capital punishment in the United States|racial discrimination in enforcement of the death penalty]]. [[Thurgood Marshall]] and [[William J. Brennan Jr.]] expressed the opinion that the death penalty was proscribed absolutely by the Eighth Amendment as cruel and unusual punishment.

The ''Furman'' decision caused all death sentences pending at the time to be reduced to life imprisonment, and was described by scholars as a "legal bombshell".<ref name="Latzer"/> The next day, columnist [[Barry Schweid]] wrote that it was "unlikely" that the death penalty could exist anymore in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=pAoQAAAAIBAJ&pg=3786,38609|title=The Free Lance-Star – Google News Archive Search|website=news.google.com}}</ref>

===Capital punishment reinstated (1976)===
{{Further|Gregg v. Georgia}}
[[File:Panorama of United States Supreme Court Building at Dusk.jpg|thumb|U.S. Supreme Court, [[Washington, D.C.]]]]
Instead of abandoning capital punishment, 37 states enacted new death penalty statutes that attempted to address the concerns of White and Stewart in ''Furman''. Some states responded by enacting mandatory death penalty statutes which prescribed a sentence of death for anyone convicted of certain forms of murder. White had hinted that such a scheme would meet his constitutional concerns in his ''Furman'' opinion. Other states adopted "bifurcated" trial and sentencing procedures, with various procedural limitations on the jury's ability to pronounce a death sentence designed to limit juror discretion.

On July 2, 1976, the U.S. Supreme Court decided ''[[Gregg v. Georgia]]''<ref>''Gregg v. Georgia'', {{ussc|428|153|1976}}</ref> and upheld 7–2 a Georgia procedure in which the trial of capital crimes was bifurcated into guilt-innocence and sentencing phases. At the first proceeding, the jury decides the defendant's guilt; if the defendant is innocent or otherwise not convicted of first-degree murder, the death penalty will not be imposed. At the second hearing, the jury determines whether certain statutory aggravating factors exist, whether any [[mitigating factor]]s exist, and, in many jurisdictions, weigh the aggravating and mitigating factors in assessing the ultimate penalty – either death or life in prison, either with or without parole. The same day, in ''[[Woodson v. North Carolina]]''<ref>''Woodson v. North Carolina'', {{ussc|428|280|1976}}</ref> and ''[[Roberts v. Louisiana]]'',<ref>''Roberts v. Louisiana'', {{ussc|428|325|1976}}, {{ussc|431|633|1977}}</ref> the court struck down 5–4 statutes providing a [[mandatory death penalty|mandatory death sentence]].

Executions resumed on January 17, 1977, when [[Gary Gilmore]] went before a [[Execution by firing squad|firing squad]] in [[Utah]]. Although hundreds of individuals were sentenced to death in the United States during the 1970s and early 1980s, only ten people besides Gilmore (who had waived all of his appeal rights) were actually executed prior to 1984.

Following the decision, the use of capital punishment in the United States soared.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Steiker|first1=Carol S.|last2=Steiker|first2=Jordan M.|date=January 13, 2020|title=The Rise, Fall, and Afterlife of the Death Penalty in the United States|journal=Annual Review of Criminology|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=299–315|doi=10.1146/annurev-criminol-011518-024721|issn=2572-4568|doi-access=free}}</ref> This was in contrast to trends in other parts of advanced industrial democracies where the use of capital punishment declined or was prohibited.<ref name=":2" /> Forty-seven European States, including Russia, are members of the [[Council of Europe]],<ref>The sole European states which are not in the Council of Europe are: [[Belarus]], [[Kazakhstan]] and the [[Vatican City]]).</ref> and they all comply with the [[European Convention of Human Rights]] which prohibits capital punishment. The [[Capital punishment in the United Kingdom|last execution in the UK]] took place in 1964,<ref>[[Amnesty International]] report [https://www.amnesty.org.uk/fifty-50-years-death-penalty-britain-uk]</ref> and in 1977 in France.

===Supreme Court narrows capital offenses===
{{See also|Felony murder and the death penalty in the United States}}
In 1977, the Supreme Court's ''[[Coker v. Georgia]]'' decision barred the death penalty for rape of an adult woman. Previously, the death penalty for rape of an adult had been gradually phased out in the United States, and at the time of the decision, Georgia and the U.S. Federal government were the only two jurisdictions to still retain the death penalty for this offense.

In the 1980 case ''[[Godfrey v. Georgia]]'', the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that murder can be punished by death only if it involves a narrow and precise [[aggravating factor]].<ref>{{cite web |title= Godfrey v. Georgia |url= https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/446/420/ |publisher= supreme.justia.com |access-date=March 24, 2016}}</ref>

The [[U.S. Supreme Court]] has placed two major restrictions on the use of the death penalty. First, the case of ''[[Atkins v. Virginia]]'', decided on June 20, 2002,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/00-8452.ZO.html|title=DARYL RENARD ATKINS, PETITIONER v. VIRGINIA|access-date=August 6, 2006|date=June 20, 2002}}</ref> held that the execution of intellectually disabled inmates is unconstitutional. Second, in 2005, the court's decision in ''[[Roper v. Simmons]]''<ref>''Roper v. Simmons'', {{ussc|543|551|2005}}</ref> struck down executions for offenders [[Capital punishment for juveniles in the United States|under the age of 18 at the time of the crime]].

In the 2008 case ''[[Kennedy v. Louisiana]]'', the court also held 5–4 that the death penalty is unconstitutional when applied to non-homicidal crimes against the person, including [[child rape]]. Only two death row inmates (both in Louisiana) were affected by the decision.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/CRIME/06/25/scotus.child.rape/index.html|title=Child rapists can't be executed, Supreme Court rules|first=Bill|last=Mears|publisher=CNN|date=June 25, 2008|access-date=May 7, 2017}}</ref> Nevertheless, the ruling came less than five months before the [[2008 United States presidential election|2008 presidential election]] and was criticized by both major party candidates [[Barack Obama]] and [[John McCain]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/WireStory?id=5246858&page=1 |title=Obama Disagrees With High Court on Child Rape Case |access-date=May 7, 2017 |work=[[ABC News]] |date=June 25, 2008 |author=Sara Kugler |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090524044856/https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/WireStory?id=5246858&page=1 |archive-date=May 24, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Repeal movements and legal challenges===
In 2004, [[New York (state)|New York]]'s and [[Kansas]]' capital sentencing schemes were struck down by their respective states' highest courts. Kansas successfully appealed the Kansas Supreme Court decision to the United States Supreme Court, which reinstated the statute in ''[[Kansas v. Marsh]]'' (2006), holding it did not violate the U.S. Constitution. The decision of the New York Court of Appeals was based on the state constitution, making unavailable any appeal. The [[New York State Assembly|state lower house]] has since blocked all attempts to reinstate the death penalty by adopting a valid sentencing scheme.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A47871-2005Apr12.html|title=In N.Y., Lawmakers Vote Not to Reinstate Capital Punishment|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=April 13, 2005|author=Powell, Michael|access-date=May 14, 2019|quote=NEW YORK, April 12 – New York's death penalty is no more. A legislative committee tossed out a bill Tuesday aimed at reinstating the state's death penalty, which a court had suspended last year. It was an extraordinary bit of drama, not least because a top Democrat who once strongly supported capital punishment led the fight to end it.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514154454/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A47871-2005Apr12.html?noredirect=on|archive-date=May 14, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2016, [[Delaware]]'s death penalty statute was also struck down by its state supreme court.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.delawareonline.com/story/news/local/2016/08/02/court-delawares-death-penalty-law-unconstitutional/87963012/|title=Top court: Delaware's death penalty law unconstitutional|date=August 2, 2016|access-date=May 14, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701135847/http://www.delawareonline.com/story/news/local/2016/08/02/court-delawares-death-penalty-law-unconstitutional/87963012/|archive-date=July 1, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2007, [[New Jersey]] became the first state to repeal the death penalty by legislative vote since ''Gregg v. Georgia'',<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/13/AR2007121301302.html | newspaper=The Washington Post | title=N.J. Approves Abolition of Death Penalty; Corzine to Sign | first=Keith B. | last=Richburg | date=December 14, 2007 | access-date=May 14, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514154907/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/13/AR2007121301302.html | archive-date=May 14, 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref> followed by [[New Mexico]] in 2009,<ref>{{in lang|en}} Maria Medina, [http://www.krqe.com/dpp/news/politics/politics_krqe_santa_fe_governor_ok_with_some_death_sentences_200903192257 « Governor OK with Astorga capital case »]</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iUcLhqwlBEQ6-b-J7rzRd2lSuv3g |title=New Mexico governor bans death penalty |archive-date=April 18, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418173921/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iUcLhqwlBEQ6-b-J7rzRd2lSuv3g |date=March 18, 2009 |access-date=December 23, 2009 |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |quote=New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson made his state the 15th in the nation to outlaw capital punishment when he signed a law abolishing the death penalty, his office said. |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Illinois]] in 2011,<ref name="QuinnSignsAbolition"/> [[Connecticut]] in 2012,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/recent-legislation-death-penalty-repeal-passes-second-connecticut-house-awaits-governors-signature |title=RECENT LEGISLATION: Death Penalty Repeal Passes Second Connecticut House, Awaits Governor's Signature {{pipe}} Death Penalty Information Center |publisher=Deathpenaltyinfo.org |date=April 12, 2012 |access-date=May 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514155031/https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/recent-legislation-death-penalty-repeal-passes-second-connecticut-house-awaits-governors-signature |archive-date=May 14, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2012/04/25/connecticut-governor-signs-bill-to-repeal-death-penalty/|title=Connecticut governor signs bill to repeal death penalty|date=April 25, 2012|publisher=FOX News Network, LLC.|access-date=May 14, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514155148/https://www.foxnews.com/politics/connecticut-governor-signs-bill-to-repeal-death-penalty|archive-date=May 14, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Maryland]] in 2013.<ref>{{cite news|title=Md. General Assembly repeals death penalty|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md-politics/md-general-assembly-repeals-death-penalty/2013/03/15/c8bee4f0-8d72-11e2-9838-d62f083ba93f_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=May 14, 2019|first=John|last=Wagner|date=March 16, 2013}}</ref> The repeals were not retroactive, but in New Jersey, Illinois and Maryland, governors commuted all death sentences after enacting the new law.<ref>{{cite web |title= Clemency |url= http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/clemency|publisher= deathpenaltyinfo.org |access-date= April 6, 2016}}</ref> In Connecticut, the [[Connecticut Supreme Court]] ruled in 2015 that the repeal must be retroactive. In New Mexico, capital punishment for certain offenses is still possible for National Guard members in [[Title 32 of the United States Code|Title 32]] status under the state's Code of Military Justice (NMSA 20–12), and for capital offenses committed prior to the repeal of the state's death penalty statute.<ref>[https://law.justia.com/codes/new-mexico/2016/chapter-20/article-12/ 2016 New Mexico Statutes Chapter 20 – Military Affairs Article 12 – Code of Military Justice, JUSTIA US Law, Retrieved Mar 15, 2019]</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Connecticut's highest court overturns its death penalty |url= http://edition.cnn.com/2015/08/13/us/connecticut-death-penalty/|publisher= cnn.com/ |access-date= April 6, 2016}}</ref>

[[Nebraska]]'s legislature also passed a repeal in 2015, but a [[referendum]] campaign gathered enough signatures to suspend it. Capital punishment was reinstated by popular vote on November 8, 2016. The same day, [[California]]'s electorate defeated a proposal to repeal the death penalty, and adopted another initiative to speed up its appeal process.<ref>{{cite web |title= Voters in California, Oklahoma, and Nebraska chose to preserve and strengthen the death penalty |url= https://news.vice.com/story/death-penalty-proponents-win-in-california-oklahoma-and-nebraska|publisher= news.vice.com |access-date= November 9, 2016}}</ref>

On October 11, 2018, Washington state became the 20th state to abolish capital punishment when [[Washington Supreme Court|its state Supreme Court]] deemed the death penalty unconstitutional on the grounds of racial bias.<ref>http://www.courts.wa.gov: [http://www.courts.wa.gov/opinions/pdf/880867.pdf PDF]</ref>

New Hampshire became the 21st state to abolish capital punishment on May 30, 2019, when [[New Hampshire Senate|its state senate]] overrode [[Chris Sununu|Governor Sununu]]'s veto by a vote of 16–8.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.concordmonitor.com/New-Hampshire-Senate-votes-on-whether-to-repeal-the-death-penalty-for-good-25909263|title=Senate overrides Sununu ending death penalty in New Hampshire|date=May 30, 2019|website=Concord Monitor|access-date=May 30, 2019}}</ref>

Colorado became the 22nd state to abolish capital punishment when governor [[Jared Polis]] signed a repeal bill on March 23, 2020, and commuted all existing death sentences in the state to life without parole.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://coloradosun.com/2020/03/23/colorado-death-penalty-repeal/|title=Governor signs bill abolishing Colorado's death penalty, commutes sentences of state's 3 death row inmates|date=March 23, 2020|newspaper=The Colorado Sun}}</ref>

Virginia became the 23rd state to abolish capital punishment, and the first Southern state to do so when governor [[Ralph Northam]] signed a repeal bill on March 24, 2021, and commuted all existing death sentences in the state to life without parole.<ref>{{cite news|last=Schneider|first=Gregory S.|date=March 24, 2021|title=Virginia abolishes the death penalty, becoming the first Southern state to ban its use|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/virginia-politics/virginia-abolish-death-penalty/2021/03/24/8d6eda46-8bf6-11eb-9423-04079921c915_story.html|access-date=March 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324190833/https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/virginia-politics/virginia-abolish-death-penalty/2021/03/24/8d6eda46-8bf6-11eb-9423-04079921c915_story.html|archive-date=March 24, 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Kelley|first=Alexandra|date=March 24, 2021|title=Virginia officially first Southern state to abolish the death penalty|work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]|url=https://thehill.com/changing-america/respect/equality/544739-virginia-officially-first-southern-state-to-abolish-the|access-date=March 24, 2021}}</ref>

Since ''Furman'', 11 states have organized popular votes dealing with the death penalty through the [[Initiatives and referendums in the United States|initiative and referendum process]]. All resulted in a vote for reinstating it, rejecting its abolition, expanding its application field, specifying in the state constitution that it is not unconstitutional, or expediting the appeal process in capital cases.<ref name="Ballotpedia"/>

==== States that have abolished the death penalty ====
A total of 23 states, plus the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico have [[Abolition of capital punishment|abolished]] the death penalty for all crimes. Below is a table of the states and the date that the state abolished the death penalty.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/12/us/california-death-penalty.html|title=California Death Penalty Suspended; 737 Inmates Get Stay of Execution (Published 2019)|first=Tim|last=Arango|newspaper=The New York Times|date=March 13, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://deathpenalty.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=001172|title=31 States with the Death Penalty and 21 States with Death Penalty Bans - Death Penalty - ProCon.org|website=deathpenalty.procon.org|access-date=May 2, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2014-02-12/washington-joins-long-list-states-reconsidering-or-abolishing-death-penalty|title=Washington joins long list of states reconsidering or abolishing the death penalty|work=Public Radio International|access-date=May 2, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.freep.com/story/news/2015/05/04/death-penalty/26879705/|title=The day Michigan became 1st state to ban death penalty|work=Detroit Free Press|access-date=May 2, 2018|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/delaware-1|title=Delaware {{!}} Death Penalty Information Center|website=deathpenaltyinfo.org|language=en|access-date=May 2, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://statelaws.findlaw.com/minnesota-law/minnesota-capital-punishment-laws.html|title=Minnesota Capital Punishment Laws – FindLaw|work=Findlaw|access-date=May 2, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/10/11/656570464/washington-state-strikes-down-death-penalty-citing-racial-bias|title=Washington State Strikes Down Death Penalty, Citing Racial Bias|work=NPR.org|access-date=October 11, 2018|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.denverpost.com/2020/03/23/colorado-abolish-death-penalty/|title=Colorado abolishes death penalty; governor commutes sentences of 3 on death row|date=March 23, 2020|website=The Denver Post|language=en-US|access-date=March 24, 2020}}</ref> Michigan became the first English-speaking territory in the world to abolish capital punishment in 1847. Although treason remained a crime punishable by the death penalty in Michigan despite the 1847 abolition, no one was ever executed under that law, and Michigan's 1962 Constitutional Convention codified that the death penalty was fully abolished.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/michigan-0|title=Michigan: General Information|work=Death Penalty Information Center|access-date=January 8, 2019|language=en-US}}</ref> Vermont has abolished the death penalty for all crimes, but has an invalid death penalty statue for treason.<ref name="Vermont Laws">{{Cite web|url=http://legislature.vermont.gov/statutes/section/13/075/03401|title=Vermont Laws|website=legislature.vermont.gov|language=en}}</ref> When it abolished the death penalty in 2019, New Hampshire explicitly did not commute the death sentence of [[Murder of Michael Briggs|the sole person remaining on the state's death row]].
[[File:Capital Punishment in the United States by State Since 1970.gif|thumb|250px|Map displaying the status of capital punishment since 1970 by state. {{legend|#cccccc|States with the death penalty}}{{legend|#000000|States without the death penalty}}]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!State/District/Territory
!Year
!Last execution
|-
|[[Alaska]]
|1957
|1950
|-
|[[Colorado]]
|2020
|1997
|-
|[[Connecticut]]
|2012
|2005
|-
|[[Delaware]]
|2016
|2012
|-
|[[District of Columbia]]
|1981
|1957
|-
|[[Hawaii]]
|1957
|1947
|-
|[[Illinois]]
|2011
|1999
|-
|[[Iowa]]
|1965
|1962
|-
|[[Maine]]
|1887
|1885
|-
|[[Maryland]]
|2013
|2005
|-
|[[Massachusetts]]
|1984
|1947
|-
|[[Michigan]]
|1963
|1837
|-
|[[Minnesota]]
|1911
|1906
|-
|[[New Hampshire]]
|2019
|1939
|-
|[[New Jersey]]
|2007
|1963
|-
|[[New Mexico]]
|2009
|2001
|-
|[[New York (state)|New York]]
|2007
|1963
|-
|[[North Dakota]]
|1973
|1905
|-
|[[Rhode Island]]
|1984
|1845
|-
|[[Puerto Rico]]
|1929
|1927
|-
|[[Vermont]]
|1972
|1954
|-
|[[Virginia]]
|2021
|2017
|-
|[[Washington (state)|Washington]]
|2018
|2010
|-
|[[West Virginia]]
|1965
|1959
|-
|[[Wisconsin]]
|1853
|1851
|-
|}

===Modern era===
[[File:Execution_chamber,_Florida.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The lethal injection room in [[Florida State Prison]].]]
In 1982, Texas carried out the first execution by lethal injection in world history and lethal injection subsequently became the preferred method throughout the country, displacing the electric chair.<ref>"Life and Death Row: How the lethal injection kills: The lethal injection has been the primary means of executing condemned Americans for decades - but its use remains controversial." Bryant, Ben, ''The BBC'' (March 5, 2018). https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcthree/article/cd49a818-5645-4a94-832e-d22860804779. Retrieved March 14, 2021.</ref> From 1976 to 8 December 2016, there were 1,533 executions, of which 1,349 were by lethal injection, 163 by electrocution, 11 by gas inhalation, 3 by hanging, and 3 by firing squad.<ref>{{cite web |title= USA Executions 2016 (as of 12/8/16) |url=https://people.smu.edu/rhalperi/exec16.html |publisher= people.smu.edu |access-date=March 16, 2017}}</ref> The South had the great majority of these executions, with 1,249; there were 190 in the Midwest, 86 in the West, and only 4 in the Northeast. No state in the Northeast has conducted an execution since [[Connecticut]], now abolitionist, in 2005. The state of [[Texas]] alone conducted 571 executions, over 1/3 of the total; the states of Texas, [[Virginia]] (now abolitionist), and [[Oklahoma]] combined make up over half the total, with 802 executions between them.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/number-executions-state-and-region-1976|title=Number of Executions by State and Region Since 1976 – Death Penalty Information Center|website=deathpenaltyinfo.org}}</ref> 17 executions have been conducted by the federal government.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/state-and-federal-info/federal-death-penalty/executions-under-the-federal-death-penalty|title=Executions Under the Federal Death Penalty|work=[[Death Penalty Information Center]]|access-date=March 14, 2021}}</ref> Executions increased in frequency until 1999; 98 prisoners were executed that year. Since 1999, the number of executions has greatly decreased, and the 17 executions in 2020 were the fewest since 1991.<ref name="Update"/> A 2016 poll conducted by Pew Research, found that support nationwide for the death penalty in the U.S. had fallen below 50% for the first time since the beginning of the post-Gregg era.<ref>Pew Research SEPTEMBER 29, 2016, "Support for death penalty lowest in more than four decades." BY J. BAXTER OLIPHANT. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/09/29/support-for-death-penalty-lowest-in-more-than-four-decades/. Retrieved March 14, 2021.</ref>

The death penalty became an issue during the [[1988 United States presidential election|1988 presidential election]]. It came up in the October 13, 1988, debate between the two presidential nominees [[George H. W. Bush]] and [[Michael Dukakis]], when [[Bernard Shaw (journalist)|Bernard Shaw]], the moderator of the debate, asked Dukakis, "Governor, if Kitty Dukakis [his wife] were raped and murdered, would you favor an irrevocable death penalty for the killer?" Dukakis replied, "No, I don't, and I think you know that I've opposed the death penalty during all of my life. I don't see any evidence that it's a deterrent, and I think there are better and more effective ways to deal with violent crime." Bush was elected, and many, including Dukakis himself, cite the statement as the beginning of the end of his campaign.<ref>{{cite web |title= Obama's non-Dukakis answer |url=http://firstread.nbcnews.com/_news/2008/06/25/4433621-obamas-non-dukakis-answer |publisher= nbcnews.com |access-date=April 8, 2016}}</ref>

In 1996, [[United States Congress|Congress]] passed the [[Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act]] to streamline the appeal process in capital cases. The bill was signed into law by President [[Bill Clinton]], who had endorsed capital punishment during his 1992 presidential campaign.

A study found that at least 34 of the 749 executions carried out in the U.S. between 1977 and 2001, or 4.5%, involved "unanticipated problems or delays that caused, at least arguably, unnecessary agony for the prisoner or that reflect gross incompetence of the executioner". The rate of these "botched executions" remained steady over the period.<ref>Borg and Radelet, pp. 144–147</ref> A study published in ''[[The Lancet]]'' in 2005 found that in 43% of cases of lethal injection, the blood level of [[hypnotic]]s in the prisoner was insufficient to ensure unconsciousness.<ref>Van Norman p. 287</ref> Nonetheless, the Supreme Court ruled in 2008 (''[[Baze v. Rees]]''), again in 2015 (''[[Glossip v. Gross]]''), and a third time in 2019 (''[[Bucklew v. Precythe]]''), that lethal injection does not constitute [[cruel and unusual punishment]].<ref>Paternoster, R. (September 18, 2012). Capital Punishment. Oxford Handbooks Online. Retrieved June 15, 2016, from http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195395082.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195395082-e-24.</ref><ref>https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/18pdf/17-8151_new_0pm1.pdf {{Bare URL PDF |date=February 2022}}</ref>

On July 25, 2019, Attorney General [[William Barr]] ordered the resumption of federal executions after a 16-year hiatus, and set five execution dates for December 2019 and January 2020.<ref>{{citation |title=Barr directs federal government to reinstate death penalty, schedule the execution of 5 death row inmates |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/07/25/politics/justice-department-capital-punishment-barr/index.html|work=CNN|date=July 25, 2019 |access-date=July 25, 2019|author1=Tammy Kupperman|author2=Ariane de Vogue|author3=Vernocia Stracqualursi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/justice-department/ag-barr-orders-reinstatement-federal-death-penalty-n1034451|title=AG Barr orders reinstatement of the federal death penalty|website=NBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2019/07/justice-department-bill-barr-orders-revival-federal-executions-lethal-injection.html|title=The Federal Government Plans to Revive the Death Penalty After 16 Years|first=Chip|last=Brownlee|date=July 25, 2019|website=Slate Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/25/death-penalty-capital-punishment-us-justice-department-resumes-executions|title=US justice department resumes use of death penalty and schedules five executions|date=July 25, 2019|website=The Guardian}}</ref> After the Supreme Court upheld a stay on these executions,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/supreme-court/supreme-court-keeps-federal-executions-hold-n1097521|title=Supreme Court keeps federal executions on hold|website=NBC News}}</ref> the stay was lifted in June 2020 and four executions were rescheduled for July and August 2020.<ref name="federal-executions-2020">{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/0238930de18b029e4b31ea1114d4a0d8 |title= AP Exclusive: New dates set to begin federal executions|website= apnews.com |publisher= Associated Press|access-date=June 16, 2020}}</ref> The federal government executed [[Daniel Lewis Lee]] on July 14, 2020. He became the first convict executed by the federal government since 2003.<ref name="LewisLeeExecution"/> Before Trump's term ended in January 2021, the federal government carried out a total of 13 executions.<ref>Michael Tarm & Michael Kunzelman, [https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-wildlife-coronavirus-pandemic-crime-terre-haute-28e44cc5c026dc16472751bbde0ead50 Trump administration carries out 13th and final execution], Associated Press (January 15, 2021). Retrieved March 14, 2021.</ref>

=== Women's history and capital punishment ===
In 1632, 24 years after the first recorded male execution in the colonies, Jane Champion became the first woman known to have been lawfully executed. She was sentenced to death by hanging after she was convicted of infanticide; around two-thirds of women executed in the 17th and early 18th centuries were convicted of child murder. A married woman, it is not known whether Champion's illicit lover, William Gallopin, also convicted of their child's murder, was also executed, although it appears he was so sentenced.<ref>{{cite book|last=Baker|first=David V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKUHCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|title=Women and Capital Punishment in the United States: An Analytical History
|location=Jefferson, NC|publisher=McFarland|year=2016|page=75|isbn=9780786499502}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/part-i-history-death-penalty#america|title=Part I: History of the Death Penalty {{!}} Death Penalty Information Center|website=deathpenaltyinfo.org|language=en|access-date=November 8, 2017}}</ref> For the Puritans, infanticide was the worst form of murder.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Ann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AGA_FEsKRioC&pg=PA76|title=Women Who Kill|location=New York, NY|publisher=The Feminist Press at the City University of New York|orig-year=1980|year=2009|page=76ff|isbn=9781558616073}} (Originally published by Holt, Rinehart and Winston)</ref>

Women accounted for just one fifth of all executions between 1632 and 1759, in the [[colonial United States]]. Women were more likely to be acquitted, and the relatively low number of executions of women may have been impacted by the scarcity of female laborers. Slavery was not yet widespread in the 17th century mainland and planters relied mostly on Irish indentured servants. To maintain subsistence levels in those days everyone had to do farm work, including women.<ref>{{cite book |last=Baker |first=David V. |title=Women and Capital Punishment in the United States: An Analytical History |date=2016}}</ref>

The second half of the 17th century saw the executions of 14 women and 6 men who were accused of witchcraft during the witch hunt hysteria and the Salem Witch Trials. While both men and women were executed, 80% of the accusations were towards women, so the list of executions disproportionately affected men by a margin of 6 (actual) to 4 (expected), i.e. 50% more men were executed than expected from the percentage of accused who were men.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/devilinshapeofwo00karl_0|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/devilinshapeofwo00karl_0/page/274 274]|title=The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England|last=Karlsen|first=Carol F.|date=April 17, 1998|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=9780393347197|language=en}}</ref>

Other notable female executions include [[Mary Surratt]], [[Velma Barfield|Margie Velma Barfield]] and [[Wanda Jean Allen]]. Mary Surratt was executed by hanging in 1865 after being convicted of co-conspiring to [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|assassinate Abraham Lincoln]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.surrattmuseum.org/mary-surratt|title=Mary Surratt's Story – Surratt House Museum|website=www.surrattmuseum.org|language=en|access-date=November 8, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104011659/http://www.surrattmuseum.org/mary-surratt|archive-date=November 4, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Margie Velma Barfield was convicted of murder and when she was executed by lethal injection in 1984, she became the first woman to be executed since the ban on capital punishment was lifted in 1976.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/death/US/barfield029.htm|title=Velma Margie Barfield #29|website=www.clarkprosecutor.org|access-date=November 8, 2017}}</ref> Wanda Jean Allen was convicted of murder in 1989 and had a high-profile execution by lethal injection in January 2001. She was the first black woman to be executed in the US since 1954.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/death/US/allen687.htm|title=Wanda Jean Allen #687|website=www.clarkprosecutor.org|access-date=November 8, 2017}}</ref> Allen's lawyers did not deny her guilt, but claimed that prosecutors capitalized on her low IQ, race and homosexuality in their representations of her as a murderer at trial. The tactic did not work.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kKcHCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA389|title=Women and Capital Punishment in the United States: An Analytical History|last=Baker|first=David V.|date=December 31, 2015|publisher=McFarland|isbn=9781476622880|language=en}}</ref>

The federal government executes women infrequently. [[Julius and Ethel Rosenberg|Ethel Rosenberg]], convicted of espionage, was executed in the electric chair on June 19, 1953, and [[Kidnapping of Bobby Greenlease|Bonnie Brown Heady]], convicted of kidnapping and murder, was executed in the gas chamber later that same year on December 18. Since Heady, only one more woman has been executed: [[Murder of Bobbie Jo Stinnett|Lisa Montgomery]], convicted of killing a pregnant woman and cutting out and kidnapping her baby, by lethal injection in [[Indiana]] on January 13, 2021. Her execution had been stayed while her lawyers argued that she suffered from mental health issues, but the Supreme Court lifted the stay.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Croft|first=Jay|date=17 October 2020|title=US government to execute first woman since 1953|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/10/17/us/lisa-montgomery-brandon-bernard-executions-trnd/index.html|access-date=2020-10-17|website=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Jeltsen|first=Melissa|date=2021-01-12|title=Only Woman On Federal Death Row Spared Execution For Now|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/lisa-montgomery-execution-blocked_n_5ffd3c9ec5b6c77d85e9a2bb|access-date=2021-01-12|website=HuffPost|language=en}}</ref>

=== Juvenile capital punishment ===
In 1642, the first ever juvenile, [[Thomas Granger|Thomas Graunger]], was sentenced to death in Plymouth Colony, Massachusetts, for [[bestiality]]. Since then, 361 other juveniles have been sentenced to the death penalty.{{Citation needed|reason=Juveniles were hanged, one 12 yo, after the Dakota Conflict in Mankato, MN, 1863(?) Cothern source does not refer to hangings related to this historical event.|date=April 2022}} ''Kent v. United States'' (1966), turned the tides for juvenile capital punishment sentencing when it limited the waiver discretion juvenile courts had. Before this case, juvenile courts had the freedom to waiver juvenile cases to criminal courts without a hearing, which did not make the waiving process consistent across states. Thoughts about abolishing the death penalty started happening between 1983 and 1986. In 1987, ''[[Thompson v. Oklahoma]]'', the Supreme Court threw away Thompson's death sentence due to it being cruel and unusual punishment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cothern|first=Lynn|date=November 2000|title=Juveniles and the Death Penalty|url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/184748.pdf|journal=Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention|pages=1–16|via=NCJRS}}</ref>

It was not until ''[[Roper v. Simmons]]'' that the juvenile death penalty was abolished due to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] finding that the execution of juveniles is in conflict with the [[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighth Amendment]] and [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]], which deal with cruel and unusual punishment. Prior to abolishing the juvenile death penalty in 2005, any juvenile aged 16 years or older could be sentenced to death in some states, the last of whom was [[Scott Hain]], executed in Oklahoma in 2003 for burning two people to death in a robbery at age 17.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of Corrections|last=Maier|first=Shana|publisher=John Wiley and Sons Inc.|year=2017}}</ref> Since 2005, there have been no executions nor discussion of executing juveniles in the United States.

=== Execution statistics ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Number of executed people in the United States since 1977'''
|- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;"

!1977
!1978
!1979
!1980
!1981
!1982
!1983
!1984
!1985
!1986
!1987
!1988
!1989
!1990
!1991
!1992
!1993
!1994
|-
|[[Gary Gilmore|1]]||0||2||0||1||2||5||21||18||18||25||11||16||23||14||31||38||31
|-
!1995
!1996
!1997
!1998
!1999
!2000
!2001
!2002
!2003
!2004
!2005
!2006
!2007
!2008
!2009
!2010
!2011
!2012
|-
|56||45||74||68||98||85||66||71||65||59||60||53||42||37||52||46||43||43
|-
!2013
!2014
!2015
!2016
!2017
!2018
!2019
!2020
!2021
!2022
|-
|39||35||28||20||23||25||22||17||11||''6''
|}

[[File:Executions per year in the United States, 1977-2020.png|700px|Executions per year in the United States, 1977-2020]]

{{See also|List of people scheduled to be executed in the United States}}

==Capital crimes==
===Aggravated murder===
Aggravating factors for seeking capital punishment of murder vary greatly among death penalty states. California has twenty-two.<ref>{{cite web|title=California Penal Code § 190.2|url=http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=190.2&lawCode=PEN|work=[[California Office of Legislative Counsel]]|access-date=March 16, 2019}}</ref>
Some aggravating circumstances are nearly universal, such as robbery-murder, murder involving [[rape]] of the victim, and murder of an on-duty [[police officer]].<ref name="Aggravating">{{cite web|url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/aggravating-factors-capital-punishment-state|title=AGGRAVATING FACTORS FOR CAPITAL PUNISHMENT BY STATE|access-date=April 28, 2017}}</ref>

Several states have included [[child murder]] to their list of aggravating factors, but the victim's age under which the murder is punishable by death varies. In 2011, Texas raised this age from six to ten.<ref>{{cite web |title= AN ACT relating to the murder of a child as a capital offense. |url=http://www.legis.state.tx.us/tlodocs/82R/billtext/html/SB00377F.HTM |publisher= legis.state.tx.us |access-date=March 24, 2016}}</ref>

In some states, the high number of aggravating factors has been criticized on account of giving prosecutors too much discretion in choosing cases where they believe capital punishment is warranted. In California especially, an official commission proposed, in 2008, to reduce these factors to five (multiple murders, [[torture murder]], murder of a police officer, murder committed in jail, and murder related to another felony).<ref>{{cite web |title= Official recommendations on the fair administration of the death penalty in california |url= http://www.ccfaj.org/rr-dp-official.html |publisher= ccfaj.org |access-date= March 24, 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160314205412/http://www.ccfaj.org/rr-dp-official.html |archive-date= March 14, 2016 |url-status= dead }}</ref> Columnist [[Charles Lane (journalist)|Charles Lane]] went further, and proposed that murder related to a felony other than rape should no longer be a capital crime when there is only one victim killed.<ref>Charles Lane (2010), ''Stay of Execution: Saving the Death Penalty from Itself'', Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, p.110-111</ref>

==== Aggravating factors in federal court ====
In order for a person to be eligible for a death sentence when convicted of aggravated first-degree murder, the jury or court (when there is not a jury) must determine at least one of sixteen aggravating factors that existed during the crime's commission. The following is a list of the 16 aggravating factors under federal law.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/3592|title=18 U.S. Code § 3592 – Mitigating and aggravating factors to be considered in determining whether a sentence of death is justified|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2018}}</ref>

# [[Felony murder rule|Murder while committing another felony]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehman |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Phelps |first2=Shirelle |title=West's Encyclopedia of American Law, Vol. 7 |date=2005 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |location=Detroit |isbn=9780787663742 |page=141}}</ref>
# Offender was convicted of a separate felony involving a firearm prior to the aggravated murder.
# Being convicted of a separate felony where death or life imprisonment was authorized prior to the aggravated murder.
# Being convicted of any separate violent felony prior to the aggravated murder.
# The offender put the lives of at least 1 or more other persons in danger of death during the commission of the crime.
# Offender committed the crime in an especially cruel, heinous, or depraved manner.
# [[Contract killing|Offender committed the crime for financial gain]].
# Offender committed the crime for monetary gain.
# The murder was premeditated, involved planning in order to be carried out, or the offender showed early signs of committing the crime, such as keeping a journal of the crime's details<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/assessment/2004/04/the_depressive_and_the_psychopath.html|title=The Depressive and the Psychopath|last=Cullen|first=Dave|date=April 20, 2004|work=Slate|access-date=May 3, 2018|language=en-US|issn=1091-2339}}</ref> and posting things on the Internet.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/15/us/nikolas-cruz-florida-shooting.html|title=Nikolas Cruz, Florida Shooting Suspect, Showed 'Every Red Flag'|date=February 15, 2018|work=The New York Times|access-date=May 4, 2018|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
# Offender was previously convicted of at least two drug offenses.
# The victim would not have been able to defend themselves while being attacked.
# Offender was previously convicted of a federal drug offense.
# Offender was involved in a long-term business of selling drugs to minors.
# A high-ranking official was murdered, such as the [[President of the United States]], the leader of another country, or a police officer.
# Offender was previously convicted of sexual assault or child rape.
# During the crime's commission, the offender [[Mass murder|killed or tried to kill multiple people]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.crimemuseum.org/crime-library/serial-killers/serials-killers-vs-mass-murderers/|title=Serial Killers vs. Mass Murderers – Crime Museum|work=Crime Museum|access-date=May 4, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>

===Crimes against the state===
The opinion of the court in ''Kennedy v. Louisiana'' says that the ruling does not apply to "treason, espionage, terrorism, and drug kingpin activity, which are offenses against the State".<ref>''Kennedy v. Louisiana'', 554 U.S. 407, 437 (2007); see also {{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/26/washington/26scotuscnd.html|title=Supreme Court Rejects Death Penalty for Child Rape|date=June 26, 2008|access-date=March 11, 2011|first=Linda|last=Greenhouse|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|quote=The court went beyond the question in the case to rule out the death penalty for any individual crime – as opposed to "offenses against the state", such as treason or espionage – "where the victim's life was not taken.}}</ref>

Since no one is on death row for such offenses, the court has yet to rule on the constitutionality of the death penalty applied for them.

[[Treason]], [[espionage]] and [[Drug lord|large-scale drug trafficking]] are all capital crimes under federal law. Treason is also punishable by death in six states (Arkansas, California, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina). Large-scale drug trafficking is punishable by death in two states (Florida and Missouri),<ref name="DPIC">{{cite web |title=Death Penalty for Offenses Other Than Murder |url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?&did=2347 |publisher=Death Penalty Information Center |year=2008 |access-date=January 28, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080221191021/http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?&did=2347 |archive-date=February 21, 2008 }}</ref> and [[aircraft hijacking]] in two others (Georgia and Mississippi). Vermont has an invalidated pre-''Furman'' statute allowing the electric chair for treason despite abolishing capital punishment in 1965.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://legislature.vermont.gov/statutes/section/13/075/03401|title=§ 3401. Definition and punishment of treason|publisher=legislature.vermont.gov|access-date=December 9, 2016}}</ref>

==Legal process==
The legal administration of the death penalty in the United States typically involves five critical steps: (1) [[prosecutor]]ial decision to seek the death penalty (2) [[Sentence (law)|sentencing]], (3) direct review, (4) state collateral review, and (5) federal [[habeas corpus]].

Clemency, through which the [[Governor]] or [[President (government title)|President]] of the [[jurisdiction]] can unilaterally reduce or abrogate a death sentence, is an [[executive power|executive]] rather than [[judicial power|judicial]] process.<ref>See generally [[Separation of powers]].</ref>

===Decision to seek the death penalty===
While judges in criminal cases can usually impose a harsher prison sentence than the one demanded by prosecution, the death penalty can be handed down only if the accuser has specifically decided to seek it.

In the decades since ''[[Furman v. Georgia|Furman]]'', new questions have emerged about whether or not prosecutorial arbitrariness has replaced sentencing arbitrariness. A study by [[Pepperdine University School of Law]] published in ''[[Temple Law Review]]'', surveyed the decision-making process among prosecutors in various states. The authors found that prosecutors' capital punishment filing decisions are marked by local "idiosyncrasies", and that wide prosecutorial discretion remains because of overly broad criteria. California law, for example, has 22 "special circumstances", making nearly all first-degree murders potential capital cases.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/criminal-justice/transparency-death-penalty/ |title = Unpredictable Doom and Lethal Injustice: An Argument for Greater Transparency in Death Penalty Decisions |date = May 26, 2011 |publisher = Journalist's Resource.org}}</ref>

A proposed remedy against prosecutorial arbitrariness is to transfer the prosecution of capital cases to the state attorney general.<ref name="ReferenceGershowitz">{{cite journal |title= Statewide Capital Punishment: The Case for Eliminating Counties' Role in the Death Penalty |url= http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/facpubs/1255/ |access-date= March 20, 2016 |author=Adam M. Gershowitz|journal= 63 Vanderbilt Law Review 307-359 (2010) |date= March 2010 }}</ref>

In 2017, Florida governor [[Rick Scott]] removed all capital cases from local prosecutor [[Aramis Ayala]] because she decided to never seek the death penalty no matter the gravity of the crime.<ref>{{cite web |title= Florida Supreme Court backs Gov. Scott in Orlando death-penalty dispute |url=https://www.tampabay.com/florida-politics/buzz/2017/08/31/florida-supreme-court-backs-gov-scott-in-orlando-death-penalty-dispute/ |access-date= May 10, 2020 |author=Kristen M. Clark}}</ref>

===Sentencing===
Of the 27 states with the death penalty, 25 require the sentence to be decided by the [[jury]], and 24 require a unanimous decision by the jury.

Two states do not use juries in death penalty cases. In Nebraska the sentence is decided by a three-judge panel, which must unanimously agree on death, and the defendant is sentenced to life imprisonment if one of the judges is opposed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://law.justia.com/codes/nebraska/2014/chapter-29/statute-29-2521/ |title=2014 Nebraska Revised Statutes – Chapter 29 – CRIMINAL PROCEDURE – 29-2521 – Sentencing determination proceeding. |publisher=law.justia.com |access-date=April 16, 2017}}</ref> Montana is the only state where the trial judge decides the sentence alone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://leg.mt.gov/bills/mca/title_0460/chapter_0180/part_0030/section_0010/0460-0180-0030-0010.html |title= 46-18-301. Hearing on imposition of death penalty. |publisher= leg.mt.gov |access-date=April 16, 2017}}</ref> The only state which does not require a unanimous jury decision is Alabama. At least 10 jurors must concur, and a retrial happens if the jury deadlocks.<ref>{{cite web |title= SB 16 To amend Sections 13A-5-45, 13A-5-46, and 13A-5-47, Code of Alabama 1975, relating to capital cases and to the determination of the sentence by courts; to prohibit a court from overriding a jury verdict.|url=http://alisondb.legislature.state.al.us/alison/searchableinstruments/2017RS/bills/SB16.htm|publisher= legislature.state.al.us |access-date= April 12, 2017}}</ref>

In all states in which the jury is involved, only [[Death-qualified jury|death-qualified]] prospective jurors can be selected in such a jury, to exclude both people who will always vote for the death sentence and those who are categorically opposed to it. However, the states differ on what happens if the penalty phase results in a [[hung jury]]:<ref>{{cite web |title= Provisions of state and federal statutes concerning sentence if capital sentencing jury cannot agree |url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/documents/JuryDeadlockLaws.pdf |publisher= A. Parrent, Conn. Public Def |access-date= March 15, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= SB 280: Sentencing for Capital Felonies |url=http://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2017/0280/ |publisher= flsenate.gov |access-date= March 15, 2017}}</ref>
* In four states (Arizona, California, Kentucky and Nevada), a retrial of the penalty phase will be conducted before a different jury (the common-law rule for [[mistrial]]).<ref>See ''[https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/22/579/case.html United States v. Perez]'', 1824</ref>
* In two states (Indiana and Missouri), the judge will decide the sentence.
* In the remaining states, a hung jury results in a [[life sentence]], even if only one juror opposed death. Federal law also provides that outcome.

The first outcome is referred as the "true unanimity" rule, while the third has been criticized as the "single-juror veto" rule.<ref>K. Scheidegger, "Hurst v. Florida Remedial Legislation and SBP 7068", February 4, 2016</ref>

===Direct review===
If a defendant is sentenced to death at the trial level, the case then goes into a direct review.<ref name="18USC3595">See, e.g., [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/3595- 18 U.S.C. § 3595.] ("In a case in which a sentence of death is imposed, the sentence shall be subject to review by the court of appeals upon appeal by the defendant.")</ref> The direct review process is a typical legal [[appeal]]. An [[Court of Appeals|appellate court]] examines the record of evidence presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether the decision was legally sound or not.<ref>See generally [[Appeal]].</ref> Direct review of a capital sentencing hearing will result in one of three outcomes. If the appellate court finds that no significant legal errors occurred in the capital sentencing hearing, the appellate court will affirm the judgment, or let the sentence stand.<ref name="18USC3595"/> If the appellate court finds that significant legal errors did occur, then it will reverse the judgment, or nullify the sentence and order a new capital sentencing hearing.<ref name="poland">[http://supreme.justia.com/us/476/147/case.html Poland v. Arizona, 476 U.S. 147 152–154 (1986)].</ref> Lastly, if the appellate court finds that no reasonable juror could find the defendant eligible for the death penalty, a rarity, then it will order the defendant acquitted, or not guilty, of the crime for which he/she was given the death penalty, and order him sentenced to the next most severe punishment for which the offense is eligible.<ref name="poland"/> About 60 percent survive the process of direct review intact.<ref>[[Eric M. Freedman]], "Giarratano is a Scarecrow: The Right to Counsel in State Postconviction Proceedings, Legalize Drugs" 91 Cornell L. Rev. 1079, 1097 (2001)</ref>

===State collateral review===
At times when a death sentence is affirmed on direct review, supplemental methods to attack the judgment, though less familiar than a typical appeal, do remain. These supplemental remedies are considered collateral review, that is, an avenue for upsetting judgments that have become otherwise final.<ref>[http://supreme.justia.com/us/489/288/case.html Teague v. Lane, 489 U.S. 288, 306 (1989)].</ref> Where the prisoner received his death sentence in a state-level trial, as is usually the case, the first step in collateral review is state collateral review, which is often called state habeas corpus. (If the case is a federal death penalty case, it proceeds immediately from direct review to federal habeas corpus.) Although all states have some type of collateral review, the process varies widely from state to state.<ref>LaFave, Israel, & King, 6 Crim. Proc. § 28.11(b) (2d ed. 2007).</ref> Generally, the purpose of these collateral proceedings is to permit the prisoner to challenge his sentence on grounds that could not have been raised reasonably at trial or on direct review.<ref>LaFave, Israel, & King, 6 Crim. Proc. § 28.11(a) (2d ed. 2007).</ref> Most often, these are claims, such as [[ineffective assistance of counsel]], which requires the court to consider new evidence outside the original trial record, something courts may not do in an ordinary [[appeal]]. State collateral review, though an important step in that it helps define the scope of subsequent review through federal habeas corpus, is rarely successful in and of itself. Only around 6 percent of death sentences are overturned on state collateral review.<ref name=autogenerated1>[[Eric M. Freedman]], "Giarratano is a Scarecrow: The Right to Counsel in State Postconviction Proceedings", 91 Cornell L. Rev. 1079, 1097 (2006).</ref>

In Virginia, state habeas corpus for condemned men are heard by the [[Virginia Supreme Court|state supreme court]] under exclusive [[original jurisdiction]] since 1995, immediately after direct review by the same court.<ref>{{cite web |title= Code of Virginia – § 8.01-654. When and by whom writ granted; what petition to contain. |url=http://law.lis.virginia.gov/vacode/title8.01/chapter25/section8.01-654/ |publisher=Law.lis.virginia.gov |access-date= March 22, 2016}}</ref> This avoids any proceeding before the lower courts, and is in part why Virginia has the shortest time on average between death sentence and execution (less than eight years) and has executed 113 offenders since 1976 with only five remaining on death row {{as of|2017|June|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |title= Virginia's execution history |url=https://www.vadp.org/dp-info/virginias-execution-history/ |publisher=vadp.org |access-date=June 4, 2017}}{{cite web |title= Virginia's death row inmates |url=https://www.vadp.org/dp-info/virginias-death-row-inmates/ |publisher=vadp.org |access-date=June 4, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conviction to Execution "Takes Too Long" |url=http://www.ktrh.com/articles/houston-news-121300/conviction-to-execution-takes-too-long-14356331/ |publisher=ktrh.com |access-date=March 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407132114/http://www.ktrh.com/articles/houston-news-121300/conviction-to-execution-takes-too-long-14356331/ |archive-date=April 7, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

To reduce litigation delays, other states require convicts to file their state collateral appeal before the completion of their direct appeal,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crimeandconsequences.com/crimblog/files/documents/Ch154RegCmnt.pdf |title= OJP Docket No. 1464, Certification Process for State Capital Counsel Systems |publisher=crimeandconsequences.com |access-date= March 15, 2017}}</ref> or provide adjudication of direct and collateral attacks together in a "unitary review".<ref>{{cite web |url= http://tornado.state.co.us/gov_dir/leg_dir/olls/sl1997/sl_268.htm |title= AN ACT Concerning a unitary procedure for review in class 1 felony cases in which a death sentence is sought as punishment. |publisher= tornado.state.co.us |access-date= March 15, 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151018093526/http://tornado.state.co.us/gov_dir/leg_dir/olls/sl1997/sl_268.htm |archive-date= October 18, 2015 |url-status= dead |df= mdy-all }}</ref>

===Federal ''habeas corpus''===
After a death sentence is affirmed in state collateral review, the prisoner may file for federal ''[[habeas corpus]]'', which is a unique type of lawsuit that can be brought in federal courts. Federal ''habeas corpus'' is a type of collateral review, and it is the only way that state prisoners may attack a death sentence in federal court (other than petitions for [[certiorari]] to the United States Supreme Court after both direct review and state collateral review). The scope of federal ''habeas corpus'' is governed by the [[Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996]] (AEDPA), which restricted significantly its previous scope. The purpose of federal ''habeas corpus'' is to ensure that state courts, through the process of direct review and state collateral review, have done a reasonable job in protecting the prisoner's federal [[constitutional right]]s. Prisoners may also use federal ''habeas corpus'' suits to bring forth new evidence that they are innocent of the crime, though to be a valid defense at this late stage in the process, evidence of innocence must be truly compelling.<ref>[[House v. Bell]], 126 S. Ct. 2064 (2006)</ref> According to [[Eric M. Freedman]], 21 percent of death penalty cases are reversed through federal ''habeas corpus''.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

James Liebman, a professor of law at Columbia Law School, stated in 1996 that his study found that when ''habeas corpus'' petitions in death penalty cases were traced from conviction to completion of the case, there was "a 40 percent success rate in all capital cases from 1978 to 1995".<ref>{{Cite news| url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C05E0DB1039F932A35757C0A960958260 | work=The New York Times | title=Habeas Corpus Studies | date=April 1, 1996 | access-date=April 28, 2010}}</ref> Similarly, a study by Ronald Tabak in a law review article puts the success rate in ''habeas corpus'' cases involving death row inmates even higher, finding that between "1976 and 1991, approximately 47 percent of the habeas petitions filed by death row inmates were granted".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Walpin|first1=Ned|title=The New Speed-up in Habeas Corpus Appeals|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/execution/readings/speed.html|website=Frontline|publisher=PBS|access-date=February 5, 2017}}</ref> The different numbers are largely definitional, rather than substantive: Freedam's statistics looks at the percentage of all death penalty cases reversed, while the others look only at cases not reversed prior to ''habeas corpus'' review.

A similar process is available for prisoners sentenced to death by the judgment of a federal court.<ref>see 28 U.S.C. § 2255.</ref>

The AEDPA also provides an expeditious ''habeas'' procedure in capital cases for states meeting several requirements set forth in it concerning counsel appointment for death row inmates.<ref>28 USC §§ 2261 – 2266</ref> Under this program, federal ''habeas corpus'' for condemned prisoners would be decided in about three years from affirmance of the sentence on state collateral review. In 2006, [[U.S. Congress|Congress]] conferred the determination of whether a state fulfilled the requirements to the [[U.S. attorney general]], with a possible appeal of the state to the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]]. {{as of|2016|March}}, the Department of Justice has still not granted any certifications.<ref>{{cite web |title= Court Gives Green Light to Death Penalty Fast-Tracking |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/court-green-light-death-penalty-fast-tracking-37886309 |publisher= abcnews.go.com |access-date=March 24, 2016}}</ref>

===Section 1983===
If the federal court refuses to issue a [[writ]] of ''habeas corpus'', the death sentence ordinarily becomes final for all purposes. In recent times, however, prisoners have postponed execution through another avenue of federal litigation; the [[Civil Rights Act of 1871]] – codified at {{usc|42|1983}} – allows complainants to bring lawsuits against state actors to protect their federal constitutional and statutory rights.

While direct appeals are normally limited to just one and automatically stay the execution of the death sentence, Section 1983 lawsuits are unlimited, but the petitioner will be granted a stay of execution only if the court believes he has a likelihood of success on the merits.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/576/14-7955/ |title = Glossip v. Gross 576 U.S. ___ (2015) |publisher = justia.com |access-date= March 20, 2016}}</ref>

Traditionally, Section 1983 was of limited use for a state prisoner under sentence of death because the Supreme Court has held that ''habeas corpus'', not Section 1983, is the only vehicle by which a state prisoner can challenge his judgment of death.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/93-6188.ZS.html |title=Heck v. Humphrey, 512 U.S. 477 (1994) |publisher=Law.cornell.edu |access-date=December 1, 2011}}</ref> In the 2006 ''[[Hill v. McDonough]]'' case, however, the United States Supreme Court approved the use of Section 1983 as a vehicle for challenging a state's method of execution as [[cruel and unusual punishment]] in violation of the [[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighth Amendment]]. The theory is that a prisoner bringing such a challenge is not attacking directly his judgment of death, but rather the means by which that the judgment will be carried out. Therefore, the Supreme Court held in the ''Hill'' case that a prisoner can use Section 1983 rather than ''habeas corpus'' to bring the lawsuit. Yet, as [[Clarence Hill (murderer)|Clarence Hill]]'s own case shows, lower federal courts have often refused to hear suits challenging methods of execution on the ground that the prisoner brought the claim too late and only for the purposes of delay. Further, the Court's decision in ''[[Baze v. Rees]]'', upholding a lethal injection method used by many states, has narrowed the opportunity for relief through Section 1983.

===Execution warrant===
While the [[execution warrant]] is issued by the governor in several states, in the vast majority it is a judicial order, issued by a judge or by the state supreme court at the request of the prosecution.

The warrant usually sets an execution day. Some states instead provide a longer period, such as a week or 10 days to carry out the execution. This is designated to avoid issuing a new warrant in case of a last-minute stay of execution that would be vacated only few days or few hours later.<ref>{{cite web |title=2014 Georgia Code – § 17-10-34 – Sentence to specify time period for and place of execution |url=http://law.justia.com/codes/georgia/2014/title-17/chapter-10/article-2/section-17-10-34/ |publisher= law.justia.com |access-date=April 3, 2016}}</ref>

==Distribution of sentences==
[[File:Death sentences United States (new).png|thumb|right|300px| Total number of prisoners on Death Row in the United States from 1953 to 2008]]
In recent years there has been an average of one death sentence for every 200 murder convictions in the United States.

Alabama has the highest ''per capita'' rate of death sentences. This is because Alabama was one of the few states that allowed judges to override a jury recommendation in favor of life imprisonment, a possibility it removed in March 2017.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eji.org/deathpenalty |title=Death Penalty |publisher=Equal Justice Initiative |access-date=October 29, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823045344/http://eji.org/deathpenalty |archive-date=August 23, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://wrbl.com/2017/04/11/alabama-ends-death-penalty-by-judicial-override/|title=Alabama ends death penalty by judicial override|publisher=Associated Press at [[WRBL]]|date=March 11, 2017|access-date=March 13, 2017}}</ref>

According to the [[Death Penalty Information Center]], the top three factors determining whether a convict gets a death sentence in a murder case are not aggravating factors, but instead the location the crime occurred (and thus whether it is in the jurisdiction of a prosecutor aggressively using the death penalty), the quality of legal defense, and the race of the victim (murder of white victims being punished more harshly).<ref>[https://think.kera.org/2017/01/26/the-death-penalty/ State Of Execution]</ref>

===Among states===
The distribution of death sentences among states is loosely proportional to their populations and murder rates. [[California]], which is the most populous state, also has the largest death row, with over 700 inmates. [[Wyoming]], which is the least populous state, has only one condemned man.

But executions are more frequent (and happen more quickly after sentencing) in conservative states. [[Texas]], which is the second most populous state in the Union, carried out over 500 executions during the post-''Furman'' era, more than a third of the national total. California has carried out only 13 executions during the same period, and has carried out none since 2006.<ref name="CB2">{{cite web| last=Lundin|first=Leigh |title=Executed Prisoners in Texas |url=http://criminalbrief.com/?page_id=13627 |work=Last Words |publisher=Criminal Brief |access-date=November 5, 2010 }}</ref><ref name="CB1">{{cite web | date=August 22, 2010 | last=Lundin|first=Leigh |title=Last Words |url=http://criminalbrief.com/?p=13542 |work=Capital Punishment |publisher=Criminal Brief }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Facts about the Death Penalty |url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/documents/FactSheet.pdf|publisher=[[Death Penalty Information Center]] |access-date= April 21, 2017|page=3}}</ref>

===Among races===
{{Main|Race and capital punishment in the United States}}
African Americans make up 41% of death row inmates.<ref>{{cite web|title=Current U.S. Death Row Population by Race|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/death-row/overview/demographics}}</ref> African Americans have made up 34% of those actually executed since 1976. [[List of white defendants executed for killing a black victim|Twenty-one white offenders]] have been executed for the murder of a black person since 1976. During that same period, 299 black offenders have been executed for the murder of a white person.<ref>{{cite web|title=Executions by Race and Race of Victim|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/executions/executions-overview/executions-by-race-and-race-of-victim}}</ref> 54% of people [[Wrongful execution|wrongfully convicted and sentenced to death]] in the United States are black.<ref name="Exonerations by race">{{cite web|title=Exonerations by race|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/policy-issues/innocence/exonerations-by-race}}</ref>

Approximately 13.5% of death row inmates are of [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic or Latino]] descent. In 2019, individuals identified as Hispanic and Latino Americans accounted for 5.5% of homicides.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/new-resources-hispanics-and-death-penalty|title=Hispanics and the Death Penalty|publisher=Death Penalty Information Center|access-date=February 22, 2016}}</ref> The death penalty exhortation rate for Hispanic and Latino Americans is 8.6%.<ref name="Exonerations by race"/>

Approximately 1.81% of death row inmates are of [[Asian Americans|Asian descent]].<ref name="NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund">{{cite web |last1=Fins |first1=Deborah |title=Death Row U.S.A. Spring 2020 |url=https://www.naacpldf.org/wp-content/uploads/DRUSASpring2020.pdf |website=naacp.org |publisher=NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund Inc |access-date=14 September 2020}}</ref>

===Among sexes===
As of May 20, 2021, the [[Death Penalty Information Center]] reports that there are 51 women on death row. 17 women have been executed since 1976,<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/women-and-death-penalty|title=Women and the Death Penalty {{!}} Death Penalty Information Center|website=deathpenaltyinfo.org|language=en|access-date=November 8, 2017}}</ref> compared to 1,516 men during the same time period.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/documents/FactSheet.pdf|title=Facts About the Death Penalty}}</ref>

Since 1608, 15,391 lawful executions are confirmed to have been carried out in jurisdictions of, or now of, the United States, of these, 575, or 3.6%, were women. Women account for {{frac|1|50|}} death sentences, {{frac|1|67|}} people on death row, and {{frac|1|100|}} people whose executions are actually carried out. While always comparatively rare, women are significantly less likely to be executed in the modern era than in the past. Of the [[List of women executed in the United States since 1976|16 women executed on the state level]], most took place in either Texas (6), Oklahoma (3) or Florida (2) and were demographically, 25% (4) African-American, with the rest (12) being white of any ethnicity. Historically, the states that have executed the most women are California, Texas and Florida; though unlike Texas and Florida, California has not executed a woman in the post-[[Furman v. Georgia|Furman]] era. The racial breakdown of women sentenced to death is 61% white, 21% black, 13% Latina, 3% Asian, and 2% American Indian.<ref name=":0" />

==Methods==
[[File:Map of US lethal injection usage.svg|alt=|thumb|250x250px|Usage of lethal injection in the US.
{{legend|#CC6633;|State uses only this method.}}
{{legend|#FF9900;|State uses this method primarily but also has other methods.}}
{{legend|#7fff00;|State once used this method, but does not now.}}
{{legend|#0048BA;|State once adopted this method, but dropped before its use.}}
{{legend|#0099CC;|State has never adopted this method.}}]]
[[File:Methods of executions in the United States.PNG|thumb|Number of executions each year by the method used in the United States and the earlier colonies from 1608 to 2004. The adoption of electrocution caused a marked drop off in the number of hangings, which was used even less with the use of gas inhalation. After ''[[Gregg v. Georgia]]'', most states changed to lethal injection, leading to its rise.]]

All 27 states with the death penalty for murder provide [[lethal injection]] as the primary method of execution. Vermont's remaining death penalty statute for treason provides [[electrocution]] as the method of execution.<ref name="Vermont Laws"/>

Some states allow other methods than lethal injection, but only as secondary methods to be used merely at the request of the prisoner or if lethal injection is unavailable.<ref name="Reference11">{{cite web |title= Methods of Execution |url= http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/death/methods.htm |publisher= clarkprosecutor.org | access-date=March 28, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Reference22">{{cite web|url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/methods-execution|title=Methods of Execution|publisher=deathpenaltyinfo.org|access-date=June 14, 2020}}</ref>

Several states continue to use the historical three-drug protocol: firstly an [[anesthetic]], secondly [[pancuronium bromide]], a paralytic, and finally [[potassium chloride]] to stop the heart.<ref name="DPIC2016">{{cite web|title=State by State Lethal Injection|url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/state-lethal-injection|publisher=Death Penalty Information Center|access-date=May 14, 2016}}</ref> Eight states have used a single-drug protocol, inflicting only an overdose of a single anesthetic to the prisoner.<ref name="DPIC2016"/>

While some state statutes specify the drugs required, a majority do not, giving more flexibility to prison officers.<ref name="DPIC2016"/>

Pressures from anti-death penalty activists and shareholders have made it difficult for correctional services to get the chemicals. Hospira, the only U.S. manufacturer of sodium thiopental, stopped making the drug in 2011.<ref name = NYT2016/> In 2016, it was reported that more than 20 U.S. and European drug manufacturers including [[Pfizer]] (the owner of Hospira) had taken steps to prevent their drugs from being used for lethal injections.<ref name = NYT2016>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/14/us/pfizer-execution-drugs-lethal-injection.html|title=Pfizer Blocks the Use of Its Drugs in Executions|last=Eckholm|first=Erik|date=May 13, 2016|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|access-date=May 14, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://motherboard.vice.com/blog/will-the-eu-kill-americas-death-penalty |title=Will the EU kill America's Death Penalty? |last=Richmond |first=Ben |date=October 28, 2013 |website=Motherboard |publisher=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice Media, Inc.]] |access-date=November 5, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102084023/http://motherboard.vice.com/blog/will-the-eu-kill-americas-death-penalty |archive-date=November 2, 2013 }}</ref><ref name = "tnr">{{cite news |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/115284/big-pharma-may-end-death-penalty |title=Big Pharma May Help End The Death Penalty |newspaper=[[The New Republic]] |last=Algar |first=Clare |date=October 22, 2013 |access-date=November 5, 2013}}</ref>

Since then, some states have used other anesthetics, such as [[pentobarbital]], [[etomidate]],<ref>''[[The Washington Post]]'': [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2017/08/24/a-death-penalty-first-for-florida-executing-a-white-man-for-killing-a-black-man/ A death penalty landmark for Florida: Executing a white man for killing a black man]</ref> or fast-acting [[benzodiazepine]]s like [[midazolam]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/30/us/supreme-court-execution-drug.html|title=Supreme Court Allows Use of Execution Drug|last=Liptak|first=Adam|date=June 29, 2015|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|access-date=October 5, 2016}}</ref> Many states have since bought lethal injection drugs from foreign furnishers, and most states have made it a criminal offense to reveal the identities of furnishers or execution team members.<ref name = NYT2016/><ref>{{cite web |title= Secret Execution Team, Firing Squads, Restricted Media Included in House Bill |url=http://www.jacksonfreepress.com/news/2016/mar/28/secret-execution-team-firing-squads-restricted-med/ |publisher= jacksonfreepress.com |access-date=April 6, 2016}}</ref> In November 2015, California adopted regulations allowing the state to use its own public compounding pharmacies to make the chemicals.<ref>{{cite web |title= Notice of change to regulations |url= http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/Regulations/Adult_Operations/docs/NCDR/2015NCR/15-10/NCR%2015-10%20Notice%20of%20Proposed%20Regulations.pdf |publisher= cdcr.ca.gov |access-date= May 22, 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160115033513/http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/Regulations/Adult_Operations/docs/NCDR/2015NCR/15-10/NCR%2015-10%20Notice%20of%20Proposed%20Regulations.pdf |archive-date= January 15, 2016 |url-status= dead }}</ref>

In 2009, Ohio approved the use of an intramuscular injection of 500 mg of [[hydromorphone]] (a 333-fold lethal overdose for an opioid-naive person)<ref>Mosby's 2004 "Hydromorphone"</ref> and a supratherapeutic dose of [[midazolam]] as a backup means of carrying out executions when a suitable vein cannot be found for intravenous injection.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.drc.ohio.gov/public/press/press342.htm | title=Ohio Prisons Director Announces Changes to Ohio's Execution Process | date=November 13, 2009 | publisher=[[Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction]] | access-date=January 17, 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115131421/http://www.drc.ohio.gov/Public/press/press342.htm | archive-date=January 15, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-28457460 |title=Arizona execution takes two hours| date= July 24, 2014 | work= BBC News | access-date=July 24, 2014 }}</ref>

Lethal injection was held to be a constitutional method of execution by the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] in three cases: ''[[Baze v. Rees]]'' (2008), ''[[Glossip v. Gross]]'' (2015), and ''[[Bucklew v. Precythe]]'' (2019).<ref>{{cite news|title= High court upholds lethal injection method|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/CRIME/04/16/scotus.injections/index.html|access-date=June 30, 2017|work=[[Cable News Network]] (CNN)|date= April 16, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title= Supreme Court backs use of lethal injection drug |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/29/politics/supreme-court-lethal-injection-ruling/index.html|access-date=June 30, 2017|work=[[Cable News Network]] (CNN)|date=June 29, 2015}}</ref>

===Offender-selected methods===
In the following states, death row inmates with an execution warrant may choose to be executed by:<ref name="Reference22"/>
*[[Lethal injection]] in South Carolina (unless the drugs to use it are unavailable).
*[[Electrocution]] in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Kentucky, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee and South Carolina (Primary method)
*[[Gas chamber]] in Arizona and California.
*[[Firing squad]] in Mississippi, Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Utah.

In four states (Arizona, Kentucky, Tennessee and Utah), the alternative method is offered only to inmates sentenced to death for crimes committed prior to a specified date (usually when the state switched from the earlier method to lethal injection).

When an offender chooses to be executed by a means different from the state default method, which is always lethal injection, he/she loses the right to challenge its constitutionality in court. See ''Stewart v. LaGrand'', 526 U.S. 115 (1999).

The last executions by methods other than injection are as follows (all chosen by the inmate):
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Method !! Date !! State !! Inmate
|-
| [[Electrocution]]
| {{dts|20 February 2020}}
| [[Tennessee]]
| [[Nicholas Todd Sutton]]
|-
| [[Firing squad]]
| {{dts|18 June 2010}}
| [[Utah]]
| [[Ronnie Lee Gardner]]
|-
|[[Gas chamber]]
| {{dts|3 March 1999}}
| [[Arizona]]
| [[LaGrand case|Walter Bernhard LaGrand]]
|-
| [[Hanging]]
| {{dts|25 January 1996}}
| [[Delaware]]
| [[Billy Bailey]]
|}

===Backup methods===
Depending on the state, the following alternative methods are statutorily provided in case lethal injection is either found unconstitutional by a court or unavailable for practical reasons:<ref name="Reference11"/><ref name="Reference22"/><ref>South Carolina Code of Laws: {{cite web |title= Section 24-3-530. Death by electrocution or lethal injection. |url= http://law.justia.com/codes/south-carolina/2015/title-24/chapter-3/section-24-3-530/ |publisher= law.justia.com |access-date= June 4, 2016}}</ref>
* Electrocution in Arkansas, Florida, Kentucky,<ref>{{cite web |title= Method of execution in event of unconstitutionality of KRS 431.220 |url= https://codes.findlaw.com/ky/title-xl-crimes-and-punishments/ky-rev-st-sect-431-223.html |publisher= codes.findlaw.com |access-date= March 22, 2020}}</ref> Mississippi, Oklahoma, South Carolina and Tennessee.
* Lethal gas in Alabama, California, Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma and Wyoming.
* Firing squad in Mississippi, Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Utah.
* Hanging in New Hampshire (where repeal of the death penalty in 2019 isn’t retroactive).
Several states including Oklahoma, Tennessee and Utah, have added back-up methods recently (or have expanded their application fields) in reaction to the shortage of lethal injection drugs.<ref name="Reference22"/><ref>{{cite web|title=How to kill: America's death penalty dilemma|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2016/03/24/us/state-of-death-penalty-in-graphs-and-charts/|publisher= cnn.com|access-date=28 March 2016}}</ref>

Oklahoma and Mississippi are the only states allowing more than two methods of execution in their statutes, providing lethal injection, [[nitrogen hypoxia]], electrocution and firing squad to be used in that order if all earlier methods are unavailable. The nitrogen option was added by the Oklahoma Legislature in 2015 and has never been used in a judicial execution.<ref name="nitrogen">{{cite web|title=The Dawn of a New Form of Capital Punishment|url=http://time.com/3749879/nitrogen-gas-execution-oklahoma-lethal-injection/|publisher=Time|date=17 April 2015}}</ref> After struggling for years to design a nitrogen execution protocol and to obtain a proper device for it, Oklahoma announced in February 2020 it abandoned the project after finding a new reliable source of lethal injection drugs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Oklahoma Attorney general says state will resume executions|date=February 13, 2020|url=https://nypost.com/2020/02/13/oklahoma-attorney-general-says-state-will-resume-executions/|publisher=nypost.com|access-date=22 March 2020}}</ref>

Some states such as Florida have a larger provision dealing with execution methods unavailability, requiring their state departments of corrections to use "any constitutional method" if both lethal injection and electrocution are found unconstitutional. This was designed to make unnecessary any further legislative intervention in that event, but the provision applies only to legal (not practical) infeasibility.<ref>{{cite web|title=922.105 – Execution of death sentence|url=http://www.leg.state.fl.us/statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&Search_String=&URL=0900-0999/0922/Sections/0922.105.html|publisher=leg.state.fl.us|access-date=28 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=40-23-114 – Death by lethal injection Election of electrocution.|url=http://law.justia.com/codes/tennessee/2010/title-40/chapter-23/40-23-114/|publisher=law.justia.com|access-date=30 March 2016}}</ref>

===Federal executions===
The method of execution of federal prisoners for offenses under the [[Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994]] is that of the state in which the conviction took place. If the state has no death penalty, the judge must choose a state with the death penalty for carrying out the execution.

The federal government has a facility (at [[U.S. Penitentiary Terre Haute]]) and regulations only for executions by lethal injection, but the [[United States Code]] allows [[U.S. Marshals]] to use state facilities and employees for federal executions.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/28/26.3 |title= § 26.3 Date, time, place, and method of execution. |publisher= law.cornell.edu |access-date= March 15, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/3597 |title= 18 U.S. Code § 3597 – Use of State facilities |publisher= law.cornell.edu |access-date= March 15, 2017}}</ref>

==Execution attendance==
[[File:TimothyMcVeighPerryOKApr2195.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The over 200 witnesses to the execution of Timothy McVeigh were mostly survivors and victims' relatives of the [[Oklahoma City bombing]].]]

The last public execution in the U.S. was that of [[Rainey Bethea]] in [[Owensboro, Kentucky]], on August 14, 1936.

It was the last execution in the nation at which the general public was permitted to attend without any legally imposed restrictions. "Public execution" is a legal phrase, defined by the laws of various states, and carried out pursuant to a court order. Similar to "[[public records|public record]]" or "public meeting", it means that anyone who wants to attend the execution may do so.

Around 1890, a political movement developed in the United States to mandate private executions. Several states enacted laws which required executions to be conducted within a "wall" or "enclosure", or to "exclude public view". Most state laws currently use such explicit wording to prohibit public executions, while others do so only implicitly by enumerating the only authorized witnesses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cfr.vlex.com/vid/26-4-other-execution-procedures-19676580|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140118085043/http://cfr.vlex.com/vid/26-4-other-execution-procedures-19676580|url-status=dead|title=Federal regulations 28 CFR 26.4|archive-date=January 18, 2014}}</ref>

All states allow news reporters to be execution witnesses for information of the general public, except Wyoming which allows only witnesses authorized by the condemned.<ref>{{cite web|title = Texas Execution Information – Texas Execution Primer|url = http://www.txexecutions.org/primer.asp|website = www.txexecutions.org|access-date = August 5, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = States go hunting for execution witnesses |url = http://orig.jacksonsun.com/fe/exec/witnesses.shtml|website = jacksonsun.com |access-date = July 15, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Wyoming Code § 7-13-908 |url =http://law.justia.com/codes/wyoming/2016/title-7/chapter-13/article-9/section-7-13-908/ |website = law.justia.com |access-date = July 15, 2017}}</ref>
Several states also allow victims' families and relatives selected by the prisoner to watch executions. An hour or two before the execution, the condemned is offered religious services and to choose their [[last meal]] (except in Texas which abolished it in 2011).

The execution of [[Timothy McVeigh]] on June 11, 2001, was witnessed by over 200 people, most by closed-circuit television. Most were survivors, or relatives of victims of, the 1995 [[Oklahoma City Bombing]], for which McVeigh had been sentenced to death.

==Public opinion==
{{Essay-like|section|date=July 2019}}
[[Gallup, Inc.]] has monitored support for the death penalty in the United States since 1937 by asking "Are you in favor of the death penalty for a person convicted of murder?" Gallup surveys documented a sharp increase in support for capital punishment between 1966 and 1994.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/1606/death-penalty.aspx |title=Death Penalty |website=Gallup |date=October 24, 2006 |access-date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> However, perhaps as the result of DNA exonerations of death row inmates reported in the national media in the late 1990s,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Baumgartner. De Boef, Boydstun|first1=Frank, Suzanna, Amber|title=The Decline of the Death Penalty and the Discovery of Innocence|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521715249}}</ref> support began to wane, falling from 80% in 1994 to 56% in 2019. Moreover, approval varies substantially depending on the characteristics of the target and the alternatives posed, with much lower support for putting juveniles and the mentally ill to death (26% and 19%, respectively, in 2002).<ref name=":1" /> Given the fact that attitudes toward capital punishment are often responsive to events, to characteristics of the target and to alternatives, many believe that the conventional wisdom—that death penalty attitudes are impervious to change—is flawed. Accordingly, any analysis of death penalty attitudes must account for the responsiveness of such attitudes, as well as their reputed resistance to change.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Persuasion and Resistance: Race and the Death Penalty in America|first1=Mark|last1=Peffley|first2=Jon|last2=Hurwitz|date=October 1, 2007|journal=American Journal of Political Science|volume=51|issue=4|pages = 996–1012|doi=10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00293.x}}</ref>

[[Pew Research Center|Pew Research]] polls have demonstrated declining American support for the death penalty: 80% in 1974, 78% in 1996, 55% in 2014, and 49% in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/09/29/support-for-death-penalty-lowest-in-more-than-four-decades/|title=Support for death penalty lowest in more than four decades|last=Oliphant|first=Baxter|date=September 29, 2016|website=Dactank; News in Numbers|publisher=Pew Research Centre|access-date=October 5, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Shrinking Majority of Americans Support Death Penalty|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2014/03/28/shrinking-majority-of-americans-support-death-penalty/|access-date=January 31, 2018|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=March 28, 2014}}</ref> The 2014 poll showed significant differences by race: 63% of whites, 40% of Hispanics and 36% of blacks, respectively, supported the death penalty in that year. However, in 2018, Pew's polls showed public support for the death penalty had increased to 54% from 49%. Since 2016, opinions among Republicans and Democrats have changed little, but the share of independents favoring the death penalty has increased by eight percentage points (from 44% to 52%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/06/11/us-support-for-death-penalty-ticks-up-2018/|title=Public support for the death penalty ticks up|date=June 11, 2018}}</ref>

A 2010 poll by Lake Research Partners found that 61% of voters would choose a penalty other than the death sentence for murder.<ref name="DPIC2015" /> When persons surveyed are given a choice between the death penalty and [[life imprisonment|life without parole]] for persons convicted of capital crimes, support for execution has traditionally been significantly lower than in polling that asks only if a person does or does not support the death penalty. In Gallup's 2019 survey, support for the sentence of life without parole surpassed that for the death penalty by a margin of 60% to 36%.<ref name=":1" />

A 2014 study found that the belief that the death penalty helps victims' families to heal may be wrong; more often than finding closure, victims' families felt anger and wanted revenge, with potential side effects of depression, [[Posttraumatic stress disorder|PTSD]] and a decreased satisfaction with life. Furthermore, the researchers found that a sense of compassion or remorse expressed from the perpetrator to the victim's family had a statistically significant positive effect on the family's ability to find closure.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Eaton|first1=Judy|last2=Christensen|first2=Tony|date=June 23, 2014|title=Closure and its myths|journal=International Review of Victimology|volume=20|issue=3|pages=327–343|doi=10.1177/0269758014537148|s2cid=143577831|issn=0269-7580}}</ref>

In November 2009, another Gallup poll found that 77% of Americans believed that the mastermind of the [[9/11|September 11 attacks]], [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], should receive the death penalty if convicted, 12 points higher than the rate of general support for the death penalty upon Gallup's most recent poll at the time.<ref>{{cite web |title=Americans at Odds With Recent Terror Trial Decisions |date=November 27, 2009|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/124493/Americans-Odds-Recent-Terror-Trial-Decisions.aspx|publisher= gallup.com |access-date=April 10, 2016}}</ref> A similar result was found in 2001 when respondents were polled about the execution of [[Timothy McVeigh]] for the [[Oklahoma City bombing]] that killed 168 people.<ref>{{cite web |title= Foes of death penalty say McVeigh is an exception |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2001-05-03-mcveigh-cappunish.htm |publisher= usatoday.com |access-date=April 10, 2016}}</ref>

==Debate==
Capital punishment is a controversial issue, with many prominent organizations and individuals participating in the debate. [[Amnesty International]] and other groups oppose capital punishment on moral grounds.

Some law enforcement organizations, and some victims' rights groups support capital punishment.

The United States is one of the four [[Developed country|developed countries]] that still practice capital punishment, along with [[Capital punishment in Japan|Japan]], [[Capital punishment in Singapore|Singapore]], and [[Capital punishment in Taiwan|Taiwan]].

Religious groups are widely split on the issue of capital punishment.<ref name="Religious Tolerance">{{cite web|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/execut7.htm |title=ReligiousTolerance |publisher=ReligiousTolerance |access-date=December 1, 2011}}</ref> The [[Fiqh Council of North America]], a group of highly influential Muslim scholars in the United States, has issued a [[fatwa]] calling for a moratorium on capital punishment in the United States until various preconditions in the legal system are met.<ref>http://www.fiqhcouncil.org/Articles/GeneralFiqhIssues/tabid/170/ctl/Detail/mid/569/xmid/4/xmfid/1/Default.aspx {{dead link|date=July 2016}}</ref>

[[Reform Judaism]] has formally opposed the death penalty since 1959, when the Union of American Hebrew Congregations (now the [[Union for Reform Judaism]]) resolved "that in the light of modern scientific knowledge and concepts of humanity, the resort to or continuation of capital punishment either by a state or by the national government is no longer morally justifiable." The resolution goes on to say that the death penalty "lies as a stain upon civilization and our religious conscience." In 1979, the [[Central Conference of American Rabbis]], the professional arm of the Reform rabbinate, resolved that, "both in concept and in practice, Jewish tradition found capital punishment repugnant" and there is no persuasive evidence "that capital punishment serves as a deterrent to crime."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://reformjudaism.org/social-justice-advocacy/jewish-views/civil-rights/why-reform-judaism-opposes-death-penalty |title=Why Reform Judaism Opposes the Death Penalty |work=ReformJudaism.org |access-date=March 3, 2019}}</ref>

In October 2009, the [[American Law Institute]] voted to disavow the framework for capital punishment that it had created in 1962, as part of the [[Model Penal Code]], "in light of the current intractable institutional and structural obstacles to ensuring a minimally adequate system for administering capital punishment". A study commissioned by the institute had said that experience had proved that the goal of individualized decisions about who should be executed and the goal of systemic fairness for minorities and others could not be reconciled.<ref>{{Cite news|work=The New York Times |last=Lipak |first=Adam |date=January 4, 2010 |title=Group Gives Up Death Penalty Work |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/05/us/05bar.html}}</ref> {{As of|2017}}, 159 prisoners have been exonerated due to evidence of their innocence.<ref name="Dwyer-Moss, 760"/><ref name=DPIC2015>{{cite web|title=Facts about the Death Penalty|url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/documents/FactSheet.pdf|publisher=Death Penalty Information Center|access-date=December 23, 2015|date=December 9, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/innocence-list-those-freed-death-row|title=Innocence: List of Those Freed From Death Row|date=October 28, 2010|access-date=March 11, 2011|publisher=[[Death Penalty Information Center]]}}</ref>

Advocates of the death penalty say that it deters crime, is a good tool for prosecutors in [[plea bargain]]ing,<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://wweek.com/editorial/3411/10288/ |title=Killing Time Dead Men Waiting on Oregon's Death Row |first=James |last=Pitkin |periodical=Willamette Week |date=January 23, 2008 |access-date=March 11, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124040746/http://wweek.com/editorial/3411/10288/ |archive-date=January 24, 2008 }}</ref> improves the community by eliminating recidivism by executed criminals, provides "closure" to surviving victims or loved ones, and is a just penalty. Some advocates{{who|date=May 2022}} against the death penalty argue that "most of the rest of the world gave up on [[human sacrifice]] a long time ago."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peacock |first1=John |url=https://www.metafilter.com/161691/Jeffrey-Wood#6672735 |title=Jeffrey Wood |publisher=Metafilter |access-date=3 June 2020}}</ref>

The murder rate is highest in the South (6.5 per 100,000 in 2016), where 80% of executions are carried out, and lowest in the Northeast (3.5 per 100,000), with less than 1% of executions. A report by the [[National Research Council (United States)|US National Research Council]] in 2012 stated that studies claiming a deterrent effect are "fundamentally flawed" and should not be used for policy decisions.<ref name=DPIC2015/> According to a survey of the former and present presidents of the country's top academic criminological societies, 88% of these experts rejected the notion that the death penalty acts as a deterrent to murder.<ref name=DPIC2015/>

Data shows that the application of the death penalty is strongly influenced by racial bias.<ref name=DPIC2015/> Furthermore, some opponents argue that it is applied in an arbitrary manner by a criminal justice system that has been shown to be biased through the systemic influence of socio-economic, geographic, and gender factors.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Londono|first=O.|date=March 5, 2013|title=A Retributive Critique of Racial Bias and Arbitrariness in Capital Punishment|journal=Journal of Social Philosophy|volume=44|number=1|pages=95–105|doi=10.1111/josp.12013}}</ref> Another argument in the [[capital punishment debate]] is the cost.<ref name=DPIC2015/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/01/opinion/l01death.html |title=Letter – Cost of the Death Penalty |location=California |work=The New York Times |date=February 28, 2009 |access-date=December 1, 2011}}</ref>

Opponents to the death penalty note that the [[lethal injection]], the most common method of carrying out the death penalty, can oftentimes cause executed individuals to remain conscious for several minutes after administering the injection, causing them to feel severe pain in their veins.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://reason.com/2022/04/22/possible-problems-with-lethal-injection-drugs-stop-tennessee-execution/|title=Possible Problems With Lethal Injection Drugs Stop Tennessee Execution |date=April 23, 2022}}</ref> The "three drug cocktail" consists of midazolam, a sedative, vecuronium bromide, a paralytic, and potassium chloride, which stops the heart.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kfor.com/news/local/controversial-3-drug-cocktail-focal-point-of-controversy-in-oklahomas-execution-of-death-row-inmates/|title=3-drug cocktail focal point of controversy in Oklahoma's execution of death row inmates |date=October 28, 2021}}</ref> Opponents note that the midazolam in particular can may mask the executed individual's pain and suffering.<ref>{{cite web|url=hhttps://www.aclu.org/other/case-against-death-penalty|title=THE CASE AGAINST THE DEATH PENALTY|access-date=April 23, 2022}}</ref> Opponents argue that this causes unnecessary pain and suffering on the executed individual and constitutes cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the [[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution]].<ref>{{cite web|url=hhttps://www.aclu.org/other/case-against-death-penalty|title=THE CASE AGAINST THE DEATH PENALTY|access-date=April 23, 2022}}</ref>

=== Botched executions ===
{{Further|Capital punishment#Non-painful execution}}
One of the main arguments against the use of capital punishment in the United States is that there has been a long history of botched executions. University of Colorado Boulder Professor [[Michael L. Radelet]] described a "botched execution" as an [[Cruel and unusual punishment|execution that causes the prisoner to suffer for a long period of time]] before they die.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2006/us0406/8.htm|title=So Long as They Die: Lethal Injections in the United States: VI. Botched Executions|website=www.hrw.org|access-date=April 26, 2018}}</ref> This has led to the argument that capital punishment is [[wikt:per se|per se]] cruel and unusual punishment. The following is a short list of examples of botched executions that have occurred in the United States.
* [[William Kemmler]] was the first person executed in the [[electric chair]], in 1890. After being pronounced dead after 17 seconds, he was found to be still alive. The current was applied a second time, for two minutes, to complete the death.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/Botched_Executions_in_American_History|title=Botched Executions in American History|publisher=Death Penalty Information Center|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2018}}</ref>
* In Arizona, it took [[Execution of Joseph Wood|Joseph Wood]] two hours to die after being [[Lethal injection|injected]].<ref name=slate>{{cite web|last1=Hannon|first1=Elliot|title=Arizona Man Gasps and Snorts During Lethal Injection Execution That Took Nearly Two Hours|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2014/07/23/botched_lethal_injection_of_joseph_wood_takes_two_hours.html|work=Slate|access-date=July 24, 2014|date=July 23, 2014}}</ref>
* In Alabama, the execution of [[Doyle Hamm]] was called off after prison medical staff spent nearly three hours attempting to insert an IV that could be used to administer the lethal injection drugs. In the process, the execution team punctured Hamm's bladder and femoral artery, causing significant bleeding.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/feb/26/gory-botched-alabamas-aborted-execution-of-inmate-was-bloody-says-lawyer|title='Gory, botched': Alabama's aborted execution of inmate was bloody, says lawyer|agency=Reuters|date=February 26, 2018|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theintercept.com/2018/03/03/doyle-hamm-alabama-execution-lethal-injection/|title=Another Failed Execution: the Torture of Doyle Lee Hamm|last=Segura|first=Liliana|date=March 3, 2018|website=The Intercept|language=en-US|access-date=August 9, 2019}}</ref>
* In Florida, [[Jesse Tafero|Jesse Joseph Tafero]] had flames burst from his hair during an electrocution.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/some-examples-post-furman-botched-executions|title=Botched Executions|publisher=Death Penalty Information Center|website=deathpenaltyinfo.org|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2018}}</ref>
* [[Wallace Wilkerson]] died after 27 minutes in pain after the [[Execution by firing squad|firing squad]] failed to shoot him in the heart.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Acker|first1=James A.|last2=Champagne|first2=Ryan|date=May 2, 2018|title=The Execution of Wallace Wilkerson: Precedent and Portent|journal=Criminal Justice Review|volume=42|pages=349–367|doi=10.1177/0734016817702193|s2cid=148715242}}</ref> Because of this, the constitutionality of the use of the firing squad was questioned. The [[Supreme Court of the United States]] affirmed that the firing squad did not violate the Eighth Amendment in the case ''[[Wilkerson v. Utah]]'' (1879).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/99/130|title=WILKERSON v. UTAH.|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2018}}</ref>
* In New Mexico, [[Tom Ketchum|Thomas Ketchum]] was decapitated when his body fell through the trap door during his hanging.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/thomas-e-ketchum|title=Thomas E. Ketchum|last=yongli|date=September 21, 2016|website=coloradoencyclopedia.org|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2018}}</ref>
* In Mississippi, [[Jimmy Lee Gray]] died after being in the gas chamber for nine minutes. During the procedure, Gray thrashed and banged his head against the metal pole behind his head while struggling to breathe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.capitalpunishmentuk.org/Gray.pdf |title=Capital punishment UK |website=www.capitalpunishmentuk.org }}</ref>

[[Austin Sarat]], a professor of jurisprudence and political science at Amherst College, in his book ''Gruesome Spectacles: Botched Executions and America's Death Penalty'', found that from 1890 to 2010, 276 executions were botched out of a total of 8,776, or 3.15%, with lethal injections having the highest rate. Sarat writes that between 1980 and 2010 the rate of botched executions was higher than ever: 8.53 percent.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/some-examples-post-furman-botched-executions |title=Botched Executions |publisher=Death Penalty Information Center |access-date=March 3, 2019}}</ref>

==Clemency and commutations==
In states with the death penalty, the governor usually has the discretionary power to commute a death sentence or to stay its execution. In some states the governor is required to receive an advisory or binding recommendation from a separate board. In a few states like Georgia, the board decides alone on clemency. At the federal level, the power of clemency belongs to the President of the United States.<ref>{{cite web|title=Clemency|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/facts-and-research/clemency#:~:text=Clemency%20is%20the%20process%20by,for%20a%20variety%20of%20reasons.|publisher= deathpenaltyinfo.org |access-date=January 14, 2021}}</ref>

The largest number of clemencies was granted in January 2003 in [[Illinois]] when outgoing [[Governor]] [[George Ryan]], who had already imposed a moratorium on executions, pardoned four death-row inmates and commuted the sentences of the remaining 167 to life in prison without the possibility of parole.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/node/677 |title=Illinois Death Row Inmates Granted Commutation by Governor George Ryan on January 12, 2003 |publisher=Deathpenaltyinfo.org |access-date=December 1, 2011}}</ref> When Governor [[Pat Quinn (politician)|Pat Quinn]] signed legislation abolishing the death penalty in Illinois in March 2011, he commuted the sentences of the fifteen inmates on death row to [[life imprisonment]].<ref name="QuinnSignsAbolition">{{cite news|url=http://newsblogs.chicagotribune.com/clout_st/2011/03/quinn-signs-death-penalty-ban-commutes-15-death-row-sentences-to-life.html|title=Quinn signs death penalty ban, commutes 15 death row sentences to life|date=March 9, 2011|access-date=March 9, 2011|newspaper=[[Chicago Tribune]]}}</ref>

Previous post-''Furman'' mass clemencies took place in 1986 in [[New Mexico]], when Governor [[Toney Anaya]] commuted all death sentences because of his personal opposition to the death penalty. In 1991, outgoing [[Ohio]] Governor [[Dick Celeste]] commuted the sentences of eight prisoners, among them all four women on the state's death row. And during his two terms (1979–1987) as [[Florida]]'s governor, [[Bob Graham]], although a strong death penalty supporter who had overseen the first post-''Furman'' involuntary execution as well as 15 others, agreed to commute the sentences of six people on the grounds of doubts about guilt or disproportionality.

==Moratoria on executions==
[[File:Death penalty in the United States with hiatuses.svg|thumb|250px|Death penalty in the United States with hiatuses:
{{legend|#4daf4a|Capital punishment repealed or struck down as unconstitutional}}
{{legend|#377eb8|Capital punishment in statute, but executions formally suspended}}
{{legend|#ffff33|Capital punishment in statute, but no recent executions}}
{{legend|#984ea3|Capital punishment in statute, executions informally suspended}}{{legend|#e41a1c|Executions recently carried out}}]]

All executions were suspended through the country between September 2007 and April 2008. At that time, the [[United States Supreme Court]] was examining the constitutionality of lethal injection in ''[[Baze v. Rees]]''. This was the longest period with no executions in the United States since 1982. The Supreme Court ultimately upheld this method in a 7–2 ruling.

In addition to the states that have no valid death penalty statute, the following 15 states and 3 jurisdictions either have an official [[moratorium (law)|moratorium]] on executions or have had no executions for more than ten years as of {{CURRENTYEAR}}:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!scope="col" | State / Jurisdiction
!scope="col" | Status
!scope="col" | Moratorium status<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/california-moves-slowly-toward-resuming-executions/|title = California moves – slowly – toward resuming executions|access-date = May 25, 2017|website = seattletimes.com |quote= California has long been what one expert calls a "symbolic death penalty state", one of 12 that has capital punishment on the books, but has not executed anyone in more than a decade. |date = April 23, 2017}}</ref>

|-
|{{yes|[[Capital punishment by the United States federal government|Federal government]]}}
|{{yes|by Attorney General}}
|{{yes|In 2021, Attorney General [[Merrick Garland]] set a moratorium pending review.<ref name=Federal />}}
|-
|{{yes-no|[[Capital punishment by the United States military|Military]]}}
|{{yes-no|''de facto''}}
|{{yes-no|No executions since 1961.}}
|-
|{{yes-no|[[Capital punishment in American Samoa|American Samoa]]}}
|{{yes-no|''de facto''}}
|{{yes-no|No method of execution defined by law. No executions since gaining self-governance in 1949. There are currently no prisoners under a sentence of death in the territory.}}
|-
|{{yes|[[Capital punishment in California|California]]}}
|{{yes|by Governor and court order}}
|{{yes|On March 13, 2019, Governor [[Gavin Newsom]] set a moratorium. There has also been a court ordered moratorium on executions in effect since December 15, 2006.}}<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-pol-ca-governor-gavin-newsom-death-penalty-moratorium-20190312-story.html |title = Gov. Gavin Newsom to block California death row executions, close San Quentin execution chamber|website = [[Los Angeles Times]]|date = March 13, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/news/civil-rights-groups-accuse-california-district-attorneys-of-unlawfully-interfering-in-death-penalty-lawsuit|date=March 11, 2021|access-date=March 13, 2021|title=Civil Rights Groups Accuse California District Attorneys of Unlawfully Interfering in Death Penalty Lawsuit|publisher=[[Death Penalty Information Center]]}}</ref>
|-
|{{yes-no|[[Capital punishment in Indiana|Indiana]]}}
|{{yes-no|''de facto''}}
|{{yes-no|No executions since 2009 (excluding federal executions at [[United States Penitentiary, Terre Haute|USP Terre Haute]]).}}
|-
|{{yes-no|[[Capital punishment in Kansas|Kansas]]}}
|{{yes-no|''de facto''}}
|{{yes-no| Kansas has had no executions since 1965. Kansas restored the death penalty in 1994 but no current death row inmates have exhausted their appeals.}}
|-
|{{yes|[[Capital punishment in Kentucky|Kentucky]]}}
|{{yes|by court order}}
|{{yes|In 2009, a state judge suspended executions pending a new protocol.}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Kentucky Judge Rules Against Lethal Injection Protocol and Halts Execution|url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/kentucky-judge-rules-against-lethal-injection-protocol-and-halts-execution|website=Death Penalty Information Center|publisher=Death Penalty Information Center|access-date=July 11, 2016}}</ref><ref name=KSC />
|-
|{{yes-no|[[Capital punishment in Louisiana|Louisiana]]}}
|{{yes-no|''de facto''}}
|{{yes-no|No executions since 2010.}} (no involuntary executions since 2002)
|-
|{{yes|[[Capital punishment in Montana|Montana]]}}
|{{yes|by court order}}
|{{yes|In 2015, a state judge ruled the state's lethal injection protocol is unlawful, stopping executions}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bellware|first1=Kim|title=Montana Judge Strikes Down State's Lethal Injection Protocol|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/montana-death-penalty-moratorium_us_56143b33e4b021e856d2bdd9|website=The Huffington Post|access-date=July 11, 2016|date=October 6, 2015}}</ref>
|-
|{{yes-no|[[Capital punishment in Nevada|Nevada]]}}
|{{yes-no|''de facto''}}
|{{yes-no|No executions since 2006.}}
|-
|{{yes|[[Capital punishment in North Carolina|North Carolina]]}}
|{{yes|by implementers}}
|{{yes|Executions are suspended following a decision by the state's medical board that physicians cannot participate in executions, which is a requirement under state law.}}
|-
|{{free|[[Capital punishment in Ohio|Ohio]]}}
|{{free|''de facto''}}
|{{free|In 2020, Governor [[Mike DeWine]] set an informal moratorium. The state will no longer use lethal injection, but state law does not currently specify any other method of execution.}}
|-
|{{yes|[[Capital punishment in Oregon|Oregon]]}}
|{{yes|by Governor}}
|{{yes|In 2011, Governor [[John Kitzhaber]] set a moratorium and a review.<ref name=Oregon />}}
|-
|{{yes|[[Capital punishment in Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]]}}
|{{yes|by Governor}}
|{{yes|In 2015, Governor [[Tom Wolf]] set a moratorium pending review.<ref name=Pennsylvania />}}
|-
|{{yes-no|[[Capital punishment in South Carolina|South Carolina]]}}
|{{yes-no|''de facto''}}
|{{yes-no|No executions since 2011.}}
|-
|{{yes|[[Capital punishment in Tennessee|Tennessee]]}}
|{{yes|by Governor}}
|{{yes|On May 2, 2022, Governor [[Bill Lee (Tennessee politician)|Bill Lee]] set a moratorium on all executions in Tennessee that were scheduled to be executed in 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/news/tennessee-governor-halts-executions-scheduled-for-2022-to-conduct-review-of-execution-protocol-oversight|title=Tennessee Governor Halts Executions Scheduled for 2022 to Conduct Review of Execution Protocol 'Oversight'|publisher=[[Death Penalty Information Center]]|date=May 3, 2022|accessdate=May 5, 2022}}</ref>}}
|-
|{{yes-no|[[Capital punishment in Utah|Utah]]}}
|{{yes-no|''de facto''}}
|{{yes-no|No executions since 2010.}}
|-
|{{yes-no|[[Capital punishment in Wyoming|Wyoming]]}}
|{{yes-no|''de facto''}}
|{{yes-no|Wyoming has had no executions since 1992. There are currently no prisoners under a sentence of death in the state.}}
|}

Since 1976, four states have only executed condemned prisoners who voluntarily waived any further appeals: Pennsylvania has executed three inmates, Oregon two, Connecticut one, and New Mexico one. In the last state, Governor [[Toney Anaya]] commuted the sentences of all five condemned prisoners on death row in late 1986.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/11/27/5-death-sentences-commuted/1a7c7cf6-215a-40aa-9d29-8db8f5b40c12/ "5 Death Sentences Commuted"], ''[[The Washington Post]]'', November 27, 1986. Retrieved March 24, 2020.</ref>

In [[California]], [[United States District Judge]] [[Jeremy Fogel]] suspended all executions in the state on December 15, 2006, ruling that the implementation used in California was unconstitutional but that it could be fixed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20061215/ap_on_re_us/california_death_penalty|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061222152731/http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20061215/ap_on_re_us/california_death_penalty|url-status=dead|title=Judge says executions unconstitutional|archive-date=December 22, 2006}}</ref> California Governor [[Gavin Newsom]] declared an indefinite moratorium on March 13, 2019.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Miller |first1=Hayley |title=Gov. Gavin Newsom Halts Executions In California, Calls Death Penalty 'A Failure' |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/gavin-newsom-death-penalty-california_n_5c88e410e4b038892f4900cc |access-date=March 13, 2019 |work=Huffington Post |date=March 13, 2019}}</ref>

On November 25, 2009, the [[Kentucky Supreme Court]] affirmed a decision by the Franklin County Circuit Court suspending executions until the state adopts regulations for carrying out the penalty by lethal injection.<ref name=KSC>{{cite web|last=Musgrave |first=Beth |url=http://www.kentucky.com/news/local/story/1035605.html |title=Decision halts lethal injections {{pipe}} Latest Local, State News |publisher=Kentucky.com |date=November 26, 2009 |access-date=December 1, 2011}}</ref>

In November 2011, [[Oregon]] Governor [[John Kitzhaber]] announced a moratorium on executions in Oregon, canceling a planned execution and ordering a review of the death penalty system in the state.<ref name=Oregon>{{cite news|url=http://www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest-news/index.ssf/2011/11/gov_john_kitzhaber_stops_all_e.html|title=Gov. John Kitzhaber stops executions in Oregon, calls system 'compromised and inequitable'|newspaper=[[The Oregonian]]|last=Jung|first=Helen|date=November 22, 2011|access-date=November 22, 2011}}</ref>

On February 13, 2015, Pennsylvania Governor [[Tom Wolf (politician)|Tom Wolf]] announced a moratorium on the death penalty. Wolf will issue a reprieve for every execution until a commission on capital punishment, which was established in 2011 by the [[Pennsylvania State Senate]], produces a recommendation.<ref name=Pennsylvania>{{cite news|title=Pennsylvania's governor suspends the death penalty|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2015/02/13/pennsylvania-suspends-the-death-penalty/|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=February 15, 2015|first=Mark|last=Berman|date=February 13, 2015}}</ref> The state had not executed anyone since [[Gary M. Heidnik]] in 1999.

On July 25, 2019, U.S. Attorney General [[William Barr]] announced that the federal government would resume executions using pentobarbital, rather than the three-drug cocktail previously used. Five convicted death row inmates were scheduled to be executed in December 2019 and January 2020.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/federal-government-resume-capital-punishment-after-nearly-two-decade-lapse|title=Federal Government to Resume Capital Punishment After Nearly Two Decade Lapse|date=July 25, 2019|work=The United States Department of Justice|access-date=July 26, 2019}}</ref> On November 20, 2019, U.S. District Judge [[Tanya S. Chutkan]] issued a preliminary injunction preventing the resumption of federal executions. Plaintiffs in the case argued that the use of pentobarbital may violate the [[Federal Death Penalty Act of 1994]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/11/21/781537038/judge-blocks-justice-departments-plan-to-resume-federal-executions|title=Judge Blocks Justice Department's Plan To Resume Federal Executions|website=NPR.org|date=November 21, 2019|language=en|access-date=November 21, 2019|last1=Dwyer|first1=Colin}}</ref> The stay was lifted in June 2020 and four executions were rescheduled for July and August 2020.<ref name="federal-executions-2020"/> On July 14, 2020, [[Daniel Lewis Lee]] was executed. He became the first convict executed by the federal government since 2003.<ref name="LewisLeeExecution"/> Overall, thirteen federal prisoners were executed during the [[presidency of Donald Trump]] between July 2020 and January 2021. The last convict executed was [[Dustin Higgs]] on January 16, 2021. On July 1, 2021, U.S. Attorney General [[Merrick Garland]] halted all federal executions pending review of the changes made under the Trump administration.<ref name=Federal>{{cite news|url=https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/attorney-general-merrick-b-garland-imposes-moratorium-federal-executions-orders-review|title=Attorney General Merrick B. Garland Imposes a Moratorium on Federal Executions; Orders Review of Policies and Procedures|date=July 1, 2021|work=The United States Department of Justice|access-date=July 2, 2021}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Capital punishment by the United States federal government]]
* [[Capital punishment debate in the United States]]
* [[Felony murder and the death penalty in the United States]]
* [[List of death row inmates in the United States]]
* [[List of last executions in the United States by crime]]
* [[List of people executed in the United States in {{CURRENTYEAR}}]]
* [[List of people scheduled to be executed in the United States]]
* [[List of United States Supreme Court decisions on capital punishment]]
* [[Lists of people executed in the United States]]

== Explanatory notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== General sources ===
* Marian J. Borg and Michael L. Radelet (2004). "On botched executions". In: Peter Hodgkinson and William A. Schabas (eds.) ''Capital Punishment''. pp. 143–168. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{doi|10.1017/CBO9780511489273.006}}.
* Gail A. Van Norman (2010). "Physician participation in executions". In: Gail A. Van Norman et al. (eds.) ''Clinical Ethics in Anesthesiology''. pp. 285–291. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{doi|10.1017/CBO9780511841361.051}}.

==Further reading==
===Books===
* Bakken, Gordon Morris, ed. (2010). ''Invitation to an Execution: A History of the Death Penalty in the United States''. University of New Mexico Press.
* Banner, Stuart (2002). ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674010833 The Death Penalty: An American History]''. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|0-674-00751-4}}.
* Bessler, John D. (2012). ''Cruel and Unusual: The American Death Penalty and the Founders' Eighth Amendment''. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
* Blecker, Robert (2013). ''The Death of Punishment: Searching for Justice among the Worst of the Worst''. St. Martin's Press.
* Delfino, Michelangelo and Mary E. Day. (2007). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ8bZFKoe1cC Death Penalty USA 2005–2006]''. Tampa: MoBeta Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-9725141-2-5}}; and ''Death Penalty USA 2003–2004'' (2008). Tampa: MoBeta Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-9725141-3-2}}.
* Dow, David R., Dow, Mark (eds.) (2002). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NiXm_7mA9VQC Machinery of Death: The Reality of America's Death Penalty Regime]''. Routledge, New York. {{ISBN|0-415-93266-1}} (cloth). {{ISBN|0-415-93267-X}} (paperback). Provides critical perspectives on the death penalty.
* Garland, David (2010). ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674066106 Peculiar Institution: America's Death Penalty in an Age of Abolition]''. Harvard University Press.
* Hartnett, Stephen John (2010). ''Executing Democracy, Volume 1: Capital Punishment and the Making of America, 1683–1807''. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press.
* Hartnett, Stephen John (2012). ''Executing Democracy, Volume 2: Capital Punishment and the Making of America, 1835–1843''. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press.
* Lane, Charles (2010). ''Stay of Execution: Saving the Death Penalty from Itself''. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
* Megivern, James J. (1997). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lG-a_RBO8VgC The Death Penalty: An Historical and Theological Survey]''. New York: Paulist Press. {{ISBN|0-8091-0487-3}}.
* Osler, Mark William (2009). ''[[Jesus]] on Death Row: The Trial of Jesus and American Capital Punishment''. Abingdon Press. {{ISBN|978-0-687-64756-9}}.
* {{cite book
|title=Rough Justice: Lynching and American Society, 1874–1947
|first=Michael J.
|last=Pfeiffer
|publisher=University of Illinois Press
|year=2004
|isbn=978-0252029172
|quote=The history of lynching and the history of the death penalty in the United States are hopelessly entangled (p. 152).}}
* [[Helen Prejean|Prejean, Helen]] (1993). ''[[Dead Man Walking (book)|Dead Man Walking]]''. Random House. {{ISBN|0-679-75131-9}} (paperback). Describes the case of death row convict [[Elmo Patrick Sonnier]], while also giving a general overview of issues connected to the death penalty.

===Journal articles===
* Hoffmann, Joseph L. (2005). "Protecting the Innocent: The Massachusetts Governor's Council Report". 95 [https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=7187&context=jclc ''J. of Crim. L. & Criminology''] 561.
* Vidma, Neil and Phoebe Ellsworth (June 1974). "[http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1463&context=faculty_scholarship Public Opinion and the Death Penalty]" ([https://web.archive.org/web/20141220001053/http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1463&context=faculty_scholarship Archive]). ''[[Stanford Law Review]]''. Volume 26, pp. 1245–1270.

==External links==
* [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org Death Penalty Information Center]

{{Capital punishment}}
{{CapPun-US}}
{{Social Policy in the United States|state=autocollapse}}
{{United States topics}}
{{North America topic|Capital punishment in}}
{{Portal bar|United States|Law}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Capital punishment in the United States}}
[[Category:Capital punishment in the United States| ]]
[[Category:1608 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies]]
[[Category:1972 disestablishments in the United States]]
[[Category:1976 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:Crime in the United States]]
[[Category:Law of the United States]]

User talk:2600:1700:4B5:2400:C8B9:7DD5:EAC:62AD

2022-04-17T03:35:49Z

Asyncadr: ←Created page with '{{subst:Uw-vandalism2|Nitroglycerin}}'

[[File:Information orange.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Please refrain from making unconstructive edits to Wikipedia, as you did at [[:Nitroglycerin]]. Your edits appear to constitute [[Wikipedia:Vandalism|vandalism]] and have been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]]. If you would like to experiment, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]]. Repeated vandalism may result in the [[Wikipedia:Blocking policy|loss of editing privileges]]. Thank you.

Nitroglycerin

2022-04-17T03:34:06Z

Asyncadr: Removed vandalism

{{For|the use of this chemical as a drug|Nitroglycerin (medication)}}
{{short description|Chemical compound}}
{{Chembox
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 408765228
| Name = Nitroglycerin
| ImageFile =
| ImageFile1 = Nitroglycerin.svg
| ImageFile1_Ref = {{Chemboximage|correct|??}}
| ImageName1 = Skeletal formula of zwitterionic nitroglycerin
| ImageFile2 = Nirtoglycerin_3D_BallStick.png
| ImageFile2_Ref = {{Chemboximage|correct|??}}
| ImageName2 = Ball and stick model of nitroglycerin
| ImageFile3 = Nitroglycerin-3D-vdW.png
| ImageFile3_Ref = {{Chemboximage|correct|??}}
| ImageName3 = Spacefill model of nitroglycerin
| PIN = Propane-1,2,3-triyl trinitrate
| SystematicName =
| OtherNames = *1,2,3-Tris(nitrooxy)propane
*Glyceryl trinitrate
*Trinitroglycerin
| IUPACName =
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
| IUPHAR_ligand = 7053
| CASNo = 55-63-0
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| PubChem = 4510
| ChemSpiderID = 4354
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| UNII = G59M7S0WS3
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| EINECS = 200-240-8
| UNNumber = 0143, 0144, 1204, 3064, 3319
| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}
| DrugBank = DB00727
| KEGG = D00515
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| MeSHName = Nitroglycerin
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 28787
| ChEMBL = 730
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| Beilstein = 1802063
| Gmelin = 165859
| SMILES = C(C(CO[N+](=O)[O-])O[N+](=O)[O-])O[N+](=O)[O-]
| StdInChI = 1S/C3H5N3O9/c7-4(8)13-1-3(15-6(11)12)2-14-5(9)10/h3H,1-2H2
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| InChI = 1/C3H5N3O9/c7-4(8)13-1-3(15-6(11)12)2-14-5(9)10/h3H,1-2H2
| StdInChIKey = SNIOPGDIGTZGOP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| InChIKey = SNIOPGDIGTZGOP-UHFFFAOYAR
}}
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties
| C=3 | H=5 | N=3 | O=9
| Appearance = Colorless liquid
| Density = 1.6{{nbsp}}g⋅cm−3 (at 15 °C)
| MeltingPtC = 14
| BoilingPtC = 50
| BoilingPt_notes = Explodes
| LogP = 2.154
| Solubility = Slightly<ref name="osha.gov">{{Cite web |url=https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthguidelines/nitroglycerin/recognition.html |title=Occupational Safety and Health Guideline for Nitroglycerin |access-date=19 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516192244/http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthguidelines/nitroglycerin/recognition.html |archive-date=16 May 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
| Solvent =
| SolubleOther = Acetone, ether, benzene, alcohol<ref name="osha.gov"/>
}}
| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure
| Coordination = {{ubl
| Tetragonal at C1, C2, and C3
| Trigonal planar at N7, N8, and N9
}}
| MolShape = {{ubl
| Tetrahedral at C1, C2, and C3
| Dihedral at N7, N8, and N9
}}
}}
| Section4 = {{Chembox Explosive
| ShockSens = High
| FrictionSens = High
| DetonationV = 7700{{nbsp}}m⋅s−1
| REFactor = 1.50
}}
| Section5 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry
| DeltaHf = −370{{nbsp}}kJ⋅mol−1
| DeltaHc = −1.529{{nbsp}}MJ⋅mol−1
}}
| Section6 = {{Chembox Pharmacology
| ATCCode_prefix = C01
| ATCCode_suffix = DA02
| ATC_Supplemental = {{ATC|C05|AE01}}
| Bioavail = <1%
| AdminRoutes = Intravenous, by mouth, under the tongue, topical
| Metabolism = Liver
| HalfLife = 3{{nbsp}}min
| Legal_AU = S3
| Legal_AU_comment =
}}
| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards
| GHSPictograms = {{GHS02}} {{GHS06}} {{GHS08}} {{GHS01}}
| GHSSignalWord = '''Danger'''
| HPhrases = {{H-phrases|202|205|241|301|311|331|370}}
| PPhrases = {{P-phrases|210|243|250|260|264|270|271|280|302+352|410}}
| NFPA-H = 3
| NFPA-F = 2
| NFPA-R = 4
| PEL = C 0.2{{nbsp}}ppm (2{{nbsp}}mg/m3) [skin]<ref>{{PGCH|0456}}</ref>
| MainHazards = Explosive, toxic
}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ehs.neu.edu/laboratory_safety/general_information/nfpa_hazard_rating/documents/NFPAratingJR.htm|title=Hazard Rating Information for NFPA Fire Diamonds|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217114741/http://www.ehs.neu.edu/laboratory_safety/general_information/nfpa_hazard_rating/documents/NFPAratingJR.htm|archive-date=17 February 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
}}

'''Nitroglycerin''' ('''NG'''), (alternative spelling nitroglycerine) also known as '''trinitroglycerin''' ('''TNG'''), '''nitro''', '''glyceryl trinitrate''' ('''GTN'''), or '''1,2,3-trinitroxypropane''', is a dense, colorless, oily, [[explosive]] liquid most commonly produced by [[nitration|nitrating]] [[glycerol]] with [[white fuming nitric acid]] under conditions appropriate to the formation of the nitric acid [[ester]]. Chemically, the substance is an [[organic nitrate]] compound rather than a [[nitro compound]], but the traditional name is retained. Invented in 1847 by [[Ascanio Sobrero]], nitroglycerin has been used ever since as an active ingredient in the manufacture of [[explosive]]s, namely [[dynamite]], and as such it is employed in the [[construction]], [[demolition]], and [[mining]] industries. Since the 1880s, it has been used by the military as an active ingredient and gelatinizer for [[nitrocellulose]] in some solid [[propellant]]s such as [[cordite]] and [[ballistite]]. It is a major component in double-based [[smokeless powder|smokeless propellant]]s used by [[handloading|reloaders]]. Combined with [[nitrocellulose]], hundreds of powder combinations are used by rifle, pistol, and shotgun reloaders.

Nitroglycerin has been used for over 130 years [[glyceryl trinitrate (pharmacology)|in medicine]] as a potent [[vasodilator]] (dilation of the vascular system) to treat [[heart]] conditions, such as [[angina pectoris]] and [[chronic heart failure]]. Though it was previously known that these beneficial effects are due to nitroglycerin being converted to [[nitric oxide]], a potent venodilator, the enzyme for this conversion was only discovered to be mitochondrial [[aldehyde dehydrogenase]] ([[ALDH2]]) in 2002.<ref name="Chen et al. 2005 12159–12164">{{cite journal | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | year = 2005 | volume = 102 | pages = 12159–12164 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0503723102 | pmid = 16103363 | last2 = Foster | first2 = M. W. | last3 = Zhang | first3 = J. | last4 = Mao | first4 = L. | last5 = Rockman | first5 = H. A. | last6 = Kawamoto | first6 = T. | last7 = Kitagawa | first7 = K. | last8 = Nakayama | first8 = K. I. | last9 = Hess | first9 = D. T. | last10 = Stamler | first10 = J. S. | title = An essential role for mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase in nitroglycerin bioactivation | issue = 34 | pmc = 1189320 | last1 = Chen |first1=Z.| bibcode = 2005PNAS..10212159C | doi-access = free }}</ref> Nitroglycerin is available in [[sublingual tablet]]s, sprays, ointments, and patches.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://web.ebscohost.com/src/detail?vid=17&hid=7&sid=7e55c0c3-4b92-4b24-ac2d-b2091791a502@sessionmgr14&bdata=JnNpdGU9c3JjLWxpdmU= |title=Unknown, behind paywall, archived |access-date=14 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510141029/http://web.ebscohost.com/src/detail?vid=17&hid=7&sid=7e55c0c3-4b92-4b24-ac2d-b2091791a502%40sessionmgr14&bdata=JnNpdGU9c3JjLWxpdmU%3d#db=hxh&AN=9703191987 |archive-date=10 May 2017 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

== History ==
Nitroglycerin was the first practical explosive produced that was stronger than [[black powder]]. It was first synthesized by the Italian [[chemist]] [[Ascanio Sobrero]] in 1847, working under [[Théophile-Jules Pelouze]] at the [[University of Turin]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sobrero |first=Ascagne |date=1847 |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k29812/f247.item.zoom |title=Sur plusieur composés détonants produits avec l'acide nitrique et le sucre, la dextrine, la lactine, la mannite et la glycérine |trans-title=On several detonating compounds produced with nitric acid and sugar, dextrin, lactose, mannitol, and glycerin |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=24 |pages=247–248}}</ref> Sobrero initially called his discovery ''pyroglycerine'' and warned vigorously against its use as an explosive.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sobrero |first=Ascanio |date=1849 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=iau.31858045931643;view=1up;seq=283 |title=Sopra alcuni nuovi composti fulminanti ottenuti col mezzo dell'azione dell'acido nitrico sulle sostante organiche vegetali |trans-title=On some new explosive products obtained by the action of nitric acid on some vegetable organic substances |journal=Memorie della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino |series=2nd Series |volume=10 |pages=195–201}} On p. 197, Sobrero names nitroglycerin "pyroglycerine":
:"Quelle gocciole costituiscono il corpo nuovo di cui descriverò ora le proprietà, e che chiamerò ''Piroglicerina''." (Those drops constitute the new substance whose properties I will now describe, and which I will call "pyroglycerine".)</ref>

Nitroglycerin was later adopted as a commercially useful explosive by [[Alfred Nobel]], who experimented with safer ways to handle the dangerous compound after his younger brother, [[Emil Oskar Nobel]], and several factory workers were killed in an explosion at the Nobels' armaments factory in 1864 in [[Heleneborg]], Sweden.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/industrial/articles/vinterviken/emil.html |website=NobelPrize.org |title=Emil Nobel |access-date=6 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115085417/http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/industrial/articles/vinterviken/emil.html |archive-date=15 January 2009 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

{{stack|[[File:Nobel patent.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alfred Nobel]]'s [[patent application]] from 1864]]}}

One year later, Nobel founded [[Dynamit Nobel AG|Alfred Nobel and Company]] in Germany and built an isolated factory in the Krümmel hills of [[Geesthacht]] near [[Hamburg]]. This business exported a liquid combination of nitroglycerin and [[gunpowder]] called "Blasting Oil", but this was extremely unstable and difficult to handle, as evidenced in numerous catastrophes. The buildings of the Krümmel factory were destroyed twice.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/industrial/articles/krummel/index.html |website=NobelPrize.org |title=Krümmel |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060710005656/http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/industrial/articles/krummel/index.html |archive-date=10 July 2006 }}.</ref>

In April 1866, three crates of nitroglycerin were shipped to [[California]] for the [[Central Pacific Railroad]], which planned to experiment with it as a blasting explosive to expedite the construction of the {{convert|1659|ft|m|adj=mid|-long}} [[Donner Pass#Railroad & Donner Pass|Summit Tunnel]] through the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada Mountains]]. One of the crates exploded, destroying a [[Wells Fargo]] company office in [[San Francisco]] and killing 15 people. This led to a complete ban on the transportation of liquid nitroglycerin in California. The on-site manufacture of nitroglycerin was thus required for the remaining hard-rock [[drilling and blasting]] required for the completion of the [[First Transcontinental Railroad]] in [[North America]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/tcrr/peopleevents/e_nitro.html |title=Transcontinental Railroad – People & Events: Nitroglycerin |website=[[American Experience]] |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]}}</ref>

In June 1869, two one-ton wagons loaded with nitroglycerin, then known locally as Powder-Oil, exploded in the road at the North Wales village of [[Cwm-y-glo]]. The explosion led to the loss of six lives, many injuries and much damage to the village. Little trace was found of the two horses. The UK Government was so alarmed at the damage caused and what could have happened in a city location (these two tons were part of a larger load coming from Germany via Liverpool) that they soon passed The Nitro-Glycerine Act of 1869.<ref>North Wales Daily Post newspaper of October 14th 2018.</ref> Liquid nitroglycerin was widely banned elsewhere, as well, and these legal restrictions led to Alfred Nobel and his company's developing [[dynamite]] in 1867. This was made by mixing nitroglycerin with [[diatomaceous earth]] ("''Kieselguhr''" in German) found in the Krümmel hills. Similar mixtures, such as "dualine" (1867), "lithofracteur" (1869), and "[[gelignite]]" (1875), were formed by mixing nitroglycerin with other inert absorbents, and many combinations were tried by other companies in attempts to get around Nobel's tightly held patents for dynamite.

Dynamite mixtures containing [[nitrocellulose]], which increases the viscosity of the mix, are commonly known as "gelatins".

Following the discovery that [[amyl nitrite]] helped alleviate chest pain, the physician [[William Murrell (physician)|William Murrell]] experimented with the use of nitroglycerin to alleviate angina pectoris and to reduce the [[blood pressure]]. He began treating his patients with small diluted doses of nitroglycerin in 1878, and this treatment was soon adopted into widespread use after Murrell published his results in the journal ''[[The Lancet]]'' in 1879.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Murrell |first=William |date=1879 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.d0000772988;view=1up;seq=78 |title=Nitroglycerin as a remedy for angina pectoris |journal=The Lancet |volume=1 |issue=2890 |pages=80–81, 113–115, 151–152, 225–227|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(02)46032-1 |pmc=5901592 }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|last=Sneader |first=Walter |title=Drug Discovery: A History |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-471-89980-8}}</ref> A few months before his death in 1896, Alfred Nobel was prescribed nitroglycerin for this heart condition, writing to a friend: "Isn't it the irony of fate that I have been prescribed nitro-glycerin, to be taken internally! They call it Trinitrin, so as not to scare the chemist and the public."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beyonddiscovery.org/content/view.txt.asp?a=318|title=History of TNG|website=beyonddiscovery.org|access-date=14 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101101191907/http://www.beyonddiscovery.org/content/view.txt.asp?a=318|archive-date=1 November 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> The medical establishment also used the name "glyceryl trinitrate" for the same reason.

=== Wartime production rates ===
Large quantities of nitroglycerin were manufactured during [[World War I]] and [[World War II]] for use as military propellants and in [[military engineering]] work. During World War I, [[HM Factory, Gretna]], the largest propellant factory in the [[United Kingdom]], produced about 800 [[tonne]]s of cordite RDB per week. This amount required at least 336 tonnes of nitroglycerin per week (assuming no losses in production). The [[Royal Navy]] had its own factory at the [[Royal Navy Cordite Factory, Holton Heath]], in [[Dorset]], England. A large cordite factory was also built in Canada during World War I. The [[Canadian Industries Limited|Canadian Explosives Limited]] cordite factory at [[Nobel, Ontario]], was designed to produce {{convert|1500000|lb|t|abbr=on}} of cordite per month, requiring about 286 tonnes of nitroglycerin per month.

== Instability and desensitization ==
In its undiluted form, nitroglycerin is a [[contact explosive]], with physical shock causing it to explode. If it has not been adequately purified during manufacture it can degrade over time to even more unstable forms. This makes nitroglycerin highly dangerous to transport or use. In its undiluted form, it is one of the world's most powerful explosives, comparable to the more recently developed [[RDX]] and [[PETN]].

Early in its history, liquid nitroglycerin was found to be "[[Phlegmatized|desensitized]]" by freezing it at a temperature below {{Convert|45|to|55|F|C}} depending on its purity.<ref name="Tallini5">{{cite web |title=5. Frozen Nitroglycerin |url=http://www.logwell.com/tales/frozen_nitroglycerin.html |publisher=Analog Services, Inc. |series=[http://www.logwell.com/tales/menu/index.html Tales of Destruction] |first=Rick F. |last=Tallini}}</ref> Its sensitivity to shock while frozen is somewhat unpredictable: "It is more insensitive to the shock from a [[Detonator|fulminate cap]] or a rifle ball when in that condition but on the other hand it appears to be more liable to explode on breaking, crushing, tamping, etc."<ref name="LSMI1">{{cite journal |url=https://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/GIMDL-LSMI1911B_301826_7.pdf |title=Accidents in the Transportation, Storage, and Use of Explosives |first=Charles S. |last=Hurter |date=August 22, 1911 |volume=16 |journal=Proceedings of the Lake Superior Mining Institute |page=70}}</ref> Frozen nitroglycerine is much less energetic than liquid, and so must be thawed before use.<ref name="LSMI2">{{cite journal |url=https://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/GIMDL-LSMI1911C_301829_7.pdf |title=Accidents in the Transportation, Storage, and Use of Explosives |first=Charles S. |last=Hurter |date=August 22, 1911 |volume=16 |journal=Proceedings of the Lake Superior Mining Institute |page=71}}</ref> Thawing it out can be extremely sensitizing, especially if impurities are present or the warming is too rapid.<ref name="Tallini4">{{cite web |url=http://www.logwell.com/tales/second_nitro_death.html | title=4. Thawing can be Hell |publisher=Analog Services, Inc. |series=[http://www.logwell.com/tales/menu/index.html Tales of Destruction] |first=Rick F. |last=Tallini}}</ref> [[Ethylene glycol dinitrate]] or another polynitrate may be added to lower the melting and thereby avoid the necessity of thawing frozen explosive.<ref name="fn_1">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/nobel/micro/426_77.html | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica | title=Nitroglycerin | access-date=2005-03-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020912025024/http://www.britannica.com/nobel/micro/426_77.html |archive-date=2002-09-12 }}</ref>

Chemically "desensitizing" nitroglycerin is possible to a point where it can be considered about as "safe" as modern [[high explosive]]s, such as by the addition of [[ethanol]], [[acetone]], or [[dinitrotoluene]].<ref name="Tallini12">{{cite web |url=http://www.logwell.com/tales/red_glycerin.html | title=12. Is Nitroglycerin in This? |publisher=Analog Services, Inc. |series=[http://www.logwell.com/tales/menu/index.html Tales of Destruction] |first=Rick F. |last=Tallini}}</ref> The nitroglycerine may have to be extracted from the desensitizer chemical to restore its effectiveness before use, for example by adding water to draw off ethanol used as a desensitizer.<ref name="Tallini12"/>

== Detonation ==
Nitroglycerin and any diluents can certainly [[deflagrate]] (burn). The explosive power of nitroglycerin derives from [[detonation]]: energy from the initial decomposition causes a strong pressure wave that detonates the surrounding fuel. This is a self-sustained [[shock wave]] that propagates through the explosive medium at 30 times the speed of sound as a near-instantaneous pressure-induced decomposition of the fuel into a white-hot gas. Detonation of nitroglycerin generates gases that would occupy more than 1,200 times the original volume at ordinary room temperature and pressure. The heat liberated raises the temperature to about {{convert|5000|C|F|-3}}.<ref name="fn_1"/> This is entirely different from [[deflagration]], which depends solely upon available fuel regardless of pressure or shock. The decomposition results in much higher ratio of energy to gas moles released compared to other explosives, making it one of the hottest detonating [[high explosives]].

== Manufacturing ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2021}}Nitroglycerin can be produced by acid-catalyzed nitration of [[glycerol]] (glycerin).

[[File:Nitroglycerin Synthesis V.1.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Nitroglycerin synthesis:<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1002/jlac.18480640364| title = Zusammensetzung der Zuckerasche |trans-title=Composition of sugar ash| journal = Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie| volume = 64| issue = 3| pages = 398–399| year = 1848}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1002/jlac.18540920309| title = Ueber Nitroglycerin| journal = Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie| volume = 92| issue = 3| pages = 305–306| year = 1854}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.3109/03602537508993747| pmid = 812687| title = Nitroglycerin Revisited: Chemistry, Biochemistry, Interactions| journal = Drug Metabolism Reviews| volume = 4| issue = 1| pages = 1–38| year = 1975| last1 = Di Carlo | first1 = F. J. }}</ref>]]

The industrial manufacturing process often reacts [[glycerol]] with a nearly 1:1 mixture of concentrated [[sulfuric acid]] and concentrated [[nitric acid]]. This can be produced by mixing [[white fuming nitric acid]]—a quite expensive pure [[nitric acid]] in which the oxides of nitrogen have been removed, as opposed to [[red fuming nitric acid]], which contains [[nitrogen oxides]]—and concentrated [[sulfuric acid]]. More often, this mixture is attained by the cheaper method of mixing fuming [[sulfuric acid]], also known as [[oleum]]—[[sulfuric acid]] containing excess [[sulfur trioxide]]—and [[azeotropic]] nitric acid (consisting of about 70% [[nitric acid]], with the rest being water).

The [[sulfuric acid]] produces [[protonated]] [[nitric acid]] species, which are attacked by [[glycerol]]'s [[nucleophile|nucleophilic]] [[oxygen]] atoms. The [[nitro compound|nitro]] [[functional group|group]] is thus added as an ester C−O−NO2 and water is produced. This is different from an electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction in which [[nitronium ion]]s are the [[electrophile]].

The addition of [[glycerol]] results in an [[chemical reaction|exothermic reaction]] (i.e., heat is produced), as usual for mixed-acid nitrations. If the mixture becomes too hot, it results in a runaway reaction, a state of accelerated nitration accompanied by the destructive [[oxidation]] of organic materials by the hot [[nitric acid]] and the release of poisonous [[nitrogen dioxide]] gas at high risk of an explosion. Thus, the [[glycerin]] mixture is added slowly to the reaction vessel containing the mixed acid (not acid to glycerin). The nitrator is cooled with cold water or some other coolant mixture and maintained throughout the [[glycerin]] addition at about {{convert|22|C|F}}, hot enough for esterification to occur at a fast rate but cold enough to avoid runaway reaction. The nitrator vessel, often constructed of [[iron]] or [[lead]] and generally stirred with [[compressed air]], has an emergency trap door at its base, which hangs over a large pool of very cold water and into which the whole reaction mixture (called the charge) can be dumped to prevent an explosion, a process referred to as drowning. If the temperature of the charge exceeds about {{convert|30|C|F}} (actual value varying by country) or brown fumes are seen in the nitrator's vent, then it is immediately drowned.

== Use as an explosive and a propellant ==
{{Main|Dynamite|Ballistite|Cordite|smokeless powder|Gelignite}}
The main use of nitroglycerin, by tonnage, is in explosives such as dynamite and in propellants.

Nitroglycerin is an oily liquid that may explode when subjected to heat, shock, or flame.

[[Alfred Nobel]] developed the use of nitroglycerin as a blasting explosive by mixing nitroglycerin with inert [[Absorption (chemistry)|absorbent]]s, particularly "''Kieselguhr''", or [[diatomaceous earth]]. He named this explosive [[dynamite]] and [[patented]] it in 1867.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://inventors.about.com/od/dstartinventions/a/Alfred_Nobel.htm|title=Alfred Nobel and the History of Dynamite|first=Mary|last=Bellis|work=About.com Money}}</ref> It was supplied ready for use in the form of sticks, individually wrapped in greased waterproof paper. Dynamite and similar explosives were widely adopted for [[civil engineering]] tasks, such as in drilling [[highway]] and [[railroad]] [[tunnel]]s, for [[mining]], for clearing farmland of stumps, in [[quarrying]], and in [[demolition|demolition work]]. Likewise, [[military engineer]]s have used dynamite for construction and demolition work.

Nitroglycerin was also used as an ingredient in military propellants for use in [[firearms]].

Nitroglycerin has been used in conjunction with [[hydraulic fracturing]], a process used to recover [[crude oil|oil]] and [[natural gas|gas]] from [[shale]] formations. The technique involves displacing and detonating nitroglycerin in natural or hydraulically induced fracture systems, or displacing and detonating nitroglycerin in hydraulically induced fractures followed by wellbore shots using pelletized [[trinitrotoluene|TNT]].<ref name="recovery">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=J. S.|last2=Johansen|first2=R. T.|date=1976|title=Fracturing Oil Shale with Explosives for In Situ Recovery.|journal=Shale Oil, Tar Sand and Related Fuel Sources|pages=151|bibcode=1976sots.rept...98M|url=https://web.anl.gov/PCS/acsfuel/preprint%20archive/Files/19_2_LOS%20ANGELES_04-74__0060.pdf|access-date=27 March 2015|archive-date=2 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002204137/https://web.anl.gov/PCS/acsfuel/preprint%20archive/Files/19_2_LOS%20ANGELES_04-74__0060.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Nitroglycerin has an advantage over some other high explosives that on detonation it produces practically no visible smoke. Therefore, it is useful as an ingredient in the formulation of various kinds of [[smokeless powder]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/rzepa/mim/environmental/html/nitroglyc_text.htm|title=Nitroglycerin}}</ref>

Its sensitivity has limited the usefulness of nitroglycerin as a military explosive, and less sensitive explosives such as [[trinitrotoluene|TNT]], [[RDX]], and [[HMX]] have largely replaced it in munitions. It remains important in military engineering, and [[combat engineer]]s still use dynamite.

Alfred Nobel then developed [[ballistite]], by combining nitroglycerin and [[guncotton]]. He patented it in 1887. Ballistite was adopted by a number of European governments, as a military propellant. Italy was the first to adopt it. The British government and the Commonwealth governments adopted [[cordite]] instead, which had been developed by Sir [[Frederick Abel]] and Sir [[James Dewar]] of the United Kingdom in 1889. The original Cordite Mk I consisted of 58% nitroglycerin, 37% guncotton, and 5.0% [[petroleum jelly]]. Ballistite and cordite were both manufactured in the forms of "cords".

Smokeless powders were originally developed using nitrocellulose as the sole explosive ingredient. Therefore, they were known as single-base propellants. A range of smokeless powders that contains both nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin, known as double-base propellants, were also developed. Smokeless powders were originally supplied only for military use, but they were also soon developed for civilian use and were quickly adopted for sports. Some are known as sporting powders. Triple-base propellants contain nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin, and [[nitroguanidine]], but are reserved mainly for extremely high-caliber ammunition rounds such as those used in tank cannons and [[naval artillery]]. Blasting gelatin, also known as [[gelignite]], was invented by Nobel in 1875, using nitroglycerin, [[wood pulp]], and [[sodium nitrate|sodium]] or [[potassium nitrate]]. This was an early, low-cost, flexible explosive.

== Medical use ==
{{Main|Medical use of nitroglycerin}}
Nitroglycerin belongs to a group of drugs called nitrates, which includes many other nitrates like [[isosorbide dinitrate]] (Isordil) and [[isosorbide mononitrate]] (Imdur, Ismo, Monoket).<ref name="Nitroglycerin Article">{{cite web|url=http://www.medicinenet.com/nitroglycerin/article.htm|title=nitroglycerin, Nitro-Bid: Drug Facts, Side Effects and Dosing|first=Omudhome|last=Ogbru|work=MedicineNet}}</ref> These agents all exert their effect by being converted to [[nitric oxide]] in the body by mitochondrial [[aldehyde dehydrogenase]] ([[ALDH2]]),<ref name="Chen et al. 2005 12159–12164"/> and nitric oxide is a potent natural vasodilator.

[[File:Nitro.JPG|alt=Nitro - bangy stuff|thumb|upright|left|Nitroglycerin in three different forms: intravenous, sublingual spray, and the nitroglycerin patch.]]

In [[medicine]], nitroglycerin is probably most commonly prescribed for [[angina pectoris]], a painful symptom of [[coronary heart disease|ischemic heart disease]] caused by inadequate flow of blood and oxygen to the heart and as a potent antihypertensive agent. Nitroglycerin corrects the imbalance between the flow of oxygen and blood to the heart and the heart’s energy demand.<ref name="Nitroglycerin Article"/> There are plenty of formulations on the market at different doses. At low doses, nitroglycerin dilates veins more than arteries, thereby reducing [[preload (cardiology)|preload]] (volume of blood in the heart after filling); this is thought to be its primary mechanism of action. By decreasing preload, the heart has less blood to pump, which decreases oxygen requirement since the heart does not have to work as hard. Additionally, having a smaller preload reduces the ventricular transmural pressure (pressure exerted on the walls of the heart), which decreases the compression of heart arteries to allow more blood to flow through the heart. At higher doses, it also dilates arteries, thereby reducing [[afterload]] (decreasing the pressure against which the heart must pump).<ref name="Nitroglycerin Article"/> An improved ratio of myocardial oxygen demand to supply leads to the following therapeutic effects during episodes of angina pectoris: subsiding of chest pain, decrease of [[blood pressure]], increase of heart rate, and [[orthostatic hypotension]]. Patients experiencing angina when doing certain physical activities can often prevent symptoms by taking nitroglycerin 5 to 10 minutes before the activity. Overdoses may generate [[methemoglobinemia]].<ref>{{cite journal| pmid=3917597 | volume=55 | issue=1 | title=Association of methemoglobinemia and intravenous nitroglycerin administration | year=1985 | journal=[[American Journal of Cardiology]] | pages=181–183 | last1=Kaplan | first1=K. J. | last2=Taber | first2=M. | last3=Teagarden | first3=J. R. | last4=Parker | first4=M. | last5=Davison | first5=R. | doi=10.1016/0002-9149(85)90324-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.intramed.net/contenidover.asp?contenidoID=86507|title=IntraMed – Bienvenido|website=www.intramed.net|access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref>

Nitroglycerin is available in tablets, ointment, solution for [[intravenous]] use, [[transdermal patch]]es, or sprays administered [[sublingual]]ly. Some forms of nitroglycerin last much longer in the body than others. Nitroglycerin as well as the onset and duration of action of each form is different. The sublingual or tablet spray of nitroglycerin has a two minute onset and twenty five minute duration of action. The oral formulation of nitroglycerin has a thirty five minute onset and a duration of action of 4-8 hours. The transdermal patch has an onset of thirty minutes and a duration of action of ten to twelve hours. Continuous exposure to nitrates has been shown to cause the body to stop responding normally to this medicine. Experts recommend that the patches be removed at night, allowing the body a few hours to restore its responsiveness to nitrates. Shorter-acting preparations of nitroglycerin can be used several times a day with less risk of developing tolerance.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/9703191987|title=Nitroglycerin for angina, February 1997, Vol. 7|access-date=9 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510141029/http://web.ebscohost.com/src/detail?vid=17&hid=7&sid=7e55c0c3-4b92-4b24-ac2d-b2091791a502%40sessionmgr14&bdata=JnNpdGU9c3JjLWxpdmU%3d#db=hxh&AN=9703191987|archive-date=10 May 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nitroglycerin was first used by [[William Murrell (physician)|William Murrell]] to treat angina attacks in 1878, with the discovery published that same year.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite journal | pmc = 1798737| year = 1971| last1 = Smith| first1 = E.| title = William Murrell, physician and practical therapist| journal = British Medical Journal| volume = 3| issue = 5775| pages = 632–633| last2 = Hart| first2 = F. D.| pmid = 4998847| doi=10.1136/bmj.3.5775.632}}</ref>

{{clear left}}

== Industrial exposure ==
Infrequent exposure to high doses of nitroglycerin can cause severe [[headache]]s known as "NG head" or "bang head". These headaches can be severe enough to incapacitate some people; however, humans develop a [[tachyphylaxis|tolerance]] to and dependence on nitroglycerin after long-term exposure. Although rare, withdrawal can be fatal.<ref name="CDT">{{cite book|last1=Amdur |first1=Mary O. |last2=Doull |first2=John |title=Casarett and Doull's Toxicology |edition=4th |publisher=Elsevier |date=1991 |isbn=978-0071052399}}</ref> Withdrawal symptoms include chest pain and other heart problems. These symptoms may be relieved with re-exposure to nitroglycerin or other suitable organic nitrates.<ref name="Jr.Krieger2001">{{cite book|first1=John B., Jr. |last1=Sullivan |first2=Gary R. |last2=Krieger|title=Clinical Environmental Health and Toxic Exposures: Latex|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PyUSgdZUGr4C&pg=PA264|access-date=23 April 2013|year=2001|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-0-683-08027-8|pages=264}}</ref>

For workers in nitroglycerin (NTG) manufacturing facilities, the effects of withdrawal sometimes include "Sunday heart attacks" in those experiencing regular nitroglycerin exposure in the workplace, leading to the development of tolerance for the venodilating effects. Over the weekend, the workers lose the tolerance, and when they are re-exposed on Monday, the drastic [[vasodilation]] produces a [[tachycardia|fast heart rate]], dizziness, and a headache. This is referred to as "Monday disease."<ref name="Short history">{{cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=N. |last2=Marsh |first2=A. |title=A short history of nitroglycerine and nitric oxide in pharmacology and physiology |journal=Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=313–319 |year=2000 |pmid=10779131 |doi= 10.1046/j.1440-1681.2000.03240.x|s2cid=12897126 }}</ref><ref name="Toxicology">{{cite book|author=Assembly of Life Sciences (U.S.) Advisory Center on Toxicology|title=Toxicological Reports|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fEQrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115|access-date=23 April 2013|publisher=National Academies|pages=115|id=NAP:11288}}</ref>

People can be exposed to nitroglycerin in the workplace by breathing it in, skin absorption, swallowing it, or eye contact. The [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] has set the legal limit ([[permissible exposure limit]]) for nitroglycerin exposure in the workplace as 0.2 ppm (2 mg/m3) skin exposure over an 8-hour workday. The [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] has set a [[recommended exposure limit]] of 0.1 mg/m3 skin exposure over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 75 mg/m3, nitroglycerin is [[IDLH|immediately dangerous to life and health]].<ref>{{Cite web|publisher= CDC |work=NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards |title=Nitroglycerine|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0456.html|access-date = 2015-11-21}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Erythritol tetranitrate]]
* [[Ethylene glycol dinitrate]]
* [[Mannitol hexanitrate]]
* [[Methyl nitrate]]
* [[Tetranitratoxycarbon]]
* [[Xylitol pentanitrate]]
* [[RE factor]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{cite web|url=http://CPRR.org/Museum/Newspapers/Nitroglycerine.html | work=Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum | title=Nitroglycerine! Terrible Explosion and Loss of Lives in San Francisco | access-date=2005-03-23 }} – 1866 Newspaper article
* [http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C55630 WebBook page for C3H5N3O9]
* [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0456.html CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
* [http://www.logwell.com/tales/menu/index.html The Tallini Tales of Destruction] Detailed and horrific stories of the historical use of nitroglycerin-filled [[torpedo (petroleum)|torpedoes]] to restart petroleum wells.
* [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/mv_dynamite.htm Dynamite and TNT] at ''[[The Periodic Table of Videos]]'' (University of Nottingham)

{{Nitric oxide signaling}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}

[[Category:Disulfiram-like drugs]]
[[Category:Nitrate esters]]
[[Category:Explosive chemicals]]
[[Category:Liquid explosives]]
[[Category:Sugar alcohol explosives]]
[[Category:Italian inventions]]
[[Category:Glycerol esters]]

MV Wenatchee

2022-04-11T23:24:43Z

Asyncadr: Corrected status - MV Wenatchee is no longer out of service (I rode it an hour before making this edit).

{|{{Infobox ship begin}}
{{Infobox ship image
|Ship image=MV Wenatchee Duwamish Head.jpg
|Ship caption=MV ''Wenatchee'' passing Duwamish Head
}}
{{Infobox ship career
|Hide header=
|Ship name=''Wenatchee''
|Ship owner=[[Washington State Department of Transportation]]
|Ship operator=[[Washington State Ferries]]
|Ship registry=[[Seattle, Washington]]
|Ship route=[[Seattle–Bainbridge ferry|Seattle–Bainbridge Island]]
|Ship ordered=
|Ship builder=[[Todd Pacific Shipyards]], [[Seattle]], Washington
|Ship original cost=$80 million<ref name="vibration" />
|Ship yard number=
|Ship way number=
|Ship laid down=
|Ship launched=
|Ship completed=1998
|Ship christened=
|Ship acquired=
|Ship maiden voyage=
|Ship in service=
|Ship out of service=
|Ship identification=*{{IMO Number|9137351}}
*{{MMSI Number|366749710}}
*[[Maritime call sign|Callsign]]: WCY3378
|Ship fate=
|Ship status=In Service
|Ship notes=
}}
{{Infobox ship characteristics
|Hide header=
|Header caption=
|Ship class={{sclass2|Jumbo Mark-II|ferry|0}} [[Ferry|auto/passenger ferry]]
|Ship tonnage=
|Ship displacement={{convert|6184|lt|t|lk=in}}
|Ship length={{convert|460|ft|2|in|1|abbr=on}}
|Ship beam={{convert|90|ft|1|abbr=on}}
|Ship height=
|Ship draught=
|Ship draft={{convert|17|ft|3|in|1|abbr=on}}
|Ship depth=
|Ship decks=5 (2 vehicle decks, passenger deck, sun deck, nav bridge deck)
|Ship deck clearance={{convert|15|ft|6|in|m|1|abbr=on}}
|Ship ramps=
|Ship ice class=
|Ship sail plan=
|Ship power= {{convert|16000|hp|abbr=on}} total from four [[EMD 710]] V-16 [[diesel engine]]s
|Ship propulsion=[[Diesel–electric]]
|Ship speed=
*{{convert|18|kn|0|lk=in}} (service, using two engines)
*{{convert|25|kn|0}} (maximum, using four engines)
|Ship capacity=
*2,499 passengers
*202 vehicles (max 60 tall vehicles)
|Ship crew=
|Ship notes=
}}
|}

The '''MV ''Wenatchee''''' is a {{sclass2|Jumbo Mark-II|ferry}} operated by [[Washington State Ferries]]. Launched in 1998, she was the second in her class in the fleet following the {{MV|Tacoma}}. Since delivery, the ''Wenatchee'' has almost exclusively been assigned to the busy [[Seattle–Bainbridge ferry|Seattle–Bainbridge Island]] route alongside the ''Tacoma''.

''Wenatchee'' has been involved in a couple of notable incidents. In 2000, during a particularly low tide, she touched bottom while rounding Tyee Shoal at the entrance of Bainbridge Island's Eagle Harbor, resulting in minor keel and propeller damage. On August 30, 2009, she had a collision with the slip at [[Colman Dock]] in Seattle. There was heavy fog at the time and the vessel and slip were out of service for four days.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}}

The ''Wenatchee'' and its older sister ship, the ''Tacoma'', suffered from excessive vibration during their early period of operation, until it was repaired during routine maintenance in 1999. The issue was addressed in the final Jumbo Mark-II ferry, the {{MV|Puyallup}}, before it launched.<ref name="vibration">{{cite news |url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19990305&slug=2947676 |title=Giant New Ferries Experience Bad Vibrations -- $52,000 Per Ship To Remove Shaking 'As Bad As The Old Kalakala' |first=Eric |last=Nalder |newspaper=The Seattle Times |date=March 5, 1999}}</ref>

The Jumbo Mark-II fleet is planned to be converted to diesel-electric [[hybrid electric vehicle|hybrid]] beginning in 2021. The conversion is part of a state-mandated reduction in [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and will be funded by part of a settlement from the [[Volkswagen emissions scandal]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Giordano |first=Lizz |date=November 4, 2019 |title=Washington State Ferries plans for an electric-hybrid fleet |url=https://www.heraldnet.com/news/washington-state-ferries-aiming-for-a-fleet-energy-sea-change/ |work=[[The Everett Herald]] |accessdate=May 7, 2020}}</ref> In April 2021, during [[sea trials]] following engine overhauls, the vessel suffered an engine fire and lost power, which lead to an ongoing investigation by the [[US Coast Guard]] and the [[National Transportation Safety Board]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Pilling |first=Nathan |date=April 26, 2021 |title=Washington State Ferries, Coast Guard, NTSB investigating fire on ferry Wenatchee |url=https://eu.kitsapsun.com/story/news/2021/04/26/coast-guard-ntsb-join-investigation-into-fire-ferry-wenatchee/7387806002/ |work=Kitsap Sun |location= |access-date=April 27, 2021}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{commons category-inline|IMO 9137351}}
*[http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/ferries/vesselwatch/VesselDetail.aspx?vessel_id=37 MV Wenatchee vessel info from WSDOT]

{{WSF Ferry Classes}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wenatchee, MV}}
[[Category:Washington State Ferries vessels]]
[[Category:1998 ships]]
[[Category:Ships built in Seattle]]
[[Category:Maritime incidents in 2021]]
[[Category:Maritime incidents in 2000]]
[[Category:Maritime incidents in 2009]]
{{ferry-stub}}

Central bank

2019-08-06T22:44:18Z

Asyncadr: Removed confusing wording and typo from disambiguation

{{redirect|Central Bank|banks named "Central Bank"| List of central banks}}
{{redirect|Reserve bank|other uses| Reserve Bank (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|public institution that manages a state's currency, money supply, and interest rates}}
{{Use dmy dates|date= September 2015}}
{{Public finance}}
{{Banking |banks}}

A '''central bank''', '''reserve bank''', or '''monetary authority''' is an institution that manages the [[currency]], [[money supply]], and [[interest rate]]s of a [[State (polity)|state]] or [[monetary union|formal monetary union]],<ref>
Compare:
{{cite book
| last1 = Uittenbogaard
| first1 = Roland
| title = Evolution of Central Banking?: De Nederlandsche Bank 1814 -1852
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YlkEBgAAQBAJ
| location = Cham (Switzerland)
| publisher = Springer
| date = 2014
| page = 4
| isbn = 9783319106175
| access-date = 3 February 2019
| quote = Although it is difficult to define central banking, [...] a functional definition is most useful. [...] Capie et al. (1994) define a central bank as the government's bank, the monopoly note issuer and lender of last resort.
}}
</ref>
and oversees their [[commercial bank|commercial banking system]]. In contrast to a [[commercial bank]], a central bank possesses a [[cartel|monopoly]] on increasing the [[monetary base]] in the state, and also generally controls the [[fiat money|printing/coining of the national currency]],<ref>{{Cite web | url= http://www.bankofcanada.ca/2013/11/5-and-10-bank-note-issue-2/|title= $5 and $10 Bank Note Issue|author= Bank of Canada|publisher= |accessdate= 7 November 2013}}</ref> which serves as the state's [[legal tender]].<ref>Compare states like Zimbabwe or Kosovo, which have special currency systems.</ref> A central bank also acts as a [[lender of last resort]] to the [[banking industry|banking sector]] during times of [[financial crisis]]. Most central banks also have supervisory and regulatory powers to ensure the [[solvency]] of member institutions, to prevent [[bank run]]s, and to discourage reckless or [[fraud]]ulent behavior by member banks.

Central banks in most [[Developed country|developed nations]] are institutionally independent from political interference.<ref>David Fielding, "Fiscal and Monetary Policies in Developing Countries" in ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'' (Springer, 2016), p. 405: "The current norm in OECD countries is an institutionally independent central bank ... In recent years some non-OECD countries have introduced ... a degree of central bank independence and accountability."</ref><ref>{{cite journal|authorlink= Yoshiharu Oritani|title= Public governance of central banks: an approach from new institutional economics|journal= The Bulletin of the Faculty of Commerce|volume= 89|issue= 4|url= https://www.bis.org/publ/work299.pdf|date= March 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last= Apel|first= Emmanuel|title= Central Banking Systems Compared: The ECB, The Pre-Euro Bundesbank and the Federal Reserve System|date= November 2007|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 978-0415459228|page= 14|chapter= 1}}</ref> Still, limited control by the executive and legislative bodies exists.<ref>
{{cite web
|url= http://www.federalreserve.gov/faqs/about_14986.htm
|title= Ownership and independence of FED | website=
| publisher= |accessdate= 29 September 2013
}}
</ref><ref>[[Deutsche Bundesbank#Governance]]</ref>

==Activities and responsibilities of the central banks==
[[File:Marriner S. Eccles Federal Reserve Board Building.jpg|thumb|The [[eccles Building|Eccles Federal Reserve Board Building]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] houses the main offices of the [[Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve#Board of Governors|Board of Governors]] of the United States' [[Federal Reserve System]]]]

Functions of a central bank may include:

* implementing monetary policies.
* setting the official interest rate – used to manage both [[inflation]] and the country's [[exchange rate]] – and ensuring that this rate takes effect via a variety of policy mechanisms
* controlling the nation's entire money supply
* the Government's banker and the bankers' bank ("[[lender of last resort]]")
* managing the country's [[Foreign exchange market|foreign exchange]] and [[gold reserves]] and the Government bonds
* regulating and supervising the banking industry

==Monetary policy==
Central banks implement a country's chosen [[monetary policy]].

===Currency insurance===
At the most basic level, monetary policy involves establishing what form of currency the country may have, whether a [[fiat currency]], [[gold standard|gold-backed currency]] (disallowed for countries in the [[International Monetary Fund]]), [[currency board]] or a [[currency union]]. When a country has its own national currency, this involves the issue of some form of standardized currency, which is essentially a form of [[promissory note]]: a promise to exchange the note for "money" under certain circumstances. Historically, this was often a promise to exchange the money for precious metals in some fixed amount. Now, when many currencies are [[fiat money]], the "promise to pay" consists of the promise to accept that currency to pay for taxes.

A central bank may use another country's currency either directly in a currency union, or indirectly on a currency board. In the latter case, exemplified by the [[Bulgarian National Bank]], [[Hong Kong]] and [[Latvia]] (until 2014), the local currency is backed at a fixed rate by the central bank's holdings of a foreign currency.
Similar to commercial banks, central banks hold assets (government bonds, foreign exchange, gold, and other financial assets) and incur liabilities (currency outstanding). Central banks create money by issuing interest-free currency notes and selling them to the public (government) in exchange for interest-bearing assets such as government bonds. When a central bank wishes to purchase more bonds than their respective national governments make available, they may purchase private bonds or assets denominated in foreign currencies.

The [[European Central Bank]] remits its interest income to the central banks of the member countries of the European Union. The US [[Federal Reserve]] remits all its profits to the U.S. Treasury. This income, derived from the power to issue currency, is referred to as [[seigniorage]], and usually belongs to the national government. The state-sanctioned power to create currency is called the [[Right of Issuance]]. Throughout history there have been disagreements over this power, since whoever controls the creation of currency controls the seigniorage income.
The expression "monetary policy" may also refer more narrowly to the interest-rate targets and other active measures undertaken by the monetary authority.

===Goals===

====High employment====
[[Frictional unemployment]] is the time period between jobs when a worker is searching for, or transitioning from one job to another. Unemployment beyond frictional unemployment is classified as unintended unemployment.

For example, [[structural unemployment]] is a form of unemployment resulting from a mismatch between demand in the labour market and the skills and locations of the workers seeking employment. Macroeconomic policy generally aims to reduce unintended unemployment.

Keynes labeled any jobs that would be created by a rise in wage-goods (i.e., a decrease in [[Real wage|real-wages]]) as [[Unemployment#Involuntary unemployment|involuntary unemployment]]:

::Men are involuntarily unemployed if, in the event of a small rise in the price of wage-goods relatively to the money-wage, both the aggregate supply of labour willing to work for the current money-wage and the aggregate demand for it at that wage would be greater than the existing volume of employment.

::—[[John Maynard Keynes]], ''[[The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money]]'' p11

====Price stability====
[[Inflation]] is defined either as the devaluation of a currency or equivalently the rise of prices relative to a currency.

Since inflation lowers [[real wage]]s, [[Keynesian economics|Keynesians]] view inflation as the solution to involuntary unemployment. However, "unanticipated" inflation leads to lender losses as the real interest rate will be lower than expected. Thus, Keynesian monetary policy aims for a steady rate of inflation. A publication from the [[Austrian School]], ''[[The Case Against the Fed]]'', argues that the efforts of the central banks to control inflation have been counterproductive.

====Economic growth====
Economic growth can be enhanced by investment in [[Capital (economics)|capital]], such as more or better machinery. A low interest rate implies that firms can borrow money to invest in their capital stock and pay less interest for it. Lowering the interest is therefore considered to encourage economic growth and is often used to alleviate times of low economic growth. On the other hand, raising the interest rate is often used in times of high economic growth as a contra-cyclical device to keep the economy from overheating and avoid market bubbles.

[[Image:Frankfurt EZB.Nordwest-2.20141228.jpg|thumb|The [[European Central Bank]] building in [[Frankfurt]]]]

Further goals of monetary policy are stability of interest rates, of the financial market, and of the foreign exchange market.
Goals frequently cannot be separated from each other and often conflict. Costs must therefore be carefully weighed before policy implementation.

==Policy instruments==
{{See also|Monetary policy reaction function}}

[[File:Basel - Bank für internationalen Zahlungsausgleich3.jpg|thumb|The headquarters of the [[Bank for International Settlements]], in [[Basel]] ([[Switzerland]]).]]
[[File:BoJ.jpg|thumb|The [[Bank of Japan]], in Tokyo, established in 1882.|alt=]]
[[File:RBI-Tower.jpg|thumb|The [[Reserve Bank of India]] (established in 1935) Headquarters in [[Mumbai]].]]
[[File:BSPHeadOffice.png|thumb|The [[Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas|BSP Complex]], in the [[Philippines]].]]
[[File:Central Bank of Brazil.jpg|thumb|The [[Central Bank of Brazil]] (established in 1964) in [[Brasília]].]]
[[File:Banco de España (Madrid) 06.jpg|thumb|The [[Bank of Spain]] (established in 1782) in [[Madrid]].]]
The main [[macroeconomic policy instruments|monetary policy instruments]] available to central banks are [[open market operation]], bank [[reserve requirement]], [[Monetary policy#Interest rates|interest rate policy]], re-lending and re-discount (including using the [[term repurchase]] market), and [[credit policy]] (often coordinated with [[trade policy]]). While [[capital adequacy]] is important, it is defined and regulated by the Bank for International Settlements, and central banks in practice generally do not apply stricter rules.

===Interest rates===
By far the most visible and obvious power of many modern central banks is to influence market interest rates; contrary to popular belief, they rarely "set" rates to a fixed number. Although the mechanism differs from country to country, most use a similar mechanism based on a central bank's ability to create as much [[fiat money]] as required.

The mechanism to move the market towards a 'target rate' (whichever specific rate is used) is generally to lend money or borrow money in theoretically unlimited quantities, until the targeted market rate is sufficiently close to the target. Central banks may do so by lending money to and borrowing money from (taking deposits from) a limited number of qualified banks, or by purchasing and selling bonds. As an example of how this functions, the [[Bank of Canada]] sets a target [[overnight rate]], and a band of plus or minus 0.25%. Qualified banks borrow from each other within this band, but never above or below, because the central bank will always lend to them at the top of the band, and take deposits at the bottom of the band; in principle, the capacity to borrow and lend at the extremes of the band are unlimited.<ref>Bank of Canada backgrounders: [https://www.bankofcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/target_overnight_rate_jan2016.pdf.pdf Target for the Overnight Rate]</ref> Other central banks use similar mechanisms.

The target rates are generally short-term rates. The actual rate that borrowers and lenders receive on the market will depend on (perceived) credit risk, maturity and other factors. For example, a central bank might set a target rate for overnight lending of 4.5%, but rates for (equivalent risk) five-year bonds might be 5%, 4.75%, or, in cases of [[inverted yield curve]]s, even below the short-term rate. Many central banks have one primary "headline" rate that is quoted as the "central bank rate". In practice, they will have other tools and rates that are used, but only one that is rigorously targeted and enforced.

"The rate at which the central bank lends money can indeed be chosen at will by the central bank; this is the rate that makes the financial headlines."<ref>[https://henryckliu.com/page16.html How the US Money Market Really Works] (Part III of [http://henryckliu.com/page14.html "Greenspan - the Wizard of Bubbleland"]). By Henry C.K. Liu, October 27, 2005.</ref> Henry C.K. Liu explains further that "the U.S. central-bank lending rate is known as the [[Federal funds rate|Fed funds rate]]. The Fed sets a target for the Fed funds rate, which its [[Federal Open Market Committee|Open Market Committee]] tries to match by lending or borrowing in the [[money market]] ... a fiat money system set by command of the central bank. The Fed is the head of the central-bank because the U.S. dollar is the key reserve currency for international trade. The global money market is a USA dollar market. All other currencies markets revolve around the U.S. dollar market." Accordingly, the U.S. situation is not typical of central banks in general.

Typically a central bank controls certain types of [[STIRT|short-term]] [[interest rate]]s. These influence the [[stock market|stock-]] and [[bond market]]s as well as [[mortgage loan|mortgage]] and other interest rates. The European Central Bank for example announces its interest rate at the meeting of its Governing Council; in the case of the U.S. Federal Reserve, the [[Federal Reserve Board of Governors]]. Both the Federal Reserve and the ECB are composed of one or more central bodies that are responsible for the main decisions about interest rates and the size and type of open market operations, and several branches to execute its policies. In the case of the Federal Reserve, they are the local Federal Reserve Banks; for the ECB they are the national central banks.

A typical central bank has several interest rates or monetary policy tools it can set to influence markets.

* [[discount window|Marginal lending rate]] – a fixed rate for institutions to borrow money from the central bank. (In the USA this is called the [[Discount window|discount rate]]).
* Main refinancing rate – the publicly visible interest rate the central bank announces. It is also known as ''minimum bid rate'' and serves as a bidding floor for refinancing loans. (In the USA this is called the [[federal funds rate]]).
* Deposit rate, generally consisting of [[interest on reserves]] and sometimes also [[interest on excess reserves]] – the rates parties receive for deposits at the central bank.

These rates directly affect the rates in the money market, the market for short term loans.

Some central banks (e.g. in Denmark, Sweden and the Eurozone) are currently applying [[Negative interest on excess reserves|negative interest rates]].

===Open market operations===
Through [[open market operation]]s, a central bank influences the money supply in an economy. Each time it buys [[security (finance)|securities]] (such as a [[government bond]] or treasury bill), it in effect [[money creation|creates money]]. The central bank exchanges money for the security, increasing the [[money supply]] while lowering the supply of the specific security. Conversely, selling of securities by the central bank reduces the money supply.

Open market operations usually take the form of:

* Buying or selling securities ("[[direct operations]]") to achieve an interest rate target in the interbank market .
* Temporary lending of money for [[collateral (finance)|collateral]] securities ("Reverse Operations" or "[[repurchase agreement|repurchase operations]]", otherwise known as the "repo" market). These operations are carried out on a regular basis, where fixed [[maturity (finance)|maturity]] loans (of one week and one month for the ECB) are auctioned off.
* [[Foreign exchange market|Foreign exchange]] operations such as [[foreign exchange swap]]s.

All of these interventions can also influence the [[foreign exchange market]] and thus the exchange rate. For example, the [[People's Bank of China]] and the [[Bank of Japan]] have on occasion bought several hundred billions of [[United States Treasury security|U.S. Treasuries]], presumably in order to stop the decline of the [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] versus the [[renminbi]] and the [[Japanese yen|yen]].

=== Quantitative easing ===
{{Main|Quantitative easing}}
When faced with the [[zero lower bound]] or a liquidity trap, central banks can resort to [[quantitative easing]] (QE). Like open market operations, QE consists in the purchase of financial assets by the central bank. There are however certain differences:
* The '''scale''' of QE is much larger. The central bank implementing QE usually announces a specific amount of assets it intends to purchase.
* The '''duration''' of QE is purposefully long if not open-ended.
* The '''asset eligibility''' is usually wider and more flexible under QE, allowing the central bank to purchase bonds with longer maturity and higher risk profile.
In that sense, quantitative easing can be considered as an extension of open market operations.

===Capital requirements===
All banks are required to hold a certain percentage of their assets as capital, a rate which may be established by the central bank or the banking supervisor. For international banks, including the 55 member central banks of the [[Bank for International Settlements]], the threshold is 8% (see the [[Basel Capital Accords]]) of risk-adjusted assets, whereby certain assets (such as government bonds) are considered to have lower risk and are either partially or fully excluded from total assets for the purposes of calculating [[capital adequacy]]. Partly due to concerns about [[asset inflation]] and [[repurchase agreement]]s, capital requirements may be considered more effective than reserve requirements in preventing indefinite lending: when at the threshold, a bank cannot extend another loan without acquiring further capital on its balance sheet.

===Reserve requirements===
Historically, [[bank reserves]] have formed only a small fraction of [[banks deposits|deposits]], a system called [[fractional-reserve banking]]. Banks would hold only a small percentage of their assets in the form of cash [[Bank reserves|reserves]] as insurance against bank runs. Over time this process has been regulated and insured by central banks. Such legal [[reserve requirement]]s were introduced in the 19th century as an attempt to reduce the risk of banks overextending themselves and suffering from [[bank run]]s, as this could lead to knock-on effects on other overextended banks. ''See also [[money multiplier]].''

As the early 20th century [[gold standard]] was undermined by inflation and the late 20th century fiat [[dollar hegemony]] evolved, and as banks proliferated and engaged in more complex transactions and were able to profit from dealings globally on a moment's notice, these practices became mandatory, if only to ensure that there was some limit on the ballooning of money supply. Such limits have become harder to enforce. The [[People's Bank of China]] retains (and uses) more powers over reserves because the [[Renminbi|yuan]] that it manages is a non-[[convertible currency]].

Loan activity by banks plays a fundamental role in determining the money supply. The central-bank money after aggregate settlement – "final money" – can take only one of two forms:
* physical cash, which is rarely used in wholesale financial markets,
* central-bank money which is rarely used by the people
The currency component of the money supply is far smaller than the deposit component. Currency, bank reserves and institutional loan agreements together make up the monetary base, called [[Money supply|M1, M2 and M3]]. The Federal Reserve Bank stopped publishing M3 and counting it as part of the money supply in 2006.<ref name="Fed ends M3 publishing">{{cite web|last=Reserve|first=Federal|title=Fed stops publishing M3|url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/h6/discm3.htm|work=press release|publisher=Federal Reserve Board|accessdate=9 March 2006}}</ref>

=== Credit guidance and controls ===

Central banks can directly control the money supply by placing limits on the amount banks can lend to various sectors of the economy.<ref>Werner, Richard (2002). ‘Monetary Policy Implementation in Japan: What They Say vs. What they Do’, Asian Economic Journal, vol. 16 no.2, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 111–151; Werner, Richard (2001). Princes of the Yen, Armonk: M. E. Sharpe [https://books.google.com/books?id=8VwMxQY6Kj8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=princes+of+the+yen&hl=en&ei=ppiITMOCH4vGswb03ZXWCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false]</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Chan|first1=Szu Ping|title=Bank of England cracks down on mortgages|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/bank-of-england/10927409/Bank-of-England-cracks-down-on-mortgages.html|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=2014-06-26}}</ref> Central banks can also control the amount of lending by applying credit quotas. This allows the central bank to control both the quantity of lending and its allocation towards certain strategic sectors of the economy, for example to support the national industrial policy. The [[Bank of Japan]] used to apply such policy ("window guidance") between 1962 and 1991.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.boj.or.jp/en/research/wps_rev/rev_2010/rev10e04.htm/|title=Effectiveness of Window Guidance and Financial Environment – In Light of Japan's Experience of Financial Liberalization and a Bubble Economy – : 日本銀行 Bank of Japan|website=www.boj.or.jp|language=en|access-date=2017-11-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rhodes and Yoshino|date=|title=Japan=s Monetary Policy Transition, 1955–2004|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/esFEAM04/up.30042.1080738722.pdf|journal=|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>

===Exchange requirements===
To influence the money supply, some central banks may require that some or all foreign exchange receipts (generally from exports) be exchanged for the local currency. The rate that is used to purchase local currency may be market-based or arbitrarily set by the bank. This tool is generally used in countries with non-convertible currencies or partially convertible currencies. The recipient of the local currency may be allowed to freely dispose of the funds, required to hold the funds with the central bank for some period of time, or allowed to use the funds subject to certain restrictions. In other cases, the ability to hold or use the foreign exchange may be otherwise limited.

In this method, money supply is increased by the central bank when it purchases the foreign currency by issuing (selling) the local currency. The central bank may subsequently reduce the money supply by various means, including selling bonds or foreign exchange interventions.

===Margin requirements and other tools===
In some countries, central banks may have other tools that work indirectly to limit lending practices and otherwise restrict or regulate capital markets. For example, a central bank may regulate [[margin lending]], whereby individuals or companies may borrow against pledged securities. The margin requirement establishes a minimum ratio of the value of the securities to the amount borrowed.

Central banks often have requirements for the quality of assets that may be held by financial institutions; these requirements may act as a limit on the amount of risk and leverage created by the financial system. These requirements may be direct, such as requiring certain assets to bear certain minimum [[credit rating]]s, or indirect, by the central bank lending to counterparties only when security of a certain quality is pledged as [[collateral (finance)|collateral]].

===Limits on policy effects===
Although the perception by the public may be that the "central bank" controls some or all interest rates and currency rates, economic theory (and substantial empirical evidence) shows that it is impossible to do both at once in an open economy. [[Robert Mundell]]'s "[[impossible trinity]]" is the most famous formulation of these limited powers, and postulates that it is impossible to target monetary policy (broadly, interest rates), the exchange rate (through a fixed rate) and maintain free capital movement. Since most Western economies are now considered "open" with free capital movement, this essentially means that central banks may target interest rates or exchange rates with credibility, but not both at once.

In the most famous case of policy failure, [[Black Wednesday]], [[George Soros]] arbitraged the [[pound sterling]]'s relationship to the [[European Currency Unit|ECU]] and (after making $2 billion himself and forcing the UK to spend over $8bn defending the pound) forced it to abandon its policy. Since then he has been a harsh critic of clumsy bank policies and argued that no one should be able to do what he did.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}}

The most complex relationships are those between the [[Renminbi|yuan]] and the [[United States dollar|US dollar]], and between the [[euro]] and its neighbors. US dollars were ubiquitous in Cuba's economy after its legalization in 1991, but were officially removed from circulation in 2004 and replaced by the [[Cuban convertible peso|convertible peso]].

=== Forward guidance ===
{{empty section|date=November 2017}}

=== More radical instruments ===
Some have envisaged the use of what Milton Friedman once called "[[helicopter money]]" whereby the central bank would make direct transfers to citizens<ref>{{Cite book|title=Monetary Policy, Financial Crises, and the Macroeconomy|last=Baeriswyl|first=Romain|date=2017|publisher=Springer, Cham|isbn=9783319562605|pages=105–121|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-56261-2_6|chapter = The Case for the Separation of Money and Credit}}</ref> in order to lift inflation up to the central bank's intended target. Such policy option could be particularly effective at the zero lower bound.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.economics-ejournal.org/economics/discussionpapers/2014-24|title=The Simple Analytics of Helicopter Money: Why It Works – Always — Economics E-Journal|website=www.economics-ejournal.org|language=en|access-date=2017-11-12}}</ref>

== Banking supervision and other activities ==
{{Basel II}}

In some countries a central bank, through its subsidiaries, controls and monitors the banking sector. In other countries banking supervision is carried out by a government department such as the [[UK Treasury]], or by an independent government agency, for example, UK's [[Financial Conduct Authority]]. It examines the banks' [[balance sheet]]s and behaviour and policies toward consumers.{{clarify|date=January 2015}} Apart from refinancing, it also provides banks with services such as transfer of funds, bank notes and coins or foreign currency. Thus it is often described as the "bank of banks".

Many countries will monitor and control the banking sector through several different agencies and for different purposes. the [[Bank regulation in the United States]] for example is highly fragmented with 3 federal agencies, the [[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation]], the [[Federal Reserve Board]], or [[Office of the Comptroller of the Currency]] and numerous others on the state and the private level. There is usually significant cooperation between the agencies. For example, [[money center bank]]s, [[deposit-taking institution]]s, and other types of financial institutions may be subject to different (and occasionally overlapping) regulation. Some types of banking regulation may be delegated to other levels of government, such as state or provincial governments.

Any cartel of banks is particularly closely watched and controlled. Most countries control bank mergers and are wary of concentration in this industry due to the danger of [[groupthink]] and runaway lending bubbles based on a [[single point of failure]], the [[credit culture]] of the few large banks.

==Independence==

Governments generally have some degree of influence over even "independent" central banks; the aim of independence is primarily to prevent short-term interference. In 1951, the [[Deutsche Bundesbank]] became the first central bank to be given full independence, leading this form of central bank to be referred to as the "Bundesbank model", as opposed, for instance, to the New Zealand model, which has a goal (i.e. inflation target) set by the government.

Advocates of central bank independence argue that a central bank which is too susceptible to political direction or pressure may encourage economic cycles ("[[boom and bust]]"), as politicians may be tempted to boost economic activity in advance of an election, to the detriment of the long-term health of the economy and the country. In this context, independence is usually defined as the central bank's operational and management independence from the government.{{citation needed|date=January 2015}}

Central bank independence is usually guaranteed by legislation and the institutional framework governing the bank's relationship with elected officials, particularly the minister of finance. Central bank legislation will enshrine specific procedures for selecting and appointing the head of the central bank. Often the minister of finance will appoint the governor in consultation with the central bank's board and its incumbent governor. In addition, the legislation will specify banks governor's term of appointment. The most independent central banks enjoy a fixed non-renewable term for the governor in order to eliminate pressure on the governor to please the government in the hope of being re-appointed for a second term.<ref>John Goodman, [https://books.google.com/books?id=xxJUfy5Ud4oC ''Monetary Sovereignty: The Politics of Central Banking in Western Europe''], Cornell University Press, 1992</ref> Generally, independent central banks enjoy both goal and instrument independence.<ref>Stanley Fischer, [http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/fischer20151104a.htm "Central Bank Independence"]</ref>

In return to their independence, central bank are usually accountable at some level to government officials, either to the finance ministry or to parliament. For example, the Board of Governors of the U.S. Federal Reserve are nominated by the [[President of the U.S.]] and confirmed by the [[United States Senate|Senate]],<ref>[http://www.federalreserve.gov/faqs/about_12591.htm Who are the members of the Federal Reserve Board, and how are they selected?] U.S. Federal Reserve Board of Governors FAQ, July 22, 2015</ref> publishes verbatim transcripts, and balance sheets are audited by the [[Government Accountability Office]].<ref>[http://www.federalreserve.gov/faqs/about_12798.htm Is the Federal Reserve accountable to anyone?] U.S. Federal Reserve Board of Governors FAQ June 17, 2011</ref>

In the 2000s there has been a trend towards increasing the independence of central banks as a way of improving long-term economic performance. While a large volume of economic research has been done to define the relationship between central bank independence and economic performance, the results are ambiguous.<ref>Banaian, Burdekin, and Willett, 1998 [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1004942714368 "Reconsidering the principal components of central bank independence: The more the merrier?"]</ref>

The literature on central bank independence has defined a cumulative and complementary number of aspects:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/explainers/tell-me-more/html/ecb_independent.en.html|title=Why is the ECB independent?|last=Bank|first=European Central|website=European Central Bank|language=en|access-date=2017-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://transparency.eu/ecb|title=Transparency International EU – The global coalition against corruption in Brussels|last=EU|first=Transparency International|website=transparency.eu|language=en|access-date=2017-11-13|date=2017-03-28}}</ref>

* '''Institutional independence:''' The independence of the central bank is enshrined in law and shields central bank from political interference. In general terms, institutional independence means that politicians should refrain to seek to influence monetary policy decisions, while symmetrically central banks should also avoid influencing government politics.
* '''Goal independence:''' The central bank has the right to set its own policy goals, whether inflation targeting, control of the money supply, or maintaining a [[fixed exchange rate]]. While this type of independence is more common, many central banks prefer to announce their policy goals in partnership with the appropriate government departments. This increases the transparency of the policy setting process and thereby increases the credibility of the goals chosen by providing assurance that they will not be changed without notice. In addition, the setting of common goals by the central bank and the government helps to avoid situations where monetary and fiscal policy are in conflict; a policy combination that is clearly sub-optimal.
* '''Functional & operational independence:''' The central bank has the independence to determine the best way of achieving its policy goals, including the types of instruments used and the timing of their use. To achieve its mandate, the central bank has the authority to run its own operations (appointing staff, setting budgets, and so on.) and to organise its internal structures without excessive involvement of the government. This is the most common form of central bank independence. The granting of independence to the Bank of England in 1997 was, in fact, the granting of operational independence; the inflation target continued to be announced in the Chancellor's annual budget speech to Parliament.
* '''Personal independence:''' The other forms of independence are not possible unless central bank heads have a high [[security of tenure]]. In practice, this means that governors should hold long mandates (at least longer than the electoral cycle) and a certain degree of legal immunity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/scplps/ecblwp4.pdf?581a2ecf674a6554f5af698f5bf54019|title=Privileges and immunities of the European Central Bank|last=|first=|date=|website=|access-date=}}</ref> One of the most common statistical indicators used in the literature{{Citation needed|date=November 2017}} as a proxy for central bank independence is the "turn-over-rate" of central bank governors. If a government is in the habit of appointing and replacing the governor frequently, it clearly has the capacity to micro-manage the central bank through its choice of governors.
* '''Financial independence:''' central banks have full autonomy on their budget, and some are even prohibited from financing governments. This is meant to remove incentives from politicians to influence central banks.
* '''Legal independence''': some central banks have their own legal personality, which allows them to ratify international agreements without government's approval (like the [[European Central Bank|ECB]]) and to go in court.

There is very strong consensus among economists that an independent central bank can run a more credible monetary policy, making market expectations more responsive to signals from the central bank.<ref>http://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/fed-appointments</ref> Both the Bank of England (1997) and the European Central Bank have been made independent and follow a set of published [[inflation targeting|inflation targets]] so that markets know what to expect. Even the [[People's Bank of China]] has been accorded great latitude, though in [[China]] the official role of the bank remains that of a [[national bank]] rather than a central bank, underlined by the official refusal to "unpeg" the yuan or to revalue it "under pressure". The People's Bank of China's independence can thus be read more as independence from the US, which rules the financial markets, rather than from the [[Communist Party of China]] which rules the country. The fact that the Communist Party is not elected also relieves the pressure to please people, increasing its independence.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

International organizations such as the [[World Bank]], the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) strongly support central bank independence. {{citation needed span|text=This results, in part, from a belief in the intrinsic merits of increased independence. The support for independence from the [[international organization]]s also derives partly from the connection between increased independence for the central bank and increased transparency in the policy-making process. The IMF's [[Financial Services Action Plan]] (FSAP) review self-assessment, for example, includes a number of questions about central bank independence in the transparency section. An independent central bank will score higher in the review than one that is not independent.|date=October 2015}}

==History==
===Early history===
{{More information|History of banking}}
The use of [[money]] as a unit of account predates history. Government control of money is documented in the [[ancient Egypt]]ian economy (2750–2150 BC).<ref>[http://www.nbbmuseum.be/en/2012/05/nederlands-geldgebruik-in-het-oude-egypte.htm ''Monetary practices In ancient Egypt.''] Money Museum National Bank of Belgium, 31 May 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2017.</ref> The Egyptians measured the value of goods with a central unit called ''shat''. As many other currencies, the shat was linked to [[gold]]. The value of a shat in terms of goods was defined by government administrations. Other cultures in [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] later materialised their currencies in the form of gold and silver [[coin]]s.<ref>Metcalf, William E. '' The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage.'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016, pp. 43–44</ref>

In the [[medieval]] and the [[early modern period]] a network of professional [[bank]]s was established in [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Central Europe]].<ref>Collins, Christopher. ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History, Volume 3. BANKING: Middle Ages and Early Modern Period.'', Oxford University Press, 2012, pp. 221–225</ref> The institutes built a new tier in the financial economy. The monetary system was still controlled by government institutions, mainly through the coinage prerogative. Banks, however, could use book money to create [[Deposit (finance)|deposits]] for their customers. Thus, they had the possibility to issue, lend and transfer money autonomously without direct governmental control.

In order to consolidate the monetary system, a network of public exchange banks was established at the beginning of the 17th century in main European trade centres. The [[Amsterdam Wisselbank]] was founded as a first institute in 1609. Further exchange banks were located in [[Hamburg]], [[Venice]] and [[Nuremberg]]. The institutes offered a public infrastructure for cashless international payments.<ref>Collins, Christopher. ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History, Volume 3. BANKING: Middle Ages and Early Modern Period.'', Oxford University Press, 2012, p. 223</ref> They aimed to increase the efficiency of international trade and to safeguard monetary stability. The exchange banks thus fulfilled comparable functions to modern central banks.<ref>Kurgan-van Hentenryk, Ginette. ''Banking, Trade and Industry: Europe, America and Asia from the Thirteenth to the Twentieth Century'', Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 39</ref> The institutes even issued their own (book) currency, called ''Mark Banco''.

===Bank of Amsterdam (Amsterdamsche Wisselbank)===
{{Main|Amsterdamsche Wisselbank}}
{{See also|Economic history of the Dutch Republic|Financial history of the Dutch Republic|Dutch Financial Revolution}}
[[Image:Saenredam - Het oude stadhuis te Amsterdam.jpeg|thumb|right|The old town hall in Amsterdam where the [[Bank of Amsterdam]] was founded in 1609, painting by [[Pieter Saenredam]].]]
In the early modern period, the Dutch were pioneering financial innovators who developed many advanced techniques and helped lay the foundations of modern financial systems.<ref>Goetzmann, William N.; Rouwenhorst, K. Geert (2008). ''The History of Financial Innovation'', in ''Carbon Finance, Environmental Market Solutions to Climate Change''. (Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, chapter 1, pp. 18–43). As Goetzmann & Rouwenhorst (2008) noted, "The 17th and 18th centuries in the Netherlands were a remarkable time for finance. Many of the financial products or instruments that we see today emerged during a relatively short period. In particular, merchants and bankers developed what we would today call [[securitization]]. Mutual funds and various other forms of structured finance that still exist today emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries in Holland."</ref> The Bank of Amsterdam (Amsterdam Wisselbank), established in the [[Dutch Republic]] in 1609, was a forerunner to modern central banks. The Wisselbank's innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of the central banking system that now plays a vital role in the world's economy. Along with a number of subsidiary local banks, it performed many functions of a [[central banking]] system.<ref>Stephen Quinn, and William Roberds. 2007. "The Bank of Amsterdam and the Leap to Central Bank Money." ''American Economic Review,'' 97 (2): 262–265.
{{DOI|10.1257/aer.97.2.262}}</ref> The model of the Wisselbank as a [[state bank]] was adapted throughout Europe, including [[Sveriges Riksbank]] (1668) and the [[Bank of England]] (1694).

===Sveriges Riksbank===
{{More information|Stockholms Banco|Sveriges Riksbank}}
Established by Dutch-Latvian [[Johan Palmstruch]] in 1668, Sweden's central bank, the [[Sveriges Riksbank|Riksbank]], is often considered by many as the world's oldest central bank. However it lacked a central function before 1904 since it did not have a monopoly over issuing bank notes.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robin Teigland|display-authors=et al|title=The Rise and Development of FinTech: Accounts of Disruption from Sweden and Beyond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2T1MDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT113|year=2018|publisher=Taylor & Francis|page=113|isbn=9781351183604}}</ref>

===Bank of England===
{{Main|Bank of England}}
[[File:Bank of England Charter sealing 1694.jpg|thumb|right|''Sealing of the Bank of England Charter (1694)'', by Lady Jane Lindsay, 1905.]]
The establishment of the [[Bank of England]], the model on which most modern central banks have been based, was devised by [[Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax]], in 1694, following a proposal by the banker [[William Paterson (banker)|William Paterson]] three years earlier, which had not been acted upon.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=EkUTaZofJYEC&dq=British+Parliamentary+reports+on+international+finance&printsec=frontcover#PPA25,M1|title=Committee of Finance and Industry 1931 (Macmillan Report) description of the founding of Bank of England|quote="Its foundation in 1694 arose out the difficulties of the Government of the day in securing subscriptions to State loans. Its primary purpose was to raise and lend money to the State and in consideration of this service it received under its Charter and various Act of Parliament, certain privileges of issuing bank notes. The corporation commenced, with an assured life of twelve years after which the Government had the right to annul its Charter on giving one year's notice. '''Subsequent extensions of this period coincided generally with the grant of additional loans to the State'''"|accessdate=10 May 2010|isbn=9780405112126|year=1979}}</ref> In the [[Kingdom of England]] in the 1690s, public funds were in short supply, and the credit of [[William III of England|William III]]'s government was so low in London that it was impossible for it to borrow the £1,200,000 (at 8 percent) needed to finance the ongoing [[Nine Years' War]] with France. In order to induce subscription to the loan, Montagu proposed that the subscribers were to be [[Incorporation (business)|incorporated]] as ''The Governor and Company of the Bank of England'' with long-term banking privileges including the issue of notes. The lenders would give the government cash (bullion) and also issue notes against the government bonds, which could be lent again. A [[Royal Charter]] was granted on 27 July through the passage of the [[Tonnage Act 1694]].<ref>H. Roseveare, [https://books.google.com/books?id=V1MkAQAAIAAJ The Financial Revolution 1660–1760] (1991, Longman), p. 34</ref> The bank was given exclusive possession of the government's balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue [[banknote]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bagehot|first=Walter|title=Lombard Street: a description of the money market (1873)|date=November 5, 2010|publisher=Henry S. King and Co. (etext by Project Gutenberg)| location=London| url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4359}}</ref>{{page needed|date=October 2015}} The £1.2M was raised in 12 days; half of this was used to rebuild the Navy.

[[Image:London.bankofengland.arp.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Bank of England]], established in 1694.]]
Although this establishment of the Bank of England marks the origin of central banking, it did not have the functions of a modern central bank, namely, to regulate the value of the national currency, to finance the government, to be the sole authorized distributor of banknotes, and to function as a 'lender of last resort' to banks suffering a [[liquidity crisis]]. These modern central banking functions evolved slowly through the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref name="lse">{{Cite book|author=Capie, Forrest, Fischer, Stanley, Goodhart, Charles and Schnadt, Norbert|chapter-url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/39606/ |title= The future of central banking: the tercentenary symposium of the Bank of England|chapter= The development of central banking|date=1994|publisher= Cambridge University Press|location= Cambridge, UK|isbn= 9780521496346| accessdate=17 December 2012}}</ref>

Although the Bank was originally a private institution, by the end of the 18th century it was increasingly being regarded as a public authority with civic responsibility toward the upkeep of a healthy financial system. The [[Panic of 1796–97|currency crisis of 1797]], caused by panicked depositors withdrawing from the Bank led to the government suspending convertibility of notes into specie{{clarify|date=June 2019}} payment. The bank was soon accused by the [[bullionist]]s of causing the [[exchange rate]] to fall from over issuing banknotes, a charge which the Bank denied. Nevertheless, it was clear that the Bank was being treated as an organ of the state.{{citation needed||date=October 2015}}

[[Henry Thornton (reformer)|Henry Thornton]], a [[merchant bank]]er and monetary theorist has been described as the father of the modern central bank. An opponent of the [[real bills doctrine]], he was a defender of the bullionist position and a significant figure in monetary theory. Thornton's process of monetary expansion anticipated the theories of [[Knut Wicksell]] regarding the "cumulative process which restates the Quantity Theory in a theoretically coherent form". As a response to the 1797 currency crisis, Thornton wrote in 1802 ''[[An Enquiry into the Nature and Effects of the Paper Credit of Great Britain]]'', in which he argued that the increase in paper credit did not cause the crisis. The book also gives a detailed account of the British monetary system as well as a detailed examination of the ways in which the Bank of England should act to counteract fluctuations in the value of the pound.<ref>Philippe Beaugrand, ''Henry Thornton, un précurseur de J.M. Keynes'', Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1981.</ref>

[[File:Walter Bagehot NPG cropped.jpg|thumb|right|[[Walter Bagehot]], an influential theorist on the economic role of the central bank.]]
Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were commonly in circulation.<ref>{{cite web|title=£2 note issued by Evans, Jones, Davies & Co.|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/cm/others/%c2%a32_note_issued_by_evans,_jones.aspx|publisher=British Museum|accessdate=31 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118104053/http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/cm/others/%c2%a32_note_issued_by_evans,_jones.aspx|archive-date=18 January 2012|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the [[Bank Charter Act 1844]].<ref name="lse" /> Under the 1844 Act, [[bullionism]] was institutionalized in Britain,<ref>Anna Gambles, ''Protection and Politics: Conservative Economic Discourse, 1815-1852'' (Royal Historical Society/Boydell Press, 1999), pp. 117-18.</ref> creating a ratio between the gold reserves held by the [[Bank of England]] and the notes that the Bank could issue.<ref name="Poovey">[[Mary Poovey]], ''Genres of the Credit Economy: Mediating Value in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Britain'' (University of Chicago Press, 2008), p. 49.</ref> The Act also placed strict curbs on the issuance of notes by the country banks.<ref name="Poovey"/>

The Bank accepted the role of 'lender of last resort' in the 1870s after criticism of its lacklustre response to the [[Overend, Gurney and Company|Overend-Gurney crisis]]. The journalist [[Walter Bagehot]] wrote on the subject in ''[[Lombard Street: A Description of the Money Market]]'', in which he advocated for the Bank to officially become a [[lender of last resort]] during a [[credit crunch]], sometimes referred to as "Bagehot's dictum". [[Paul Tucker (banker)|Paul Tucker]] phrased the dictum in 2009 as follows:

{{quote|…to avert panic, central banks should lend early and freely (ie without limit), to solvent firms, against good collateral, and at 'high rates'.<ref>[http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/archive/Documents/historicpubs/speeches/2009/speech390.pdf Paul Tucker, Deputy Governor, Financial Stability, Bank of England, ''The Repertoire of Official Sector Interventions in the Financial System: Last Resort Lending, Market-Making, and Capital'', Bank of Japan 2009 International Conference, 27–28 May 2009, p. 5]</ref>}}

===Spread around the world===
Central banks were established in many European countries during the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book|author= Clifford Gomez|title=Banking and Finance: Theory, Law and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_4Nkye6tpWcC&pg=PA100|year=2011|publisher=PHI|page=100|isbn=9788120342378}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Michael D. Bordo|author2=Marc Flandreau|author3=Jan F. Qvigstad|title=Central Banks at a Crossroads: What Can We Learn from History?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cZ0rDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|year=2016|publisher=Cambridge UP|pages=1–17|isbn=9781107149663}}</ref> Napoleon created the [[Banque de France]] in 1800, in an attempt to improve the financing of his wars.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Stephen Smith|title=The Emergence of Modern Business Enterprise in France, 1800–1930|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zs26hd5keYkC&pg=PA59|year=2006|publisher=Harvard UP|page=59|isbn=9780674019393}}</ref>
On the continent of Europe, the Bank of France remain the most important central bank throughout the 19th century. A central banking role was played by a small group of powerful family banking houses, typified by the [[Rothschild family|House of Rothschild]], with branches in major cities across Europe, as well as the [[Hottinguer family]] in Switzerland and the [[Oppenheim family]] in Germany.<ref>Niall Ferguson, ''The House of Rothschild: Volume 1: Money's Prophets: 1798–1848'' (1999).</ref><ref>Gabriele Teichmann, "Sal. Oppenheim jr. & Cie., Cologne." ''Financial History Review'' 1.1 (1994): 69–78, [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/financial-history-review/article/sal-oppenheim-jr-cie-cologne/2F1E283B5C787E2FC508A7F1ABA24A34 online in English].</ref>

Although central banks today are generally associated with [[fiat money]], the 19th and early 20th centuries central banks in most of Europe and [[Bank of Japan|Japan]] developed under the international [[gold standard]]. [[Free banking]] or [[currency board]]s were common at this time. Problems with collapses of banks during downturns, however, led to wider support for central banks in those nations which did not as yet possess them, most notably in Australia.

Australia established its first central bank in 1920, Peru in 1922, [[Bank of the Republic (Colombia)|Colombia]] in 1923, [[Bank of Mexico|Mexico]] and [[Central Bank of Chile|Chile]] in 1925 and [[Bank of Canada|Canada]], [[Reserve Bank of India|India]] and [[Reserve Bank of New Zealand|New Zealand]] in the aftermath of the [[Great Depression]] in 1934. By 1935, the only significant independent nation that did not possess a central bank was [[Brazil]], which subsequently developed a precursor thereto in 1945 and the present [[Central Bank of Brazil]] twenty years later. After gaining independence, African and Asian countries also established central banks or monetary unions. The Reserve Bank of India, which had been established during British colonial rule as a private company, was nationalized in 1949 following India's independence.

[[File:People's Bank of China.jpg|thumb|The headquarters of the [[People's Bank of China]] (established in 1948) in [[Beijing]].]]
The [[People's Bank of China]] evolved its role as a central bank starting in about 1979 with the introduction of market reforms, which accelerated in 1989 when the country adopted a generally capitalist approach to its export economy. Evolving further partly in response to the [[European Central Bank]], the People's Bank of China had by 2000 become a modern central bank. The most recent bank model was introduced together with the [[euro]], and involves coordination of the European national banks, which continue to manage their respective economies separately in all respects other than currency exchange and base interest rates.

===United States===
{{Main|History of central banking in the United States}}
[[Alexander Hamilton]] as Secretary of the Treasury in the 1790s strongly promoted the banking system, and over heavy opposition from Jeffersonian Republicans, set up the [[First Bank of the United States]]. Jeffersonians allowed it to lapse, but the overwhelming financial difficulties of funding the War of 1812 without a central bank changed their minds. The [[Second Bank of the United States]] (1816–1836) under [[Nicholas Biddle (banker)|Nicholas Biddle]] functioned as a central bank, regulating the rapidly growing banking system.<ref>Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "A History of Central Banking in the United States" [https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about/more-about-the-fed/history-of-the-fed/history-of-central-banking online]</ref> The role of a central bank was ended in the [[Bank War]] of the 1830s by President [[Andrew Jackson]] when he shut down the Second Bank as being too powerful and elitist.<ref>Bray Hammond, "Jackson's Fight with the 'Money Power.'" ''American Heritage'' (June 1956) 7#4: 9–11, 100–103.</ref>

In 1913 the United States created the [[Federal Reserve System]] through the passing of [[The Federal Reserve Act]].<ref>Miklos Sebok, "President Wilson and the International Origins of the Federal Reserve System—A Reappraisal." ''White House Studies'' 10.4 (2011): 424–447.</ref>

===Naming of central banks===
There is no standard terminology for the name of a central bank, but many countries use the "Bank of Country" form—for example: [[Bank of Canada]], [[Bank of Mexico]], [[Bank of Thailand]]. The [[United Kingdom]] does not follow this form as its central bank is the [[Bank of England]] (which, despite its name, is the central bank of the [[United Kingdom]] as a whole). The name's lack of representation of the entire United Kingdom ('Bank of Britain', for example) can be owed to the fact that its establishment occurred when the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of England|England]], [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]] were separate entities (at least in name), and therefore pre-dates the [[Act of Union 1707|merger of the Kingdoms of England and Scotland]], [[Acts of Union 1800|the Kingdom of Ireland's absorption into the Union]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|formation of the present day United Kingdom]]).

The word "Reserve" is also often included, such as the [[Reserve Bank of India]], [[Reserve Bank of Australia]], [[Reserve Bank of New Zealand]], the [[South African Reserve Bank]], and [[Federal Reserve System]]. Other central banks are known as monetary authorities such as the [[Saudi Arabian Monetary Authority]], [[Hong Kong Monetary Authority]], [[Monetary Authority of Singapore]], [[Maldives Monetary Authority]] and [[Cayman Islands Monetary Authority]]. There is an instance where native language was used to name the central bank: in the Philippines the [[Filipino language|Filipino]] name [[Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas]] is used even in English.

Some are styled "national" banks, such as the [[Swiss National Bank]], [[National Bank of Poland]] and [[National Bank of Ukraine]], although the term [[national bank]] is also used for private commercial banks in some countries such as [[National Bank of Pakistan]]. In other cases, central banks may incorporate the word "Central" (for example, [[European Central Bank]], [[Central Bank of Ireland]], [[Central Bank of Brazil]]). In some countries, particularly in formerly Communist ones, the term national bank may be used to indicate both the monetary authority and the leading banking entity, such as the [[Soviet Union]]'s [[Gosbank]] (state bank). In rare cases, central banks are styled "state" banks such as the [[State Bank of Pakistan]] and [[State Bank of Vietnam]].

Many countries have state-owned banks or other quasi-government entities that have entirely separate functions, such as financing imports and exports. In other countries, the term national bank may be used to indicate that the central bank's goals are broader than monetary stability, such as full employment, industrial development, or other goals. Some state-owned commercial banks have names suggestive of central banks, even if they are not: examples are the [[State Bank of India]] and [[Central Bank of India]].

The chief executive of a central bank is usually known as the Governor, President or Chair.

===21st century===
After the [[Financial crisis of 2007–2008]] central banks led change, but as of 2015 their ability to boost economic growth has stalled. Central banks debate whether they should experiment with new measures like negative interest rates or direct financing of government, "lean even more on politicians to do more". [[Andy Haldane]] from the Bank of England said "central bankers may need to accept that their good old days – of adjusting interest rates to boost employment or contain inflation – may be gone for good". The [[European Central Bank]] and The [[Bank of Japan]] whose economies are in or close to [[deflation]], continue [[quantitative easing]] – buying securities to encourage more lending.<ref name=reu1015>{{cite news|author1=Howard Schneider |author2=Balazs Koranyi|title=From heroes to bystanders? Central banks' growth challenge|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2015/10/01/us-global-centralbanks-idUSKCN0RV3G020151001|accessdate=1 October 2015|work=Reuters|date=1 October 2015}}</ref>

Since 2017, prospect of implementing [[Central Bank Digital Currency|central bank digital currency (CBDC)]] has been in discussion<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bankunderground.co.uk/2017/09/13/beyond-blockchain-what-are-the-technology-requirements-for-a-central-bank-digital-currency/|title=Beyond blockchain: what are the technology requirements for a Central Bank Digital Currency?|last=BankUnderground|date=2017-09-13|website=Bank Underground|language=en|access-date=2019-07-10}}</ref>. As of the end of 2018, at least 15 central banks were considering to implementing CBDC<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tommaso Mancini-Griffoli, Maria Soledad Martinez Peria, Itai Agur, Anil Ari, John Kiff, Adina Popescu, Celine Rochon|first=|date=November 12, 2018|title=Casting Light on Central Bank Digital Currency|url=|journal=IMF Staff Discussion Note|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

==Statistics==
{{side box|above='''Total assets of central banks worldwide (in trillion U.S. dollars)'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/421201/assets-of-central-banks/|title=Assets of central banks globally 2002-2017 {{!}} Statistic|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2019-03-20}}</ref>|text={{Graph:Chart|width=400|height=200|yAxisTitle=trillion USD|type=rect|x='02,'03,'04,'05,'06,'07,'08,'09,'10,'11,'12,'13,'14,'15,'16,'17|y=4.7, 5.5, 6.4, 6.8, 7.7, 10.1, 14.5, 15.1, 16.7, 20.3, 22.4, 23, 23.2, 23.6, 26.2, 30.1}}}}
Collectively, central banks purchase less than 500 tonnes of [[Gold bullion|gold]] each year, on average (out of an annual global production of 2,500–3,000 tonnes per year).<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/politics/gold-reserves_swiss-love-affair-with-gold-could-heat-up-again/41101844 | title=Swiss love affair with gold could heat up again}}</ref> In 2018, central banks collectively hold over 33,000 metric tons of the gold, about a fifth of all the gold ever mined, according to Bloomberg News.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-10-29/why-central-bank-buying-has-the-gold-market-guessing-quicktake|title=Why Central Bank Buying Has the Gold Market Guessing|last=|first=|date=October 29, 2018|work=Bloomberg Businessweek|access-date=March 20, 2019}}</ref>

In 2016, 75% of the world's central-bank assets were controlled by four centers in China, the United States, Japan and the [[eurozone]]. The central banks of Brazil, Switzerland, Saudi Arabia, the U.K., India and Russia, each account for an average of 2.5 percent. The remaining 107 central banks hold less than 13 percent. According to data compiled by [[Bloomberg News]], the top 10 largest central banks owned $21.4 trillion in assets, a 10 percent increase from 2015.<ref>[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-10-16/big-central-bank-assets-jump-fastest-in-5-years-to-21-trillion Big Central Bank Assets Jump Fastest in 5 Years to $21 Trillion] Bloomberg News, October 16, 2016</ref>

==Criticism==

===Libertarian criticisms===
Certain groups of people, like [[Libertarians]], believe central banking is an incompetent [[cartel]] that does very little to prevent recessions. [[Milton Friedman]] for example has claimed the [[FED]] contributed to worsening the [[Great Depression]] by artificially keeping interest rates too low and then suddenly shocking the system with outrageously high rates. This was a time when the FED was recently created in 1913. Although Milton Friedman is a [[monetarist]], he believes decisions regarding interest rates should be left to computers, similar to the way the modern stock market is heavily automated.

Individuals who support [[free banking]] believe that [[fiat money]] should not exist, but that currencies should be freely traded in the economy, and [[hard money (policy)|indexing those currencies to precious commodities]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Banks}}
{{Div col}}
* [[List of central banks]]
* [[History of central banking in the United States]]
* [[Fractional-reserve banking]]
* [[Free banking]]
* [[Full-reserve banking]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* [[Nicola Acocella|Acocella, N.]], Di Bartolomeo, G., and Hughes Hallett, A. [2012], "Central banks and economic policy after the crisis: what have we learned?", ch. 5 in: Baker, H. K. and Riddick, L. A. (eds.), ''Survey of International Finance'', Oxford University Press.

==External links==
* [http://www.bis.org/cbanks.htm List of central bank websites at the Bank for International Settlements]
* [http://www.ijcb.org/ ''International Journal of Central Banking'']
* [http://www.federalreserve.gov/pf/pf.htm "The Federal Reserve System: Purposes and Functions"] – A publication of the U.S. [[Federal Reserve]], describing its role in the macroeconomy
* {{cite book |url=http://www.bis.org/publ/bppdf/bispap09a.pdf |title=A hundred ways to skin a cat: comparing monetary policy operating procedures in the United States, Japan and the euro area}} {{small|(176 KB)}} – C E V Borio, Bank for International Settlements, Basel

{{Central Bank by country}}
{{Central banks}}
{{economics}}
{{Economic history of the Netherlands}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Central Bank}}
[[Category:Central banks| ]]
[[Category:17th-century introductions]]
[[Category:Banks]]
[[Category:Banking terms]]
[[Category:Dutch inventions]]

Kyrsten Sinema

2019-01-05T23:39:39Z

Asyncadr:

{{Redirect|Sinema}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{short description|United States Senator from Arizona}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|name = Kyrsten Sinema
|image = Kyrsten Sinema (cropped).jpg
|jr/sr = United States Senator
|state = [[Arizona]]
|alongside = [[Martha McSally]]
|term_start = January 3, 2019
|term_end =
|predecessor = [[Jeff Flake]]
|successor =
|state1 = [[Arizona]]
|district1 = {{ushr|AZ|9|9th}}
|term_start1 = January 3, 2013
|term_end1 = January 3, 2019
|predecessor1 = Constituency established
|successor1 = [[Greg Stanton]]
|state_senate2 = Arizona
|district2 = 15th
|term_start2 = January 10, 2011
|term_end2 = January 3, 2012
|predecessor2 = [[Ken Cheuvront]]
|successor2 = [[David Lujan]]
|state_house3 = Arizona
|district3 = 15th
|term_start3 = January 10, 2005
|term_end3 = January 10, 2011
|predecessor3 = [[Wally Straughn]] [[Ken Clark (politician)|Ken Clark]]
|alongside3 = [[David Lujan]]
|successor3 = [[Lela Alston]] [[Katie Hobbs]]
| spouse = Blake Dain (divorced)
|birth_name = Kyrsten Lea Sinema
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1976|7|12}}
|birth_place = [[Tucson, Arizona]], U.S.
|death_date =
|death_place =
|party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] (2004–present)
|otherparty = [[Independent politician|Independent]] (before 2004)
|education = [[Brigham Young University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) [[Arizona State University Tempe campus|Arizona State University]] ([[Master of Social Work|MSW]], [[Juris Doctor|JD]], [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]])
|website = {{url|www.sinema.senate.gov|Senate website}}
}}
'''Kyrsten Lea Sinema''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɪər|s|t|ə|n|_|ˈ|s|ɪ|n|ə|m|ə}}; born July 12, 1976)<ref>{{cite news|title=Phoenix Arizona Election Questionnaire for Congress, Kyrsten Sinema |url=http://www.azcentral.com/news/politics/2012questionnaires/results.php?id=sinemak|accessdate=April 29, 2015|newspaper=The Arizona Republic}}</ref> is an American politician who is the senior [[United States Senate|United States Senator]] from [[Arizona]]. A member of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], she served as the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Representative]] from {{ushr|Arizona|9}} from 2013 to 2019. She previously served in both chambers of the [[Arizona State Legislature]], having been elected to the [[Arizona House of Representatives]] in 2004 and the [[Arizona Senate]] in 2010.

Sinema began her political career as an activist for the [[Green Party (United States)|Green Party]] before joining the [[Arizona Democratic Party]] in 2004.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Collins|first1=Eliza|title=Democrat Kyrsten Sinema says Trump is 'not a thing' in race to replace Sen. Jeff Flake|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2017/11/28/democrat-kyrsten-sinema-says-trump-not-thing-race-replace-sen-jeff-flake/900777001/|accessdate=January 18, 2018|work=[[USA Today]] |date=November 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119123056/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2017/11/28/democrat-kyrsten-sinema-says-trump-not-thing-race-replace-sen-jeff-flake/900777001/|archive-date=January 19, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> In the [[United States House of Representatives elections in Arizona, 2012|2012 elections]], she was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, becoming the first openly bisexual member of Congress in the history of the United States.<ref name="Kyrsten Sinema">{{cite news|url=http://www.startribune.com/politics/national/178937311.html?refer=y |title=Democrat Kyrsten Sinema beats GOP's Vernon Parker in Arizona's 9th Congressional District |accessdate=November 13, 2012 |date=November 12, 2012 |work=Star Tribune |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121116005417/http://www.startribune.com/politics/national/178937311.html?refer=y |archivedate=November 16, 2012 |df= }}</ref>

After her election to Congress, she shifted toward the political center, joining the conservative Democratic [[Blue Dog Coalition]] and the bipartisan [[Problem Solvers Caucus]] and amassing a center-left to centrist voting record.<ref>{{cite news|title=Democrats Just Got a Top-Tier Senate Candidate in Arizona|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/democrats-just-got-a-top-tier-senate-candidate-in-arizona|accessdate=January 18, 2018|work=[[The Daily Beast]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002142629/http://www.thedailybeast.com/democrats-just-got-a-top-tier-senate-candidate-in-arizona|archive-date=October 2, 2017|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Sinema worked for the adoption of the [[DREAM Act]] and campaigned against Propositions [[Arizona Proposition 107 (2006)|107]] and [[Arizona Proposition 102|102]], two voter [[referendum]]s to ban the recognition of [[same-sex marriage]] and [[civil unions]] in Arizona.

Sinema won the [[United States Senate election in Arizona, 2018|Arizona Senate election in 2018]] to replace retiring [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Jeff Flake]], defeating [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] nominee [[Martha McSally]]. Sinema's victory made her the first woman elected to the United States Senate from Arizona, the [[List of the first LGBT holders of political offices in the United States|first openly bisexual person elected to the United States Senate]], the [[List of LGBT members of the United States Congress|second openly LGBT person elected to the United States Senate]] (after [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Tammy Baldwin]] of [[Wisconsin]]), and the first [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] elected to the United States Senate from Arizona since [[Dennis DeConcini]] in [[United States Senate election in Arizona, 1988|1988]].<ref name="win senate">{{cite web |title=Democrat Kyrsten Sinema wins Arizona US Senate seat |url=https://www.apnews.com/406e8885842342a2a0dbbdb7e98c2cdb |website=[[AP News]] |accessdate=November 13, 2018 |date=November 12, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://qvoicenews.com/2018/11/12/kyrsten-sinema-first-openly-bisexual-person-elected-to-the-u-s-senate/ |title=Kyrsten Sinema first openly bisexual person elected to the U.S. Senate |publisher=Q Voice News |date= |accessdate=2018-11-14}}</ref> She became Arizona's [[Seniority in the United States Senate|senior senator]] immediately upon taking office.

==Early life, education and private career==
Kyrsten Sinema was born in [[Tucson, Arizona]], in 1976 to Marilyn and Dan Sinema.<ref>{{cite web |first=Manuel |last=Roig-Franzia |date=January 2, 2013 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/kyrsten-sinema-a-success-story-like-nobody-elses/2013/01/02/d31fadaa-5382-11e2-a613-ec8d394535c6_story.html |title=Kyrsten Sinema: A success story like nobody else's |access-date=September 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912204514/https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/kyrsten-sinema-a-success-story-like-nobody-elses/2013/01/02/d31fadaa-5382-11e2-a613-ec8d394535c6_story.html?utm_term=.08b19f0a2758 |archive-date=September 12, 2018 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref> She is of [[Frisian Americans|Frisian]] descent<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dansinema.tripod.com/ |title=Sinnema Family |access-date=November 10, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060424085058/http://dansinema.tripod.com/ |archive-date=April 24, 2006 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all |publisher=[[Tripod.com]] |first=Dan |last=Sinema |website=Sinema family personal website }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Alex |last=Pappas |date=July 10, 2012 |url=https://dailycaller.com/2012/07/10/arizona-democratic-candidate-wrongly-listed-as-hispanic-in-group-directory/ |title=Arizona Democratic candidate wrongly listed as Hispanic in group directory |website=[[The Daily Caller]] |access-date=November 11, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170610112223/http://dailycaller.com/2012/07/10/arizona-democratic-candidate-wrongly-listed-as-hispanic-in-group-directory/ |archive-date=June 10, 2017 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref> and her [[Patrilineality|patrilineal]] line can be traced back up 19 generations to Sywvol Zennema who was born in the village of [[Heeg]], [[Netherlands]] in 1425.<ref>https://www.genealogieonline.nl/stamboom-jellema/I36019.php</ref> Her great-great-grandfather Lieuwe Jacobs Sinnema (1863–1941)<ref>https://www.genealogieonline.nl/stamboom-griffioen-koster/I435687.php</ref> [[emigrated]] at a young age with his father Jacob Jans Sinnema (1830–1903)<ref>http://dansinema.tripod.com/pafg28.htm#718C</ref> to the United States in 1867<ref>https://www.genealogieonline.nl/stamboom-griffioen-koster/I251608.php</ref> from the village of [[Bitgum]], in the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[Provinces of the Netherlands|province]] of [[Friesland]].<ref>Laan, Ton van der, "Friese senator treedt aan in VS", ''[[Leeuwarder Courant]]'', November 14, 2018, p. 2.</ref> They initially moved to [[Sioux City, Iowa]], and later her great-great-grandfather settled in [[Twin Falls, Idaho]], where her great-grandfather Jacob Sinema (1892–1963) and grandfather Gerald Sinema (1929–) were brought up.<ref>http://dansinema.tripod.com/pafg74.htm#14428</ref> Her grandfather relocated to [[Phoenix, Arizona]], where her father, Dan Sinema, was born in 1949.<ref>http://dansinema.tripod.com/pafg77.htm#14423</ref>

Kyrsten has two siblings, an older brother and younger sister.<ref>Sanders, Rebekah (January 30, 2016). "[https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/arizona/politics/2016/01/30/congresswoman-who-grew-up-gas-station/79206952/ The congresswoman who grew up in a gas station]". ''The Arizona Republic''.</ref><ref name="Elle">{{cite web |last1=Friedman |first1=Ann |title=America's Most Colorful Congresswoman: Kyrsten Sinema |url=https://www.elle.com/culture/career-politics/a12563/arizona-congresswoman-kyrsten-sinema-profile/ |work=[[Elle (magazine)|Elle]] |accessdate=October 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004021152/https://www.elle.com/culture/career-politics/a12563/arizona-congresswoman-kyrsten-sinema-profile/ |archive-date=October 4, 2018 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Her father was an attorney. Her parents divorced when she was a child and her mother, who had custody of the children, remarried. With her siblings, mother, and stepfather, Sinema moved to [[DeFuniak Springs, Florida]], a small town in the [[Florida Panhandle|Panhandle]].<ref name="Elle" /> When her stepfather lost his job and the bank foreclosed on their home, the family lived for three years in a remodeled [[gas station]].<ref name="NationalJournal">{{cite web|last=Skelton |first=Alissa |title=Arizona, 9th House District: Kyrsten Sinema |date=November 1, 2012 |work=[[National Journal]] |url=http://www.nationaljournal.com/congress-legacy/arizona-9th-house-district-20121101 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122040754/http://nationaljournal.com/congress-legacy/arizona-9th-house-district-20121101 |archive-date=November 22, 2012 |dead-url=yes}}</ref> Sinema has said that for two years they had no toilet or electricity while living there.<ref name="NPR" /> She later recalled, "My stepdad built a bunk bed for me and my sister. We separated our bunk bed from the kitchen with one of those big chalkboards on rollers. I knew that was weird. A chalkboard shouldn't be a wall. A kitchen should have running water."<ref name="NPR">{{cite web |last1=O'Dowd |first1=Peter |title=Sinema, First Openly Bisexual Member Of Congress, Represents 'Changing Arizona' |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/itsallpolitics/2013/01/08/168362011/sinema-first-openly-bisexual-member-of-congress-represents-changing-arizona |website=NPR |accessdate=October 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024082843/https://www.npr.org/sections/itsallpolitics/2013/01/08/168362011/sinema-first-openly-bisexual-member-of-congress-represents-changing-arizona |archive-date=October 24, 2018 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Sinema was raised as a member of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].<ref name=StandardExaminer>{{cite web|last1=Roig-Franzia|first1=Manuel|title=Congress' first openly bisexual member grew up Mormon, graduated from Brigham Young University|url=http://www.standard.net/Lifestyle/2013/01/03/Congress-first-openly-bisexual-member-grew-up-Mormon-graduated-from-BYU.html|website=Standard Examiner|accessdate=November 22, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122194752/http://www.standard.net/Lifestyle/2013/01/03/Congress-first-openly-bisexual-member-grew-up-Mormon-graduated-from-BYU.html|archive-date=November 22, 2015|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> According to journalist [[Jonathan Martin (journalist)|Jonathan Martin]] in ''[[The New York Times]]'', Sinema has given "contradictory answers about her early life", and Sinema's mother and stepfather had filed court documents saying they had made monthly payments for gas, electricity, and phone bills, even though Sinema had said they had been "without running water or electricity".<ref name=":2"/> Asked whether she had embellished details from her childhood, Sinema said, "I've shared what I remember from my childhood. I know what I lived through."<ref name=":2">{{cite news|first=Jonathan |last=Martin |authorlink=Jonathan Martin (journalist) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/24/us/politics/kyrsten-sinema-arizona.html|title=A Senate Candidate's Image Shifted. Did Her Life Story?|work=[[The New York Times]] |date=September 24, 2018 |accessdate=September 25, 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924235730/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/24/us/politics/kyrsten-sinema-arizona.html|archive-date=September 24, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Sinema graduated as valedictorian from [[Walton High School (DeFuniak Springs, Florida)|Walton High School]] at age 16 and went on to earn her [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] from [[Brigham Young University|Brigham Young University]] in 1995 at age 18.<ref name="sanders gas"/><ref name="NationalJournal"/> She left [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] after graduating from BYU.<ref name=StandardExaminer/> Sinema received her [[Master of Social Work]] degree from [[Arizona State University]] in 1999. In 2004, she earned a [[Juris Doctor|J.D.]] degree from [[Arizona State University College of Law]]. In 2012, she earned a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] degree in Justice Studies, also from Arizona State.<ref name="NationalJournal"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Project Vote Smart: Rep. Kyrsten Sinema|url=http://votesmart.org/bio.php?can_id=28338|accessdate=June 1, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101001143943/https://www.votesmart.org/bio.php?can_id=28338|archive-date=October 1, 2010|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Sinema moved to Arizona in 1995.<ref name="CNN">{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/10/12/politics/kfile-kyrsten-sinema-activist-past/index.html|title=Kyrsten Sinema's anti-war activist past under scrutiny as she runs for Senate|work=CNN|date=October 12, 2018|access-date=December 30, 2018}}</ref> She was a [[social worker]] from 1995 to 2002. She worked as a social worker in the [[Washington Elementary School District]] (in the [[Phoenix metropolitan area]]).<ref name="Rep. Kyrsten Sinema: biography">{{cite web|title=Sinema biodata|url=http://www.azleg.gov/MembersPage.asp?Member_ID=52&Legislature=48|accessdate=June 1, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616232359/http://www.azleg.gov/MembersPage.asp?Member_ID=52&Legislature=48|archive-date=June 16, 2008|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> She was an adjunct Business Law Professor at [[Arizona Summit Law School]], formerly known as Phoenix School of Law. Sinema became a [[criminal defense lawyer]] in 2005.<ref name="NationalJournal"/><ref name="Rep. Kyrsten Sinema: biography"/> She has also been an adjunct instructor teaching Master's-level policy and grant-writing classes at Arizona State University School of Social Work since 2003.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://webapp4.asu.edu/directory/person/476214|title=ASU Directory Profile: Kyrsten Sinema |website=Webapp4.asu.edu|date=November 15, 2007|accessdate=September 1, 2012}}</ref>

==Early political involvement==
In 2000, Sinema worked on [[Ralph Nader]]'s presidential campaign.<ref name="movesmiddle">{{cite news|url=http://atr.rollcall.com/elections-2014-kyrsten-sinema-arizona/|title=Freshman Congresswoman Moves to the Middle|author=Shira T. Center|date=August 12, 2014|newspaper=Roll Call|accessdate=August 29, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140909114314/http://atr.rollcall.com/elections-2014-kyrsten-sinema-arizona/|archive-date=September 9, 2014|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> In 2001 and 2002, Sinema ran for local elected offices as an independent and lost.<ref name="CNN" /> In 2002, ''[[The Arizona Republic]]'' published a letter from Sinema criticizing capitalism. "Until the average American realizes that capitalism damages her livelihood while augmenting the livelihoods of the wealthy, the Almighty Dollar will continue to rule", she wrote.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Epstein |first1=Reid J. |title=Can a Onetime Nader-Supporting 'Bomb Thrower' Win Arizona's Senate Seat? Democrats Hope So |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/democrats-road-to-the-senate-runs-straight-through-trump-country-1520266957 |website=Wall Street Journal |accessdate=October 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180930181605/https://www.wsj.com/articles/democrats-road-to-the-senate-runs-straight-through-trump-country-1520266957 |archive-date=September 30, 2018 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

Sinema had organized 15 antiwar rallies by the time the Iraq War began.<ref name="CNN" /> She also opposed the war in Afghanistan.<ref name="CNN" /> During a February 15, 2003, protest in Patriot's Square Park in Phoenix, a group led by Sinema distributed flyers portraying a U.S. servicemember as a skeleton "inflicting 'U.S. terror' in Iraq and the Middle East".<ref name="CNN" /> (A representative of Sinema has said that Sinema did not "'approve or design'" the flyers.<ref name="NR">{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalreview.com/2018/10/kyrsten-sinema-election-bid-ridiculous/|title=The Ridiculous Kyrsten Sinema|work=National Review|last=Smith|first=Kyle|date=October 24, 2018|access-date=December 30, 2018}}</ref>) In a 2003 opinion piece, Sinema declared that Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush were "'the real Saddam and Osama lovers'".<ref name="NR" /> When asked on a local radio show whether she would oppose someone joining the Taliban and fighting on its behalf, Sinema responded, "'Fine… I don't care if you want to do that, go ahead.'"<ref name="CNN" /> During 2005 and 2006, Sinema co-hosted a radio show with 9/11 truther Jeff Farias.<ref name="CNN" />

=== Selected works ===

* {{Cite book|title=Unite and Conquer: How to Build Coalitions That Win and Last|last=Sinema|first=Kyrsten|date=2009|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|year=|isbn=9781605090054|location=|pages=|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|title=Who Must Die in Rwanda's Genocide?: The State of Exception Realized|last=Sinema|first=Kyrsten|date=2015|publisher=[[Lexington Books]]|year=|isbn=9781498518659|location=|pages=|language=en}}

==Arizona State Legislature==
[[File:Kyrsten Sinema - Arizona State Rep.jpg|alt=Sinema walking up stairs and smiling to the camera|thumb|Sinema in 2009]]
[[File:Kyrstensinema.jpg|thumb|Sinema in 2010]]

===Elections===
Sinema first ran for the [[Arizona House of Representatives]] in 2002, as an [[independent (politician)|independent]] affiliated with the [[Arizona Green Party]].<ref name="Winger">{{cite news|url=http://www.ballot-access.org/2012/11/13/kyrsten-sinema-newly-elected-arizona-congresswoman-was-once-a-green-party-nominee-for-arizona-legislature/|title=Kyrsten Sinema, Newly-Elected Arizona Congresswoman, Was Once a Green Party Nominee for Arizona Legislature|last=Winger|first=Richard|date=November 13, 2012|website=[[Ballot Access News]]|accessdate=November 21, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122152918/http://www.ballot-access.org/2012/11/13/kyrsten-sinema-newly-elected-arizona-congresswoman-was-once-a-green-party-nominee-for-arizona-legislature/|archive-date=November 22, 2012|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> She finished in last place in a five-candidate field, receiving 8% of the vote.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.azsos.gov/results/2002/general/GEN-3215.htm|title=Election Summary|accessdate=November 21, 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101121514/http://www.azsos.gov/results/2002/general/GEN-3215.htm|archivedate=November 1, 2011}}</ref>

In 2004, Sinema and [[David Lujan]] won the Democratic primaries for Arizona's 15th district, with 37 per cent of the vote for Sinema and 34 per cent for Lujan over incumbent representative [[Wally Straughn]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=735328 |title=AZ State House 15 – D Primary Race – Sep 07, 2004 |website=Our Campaigns |date= |accessdate=September 1, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204011953/http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=735328 |archive-date=February 4, 2014 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Sinema was subsequently reelected three times with over 30% of the vote.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=210349 |title=AZ State House 15 Race – Nov 02, 2004 |website=Our Campaigns |date= |accessdate=September 1, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204011835/http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=210349 |archive-date=February 4, 2014 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=278545 |title=AZ State House 15 Race – Nov 07, 2006 |website=Our Campaigns |date= |accessdate=September 1, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204011939/http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=278545 |archive-date=February 4, 2014 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=323392 |title=AZ State House 15 Race – Nov 04, 2008 |website=Our Campaigns |date= |accessdate=September 1, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204011903/http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=323392 |archive-date=February 4, 2014 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref> In 2009 and 2010, Sinema was an assistant Minority Leader for the Democratic Caucus of the Arizona House of Representatives.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.azleg.gov/MembersPage.asp?Member_ID=52&Legislature=49&Session_ID=93 |title=Member Page |website=Azleg.gov |date= |accessdate=September 1, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814015717/http://www.azleg.gov/MembersPage.asp?Member_ID=52&Legislature=49&Session_ID=93 |archive-date=August 14, 2012 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

In 2010, Sinema was elected to the [[Arizona Senate]], defeating [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] Bob Thomas, 63% to 37%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=512927 |title=AZ State Senate 15 Race – Nov 02, 2010 |website=Our Campaigns |date= |accessdate=September 1, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020133108/http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=512927 |archive-date=October 20, 2012 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

===Tenure===
According to ''[[Elle Magazine|Elle]]'', "her first public comment as an elected official came in 2005, after a Republican colleague's speech insulted LGBT people. 'We're simply people like everyone else who want and deserve respect', she passionately declared. Later, when reporters asked about her use of the first person, Sinema replied, 'Duh, I'm bisexual.{{'"}}<ref name="Elle" />

In 2006, Sinema told a radio host that she was "the most liberal member of the Arizona State Legislature".<ref>https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/kyrsten-sinema-not-progressive_us_5bdca881e4b09d43e31edfa3</ref> Also in 2006, Sinema sponsored a bill urging the adoption of the [[DREAM Act]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.azleg.gov/DocumentsForBill.asp?Bill_Number=HCM2004&Session_ID=83|title=Documents For Bill|website=Azleg.gov|accessdate=September 1, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203024349/http://www.azleg.gov/DocumentsForBill.asp?Bill_Number=HCM2004&Session_ID=83|archive-date=February 3, 2014|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Also in 2006 she co-chaired Arizona Together, the statewide campaign that defeated [[Arizona Proposition 107 (2006)|Proposition 107]], which would have banned the recognition of [[same-sex marriage]] and civil unions in Arizona. (In 2008 a similar referendum, [[Arizona Proposition 102 (2008)|Proposition 102]], passed.<ref>{{cite news|title=Straight couples pivotal in gay marriage fight|newspaper=The Arizona Republic |date=November 9, 2006|url=http://www.tucsoncitizen.com/daily/local/32052.php|archive-url=https://archive.is/20120919045130/http://www.tucsoncitizen.com/daily/local/32052.php|dead-url=yes|archive-date=September 19, 2012|accessdate=June 1, 2008}}</ref>) Speaking to a magazine in 2006, Sinema was asked about "new feminism", and responded, "'These women who act like staying at home, leeching off their husbands or boyfriends, and just cashing the checks is some sort of feminism because they're choosing to live that life. That's bullshit. I mean, what the fuck are we really talking about here?'"<ref>{{cite web|title=Leeches – AZ-09 – Kyrsten Sinema|url=https://www.nrcc.org/video/leeches-az-09-kyrsten-sinema/|website=[[National Republican Congressional Committee]] |accessdate=April 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419003211/https://www.nrcc.org/video/leeches-az-09-kyrsten-sinema/|archive-date=April 19, 2016|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref name=VetscherFactCheck>{{cite web|last1=Vetscher|first1=Tim|title=Fact Check: AFF's TV ad attacking Kyrsten Sinema|url=http://www.abc15.com/dpp/news/state/fact-check-affs-tv-ad-attacking-kyrsten-sinema|website=ABC15 News|accessdate=April 9, 2016|archivedate=October 25, 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025142047/http://www.abc15.com/dpp/news/state/fact-check-affs-tv-ad-attacking-kyrsten-sinema}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Lemons|first1=Stephen|title=Kyrsten Sinema's Hilary Rosen Moment, and Her Persistent Verbal Flubbery|url=http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/blogs/kyrsten-sinemas-hilary-rosen-moment-and-her-persistent-verbal-flubbery-6501564|website=Phoenix New Times|accessdate=April 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424134727/http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/blogs/kyrsten-sinemas-hilary-rosen-moment-and-her-persistent-verbal-flubbery-6501564|archive-date=April 24, 2016|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> After facing criticism, Sinema apologized and said the interview format was intended to be a "light-hearted spoof". "I was raised by a stay-at-home mom," she said. "So, she did a pretty good job with me."<ref>{{cite web|last=Fischer|first=Howard|title=Gay marriage debate sparks a feminism battle|url=http://www.eastvalleytribune.com/article_0ae2da3f-c12d-5312-9092-3eca18fed236.html?mode=story|newspaper=[[East Valley Tribune]] |accessdate=November 15, 2012|date=October 27, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929193156/http://www.eastvalleytribune.com/article_0ae2da3f-c12d-5312-9092-3eca18fed236.html?mode=story|archive-date=September 29, 2017|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

In 2008, Sinema led the campaign against [[Arizona Proposition 102 (2008)|Proposition 102]], another referendum that would have banned the recognition of same-sex marriage in Arizona. Proposition 102 was approved with 56% of the vote in the general election on November 4, 2008. Sinema chaired a coalition called Protect Arizona's Freedom, which defeated [[Ward Connerly]]'s goal to place an initiative on the state ballot that would eliminate equal-opportunity programs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.azleg.gov/MembersPage.asp?Member_ID=52&Legislature=49&Session_ID=87|title=Member Page|website=Azleg.gov|accessdate=September 1, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130702181314/http://www.azleg.gov/MembersPage.asp?Member_ID=52&Legislature=49&Session_ID=87|archive-date=July 2, 2013|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

In June 2009, Sinema was one of 32 state legislators appointed by President [[Barack Obama]] to the White House Health Reform Task Force, which helped shape the [[Affordable Care Act]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://azcapitoltimes.com/news/2009/06/10/sinema-asked-to-help-reform-us-health-care-system/|title=Sinema asked to help reform U.S. health care system|author=Riley, Anjanette|work=Arizona Capitol Times|date=June 10, 2009|access-date=August 11, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180820235120/https://azcapitoltimes.com/news/2009/06/10/sinema-asked-to-help-reform-us-health-care-system/|archive-date=August 20, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> "Thanks in part to her hard work in improving the bill", Sinema was invited to attend the Obamacare bill signing at the White House in March 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kyrstensinema.com/issues/health-care/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116010346/http://kyrstensinema.com/issues/health-care/|archivedate=January 16, 2013|title=Making Quality Health Care Affordable|website=KyrstenSinema.com|accessdate=January 16, 2013}}</ref>

In 2010, she sponsored a bill to give in-state tuition to veterans; it was held in committee and did not receive a vote.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.azleg.gov/DocumentsForBill.asp?Bill_Number=HB2398&Session_ID=93 |title=Documents For Bill |website=Azleg.gov |date= |accessdate=September 1, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418161055/http://azleg.gov/DocumentsForBill.asp?Bill_Number=HB2398&Session_ID=93 |archive-date=April 18, 2012 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

In 2010, Sinema was named one of ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine's "40 Under 40".<ref>{{cite news|title=40 Under 40|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time Magazine]]|date=October 19, 2010|url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2023831_2023829_2025183,00.html|accessdate=October 19, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017073107/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2023831_2023829_2025183,00.html|archive-date=October 17, 2010|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The [[Center for Inquiry]] presented Sinema its Award for the Advancement of Science and Reason in Public Policy in 2011.<ref>{{cite press_release|url=http://www.centerforinquiry.net/newsroom/sen._sinema_to_receive_award_from_cfi_for_advancement_of_science_and_reason|title=Sen. Sinema to Receive Award from CFI for Advancement of Science and Reason in Public Policy|website=Center for Inquiry|date=March 9, 2011|accessdate=November 7, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112223446/http://www.centerforinquiry.net/newsroom/sen._sinema_to_receive_award_from_cfi_for_advancement_of_science_and_reason/#|archive-date=November 12, 2012|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

==U.S. House of Representatives==
===Elections===

====2012====
{{Main|United States House of Representatives elections in Arizona, 2012#District 9}}
In June 2011, Sinema said she was considering running for the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] in [[United States House of Representatives elections in Arizona, 2012|2012]]. She lived in the same Phoenix neighborhood as incumbent Democratic congressman [[Ed Pastor]], but was adamant that she would not challenge another Democrat in a primary.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rollcall.com/news/arizona_state_senator_interested_house_bid-206340-1.html|title=Arizona State Senator Interested in House Bid|date=June 9, 2011|accessdate=October 4, 2011|work=[[Roll Call]]|first=Kyle|last=Trygstad|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811074933/http://www.rollcall.com/news/arizona_state_senator_interested_house_bid-206340-1.html|archive-date=August 11, 2011|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> On January 3, 2012, Sinema announced her bid for Congress, in the 9th congressional district.<ref name=advocate>{{cite news|last=Garcia|first=Michelle|title=Bi Politician Announces Congressional Bid|url=http://www.advocate.com/News/Daily_News/2012/01/04/Bi_Politician_Announces_Congressional_Bid/|accessdate=January 8, 2012|newspaper=[[The Advocate (LGBT magazine)|The Advocate]]|date=January 4, 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6C2lo3dL0?url=http://www.advocate.com/news/daily-news/2012/01/04/bi-politician-announces-congressional-bid/|archivedate=November 9, 2012}}</ref> The district had previously been the 5th, represented by freshman Republican [[David Schweikert]]; it contains 60% of the old 5th's territory.<ref>[http://www.dailykos.com/story/2011/10/04/1022899/-Arizona-Redistricting-Commission-releases-draft-map Arizona Redistricting: Commission releases draft map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604030056/http://www.dailykos.com/story/2011/10/04/1022899/-Arizona-Redistricting-Commission-releases-draft-map# |date=June 4, 2012 }}. [[Daily Kos]], October 4, 2011</ref> Schweikert had been drawn into the 6th District—the old 3rd District—and sought reelection there.

Although Sinema was not required to resign her State Senate seat under Arizona's [[resign-to-run laws]] (since she was in the final year of her term), she did so on the same day that she announced her candidacy. On August 28, 2012, Sinema won the three-way Democratic primary with nearly 42% of the vote. Her opponents, state Senator [[David Schapira]] and former [[Arizona Democratic Party]] chairman [[Andrei Cherny]], a former speechwriter in the [[Clinton administration]], each finished with less than 30% of the vote.<ref name="NationalJournal"/><ref name="Sinema, Parker win in Congressional District 9">{{cite news|last=González|first=Daniel|title=Sinema, Parker win in Congressional District 9|url=http://www.azcentral.com/news/politics/articles/20120828former-state-sen-sinema-wins-cd-democratic-primary.html|newspaper=The Arizona Republic|date=August 28, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.azcentral.com/elections/index.php|title=November 2012 Election Results|website=Azcentral.com|accessdate=November 8, 2012}}{{dead link|date=November 2018}}</ref>

In the general election, Sinema ran against Republican nominee [[Vernon Parker]], the former mayor of [[Paradise Valley, Arizona|Paradise Valley]].<ref name="NationalJournal"/> Sinema was endorsed by ''[[The Arizona Republic]]''.<ref name="NationalJournal"/> The campaign was described as a "nasty",<ref>{{cite news |last=Dann |first=Carrie |url=http://nbcpolitics.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/12/04/15649841-ten-fresh-faces-to-watch-in-the-new-congress |title=Ten fresh faces to watch in the new Congress |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221171322/http://nbcpolitics.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/12/04/15649841-ten-fresh-faces-to-watch-in-the-new-congress |archive-date=February 21, 2014 |dead-url=no |website=[[NBC News]] |date=December 4, 2012}}</ref> "bitterly fought race that featured millions of dollars in [[attack ad]]s".<ref>{{cite news |first=Jim |last=Cross |url=http://www.ktar.com/22/1587953/Sinema-beats-Parker-in-Arizonas-CD9-race |title=Sinema beats Parker in Arizona's CD9 race |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114233553/http://ktar.com/22/1587953/Sinema-beats-Parker-in-Arizonas-CD9-race |archive-date=November 14, 2012 |website=[[KTAR-FM]] |date=November 12, 2012}}</ref> Parker ran [[campaign ad]]s that accused Sinema of being an "anti-American [[hippie]]" who practiced "Pagan rituals".<ref>David Mendez, [http://www.tucsonweekly.com/TheRange/archives/2012/10/16/from-far-far-out-there-in-phoenix-kristen-sinema-is-a-pagan-hippie From Far, Far Out There in Phoenix: Vernon Parker Says Kyrsten Sinema Is A Pagan Hippie] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107040759/http://www.tucsonweekly.com/TheRange/archives/2012/10/16/from-far-far-out-there-in-phoenix-kristen-sinema-is-a-pagan-hippie# |date=November 7, 2012 }}, ''Tucson Weekly'' (October 16, 2012); Matthew Hendley, [http://blogs.phoenixnewtimes.com/valleyfever/2012/10/kyrsten_sinema_socialist_hippie_vernon_parker.php Kyrsten Sinema Doesn't Like America, but Loves Flower Power, According to Vernon Parker Ad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120193830/http://blogs.phoenixnewtimes.com/valleyfever/2012/10/kyrsten_sinema_socialist_hippie_vernon_parker.php# |date=November 20, 2012 }}, ''Phoenix New Times'' (October 16, 2012).</ref> The Republican-aligned outside group [[American Future Fund]] spent hundreds of thousands of dollars on attack ads against Sinema.<ref name=VetscherFactCheck/><ref>{{cite web |first=Andrew |last=Sullivan |url=http://andrewsullivan.thedailybeast.com/2012/09/ad-war-update-19.html |title=Ad War Update: Obama Wants To Engulf Your Children In Flames |date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> When Sinema's religious views were raised as an issue, her campaign stated that she simply believes in a [[Secularism|secular]] approach to government.<ref name="NYTimesLabels"/>

The November 6 election was initially too close to call, because Arizona election authorities failed to count more than 25% of the votes on election day.<ref name="Ballot count goes on in Arizona">{{cite news|last=Reinhart|first=Mary K.|title=Ballot count goes on in Arizona| url=http://www.azcentral.com/news/politics/articles/20121113arizona-ballot-count-goes-on.html|newspaper=The Arizona Republic|date=August 28, 2012}}</ref> Sinema held a narrow lead over Parker, while provisional and absentee ballots were still being counted.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/democrat-kyrsten-sinema-beats-gops-vernon-parker-in-arizonas-9th-congressional-district/2012/11/12/76d016d8-2cf5-11e2-b631-2aad9d9c73ac_story.html |title=Democrat Kyrsten Sinema beats GOP's Vernon Parker in Arizona's 9th Congressional District |agency=[[Associated Press]] |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=November 12, 2012 |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123172526/http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/democrat-kyrsten-sinema-beats-gops-vernon-parker-in-arizonas-9th-congressional-district/2012/11/12/76d016d8-2cf5-11e2-b631-2aad9d9c73ac_story.html |archive-date=November 23, 2012 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/12/krysten-sinema-election-results_n_2117894.html "Kyrsten Sinema Election Results: Arizona Democrat Beats Vernon Parker In Congressional Race"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113070413/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/12/krysten-sinema-election-results_n_2117894.html |date=November 13, 2012 }}. ''Huffington Post'', November 12, 2012.</ref> On November 12, when it was apparent that Sinema's lead was too large for Parker to overcome, the [[Associated Press]] called the race for Sinema.<ref name="abcnews">{{cite news|title=Kyrsten Sinema Becomes First Openly Bisexual Member of Congress|url=http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/politics/2012/11/kyrsten-sinema-becomes-first-openly-bisexual-member-of-congress|newspaper=ABC News|date=November 12, 2012}}</ref> Once all ballots were counted, Sinema won by 4.1 percentage points, over 10,000 votes. Libertarian Powell Gammill finished third with 6.64% of the votes.<ref>{{cite news|title=General Election Results|url=http://results.enr.clarityelections.com/AZ/42050/113200/Web01/en/summary.html|accessdate=November 24, 2012|newspaper=Arizona Secretary of State's Office|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127192026/http://results.enr.clarityelections.com/AZ/42050/113200/Web01/en/summary.html|archive-date=November 27, 2012|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> When she took office on January 3, 2013, she became only the second Anglo Democrat to represent the Valley of the Sun in over three decades. The first, [[Harry Mitchell]], occupied the seat Sinema now holds from 2007 to 2011.

====2014====
{{Main|United States House of Representatives elections in Arizona, 2014#District 9}}
Sinema ran for reelection in 2014, and was unopposed in the Democratic primary, which took place on August 26, 2014. She faced Republican Wendy Rogers in the general election.<ref>{{cite web|title=Arizona's 9th Congressional District elections, 2014|url=http://ballotpedia.org/Arizona%27s_9th_Congressional_District_elections,_2014|website=Ballotpedia|accessdate=March 19, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321183549/http://ballotpedia.org/Arizona%27s_9th_Congressional_District_elections,_2014|archive-date=March 21, 2014|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Jaffe|first1=Alexandra|title=GOP nominates former Air Force Lt. Col. to take on Sinema|url=http://thehill.com/blogs/ballot-box/house-races/216037-gop-nominates-former-air-force-lt-col-to-take-on-sinema|accessdate=August 28, 2014|website=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |date=August 27, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140827182341/http://thehill.com/blogs/ballot-box/house-races/216037-gop-nominates-former-air-force-lt-col-to-take-on-sinema|archive-date=August 27, 2014|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

According to ''[[Roll Call]]'', Sinema billed herself as bipartisan. This was seen as a response to her district's voting pattern. It was drawn as a "fair-fight" district, and voted for President [[Barack Obama]] by just 4 points in 2012.<ref name=movesmiddle/> In September 2014, she was endorsed for reelection by the [[United States Chamber of Commerce]], becoming one of five Democrats to be endorsed by the Chamber in the 2014 congressional election cycle.<ref name="Chamber2014">{{cite news|url=https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2014/09/democratic-candidates-chamber-commerce-endorsement|title=How the Tea Party Is Causing Big Business to Back Democrats|date=September 15, 2014|accessdate=September 20, 2014|work=[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140919122913/http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2014/09/democratic-candidates-chamber-commerce-endorsement|archive-date=September 19, 2014|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> She was reelected with approximately 55% of the vote, beating GOP nominee Wendy Rogers by 13 points.

====2016====
{{Main|United States House of Representatives elections in Arizona, 2016#District 9}}
Unopposed in her primary, Sinema won the general election with 60.9% of the vote. Her opponent, Republican nominee Dave Giles, received 39%.

===Committee assignments===
*'''[[United States House Committee on Financial Services|Committee on Financial Services]]'''
**[[United States House Financial Services Subcommittee on Housing and Insurance|Subcommittee on Capital Markets, Securities and Investment]]
**[[United States House Financial Services Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations|Subcommittee on Terrorism and Illicit Finance]]

===Caucus memberships===
*'''[[New Democrat Coalition]]'''<ref>{{cite web|title=Members|author=|url=https://newdemocratcoalition-himes.house.gov/members|format=|website=New Democrat Coalition|date=|accessdate=February 5, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208100356/https://newdemocratcoalition-himes.house.gov/members|archive-date=February 8, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
*'''[[Congressional Arts Caucus]]'''<ref>{{cite web|title=Membership|author=|url=https://artscaucus-slaughter.house.gov/membership|format=|website=Congressional Arts Caucus|date=|accessdate=March 13, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140644/https://artscaucus-slaughter.house.gov/membership|archive-date=June 12, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
*'''[[Veterinary Medicine Caucus]]'''<ref>{{cite web|title=Members of the Veterinary Medicine Caucus|author=|url=https://schrader.house.gov/committees/veterinary-medicine-caucus.htm|website=Veterinary Medicine Caucus|date=|accessdate=October 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921053219/https://schrader.house.gov/committees/veterinary-medicine-caucus.htm|archive-date=September 21, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
*'''[[Blue Dog Coalition]]'''<ref name="BlueDogMember"/>
*'''[[Problem Solvers Caucus]]'''<ref name="movesmiddle"/>

==U.S. Senate==

=== Elections ===
{{main|United States Senate election in Arizona, 2018}}
[[File:Kyrsten Sinema by Gage Skidmore.jpg|right|thumb|Sinema at a U.S. Senate campaign event in Phoenix, Arizona, in October 2018]]
On September 28, 2017, Sinema officially announced her [[United States Senate election in Arizona, 2018|candidacy]] for the Class I United States Senate seat held by [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] incumbent [[Jeff Flake]], who declined to seek reelection the next month.

In March 2018, Sinema donated to charity $33,800 in campaign contributions she had received from [[Ed Buck]], a prominent Democratic donor who came under scrutiny after a homeless escort died of a drug overdose at his California home in 2017.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hansen|first1=Ronald|title=Kyrsten Sinema quietly unloads $33,800 from controversial Democratic donor|url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/arizona/2018/03/18/kyrsten-sinema-quietly-unloads-33-800-controversial-democratic-donor-ed-buck/412160002/|accessdate=April 26, 2018|newspaper=The Arizona Republic|date=March 18, 2018}}</ref> She had previously donated to charity $53,400 in campaign contributions from people with ties to [[Backpage]], a website that was seized by the [[United States Department of Justice]] after it was accused of knowingly accepting ads for sex with underage girls.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hansen|first1=Ronald|title=U.S. Rep. Kyrsten Sinema finds new home for Backpage.com owners' money|url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/arizona/2017/04/18/rep-kyrsten-sinema-says-she-giving-away-backpage-owners-donations/100584648/|accessdate=April 26, 2018|newspaper=The Arizona Republic|date=April 18, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=US Rep Krysten Sinema Donates $53,400 to Phoenix Group|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/arizona/articles/2017-04-19/us-rep-krysten-sinema-donates-53-400-to-phoenix-group|accessdate=April 26, 2018|agency=Associated Press|work=U.S. News & World Report|date=April 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708075238/https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/arizona/articles/2017-04-19/us-rep-krysten-sinema-donates-53-400-to-phoenix-group|archive-date=July 8, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

[[Federal Election Commission]] filings released in April 2018 showed Sinema had raised over $8.2 million, more than the three leading Republican primary contenders combined.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Athey|first1=Philip|title=Sinema outpaces likely GOP challengers, raises $8 million in Senate bid|url=https://cronkitenews.azpbs.org/2018/04/24/sinema-outpaces-likely-gop-challengers-raises-8-million-in-senate-bid/|accessdate=April 26, 2018|publisher=Cronkite News|date=April 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180425042113/https://cronkitenews.azpbs.org/2018/04/24/sinema-outpaces-likely-gop-challengers-raises-8-million-in-senate-bid/|archive-date=April 25, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

During the 2018 campaign, Sinema refused to debate her competitor in the Democratic primary, Deedra Abboud, an attorney and community activist.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wingett Sanchez |first1=Yvonne |title=Progressives question Kyrsten Sinema's values in Senate race: 'What does she stand for?' |url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/elections/2018/08/16/progressives-question-kyrsten-sinema-values-democratic-senate-race/946306002/ |newspaper=The Arizona Republic |accessdate=October 13, 2018}}</ref> Sinema won the August Democratic primary for the Senate seat. Her Republican opponent in the general election was fellow Arizona U.S. Representative [[Martha McSally]].<ref name="primarywin">{{cite news |last=Wingett Sanchez |first=Yvonne | title=Martha McSally, Kyrsten Sinema win Arizona's Senate primary races |url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/elections/2018/08/28/arizona-us-senate-primary-election-results-2018-ward-arpaio-mcsally-sinema-abboud/1047696002/ |newspaper=The Arizona Republic |date=August 28, 2018 |accessdate=August 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Riccardi |first1=Nicholas |last2=Tang |first2=Terry |title=McSally, Sinema to face for Arizona Senate seat |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/arizona-senate-primary-run-in-trumps-shadow/2018/08/28/d6c2a992-ab30-11e8-9a7d-cd30504ff902_story.html |agency=Associated Press |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=August 29, 2018 |accessdate=August 29, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829042034/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/arizona-senate-primary-run-in-trumps-shadow/2018/08/28/d6c2a992-ab30-11e8-9a7d-cd30504ff902_story.html |archive-date=August 29, 2018 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> She received the endorsement of the [[Human Rights Campaign]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Metzger |first1=Ianthe |title=HRC Endorses Kyrsten Sinema for U.S. Senate |url=https://www.hrc.org/blog/breaking-hrc-endorses-kyrsten-sinema-for-u.s.-senate |website=hrc.org |accessdate=October 13, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405233804/http://www.hrc.org/blog/breaking-hrc-endorses-kyrsten-sinema-for-u.s.-senate |archive-date=April 5, 2018 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

While Abboud said she would vote against the nomination of [[Brett Kavanaugh]] to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]], Sinema "said she wanted to delve deeper into Kavanaugh's writings and interview him personally before deciding". She said she was "running on the issues people care about most, including offering quality, affordable health care and promoting economic opportunity".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Editorial board |title=Arizona's Democratic Senate race should be more of a contest. Here's why it's not |url=https://eu.azcentral.com/story/opinion/editorial/2018/08/12/kyrsten-sinema-deedra-abboud-arizona-senate-democrat-primary-candidates/937643002/ |newspaper=The Arizona Republic |accessdate=October 13, 2018}}</ref> In the summer of 2018, Sinema said she would vote against [[Chuck Schumer]] (D-N.Y.) for [[minority leader|Minority Leader]] if elected to the U.S. Senate. "The Democratic leadership has failed Democrats across the country," she said. "I am unafraid to say what I believe about what I think our party needs to do and I think our party needs to grow and change."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bixby |first1=Scott |date=July 11, 2018 |title=Democrats' Top Senate Candidate Kyrsten Sinema Basically Running as 'Independent' in Arizona |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/democrats-top-senate-candidate-kyrsten-sinema-basically-running-as-independent-in-arizona |website=The Daily Beast |accessdate=October 12, 2018}}</ref>

Journalist Jonathan Martin wrote in ''The New York Times'' in September 2018 that Sinema was running "one of the most moderate-sounding and cautious Senate campaigns this year, keeping the media at arms-length and avoiding controversial issues", and said her campaign was generally reluctant to bring up President [[Donald Trump]].<ref name=":2" /> According to Martin, both Republicans and Democrats said that Sinema had "few major legislative accomplishments to her record" and was running "on a political image that she has shaped and reshaped over the years. And nothing is more central to it now than her childhood homelessness."<ref name=":2" />

On November 12, many news sources called the U.S. Senate race for Sinema, and the Republican nominee, [[Martha McSally]], conceded.<ref name="RomeroDeclared">{{cite news |last1=Romero |first1=Simon |title=Kyrsten Sinema Declared Winner in Arizona Senate Race |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/12/us/kyrsten-sinema-arizona-senator.html |website=The New York Times |date=November 12, 2018 |accessdate=November 12, 2018}}</ref><ref name="npr-2018-11-12">Jaspers, Brett (November 12, 2018). "[https://www.npr.org/2018/11/12/667118237/ballots-are-still-being-counted-in-arizona-senate-race Democrat Kyrsten Sinema Defeats Republican Martha McSally In Arizona Senate Race]". ''All Things Considered''. National Public Radio'.</ref><ref name="ClarkWins">Clark, Rartunorro; Madani, Doha (November 12, 2018). "[https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/politics-news/democrat-kyrsten-sinema-wins-arizona-senate-race-after-nail-biter-n935206 Democrat Kyrsten Sinema wins Arizona Senate race after nail-biter against Martha McSally, Sinema, who narrowly defeated Republican Martha McSally, is the states's first Democrat elected to the Senate in 30 years]". ''NBC News''.</ref><ref name="KeneallyConcedes">{{cite news |last1=Keneally |first1=Meghan |last2= Zarrell |first2=Matt |date=November 12, 2018 |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/arizona-senate-race-republican-martha-mcsally-concedes-democrat/story?id=58929430&cid=clicksource_4380645_1_hero_headlines_headlines_hed |title=Arizona Senate Race: Republican Martha McSally concedes to Democrat Kyrsten Sinema |website=[[ABC News]] |access-date=November 14, 2018}}</ref> Sinema was sworn in with the [[116th United States Congress]] on January 3, 2019.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lim |first1=Naomi |title=Sinema defeats McSally in Arizona, Cook Political Report projects |url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/kyrsten-sinema-defeats-martha-mcsally-in-arizona-cook-political-report-projects |date=November 11, 2018 |accessdate=November 12, 2018 |newspaper=Washington Examiner |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112142445/https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/kyrsten-sinema-defeats-martha-mcsally-in-arizona-cook-political-report-projects |archive-date=November 12, 2018 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>[https://www.realclearpolitics.com/elections/live_results/2018/state/az/senate/ 2018 Arizona Senate Election Results] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108065731/https://www.realclearpolitics.com/elections/live_results/2018/state/az/senate/# |date=November 8, 2018 }}, ''[[Real Clear Politics]]'', November 11, 2018. Retrieved November 12, 2018.</ref> During the [[oath of office]] ceremony, lead by vice president [[Mike Pence]], Sinema decided not to be sworn in on the traditional Bible, opting, instead, to use a copy of the [[United States Constitution]] and the [[Constitution of Arizona]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Garrand |first=Danielle |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/sen-kyrsten-sinema-takes-oath-of-office-on-an-law-book-instead-of-the-bible/ |title=Kyrsten Sinema takes oath as senator on a copy of Constitution instead of Bible |work=[[CBS News]] |date=2019-01-04 |accessdate=2019-01-04 }}</ref>

===Committee Assignments===

*'''[[United States Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs|Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs]]'''
*'''[[United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation|Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation]]'''
*'''[[United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs|Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs]]'''
*'''[[United States Senate Committee on Veterans' Affairs|Committee on Veterans' Affairs]]'''
*'''[[United States Senate Special Committee on Aging|Special Committee on Aging]]'''

''Source: [https://www.democrats.senate.gov/newsroom/press-releases/schumer-announces-senate-democratic-committee-memberships-for-the-116th-congress Senate Democratic Leader Chuck Schumer]''

== Political positions ==
Sinema has been described as a [[Centrism|centrist]] or [[New Democrats|moderate]] Democrat.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/democratic-rage-builds-kyrsten-sinema-tries-different-approach-will-arizona-voters-buy-100712922.html|title=As Democratic rage builds, Kyrsten Sinema tries a different approach. Will Arizona voters buy it?|accessdate=July 20, 2018|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720225537/https://www.yahoo.com/news/democratic-rage-builds-kyrsten-sinema-tries-different-approach-will-arizona-voters-buy-100712922.html|archive-date=July 20, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> According to ''[[National Journal]]''<nowiki>'s</nowiki> 2013 Vote Ratings, her votes place her near the center of their [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberal]]-[[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]] scale.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationaljournal.com/free/document/download/5078-1|title=National Journal|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413130634/http://www.nationaljournal.com/free/document/download/5078-1|archivedate=April 13, 2014|deadurl=yes|accessdate=March 30, 2014}}</ref> The ''National Journal'' gave her a composite ideology score of 57% liberal and 43% conservative.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://votesmart.org/candidate/evaluations/28338/kyrsten-sinema#.W1I9f9JKiUk|title=Kyrsten Sinema's Ratings and Endorsements|website=votesmart.org|5=|access-date=July 20, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409154054/http://votesmart.org/candidate/evaluations/28338/kyrsten-sinema#.W1I9f9JKiUk#.W1I9f9JKiUk|archive-date=April 9, 2016|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> According to the Bipartisan Index created by [[The Lugar Center]] and the [[McCourt School of Public Policy]], Sinema was the sixth most bipartisan member of the U.S. House of Representatives during the first session of the [[115th United States Congress]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thelugarcenter.org/assets/htmldocuments/House%20Scores%20115th%20Congress%20First%20Session.pdf|publisher=The Lugar Center|title=The Lugar Center – McCourt School Bipartisan Index: House Scores|date=April 24, 2018|accessdate=August 29, 2018|location=Washington, D.C.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715040230/http://www.thelugarcenter.org/assets/htmldocuments/House%20Scores%20115th%20Congress%20First%20Session.pdf|archive-date=July 15, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> She has cited U.S. Senator Joe Manchin, a Democrat from West Virginia, as a role model.<ref name=":2"/> She was one of the most [[Conservative Democrat|conservative]] Democrats in the House of Representatives during her tenure.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/elections/2018/10/31/kyrsten-sinema-martha-mcsally-occupy-whats-left-political-middle/1572194002/|title=Kyrsten Sinema and Martha McSally's House voting records put them in the political middle|work=azcentral|access-date=October 31, 2018|language=en}}</ref>

In 2015 and 2016, she did not vote for [[Nancy Pelosi]] for [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hansen|first1=Ronald|title=Arizona Democrats Sinema, Gallego vote against Pelosi as party leader|url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/arizona/2016/11/30/arizona-democrats-sinema-gallego-vote-against-pelosi-party-leader/94684366/|accessdate=January 18, 2018|newspaper=The Arizona Republic|date=November 30, 2016}}</ref> In 2015, she voted 73% with the majority of her own party.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/01/upshot/the-house-democrats-who-are-voting-with-republicans-more-often.html|title=The House Democrats Who Are Voting With Republicans More Often|first=Derek|last=Willis|date=March 31, 2015|publisher=|accessdate=August 4, 2017|newspaper=The New York Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804214555/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/01/upshot/the-house-democrats-who-are-voting-with-republicans-more-often.html|archive-date=August 4, 2017|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The conservative group [[Americans for Prosperity]] gives Sinema a lifetime 27% rating and the conservative [[Goldwater Institute]] gave her a 35% in 2010 when she was a state legislator; the progressive [[Americans for Democratic Action]] gave her a 60% liberal quotient.<ref name=":0"/> In 2017, she voted in line with President [[Donald Trump]]'s position approximately half the time.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Noori Farzan|first1=Antonia|title=Kyrsten Sinema, Allegedly a Democrat, Still Votes With Trump Half the Time|url=http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/news/kyrsten-sinemas-voting-record-immigration-refugees-health-care-ada-9682545|accessdate=January 18, 2018|newspaper=Phoenix New Times|date=September 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119120425/http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/news/kyrsten-sinemas-voting-record-immigration-refugees-health-care-ada-9682545|archive-date=January 19, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> According to [[FiveThirtyEight|Five ThirtyEight]], as of November 2018, Sinema voted in line with Trump's position on legislation 62.2% of the time.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://projects.fivethirtyeight.com/congress-trump-score/kyrsten-sinema/|title=Tracking Congress In The Age Of Trump|last=Bycoffe|first=Aaron|date=January 30, 2017|work=FiveThirtyEight|accessdate=July 20, 2018|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826075809/https://projects.fivethirtyeight.com/congress-trump-score/kyrsten-sinema/|archive-date=August 26, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Sinema is a member of the [[Blue Dog Coalition]]<ref name="BlueDogMember">{{cite web|title=Members|author=|url=https://bluedogcaucus-costa.house.gov/members|format=|publisher=Blue Dog Coalition|date=|accessdate=February 7, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223054159/https://bluedogcaucus-costa.house.gov/members|archive-date=December 23, 2017|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> and the [[Problem Solvers Caucus]].<ref name="movesmiddle"/>

===Abortion===
Sinema supports [[abortion rights]]. Asked about ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'', Sinema indicated that the ruling should not be overturned and that she supports a woman's right to choose.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/411530-live-coverage-mcsally-clashes-with-sinema-in-arizona-senate-debate|title=Live coverage: McSally clashes with Sinema in Arizona Senate debate|last=Nam|first=Rafael|date=October 15, 2018|work=The Hill|access-date=October 16, 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016034454/https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/411530-live-coverage-mcsally-clashes-with-sinema-in-arizona-senate-debate|archive-date=October 16, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> She has been endorsed by [[EMILY's List]].<ref name=issues/> She has a lifetime 100% rating from [[Planned Parenthood]], which is [[Pro choice|pro-choice]], and a 20% rating from the [[pro-life]] organization [[Campaign for Working Families]] as of 2018.<ref name=":0" />

===Economics===
Sinema has voted for federal stimulus spending.<ref name="issues">{{cite web|title=Arizona House Kyrsten Sinema (Democrat, district 9) |url=http://www.ontheissues.org/house/Kyrsten_Sinema.htm |website=[[On the Issues]] |accessdate=March 20, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320040709/http://www.ontheissues.org/house/Kyrsten_Sinema.htm |archive-date=March 20, 2014 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all}}</ref> She has said: "Raising taxes is more economically sound than cutting vital social services."<ref>{{cite news |title=Bio Questions |url=http://pniext.pni.com/news/cust/webleg2002.nsf/d6a2923b5e69094007256beb00834b08/249a7c8cd089f55807256bf000682094?OpenDocument |accessdate=March 20, 2014 |newspaper=The Arizona Republic |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20021002223847/http://pniext.pni.com/news/cust/webleg2002.nsf/d6a2923b5e69094007256beb00834b08/249a7c8cd089f55807256bf000682094?OpenDocument |archivedate=October 2, 2002 }}</ref>

In 2015, Sinema was one of just seven House Democrats to vote in favor of a Republican-backed bill to repeal the [[Estate tax in the United States|estate tax]], which affects about 0.2% of deaths in the U.S. each year (estates of $5.43 million or more for individuals, or $10.86 million or more for couples).<ref>Becker, Bernie (April 16, 2015). "[http://thehill.com/policy/finance/239075-house-votes-to-repeal-estate-tax House votes to repeal estate tax]" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228082225/http://thehill.com/policy/finance/239075-house-votes-to-repeal-estate-tax# |date=February 28, 2017 }}, ''The Hill''.</ref> That same year, she voted to change the [[Consumer Financial Protection Bureau]]'s leadership from a single director to a bipartisan commission.<ref>[http://www.acainternational.org/cfpbarticle-reps-sinema-neugebauer-cfpb-needs-bipartisan-leadership-37292.aspx Reps. Sinema, Neugebauer: CFPB Needs Bipartisan Leadership] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012231018/http://www.acainternational.org/cfpbarticle-reps-sinema-neugebauer-cfpb-needs-bipartisan-leadership-37292.aspx# |date=October 12, 2016 }}, [[ACA International]] (October 15, 2015).</ref><ref>Kyrsten Sinema & Randy Neugebauer, [https://www.wsj.com/articles/depoliticizing-elizabeth-warrens-pet-project-1444861338 Depoliticizing Elizabeth Warren's Pet Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214183129/https://www.wsj.com/articles/depoliticizing-elizabeth-warrens-pet-project-1444861338# |date=February 14, 2017 }}, ''Wall Street Journal'' (October 14, 2015).</ref>

In 2016, with Republican congressman [[John Katko]] of New York, Sinema cosponsored the Working Parents Flexibility Act (H.R. 4699). This legislation would establish a tax-free "parental savings account" in which employers and parents could invest savings tax-free, with unused funds eligible to be "rolled into qualifying retirement, college savings or ABLE accounts for people with disabilities without tax penalties".<ref name="SinemaKatko">[https://riponadvance.com/stories/katko-bill-would-establish-tax-free-savings-accounts-for-parents/ Katko bill would establish tax-free savings accounts for parents] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714100812/https://riponadvance.com/stories/katko-bill-would-establish-tax-free-savings-accounts-for-parents/# |date=July 14, 2018 }}, ''Ripon Advance'' News Service (March 10, 2016).</ref> In September 2018, she voted "to make [[Trump tax cuts|individual tax cuts]] passed by the GOP [in 2017] permanent".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/10/30/arizona-senate-election-poll-kyrsten-sinema-leads-martha-mcsally.html|title=Democrat Sinema leads Republican McSally in fight for key Senate seat in Arizona: Poll|last=Pramuk|first=Jacob|date=October 30, 2018|work=CNBC|access-date=October 30, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030125248/https://www.cnbc.com/2018/10/30/arizona-senate-election-poll-kyrsten-sinema-leads-martha-mcsally.html|archive-date=October 30, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> She was one of three Democrats to break with her party and vote for the tax cuts being made permanent.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2018/09/28/house-tax-puts-permanent-817246|title=House votes to make individual tax cuts permanent|work=POLITICO|access-date=October 30, 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002203931/https://www.politico.com/story/2018/09/28/house-tax-puts-permanent-817246|archive-date=October 2, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

===LGBT rights===
According to a profile in ''[[The Advocate (LGBT magazine)|The Advocate]]'', "Sinema has her sights set on advancing LGBT rights."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Broverman |first1=Neal |title=Arizona's Kyrsten Sinema: Smart, Funny, Bi and Running for Senate |url=https://www.advocate.com/politics/2018/7/16/arizonas-kyrsten-sinema-smart-funny-bi-and-running-senate |website=The Advocate |accessdate=October 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004021158/https://www.advocate.com/politics/2018/7/16/arizonas-kyrsten-sinema-smart-funny-bi-and-running-senate |archive-date=October 4, 2018 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref> She has a history of policy advocacy regarding LGBT rights and issues. In 2006, Sinema was among the leading opponents of a proposed amendment to the Arizona state constitution which would have banned [[same-sex marriage]]s and [[civil union]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tucson.com/news/local/govt-and-politics/elections/mormons-now-issue-in-gay-vows/article_483fa165-8b40-53c5-b84c-b556b340d6fd.html|title=Mormons now issue in gay vows|last=STAR|first=Daniel Scarpinato ARIZONA DAILY|website=Arizona Daily Star|language=en|access-date=2018-12-06}}</ref> The proposal failed in Arizona, the first time that a state rejected a ban on same-sex marriage, but, a second proposed amendment banning only same-sex marriage was passed in 2008 with Sinema opposing that amendment as well.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/why-arizona-flipped-on-gay-marriage/|title=Why Arizona Flipped On Gay Marriage|last=St|first=Weekly|last2=December 2|first2=ard|website=www.cbsnews.com|language=en|access-date=2018-12-06|last3=2008|last4=Pm|first4=5:39}}</ref> Sinema supports same-sex marriage, [[domestic partnership]] recognition, and adding [[gender identity]] to anti-discrimination laws.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ontheissues.org/Domestic/Kyrsten_Sinema_Civil_Rights.htm|title=Kyrsten Sinema on Civil Rights|website=www.ontheissues.org|access-date=2018-12-09}}</ref>

===Foreign policy===
While a law student at Arizona State University, Sinema organized pacifist protests, including against the Iraq War.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |first=Miriam |last=Valverde |url=https://www.politifact.com/arizona/statements/2018/sep/10/martha-mcsally/did-arizonas-kyrsten-sinema-protest-troops-pink-tu/|title=Did Arizona's Kyrsten Sinema protest troops in a pink tutu and denigrated [sic] their service? |work=[[PolitiFact]] |access-date=September 10, 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921015239/https://www.politifact.com/arizona/statements/2018/sep/10/martha-mcsally/did-arizonas-kyrsten-sinema-protest-troops-pink-tu/|archive-date=September 21, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> She also opposed the war in Afghanistan at the time.<ref name="hill" /> She supported the [[Gulf War]].<ref name="hill" /> In 2006, she said she opposed "war in all its forms".<ref name=":1" /> After joining Congress in 2012, Sinema said that her views on military force had evolved, and that "you should never take military intervention off the table. When you do so, you give an out to a rogue nation or rogue actors."<ref name=":1" /> Josh Lederman of ''[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]'' reported that "she said she favors aggressive diplomacy, crippling sanctions to combat proliferation, and swift, multilateral intervention as a last resort".<ref name=":1" /><ref name="hill"/> She supports the use of military force to stop genocide, such as in Sudan, Somalia and Rwanda.<ref name=":1" /> She wrote a doctoral dissertation on the 1994 [[Rwandan genocide]] that Lexington Books published in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kjzz.org/content/7041/new-congresswomans-dissertation-genocide|title=A New Congresswoman's Dissertation On Genocide|date=December 27, 2012|website=KJZZ|language=en|access-date=September 21, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921034308/https://kjzz.org/content/7041/new-congresswomans-dissertation-genocide|archive-date=September 21, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://catalog.princeton.edu/catalog/9244955|title=Who must die in Rwanda's genocide? : The state of exception realized |first=Kyrsten |last=Sinema |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield|Lantham: Lexington Books]] |language=en|access-date=September 21, 2018 |isbn=9781498518642}}</ref>

After the [[September 11 attacks]] on the United States, Sinema was involved in organizing a Phoenix-area group called the Arizona Alliance for Peaceful Justice (AAPJ). According to Lederman, "The group's mission statement at the time called military action 'an inappropriate response to terrorism' and advocated for using the legal system{{snd}} not violence{{snd}} to bring [[Osama bin Laden]] and others to justice."<ref name="hill"/> Sinema wrote: "As one of the core organizers against the war from day one (September 12, 2001), I have always and will always continue to oppose war in all its forms."<ref name="hill">{{cite news|last=Lederman|first=Josh|title=Candidate's stance on Afghan, Iraq wars faces scrutiny in Dem primary|url=http://thehill.com/blogs/ballot-box/dem-primaries/224919-candidates-stance-on-afghan-iraq-wars-faces-scrutiny-in-dem-primary|accessdate=March 19, 2014|website=The Hill|date=May 2, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320040517/http://thehill.com/blogs/ballot-box/dem-primaries/224919-candidates-stance-on-afghan-iraq-wars-faces-scrutiny-in-dem-primary|archive-date=March 20, 2014|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

On September 15, 2018, [[CNN]] reported that Sinema, as an antiwar activist in the years after [[9/11]], "led a group that distributed flyers depicting an American soldier as a skeleton inflicting 'U.S. terror' in Iraq and the Middle East." The flyers "promoted a February 2003 rally organized by Local to Global Justice, an anti-war group Sinema co-founded". Sinema was described in news reports as an organizer and sponsor of the rally and was "listed as the point of contact for the event". One flyer referred to "Bush and his fascist, imperialist war", saying, "Government is slavery", and describing laws as "cobwebs for the rich and chains of steel for the poor". CNN said that such positions were "a contrast from the more moderate profile she has developed since her 2012 election to Congress".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kaczynski |first1=Andrew |last2=Massie |first2=Christopher |title=Arizona Senate: Kyrsten Sinema's anti-war group blasted 'U.S. terror', depicted soldier as skeleton in 2003 flyers |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/09/15/politics/kfile-sinema-flyers/index.html |website=CNN |accessdate=October 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925150140/https://edition.cnn.com/2018/09/15/politics/kfile-sinema-flyers/index.html |archive-date=September 25, 2018 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

In October 2018, CNN reported on Sinema's "past ties to far-left groups" and "extensive past as a progressive activist", writing that "Her events and associations in opposing the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan – and her early years as a Democratic lawmaker in Arizona – frequently brought her into contact with the left-wing fringe." In 2005 and 2006, she co-hosted an [[Air America (radio network)|Air America]] radio show with [[9/11 Truth movement|9/11 truther]] [[Jeff Farias]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kaczynski |first1=Andrew |last2=Massie |first2=Chris |title=Kyrsten Sinema's anti-war activist past under scrutiny as she runs for Senate |url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/10/12/politics/kfile-kyrsten-sinema-activist-past/index.html?no-st=1539827650 |accessdate=October 18, 2018 |website=CNN |date=October 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018082717/https://www.cnn.com/2018/10/12/politics/kfile-kyrsten-sinema-activist-past/index.html?no-st=1539827650 |archive-date=October 18, 2018 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

===Guns===
Sinema favors [[gun control]] measures such as requiring background checks on gun sales between private citizens at gun shows, and requiring a license for gun possession.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ontheissues.org/house/Kyrsten_Sinema_Gun_Control.htm|title=Kyrsten Sinema on Gun Control |website=On the Issues |access-date=February 11, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910085832/http://ontheissues.org/House/Kyrsten_Sinema_Gun_Control.htm|archive-date=September 10, 2016|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> In 2016 the [[National Rifle Association]] (NRA), which opposes gun regulations, gave Sinema a 29% rating.<ref name=":0" /> The Gun Owners of America (GOA) have given her a "D" rating.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gunowners.org/house-gun-votes-2018.htm|title=house-gun-votes|website=www.gunowners.org|access-date=July 26, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726170134/https://www.gunowners.org/house-gun-votes-2018.htm|archive-date=July 26, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> In 2018, the NRA gave Sinema a 33% score and GOA gave her a 17% rating.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://votesmart.org/candidate/evaluations/28338/kyrsten-sinema#.W_OSdZNKg9c|title=The Voter's Self Defense System|website=Vote Smart|language=en-US|access-date=2018-11-20}}</ref>

===Health care===
Sinema voted against repealing the [[Affordable Care Act]],<ref>{{cite web|title=GovTrack|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/113-2013/h154|accessdate=March 28, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221190226/https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/113-2013/h154|archive-date=February 21, 2014|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> but has called for reforms to the law.<ref>{{cite news|author=Kyrsten Sinema|title=Affordable Care Act needs fixes to address costs|newspaper=The Arizona Republic|url=http://www.azcentral.com/opinions/articles/20130901affordable-care-act-fixes-address.html|date=September 1, 2013}}</ref> In a 2012 congressional campaign debate, she said the health care law wasn't perfect, and that in Congress she would work to amend it to make it work effectively.<ref>{{cite web|title=2012 Congressional Debate|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGGqB4HJIJY|accessdate=March 30, 2014|publisher=Arizona PBS|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109064645/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGGqB4HJIJY|archive-date=January 9, 2015|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Sinema voted to delay the imposition of fines on those who did not purchase insurance in 2014. She also voted to repeal the Medical Device Tax and for the Keep Your Health Plan Act of 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=GovTrack|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/113-2013/h363|accessdate=March 28, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413141941/https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/113-2013/h363|archive-date=April 13, 2014|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=New York Times|url=https://politics.nytimes.com/congress/votes/113/house/1/497|accessdate=March 30, 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413132430/https://politics.nytimes.com/congress/votes/113/house/1/497|archivedate=April 13, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Gov Track|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/113-2013/h587|accessdate=March 30, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413140334/https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/113-2013/h587|archive-date=April 13, 2014|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Speaking about healthcare policy, Sinema said, "I used to say that I wanted universal health-care coverage in Arizona, which went over like a ton of bricks. Turns out, Arizonans hear the word 'universal' and think 'socialism'—or 'pinko commie'. But when I say that I want all Arizonans to have access to affordable, quality health care, Arizonans agree wholeheartedly. Same basic idea, different language."<ref>{{cite web|title=Kyrsten Sinema on Health Care|url=http://www.ontheissues.org/house/Kyrsten_Sinema_Health_Care.htm |website=On the Issues |accessdate=March 19, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320174005/http://www.ontheissues.org/house/Kyrsten_Sinema_Health_Care.htm|archive-date=March 20, 2014|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

===Immigration===
[[File:Kyrsten Sinema at SB1070 protest.jpg|thumb|right|State Representative Kyrsten Sinema attending a protest at the [[Arizona State Capitol]] on the day of the SB 1070's signing|alt=A woman in her thirties with fairly short blond hair, wearing sunglasses and a beige and pink top, is surrounded by a crowd.]]

Sinema co-sponsored the Southwest Border Security Threat Assessment Act (H.R. 4482), a bill that calls for border threat analysis of terrorism, smuggling, and human trafficking every five years.<ref name="ontheissues" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Sinema-Supported Legislation to Secure Our Borders Passes House |url=https://sinema.house.gov/latest-news/sinema-supported-legislation-to-secure-our-borders-passes-house1/ |accessdate=June 22, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622084234/https://sinema.house.gov/latest-news/sinema-supported-legislation-to-secure-our-borders-passes-house1/ |archive-date=June 22, 2018 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

Sinema was one of 24 House Democrats to vote in favor of [[Kate's Law]],<ref>{{USBill|115|H.R.|3004}}.</ref> a bill that would expand maximum sentences for foreigners who attempt to reenter the country, legally or illegally, after having been deported, denied entry or removed, and for foreign felons who attempt to reenter the country.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://thehill.com/latino/341064-dem-support-for-kates-law-angers-latino-group|title=Dem support for 'Kate's Law' angers Latino group|author=Bernal, Rafael|work=The Hill|date=July 9, 2017|access-date=December 17, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180113035607/http://thehill.com/latino/341064-dem-support-for-kates-law-angers-latino-group|archive-date=January 13, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Sinema voted for the [[American SAFE Act of 2015|SAFE Act]], which expanded the [[refugee]] screening process to require signatures from the [[Secretary of Homeland Security]], the [[Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation]], and the [[Director of National Intelligence]] for each refugee entering the country.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sanders|first1=Rebekah|title=Kyrsten Sinema's surprising vote on Syrian refugees|url=http://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/immigration/2015/11/19/kyrsten-sinemas-surprising-vote-syrian-refugees/76066450/|website=azcentral|accessdate=November 22, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=H.R.4038 – American SAFE Act of 2015|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/4038|website=Congress.gov|accessdate=November 22, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122163811/https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/4038|archive-date=November 22, 2015|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Sinema opposed [[Arizona SB 1070]]. She has argued that mass deportation of undocumented immigrants is not an option and supported the [[DREAM Act]]. Her 2012 campaign website stated that "we need to create a tough but fair path to citizenship for undocumented workers that requires them to get right with the law by paying back taxes, paying a fine and learning English as a condition of gaining citizenship."<ref name="ontheissues">{{cite web|url=http://www.ontheissues.org/House/Kyrsten_Sinema_Immigration.htm|title=Kyrsten Sinema on Immigration |website=On the Issues |accessdate=August 4, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804214109/http://www.ontheissues.org/House/Kyrsten_Sinema_Immigration.htm|archive-date=August 4, 2017|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> In July 2018, she broke with her party by voting with Republicans against abolishing [[U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement|ICE]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/arizona/2018/07/18/kyrsten-sinema-sides-house-republicans-support-embattled-ice/798626002/|title=Rep. Kyrsten Sinema sides with House Republicans to support embattled ICE agency|work=azcentral|access-date=July 20, 2018|language=en}}</ref>

The [[Federation for American Immigration Reform]], a PAC that seeks to limit both legal and illegal immigration, gave Sinema a 33% rating in 2018, and [[UnidosUS]], which supports a pathway to citizenship for undocumented immigrants, gave Sinema a score of 88% in 2014.<ref name=":3" />

===Privacy===
In June 2013, Sinema became one of 29 original cosponsors of the bipartisan LIBERT-E (Limiting Internet and Blanket Electronic Review of Telecommunications and Email) Act, along with Representative [[Justin Amash]]. The legislation would limit the [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) to only collecting electronic information from subjects of an investigation.<ref>{{cite web|title=H.R.2399 – LIBERT-E Act, 113th Congress (2013-2014)|work=[[Thomas.gov]]|url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d113:HR02399:@@@P|accessdate=March 30, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703183753/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d113:HR02399:@@@P|archive-date=July 3, 2016|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

In July 2013, Sinema joined a bipartisan majority and voted against an amendment to a defense appropriations bill (offered by Amash) to prohibit the NSA from monitoring and recording details of U.S. citizens' telecommunications without a warrant.<ref>{{cite web|title=House Vote 412 – Rejects Limits on N.S.A. Data Collection|url=https://politics.nytimes.com/congress/votes/113/house/1/412 |newspaper=The New York Times|accessdate=March 20, 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320023424/https://politics.nytimes.com/congress/votes/113/house/1/412|archivedate=March 20, 2014}}</ref>

===Telecommunications===
In 2016, Sinema was one of just five House Democrats to vote for a Republican-backed bill barring the [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) from regulating [[broadband]] rates. Her vote broke from her party; other Democrats were strongly opposed to the measure, and President Obama said he would veto it if it passed.<ref>Kevin Carty, [https://morningconsult.com/alert/house-passes-bill-barring-fcc-regulating-broadband-rates/ Passes Bill Barring FCC From Regulating Broadband Rates] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214184737/https://morningconsult.com/alert/house-passes-bill-barring-fcc-regulating-broadband-rates/# |date=February 14, 2017 }}, [[Morning Consult]] (April 15, 2016).</ref>

==Personal life==
Sinema married, and later divorced, her BYU classmate Blake Dain.<ref name="sanders gas">Sanders, Rebekah L. "[https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/arizona/politics/2016/01/30/congresswoman-who-grew-up-gas-station/79206952/ The congresswoman who grew up in a gas station]". ''The Arizona Republic''. Retrieved 7 July 2018.</ref>

On November 17, 2013, Sinema completed an [[Ironman Triathlon]] in a little more than 15 hours. Sinema was the second active member of Congress—behind Senator [[Jeff Merkley]]—to finish a long distance [[triathlon]], and the first to complete an Ironman-branded race.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kopan|first=Tal|title=Rep. Kyrsten Sinema finishes Ironman|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2013/11/kyrsten-sinema-ironman-competition-99979.html|website=Politico|accessdate=December 4, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122200719/http://www.politico.com/story/2013/11/kyrsten-sinema-ironman-competition-99979.html|archive-date=November 22, 2013|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> On December 25, 2013, Sinema summited [[Mount Kilimanjaro]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ultimatekilimanjaro.com/news.htm#sinema|title=Climb Kilimanjaro |work=Ultimate Kilimanjaro News and Notes |accessdate=August 4, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803081521/http://ultimatekilimanjaro.com/news.htm#sinema#sinema|archive-date=August 3, 2017|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Sinema has been reported to be the only [[Nontheism|non-theist]] (non-religious) member of Congress,<ref>{{cite news|last=Susskind|first=Jane|title=Religious Diversity in Congress, A Year of 'Firsts'|url=http://ivn.us/2012/11/16/religious-diversity-in-congress-a-year-of-firsts|accessdate=May 26, 2014|website=Independent Voter Network|date=November 16, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527221542/http://ivn.us/2012/11/16/religious-diversity-in-congress-a-year-of-firsts/|archive-date=May 27, 2014|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Kimberly Winston|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/08/kyrsten-sinema-arizona-democrat-atheist-in-congress_n_2091164.html|title=Kyrsten Sinema, Arizona Democrat, To Replace Pete Stark As Sole Atheist In Congress|access-date=November 8, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109092209/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/08/kyrsten-sinema-arizona-democrat-atheist-in-congress_n_2091164.html|archive-date=November 9, 2012|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref> although she herself has rejected such labels.<ref name="NYTimesLabels">{{cite news|first=Mark|last=Oppenheimer|title=Politicians Who Reject Labels Based on Religion|date=November 9, 2012|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/10/us/politics/politicians-who-speak-of-religion-in-unaccustomed-ways.html|accessdate=November 28, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121203062329/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/10/us/politics/politicians-who-speak-of-religion-in-unaccustomed-ways.html|archive-date=December 3, 2012|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}} Sinema's campaign stated that "the terms ''[[non-theist]]'', ''[[atheist]]'' or ''[[nonbeliever]]'' are not befitting of her life's work or personal character".</ref>

She has credited the government, her church, her teachers, and her family for helping her climb out of poverty.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Robillard|first1=Kevin|last2=Caygle|first2=Heather|title=Democratic Rep. Sinema launches Arizona senate bid|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2017/09/28/kyrsten-sinema-launches-arizona-senate-bid-243278|accessdate=January 18, 2018|website=Politico|date=September 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109191245/https://www.politico.com/story/2017/09/28/kyrsten-sinema-launches-arizona-senate-bid-243278|archive-date=November 9, 2017|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

In January 2018, a New York man was arrested and charged with [[stalking]] Sinema.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Graef|first1=Aileen|title=Man arrested at Rep. Kyrsten Sinema's office on suspicion of stalking|url=http://www.cnn.com/2018/01/16/politics/kyrsten-sinema-suspected-stalker/index.html|accessdate=January 18, 2018|website=[[CNN]] |date=January 16, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117163945/http://www.cnn.com/2018/01/16/politics/kyrsten-sinema-suspected-stalker/index.html|archive-date=January 17, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Stancy Correll|first1=Diana|title=Man charged with stalking Rep. Kyrsten Sinema after appearing outside her DC office|url=http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/man-charged-with-stalking-rep-kyrsten-sinema-after-appearing-outside-her-dc-office/article/2646107|accessdate=January 18, 2018|website=Washington Examiner|date=January 16, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180118191126/http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/man-charged-with-stalking-rep-kyrsten-sinema-after-appearing-outside-her-dc-office/article/2646107|archive-date=January 18, 2018|dead-url=no|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Sinema has been the first openly bisexual member of the U.S. House of Representatives, the first openly bisexual person elected to the U.S. Senate, and the first woman elected as a U.S. Senator from Arizona.<ref name="Kyrsten Sinema"/><ref>https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/kyrsten-sinema-makes-history-first-bisexual-member-u-s-senate-n935816</ref>

==Electoral history==
{{BLP sources section|date=November 2018}}

=== 2002 ===
{{Election box begin no change |title=Arizona House of Representatives, 15th District: Election, 2002 }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = Ken Clark
| votes = 10,873
| percentage = 30.24%
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = Wally Straughn
| votes = 8,109
| percentage = 22.55%
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| party = Republican Party (United States)
| candidate = Milton Wheat
| votes = 7,163
| percentage = 19.92%
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| party = Republican Party (United States)
| candidate = William Wheat
| votes = 6,868
|percentage = 19.10%
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| party = Independent (United States)
| candidate = Kyrsten Sinema
| votes = 2,945
| percentage = 8.19%
}}
{{election box end}}

=== 2004 ===
{{Election box begin no change |title=Arizona House of Representatives, 15th District: Primary Election, 2004 }}
{{election box winning candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = Kyrsten Sinema
| votes = 3,475
| percentage = 36.94%
}}
{{election box winning candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = David Lujan
| votes = 3,205
| percentage = 34.07%
}}
{{election box candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = Wally Straughn
| votes =2,726
| percentage = 28.98%
}}
{{election box end}}

{{Election box begin no change |title=Arizona House of Representatives, 15th District: General Election, 2004 }}
{{election box winning candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = David Lujan
| votes = 19,999
| percentage = 31.12%
}}
{{election box winning candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = Kyrsten Sinema
| votes = 19,402
| percentage = 30.19%
}}
{{election box candidate with party link no change
| party = Republican Party (United States)
| candidate = Oksana Komarnyckyj
| votes = 12,299
| percentage = 19.14%
}}
{{election box candidate with party link no change
| party = Republican Party (United States)
| candidate = Tara Roesler
| votes = 12,565
|percentage = 19.55%
}}
{{election box end}}

=== 2006 ===
{{Election box begin no change |title=Arizona House of Representatives, 15th District: Primary Election, 2006 }}
{{election box winning candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = Kyrsten Sinema
| votes = 3,590
| percentage = 42.31%
}}
{{election box winning candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = David Lujan
| votes = 3,571
| percentage = 42.09%
}}
{{election box candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = Robert Young
| votes = 1,323
| percentage = 15.59%
}}
{{election box end}}

{{Election box begin no change |title=Arizona House of Representatives, 15th District: General Election, 2006 }}
{{election box winning candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = David Lujan
| votes = 15,951
| percentage = 33.12%
}}
{{election box winning candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = Kyrsten Sinema
| votes = 15,723
| percentage = 32.64%
}}
{{election box candidate with party link no change
| party = Republican Party (United States)
| candidate = Robert Gear
| votes = 7,689
| percentage = 15.96%
}}
{{election box candidate with party link no change
| party = Republican Party (United States)
| candidate = William Wheat
| votes = 7,305
| percentage = 15.17%
}}
{{election box candidate with party link no change
| party = Libertarian Party (United States)
| candidate = Richard Buck
| votes = 1,499
| percentage = 3.11%
}}
{{election box end}}

=== 2008 ===
{{Election box begin no change |title=Arizona House of Representatives, 15th District: General Election, 2008 }}
{{election box winning candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = David Lujan
| votes = 23,781
| percentage = 40.06%
}}
{{election box winning candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = Kyrsten Sinema
| votes = 22,721
| percentage = 38.28%
}}
{{election box candidate with party link no change
| party = Republican Party (United States)
| candidate = Ed Hedges
| votes = 12,860
|percentage = 21.66%
}}
{{election box end}}

===2010===
{{Election box begin no change |title = Arizona Senate, 15th District: General Election, 2010<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.azsos.gov/election/2010/General/Canvass2010GE.pdf |title=State of Arizona Official Canvass |work= Arizona Office of the Secretary of State |date=November 29, 2010 |accessdate=January 4, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920230737/http://azsos.gov/election/2010/General/Canvass2010GE.pdf |archivedate=September 20, 2013 }}</ref> }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link no change
|party = Democratic Party (United States)
|candidate = Kyrsten Sinema
|votes = 18,013
|percentage = 62.82%
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
|party = Republican Party (United States)
|candidate = Bob Thomas
|votes = 10,663
|percentage = 37.18%
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2012===
{{Election box begin no change |title=[[Leah Campos Schandlbauer|Arizona's 9th Congressional District: Primary Election, 2012]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = Kyrsten Sinema
| votes = 15,536
| percentage = 40.78%
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = David Schapira
| votes = 11,419
| percentage = 29.97%
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = Andrei Cherny
| votes = 11,146
| percentage = 29.25%
}}
{{election box end}}

{{Election box begin no change |title=[[Leah Campos Schandlbauer|Arizona's 9th Congressional District: General Election, 2012]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.azsos.gov/election/2012/General/Canvass2012GE.pdf |title=State of Arizona Official Canvass |work= Arizona Office of the Secretary of State |date=December 3, 2012 |accessdate=January 4, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112235642/http://www.azsos.gov/election/2012/General/Canvass2012GE.pdf |archivedate=November 12, 2013 |df= }}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link no change
|party = Democratic Party (United States)
|candidate = Kyrsten Sinema
|votes = 121,881
|percentage = 48.73%
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
|party = Republican Party (United States)
|candidate = [[Vernon Parker]]
|votes = 111,630
|percentage = 44.63%
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
|party = Libertarian Party (United States)
|candidate = Powell E. Gammill
|votes = 16,620
|percentage = 6.64%
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2014===
{{Election box begin no change
| title = Arizona's 9th Congressional District: General Election, 2014<ref name="generalresults">{{cite web |url=http://results.enr.clarityelections.com/AZ/53314/149513/Web01/en/summary.html |title=General Elections |publisher=Arizona Secretary of State |date=November 4, 2014 |accessdate=November 20, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141123223306/http://results.enr.clarityelections.com/AZ/53314/149513/Web01/en/summary.html |archive-date=November 23, 2014 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link no change
| candidate = Kyrsten Sinema
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| votes = 88,609
| percentage = 54.60
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = [[Wendy Rogers]]
| party = Republican Party (United States)
| votes = 67,841
| percentage = 41.81
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = Powell Gammill
| party = Libertarian Party (United States)
| votes = 5,612
| percentage = 3.46
}}
{{Election box candidate no change
| candidate =
| party = Write-ins
| votes = 211
| percentage = 0.13
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2016===
{{Election box begin no change | title=Arizona's 9th Congressional District: General Election, 2016<ref>{{cite news |url=http://results.arizona.vote/2016/General/n1591/Results-State.html |title=2016 General Election Unofficial Results |date=November 8, 2016 |accessdate=January 4, 2017 |website=azsos.gov |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117133459/http://results.arizona.vote/2016/General/n1591/Results-State.html |archive-date=January 17, 2017 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link no change
|party = Democratic Party (United States)
|candidate = Kyrsten Sinema (Incumbent)
|votes = 169,055
|percentage = 60.95
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
|party = Republican Party (United States)
|candidate = Dave Giles
|votes = 108,350
|percentage = 39.06
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2018===
{{Election box begin | title=United States Senate election in Arizona, 2018<ref name=asosnot>{{cite web|url=https://results.arizona.vote/#/featured/4/0/|title=2018 General Election|accessdate=November 8, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915120907/https://results.arizona.vote/#/featured/4/0/#/featured/4/0/|archive-date=September 15, 2018|dead-url=no|df=}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| candidate = Kyrsten Sinema
| votes = 1,191,100
| percentage = 49.97%
| change = +3.77%
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Republican Party (United States)|candidate=[[Martha McSally]]|votes=1,135,200|percentage=47.62%|change=-1.61%}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Green Party (United States)|candidate=Angela Green (withdrawn)|votes=57,442|percentage=2.41%|change=N/A}}
{{Election box total
| votes = '''2,383,742'''
| percentage = '''100.0%'''
| change = N/A
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography}}
* [[List of LGBT members of the United States Congress]]
* [[Women in the United States House of Representatives]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.sinema.senate.gov/ U.S. Senator Kyrsten Sinema] official U.S. Senate website
*[http://kyrstensinema.com Kyrsten Sinema for U.S. Senate]
*{{Dmoz|Regional/North_America/United_States/Arizona/Government/Federal/US_House_of_Representatives/Kyrsten_Sinema_%5BD-9%5D }}
*{{C-SPAN|Kyrsten Sinema 02}}
*[http://www.azleg.gov/MembersPage.asp?Member_ID=15&Legislature=50&Session_ID=102 Kyrsten Sinema] official Arizona Senate website (archived)

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|us-hs}}
{{s-new|constituency}}
{{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[List of United States Representatives from Arizona|U.S. House of Representatives]] from [[Arizona's 9th congressional district]]|years=2013–2019}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Greg Stanton]]}}
|-
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Richard Carmona]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] nominee for [[United States Senator|U.S. Senator]] from [[Arizona]] ([[Classes of United States Senators|Class 1]])|years=[[United States Senate election in Arizona, 2018|2018]]}}
{{s-inc|recent}}
|-
{{s-par|us-sen}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Jeff Flake]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of United States Senators from Arizona|U.S. Senator (Class 1) from Arizona]]|years=2019–present|alongside=[[Martha McSally]]}}
{{s-inc}}
|-
{{s-prec|usa}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Marsha Blackburn]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Seniority in the United States Senate|United States Senators by seniority]]|years=93rd}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Kevin Cramer]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{USSenAZ}}
{{Current Arizona statewide political officials}}
{{Current U.S. Senators}}
{{AZ-FedRep}}
{{USCongRep-start|congresses= 113th–116th [[United States Congress]]es |state=[[Arizona]]}}
{{USCongRep/AZ/113}}
{{USCongRep/AZ/114}}
{{USCongRep/AZ/115}}
{{USCongRep/AZ/116}}
{{USCongRep-end}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sinema, Kyrsten}}
[[Category:1976 births]]
[[Category:21st-century American politicians]]
[[Category:21st-century American women politicians]]
[[Category:American former Christians]]
[[Category:American people of Dutch descent]]
[[Category:American people of Frisian descent]]
[[Category:American social workers]]
[[Category:American women academics]]
[[Category:American women lawyers]]
[[Category:Arizona Democrats]]
[[Category:Arizona Greens]]
[[Category:Arizona lawyers]]
[[Category:Arizona state senators]]
[[Category:Arizona State University faculty]]
[[Category:ASU College of Public Service & Community Solutions alumni]]
[[Category:Bisexual politicians]]
[[Category:Bisexual women]]
[[Category:Brigham Young University alumni]]
[[Category:Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives]]
[[Category:Female members of the United States House of Representatives]]
[[Category:Female United States Senators]]
[[Category:Former Latter Day Saints]]
[[Category:Lawyers from Tucson, Arizona]]
[[Category:LGBT members of the United States Congress]]
[[Category:LGBT academics]]
[[Category:LGBT state legislators in Arizona]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Members of the Arizona House of Representatives]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Arizona]]
[[Category:Politicians from Phoenix, Arizona]]
[[Category:Politicians from Tucson, Arizona]]
[[Category:Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law alumni]]
[[Category:United States Senators from Arizona]]
[[Category:Women state legislators in Arizona]]