Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Domingo Paes

2013-04-27T06:31:33Z

Avihu:

'''Domingos Paes''' (16th cent.) was a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] traveller who visited the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] around the year 1520. His account of [[Hampi]], the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire is of the most detailed of all historic narrations on this ancient city. He visited the city during the rule of king [[Krishna Deva Raya]].

==References==
* Robert Sewell, Fernão Nunes, Domingos Paes, "A forgotten empire:
Vijayanagar; a contribution to the history of India" (Inclui uma
tradução da "Chronica dos reis de Bisnaga," de Domingos Paes e [[Fernao
Nuniz|Fernão Nunes]] cerca de 1520 e 1535 respectivamente), Adamant
Media Corporation, 1982, ISB43925889
* Radhakamal Mukerjee, "A history of Indian civilization", Hind Kitabs,
1958 (refere Paes)
* H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy, R. Ramakrishnan, "A history of Karnataka,
from the earliest times to the present day", S. Chand, 1977

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Paes, Domingo
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1.1.2
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Paes, Domingo}}
[[Category:Portuguese explorers]]
[[Category:Portuguese Renaissance writers]]
[[Category:Portuguese travel writers]]
[[Category:Vijayanagara Empire]]
[[Category:16th-century explorers]]
[[Category:Explorers of Asia]]
[[Category:16th-century Portuguese people]]

{{Portugal-bio-stub}}

Domingo Paes

2013-04-27T06:31:04Z

Avihu: Minor edit

'''Domingos Paes''' (16th cent.) was a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] traveller who visited the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] around the year 1520 .His account of [[Hampi]], the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire is of the most detailed of all historic narrations on this ancient city. He visited the city during the rule of king [[Krishna Deva Raya]].

==References==
* Robert Sewell, Fernão Nunes, Domingos Paes, "A forgotten empire:
Vijayanagar; a contribution to the history of India" (Inclui uma
tradução da "Chronica dos reis de Bisnaga," de Domingos Paes e [[Fernao
Nuniz|Fernão Nunes]] cerca de 1520 e 1535 respectivamente), Adamant
Media Corporation, 1982, ISB43925889
* Radhakamal Mukerjee, "A history of Indian civilization", Hind Kitabs,
1958 (refere Paes)
* H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy, R. Ramakrishnan, "A history of Karnataka,
from the earliest times to the present day", S. Chand, 1977

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Paes, Domingo
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1.1.2
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Paes, Domingo}}
[[Category:Portuguese explorers]]
[[Category:Portuguese Renaissance writers]]
[[Category:Portuguese travel writers]]
[[Category:Vijayanagara Empire]]
[[Category:16th-century explorers]]
[[Category:Explorers of Asia]]
[[Category:16th-century Portuguese people]]

{{Portugal-bio-stub}}

Gneiss

2013-04-23T18:38:47Z

Avihu: /* Gneissic banding */ typo

{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Gneiss.jpg
| width1 = 231
| caption1 = Gneiss rock
| image2 = Augen-gneiss-2.jpg
| width2 = 173
| caption2 = Augen gneiss from [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Brazil]]
| image3 = Granitic_gneiss.jpg
| width3 = 173
| caption3 = Granitic gneiss from Enfield, New York
}}
'''Gneiss''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|n|aɪ|s}}) is a common and widely distributed type of [[Rock (geology)|rock]] formed by high-grade regional [[metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] processes from pre-existing formations that were originally either [[igneous rock|igneous]] or [[sedimentary rock]]s. It is [[Foliation (geology)|foliated]] (composed of layers of sheet-like [[plane (geometry)|planar]] structures). The foliations are characterized by alternating darker and lighter colored bands, called "gneissic banding".

==Etymology==
The etymology of the word "gneiss" is disputed. Some sources say it comes from the [[Middle High German]] [[verb]] {{lang|gmh|''gneist''}} (to spark; so called because the rock glitters). It has occurred in [[English language|English]] since at least 1757.<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=gneiss&searchmode=none Online Etymology Dictionary]</ref>

Other sources claim the root to be an old [[Saxony|Saxon]] mining term that seems to have meant decayed, rotten or possibly worthless material.

==Composition==

Gneissic rocks are usually medium- to coarse-[[Foliation (geology)|foliated]] and are largely [[Recrystallization (geology)|recrystallized]] but do not carry large quantities of [[mica]]s, [[Chlorite group|chlorite]] or other platy [[mineral]]s. Gneisses that are metamorphosed igneous rocks or their equivalent are termed [[granite]] gneisses, [[diorite]] gneisses, etc. Depending on their composition, they may also be called [[garnet]] gneiss, [[biotite]] gneiss, [[albite]] gneiss, etc.

===Gneissic banding===
Gneiss appears to be striped in bands, called ''gneissic banding''.<ref name=EG>Essentials of Geology, 3rd Ed, Stephen Marshak</ref>
The banding is developed under high temperature and pressure conditions.

The minerals are arranged into layers which appear to be bands, when the rock is broken and viewed from the side (in cross section).<ref name= EG/> This is because of a different composition of each layer, or band, called ''compositional banding''. The darker bands have relatively more [[mafic]] minerals (those containing relatively more magnesium - [[Mg]], and iron [[Fe]]). The lighter bands contain relatively more [[felsic]] minerals ([[silicate]]s, containing relatively more of the lighter elements, such as silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, and potassium).

A common cause of the banding forms when the [[protolith]] (the original rock material that undergoes metamorphism) is subject to extreme shearing forces (a sliding force similar to when the top of a deck of cards is pushed in one direction, and the bottom of the deck in the other direction).<ref name=EG/> These forces stretch out the rock like a [[plastic]], and the original material is smeared out into sheets.

Some banding is caused by being formed from original rock material (protolith) that gets subject to extreme temperature and pressure was composed of alternativng beds of layers of [[sandstone]] (lighter) and [[shale]] (darker), which is metamorphosed into bands of [[quartzite]] and [[mica]].<ref name=EG/>

Another cause of banding is "[[metamorphic differentiation]]", where chemical reactions separate different materials into different layers, a process not fully understood.<ref name=EG/>

==Types==
''Orthogneiss'' designates a gneiss derived from an igneous rock, and ''paragneiss'' is one from a sedimentary rock. ''Gneissose'' is used to describe rocks with properties similar to gneiss.

===Lewisian===
Most of the [[Outer Hebrides]] of Scotland have a bedrock formed from [[Lewisian complex|Lewisian gneiss]]. These are amongst the oldest rocks in Europe and some of the oldest in the world, having been formed in the [[Precambrian]] "super-eon", up to 3 billion years ago. In addition to the Outer Hebrides, they form basement deposits on the Scottish mainland west of the [[Moine Thrust Belt|Moine Thrust]] and on the islands of [[Coll]] and [[Tiree]].<ref>Gillen (2003) page 44.</ref> These rocks are largely igneous in origin, mixed with metamorphosed [[marble]], [[quartzite]] and [[mica schist]] and intruded by later basaltic [[Dyke (geology)|dykes]] and granite magma.<ref>McKirdy ''et al.'' (2007) page 95.</ref> The gneiss's delicate pink colours are exposed throughout the islands.<ref>Murray (1966) p. 2</ref>

===Augen gneiss===
[[Augen]] gneiss, from the {{lang-de|Augen}} {{IPA-de|ˈaʊɡən|}}, meaning "eyes", is a coarse-grained gneiss, interpreted as resulting from metamorphism of granite, which contains characteristic elliptic or [[Lens (geology)|lenticular]] shear bound feldspar [[porphyroclast]]s, normally [[microcline]], within the layering of the quartz, biotite and magnetite bands.

===Archean and Proterozoic gneiss===
Archean and Proterozoic gneisses appear in [[Scandinavia]] (the [[Baltic Shield]]).

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
Image:GneissBoulderOsmussaar.jpg|Boulder of gneissic [[breccia]] on Osmussaar, Estonia, apparently thrown there by the [[Neugrund]] impact
Image:Study of Gneiss Rock.jpg|Study of Gneiss Rock, [[Glenfinlas]], the [[Trossachs]], [[Scotland]]. A pen and ink study by [[John Ruskin]], 1853, is now in the [[Ashmolean Museum]], [[Oxford]].
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[List of rock types]]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==

* Blatt, Harvey and Robert J. Tracy (1996). ''Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic'', 2nd ed. Freeman, pp. 359–365. ISBN 0-7167-2438-3.
* Gillen, Con (2003). ''Geology and landscapes of Scotland''. Harpenden. Terra Publishing. ISBN 1-903544-09-2.
* McKirdy, Alan Gordon, John & Crofts, Roger (2007). ''Land of Mountain and Flood: The Geology and Landforms of Scotland''. Edinburgh. Birlinn. ISBN 978-1-84158-357-0.
* [[W. H. Murray|Murray, W.H.]] (1966). ''The Hebrides''. London. Heinemann.

==External links==
{{commons category|Gneiss}}
*{{Cite EB1911|Gneiss}}
*{{Cite NIE|Gneiss|year=1906}}

[[Category:Gneiss|*]]
[[Category:Metamorphic petrology]]
[[Category:Metamorphic rocks]]

Prudhoe Bay Oil Field

2013-04-19T05:50:29Z

Avihu: /* Location */ minor error

{{Infobox oilfield
| name = Prudhoe Bay oil field
| location_map = Alaska
| location_map_width =
| location_map_text =
| lat_d = 70
| lat_m = 18
| lat_s = 24
| lat_NS = N
| long_d = 148
| long_m = 43
| long_s = 57
| long_EW = W
| coordinates_type = type:landmark
| coordinates_display= inline,title
| coordinates_ref =
| country = [[United States]]
| region = [[Alaska North Slope]]
| location =
| block =
| offonshore = onshore
| coordinates =
| operator = [[BP]]
| operators =
| partners = [[BP]], [[ExxonMobil]], [[ConocoPhillips Alaska]]
| image =
| caption = Prudhoe Bay oil field's location in Alaska
| discovery = March 12, 1968 by [[ARCO]] and Exxon's Prudhoe Bay State #1 well
| start_development =
| start_production = June 20, 1977
| peak_year = 1979
| peakofproduction = {{convert|1.5|Moilbbl/d|m3/d}}
| abandonment =
| oil_production_bbl/d = 660000
| oil_production_tpy =
| production_year_oil = 2010
| production_gas_mmcuft/d =
| production_gas_mmscm/d =
| production_gas_bcm/y =
| production_year_gas =
| est_oil_bbl = 25000
| est_oil_t =
| est_gas_bft = 26000
| est_gas_bcm =
| formations = [[Sadlerochit]]
}}

[[File:Caribou near Prudhoe Bay, 1973.jpg|thumb|Caribou near Prudhoe Bay, 1973]]
'''Prudhoe Bay Oil Field''' is a large [[oil field]] on [[Alaska]]'s [[Alaska North Slope|North Slope]]. It is the largest oil field in both the [[United States]] and in [[North America]], covering {{convert|213543|acre|ha}} and originally containing approximately {{convert|25|Goilbbl|m3}} of oil.<ref name="BP-PBFS">[http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/us/bp_us_english/STAGING/local_assets/downloads/a/A03_prudhoe_bay_fact_sheet.pdf Prudhoe Bay Fact Sheet]. [[BP]]. August 2006. (Adobe Acrobat *.PDF document)</ref> The amount of recoverable oil in the field is more than double that of the next largest field in the United States, the [[East Texas oil field]]. The field is operated by [[BP]]; partners are [[ExxonMobil]] and [[ConocoPhillips Alaska]].

==Location==
The field is located {{convert|400|mi|km}} north of [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] and {{convert|650|mi|km}} north of [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]], {{convert|250|mi|km}} north of the [[Arctic Circle]], and {{convert|1200|mi|km}} from the [[North Pole]].<ref name=BP-PBFS /> It is on the [[Alaska North Slope|North Slope]] and lies between the [[National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska]] to the west and the [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] to the east.
[[Image:NPRA F1lg.gif|thumb|450px|A map of northern Alaska; the dotted line shows the southern boundary of the North Slope. The National Petroleum Reserve -Alaska is to the West, the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge to the east, and Prudhoe Bay is between them. Red lines are pipelines.]]

==Leasing==

The State of Alaska owns the land and leases the area as the Prudhoe Bay Unit.<ref name=PoolList>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/current/annindex_current.html Oil and Gas Pools - Statistics Pages] Accessed April 14, 2013</ref> In the terminology that the State of Alaska uses in its leasing program, the "Prudhoe Bay Oil Field" is called the Prudhoe Bay Oil Pool.<ref name=PrudhoePool/> Oil pools within the Prudhoe Bay Unit include the following - maps showing the location of each pool are in the associated reference.

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%;"
! Pool name
! Operator
! Discovery well driller
! Discovery well start date
|-
| Aurora<ref name=AuroraPool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/current/18_Oil_Pools/Prudhoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20Aurora%20-%20Oil/1_Oil_1.htm AOGCC Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, Aurora Oil Pool]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| Mobil
| August 24, 1969
|-
| Borealis Pool<ref name=BorealisPool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/current/18_Oil_Pools/Prudhoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20Borealis%20-%20Oil/1_Oil_1.htm AOGCC Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, Borealis Oil Pool]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| Mobil
| August 8, 1969
|-
| Lisburne<ref name=LisburnePool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/current/18_Oil_Pools/Prudhoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20Lisburne%20Oil/1_Oil_1.htm AOGCC Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, Lisburne Oil Pool]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| Arco
| December 16, 1967
|-
| Midnight Sun<ref name=MidnightSunPool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/current/18_Oil_Pools/Prudhoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20Midnight%20Sun%20Oil/1_Oil_1.htm AOGCC Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, Midnight Sun Oil Pool]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| BP Exploration
| December 20, 1997
|-
| Niakuk Ivsh-SR Undef<ref name=NiakukUndefPool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/2004/Oil_Pools/Prudoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20Niak%20Iv-SR%20Undefined%20Oil/1_Oil_1.html AOGCC Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, Niakuk Ivsh-SR Undef Oil Pool]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| BP Exploration
| March 10, 2001
|-
| Niakuk<ref name=NiakukPool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/current/18_Oil_Pools/Prudhoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20Niakuk%20Oil/1_Oil_1.htm AOGCC Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, Niakuk Oil Pool]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| Sohio
| April 18, 1985
|-
| N Prudhoe Bay<ref name=NPrudhoePool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/2004/Oil_Pools/Prudoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20N%20Prudhoe%20Bay%20Oil/1_Oil_1.html AOGCC Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, N Prudhoe Bay Oil Pool]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| Arco
| April 4, 1970
|-
| Orion<ref name=OrionPool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/current/18_Oil_Pools/Prudhoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20Orion%20Schrader%20Bluff%20Oil/1_Oil_1.htm AOGCC Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, Orion Oil Pool]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| Mobil
| April 7, 1969
|-
| Polaris<ref name=PolarisPool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/current/18_Oil_Pools/Prudhoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20Polaris%20Oil/1_Oil_1.htm AOGCC Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, Polaris Oil Pool]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| BP Exploration
| August 24, 1969
|-
| Pt. McIntyre<ref name=PtMcIntyrePool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/current/18_Oil_Pools/Prudhoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20Pt%20McIntyre%20Oil/1_Oil_1.htm AOGCC Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, Pt. McIntyre Oil Pool]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| Arco / Exxon
| March 22, 1988
|-
| '''Prudhoe'''<ref name=PrudhoePool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/current/18_Oil_Pools/Prudhoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20Prudhoe%20Bay/1_Oil_1.htm AOGCC Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, Prudhoe Oil Pool]</ref>
| '''BP Exploration'''
| '''Arco'''
| '''December 19, 1967'''
|-
| PM Stump Island<ref name=PMStumpIsland>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/2004/Oil_Pools/Prudoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20PTM%20Stump%20Island%20Oil/1_Oil_1.html AOGCC Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, PM Stump Island]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| Arco / Exxon
| March 22, 1988
|-
| PM Undefined<ref name=PMUndefined>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/2004/Oil_Pools/Prudoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20PTM%20Undefined%20Oil/1_Oil_1.html AOGCC Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, PM Undefined]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| BP Exploration
| January 25, 1997
|-
| Ugnu Undefined WTRSP<ref name=UgnuUndefinedWTRSP>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/2004/Oil_Pools/Prudoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20Ugnu%20Undefined%20WTRSP/1_Oil_1.html AOGCC Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, Ugnu Undefined WTRSP]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| BP Exploration
| May 20, 2004
|-
| West Beach<ref name=WestBeachPool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/2004/Oil_Pools/Prudoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20W%20Beach%20Oil/1_Oil_1.html Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, West Beach Oil Pool]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| Arco
| July 26, 1976
|-
| W Beach Tertiary Undef WTR Pool<ref name=WestBeachPool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/2004/Oil_Pools/Prudoe%20Bay%20-%20Oil/Prudhoe%20Bay,%20W%20Beach%20TR%20Undefined%20WTRSP/1_Oil_1.html Pool Statistics, Prudhoe Bay Unit, W Beach Tertiary Undef WTR Pooll]</ref>
| BP Exploration
| Arco / Exxon
| July 22, 1976
|-
|}

==History==
Commercial oil exploration started in [[Prudhoe Bay, Alaska|Prudhoe Bay]] area in the 1960s and the field was discovered on March 12, 1968, by [[ARCO|Atlantic Richfield Company]] (ARCO) and [[Humble Oil]] (which later grew to become [[Exxon]]), with the well Prudhoe Bay State #1.<ref name=BP-PBFS /><ref name=PrudhoePool/><ref>Arthur C. Banet, Jr. U.S Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management Alaska State Office. March 1991. [http://www.blm.gov/pgdata/etc/medialib/blm/ak/aktest/ofr.Par.49987.File.dat/OFR_34.pdf Oil and Gas Development on Alaska's North Slope: Past Results and Future Prospects.] BLM-Alaska Open File Report 31.</ref> ARCO was the operating partner.<ref>Steve Quinn for Petroleum News. Vol. 16, No. 14 Week of April 03, 2011 [http://www.petroleumnews.com/pntruncate/979821951.shtml ExxonMobil in Alaska: Exxon selects Prudhoe discovery well site: Humble Oil assumed an unusually active role as Atlantic Richfield’s 50-50 partner on Alaska’s North Slope in the 1960s]</ref> Drilling sites for the discovery and confirmation wells were staked by geologist [[Marvin Mangus]]. In 1974 the State of Alaska's Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys estimated that the field held {{convert|10|Goilbbl|m3}} of oil and {{convert|26|Tcuft}} of natural gas.<ref>[http://www.dggs.dnr.state.ak.us/webpubs/dggs/aof/text/aof044.PDF Estimated Speculative Recoverable Resources of Oil and Natural Gas in Alaska]. Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys. Department of Natural Resources. State of Alaska. January 1974. (Adobe Acrobat *.PDF document)</ref> Production did not begin until June 20, 1977 when the [[Alaska Pipeline]] was completed.<ref name=BP-PBFS />

==Operations==
The field was initially operated as two separate developments, the BP Western Operating Area (WOA: Oil Rim) and the ARCO Eastern Operating Area (EOA: Gas Cap). Upon acquisition of ARCO by BP and sale of ARCO Alaska assets to Phillips Petroleum in 2000, the two operating areas were consolidated and BP became the sole operator of the field.<ref name=BP-PBFS /><ref>International Mapping on behalf of BP. [http://internationalmapping.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/BP_Alaska.swf BP in Alaska, animated map]</ref>{{rp|slide 4}}

In the field, oil is moved through pipelines from about 1000 wells, to a pumping station at the head of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline; "flow lines" carry oil from the wells to local processing centers, where they are through "transit lines" to the pumping station.<ref name=BPmap/>{{rp|slides 4a-d}}

==Production==

Cumulative North Slope oil peaked in 1989 at {{convert|2|Moilbbl/d}} (Greater Prudhoe Bay: {{convert|1.5|Moilbbl/d}}, but had fallen to {{convert|943000|oilbbl/d}} in 2005,<ref name="Bellona">{{cite web | url=http://www.bellona.no/en/energy/37733.html | title=US Republicans set to turn Alaska's Arctic National Wildlife Refuge into oilfield | work=Bellona.com | date=14 April 2005 | accessdate=2006-08-08}}</ref> while Greater Prudhoe averaged {{convert|411000|oilbbl/d}} in December, 2006 and Prudhoe itself averaged {{convert|285000|oilbbl/d}}.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.petroleumnews.com/pntruncate/218834563.shtml |title=Alaska North Slope production breaks {{convert|800000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}} barrier | work=Petroleum News | date=7 January 2007}}</ref> Total production from 1977 through 2005 was {{convert|11|Goilbbl}}.

As of August 2006, BP estimated that {{convert|2|Goilbbl}} of recoverable oil remain and can be recovered with current technology.<ref name=BP-PBFS /><ref>[http://www.rigzone.com/news/article.asp?a_id=57255 BP Plans to Pull Another 2B Barrels of Oil from Alaska's Prudhoe Bay]. Rigzone. February 22, 2008</ref>

==Associated oil fields==
[[File:Prudhoe Bay aerial FWS.jpg|thumb|Oilfield facilities at [[Prudhoe Bay]].]]
The ''Milne Point'' oil field is {{convert|35|mi|km}} west of Prudhoe Bay and the leased area, called the Milne Point Unit by the State of Alaska, includes the Kuparuk River Oil Pool,<ref name=KuparukRiverPool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/current/18_Oil_Pools/Milne%20Pt%20-%20Oil/Milne%20Point,%20Kuparuk%20River%20Oil/1_Oil_1.htm AOGCC Pool Statistics, Milne Point Unit, Kuparuk River Oil Pool]</ref> Sag River Oil Pool,<ref name=SagRiverPool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/current/18_Oil_Pools/Milne%20Pt%20-%20Oil/Milne%20Point,%20Sag%20River%20Oil/1_Oil_1.htm AOGCC Pool Statistics, Milne Point Unit, Sag River Oil Pool]</ref> and the Schrader Bluff Oil Pool.<ref name=SchraderBluffPool>Staff, Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. [http://doa.alaska.gov/ogc/annual/current/18_Oil_Pools/Milne%20Pt%20-%20Oil/Milne%20Point,%20Schrader%20Bluff%20Oil/1_Oil_1.htm AOGCC Pool Statistics, Milne Point Unit, Schrader Bluff Oil Pool]</ref>

The [[source rock]] for the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field and neighboring reserves is a potential source for [[tight oil]] and [[shale gas]]. As of 2013 mineral rights to 500,000 acres overlying the North Slope oil shale had been leased by Great Bear Petroleum whose principal is the petroleum geologist Ed Duncan.<ref name=E&E4313>{{cite news|title=SHALE OIL: Geologist's Alaska gamble could turn into America's next big shale play|url=http://www.eenews.net/public/energywire/2013/04/03/1|accessdate=April 4, 2013|newspaper=Energy Wire, E & E Publishing|date=April 3, 2013|author=Margaret Kriz Hobson}}</ref>

==Geology==
Oil, condensate and gas are produced from the [[Triassic]], [[Ivishak]] [[sandstone]]. This reservoir was deposited as a complex amalgamation of fan deltas and alluvial fans. The oil is trapped in the
[[Sadlerochit]] formation, a gravel and sandstone structure nearly {{convert|9000|ft|m}} under the surface. During the field’s early life the oilbearing sandstone in some locations was {{convert|600|ft|m}} thick. Today, the oil bearing zone's average thickness is about {{convert|60|ft|m}}.

=== Statistics ===
Statistics for the Greater Prudhoe Bay Field:<ref name=BP-PBFS />

* Discovery well: Prudhoe Bay State #1
* Discovery date: March 12, 1968
* Production start: June 20, 1977
* Total field area: {{convert|213543|acre|km2}}
* Oil production wells: 1114
* Total capacity: {{convert|25|Goilbbl|m3}}
** Produced: {{convert|11|Goilbbl|m3}}
** Total recoverable: {{convert|13|Goilbbl|m3}}
** Remaining recoverable: {{convert|2|Goilbbl|m3}}
* Peak production: {{convert|1.5|Moilbbl/d|m3/d}} (1979)
* Natural gas:
** Total: {{convert|46|Tcuft|km3|abbr=on}} (estimated)
** Recoverable: {{convert|26|Tcuft|km3|abbr=on}}
* Greater Prudhoe Bay satellite fields:
** East Operating Area (formerly ARCO)(production start date: 1977)
** West Operating Area (BP Exploration)(production start date: 1977)
** Midnight Sun (production start date: 1998)
** Aurora (production start date: 2000)
** Orion (production start date: 2002)
** Polaris (production start date: 1999)
** Borealis (production start date: 2001)
* Ownership:
** BP Exploration (Operator): 26%
** ConocoPhillips Alaska Inc.: 36%
** ExxonMobil: 36%
** Others: 2%

==March 2006 oil spill==
{{main|Prudhoe Bay oil spill}}
On March 2, 2006, a worker for BP Exploration (Alaska) discovered a [[Prudhoe Bay oil spill|large oil spill in western Prudhoe Bay]]. Up to {{convert|267,000|USgal|m3}} were spilled, making it the largest oil spill on Alaska's north slope to date.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4795866.stm | title= Alaska hit by 'massive' oil spill | publisher=''[[BBC News]]'' | date=11 March 2006 | accessdate=2006-08-08}}</ref> The spill was attributed to a pipeline rupture.

According to [http://www.king5.com/business/stories/NW_110308ENV_epa_alaska_spill_folo_SW.1797aa4f2.html King 5], BP paid a $20 million fine for the spill. On November 3, 2008, BP issued a response to [http://www.king5.com/business/stories/NW_110308ENV_epa_alaska_spill_folo_SW.1797aa4f2.html King 5] the report stating that they "had no record that any concerns about corrosion leading to an oil transit line breach in the foreseeable future ever were communicated to BP."

==August 2006 shutdown==
The March 2006 oil spill led the [[United States Department of Transportation]] to mandate that the transit lines be inspected for corrosion. As a result, BP announced on 6 August 2006 they had discovered severe corrosion, with losses of 70 to 81 percent in the 3/8-inch thickness of the pipe walls. Oil leaking was reported in one area, with the equivalent of four to five barrels of oil spilled.<ref>{{cite web|date=2006-08-08|url=http://www.theledger.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060808/ZNYT01/608080426/1001/BUSINESS|title=Biggest Oil Field in U.S. Is Forced to Stop Pumping|publisher=''[[New York Times]]''}}</ref> The damage required replacement of 16 of {{convert|22|mi|km}} of pipeline at the Prudhoe Bay. BP said it was surprised to find such severe corrosion and that it had been 14 years since they had used a [[pipeline inspection gauge]] ("pig") to clean out its lines because the company believed the use of the pigging equipment might damage pipe integrity.<ref name="Texan-shut-down">{{cite news | url=http://www.dailytexanonline.com/media/storage/paper410/news/2006/08/08/WorldNation/Gas-Prices.Climb.As.Oil.Pipeline.In.Alaska.Must.Be.Replaced-2143890.shtml?norewrite200608081122&sourcedomain=www.dailytexanonline.com | title=Gas prices climb as oil pipeline in Alaska must be replaced | author=Pemberton, Mary | publisher=''[[The Daily Texan]]'' | date=8 August 2006 | accessdate=2006-08-08}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> BP Exploration announced that they were shutting down the oil field indefinitely, due to the severe corrosion and a minor leak in the oil transit lines.<ref name="Texan-shut-down"/><ref name="Reuters1">{{cite news | url=http://today.reuters.co.uk/news/articlebusiness.aspx?type=businessNews&storyID=2006-08-07T014428Z_01_N06274365_RTRUKOC_0_UK-ENERGY-BP.xml | title=BP shutting top US oil field Prudhoe Bay due to spill | publisher=[[Reuters]] | date=7 August 2006 | accessdate=2006-08-08}}</ref> This led to an 8% reduction in the amount of oil produced by the United States, as Prudhoe Bay is the country's largest oil producer, producing over {{convert|400000|oilbbl/d|m3/d}}.

BP initially estimated up to 2 to 3 months before the pipelines would be fully operational.<ref name="Texan-shut-down"/> This caused increases in world oil prices,<ref name="marketwatch">{{cite news | url=http://www.marketwatch.com/News/Story/Story.aspx?dist=newsfinder&siteid=google&guid=%7B6A81577A-0361-461D-BAE7-A963044C6768%7D&keyword= | title=BP restart of Prudhoe Bay oil field may take months | publisher=MarketWatch | author=Raft, Anna | date=7 August 2006 | accessdate=2006-08-08}}</ref> and BP revised the estimated operational date to January 2007.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/US/08/08/oilfield.shutdown/index.html
|title=BP oil field 'closed until 2007'
|publisher=[[CNN]]
|date=August 8, 2006
|accessdate=2006-08-08}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}</ref> London [[brent crude]] hit an intra-day high of $77.73/barrel, the all-time high, at that time, being $78.18/barrel. United States [[crude oil]] peaked at $76.67/barrel. The state of Alaska, which gets most of its revenue from taxing the oil industry, lost as much as $6.4 million each day until production restarted.<ref name="ADN-money">{{cite news | url=http://www.adn.com/money/industries/oil/story/8052561p-7945629c.html | title=BP shuts down Prudhoe Bay | publisher=''[[Anchorage Daily News]]'' | author=Loy, Wesley | date=7 August 2006 | accessdate=2006-08-08 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060819055407/http://www.adn.com/money/industries/oil/story/8052561p-7945629c.html  |archivedate = 2006-08-19}}</ref>

No part of the [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System|Alaska Pipeline]] was affected, although [[Alyeska Pipeline Service Company|Alyeska]] said that lower crude oil volumes could slow pumping during the BP shutdown.<ref name="Massive repairs">{{cite news
|url=http://www.adn.com/front/picture_inset/story/8054990p-7948041c.html
|title=Massive repairs: BP admits corrosion control was inadequate, prepares to replace North Slope transit lines
|author=Loy, Wesley, and Richard Richtmyer
|publisher=''[[Anchorage Daily News]]''
|date=August 8, 2006
|accessdate=2006-08-08 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060821195145/http://www.adn.com/front/picture_inset/story/8054990p-7948041c.html  |archivedate = 2006-08-21}}</ref>

The field has since reopened. In mid-June 2007, however, a small leak occurred in one of the pipelines that connect the field to the [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline]], shutting down the field for a week.<ref name="BP to Reopen Pipeline in Alaska">{{cite news
|url=http://business.scotsman.com/utilities.cfm?id=988692007
|title=BP to reopen oil pipeline in Alaska
|author=
|publisher=''[[The Scotsman]]''
|date=June 25, 2007
|accessdate=2007-07-10}}</ref>

In March 2009 the State of Alaska sued BP in matter number 3AN-09-06181-CI alleging that BP was negligent in its management of rigging operations and corrosion control in the transit lines leading from the field into pumping station one of the Trans Alaska Pipeline. The state is seeking damages for lost royalty and tax revenues. The matter is still being disputed.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last=Sweet |first=John M. |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title= Discovery at Prudhoe Bay|origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |year= 2008 |month= |publisher= Hancock House|location= Blaine, Washington|language= |isbn= 978-0-88839-630-3|oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= 312 p|chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= }}

==See also==
*''[[Ice Road Truckers#Season_3_episodes|Ice Road Truckers]]''

==External links==
* [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb5261/is_/ai_n28655169 Milne Point goes mainstream. Inc. oilfield] ([[Alaska Business Monthly]], April, 1995.)
* [http://xpda.com/alaska2010/deadhorse/ Prudhoe Bay, Alaska] Aerial photos from the Prudhoe Bay area, July 2010

{{Petroleum industry}}

[[Category:Oil fields in Alaska]]
[[Category:Economy of Alaska]]
[[Category:ARCO]]
[[Category:BP]]
[[Category:ConocoPhillips]]
[[Category:ExxonMobil]]
[[Category:Industry in the Arctic]]
[[Category:Geography of North Slope Borough, Alaska]]

Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-05T19:32:24Z

Avihu: /* Temples */ typo should not be copied

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Longmen Grottoes
| Image = [[Image:Longmen-lu-she-na-1.jpg|280px|Lu She Na Buddha]]
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px]] [[People's Republic of China|China]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 1003
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003
|map = China
|map_caption = Location in China
|map_width = 280
|locmapin = China
|relief =
|latitude = 34.555556
|longitude = 112.469722
}}
The '''Longmen Grottoes''' ({{zh|t=龍門石窟|s=龙门石窟|p=lóngmén shíkū}}; lit. ''Dragon's Gate Grottoes'') or '''Longmen Caves''' are one of the finest examples of [[Buddhist_art#China|Chinese Buddhist art]]. Housing tens of thousands of statues of [[Buddha]] and his disciples, they are located {{convert|12|km}} south of present day [[Luoyang|Luòyáng]] in [[Henan|Hénán]] province, [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the [[limestone]] cliffs of the Xiangshan and [[Longmen Mountains|Longmenshan]] mountains, running east and west. The [[Yi River (China)|Yi River]] flows northward between them and the area used to be called '''Yique''' ("The Gate of the Yi River").<ref name=China>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75219.htm |title= Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=China.org.cn|date=September 12, 2003|author=Longmen Grottoes Management Office|location=Luoyang City, Henan}}</ref><ref name=List>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003|title=Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=Evaluate>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1003.pdf|format=pdf|title= Longmen Grottoes (China) No 1003|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=Unesco.org|author=ICOMOS|date=September 2000}}</ref> The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "[[Chinese gate]] towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.<ref name=Asian>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/china/luoyang/longmen.php|title=Longmen Grottoes (carved 480s-900 onward)|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=orientalarchitecture.com|first=Robert D.|last=Fiala}}</ref>

There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an {{convert|1|inch}} to {{convert|57|ft}} in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 [[stelae]] and [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], whence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty [[Buddhist pagodas]]. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a {{convert|1|km}} stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] and 60% from the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total.<ref name=Evaluate/> Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, [[Wu Zetian]] of the [[Second Zhou Dynasty]], members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups.<ref name=China/><ref name=Sacred>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/longmen-caves|title=Longmen Caves|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher= sacred-destinations.com|date=July 24, 2009}}</ref>

In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China.<ref name=List/>

==Geography==
[[Image:Longmen-grottoes-longmen-mountain-from-a-distance.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Longmen as seen from Manshui Bridge to the southeast. May, 2004.]]
This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. The other two grottoes are the [[Yungang Caves]] near [[Datong]] in [[Shanxi Province]], and the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu Province]] in west China. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]]. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks.<ref name=List/><ref name=Asian/>

Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high,<ref name="Harper2007" /> while the largest Buddha statue is {{convert|57|ft}} in height.<ref name="Hensley2010" /> There are also approximately 2500 stellas and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/> The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end.<ref name=Sacred/>

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] dynasty when he shifted his capital to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493 and 534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The third phase, was during the reign of the Tang dynasty when [[Chinese Buddhism]] flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from 626 to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]].<ref name=List/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Lonely>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/henan/longmen-caves|title=Introducing Longmen Caves|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=March 2, 2009|publisher=Lonelyplanet.com}}</ref>

Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei]] followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they were ruling from Luyong.<ref name=Evaluate/>
[[File:Luoyang groty z rzezbami wotywnymi Longmen Shiku - Smoczych Wrot i okolice 02.JPG|thumb|right| Entrance to Longmen Grottoes (Longmen Shiku) under Manshui Bridge over Yi River ( Yi He)]]

===Later history===
During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the [[Qing Dynasty]] from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums.

Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]], under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture.<ref name=Evaluate/> A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982, it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level.<ref name=Guide>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lmsk.cn/en/Aboutus.asp?ID=124&title=Serveice%20Guide|title=Serveice Guide|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=Officailwebiste of Longmen Grottoes}}</ref> The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments.<ref name=Evaluate/> The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002.<ref>McNair, p. 2</ref>

During the [[Warring States Period]], the general [[Bai Qi]] of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] once defeated the allied forces of [[Han (state)|Han]] and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] and the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].<ref name=Sacred/><ref name=Lonely/>

==Panorama==
{{wide image|Boddhisatvas in Longmen Grottoes.JPG|1000px|Panorama of the Buddhist sculptures in the main Longmen Grotto.}}

==Grottoes==
[[Image:LongmenBoddhi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Massive Buddhist sculptures in the main grotto.]]
There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca. 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684).<ref name="Watson2000">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=The Arts of China to A.D. 900|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u8Akcp983oYC&pg=PA252|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=10 April 2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08284-5|pages=252–}}</ref> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010">{{cite book|last1=Lagerwey|first1=John|last2=Lü|first2=Pengzhi|title=Early Chinese religion: the period of division (220-589 AD). Part two|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA604|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17943-1|pages=604–605}}</ref>

===Guyangdong===
Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now predated to 478 AD, which has been inferred as the time taken by Emperor Xiaowen to shift his capital from Datong to Luoyang have very well sculpted Buddhist statues in niches in this cave. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of the writings of the Northern Wei style.<ref name=Sacred/> Many of the sculptures inside the cave were also contributed by royal people; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images - the central image is of [[Sakyamuni Buddha]] with [[Bodhisattva]]s on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions in the walls and niches inside the cave, the largest such numbers in any cave in China.<ref name=Evaluate/> There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names with dates giving reasons for carving them.

===Binyang===
Binyang has three caves of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent
;Binyangzhongdong
{{multiple image
| image1 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-wideshot.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The rear and north walls in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image2 = Longmen-binyang-middle-sakyamuni-upper.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The upper part of the central [[Sakyamuni]] image in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image3 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-south-wall.jpg
|width3 = 150
| alt3 =
| caption3 = South wall of [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
}}
Binyangzhongdong or the [[Middle Binyang Cave]], is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowen, and also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisatvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]]. There were reportedly two large [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] showing the Emperor and the Empress in worship which were pilfered and now stated to be in a museum in the USA. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Binyangnandong
Binyangnandong, or the [[South Binyang Cave]], has five very large images which were carved by [[Li Tai]], the fourth son of [[Li Shimin]], the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress [[Zhangsun]]. The central image in a serene appearance is that of [[Amitabha Buddha]] seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles.<ref name=Evaluate/>

===Fengxian===
[[File:Longmen.Vairocana.jpg|right|thumb|The Big Vairocana of Longmen Buddha Grottoes]]
Fengxian, or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes.<ref name="Hensley2010">{{cite book|last=Hensley|first=Laura|title=Art for All: What Is Public Art?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9RW16zSKyTAC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library|isbn=978-1-4109-3923-4|pages=14–}}</ref> Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of [[Vairocana Buddha]] is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2m long ears.<ref name=China/><ref name=Asian/><ref name="Hensley2010"/> An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit. The main image of Vairochana's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Virochana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China."<ref name=China/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Sacred/>

The Vairochana statue also provides information at its base of the names of the artisans who worked here, the donor's name namely the Emperor Gaozong, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed as a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project a detail of character and animation. Statues of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Ananda]], the two principal disciples of Vairochana and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, apart from numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying divas and numerous other figures."<ref name=Asian/>

===Others===
;Huangfugong
Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall, three-niche cave,<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" /> is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the [[lintel]] which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of lotus flower is carved in the roof flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or nymphs).<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of [[Empress Hu]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=January 2012}}.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" />
;Wan-fo-tung
Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung,<ref name="CohenCohen1986">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Joan Lebold|last2=Cohen|first2=Jerome Alan|authorlink2=Jerome Alan Cohen|title=China today and her ancient treasures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TkJwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=April 1986|publisher=Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-0798-0|page=125}}</ref> was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being {{convert|2|cm}} in height.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Yaofangdong
Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions<ref name="Harper2007">{{cite book|last=Harper|first=Damian|title=National Geographic Traveler China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xHL1KEXveSoC&pg=PT119|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=17 April 2007|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=978-1-4262-0035-9|pages=119, 120–}}</ref> of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range medical problems such as common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls. These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period right through to the early Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Qianxisi
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 004.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Vairocana]]
Reached by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653-80), the cave has statues of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha<ref name="McNair2007" /> (Amitabha Buddha), [[Avalokitesvara]] and [[Mahasthamaprapta]] flanked by Bodhisattvas, and are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style.<ref name=Evaluate/> It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father.<ref name="McNair2007">{{cite book|last=McNair|first=Amy|title=Donors of Longmen: faith, politics, and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qsEGIdhcgMoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2994-0|pages=86, 111, 185–}}</ref>

;Lianhua
The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 527, belongs to be the Northern Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Laolong
The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign.<ref name=Asian/>

==Temples==
There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/> Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under Emperor Wencheng; Tiangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Qianer.<ref name="McNair2007" />

===Xiangshan temple===
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Belfry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Jiang Jieshi and Song Meiling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple.<ref name=Guide/>

===Bai Garden temple===
[[File:洛阳龙门白居易墓.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Bai Juyi]]
Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees.<ref name=Guide/>

===Tomb of Bai Juyi===
The Tomb of [[Bai Juyi]] on the east bank is of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty rule who lived in [[Luoyang]] during his later years. The tomb is located on the hill top. It is approached from west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poets name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/>

==Preservation and restoration==
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 001.jpg|thumb|right|Delamination of the limestone from which the figures are carved]]
As one of the major activities achieved in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen’s Grottoes as a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List based on "Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii); Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins on the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monuments to its heritage status as per guidelines issued from time to time after frequent inspections of the site.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening of the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Approach conditions to access the caves were newly installed in the form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government of China]] over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by integrated action by three institutions namely; the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection who provided the professional scientific inputs, the [[China University of Geosciences]] and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang City, in 1999.<ref name=Evaluate/>

==See also==
* [[Chinese art]]
* [[Mogao Caves]]
* [[Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China]]
* [[Yungang Grottoes]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Longmen Grottoes}}
*{{en}} [http://www.longmen.com/en/ Official website]
*{{en}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO - Longmen Grottoes]
* [http://pratyeka.org/longmen/ Photos]

{{Henan topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{National parks of China}}

{{coord|34|33|20|N|112|28|11|E|display=title|region:CN-41_type:landmark_source:dewiki}}

[[Category:493 establishments]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist grottoes|Longmen]]
[[Category:Luoyang]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:National parks of China|Longmen]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Henan]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Chinese sculpture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Henan]]
[[Category:Caves of Henan]]
[[Category:AAAAA-rated tourist attractions]]

Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-05T18:39:07Z

Avihu: fix broken link

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Longmen Grottoes
| Image = [[Image:Longmen-lu-she-na-1.jpg|280px|Lu She Na Buddha]]
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px]] [[People's Republic of China|China]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 1003
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003
|map = China
|map_caption = Location in China
|map_width = 280
|locmapin = China
|relief =
|latitude = 34.555556
|longitude = 112.469722
}}
The '''Longmen Grottoes''' ({{zh|t=龍門石窟|s=龙门石窟|p=lóngmén shíkū}}; lit. ''Dragon's Gate Grottoes'') or '''Longmen Caves''' are one of the finest examples of [[Buddhist_art#China|Chinese Buddhist art]]. Housing tens of thousands of statues of [[Buddha]] and his disciples, they are located {{convert|12|km}} south of present day [[Luoyang|Luòyáng]] in [[Henan|Hénán]] province, [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the [[limestone]] cliffs of the Xiangshan and [[Longmen Mountains|Longmenshan]] mountains, running east and west. The [[Yi River (China)|Yi River]] flows northward between them and the area used to be called '''Yique''' ("The Gate of the Yi River").<ref name=China>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75219.htm |title= Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=China.org.cn|date=September 12, 2003|author=Longmen Grottoes Management Office|location=Luoyang City, Henan}}</ref><ref name=List>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003|title=Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=Evaluate>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1003.pdf|format=pdf|title= Longmen Grottoes (China) No 1003|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=Unesco.org|author=ICOMOS|date=September 2000}}</ref> The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "[[Chinese gate]] towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.<ref name=Asian>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/china/luoyang/longmen.php|title=Longmen Grottoes (carved 480s-900 onward)|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=orientalarchitecture.com|first=Robert D.|last=Fiala}}</ref>

There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an {{convert|1|inch}} to {{convert|57|ft}} in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 [[stelae]] and [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], whence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty [[Buddhist pagodas]]. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a {{convert|1|km}} stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] and 60% from the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total.<ref name=Evaluate/> Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, [[Wu Zetian]] of the [[Second Zhou Dynasty]], members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups.<ref name=China/><ref name=Sacred>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/longmen-caves|title=Longmen Caves|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher= sacred-destinations.com|date=July 24, 2009}}</ref>

In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China.<ref name=List/>

==Geography==
[[Image:Longmen-grottoes-longmen-mountain-from-a-distance.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Longmen as seen from Manshui Bridge to the southeast. May, 2004.]]
This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. The other two grottoes are the [[Yungang Caves]] near [[Datong]] in [[Shanxi Province]], and the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu Province]] in west China. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]]. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks.<ref name=List/><ref name=Asian/>

Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high,<ref name="Harper2007" /> while the largest Buddha statue is {{convert|57|ft}} in height.<ref name="Hensley2010" /> There are also approximately 2500 stellas and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/> The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end.<ref name=Sacred/>

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] dynasty when he shifted his capital to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493 and 534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The third phase, was during the reign of the Tang dynasty when [[Chinese Buddhism]] flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from 626 to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]].<ref name=List/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Lonely>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/henan/longmen-caves|title=Introducing Longmen Caves|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=March 2, 2009|publisher=Lonelyplanet.com}}</ref>

Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei]] followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they were ruling from Luyong.<ref name=Evaluate/>
[[File:Luoyang groty z rzezbami wotywnymi Longmen Shiku - Smoczych Wrot i okolice 02.JPG|thumb|right| Entrance to Longmen Grottoes (Longmen Shiku) under Manshui Bridge over Yi River ( Yi He)]]

===Later history===
During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the [[Qing Dynasty]] from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums.

Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]], under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture.<ref name=Evaluate/> A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982, it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level.<ref name=Guide>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lmsk.cn/en/Aboutus.asp?ID=124&title=Serveice%20Guide|title=Serveice Guide|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=Officailwebiste of Longmen Grottoes}}</ref> The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments.<ref name=Evaluate/> The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002.<ref>McNair, p. 2</ref>

During the [[Warring States Period]], the general [[Bai Qi]] of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] once defeated the allied forces of [[Han (state)|Han]] and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] and the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].<ref name=Sacred/><ref name=Lonely/>

==Panorama==
{{wide image|Boddhisatvas in Longmen Grottoes.JPG|1000px|Panorama of the Buddhist sculptures in the main Longmen Grotto.}}

==Grottoes==
[[Image:LongmenBoddhi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Massive Buddhist sculptures in the main grotto.]]
There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca. 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684).<ref name="Watson2000">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=The Arts of China to A.D. 900|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u8Akcp983oYC&pg=PA252|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=10 April 2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08284-5|pages=252–}}</ref> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010">{{cite book|last1=Lagerwey|first1=John|last2=Lü|first2=Pengzhi|title=Early Chinese religion: the period of division (220-589 AD). Part two|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA604|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17943-1|pages=604–605}}</ref>

===Guyangdong===
Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now predated to 478 AD, which has been inferred as the time taken by Emperor Xiaowen to shift his capital from Datong to Luoyang have very well sculpted Buddhist statues in niches in this cave. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of the writings of the Northern Wei style.<ref name=Sacred/> Many of the sculptures inside the cave were also contributed by royal people; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images - the central image is of [[Sakyamuni Buddha]] with [[Bodhisattva]]s on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions in the walls and niches inside the cave, the largest such numbers in any cave in China.<ref name=Evaluate/> There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names with dates giving reasons for carving them.

===Binyang===
Binyang has three caves of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent
;Binyangzhongdong
{{multiple image
| image1 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-wideshot.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The rear and north walls in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image2 = Longmen-binyang-middle-sakyamuni-upper.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The upper part of the central [[Sakyamuni]] image in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image3 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-south-wall.jpg
|width3 = 150
| alt3 =
| caption3 = South wall of [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
}}
Binyangzhongdong or the [[Middle Binyang Cave]], is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowen, and also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisatvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]]. There were reportedly two large [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] showing the Emperor and the Empress in worship which were pilfered and now stated to be in a museum in the USA. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Binyangnandong
Binyangnandong, or the [[South Binyang Cave]], has five very large images which were carved by [[Li Tai]], the fourth son of [[Li Shimin]], the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress [[Zhangsun]]. The central image in a serene appearance is that of [[Amitabha Buddha]] seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles.<ref name=Evaluate/>

===Fengxian===
[[File:Longmen.Vairocana.jpg|right|thumb|The Big Vairocana of Longmen Buddha Grottoes]]
Fengxian, or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes.<ref name="Hensley2010">{{cite book|last=Hensley|first=Laura|title=Art for All: What Is Public Art?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9RW16zSKyTAC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library|isbn=978-1-4109-3923-4|pages=14–}}</ref> Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of [[Vairocana Buddha]] is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2m long ears.<ref name=China/><ref name=Asian/><ref name="Hensley2010"/> An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit. The main image of Vairochana's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Virochana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China."<ref name=China/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Sacred/>

The Vairochana statue also provides information at its base of the names of the artisans who worked here, the donor's name namely the Emperor Gaozong, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed as a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project a detail of character and animation. Statues of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Ananda]], the two principal disciples of Vairochana and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, apart from numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying divas and numerous other figures."<ref name=Asian/>

===Others===
;Huangfugong
Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall, three-niche cave,<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" /> is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the [[lintel]] which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of lotus flower is carved in the roof flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or nymphs).<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of [[Empress Hu]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=January 2012}}.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" />
;Wan-fo-tung
Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung,<ref name="CohenCohen1986">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Joan Lebold|last2=Cohen|first2=Jerome Alan|authorlink2=Jerome Alan Cohen|title=China today and her ancient treasures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TkJwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=April 1986|publisher=Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-0798-0|page=125}}</ref> was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being {{convert|2|cm}} in height.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Yaofangdong
Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions<ref name="Harper2007">{{cite book|last=Harper|first=Damian|title=National Geographic Traveler China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xHL1KEXveSoC&pg=PT119|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=17 April 2007|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=978-1-4262-0035-9|pages=119, 120–}}</ref> of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range medical problems such as common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls. These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period right through to the early Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Qianxisi
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 004.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Vairocana]]
Reached by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653-80), the cave has statues of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha<ref name="McNair2007" /> (Amitabha Buddha), [[Avalokitesvara]] and [[Mahasthamaprapta]] flanked by Bodhisattvas, and are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style.<ref name=Evaluate/> It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father.<ref name="McNair2007">{{cite book|last=McNair|first=Amy|title=Donors of Longmen: faith, politics, and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qsEGIdhcgMoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2994-0|pages=86, 111, 185–}}</ref>

;Lianhua
The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 527, belongs to be the Northern Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Laolong
The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign.<ref name=Asian/>

==Temples==
There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/> Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under Emperor Wencheng; Tiangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Qianer.<ref name="McNair2007" />

===Xiangshan temple===
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Beltry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Jiang Jieshi and Song Meiling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple.<ref name=Guide/>

===Bai Garden temple===
[[File:洛阳龙门白居易墓.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Bai Juyi]]
Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees.<ref name=Guide/>

===Tomb of Bai Juyi===
The Tomb of [[Bai Juyi]] on the east bank is of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty rule who lived in [[Luoyang]] during his later years. The tomb is located on the hill top. It is approached from west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poets name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/>

==Preservation and restoration==
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 001.jpg|thumb|right|Delamination of the limestone from which the figures are carved]]
As one of the major activities achieved in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen’s Grottoes as a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List based on "Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii); Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins on the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monuments to its heritage status as per guidelines issued from time to time after frequent inspections of the site.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening of the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Approach conditions to access the caves were newly installed in the form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government of China]] over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by integrated action by three institutions namely; the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection who provided the professional scientific inputs, the [[China University of Geosciences]] and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang City, in 1999.<ref name=Evaluate/>

==See also==
* [[Chinese art]]
* [[Mogao Caves]]
* [[Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China]]
* [[Yungang Grottoes]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Longmen Grottoes}}
*{{en}} [http://www.longmen.com/en/ Official website]
*{{en}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO - Longmen Grottoes]
* [http://pratyeka.org/longmen/ Photos]

{{Henan topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{National parks of China}}

{{coord|34|33|20|N|112|28|11|E|display=title|region:CN-41_type:landmark_source:dewiki}}

[[Category:493 establishments]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist grottoes|Longmen]]
[[Category:Luoyang]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:National parks of China|Longmen]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Henan]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Chinese sculpture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Henan]]
[[Category:Caves of Henan]]
[[Category:AAAAA-rated tourist attractions]]

Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-05T18:16:00Z

Avihu: /* Temples */ typos

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Longmen Grottoes
| Image = [[Image:Longmen-lu-she-na-1.jpg|280px|Lu She Na Buddha]]
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px]] [[People's Republic of China|China]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 1003
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003
|map = China
|map_caption = Location in China
|map_width = 280
|locmapin = China
|relief =
|latitude = 34.555556
|longitude = 112.469722
}}
The '''Longmen Grottoes''' ({{zh|t=龍門石窟|s=龙门石窟|p=lóngmén shíkū}}; lit. ''Dragon's Gate Grottoes'') or '''Longmen Caves''' are one of the finest examples of [[Buddhist_art#China|Chinese Buddhist art]]. Housing tens of thousands of statues of [[Buddha]] and his disciples, they are located {{convert|12|km}} south of present day [[Luoyang|Luòyáng]] in [[Henan|Hénán]] province, [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the [[limestone]] cliffs of the Xiangshan and [[Longmen Mountains|Longmenshan]] mountains, running east and west. The [[Yi River (China)|Yi River]] flows northward between them and the area used to be called '''Yique''' ("The Gate of the Yi River").<ref name=China>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75219.htm |title= Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=China.org.cn|date=September 12, 2003|author=Longmen Grottoes Management Office|location=Luoyang City, Henan}}</ref><ref name=List>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003|title=Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=Evaluate>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1003.pdf|format=pdf|title= Longmen Grottoes (China) No 1003|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=Unesco.org|author=ICOMOS|date=September 2000}}</ref> The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "[[Chinese gate]] towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.<ref name=Asian>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/china/luoyang/longmen.php|title=Longmen Grottoes (carved 480s-900 onward)|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=orientalarchitecture.com|first=Robert D.|last=Fiala}}</ref>

There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an {{convert|1|inch}} to {{convert|57|ft}} in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 [[stelae]] and [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], whence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty [[Buddhist pagodas]]. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a {{convert|1|km}} stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] and 60% from the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total.<ref name=Evaluate/> Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, [[Wu Zetian]] of the [[Second Zhou Dynasty]], members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups.<ref name=China/><ref name=Sacred>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/longmen-caves|title=Longmen Caves|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher= sacred-destinations.com|date=July 24, 2009}}</ref>

In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China.<ref name=List/>

==Geography==
[[Image:Longmen-grottoes-longmen-mountain-from-a-distance.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Longmen as seen from Manshui Bridge to the southeast. May, 2004.]]
This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. The other two grottoes are the [[Yungang Caves]] near [[Datong]] in [[Shanxi Province]], and the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu Province]] in west China. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]]. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks.<ref name=List/><ref name=Asian/>

Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high,<ref name="Harper2007" /> while the largest Buddha statue is {{convert|57|ft}} in height.<ref name="Hensley2010" /> There are also approximately 2500 stellas and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/> The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end.<ref name=Sacred/>

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] dynasty when he shifted his capital to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493 and 534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The third phase, was during the reign of the Tang dynasty when [[Chinese Buddhism]] flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from 626 to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]].<ref name=List/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Lonely>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/henan/longmen-caves|title=Introducing Longmen Caves|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=March 2, 2009|publisher=Lonelyplanet.com}}</ref>

Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei]] followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they were ruling from Luyong.<ref name=Evaluate/>
[[File:Luoyang groty z rzezbami wotywnymi Longmen Shiku - Smoczych Wrot i okolice 02.JPG|thumb|right| Entrance to Longmen Grottoes (Longmen Shiku) under Manshui Bridge over Yi River ( Yi He)]]

===Later history===
During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the [[Qing Dynasty]] from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums.

Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]], under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture.<ref name=Evaluate/> A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982, it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level.<ref name=Guide>{{Cite web|url=http://www.longmen.com/en/Aboutus.asp?ID=124&title=Serveice%20Guide|title=Serveice Guide|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=Officailwebiste of Longmen Grottoes}}</ref> The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments.<ref name=Evaluate/> The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002.<ref>McNair, p. 2</ref>

During the [[Warring States Period]], the general [[Bai Qi]] of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] once defeated the allied forces of [[Han (state)|Han]] and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] and the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].<ref name=Sacred/><ref name=Lonely/>

==Panorama==
{{wide image|Boddhisatvas in Longmen Grottoes.JPG|1000px|Panorama of the Buddhist sculptures in the main Longmen Grotto.}}

==Grottoes==
[[Image:LongmenBoddhi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Massive Buddhist sculptures in the main grotto.]]
There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca. 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684).<ref name="Watson2000">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=The Arts of China to A.D. 900|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u8Akcp983oYC&pg=PA252|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=10 April 2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08284-5|pages=252–}}</ref> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010">{{cite book|last1=Lagerwey|first1=John|last2=Lü|first2=Pengzhi|title=Early Chinese religion: the period of division (220-589 AD). Part two|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA604|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17943-1|pages=604–605}}</ref>

===Guyangdong===
Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now predated to 478 AD, which has been inferred as the time taken by Emperor Xiaowen to shift his capital from Datong to Luoyang have very well sculpted Buddhist statues in niches in this cave. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of the writings of the Northern Wei style.<ref name=Sacred/> Many of the sculptures inside the cave were also contributed by royal people; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images - the central image is of [[Sakyamuni Buddha]] with [[Bodhisattva]]s on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions in the walls and niches inside the cave, the largest such numbers in any cave in China.<ref name=Evaluate/> There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names with dates giving reasons for carving them.

===Binyang===
Binyang has three caves of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent
;Binyangzhongdong
{{multiple image
| image1 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-wideshot.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The rear and north walls in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image2 = Longmen-binyang-middle-sakyamuni-upper.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The upper part of the central [[Sakyamuni]] image in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image3 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-south-wall.jpg
|width3 = 150
| alt3 =
| caption3 = South wall of [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
}}
Binyangzhongdong or the [[Middle Binyang Cave]], is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowen, and also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisatvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]]. There were reportedly two large [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] showing the Emperor and the Empress in worship which were pilfered and now stated to be in a museum in the USA. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Binyangnandong
Binyangnandong, or the [[South Binyang Cave]], has five very large images which were carved by [[Li Tai]], the fourth son of [[Li Shimin]], the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress [[Zhangsun]]. The central image in a serene appearance is that of [[Amitabha Buddha]] seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles.<ref name=Evaluate/>

===Fengxian===
[[File:Longmen.Vairocana.jpg|right|thumb|The Big Vairocana of Longmen Buddha Grottoes]]
Fengxian, or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes.<ref name="Hensley2010">{{cite book|last=Hensley|first=Laura|title=Art for All: What Is Public Art?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9RW16zSKyTAC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library|isbn=978-1-4109-3923-4|pages=14–}}</ref> Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of [[Vairocana Buddha]] is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2m long ears.<ref name=China/><ref name=Asian/><ref name="Hensley2010"/> An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit. The main image of Vairochana's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Virochana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China."<ref name=China/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Sacred/>

The Vairochana statue also provides information at its base of the names of the artisans who worked here, the donor's name namely the Emperor Gaozong, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed as a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project a detail of character and animation. Statues of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Ananda]], the two principal disciples of Vairochana and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, apart from numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying divas and numerous other figures."<ref name=Asian/>

===Others===
;Huangfugong
Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall, three-niche cave,<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" /> is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the [[lintel]] which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of lotus flower is carved in the roof flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or nymphs).<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of [[Empress Hu]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=January 2012}}.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" />
;Wan-fo-tung
Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung,<ref name="CohenCohen1986">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Joan Lebold|last2=Cohen|first2=Jerome Alan|authorlink2=Jerome Alan Cohen|title=China today and her ancient treasures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TkJwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=April 1986|publisher=Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-0798-0|page=125}}</ref> was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being {{convert|2|cm}} in height.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Yaofangdong
Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions<ref name="Harper2007">{{cite book|last=Harper|first=Damian|title=National Geographic Traveler China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xHL1KEXveSoC&pg=PT119|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=17 April 2007|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=978-1-4262-0035-9|pages=119, 120–}}</ref> of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range medical problems such as common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls. These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period right through to the early Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Qianxisi
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 004.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Vairocana]]
Reached by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653-80), the cave has statues of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha<ref name="McNair2007" /> (Amitabha Buddha), [[Avalokitesvara]] and [[Mahasthamaprapta]] flanked by Bodhisattvas, and are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style.<ref name=Evaluate/> It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father.<ref name="McNair2007">{{cite book|last=McNair|first=Amy|title=Donors of Longmen: faith, politics, and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qsEGIdhcgMoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2994-0|pages=86, 111, 185–}}</ref>

;Lianhua
The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 527, belongs to be the Northern Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Laolong
The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign.<ref name=Asian/>

==Temples==
There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/> Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under Emperor Wencheng; Tiangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Qianer.<ref name="McNair2007" />

===Xiangshan temple===
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Beltry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Jiang Jieshi and Song Meiling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple.<ref name=Guide/>

===Bai Garden temple===
[[File:洛阳龙门白居易墓.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Bai Juyi]]
Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees.<ref name=Guide/>

===Tomb of Bai Juyi===
The Tomb of [[Bai Juyi]] on the east bank is of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty rule who lived in [[Luoyang]] during his later years. The tomb is located on the hill top. It is approached from west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poets name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/>

==Preservation and restoration==
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 001.jpg|thumb|right|Delamination of the limestone from which the figures are carved]]
As one of the major activities achieved in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen’s Grottoes as a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List based on "Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii); Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins on the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monuments to its heritage status as per guidelines issued from time to time after frequent inspections of the site.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening of the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Approach conditions to access the caves were newly installed in the form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government of China]] over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by integrated action by three institutions namely; the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection who provided the professional scientific inputs, the [[China University of Geosciences]] and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang City, in 1999.<ref name=Evaluate/>

==See also==
* [[Chinese art]]
* [[Mogao Caves]]
* [[Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China]]
* [[Yungang Grottoes]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Longmen Grottoes}}
*{{en}} [http://www.longmen.com/en/ Official website]
*{{en}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO - Longmen Grottoes]
* [http://pratyeka.org/longmen/ Photos]

{{Henan topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{National parks of China}}

{{coord|34|33|20|N|112|28|11|E|display=title|region:CN-41_type:landmark_source:dewiki}}

[[Category:493 establishments]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist grottoes|Longmen]]
[[Category:Luoyang]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:National parks of China|Longmen]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Henan]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Chinese sculpture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Henan]]
[[Category:Caves of Henan]]
[[Category:AAAAA-rated tourist attractions]]

Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-05T17:45:07Z

Avihu: /* Others */ That's the real source that the paragraph used.

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Longmen Grottoes
| Image = [[Image:Longmen-lu-she-na-1.jpg|280px|Lu She Na Buddha]]
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px]] [[People's Republic of China|China]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 1003
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003
|map = China
|map_caption = Location in China
|map_width = 280
|locmapin = China
|relief =
|latitude = 34.555556
|longitude = 112.469722
}}
The '''Longmen Grottoes''' ({{zh|t=龍門石窟|s=龙门石窟|p=lóngmén shíkū}}; lit. ''Dragon's Gate Grottoes'') or '''Longmen Caves''' are one of the finest examples of [[Buddhist_art#China|Chinese Buddhist art]]. Housing tens of thousands of statues of [[Buddha]] and his disciples, they are located {{convert|12|km}} south of present day [[Luoyang|Luòyáng]] in [[Henan|Hénán]] province, [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the [[limestone]] cliffs of the Xiangshan and [[Longmen Mountains|Longmenshan]] mountains, running east and west. The [[Yi River (China)|Yi River]] flows northward between them and the area used to be called '''Yique''' ("The Gate of the Yi River").<ref name=China>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75219.htm |title= Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=China.org.cn|date=September 12, 2003|author=Longmen Grottoes Management Office|location=Luoyang City, Henan}}</ref><ref name=List>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003|title=Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=Evaluate>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1003.pdf|format=pdf|title= Longmen Grottoes (China) No 1003|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=Unesco.org|author=ICOMOS|date=September 2000}}</ref> The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "[[Chinese gate]] towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.<ref name=Asian>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/china/luoyang/longmen.php|title=Longmen Grottoes (carved 480s-900 onward)|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=orientalarchitecture.com|first=Robert D.|last=Fiala}}</ref>

There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an {{convert|1|inch}} to {{convert|57|ft}} in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 [[stelae]] and [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], whence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty [[Buddhist pagodas]]. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a {{convert|1|km}} stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] and 60% from the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total.<ref name=Evaluate/> Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, [[Wu Zetian]] of the [[Second Zhou Dynasty]], members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups.<ref name=China/><ref name=Sacred>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/longmen-caves|title=Longmen Caves|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher= sacred-destinations.com|date=July 24, 2009}}</ref>

In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China.<ref name=List/>

==Geography==
[[Image:Longmen-grottoes-longmen-mountain-from-a-distance.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Longmen as seen from Manshui Bridge to the southeast. May, 2004.]]
This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. The other two grottoes are the [[Yungang Caves]] near [[Datong]] in [[Shanxi Province]], and the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu Province]] in west China. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]]. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks.<ref name=List/><ref name=Asian/>

Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high,<ref name="Harper2007" /> while the largest Buddha statue is {{convert|57|ft}} in height.<ref name="Hensley2010" /> There are also approximately 2500 stellas and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/> The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end.<ref name=Sacred/>

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] dynasty when he shifted his capital to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493 and 534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The third phase, was during the reign of the Tang dynasty when [[Chinese Buddhism]] flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from 626 to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]].<ref name=List/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Lonely>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/henan/longmen-caves|title=Introducing Longmen Caves|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=March 2, 2009|publisher=Lonelyplanet.com}}</ref>

Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei]] followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they were ruling from Luyong.<ref name=Evaluate/>
[[File:Luoyang groty z rzezbami wotywnymi Longmen Shiku - Smoczych Wrot i okolice 02.JPG|thumb|right| Entrance to Longmen Grottoes (Longmen Shiku) under Manshui Bridge over Yi River ( Yi He)]]

===Later history===
During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the [[Qing Dynasty]] from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums.

Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]], under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture.<ref name=Evaluate/> A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982, it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level.<ref name=Guide>{{Cite web|url=http://www.longmen.com/en/Aboutus.asp?ID=124&title=Serveice%20Guide|title=Serveice Guide|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=Officailwebiste of Longmen Grottoes}}</ref> The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments.<ref name=Evaluate/> The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002.<ref>McNair, p. 2</ref>

During the [[Warring States Period]], the general [[Bai Qi]] of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] once defeated the allied forces of [[Han (state)|Han]] and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] and the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].<ref name=Sacred/><ref name=Lonely/>

==Panorama==
{{wide image|Boddhisatvas in Longmen Grottoes.JPG|1000px|Panorama of the Buddhist sculptures in the main Longmen Grotto.}}

==Grottoes==
[[Image:LongmenBoddhi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Massive Buddhist sculptures in the main grotto.]]
There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca. 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684).<ref name="Watson2000">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=The Arts of China to A.D. 900|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u8Akcp983oYC&pg=PA252|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=10 April 2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08284-5|pages=252–}}</ref> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010">{{cite book|last1=Lagerwey|first1=John|last2=Lü|first2=Pengzhi|title=Early Chinese religion: the period of division (220-589 AD). Part two|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA604|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17943-1|pages=604–605}}</ref>

===Guyangdong===
Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now predated to 478 AD, which has been inferred as the time taken by Emperor Xiaowen to shift his capital from Datong to Luoyang have very well sculpted Buddhist statues in niches in this cave. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of the writings of the Northern Wei style.<ref name=Sacred/> Many of the sculptures inside the cave were also contributed by royal people; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images - the central image is of [[Sakyamuni Buddha]] with [[Bodhisattva]]s on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions in the walls and niches inside the cave, the largest such numbers in any cave in China.<ref name=Evaluate/> There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names with dates giving reasons for carving them.

===Binyang===
Binyang has three caves of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent
;Binyangzhongdong
{{multiple image
| image1 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-wideshot.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The rear and north walls in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image2 = Longmen-binyang-middle-sakyamuni-upper.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The upper part of the central [[Sakyamuni]] image in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image3 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-south-wall.jpg
|width3 = 150
| alt3 =
| caption3 = South wall of [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
}}
Binyangzhongdong or the [[Middle Binyang Cave]], is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowen, and also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisatvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]]. There were reportedly two large [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] showing the Emperor and the Empress in worship which were pilfered and now stated to be in a museum in the USA. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Binyangnandong
Binyangnandong, or the [[South Binyang Cave]], has five very large images which were carved by [[Li Tai]], the fourth son of [[Li Shimin]], the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress [[Zhangsun]]. The central image in a serene appearance is that of [[Amitabha Buddha]] seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles.<ref name=Evaluate/>

===Fengxian===
[[File:Longmen.Vairocana.jpg|right|thumb|The Big Vairocana of Longmen Buddha Grottoes]]
Fengxian, or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes.<ref name="Hensley2010">{{cite book|last=Hensley|first=Laura|title=Art for All: What Is Public Art?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9RW16zSKyTAC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library|isbn=978-1-4109-3923-4|pages=14–}}</ref> Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of [[Vairocana Buddha]] is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2m long ears.<ref name=China/><ref name=Asian/><ref name="Hensley2010"/> An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit. The main image of Vairochana's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Virochana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China."<ref name=China/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Sacred/>

The Vairochana statue also provides information at its base of the names of the artisans who worked here, the donor's name namely the Emperor Gaozong, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed as a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project a detail of character and animation. Statues of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Ananda]], the two principal disciples of Vairochana and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, apart from numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying divas and numerous other figures."<ref name=Asian/>

===Others===
;Huangfugong
Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall, three-niche cave,<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" /> is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the [[lintel]] which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of lotus flower is carved in the roof flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or nymphs).<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of [[Empress Hu]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=January 2012}}.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" />
;Wan-fo-tung
Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung,<ref name="CohenCohen1986">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Joan Lebold|last2=Cohen|first2=Jerome Alan|authorlink2=Jerome Alan Cohen|title=China today and her ancient treasures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TkJwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=April 1986|publisher=Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-0798-0|page=125}}</ref> was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being {{convert|2|cm}} in height.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Yaofangdong
Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions<ref name="Harper2007">{{cite book|last=Harper|first=Damian|title=National Geographic Traveler China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xHL1KEXveSoC&pg=PT119|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=17 April 2007|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=978-1-4262-0035-9|pages=119, 120–}}</ref> of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range medical problems such as common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls. These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period right through to the early Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Qianxisi
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 004.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Vairocana]]
Reached by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653-80), the cave has statues of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha<ref name="McNair2007" /> (Amitabha Buddha), [[Avalokitesvara]] and [[Mahasthamaprapta]] flanked by Bodhisattvas, and are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style.<ref name=Evaluate/> It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father.<ref name="McNair2007">{{cite book|last=McNair|first=Amy|title=Donors of Longmen: faith, politics, and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qsEGIdhcgMoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2994-0|pages=86, 111, 185–}}</ref>

;Lianhua
The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 527, belongs to be the Northern Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Laolong
The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign.<ref name=Asian/>

==Temples==
There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/> Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under Emperor Wencheng; Giangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Quianar.<ref name="McNair2007" />

===Xiangshan temple===
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Beltry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Jiang Jieshi and Song Meiling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple.<ref name=Guide/>

===Bai Garden temple===
[[File:洛阳龙门白居易墓.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Bai Juyi]]
Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees.<ref name=Guide/>

===Tomb of Bai Juyi===
The Tomb of [[Bai Juyi]] on the east bank is of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty rule who lived in [[Luoyang]] during his later years. The tomb is located on the hill top. It is approached from west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poets name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/>

==Preservation and restoration==
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 001.jpg|thumb|right|Delamination of the limestone from which the figures are carved]]
As one of the major activities achieved in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen’s Grottoes as a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List based on "Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii); Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins on the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monuments to its heritage status as per guidelines issued from time to time after frequent inspections of the site.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening of the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Approach conditions to access the caves were newly installed in the form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government of China]] over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by integrated action by three institutions namely; the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection who provided the professional scientific inputs, the [[China University of Geosciences]] and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang City, in 1999.<ref name=Evaluate/>

==See also==
* [[Chinese art]]
* [[Mogao Caves]]
* [[Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China]]
* [[Yungang Grottoes]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Longmen Grottoes}}
*{{en}} [http://www.longmen.com/en/ Official website]
*{{en}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO - Longmen Grottoes]
* [http://pratyeka.org/longmen/ Photos]

{{Henan topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{National parks of China}}

{{coord|34|33|20|N|112|28|11|E|display=title|region:CN-41_type:landmark_source:dewiki}}

[[Category:493 establishments]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist grottoes|Longmen]]
[[Category:Luoyang]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:National parks of China|Longmen]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Henan]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Chinese sculpture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Henan]]
[[Category:Caves of Henan]]
[[Category:AAAAA-rated tourist attractions]]

Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-05T16:50:37Z

Avihu: /* Others */ That's what the source say

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Longmen Grottoes
| Image = [[Image:Longmen-lu-she-na-1.jpg|280px|Lu She Na Buddha]]
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px]] [[People's Republic of China|China]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 1003
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003
|map = China
|map_caption = Location in China
|map_width = 280
|locmapin = China
|relief =
|latitude = 34.555556
|longitude = 112.469722
}}
The '''Longmen Grottoes''' ({{zh|t=龍門石窟|s=龙门石窟|p=lóngmén shíkū}}; lit. ''Dragon's Gate Grottoes'') or '''Longmen Caves''' are one of the finest examples of [[Buddhist_art#China|Chinese Buddhist art]]. Housing tens of thousands of statues of [[Buddha]] and his disciples, they are located {{convert|12|km}} south of present day [[Luoyang|Luòyáng]] in [[Henan|Hénán]] province, [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the [[limestone]] cliffs of the Xiangshan and [[Longmen Mountains|Longmenshan]] mountains, running east and west. The [[Yi River (China)|Yi River]] flows northward between them and the area used to be called '''Yique''' ("The Gate of the Yi River").<ref name=China>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75219.htm |title= Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=China.org.cn|date=September 12, 2003|author=Longmen Grottoes Management Office|location=Luoyang City, Henan}}</ref><ref name=List>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003|title=Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=Evaluate>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1003.pdf|format=pdf|title= Longmen Grottoes (China) No 1003|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=Unesco.org|author=ICOMOS|date=September 2000}}</ref> The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "[[Chinese gate]] towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.<ref name=Asian>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/china/luoyang/longmen.php|title=Longmen Grottoes (carved 480s-900 onward)|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=orientalarchitecture.com|first=Robert D.|last=Fiala}}</ref>

There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an {{convert|1|inch}} to {{convert|57|ft}} in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 [[stelae]] and [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], whence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty [[Buddhist pagodas]]. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a {{convert|1|km}} stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] and 60% from the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total.<ref name=Evaluate/> Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, [[Wu Zetian]] of the [[Second Zhou Dynasty]], members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups.<ref name=China/><ref name=Sacred>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/longmen-caves|title=Longmen Caves|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher= sacred-destinations.com|date=July 24, 2009}}</ref>

In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China.<ref name=List/>

==Geography==
[[Image:Longmen-grottoes-longmen-mountain-from-a-distance.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Longmen as seen from Manshui Bridge to the southeast. May, 2004.]]
This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. The other two grottoes are the [[Yungang Caves]] near [[Datong]] in [[Shanxi Province]], and the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu Province]] in west China. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]]. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks.<ref name=List/><ref name=Asian/>

Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high,<ref name="Harper2007" /> while the largest Buddha statue is {{convert|57|ft}} in height.<ref name="Hensley2010" /> There are also approximately 2500 stellas and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/> The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end.<ref name=Sacred/>

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] dynasty when he shifted his capital to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493 and 534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The third phase, was during the reign of the Tang dynasty when [[Chinese Buddhism]] flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from 626 to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]].<ref name=List/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Lonely>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/henan/longmen-caves|title=Introducing Longmen Caves|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=March 2, 2009|publisher=Lonelyplanet.com}}</ref>

Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei]] followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they were ruling from Luyong.<ref name=Evaluate/>
[[File:Luoyang groty z rzezbami wotywnymi Longmen Shiku - Smoczych Wrot i okolice 02.JPG|thumb|right| Entrance to Longmen Grottoes (Longmen Shiku) under Manshui Bridge over Yi River ( Yi He)]]

===Later history===
During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the [[Qing Dynasty]] from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums.

Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]], under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture.<ref name=Evaluate/> A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982, it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level.<ref name=Guide>{{Cite web|url=http://www.longmen.com/en/Aboutus.asp?ID=124&title=Serveice%20Guide|title=Serveice Guide|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=Officailwebiste of Longmen Grottoes}}</ref> The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments.<ref name=Evaluate/> The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002.<ref>McNair, p. 2</ref>

During the [[Warring States Period]], the general [[Bai Qi]] of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] once defeated the allied forces of [[Han (state)|Han]] and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] and the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].<ref name=Sacred/><ref name=Lonely/>

==Panorama==
{{wide image|Boddhisatvas in Longmen Grottoes.JPG|1000px|Panorama of the Buddhist sculptures in the main Longmen Grotto.}}

==Grottoes==
[[Image:LongmenBoddhi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Massive Buddhist sculptures in the main grotto.]]
There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca. 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684).<ref name="Watson2000">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=The Arts of China to A.D. 900|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u8Akcp983oYC&pg=PA252|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=10 April 2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08284-5|pages=252–}}</ref> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010">{{cite book|last1=Lagerwey|first1=John|last2=Lü|first2=Pengzhi|title=Early Chinese religion: the period of division (220-589 AD). Part two|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA604|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17943-1|pages=604–605}}</ref>

===Guyangdong===
Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now predated to 478 AD, which has been inferred as the time taken by Emperor Xiaowen to shift his capital from Datong to Luoyang have very well sculpted Buddhist statues in niches in this cave. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of the writings of the Northern Wei style.<ref name=Sacred/> Many of the sculptures inside the cave were also contributed by royal people; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images - the central image is of [[Sakyamuni Buddha]] with [[Bodhisattva]]s on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions in the walls and niches inside the cave, the largest such numbers in any cave in China.<ref name=Evaluate/> There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names with dates giving reasons for carving them.

===Binyang===
Binyang has three caves of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent
;Binyangzhongdong
{{multiple image
| image1 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-wideshot.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The rear and north walls in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image2 = Longmen-binyang-middle-sakyamuni-upper.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The upper part of the central [[Sakyamuni]] image in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image3 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-south-wall.jpg
|width3 = 150
| alt3 =
| caption3 = South wall of [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
}}
Binyangzhongdong or the [[Middle Binyang Cave]], is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowen, and also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisatvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]]. There were reportedly two large [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] showing the Emperor and the Empress in worship which were pilfered and now stated to be in a museum in the USA. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Binyangnandong
Binyangnandong, or the [[South Binyang Cave]], has five very large images which were carved by [[Li Tai]], the fourth son of [[Li Shimin]], the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress [[Zhangsun]]. The central image in a serene appearance is that of [[Amitabha Buddha]] seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles.<ref name=Evaluate/>

===Fengxian===
[[File:Longmen.Vairocana.jpg|right|thumb|The Big Vairocana of Longmen Buddha Grottoes]]
Fengxian, or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes.<ref name="Hensley2010">{{cite book|last=Hensley|first=Laura|title=Art for All: What Is Public Art?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9RW16zSKyTAC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library|isbn=978-1-4109-3923-4|pages=14–}}</ref> Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of [[Vairocana Buddha]] is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2m long ears.<ref name=China/><ref name=Asian/><ref name="Hensley2010"/> An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit. The main image of Vairochana's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Virochana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China."<ref name=China/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Sacred/>

The Vairochana statue also provides information at its base of the names of the artisans who worked here, the donor's name namely the Emperor Gaozong, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed as a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project a detail of character and animation. Statues of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Ananda]], the two principal disciples of Vairochana and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, apart from numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying divas and numerous other figures."<ref name=Asian/>

===Others===
;Huangfugong
Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall, three-niche cave,<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" /> is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the [[lintel]] which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of lotus flower is carved in the roof flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or nymphs).<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of [[Empress Hu]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=January 2012}}.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" />
;Wan-fo-tung
Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung,<ref name="CohenCohen1986">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Joan Lebold|last2=Cohen|first2=Jerome Alan|authorlink2=Jerome Alan Cohen|title=China today and her ancient treasures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TkJwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=April 1986|publisher=Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-0798-0|page=125}}</ref> was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being {{convert|2|cm}} in height.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Yaofangdong
Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions<ref name="Harper2007">{{cite book|last=Harper|first=Damian|title=National Geographic Traveler China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xHL1KEXveSoC&pg=PT119|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=17 April 2007|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=978-1-4262-0035-9|pages=119, 120–}}</ref> of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range medical problems such as common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls. These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period right through to the early Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Qianxisi
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 004.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Vairocana]]
Reached by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653-80), the cave has statues of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha<ref name="McNair2007" /> (Amitabha Buddha), [[Avalokitesvara]] and [[Mahasthamaprapta]] flanked by Bodhisattvas, and are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style.<ref name=Evaluate/> It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father.<ref name="McNair2007">{{cite book|last=McNair|first=Amy|title=Donors of Longmen: faith, politics, and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qsEGIdhcgMoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2994-0|pages=86, 111, 185–}}</ref>

;Lianhua
The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 527, belongs to be the Northern Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Laolong
The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign.<ref name=Sacred/>

==Temples==
There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/> Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under Emperor Wencheng; Giangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Quianar.<ref name="McNair2007" />

===Xiangshan temple===
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Beltry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Jiang Jieshi and Song Meiling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple.<ref name=Guide/>

===Bai Garden temple===
[[File:洛阳龙门白居易墓.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Bai Juyi]]
Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees.<ref name=Guide/>

===Tomb of Bai Juyi===
The Tomb of [[Bai Juyi]] on the east bank is of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty rule who lived in [[Luoyang]] during his later years. The tomb is located on the hill top. It is approached from west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poets name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/>

==Preservation and restoration==
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 001.jpg|thumb|right|Delamination of the limestone from which the figures are carved]]
As one of the major activities achieved in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen’s Grottoes as a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List based on "Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii); Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins on the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monuments to its heritage status as per guidelines issued from time to time after frequent inspections of the site.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening of the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Approach conditions to access the caves were newly installed in the form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government of China]] over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by integrated action by three institutions namely; the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection who provided the professional scientific inputs, the [[China University of Geosciences]] and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang City, in 1999.<ref name=Evaluate/>

==See also==
* [[Chinese art]]
* [[Mogao Caves]]
* [[Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China]]
* [[Yungang Grottoes]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Longmen Grottoes}}
*{{en}} [http://www.longmen.com/en/ Official website]
*{{en}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO - Longmen Grottoes]
* [http://pratyeka.org/longmen/ Photos]

{{Henan topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{National parks of China}}

{{coord|34|33|20|N|112|28|11|E|display=title|region:CN-41_type:landmark_source:dewiki}}

[[Category:493 establishments]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist grottoes|Longmen]]
[[Category:Luoyang]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:National parks of China|Longmen]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Henan]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Chinese sculpture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Henan]]
[[Category:Caves of Henan]]
[[Category:AAAAA-rated tourist attractions]]

Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-05T12:54:41Z

Avihu: /* Others */ typo

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Longmen Grottoes
| Image = [[Image:Longmen-lu-she-na-1.jpg|280px|Lu She Na Buddha]]
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px]] [[People's Republic of China|China]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 1003
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003
|map = China
|map_caption = Location in China
|map_width = 280
|locmapin = China
|relief =
|latitude = 34.555556
|longitude = 112.469722
}}
The '''Longmen Grottoes''' ({{zh|t=龍門石窟|s=龙门石窟|p=lóngmén shíkū}}; lit. ''Dragon's Gate Grottoes'') or '''Longmen Caves''' are one of the finest examples of [[Buddhist_art#China|Chinese Buddhist art]]. Housing tens of thousands of statues of [[Buddha]] and his disciples, they are located {{convert|12|km}} south of present day [[Luoyang|Luòyáng]] in [[Henan|Hénán]] province, [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the [[limestone]] cliffs of the Xiangshan and [[Longmen Mountains|Longmenshan]] mountains, running east and west. The [[Yi River (China)|Yi River]] flows northward between them and the area used to be called '''Yique''' ("The Gate of the Yi River").<ref name=China>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75219.htm |title= Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=China.org.cn|date=September 12, 2003|author=Longmen Grottoes Management Office|location=Luoyang City, Henan}}</ref><ref name=List>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003|title=Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=Evaluate>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1003.pdf|format=pdf|title= Longmen Grottoes (China) No 1003|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=Unesco.org|author=ICOMOS|date=September 2000}}</ref> The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "[[Chinese gate]] towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.<ref name=Asian>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/china/luoyang/longmen.php|title=Longmen Grottoes (carved 480s-900 onward)|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=orientalarchitecture.com|first=Robert D.|last=Fiala}}</ref>

There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an {{convert|1|inch}} to {{convert|57|ft}} in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 [[stelae]] and [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], whence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty [[Buddhist pagodas]]. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a {{convert|1|km}} stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] and 60% from the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total.<ref name=Evaluate/> Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, [[Wu Zetian]] of the [[Second Zhou Dynasty]], members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups.<ref name=China/><ref name=Sacred>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/longmen-caves|title=Longmen Caves|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher= sacred-destinations.com|date=July 24, 2009}}</ref>

In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China.<ref name=List/>

==Geography==
[[Image:Longmen-grottoes-longmen-mountain-from-a-distance.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Longmen as seen from Manshui Bridge to the southeast. May, 2004.]]
This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. The other two grottoes are the [[Yungang Caves]] near [[Datong]] in [[Shanxi Province]], and the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu Province]] in west China. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]]. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks.<ref name=List/><ref name=Asian/>

Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high,<ref name="Harper2007" /> while the largest Buddha statue is {{convert|57|ft}} in height.<ref name="Hensley2010" /> There are also approximately 2500 stellas and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/> The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end.<ref name=Sacred/>

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] dynasty when he shifted his capital to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493 and 534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The third phase, was during the reign of the Tang dynasty when [[Chinese Buddhism]] flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from 626 to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]].<ref name=List/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Lonely>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/henan/longmen-caves|title=Introducing Longmen Caves|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=March 2, 2009|publisher=Lonelyplanet.com}}</ref>

Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei]] followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they were ruling from Luyong.<ref name=Evaluate/>
[[File:Luoyang groty z rzezbami wotywnymi Longmen Shiku - Smoczych Wrot i okolice 02.JPG|thumb|right| Entrance to Longmen Grottoes (Longmen Shiku) under Manshui Bridge over Yi River ( Yi He)]]

===Later history===
During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the [[Qing Dynasty]] from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums.

Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]], under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture.<ref name=Evaluate/> A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982, it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level.<ref name=Guide>{{Cite web|url=http://www.longmen.com/en/Aboutus.asp?ID=124&title=Serveice%20Guide|title=Serveice Guide|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=Officailwebiste of Longmen Grottoes}}</ref> The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments.<ref name=Evaluate/> The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002.<ref>McNair, p. 2</ref>

During the [[Warring States Period]], the general [[Bai Qi]] of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] once defeated the allied forces of [[Han (state)|Han]] and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] and the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].<ref name=Sacred/><ref name=Lonely/>

==Panorama==
{{wide image|Boddhisatvas in Longmen Grottoes.JPG|1000px|Panorama of the Buddhist sculptures in the main Longmen Grotto.}}

==Grottoes==
[[Image:LongmenBoddhi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Massive Buddhist sculptures in the main grotto.]]
There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca. 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684).<ref name="Watson2000">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=The Arts of China to A.D. 900|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u8Akcp983oYC&pg=PA252|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=10 April 2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08284-5|pages=252–}}</ref> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010">{{cite book|last1=Lagerwey|first1=John|last2=Lü|first2=Pengzhi|title=Early Chinese religion: the period of division (220-589 AD). Part two|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA604|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17943-1|pages=604–605}}</ref>

===Guyangdong===
Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now predated to 478 AD, which has been inferred as the time taken by Emperor Xiaowen to shift his capital from Datong to Luoyang have very well sculpted Buddhist statues in niches in this cave. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of the writings of the Northern Wei style.<ref name=Sacred/> Many of the sculptures inside the cave were also contributed by royal people; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images - the central image is of [[Sakyamuni Buddha]] with [[Bodhisattva]]s on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions in the walls and niches inside the cave, the largest such numbers in any cave in China.<ref name=Evaluate/> There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names with dates giving reasons for carving them.

===Binyang===
Binyang has three caves of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent
;Binyangzhongdong
{{multiple image
| image1 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-wideshot.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The rear and north walls in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image2 = Longmen-binyang-middle-sakyamuni-upper.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The upper part of the central [[Sakyamuni]] image in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image3 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-south-wall.jpg
|width3 = 150
| alt3 =
| caption3 = South wall of [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
}}
Binyangzhongdong or the [[Middle Binyang Cave]], is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowen, and also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisatvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]]. There were reportedly two large [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] showing the Emperor and the Empress in worship which were pilfered and now stated to be in a museum in the USA. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Binyangnandong
Binyangnandong, or the [[South Binyang Cave]], has five very large images which were carved by [[Li Tai]], the fourth son of [[Li Shimin]], the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress [[Zhangsun]]. The central image in a serene appearance is that of [[Amitabha Buddha]] seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles.<ref name=Evaluate/>

===Fengxian===
[[File:Longmen.Vairocana.jpg|right|thumb|The Big Vairocana of Longmen Buddha Grottoes]]
Fengxian, or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes.<ref name="Hensley2010">{{cite book|last=Hensley|first=Laura|title=Art for All: What Is Public Art?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9RW16zSKyTAC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library|isbn=978-1-4109-3923-4|pages=14–}}</ref> Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of [[Vairocana Buddha]] is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2m long ears.<ref name=China/><ref name=Asian/><ref name="Hensley2010"/> An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit. The main image of Vairochana's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Virochana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China."<ref name=China/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Sacred/>

The Vairochana statue also provides information at its base of the names of the artisans who worked here, the donor's name namely the Emperor Gaozong, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed as a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project a detail of character and animation. Statues of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Ananda]], the two principal disciples of Vairochana and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, apart from numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying divas and numerous other figures."<ref name=Asian/>

===Others===
;Huangfugong
Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall, three-niche cave,<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" /> is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the [[lintel]] which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of lotus flower is carved in the roof flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or nymphs).<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of [[Empress Hu]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=January 2012}}.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" />
;Wan-fo-tung
Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung,<ref name="CohenCohen1986">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Joan Lebold|last2=Cohen|first2=Jerome Alan|authorlink2=Jerome Alan Cohen|title=China today and her ancient treasures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TkJwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=April 1986|publisher=Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-0798-0|page=125}}</ref> was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being {{convert|2|cm}} in height.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Yaofangdong
Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions<ref name="Harper2007">{{cite book|last=Harper|first=Damian|title=National Geographic Traveler China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xHL1KEXveSoC&pg=PT119|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=17 April 2007|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=978-1-4262-0035-9|pages=119, 120–}}</ref> of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range medical problems such as common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls. These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period right through to the early Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Qianxisi
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 004.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Vairocana]]
Reached by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653-80), the cave has statues of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha<ref name="McNair2007" /> (Amitabha Buddha), [[Avalokitesvara]] and [[Mahasthamaprapta]] flanked by Bodhisattvas, and are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style.<ref name=Evaluate/> It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father.<ref name="McNair2007">{{cite book|last=McNair|first=Amy|title=Donors of Longmen: faith, politics, and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qsEGIdhcgMoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2994-0|pages=86, 111, 185–}}</ref>

;Lianhua
The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 521, belongs to be the Northern Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Laolong
The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign.<ref name=Sacred/>

==Temples==
There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/> Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under Emperor Wencheng; Giangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Quianar.<ref name="McNair2007" />

===Xiangshan temple===
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Beltry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Jiang Jieshi and Song Meiling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple.<ref name=Guide/>

===Bai Garden temple===
[[File:洛阳龙门白居易墓.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Bai Juyi]]
Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees.<ref name=Guide/>

===Tomb of Bai Juyi===
The Tomb of [[Bai Juyi]] on the east bank is of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty rule who lived in [[Luoyang]] during his later years. The tomb is located on the hill top. It is approached from west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poets name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/>

==Preservation and restoration==
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 001.jpg|thumb|right|Delamination of the limestone from which the figures are carved]]
As one of the major activities achieved in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen’s Grottoes as a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List based on "Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii); Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins on the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monuments to its heritage status as per guidelines issued from time to time after frequent inspections of the site.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening of the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Approach conditions to access the caves were newly installed in the form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government of China]] over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by integrated action by three institutions namely; the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection who provided the professional scientific inputs, the [[China University of Geosciences]] and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang City, in 1999.<ref name=Evaluate/>

==See also==
* [[Chinese art]]
* [[Mogao Caves]]
* [[Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China]]
* [[Yungang Grottoes]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Longmen Grottoes}}
*{{en}} [http://www.longmen.com/en/ Official website]
*{{en}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO - Longmen Grottoes]
* [http://pratyeka.org/longmen/ Photos]

{{Henan topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{National parks of China}}

{{coord|34|33|20|N|112|28|11|E|display=title|region:CN-41_type:landmark_source:dewiki}}

[[Category:493 establishments]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist grottoes|Longmen]]
[[Category:Luoyang]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:National parks of China|Longmen]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Henan]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Chinese sculpture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Henan]]
[[Category:Caves of Henan]]
[[Category:AAAAA-rated tourist attractions]]

Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-05T07:48:30Z

Avihu: /* Others */ typo

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Longmen Grottoes
| Image = [[Image:Longmen-lu-she-na-1.jpg|280px|Lu She Na Buddha]]
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px]] [[People's Republic of China|China]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 1003
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003
|map = China
|map_caption = Location in China
|map_width = 280
|locmapin = China
|relief =
|latitude = 34.555556
|longitude = 112.469722
}}
The '''Longmen Grottoes''' ({{zh|t=龍門石窟|s=龙门石窟|p=lóngmén shíkū}}; lit. ''Dragon's Gate Grottoes'') or '''Longmen Caves''' are one of the finest examples of [[Buddhist_art#China|Chinese Buddhist art]]. Housing tens of thousands of statues of [[Buddha]] and his disciples, they are located {{convert|12|km}} south of present day [[Luoyang|Luòyáng]] in [[Henan|Hénán]] province, [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the [[limestone]] cliffs of the Xiangshan and [[Longmen Mountains|Longmenshan]] mountains, running east and west. The [[Yi River (China)|Yi River]] flows northward between them and the area used to be called '''Yique''' ("The Gate of the Yi River").<ref name=China>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75219.htm |title= Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=China.org.cn|date=September 12, 2003|author=Longmen Grottoes Management Office|location=Luoyang City, Henan}}</ref><ref name=List>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003|title=Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=Evaluate>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1003.pdf|format=pdf|title= Longmen Grottoes (China) No 1003|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=Unesco.org|author=ICOMOS|date=September 2000}}</ref> The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "[[Chinese gate]] towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.<ref name=Asian>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/china/luoyang/longmen.php|title=Longmen Grottoes (carved 480s-900 onward)|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=orientalarchitecture.com|first=Robert D.|last=Fiala}}</ref>

There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an {{convert|1|inch}} to {{convert|57|ft}} in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 [[stelae]] and [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], whence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty [[Buddhist pagodas]]. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a {{convert|1|km}} stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] and 60% from the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total.<ref name=Evaluate/> Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, [[Wu Zetian]] of the [[Second Zhou Dynasty]], members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups.<ref name=China/><ref name=Sacred>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/longmen-caves|title=Longmen Caves|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher= sacred-destinations.com|date=July 24, 2009}}</ref>

In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China.<ref name=List/>

==Geography==
[[Image:Longmen-grottoes-longmen-mountain-from-a-distance.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Longmen as seen from Manshui Bridge to the southeast. May, 2004.]]
This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. The other two grottoes are the [[Yungang Caves]] near [[Datong]] in [[Shanxi Province]], and the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu Province]] in west China. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]]. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks.<ref name=List/><ref name=Asian/>

Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high,<ref name="Harper2007" /> while the largest Buddha statue is {{convert|57|ft}} in height.<ref name="Hensley2010" /> There are also approximately 2500 stellas and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/> The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end.<ref name=Sacred/>

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] dynasty when he shifted his capital to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493 and 534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The third phase, was during the reign of the Tang dynasty when [[Chinese Buddhism]] flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from 626 to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]].<ref name=List/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Lonely>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/henan/longmen-caves|title=Introducing Longmen Caves|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=March 2, 2009|publisher=Lonelyplanet.com}}</ref>

Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei]] followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they were ruling from Luyong.<ref name=Evaluate/>
[[File:Luoyang groty z rzezbami wotywnymi Longmen Shiku - Smoczych Wrot i okolice 02.JPG|thumb|right| Entrance to Longmen Grottoes (Longmen Shiku) under Manshui Bridge over Yi River ( Yi He)]]

===Later history===
During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the [[Qing Dynasty]] from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums.

Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]], under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture.<ref name=Evaluate/> A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982, it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level.<ref name=Guide>{{Cite web|url=http://www.longmen.com/en/Aboutus.asp?ID=124&title=Serveice%20Guide|title=Serveice Guide|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=Officailwebiste of Longmen Grottoes}}</ref> The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments.<ref name=Evaluate/> The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002.<ref>McNair, p. 2</ref>

During the [[Warring States Period]], the general [[Bai Qi]] of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] once defeated the allied forces of [[Han (state)|Han]] and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] and the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].<ref name=Sacred/><ref name=Lonely/>

==Panorama==
{{wide image|Boddhisatvas in Longmen Grottoes.JPG|1000px|Panorama of the Buddhist sculptures in the main Longmen Grotto.}}

==Grottoes==
[[Image:LongmenBoddhi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Massive Buddhist sculptures in the main grotto.]]
There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca. 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684).<ref name="Watson2000">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=The Arts of China to A.D. 900|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u8Akcp983oYC&pg=PA252|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=10 April 2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08284-5|pages=252–}}</ref> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010">{{cite book|last1=Lagerwey|first1=John|last2=Lü|first2=Pengzhi|title=Early Chinese religion: the period of division (220-589 AD). Part two|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA604|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17943-1|pages=604–605}}</ref>

===Guyangdong===
Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now predated to 478 AD, which has been inferred as the time taken by Emperor Xiaowen to shift his capital from Datong to Luoyang have very well sculpted Buddhist statues in niches in this cave. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of the writings of the Northern Wei style.<ref name=Sacred/> Many of the sculptures inside the cave were also contributed by royal people; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images - the central image is of [[Sakyamuni Buddha]] with [[Bodhisattva]]s on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions in the walls and niches inside the cave, the largest such numbers in any cave in China.<ref name=Evaluate/> There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names with dates giving reasons for carving them.

===Binyang===
Binyang has three caves of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent
;Binyangzhongdong
{{multiple image
| image1 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-wideshot.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The rear and north walls in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image2 = Longmen-binyang-middle-sakyamuni-upper.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The upper part of the central [[Sakyamuni]] image in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image3 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-south-wall.jpg
|width3 = 150
| alt3 =
| caption3 = South wall of [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
}}
Binyangzhongdong or the [[Middle Binyang Cave]], is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowen, and also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisatvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]]. There were reportedly two large [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] showing the Emperor and the Empress in worship which were pilfered and now stated to be in a museum in the USA. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Binyangnandong
Binyangnandong, or the [[South Binyang Cave]], has five very large images which were carved by [[Li Tai]], the fourth son of [[Li Shimin]], the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress [[Zhangsun]]. The central image in a serene appearance is that of [[Amitabha Buddha]] seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles.<ref name=Evaluate/>

===Fengxian===
[[File:Longmen.Vairocana.jpg|right|thumb|The Big Vairocana of Longmen Buddha Grottoes]]
Fengxian, or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes.<ref name="Hensley2010">{{cite book|last=Hensley|first=Laura|title=Art for All: What Is Public Art?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9RW16zSKyTAC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library|isbn=978-1-4109-3923-4|pages=14–}}</ref> Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of [[Vairocana Buddha]] is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2m long ears.<ref name=China/><ref name=Asian/><ref name="Hensley2010"/> An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit. The main image of Vairochana's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Virochana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China."<ref name=China/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Sacred/>

The Vairochana statue also provides information at its base of the names of the artisans who worked here, the donor's name namely the Emperor Gaozong, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed as a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project a detail of character and animation. Statues of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Ananda]], the two principal disciples of Vairochana and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, apart from numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying divas and numerous other figures."<ref name=Asian/>

===Others===
;Huangfugong
Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall, three-niche cave,<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" /> is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the [[lintel]] which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of lotus flower is carved in the roof flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or nymphs).<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of [[Empress Hu]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=January 2012}}.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" />
;Wan-fo-tung
Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung,<ref name="CohenCohen1986">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Joan Lebold|last2=Cohen|first2=Jerome Alan|authorlink2=Jerome Alan Cohen|title=China today and her ancient treasures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TkJwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=April 1986|publisher=Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-0798-0|page=125}}</ref> was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being {{convert|2|cm}} in height.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Yaofangdong
Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions<ref name="Harper2007">{{cite book|last=Harper|first=Damian|title=National Geographic Traveler China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xHL1KEXveSoC&pg=PT119|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=17 April 2007|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=978-1-4262-0035-9|pages=119, 120–}}</ref> of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range medical problems such as common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls. These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period right through to the early Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Qianxisi
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 004.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Vairocana]]
Reached by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653-80), the cave has statues of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha<ref name="McNair2007" /> (Amitabha Buddha), [[Avalokitesvara]] and ahasthamaprapta flanked by Bodhisattvas, and are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style.<ref name=Evaluate/> It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father.<ref name="McNair2007">{{cite book|last=McNair|first=Amy|title=Donors of Longmen: faith, politics, and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qsEGIdhcgMoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2994-0|pages=86, 111, 185–}}</ref>

;Lianhua
The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 521, belongs to be the Northern Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Laolong
The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign.<ref name=Sacred/>

==Temples==
There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/> Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under Emperor Wencheng; Giangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Quianar.<ref name="McNair2007" />

===Xiangshan temple===
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Beltry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Jiang Jieshi and Song Meiling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple.<ref name=Guide/>

===Bai Garden temple===
[[File:洛阳龙门白居易墓.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Bai Juyi]]
Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees.<ref name=Guide/>

===Tomb of Bai Juyi===
The Tomb of [[Bai Juyi]] on the east bank is of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty rule who lived in [[Luoyang]] during his later years. The tomb is located on the hill top. It is approached from west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poets name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/>

==Preservation and restoration==
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 001.jpg|thumb|right|Delamination of the limestone from which the figures are carved]]
As one of the major activities achieved in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen’s Grottoes as a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List based on "Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii); Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins on the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monuments to its heritage status as per guidelines issued from time to time after frequent inspections of the site.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening of the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Approach conditions to access the caves were newly installed in the form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government of China]] over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by integrated action by three institutions namely; the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection who provided the professional scientific inputs, the [[China University of Geosciences]] and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang City, in 1999.<ref name=Evaluate/>

==See also==
* [[Chinese art]]
* [[Mogao Caves]]
* [[Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China]]
* [[Yungang Grottoes]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Longmen Grottoes}}
*{{en}} [http://www.longmen.com/en/ Official website]
*{{en}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO - Longmen Grottoes]
* [http://pratyeka.org/longmen/ Photos]

{{Henan topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{National parks of China}}

{{coord|34|33|20|N|112|28|11|E|display=title|region:CN-41_type:landmark_source:dewiki}}

[[Category:493 establishments]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist grottoes|Longmen]]
[[Category:Luoyang]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:National parks of China|Longmen]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Henan]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Chinese sculpture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Henan]]
[[Category:Caves of Henan]]
[[Category:AAAAA-rated tourist attractions]]

Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-04T16:57:59Z

Avihu: /* Fengxian */ Fengxian District? it's part of Shanghai!

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Longmen Grottoes
| Image = [[Image:Longmen-lu-she-na-1.jpg|280px|Lu She Na Buddha]]
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px]] [[People's Republic of China|China]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 1003
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003
|map = China
|map_caption = Location in China
|map_width = 280
|locmapin = China
|relief =
|latitude = 34.555556
|longitude = 112.469722
}}
The '''Longmen Grottoes''' ({{zh|t=龍門石窟|s=龙门石窟|p=lóngmén shíkū}}; lit. ''Dragon's Gate Grottoes'') or '''Longmen Caves''' are one of the finest examples of [[Buddhist_art#China|Chinese Buddhist art]]. Housing tens of thousands of statues of [[Buddha]] and his disciples, they are located {{convert|12|km}} south of present day [[Luoyang|Luòyáng]] in [[Henan|Hénán]] province, [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the [[limestone]] cliffs of the Xiangshan and [[Longmen Mountains|Longmenshan]] mountains, running east and west. The [[Yi River (China)|Yi River]] flows northward between them and the area used to be called '''Yique''' ("The Gate of the Yi River").<ref name=China>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75219.htm |title= Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=China.org.cn|date=September 12, 2003|author=Longmen Grottoes Management Office|location=Luoyang City, Henan}}</ref><ref name=List>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003|title=Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=Evaluate>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1003.pdf|format=pdf|title= Longmen Grottoes (China) No 1003|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=Unesco.org|author=ICOMOS|date=September 2000}}</ref> The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "[[Chinese gate]] towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.<ref name=Asian>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/china/luoyang/longmen.php|title=Longmen Grottoes (carved 480s-900 onward)|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=orientalarchitecture.com|first=Robert D.|last=Fiala}}</ref>

There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an {{convert|1|inch}} to {{convert|57|ft}} in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 [[stelae]] and [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], whence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty [[Buddhist pagodas]]. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a {{convert|1|km}} stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] and 60% from the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total.<ref name=Evaluate/> Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, [[Wu Zetian]] of the [[Second Zhou Dynasty]], members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups.<ref name=China/><ref name=Sacred>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/longmen-caves|title=Longmen Caves|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher= sacred-destinations.com|date=July 24, 2009}}</ref>

In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China.<ref name=List/>

==Geography==
[[Image:Longmen-grottoes-longmen-mountain-from-a-distance.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Longmen as seen from Manshui Bridge to the southeast. May, 2004.]]
This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. The other two grottoes are the [[Yungang Caves]] near [[Datong]] in [[Shanxi Province]], and the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu Province]] in west China. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]]. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks.<ref name=List/><ref name=Asian/>

Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high,<ref name="Harper2007" /> while the largest Buddha statue is {{convert|57|ft}} in height.<ref name="Hensley2010" /> There are also approximately 2500 stellas and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/> The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end.<ref name=Sacred/>

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] dynasty when he shifted his capital to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493 and 534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The third phase, was during the reign of the Tang dynasty when [[Chinese Buddhism]] flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from 626 to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]].<ref name=List/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Lonely>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/henan/longmen-caves|title=Introducing Longmen Caves|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=March 2, 2009|publisher=Lonelyplanet.com}}</ref>

Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei]] followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they were ruling from Luyong.<ref name=Evaluate/>
[[File:Luoyang groty z rzezbami wotywnymi Longmen Shiku - Smoczych Wrot i okolice 02.JPG|thumb|right| Entrance to Longmen Grottoes (Longmen Shiku) under Manshui Bridge over Yi River ( Yi He)]]

===Later history===
During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the [[Qing Dynasty]] from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums.

Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]], under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture.<ref name=Evaluate/> A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982, it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level.<ref name=Guide>{{Cite web|url=http://www.longmen.com/en/Aboutus.asp?ID=124&title=Serveice%20Guide|title=Serveice Guide|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=Officailwebiste of Longmen Grottoes}}</ref> The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments.<ref name=Evaluate/> The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002.<ref>McNair, p. 2</ref>

During the [[Warring States Period]], the general [[Bai Qi]] of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] once defeated the allied forces of [[Han (state)|Han]] and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] and the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].<ref name=Sacred/><ref name=Lonely/>

==Panorama==
{{wide image|Boddhisatvas in Longmen Grottoes.JPG|1000px|Panorama of the Buddhist sculptures in the main Longmen Grotto.}}

==Grottoes==
[[Image:LongmenBoddhi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Massive Buddhist sculptures in the main grotto.]]
There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca. 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684).<ref name="Watson2000">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=The Arts of China to A.D. 900|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u8Akcp983oYC&pg=PA252|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=10 April 2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08284-5|pages=252–}}</ref> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010">{{cite book|last1=Lagerwey|first1=John|last2=Lü|first2=Pengzhi|title=Early Chinese religion: the period of division (220-589 AD). Part two|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA604|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17943-1|pages=604–605}}</ref>

===Guyangdong===
Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now predated to 478 AD, which has been inferred as the time taken by Emperor Xiaowen to shift his capital from Datong to Luoyang have very well sculpted Buddhist statues in niches in this cave. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of the writings of the Northern Wei style.<ref name=Sacred/> Many of the sculptures inside the cave were also contributed by royal people; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images - the central image is of [[Sakyamuni Buddha]] with [[Bodhisattva]]s on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions in the walls and niches inside the cave, the largest such numbers in any cave in China.<ref name=Evaluate/> There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names with dates giving reasons for carving them.

===Binyang===
Binyang has three caves of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent
;Binyangzhongdong
{{multiple image
| image1 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-wideshot.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The rear and north walls in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image2 = Longmen-binyang-middle-sakyamuni-upper.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The upper part of the central [[Sakyamuni]] image in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image3 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-south-wall.jpg
|width3 = 150
| alt3 =
| caption3 = South wall of [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
}}
Binyangzhongdong or the [[Middle Binyang Cave]], is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowen, and also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisatvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]]. There were reportedly two large [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] showing the Emperor and the Empress in worship which were pilfered and now stated to be in a museum in the USA. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Binyangnandong
Binyangnandong, or the [[South Binyang Cave]], has five very large images which were carved by [[Li Tai]], the fourth son of [[Li Shimin]], the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress [[Zhangsun]]. The central image in a serene appearance is that of [[Amitabha Buddha]] seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles.<ref name=Evaluate/>

===Fengxian===
[[File:Longmen.Vairocana.jpg|right|thumb|The Big Vairocana of Longmen Buddha Grottoes]]
Fengxian, or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes.<ref name="Hensley2010">{{cite book|last=Hensley|first=Laura|title=Art for All: What Is Public Art?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9RW16zSKyTAC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library|isbn=978-1-4109-3923-4|pages=14–}}</ref> Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of [[Vairocana Buddha]] is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2m long ears.<ref name=China/><ref name=Asian/><ref name="Hensley2010"/> An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit. The main image of Vairochana's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Virochana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China."<ref name=China/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Sacred/>

The Vairochana statue also provides information at its base of the names of the artisans who worked here, the donor's name namely the Emperor Gaozong, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed as a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project a detail of character and animation. Statues of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Ananda]], the two principal disciples of Vairochana and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, apart from numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying divas and numerous other figures."<ref name=Asian/>

===Others===
;Huangfugong
Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall, three-niche cave,<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" /> is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the [[lintel]] which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of lotus flower is carved in the roof flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or nymphs).<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of [[Empress Hu]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=January 2012}}.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" />
;Wan-fo-tung
Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung,<ref name="CohenCohen1986">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Joan Lebold|last2=Cohen|first2=Jerome Alan|authorlink2=Jerome Alan Cohen|title=China today and her ancient treasures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TkJwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=April 1986|publisher=Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-0798-0|page=125}}</ref> was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being {{convert|2|cm}} in height.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Yaofangdong
Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions<ref name="Harper2007">{{cite book|last=Harper|first=Damian|title=National Geographic Traveler China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xHL1KEXveSoC&pg=PT119|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=17 April 2007|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=978-1-4262-0035-9|pages=119, 120–}}</ref> of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range medical problems such as common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period right through to the early Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Qianxisi
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 004.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Vairocana]]
Reached by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653-80), the cave has statues of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha<ref name="McNair2007" /> (Amitabha Buddha), [[Avalokitesvara]] and ahasthamaprapta flanked by Bodhisattvas, and are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style.<ref name=Evaluate/> It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father.<ref name="McNair2007">{{cite book|last=McNair|first=Amy|title=Donors of Longmen: faith, politics, and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qsEGIdhcgMoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2994-0|pages=86, 111, 185–}}</ref>

;Lianhua
The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 521, belongs to be the Northern Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Laolong
The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign.<ref name=Sacred/>

==Temples==
There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/> Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under Emperor Wencheng; Giangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Quianar.<ref name="McNair2007" />

===Xiangshan temple===
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Beltry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Jiang Jieshi and Song Meiling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple.<ref name=Guide/>

===Bai Garden temple===
[[File:洛阳龙门白居易墓.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Bai Juyi]]
Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees.<ref name=Guide/>

===Tomb of Bai Juyi===
The Tomb of [[Bai Juyi]] on the east bank is of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty rule who lived in [[Luoyang]] during his later years. The tomb is located on the hill top. It is approached from west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poets name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/>

==Preservation and restoration==
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 001.jpg|thumb|right|Delamination of the limestone from which the figures are carved]]
As one of the major activities achieved in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen’s Grottoes as a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List based on "Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii); Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins on the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monuments to its heritage status as per guidelines issued from time to time after frequent inspections of the site.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening of the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Approach conditions to access the caves were newly installed in the form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government of China]] over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by integrated action by three institutions namely; the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection who provided the professional scientific inputs, the [[China University of Geosciences]] and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang City, in 1999.<ref name=Evaluate/>

==See also==
* [[Chinese art]]
* [[Mogao Caves]]
* [[Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China]]
* [[Yungang Grottoes]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Longmen Grottoes}}
*{{en}} [http://www.longmen.com/en/ Official website]
*{{en}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO - Longmen Grottoes]
* [http://pratyeka.org/longmen/ Photos]

{{Henan topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{National parks of China}}

{{coord|34|33|20|N|112|28|11|E|display=title|region:CN-41_type:landmark_source:dewiki}}

[[Category:493 establishments]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist grottoes|Longmen]]
[[Category:Luoyang]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:National parks of China|Longmen]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Henan]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Chinese sculpture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Henan]]
[[Category:Caves of Henan]]
[[Category:AAAAA-rated tourist attractions]]

Talk:Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-01T20:56:12Z

Avihu: /* " It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523" */

{{Talk header}}
{{WikiProjectBannerShell|1=
{{WikiProject Buddhism|class=Start}}
{{WikiProject World Heritage Sites|class=|importance=Mid}}
{{WPCHINA|class=Start|importance=Mid}}
{{WikiProject WSPA|class=Start}}
{{WPMA|class=Start|importance=}}
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{{dyktalk|26 May|2011|entry=... that the approximately 1,400 [[cave]]s of [[People's Republic of China|China]]'s '''[[Longmen Grottoes]]''' contain about 100,000 [[statue]]s, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high, while the largest [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] statue ''(pictured)'' is {{convert|57|ft}} in height?}}

== Number of caves ==

The article quote 1,400, [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO site], on the other hand specify a very accurate number (2,345), [http://books.google.co.il/books?id=tFRgajxu3wIC&pg=PT93&dq=Longmen+Grottoes&hl=en&sa=X&ei=uKpZUd6uJYil4ATY5YGgDA&redir_esc=y Atlas of World Heritage: China] spcify 2,300 and [http://buddhistartnews.wordpress.com/2013/03/23/illuminating-the-past-and-present/ Illuminating the past, and present] specify 23,000 (which is certainly an error, but it make sense if we omit the last zero). [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 15:55, 1 April 2013 (UTC)

== "It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523" ==

Really? In a 12m long, 10.9m wide cave? Here is a better explanation "The project took 802,366 '''man-days''', from the 1st year of Jinming to June of the 4th year of Zhengguang (AD 500 -- 523)." [http://henan.chinadaily.com.cn/longmen/2011-04/21/content_12372629.htm Middle Binyang Cave] from China Daily Longmen Grottoes website. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 20:40, 1 April 2013 (UTC)

Talk:Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-01T20:40:04Z

Avihu: /* " It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523" */ new section

{{Talk header}}
{{WikiProjectBannerShell|1=
{{WikiProject Buddhism|class=Start}}
{{WikiProject World Heritage Sites|class=|importance=Mid}}
{{WPCHINA|class=Start|importance=Mid}}
{{WikiProject WSPA|class=Start}}
{{WPMA|class=Start|importance=}}
}}
{{dyktalk|26 May|2011|entry=... that the approximately 1,400 [[cave]]s of [[People's Republic of China|China]]'s '''[[Longmen Grottoes]]''' contain about 100,000 [[statue]]s, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high, while the largest [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] statue ''(pictured)'' is {{convert|57|ft}} in height?}}

== Number of caves ==

The article quote 1,400, [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO site], on the other hand specify a very accurate number (2,345), [http://books.google.co.il/books?id=tFRgajxu3wIC&pg=PT93&dq=Longmen+Grottoes&hl=en&sa=X&ei=uKpZUd6uJYil4ATY5YGgDA&redir_esc=y Atlas of World Heritage: China] spcify 2,300 and [http://buddhistartnews.wordpress.com/2013/03/23/illuminating-the-past-and-present/ Illuminating the past, and present] specify 23,000 (which is certainly an error, but it make sense if we omit the last zero). [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 15:55, 1 April 2013 (UTC)

== " It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523" ==

Really? In a cave? Here is a better explanation "The project took 802,366 '''man-days''', from the 1st year of Jinming to June of the 4th year of Zhengguang (AD 500 -- 523)." [http://henan.chinadaily.com.cn/longmen/2011-04/21/content_12372629.htm Middle Binyang Cave] from China Daily Longmen Grottoes website. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 20:40, 1 April 2013 (UTC)

Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-01T20:31:13Z

Avihu: /* Binyang */ typo

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Longmen Grottoes
| Image = [[Image:Longmen-lu-she-na-1.jpg|280px|Lu She Na Buddha]]
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px]] [[People's Republic of China|China]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 1003
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003
|map = China
|map_caption = Location in China
|map_width = 280
|locmapin = China
|relief =
|latitude = 34.555556
|longitude = 112.469722
}}
The '''Longmen Grottoes''' ({{zh|t=龍門石窟|s=龙门石窟|p=lóngmén shíkū}}; lit. ''Dragon's Gate Grottoes'') or '''Longmen Caves''' are one of the finest examples of [[Buddhist_art#China|Chinese Buddhist art]]. Housing tens of thousands of statues of [[Buddha]] and his disciples, they are located {{convert|12|km}} south of present day [[Luoyang|Luòyáng]] in [[Henan|Hénán]] province, [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the [[limestone]] cliffs of the Xiangshan and [[Longmen Mountains|Longmenshan]] mountains, running east and west. The [[Yi River (China)|Yi River]] flows northward between them and the area used to be called '''Yique''' ("The Gate of the Yi River").<ref name=China>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75219.htm |title= Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=China.org.cn|date=September 12, 2003|author=Longmen Grottoes Management Office|location=Luoyang City, Henan}}</ref><ref name=List>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003|title=Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=Evaluate>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1003.pdf|format=pdf|title= Longmen Grottoes (China) No 1003|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=Unesco.org|author=ICOMOS|date=September 2000}}</ref> The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "[[Chinese gate]] towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.<ref name=Asian>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/china/luoyang/longmen.php|title=Longmen Grottoes (carved 480s-900 onward)|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=orientalarchitecture.com|first=Robert D.|last=Fiala}}</ref>

There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an {{convert|1|inch}} to {{convert|57|ft}} in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 [[stelae]] and [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], whence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty [[Buddhist pagodas]]. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a {{convert|1|km}} stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] and 60% from the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total.<ref name=Evaluate/> Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, [[Wu Zetian]] of the [[Second Zhou Dynasty]], members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups.<ref name=China/><ref name=Sacred>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/longmen-caves|title=Longmen Caves|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher= sacred-destinations.com|date=July 24, 2009}}</ref>

In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China.<ref name=List/>

==Geography==
[[Image:Longmen-grottoes-longmen-mountain-from-a-distance.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Longmen as seen from Manshui Bridge to the southeast. May, 2004.]]
This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. The other two grottoes are the [[Yungang Caves]] near [[Datong]] in [[Shanxi Province]], and the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu Province]] in west China. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]]. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks.<ref name=List/><ref name=Asian/>

Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high,<ref name="Harper2007" /> while the largest Buddha statue is {{convert|57|ft}} in height.<ref name="Hensley2010" /> There are also approximately 2500 stellas and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/> The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end.<ref name=Sacred/>

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] dynasty when he shifted his capital to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493 and 534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The third phase, was during the reign of the Tang dynasty when [[Chinese Buddhism]] flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from 626 to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]].<ref name=List/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Lonely>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/henan/longmen-caves|title=Introducing Longmen Caves|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=March 2, 2009|publisher=Lonelyplanet.com}}</ref>

Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei]] followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they were ruling from Luyong.<ref name=Evaluate/>
[[File:Luoyang groty z rzezbami wotywnymi Longmen Shiku - Smoczych Wrot i okolice 02.JPG|thumb|right| Entrance to Longmen Grottoes (Longmen Shiku) under Manshui Bridge over Yi River ( Yi He)]]

===Later history===
During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the [[Qing Dynasty]] from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums.

Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]], under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture.<ref name=Evaluate/> A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982, it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level.<ref name=Guide>{{Cite web|url=http://www.longmen.com/en/Aboutus.asp?ID=124&title=Serveice%20Guide|title=Serveice Guide|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=Officailwebiste of Longmen Grottoes}}</ref> The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments.<ref name=Evaluate/> The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002.<ref>McNair, p. 2</ref>

During the [[Warring States Period]], the general [[Bai Qi]] of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] once defeated the allied forces of [[Han (state)|Han]] and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] and the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].<ref name=Sacred/><ref name=Lonely/>

==Panorama==
{{wide image|Boddhisatvas in Longmen Grottoes.JPG|1000px|Panorama of the Buddhist sculptures in the main Longmen Grotto.}}

==Grottoes==
[[Image:LongmenBoddhi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Massive Buddhist sculptures in the main grotto.]]
There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca. 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684).<ref name="Watson2000">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=The Arts of China to A.D. 900|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u8Akcp983oYC&pg=PA252|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=10 April 2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08284-5|pages=252–}}</ref> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010">{{cite book|last1=Lagerwey|first1=John|last2=Lü|first2=Pengzhi|title=Early Chinese religion: the period of division (220-589 AD). Part two|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA604|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17943-1|pages=604–605}}</ref>

===Guyangdong===
Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now predated to 478 AD, which has been inferred as the time taken by Emperor Xiaowen to shift his capital from Datong to Luoyang have very well sculpted Buddhist statues in niches in this cave. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of the writings of the Northern Wei style.<ref name=Sacred/> Many of the sculptures inside the cave were also contributed by royal people; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images - the central image is of [[Sakyamuni Buddha]] with [[Bodhisattva]]s on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions in the walls and niches inside the cave, the largest such numbers in any cave in China.<ref name=Evaluate/> There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names with dates giving reasons for carving them.

===Binyang===
Binyang has three caves of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent
;Binyangzhongdong
{{multiple image
| image1 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-wideshot.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The rear and north walls in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image2 = Longmen-binyang-middle-sakyamuni-upper.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The upper part of the central [[Sakyamuni]] image in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image3 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-south-wall.jpg
|width3 = 150
| alt3 =
| caption3 = South wall of [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
}}
Binyangzhongdong or the [[Middle Binyang Cave]], is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowen, and also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisatvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]]. There were reportedly two large [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] showing the Emperor and the Empress in worship which were pilfered and now stated to be in a museum in the USA. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Binyangnandong
Binyangnandong, or the [[South Binyang Cave]], has five very large images which were carved by [[Li Tai]], the fourth son of [[Li Shimin]], the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress [[Zhangsun]]. The central image in a serene appearance is that of [[Amitabha Buddha]] seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles.<ref name=Evaluate/>

===Fengxian===
[[File:Longmen.Vairocana.jpg|right|thumb|The Big Vairocana of Longmen Buddha Grottoes]]
[[Fengxian District|Fengxian]], or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes.<ref name="Hensley2010">{{cite book|last=Hensley|first=Laura|title=Art for All: What Is Public Art?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9RW16zSKyTAC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library|isbn=978-1-4109-3923-4|pages=14–}}</ref> Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of [[Vairocana Buddha]] is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2m long ears.<ref name=China/><ref name=Asian/><ref name="Hensley2010"/> An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit. The main image of Vairochana's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Virochana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China."<ref name=China/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Sacred/>

The Vairochana statue also provides information at its base of the names of the artisans who worked here, the donor's name namely the Emperor Gaozong, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed as a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project a detail of character and animation. Statues of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Ananda]], the two principal disciples of Vairochana and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, apart from numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying divas and numerous other figures."<ref name=Asian/>

===Others===
;Huangfugong
Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall, three-niche cave,<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" /> is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the [[lintel]] which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of lotus flower is carved in the roof flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or nymphs).<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of [[Empress Hu]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=January 2012}}.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" />
;Wan-fo-tung
Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung,<ref name="CohenCohen1986">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Joan Lebold|last2=Cohen|first2=Jerome Alan|authorlink2=Jerome Alan Cohen|title=China today and her ancient treasures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TkJwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=April 1986|publisher=Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-0798-0|page=125}}</ref> was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being {{convert|2|cm}} in height.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Yaofangdong
Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions<ref name="Harper2007">{{cite book|last=Harper|first=Damian|title=National Geographic Traveler China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xHL1KEXveSoC&pg=PT119|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=17 April 2007|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=978-1-4262-0035-9|pages=119, 120–}}</ref> of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range medical problems such as common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period right through to the early Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Qianxisi
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 004.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Vairocana]]
Reached by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653-80), the cave has statues of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha<ref name="McNair2007" /> (Amitabha Buddha), [[Avalokitesvara]] and ahasthamaprapta flanked by Bodhisattvas, and are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style.<ref name=Evaluate/> It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father.<ref name="McNair2007">{{cite book|last=McNair|first=Amy|title=Donors of Longmen: faith, politics, and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qsEGIdhcgMoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2994-0|pages=86, 111, 185–}}</ref>

;Lianhua
The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 521, belongs to be the Northern Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Laolong
The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign.<ref name=Sacred/>

==Temples==
There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/> Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under Emperor Wencheng; Giangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Quianar.<ref name="McNair2007" />

===Xiangshan temple===
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Beltry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Jiang Jieshi and Song Meiling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple.<ref name=Guide/>

===Bai Garden temple===
[[File:洛阳龙门白居易墓.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Bai Juyi]]
Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees.<ref name=Guide/>

===Tomb of Bai Juyi===
The Tomb of [[Bai Juyi]] on the east bank is of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty rule who lived in [[Luoyang]] during his later years. The tomb is located on the hill top. It is approached from west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poets name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/>

==Preservation and restoration==
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 001.jpg|thumb|right|Delamination of the limestone from which the figures are carved]]
As one of the major activities achieved in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen’s Grottoes as a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List based on "Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii); Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins on the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monuments to its heritage status as per guidelines issued from time to time after frequent inspections of the site.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening of the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Approach conditions to access the caves were newly installed in the form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government of China]] over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by integrated action by three institutions namely; the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection who provided the professional scientific inputs, the [[China University of Geosciences]] and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang City, in 1999.<ref name=Evaluate/>

==See also==
* [[Chinese art]]
* [[Mogao Caves]]
* [[Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China]]
* [[Yungang Grottoes]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Longmen Grottoes}}
*{{en}} [http://www.longmen.com/en/ Official website]
*{{en}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO - Longmen Grottoes]
* [http://pratyeka.org/longmen/ Photos]

{{Henan topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{National parks of China}}

{{coord|34|33|20|N|112|28|11|E|display=title|region:CN-41_type:landmark_source:dewiki}}

[[Category:493 establishments]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist grottoes|Longmen]]
[[Category:Luoyang]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:National parks of China|Longmen]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Henan]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Chinese sculpture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Henan]]
[[Category:Caves of Henan]]
[[Category:AAAAA-rated tourist attractions]]

Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-01T18:46:35Z

Avihu: /* Guyangdong */ That's the 3rd time in this paragraph we are being told that there inscriptions (BTW 600 or 800?)

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Longmen Grottoes
| Image = [[Image:Longmen-lu-she-na-1.jpg|280px|Lu She Na Buddha]]
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px]] [[People's Republic of China|China]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 1003
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003
|map = China
|map_caption = Location in China
|map_width = 280
|locmapin = China
|relief =
|latitude = 34.555556
|longitude = 112.469722
}}
The '''Longmen Grottoes''' ({{zh|t=龍門石窟|s=龙门石窟|p=lóngmén shíkū}}; lit. ''Dragon's Gate Grottoes'') or '''Longmen Caves''' are one of the finest examples of [[Buddhist_art#China|Chinese Buddhist art]]. Housing tens of thousands of statues of [[Buddha]] and his disciples, they are located {{convert|12|km}} south of present day [[Luoyang|Luòyáng]] in [[Henan|Hénán]] province, [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the [[limestone]] cliffs of the Xiangshan and [[Longmen Mountains|Longmenshan]] mountains, running east and west. The [[Yi River (China)|Yi River]] flows northward between them and the area used to be called '''Yique''' ("The Gate of the Yi River").<ref name=China>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75219.htm |title= Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=China.org.cn|date=September 12, 2003|author=Longmen Grottoes Management Office|location=Luoyang City, Henan}}</ref><ref name=List>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003|title=Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=Evaluate>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1003.pdf|format=pdf|title= Longmen Grottoes (China) No 1003|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=Unesco.org|author=ICOMOS|date=September 2000}}</ref> The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "[[Chinese gate]] towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.<ref name=Asian>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/china/luoyang/longmen.php|title=Longmen Grottoes (carved 480s-900 onward)|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=orientalarchitecture.com|first=Robert D.|last=Fiala}}</ref>

There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an {{convert|1|inch}} to {{convert|57|ft}} in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 [[stelae]] and [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], whence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty [[Buddhist pagodas]]. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a {{convert|1|km}} stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] and 60% from the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total.<ref name=Evaluate/> Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, [[Wu Zetian]] of the [[Second Zhou Dynasty]], members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups.<ref name=China/><ref name=Sacred>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/longmen-caves|title=Longmen Caves|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher= sacred-destinations.com|date=July 24, 2009}}</ref>

In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China.<ref name=List/>

==Geography==
[[Image:Longmen-grottoes-longmen-mountain-from-a-distance.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Longmen as seen from Manshui Bridge to the southeast. May, 2004.]]
This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. The other two grottoes are the [[Yungang Caves]] near [[Datong]] in [[Shanxi Province]], and the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu Province]] in west China. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]]. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks.<ref name=List/><ref name=Asian/>

Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high,<ref name="Harper2007" /> while the largest Buddha statue is {{convert|57|ft}} in height.<ref name="Hensley2010" /> There are also approximately 2500 stellas and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/> The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end.<ref name=Sacred/>

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] dynasty when he shifted his capital to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493 and 534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The third phase, was during the reign of the Tang dynasty when [[Chinese Buddhism]] flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from 626 to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]].<ref name=List/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Lonely>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/henan/longmen-caves|title=Introducing Longmen Caves|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=March 2, 2009|publisher=Lonelyplanet.com}}</ref>

Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei]] followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they were ruling from Luyong.<ref name=Evaluate/>
[[File:Luoyang groty z rzezbami wotywnymi Longmen Shiku - Smoczych Wrot i okolice 02.JPG|thumb|right| Entrance to Longmen Grottoes (Longmen Shiku) under Manshui Bridge over Yi River ( Yi He)]]

===Later history===
During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the [[Qing Dynasty]] from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums.

Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]], under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture.<ref name=Evaluate/> A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982, it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level.<ref name=Guide>{{Cite web|url=http://www.longmen.com/en/Aboutus.asp?ID=124&title=Serveice%20Guide|title=Serveice Guide|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=Officailwebiste of Longmen Grottoes}}</ref> The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments.<ref name=Evaluate/> The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002.<ref>McNair, p. 2</ref>

During the [[Warring States Period]], the general [[Bai Qi]] of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] once defeated the allied forces of [[Han (state)|Han]] and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] and the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].<ref name=Sacred/><ref name=Lonely/>

==Panorama==
{{wide image|Boddhisatvas in Longmen Grottoes.JPG|1000px|Panorama of the Buddhist sculptures in the main Longmen Grotto.}}

==Grottoes==
[[Image:LongmenBoddhi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Massive Buddhist sculptures in the main grotto.]]
There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca. 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684).<ref name="Watson2000">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=The Arts of China to A.D. 900|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u8Akcp983oYC&pg=PA252|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=10 April 2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08284-5|pages=252–}}</ref> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010">{{cite book|last1=Lagerwey|first1=John|last2=Lü|first2=Pengzhi|title=Early Chinese religion: the period of division (220-589 AD). Part two|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA604|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17943-1|pages=604–605}}</ref>

===Guyangdong===
Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now predated to 478 AD, which has been inferred as the time taken by Emperor Xiaowen to shift his capital from Datong to Luoyang have very well sculpted Buddhist statues in niches in this cave. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of the writings of the Northern Wei style.<ref name=Sacred/> Many of the sculptures inside the cave were also contributed by royal people; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images - the central image is of [[Sakyamuni Buddha]] with [[Bodhisattva]]s on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions in the walls and niches inside the cave, the largest such numbers in any cave in China.<ref name=Evaluate/> There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names with dates giving reasons for carving them.

===Binyang===
Binyang has three caves of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent
;Binyangzhongdong
{{multiple image
| image1 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-wideshot.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The rear and north walls in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image2 = Longmen-binyang-middle-sakyamuni-upper.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The upper part of the central [[Sakyamuni]] image in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image3 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-south-wall.jpg
|width3 = 150
| alt3 =
| caption3 = South wall of [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
}}
Binyangzhongdong or the [[Middle Binyang Cave]], is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowe, and also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisatvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]]. There were reportedly two large [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] showing the Emperor and the Empress in worship which were pilfered and now stated to be in a museum in the USA. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Binyangnandong
Binyangnandong, or the [[South Binyang Cave]], has five very large images which were carved by [[Li Tai]], the fourth son of [[Li Shimin]], the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress [[Zhangsun]]. The central image in a serene appearance is that of [[Amitabha Buddha]] seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles.<ref name=Evaluate/>

===Fengxian===
[[File:Longmen.Vairocana.jpg|right|thumb|The Big Vairocana of Longmen Buddha Grottoes]]
[[Fengxian District|Fengxian]], or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes.<ref name="Hensley2010">{{cite book|last=Hensley|first=Laura|title=Art for All: What Is Public Art?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9RW16zSKyTAC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library|isbn=978-1-4109-3923-4|pages=14–}}</ref> Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of [[Vairocana Buddha]] is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2m long ears.<ref name=China/><ref name=Asian/><ref name="Hensley2010"/> An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit. The main image of Vairochana's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Virochana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China."<ref name=China/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Sacred/>

The Vairochana statue also provides information at its base of the names of the artisans who worked here, the donor's name namely the Emperor Gaozong, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed as a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project a detail of character and animation. Statues of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Ananda]], the two principal disciples of Vairochana and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, apart from numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying divas and numerous other figures."<ref name=Asian/>

===Others===
;Huangfugong
Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall, three-niche cave,<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" /> is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the [[lintel]] which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of lotus flower is carved in the roof flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or nymphs).<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of [[Empress Hu]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=January 2012}}.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" />
;Wan-fo-tung
Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung,<ref name="CohenCohen1986">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Joan Lebold|last2=Cohen|first2=Jerome Alan|authorlink2=Jerome Alan Cohen|title=China today and her ancient treasures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TkJwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=April 1986|publisher=Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-0798-0|page=125}}</ref> was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being {{convert|2|cm}} in height.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Yaofangdong
Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions<ref name="Harper2007">{{cite book|last=Harper|first=Damian|title=National Geographic Traveler China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xHL1KEXveSoC&pg=PT119|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=17 April 2007|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=978-1-4262-0035-9|pages=119, 120–}}</ref> of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range medical problems such as common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period right through to the early Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Qianxisi
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 004.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Vairocana]]
Reached by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653-80), the cave has statues of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha<ref name="McNair2007" /> (Amitabha Buddha), [[Avalokitesvara]] and ahasthamaprapta flanked by Bodhisattvas, and are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style.<ref name=Evaluate/> It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father.<ref name="McNair2007">{{cite book|last=McNair|first=Amy|title=Donors of Longmen: faith, politics, and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qsEGIdhcgMoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2994-0|pages=86, 111, 185–}}</ref>

;Lianhua
The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 521, belongs to be the Northern Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Laolong
The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign.<ref name=Sacred/>

==Temples==
There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/> Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under Emperor Wencheng; Giangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Quianar.<ref name="McNair2007" />

===Xiangshan temple===
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Beltry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Jiang Jieshi and Song Meiling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple.<ref name=Guide/>

===Bai Garden temple===
[[File:洛阳龙门白居易墓.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Bai Juyi]]
Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees.<ref name=Guide/>

===Tomb of Bai Juyi===
The Tomb of [[Bai Juyi]] on the east bank is of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty rule who lived in [[Luoyang]] during his later years. The tomb is located on the hill top. It is approached from west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poets name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/>

==Preservation and restoration==
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 001.jpg|thumb|right|Delamination of the limestone from which the figures are carved]]
As one of the major activities achieved in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen’s Grottoes as a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List based on "Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii); Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins on the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monuments to its heritage status as per guidelines issued from time to time after frequent inspections of the site.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening of the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Approach conditions to access the caves were newly installed in the form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government of China]] over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by integrated action by three institutions namely; the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection who provided the professional scientific inputs, the [[China University of Geosciences]] and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang City, in 1999.<ref name=Evaluate/>

==See also==
* [[Chinese art]]
* [[Mogao Caves]]
* [[Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China]]
* [[Yungang Grottoes]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Longmen Grottoes}}
*{{en}} [http://www.longmen.com/en/ Official website]
*{{en}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO - Longmen Grottoes]
* [http://pratyeka.org/longmen/ Photos]

{{Henan topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{National parks of China}}

{{coord|34|33|20|N|112|28|11|E|display=title|region:CN-41_type:landmark_source:dewiki}}

[[Category:493 establishments]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist grottoes|Longmen]]
[[Category:Luoyang]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:National parks of China|Longmen]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Henan]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Chinese sculpture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Henan]]
[[Category:Caves of Henan]]
[[Category:AAAAA-rated tourist attractions]]

Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-01T18:43:43Z

Avihu: /* Guyangdong */ That's also the last line of the previous paragraph

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Longmen Grottoes
| Image = [[Image:Longmen-lu-she-na-1.jpg|280px|Lu She Na Buddha]]
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px]] [[People's Republic of China|China]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 1003
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003
|map = China
|map_caption = Location in China
|map_width = 280
|locmapin = China
|relief =
|latitude = 34.555556
|longitude = 112.469722
}}
The '''Longmen Grottoes''' ({{zh|t=龍門石窟|s=龙门石窟|p=lóngmén shíkū}}; lit. ''Dragon's Gate Grottoes'') or '''Longmen Caves''' are one of the finest examples of [[Buddhist_art#China|Chinese Buddhist art]]. Housing tens of thousands of statues of [[Buddha]] and his disciples, they are located {{convert|12|km}} south of present day [[Luoyang|Luòyáng]] in [[Henan|Hénán]] province, [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the [[limestone]] cliffs of the Xiangshan and [[Longmen Mountains|Longmenshan]] mountains, running east and west. The [[Yi River (China)|Yi River]] flows northward between them and the area used to be called '''Yique''' ("The Gate of the Yi River").<ref name=China>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75219.htm |title= Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=China.org.cn|date=September 12, 2003|author=Longmen Grottoes Management Office|location=Luoyang City, Henan}}</ref><ref name=List>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003|title=Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=Evaluate>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1003.pdf|format=pdf|title= Longmen Grottoes (China) No 1003|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=Unesco.org|author=ICOMOS|date=September 2000}}</ref> The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "[[Chinese gate]] towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.<ref name=Asian>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/china/luoyang/longmen.php|title=Longmen Grottoes (carved 480s-900 onward)|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=orientalarchitecture.com|first=Robert D.|last=Fiala}}</ref>

There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an {{convert|1|inch}} to {{convert|57|ft}} in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 [[stelae]] and [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], whence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty [[Buddhist pagodas]]. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a {{convert|1|km}} stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] and 60% from the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total.<ref name=Evaluate/> Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, [[Wu Zetian]] of the [[Second Zhou Dynasty]], members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups.<ref name=China/><ref name=Sacred>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/longmen-caves|title=Longmen Caves|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher= sacred-destinations.com|date=July 24, 2009}}</ref>

In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China.<ref name=List/>

==Geography==
[[Image:Longmen-grottoes-longmen-mountain-from-a-distance.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Longmen as seen from Manshui Bridge to the southeast. May, 2004.]]
This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. The other two grottoes are the [[Yungang Caves]] near [[Datong]] in [[Shanxi Province]], and the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu Province]] in west China. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]]. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks.<ref name=List/><ref name=Asian/>

Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high,<ref name="Harper2007" /> while the largest Buddha statue is {{convert|57|ft}} in height.<ref name="Hensley2010" /> There are also approximately 2500 stellas and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/> The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end.<ref name=Sacred/>

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] dynasty when he shifted his capital to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493 and 534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The third phase, was during the reign of the Tang dynasty when [[Chinese Buddhism]] flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from 626 to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]].<ref name=List/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Lonely>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/henan/longmen-caves|title=Introducing Longmen Caves|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=March 2, 2009|publisher=Lonelyplanet.com}}</ref>

Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei]] followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they were ruling from Luyong.<ref name=Evaluate/>
[[File:Luoyang groty z rzezbami wotywnymi Longmen Shiku - Smoczych Wrot i okolice 02.JPG|thumb|right| Entrance to Longmen Grottoes (Longmen Shiku) under Manshui Bridge over Yi River ( Yi He)]]

===Later history===
During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the [[Qing Dynasty]] from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums.

Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]], under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture.<ref name=Evaluate/> A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982, it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level.<ref name=Guide>{{Cite web|url=http://www.longmen.com/en/Aboutus.asp?ID=124&title=Serveice%20Guide|title=Serveice Guide|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=Officailwebiste of Longmen Grottoes}}</ref> The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments.<ref name=Evaluate/> The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002.<ref>McNair, p. 2</ref>

During the [[Warring States Period]], the general [[Bai Qi]] of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] once defeated the allied forces of [[Han (state)|Han]] and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] and the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].<ref name=Sacred/><ref name=Lonely/>

==Panorama==
{{wide image|Boddhisatvas in Longmen Grottoes.JPG|1000px|Panorama of the Buddhist sculptures in the main Longmen Grotto.}}

==Grottoes==
[[Image:LongmenBoddhi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Massive Buddhist sculptures in the main grotto.]]
There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca. 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684).<ref name="Watson2000">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=The Arts of China to A.D. 900|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u8Akcp983oYC&pg=PA252|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=10 April 2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08284-5|pages=252–}}</ref> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010">{{cite book|last1=Lagerwey|first1=John|last2=Lü|first2=Pengzhi|title=Early Chinese religion: the period of division (220-589 AD). Part two|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA604|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17943-1|pages=604–605}}</ref>

===Guyangdong===
Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now predated to 478 AD, which has been inferred as the time taken by Emperor Xiaowen to shift his capital from Datong to Luoyang have very well sculpted Buddhist statues in niches in this cave. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of the writings of the Northern Wei style.<ref name=Sacred/> Many of the sculptures inside the cave were also contributed by royal people; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images - the central image is of [[Sakyamuni Buddha]] with [[Bodhisattva]]s on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions in the walls and niches inside the cave, the largest such numbers in any cave in China.<ref name=Evaluate/> There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names with dates giving reasons for carving them. A score of important ancient calligraphic inscriptions are also seen.<ref name=Sacred/>

===Binyang===
Binyang has three caves of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent
;Binyangzhongdong
{{multiple image
| image1 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-wideshot.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The rear and north walls in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image2 = Longmen-binyang-middle-sakyamuni-upper.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The upper part of the central [[Sakyamuni]] image in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image3 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-south-wall.jpg
|width3 = 150
| alt3 =
| caption3 = South wall of [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
}}
Binyangzhongdong or the [[Middle Binyang Cave]], is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowe, and also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisatvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]]. There were reportedly two large [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] showing the Emperor and the Empress in worship which were pilfered and now stated to be in a museum in the USA. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Binyangnandong
Binyangnandong, or the [[South Binyang Cave]], has five very large images which were carved by [[Li Tai]], the fourth son of [[Li Shimin]], the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress [[Zhangsun]]. The central image in a serene appearance is that of [[Amitabha Buddha]] seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles.<ref name=Evaluate/>

===Fengxian===
[[File:Longmen.Vairocana.jpg|right|thumb|The Big Vairocana of Longmen Buddha Grottoes]]
[[Fengxian District|Fengxian]], or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes.<ref name="Hensley2010">{{cite book|last=Hensley|first=Laura|title=Art for All: What Is Public Art?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9RW16zSKyTAC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library|isbn=978-1-4109-3923-4|pages=14–}}</ref> Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of [[Vairocana Buddha]] is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2m long ears.<ref name=China/><ref name=Asian/><ref name="Hensley2010"/> An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit. The main image of Vairochana's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Virochana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China."<ref name=China/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Sacred/>

The Vairochana statue also provides information at its base of the names of the artisans who worked here, the donor's name namely the Emperor Gaozong, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed as a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project a detail of character and animation. Statues of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Ananda]], the two principal disciples of Vairochana and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, apart from numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying divas and numerous other figures."<ref name=Asian/>

===Others===
;Huangfugong
Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall, three-niche cave,<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" /> is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the [[lintel]] which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of lotus flower is carved in the roof flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or nymphs).<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of [[Empress Hu]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=January 2012}}.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" />
;Wan-fo-tung
Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung,<ref name="CohenCohen1986">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Joan Lebold|last2=Cohen|first2=Jerome Alan|authorlink2=Jerome Alan Cohen|title=China today and her ancient treasures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TkJwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=April 1986|publisher=Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-0798-0|page=125}}</ref> was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being {{convert|2|cm}} in height.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Yaofangdong
Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions<ref name="Harper2007">{{cite book|last=Harper|first=Damian|title=National Geographic Traveler China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xHL1KEXveSoC&pg=PT119|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=17 April 2007|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=978-1-4262-0035-9|pages=119, 120–}}</ref> of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range medical problems such as common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period right through to the early Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Qianxisi
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 004.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Vairocana]]
Reached by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653-80), the cave has statues of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha<ref name="McNair2007" /> (Amitabha Buddha), [[Avalokitesvara]] and ahasthamaprapta flanked by Bodhisattvas, and are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style.<ref name=Evaluate/> It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father.<ref name="McNair2007">{{cite book|last=McNair|first=Amy|title=Donors of Longmen: faith, politics, and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qsEGIdhcgMoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2994-0|pages=86, 111, 185–}}</ref>

;Lianhua
The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 521, belongs to be the Northern Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Laolong
The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign.<ref name=Sacred/>

==Temples==
There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/> Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under Emperor Wencheng; Giangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Quianar.<ref name="McNair2007" />

===Xiangshan temple===
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Beltry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Jiang Jieshi and Song Meiling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple.<ref name=Guide/>

===Bai Garden temple===
[[File:洛阳龙门白居易墓.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Bai Juyi]]
Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees.<ref name=Guide/>

===Tomb of Bai Juyi===
The Tomb of [[Bai Juyi]] on the east bank is of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty rule who lived in [[Luoyang]] during his later years. The tomb is located on the hill top. It is approached from west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poets name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/>

==Preservation and restoration==
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 001.jpg|thumb|right|Delamination of the limestone from which the figures are carved]]
As one of the major activities achieved in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen’s Grottoes as a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List based on "Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii); Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins on the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monuments to its heritage status as per guidelines issued from time to time after frequent inspections of the site.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening of the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Approach conditions to access the caves were newly installed in the form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government of China]] over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by integrated action by three institutions namely; the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection who provided the professional scientific inputs, the [[China University of Geosciences]] and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang City, in 1999.<ref name=Evaluate/>

==See also==
* [[Chinese art]]
* [[Mogao Caves]]
* [[Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China]]
* [[Yungang Grottoes]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Longmen Grottoes}}
*{{en}} [http://www.longmen.com/en/ Official website]
*{{en}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO - Longmen Grottoes]
* [http://pratyeka.org/longmen/ Photos]

{{Henan topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{National parks of China}}

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[[Category:493 establishments]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist grottoes|Longmen]]
[[Category:Luoyang]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:National parks of China|Longmen]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Henan]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Chinese sculpture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Henan]]
[[Category:Caves of Henan]]
[[Category:AAAAA-rated tourist attractions]]

Talk:Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-01T15:55:55Z

Avihu: /* Number of caves */ new section

Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-01T12:39:20Z

Avihu: /* Early history */ 5th century? where did that came from?

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Longmen Grottoes
| Image = [[Image:Longmen-lu-she-na-1.jpg|280px|Lu She Na Buddha]]
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px]] [[People's Republic of China|China]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 1003
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003
|map = China
|map_caption = Location in China
|map_width = 280
|locmapin = China
|relief =
|latitude = 34.555556
|longitude = 112.469722
}}
The '''Longmen Grottoes''' ({{zh|t=龍門石窟|s=龙门石窟|p=lóngmén shíkū}}; lit. ''Dragon's Gate Grottoes'') or '''Longmen Caves''' are one of the finest examples of [[Buddhist_art#China|Chinese Buddhist art]]. Housing tens of thousands of statues of [[Buddha]] and his disciples, they are located {{convert|12|km}} south of present day [[Luoyang|Luòyáng]] in [[Henan|Hénán]] province, [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the [[limestone]] cliffs of the Xiangshan and [[Longmen Mountains|Longmenshan]] mountains, running east and west. The [[Yi River (China)|Yi River]] flows northward between them and the area used to be called '''Yique''' ("The Gate of the Yi River").<ref name=China>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75219.htm |title= Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=China.org.cn|date=September 12, 2003|author=Longmen Grottoes Management Office|location=Luoyang City, Henan}}</ref><ref name=List>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003|title=Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=Evaluate>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1003.pdf|format=pdf|title= Longmen Grottoes (China) No 1003|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=Unesco.org|author=ICOMOS|date=September 2000}}</ref> The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "[[Chinese gate]] towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.<ref name=Asian>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/china/luoyang/longmen.php|title=Longmen Grottoes (carved 480s-900 onward)|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=orientalarchitecture.com|first=Robert D.|last=Fiala}}</ref>

There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an {{convert|1|inch}} to {{convert|57|ft}} in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 [[stelae]] and [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], whence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty [[Buddhist pagodas]]. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a {{convert|1|km}} stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] and 60% from the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total.<ref name=Evaluate/> Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, [[Wu Zetian]] of the [[Second Zhou Dynasty]], members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups.<ref name=China/><ref name=Sacred>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/longmen-caves|title=Longmen Caves|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher= sacred-destinations.com|date=July 24, 2009}}</ref>

In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China.<ref name=List/>

==Geography==
[[Image:Longmen-grottoes-longmen-mountain-from-a-distance.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Longmen as seen from Manshui Bridge to the southeast. May, 2004.]]
This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. The other two grottoes are the [[Yungang Caves]] near [[Datong]] in [[Shanxi Province]], and the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu Province]] in west China. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]]. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks.<ref name=List/><ref name=Asian/>

Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high,<ref name="Harper2007" /> while the largest Buddha statue is {{convert|57|ft}} in height.<ref name="Hensley2010" /> There are also approximately 2500 stellas and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/> The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end.<ref name=Sacred/>

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] dynasty when he shifted his capital to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493 and 534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The third phase, was during the reign of the Tang dynasty when [[Chinese Buddhism]] flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from 626 to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]].<ref name=List/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Lonely>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/henan/longmen-caves|title=Introducing Longmen Caves|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=March 2, 2009|publisher=Lonelyplanet.com}}</ref>

Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei]] followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they were ruling from Luyong.<ref name=Evaluate/>
[[File:Luoyang groty z rzezbami wotywnymi Longmen Shiku - Smoczych Wrot i okolice 02.JPG|thumb|right| Entrance to Longmen Grottoes (Longmen Shiku) under Manshui Bridge over Yi River ( Yi He)]]

===Later history===
During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the [[Qing Dynasty]] from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums.

Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]], under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture.<ref name=Evaluate/> A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982, it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level.<ref name=Guide>{{Cite web|url=http://www.longmen.com/en/Aboutus.asp?ID=124&title=Serveice%20Guide|title=Serveice Guide|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=Officailwebiste of Longmen Grottoes}}</ref> The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments.<ref name=Evaluate/> The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002.<ref>McNair, p. 2</ref>

During the [[Warring States Period]], the general [[Bai Qi]] of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] once defeated the allied forces of [[Han (state)|Han]] and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] and the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].<ref name=Sacred/><ref name=Lonely/>

==Panorama==
{{wide image|Boddhisatvas in Longmen Grottoes.JPG|1000px|Panorama of the Buddhist sculptures in the main Longmen Grotto.}}

==Grottoes==
[[Image:LongmenBoddhi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Massive Buddhist sculptures in the main grotto.]]
There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca. 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684).<ref name="Watson2000">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=The Arts of China to A.D. 900|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u8Akcp983oYC&pg=PA252|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=10 April 2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08284-5|pages=252–}}</ref> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010">{{cite book|last1=Lagerwey|first1=John|last2=Lü|first2=Pengzhi|title=Early Chinese religion: the period of division (220-589 AD). Part two|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA604|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17943-1|pages=604–605}}</ref>

===Guyangdong===
Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now predated to 478 AD, which has been inferred as the time taken by Emperor Xiaowen to shift his capital from Datong to Luoyang have very well sculpted Buddhist statues in niches in this cave. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of the writings of the Northern Wei style.<ref name=Sacred/> Many of the sculptures inside the cave were also contributed by royal people; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images - the central image is of [[Sakyamuni Buddha]] with [[Bodhisattva]]s on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions in the walls and niches inside the cave, the largest such numbers in any cave in China.<ref name=Evaluate/> There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names with dates giving reasons for carving them. A score of important ancient calligraphic inscriptions are also seen.<ref name=Sacred/> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010"/>

===Binyang===
Binyang has three caves of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent
;Binyangzhongdong
{{multiple image
| image1 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-wideshot.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The rear and north walls in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image2 = Longmen-binyang-middle-sakyamuni-upper.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The upper part of the central [[Sakyamuni]] image in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image3 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-south-wall.jpg
|width3 = 150
| alt3 =
| caption3 = South wall of [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
}}
Binyangzhongdong or the [[Middle Binyang Cave]], is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowe, and also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisatvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]]. There were reportedly two large [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] showing the Emperor and the Empress in worship which were pilfered and now stated to be in a museum in the USA. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Binyangnandong
Binyangnandong, or the [[South Binyang Cave]], has five very large images which were carved by [[Li Tai]], the fourth son of [[Li Shimin]], the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress [[Zhangsun]]. The central image in a serene appearance is that of [[Amitabha Buddha]] seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles.<ref name=Evaluate/>

===Fengxian===
[[File:Longmen.Vairocana.jpg|right|thumb|The Big Vairocana of Longmen Buddha Grottoes]]
[[Fengxian District|Fengxian]], or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes.<ref name="Hensley2010">{{cite book|last=Hensley|first=Laura|title=Art for All: What Is Public Art?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9RW16zSKyTAC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library|isbn=978-1-4109-3923-4|pages=14–}}</ref> Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of [[Vairocana Buddha]] is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2m long ears.<ref name=China/><ref name=Asian/><ref name="Hensley2010"/> An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit. The main image of Vairochana's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Virochana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China."<ref name=China/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Sacred/>

The Vairochana statue also provides information at its base of the names of the artisans who worked here, the donor's name namely the Emperor Gaozong, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed as a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project a detail of character and animation. Statues of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Ananda]], the two principal disciples of Vairochana and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, apart from numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying divas and numerous other figures."<ref name=Asian/>

===Others===
;Huangfugong
Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall, three-niche cave,<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" /> is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the [[lintel]] which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of lotus flower is carved in the roof flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or nymphs).<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of [[Empress Hu]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=January 2012}}.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" />
;Wan-fo-tung
Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung,<ref name="CohenCohen1986">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Joan Lebold|last2=Cohen|first2=Jerome Alan|authorlink2=Jerome Alan Cohen|title=China today and her ancient treasures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TkJwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=April 1986|publisher=Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-0798-0|page=125}}</ref> was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being {{convert|2|cm}} in height.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Yaofangdong
Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions<ref name="Harper2007">{{cite book|last=Harper|first=Damian|title=National Geographic Traveler China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xHL1KEXveSoC&pg=PT119|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=17 April 2007|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=978-1-4262-0035-9|pages=119, 120–}}</ref> of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range medical problems such as common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period right through to the early Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Qianxisi
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 004.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Vairocana]]
Reached by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653-80), the cave has statues of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha<ref name="McNair2007" /> (Amitabha Buddha), [[Avalokitesvara]] and ahasthamaprapta flanked by Bodhisattvas, and are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style.<ref name=Evaluate/> It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father.<ref name="McNair2007">{{cite book|last=McNair|first=Amy|title=Donors of Longmen: faith, politics, and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qsEGIdhcgMoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2994-0|pages=86, 111, 185–}}</ref>

;Lianhua
The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 521, belongs to be the Northern Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Laolong
The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign.<ref name=Sacred/>

==Temples==
There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/> Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under Emperor Wencheng; Giangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Quianar.<ref name="McNair2007" />

===Xiangshan temple===
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Beltry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Jiang Jieshi and Song Meiling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple.<ref name=Guide/>

===Bai Garden temple===
[[File:洛阳龙门白居易墓.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Bai Juyi]]
Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees.<ref name=Guide/>

===Tomb of Bai Juyi===
The Tomb of [[Bai Juyi]] on the east bank is of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty rule who lived in [[Luoyang]] during his later years. The tomb is located on the hill top. It is approached from west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poets name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/>

==Preservation and restoration==
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 001.jpg|thumb|right|Delamination of the limestone from which the figures are carved]]
As one of the major activities achieved in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen’s Grottoes as a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List based on "Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii); Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins on the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monuments to its heritage status as per guidelines issued from time to time after frequent inspections of the site.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening of the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Approach conditions to access the caves were newly installed in the form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government of China]] over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by integrated action by three institutions namely; the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection who provided the professional scientific inputs, the [[China University of Geosciences]] and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang City, in 1999.<ref name=Evaluate/>

==See also==
* [[Chinese art]]
* [[Mogao Caves]]
* [[Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China]]
* [[Yungang Grottoes]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Longmen Grottoes}}
*{{en}} [http://www.longmen.com/en/ Official website]
*{{en}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO - Longmen Grottoes]
* [http://pratyeka.org/longmen/ Photos]

{{Henan topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{National parks of China}}

{{coord|34|33|20|N|112|28|11|E|display=title|region:CN-41_type:landmark_source:dewiki}}

[[Category:493 establishments]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist grottoes|Longmen]]
[[Category:Luoyang]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:National parks of China|Longmen]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Henan]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Chinese sculpture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Henan]]
[[Category:Caves of Henan]]
[[Category:AAAAA-rated tourist attractions]]

Longmen Grottoes

2013-04-01T12:35:36Z

Avihu: /* History */ Fix an error. That is what is written in the advisory!

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Longmen Grottoes
| Image = [[Image:Longmen-lu-she-na-1.jpg|280px|Lu She Na Buddha]]
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px]] [[People's Republic of China|China]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 1003
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003
|map = China
|map_caption = Location in China
|map_width = 280
|locmapin = China
|relief =
|latitude = 34.555556
|longitude = 112.469722
}}
The '''Longmen Grottoes''' ({{zh|t=龍門石窟|s=龙门石窟|p=lóngmén shíkū}}; lit. ''Dragon's Gate Grottoes'') or '''Longmen Caves''' are one of the finest examples of [[Buddhist_art#China|Chinese Buddhist art]]. Housing tens of thousands of statues of [[Buddha]] and his disciples, they are located {{convert|12|km}} south of present day [[Luoyang|Luòyáng]] in [[Henan|Hénán]] province, [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the [[limestone]] cliffs of the Xiangshan and [[Longmen Mountains|Longmenshan]] mountains, running east and west. The [[Yi River (China)|Yi River]] flows northward between them and the area used to be called '''Yique''' ("The Gate of the Yi River").<ref name=China>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75219.htm |title= Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=China.org.cn|date=September 12, 2003|author=Longmen Grottoes Management Office|location=Luoyang City, Henan}}</ref><ref name=List>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003|title=Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=Evaluate>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1003.pdf|format=pdf|title= Longmen Grottoes (China) No 1003|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=Unesco.org|author=ICOMOS|date=September 2000}}</ref> The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "[[Chinese gate]] towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.<ref name=Asian>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/china/luoyang/longmen.php|title=Longmen Grottoes (carved 480s-900 onward)|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=orientalarchitecture.com|first=Robert D.|last=Fiala}}</ref>

There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an {{convert|1|inch}} to {{convert|57|ft}} in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 [[stelae]] and [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], whence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty [[Buddhist pagodas]]. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a {{convert|1|km}} stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] and 60% from the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total.<ref name=Evaluate/> Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, [[Wu Zetian]] of the [[Second Zhou Dynasty]], members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups.<ref name=China/><ref name=Sacred>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/longmen-caves|title=Longmen Caves|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher= sacred-destinations.com|date=July 24, 2009}}</ref>

In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China.<ref name=List/>

==Geography==
[[Image:Longmen-grottoes-longmen-mountain-from-a-distance.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Longmen as seen from Manshui Bridge to the southeast. May, 2004.]]
This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. The other two grottoes are the [[Yungang Caves]] near [[Datong]] in [[Shanxi Province]], and the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu Province]] in west China. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]]. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks.<ref name=List/><ref name=Asian/>

Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high,<ref name="Harper2007" /> while the largest Buddha statue is {{convert|57|ft}} in height.<ref name="Hensley2010" /> There are also approximately 2500 stellas and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/> The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end.<ref name=Sacred/>

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] dynasty when he shifted his capital to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493 and 534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The third phase, was during the reign of the Tang dynasty when [[Chinese Buddhism]] flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from the 5th century to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]].<ref name=List/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Lonely>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/henan/longmen-caves|title=Introducing Longmen Caves|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=March 2, 2009|publisher=Lonelyplanet.com}}</ref>

Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei]] followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father, Emperor Xiaowen, and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they were ruling from Luyong.<ref name=Evaluate/>
[[File:Luoyang groty z rzezbami wotywnymi Longmen Shiku - Smoczych Wrot i okolice 02.JPG|thumb|right| Entrance to Longmen Grottoes (Longmen Shiku) under Manshui Bridge over Yi River ( Yi He)]]

===Later history===
During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the [[Qing Dynasty]] from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums.

Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]], under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture.<ref name=Evaluate/> A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982, it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level.<ref name=Guide>{{Cite web|url=http://www.longmen.com/en/Aboutus.asp?ID=124&title=Serveice%20Guide|title=Serveice Guide|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=Officailwebiste of Longmen Grottoes}}</ref> The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments.<ref name=Evaluate/> The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002.<ref>McNair, p. 2</ref>

During the [[Warring States Period]], the general [[Bai Qi]] of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] once defeated the allied forces of [[Han (state)|Han]] and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] and the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].<ref name=Sacred/><ref name=Lonely/>

==Panorama==
{{wide image|Boddhisatvas in Longmen Grottoes.JPG|1000px|Panorama of the Buddhist sculptures in the main Longmen Grotto.}}

==Grottoes==
[[Image:LongmenBoddhi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Massive Buddhist sculptures in the main grotto.]]
There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca. 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684).<ref name="Watson2000">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=The Arts of China to A.D. 900|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u8Akcp983oYC&pg=PA252|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=10 April 2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08284-5|pages=252–}}</ref> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010">{{cite book|last1=Lagerwey|first1=John|last2=Lü|first2=Pengzhi|title=Early Chinese religion: the period of division (220-589 AD). Part two|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA604|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17943-1|pages=604–605}}</ref>

===Guyangdong===
Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now predated to 478 AD, which has been inferred as the time taken by Emperor Xiaowen to shift his capital from Datong to Luoyang have very well sculpted Buddhist statues in niches in this cave. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of the writings of the Northern Wei style.<ref name=Sacred/> Many of the sculptures inside the cave were also contributed by royal people; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images - the central image is of [[Sakyamuni Buddha]] with [[Bodhisattva]]s on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions in the walls and niches inside the cave, the largest such numbers in any cave in China.<ref name=Evaluate/> There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names with dates giving reasons for carving them. A score of important ancient calligraphic inscriptions are also seen.<ref name=Sacred/> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010"/>

===Binyang===
Binyang has three caves of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent
;Binyangzhongdong
{{multiple image
| image1 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-wideshot.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The rear and north walls in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image2 = Longmen-binyang-middle-sakyamuni-upper.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The upper part of the central [[Sakyamuni]] image in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image3 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-south-wall.jpg
|width3 = 150
| alt3 =
| caption3 = South wall of [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
}}
Binyangzhongdong or the [[Middle Binyang Cave]], is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowe, and also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisatvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]]. There were reportedly two large [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] showing the Emperor and the Empress in worship which were pilfered and now stated to be in a museum in the USA. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Binyangnandong
Binyangnandong, or the [[South Binyang Cave]], has five very large images which were carved by [[Li Tai]], the fourth son of [[Li Shimin]], the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress [[Zhangsun]]. The central image in a serene appearance is that of [[Amitabha Buddha]] seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles.<ref name=Evaluate/>

===Fengxian===
[[File:Longmen.Vairocana.jpg|right|thumb|The Big Vairocana of Longmen Buddha Grottoes]]
[[Fengxian District|Fengxian]], or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes.<ref name="Hensley2010">{{cite book|last=Hensley|first=Laura|title=Art for All: What Is Public Art?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9RW16zSKyTAC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library|isbn=978-1-4109-3923-4|pages=14–}}</ref> Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of [[Vairocana Buddha]] is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2m long ears.<ref name=China/><ref name=Asian/><ref name="Hensley2010"/> An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit. The main image of Vairochana's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Virochana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China."<ref name=China/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Sacred/>

The Vairochana statue also provides information at its base of the names of the artisans who worked here, the donor's name namely the Emperor Gaozong, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed as a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project a detail of character and animation. Statues of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Ananda]], the two principal disciples of Vairochana and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, apart from numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying divas and numerous other figures."<ref name=Asian/>

===Others===
;Huangfugong
Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall, three-niche cave,<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" /> is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the [[lintel]] which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of lotus flower is carved in the roof flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or nymphs).<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of [[Empress Hu]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=January 2012}}.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" />
;Wan-fo-tung
Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung,<ref name="CohenCohen1986">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Joan Lebold|last2=Cohen|first2=Jerome Alan|authorlink2=Jerome Alan Cohen|title=China today and her ancient treasures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TkJwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=April 1986|publisher=Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-0798-0|page=125}}</ref> was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being {{convert|2|cm}} in height.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Yaofangdong
Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions<ref name="Harper2007">{{cite book|last=Harper|first=Damian|title=National Geographic Traveler China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xHL1KEXveSoC&pg=PT119|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=17 April 2007|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=978-1-4262-0035-9|pages=119, 120–}}</ref> of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range medical problems such as common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period right through to the early Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Qianxisi
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 004.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Vairocana]]
Reached by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653-80), the cave has statues of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha<ref name="McNair2007" /> (Amitabha Buddha), [[Avalokitesvara]] and ahasthamaprapta flanked by Bodhisattvas, and are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style.<ref name=Evaluate/> It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father.<ref name="McNair2007">{{cite book|last=McNair|first=Amy|title=Donors of Longmen: faith, politics, and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qsEGIdhcgMoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2994-0|pages=86, 111, 185–}}</ref>

;Lianhua
The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 521, belongs to be the Northern Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Laolong
The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign.<ref name=Sacred/>

==Temples==
There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/> Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under Emperor Wencheng; Giangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Quianar.<ref name="McNair2007" />

===Xiangshan temple===
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Beltry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Jiang Jieshi and Song Meiling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple.<ref name=Guide/>

===Bai Garden temple===
[[File:洛阳龙门白居易墓.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Bai Juyi]]
Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees.<ref name=Guide/>

===Tomb of Bai Juyi===
The Tomb of [[Bai Juyi]] on the east bank is of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty rule who lived in [[Luoyang]] during his later years. The tomb is located on the hill top. It is approached from west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poets name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/>

==Preservation and restoration==
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 001.jpg|thumb|right|Delamination of the limestone from which the figures are carved]]
As one of the major activities achieved in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen’s Grottoes as a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List based on "Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii); Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins on the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monuments to its heritage status as per guidelines issued from time to time after frequent inspections of the site.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening of the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Approach conditions to access the caves were newly installed in the form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government of China]] over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by integrated action by three institutions namely; the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection who provided the professional scientific inputs, the [[China University of Geosciences]] and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang City, in 1999.<ref name=Evaluate/>

==See also==
* [[Chinese art]]
* [[Mogao Caves]]
* [[Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China]]
* [[Yungang Grottoes]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Longmen Grottoes}}
*{{en}} [http://www.longmen.com/en/ Official website]
*{{en}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO - Longmen Grottoes]
* [http://pratyeka.org/longmen/ Photos]

{{Henan topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{National parks of China}}

{{coord|34|33|20|N|112|28|11|E|display=title|region:CN-41_type:landmark_source:dewiki}}

[[Category:493 establishments]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist grottoes|Longmen]]
[[Category:Luoyang]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:National parks of China|Longmen]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Henan]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Chinese sculpture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Henan]]
[[Category:Caves of Henan]]
[[Category:AAAAA-rated tourist attractions]]

Longmen Grottoes

2013-03-30T17:03:11Z

Avihu: /* Early history */ typo

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Longmen Grottoes
| Image = [[Image:Longmen-lu-she-na-1.jpg|280px|Lu She Na Buddha]]
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px]] [[People's Republic of China|China]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 1003
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003
|map = China
|map_caption = Location in China
|map_width = 280
|locmapin = China
|relief =
|latitude = 34.555556
|longitude = 112.469722
}}
The '''Longmen Grottoes''' ({{zh|t=龍門石窟|s=龙门石窟|p=lóngmén shíkū}}; lit. ''Dragon's Gate Grottoes'') or '''Longmen Caves''' are one of the finest examples of [[Buddhist_art#China|Chinese Buddhist art]]. Housing tens of thousands of statues of [[Buddha]] and his disciples, they are located {{convert|12|km}} south of present day [[Luoyang|Luòyáng]] in [[Henan|Hénán]] province, [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the [[limestone]] cliffs of the Xiangshan and [[Longmen Mountains|Longmenshan]] mountains, running east and west. The [[Yi River (China)|Yi River]] flows northward between them and the area used to be called '''Yique''' ("The Gate of the Yi River").<ref name=China>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/kuaixun/75219.htm |title= Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=China.org.cn|date=September 12, 2003|author=Longmen Grottoes Management Office|location=Luoyang City, Henan}}</ref><ref name=List>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003|title=Longmen Grottoes|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name=Evaluate>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1003.pdf|format=pdf|title= Longmen Grottoes (China) No 1003|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher=Unesco.org|author=ICOMOS|date=September 2000}}</ref> The alternative name of "Dragon's Gate Grottoes" derives from the resemblance of the two hills that check the flow of the Yi River to the typical "[[Chinese gate]] towers" that once marked the entrance to Luoyang from the south.<ref name=Asian>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/china/luoyang/longmen.php|title=Longmen Grottoes (carved 480s-900 onward)|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=orientalarchitecture.com|first=Robert D.|last=Fiala}}</ref>

There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an {{convert|1|inch}} to {{convert|57|ft}} in height. The area also contains nearly 2,500 [[stelae]] and [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], whence the name “Forest of Ancient Stelae", as well as over sixty [[Buddhist pagodas]]. Situated in a scenic natural environment, the caves were dug from a {{convert|1|km}} stretch of cliff running along both banks of the river. 30% date from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] and 60% from the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], caves from other periods accounting for less than 10% of the total.<ref name=Evaluate/> Starting with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD, patrons and donors included emperors, [[Wu Zetian]] of the [[Second Zhou Dynasty]], members of the royal family, other rich families, generals, and religious groups.<ref name=China/><ref name=Sacred>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/longmen-caves|title=Longmen Caves|accessdate=17 May 2011|publisher= sacred-destinations.com|date=July 24, 2009}}</ref>

In 2000 the site was inscribed upon the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] as “an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity,” for its perfection of an art form, and for its encapsulation of the cultural sophistication of Tang China.<ref name=List/>

==Geography==
[[Image:Longmen-grottoes-longmen-mountain-from-a-distance.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Longmen as seen from Manshui Bridge to the southeast. May, 2004.]]
This complex is one of the three notable grottoes in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. The other two grottoes are the [[Yungang Caves]] near [[Datong]] in [[Shanxi Province]], and the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu Province]] in west China. The valley formed by the Yi River enclosed by two hills ranges of Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) hills have steep slopes on the western and eastern slopes along the river. Yi is a north flowing tributary of the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo River]]. The grottoes are formed in 1 km of the stretch of this river and were carved on both banks, in limestone formations creating the Longmen Caves. Most of the work was done on the western bank, while the eastern bank caves, of smaller numbers, served as residences for the large groups of monks.<ref name=List/><ref name=Asian/>

Within the approximately 1,400 caves, there are 100,000 statues, some of which are only {{convert|1|inch}} high,<ref name="Harper2007" /> while the largest Buddha statue is {{convert|57|ft}} in height.<ref name="Hensley2010" /> There are also approximately 2500 stellas and 60 pagodas. The grottoes are located on both sides of the Yi River. Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Northern, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/> The plethora of caves, sculptures and pagodas in Longmen Grottoes depict a definite "progression in style" with the early caves being simple and well shaped with carvings of statues of Buddha and religious people. The change of style is more distinct in the Tang Dynastic periods which are “more complex and incorporate women and court figures as well”. The caves have been numbered sequentially from north to south along the west bank of the Yi River. Entry to the caves is from the northern end.<ref name=Sacred/>

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest history of the creation of Longmen Grottoes is traced to the reign of [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] dynasty when he shifted his capital to Luoyang from Dàtóng; Luoyang's symbolic value is borne by the fact that it served as the historic capital for 13 dynasties. The grottoes were excavated and carved with Buddhist subjects over the period from 493 AD to 1127 AD, in four distinct phases. The first phase started with the Northern Wei dynasty (493 and 534). The second phase saw slow development of caves as there was interruption due to strife in the region, between 524 and 626, during the reign of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907). The third phase, was during the reign of the Tang dynasty when [[Chinese Buddhism]] flourished and there was a proliferation of caves and carvings from the 5th century to the mid 8th century. The last phase, which was the fourth, was from the later part of the Tang dynastic rule extending to the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] rule, which saw a decline in the creation of grottoes. It came to an end due to internecine war between the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]].<ref name=List/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Lonely>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/henan/longmen-caves|title=Introducing Longmen Caves|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=March 2, 2009|publisher=Lonelyplanet.com}}</ref>

Guyangdong or the Shiku Temple, credited to Emperor Xiaowen, was the first cave temple to be built at the center of the southern floor of the West Hill. Xiaowen followed up this activity and excavated three more caves, two in memory of his father and one in memory of his mother; all three caves are grouped under the title of the "Three Binyang Caves" (Binyangsandong), which were built by the emperor over a 24-year period. Over 30% of the caves seen now were built during this period.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 527, the Huangfugong or Shikusi grottoes, a major cave, was completed. It is a well conserved cave located to the south of the West Hill.<ref name=Evaluate/>

In 675, Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill was completed during the Tang dynasty rule. This marked the third phase of creation and the peak period of the gottoes' creation. It is estimated that 60% of the caves seen at Longmen came about in this period from 626 till 755. During this period, in addition to the caves which housed Buddha statues of various sizes, some Buddhist temples were also built in open spaces with scenic settings in the same complex. However, these are now mostly in ruins. During this phase, [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] and Empress Wu Zetian were instrumental in intensifying the activity when they were ruling from Luyong.<ref name=Evaluate/>
[[File:Luoyang groty z rzezbami wotywnymi Longmen Shiku - Smoczych Wrot i okolice 02.JPG|thumb|right| Entrance to Longmen Grottoes (Longmen Shiku) under Manshui Bridge over Yi River ( Yi He)]]

===Later history===
During the period of 1368 to 1912, when two dynasties ruled in China, namely the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644, and the [[Qing Dynasty]] from 1644 to 1912, there was cultural revival and the Longmen Grottoes received recognition both at the national and international level.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese looted the site and took many of the statues back to Japan. Many of these relics are now in Japanese museums.

Vandalism occurred in the 1940s, a result of political unrest. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the grottoes have been declared as protected area and are being conserved. The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]], under Article 22, which among other issues also provides for protection of the natural heritage sites, has been further defined under various legal instruments enacted to protect and conserve this cultural heritage of China.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Relics Care Agency was established in 1953 under the Ministry of Culture.<ref name=Evaluate/> A 1954 site inventory was undertaken by the newly established Longmen Caves Cultural Relics Management and Conservation Office. The State Council declared the Longmen Grottoes as a national cultural monument needing special protection in 1961. In 1982, it was declared as one of the first group of scenic zones to be protected at the state level.<ref name=Guide>{{Cite web|url=http://www.longmen.com/en/Aboutus.asp?ID=124&title=Serveice%20Guide|title=Serveice Guide|accessdate=18 May 2011|publisher=Officailwebiste of Longmen Grottoes}}</ref> The Management and Conservation Office was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Institute in 1990; and the People’s Government of Luoyang City became responsible for the management of the heritage monuments.<ref name=Evaluate/> The governing organization was renamed the Longmen Grottoes Research Academy in 2002.<ref>McNair, p. 2</ref>

During the [[Warring States Period]], the general [[Bai Qi]] of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] once defeated the allied forces of [[Han (state)|Han]] and [[Wei (state)|Wei]] at the site. The site was subjected to significant vandalism at several points in its history. Major artifacts were removed by Western collectors and souvenir hunters during the early 20th century. The heads of many statues were also destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Two murals taken from the grottoes are reported to be displayed in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] and the [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].<ref name=Sacred/><ref name=Lonely/>

==Panorama==
{{wide image|Boddhisatvas in Longmen Grottoes.JPG|1000px|Panorama of the Buddhist sculptures in the main Longmen Grotto.}}

==Grottoes==
[[Image:LongmenBoddhi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Massive Buddhist sculptures in the main grotto.]]
There are several major grottoes with notable displays of Buddhist sculptures and calligraphic inscriptions.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> Some of the main caves and the year when work began within them include: Guyang-dong (493), Binyang-dong (505), Lianhua-dong (520s), Weizi-dong (522), Shiku-si (520s), Weizi-dong (520s), Shisku (520s), Yaofang-dong (570), Zhaifu-dong (ca. 636), Huijian-dong (630s), Fahua-dong (650s), Fengxian-si (672), Wanfo-si (670-680s), Jinan-dong (684), Ganjing-si (684), and Leigutai-dong (684).<ref name="Watson2000">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=The Arts of China to A.D. 900|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u8Akcp983oYC&pg=PA252|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=10 April 2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08284-5|pages=252–}}</ref> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010">{{cite book|last1=Lagerwey|first1=John|last2=Lü|first2=Pengzhi|title=Early Chinese religion: the period of division (220-589 AD). Part two|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA604|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17943-1|pages=604–605}}</ref>

===Guyangdong===
Guyangdong, or Guyang Cave, or Old Sun Cave, is recorded as the oldest Longmen cave with carvings in the Northern Wei style. It is also the largest cave, located in the central part of the west hill. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Xiaowen. The earliest carving in this limestone cave has been now predated to 478 AD, which has been inferred as the time taken by Emperor Xiaowen to shift his capital from Datong to Luoyang have very well sculpted Buddhist statues in niches in this cave. Also found here are 600 inscriptions in fine calligraphy of the writings of the Northern Wei style.<ref name=Sacred/> Many of the sculptures inside the cave were also contributed by royal people; religious groups supported this activity. The cave has three very large images - the central image is of [[Sakyamuni Buddha]] with [[Bodhisattva]]s on either side. The features of the images are indicative of the Northern Wei style, typically of slim and emaciated figures. There are about 800 inscriptions in the walls and niches inside the cave, the largest such numbers in any cave in China.<ref name=Evaluate/> There are two rows of niches on the northern and southern walls of the cave, which house a very large number of images; the artists have recorded their names with dates giving reasons for carving them. A score of important ancient calligraphic inscriptions are also seen.<ref name=Sacred/> The Guyang, Binyang, and Linahua caves are hoseshoe-shaped.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010"/>

===Binyang===
Binyang has three caves of which the Middle Binyang Cave is the most prominent
;Binyangzhongdong
{{multiple image
| image1 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-wideshot.jpg
| width1 = 160
| alt1 =
| caption1 = The rear and north walls in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image2 = Longmen-binyang-middle-sakyamuni-upper.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The upper part of the central [[Sakyamuni]] image in the [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
| image3 = Longmen-binyang-middle-cave-south-wall.jpg
|width3 = 150
| alt3 =
| caption3 = South wall of [[Middle Binyang Cave]]
}}
Binyangzhongdong or the [[Middle Binyang Cave]], is carved in the Datang style on the west hill, on the northern floor. It was built by Emperor Xuanwun to commemorate his father Xiaowe, and also his mother. It is said that 800,000 workers created it over the period from 500 to 523. In the main wall of this cave, five very large Buddhist statues are carved all in Northern Wei style The central statue is of Sakyamuni Buddha with four images of Bodhisattvas flanking it. Two side walls also have Buddha images flanked by Bodhisatvas. The Buddhas, arranged in three groups in the cave, are representative of Buddha of the past, the present, and the future. The canopy in the roof is designed as a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]]. There were reportedly two large [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] showing the Emperor and the Empress in worship which were pilfered and now stated to be in a museum in the USA. While a few statues are sculpted with "long features, thin faces, fishtail robes and traces of Greek influence", others are in Tang period natural style and heavily built.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Binyangnandong
Binyangnandong, or the [[South Binyang Cave]], has five very large images which were carved by [[Li Tai]], the fourth son of [[Li Shimin]], the first Tang Emperor. He made them in 641 AD in memory of his mother Empress [[Zhangsun]]. The central image in a serene appearance is that of [[Amitabha Buddha]] seated on a pedestal surrounded by Bodhisattvas, also serene looking in blend of the Northern Wei and the Tang Dynasty styles.<ref name=Evaluate/>

===Fengxian===
[[File:Longmen.Vairocana.jpg|right|thumb|The Big Vairocana of Longmen Buddha Grottoes]]
[[Fengxian District|Fengxian]], or Feng Xian Si, or Li Zhi cave is the Ancestor Worshipping Cave, which is the largest of all caves carved on the west hill built between 672 and 676 for Empress Wu Zetian. The carvings are claimed to be the ultimate in architectural perfection of the Tang dynasty. The shrine inside the cave measures 39m x35m. It has the largest Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes.<ref name="Hensley2010">{{cite book|last=Hensley|first=Laura|title=Art for All: What Is Public Art?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9RW16zSKyTAC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2010|publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library|isbn=978-1-4109-3923-4|pages=14–}}</ref> Of the nine huge carved statues, the highly impressive image of [[Vairocana Buddha]] is sculpted on the back wall of the Fengxian. The image is 17.14m high and has 2m long ears.<ref name=China/><ref name=Asian/><ref name="Hensley2010"/> An inscription at the base of this figure gives 676 as the year of carving. Bodhisattva on the left of the main image of Buddha is decorated with a crown and pearls. Also shown is a divine person trampling an evil spirit. The main image of Vairochana's features are plumpish and of peaceful and natural expression. Each of the other large statues are carved with expressions matching their representative roles. These were carved at the orders of Empress Wu Zetian, and are considered uniquely representative of the Tang dynasty's "vigorous, elegant and realistic style." The huge Virochana statue is considered as "the quintessence of Buddhist sculpture in China."<ref name=China/><ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Asian/><ref name=Sacred/>

The Vairochana statue also provides information at its base of the names of the artisans who worked here, the donor's name namely the Emperor Gaozong, and also honors Wu Zetian. It is said that Wu Zetian donated "twenty-thousand strings of her rouge and powder money" to complete this edifice. Hence, it is conjectured that the Vairocana Buddha was carved to resemble the Empress herself and termed as a "Chinese Mona Lisa, Venus or as the Mother of China". All the images here, which remain undamaged, project a detail of character and animation. Statues of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Ananda]], the two principal disciples of Vairochana and two Bodhisattvas with crowns flank the main statue, apart from numerous images of "lokapalas (guardians or heavenly kings), dvarapalas (temple guards), flying divas and numerous other figures."<ref name=Asian/>

===Others===
;Huangfugong
Huangfugong, or Shikusi, a three-wall, three-niche cave,<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" /> is situated south of the west hill, was carved out in 527. It was completed at one stretch as a single unit and is very well preserved. There are seven Buddhas carved on the [[lintel]] which give the appearance of a wood finish. Seven very large images are seen in the main hall with Buddha image flanked by two Bodhisattvas and two disciples. Also seen are images of Buddhist groups in the niches of the cave. A very large design of lotus flower is carved in the roof flanked by eight musical apsaras (water spirits or nymphs).<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/> It was created by Huangfu Du, uncle of [[Empress Hu]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=January 2012}}.<ref name="LagerweyLü2010" />
;Wan-fo-tung
Wan-fo-tung ("Cave of Ten Thousand Buddhas"), or Yung-lung-tung,<ref name="CohenCohen1986">{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Joan Lebold|last2=Cohen|first2=Jerome Alan|authorlink2=Jerome Alan Cohen|title=China today and her ancient treasures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TkJwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=April 1986|publisher=Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-0798-0|page=125}}</ref> was built in 680 by Gaozong and Wu Zetian. It houses 15,000 Buddhas carved in small niches, different from each other, with the smallest Buddha being {{convert|2|cm}} in height.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Yaofangdong
Yaofangdong, or the Medical Prescription Cave, has small inscriptions<ref name="Harper2007">{{cite book|last=Harper|first=Damian|title=National Geographic Traveler China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xHL1KEXveSoC&pg=PT119|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=17 April 2007|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=978-1-4262-0035-9|pages=119, 120–}}</ref> of 140 medical prescriptions for a wide range medical problems such as common cold to insanity. These are seen carved right at the entrance on both walls These carvings are dated from the late Northern Wei period right through to the early Tang Dynasty.<ref name=Evaluate/><ref name=Sacred/>

;Qianxisi
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 004.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Vairocana]]
Reached by modern, concrete stairs up the face of a cliff, Qianxisi, or Hidden Stream Temple Cave, is a large cave on the northern edge of the west hill. Made during Gaozong's reign (653-80), the cave has statues of a huge, seated, early Tang Buddha<ref name="McNair2007" /> (Amitabha Buddha), [[Avalokitesvara]] and ahasthamaprapta flanked by Bodhisattvas, and are carved with a sophisticated expression typical of Tang style.<ref name=Evaluate/> It may have been sponsored by the Nanping princess, with the beneficiary being Gaozong, her recently deceased father.<ref name="McNair2007">{{cite book|last=McNair|first=Amy|title=Donors of Longmen: faith, politics, and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qsEGIdhcgMoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=18 May 2011|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2994-0|pages=86, 111, 185–}}</ref>

;Lianhua
The Lianhua or the Lotus Flower Cave, dated to 521, belongs to be the Northern Wei period. The Grotto has a large lotus flower carved in high relief on its ceiling. Several small Buddhas are carved into the south wall. Also seen are shrines in the south and north wall in the niches.<ref name=Sacred/>

;Laolong
The Laolong or the Old Dragon Cave created during the Tang Dynasty period, named after the Old Dragon Palace has many niches dated to Gaozong’s reign.<ref name=Sacred/>

==Temples==
There are the several temples at Longmen Grottoes. Some important ones include Xiangshan temple, Bai Garden temple, and the Tomb of Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/> Others are Tongle temple, begun under Emperor Mingyuan; Lingyan and Huguo temples, under Emperor Wencheng; Giangong temple, under Xiaowen; and Chongfu temple, under Quianar.<ref name="McNair2007" />

===Xiangshan temple===
Xiangshan Temple is one of the earliest of the ten temples at Longmen. It is located in the midsection of the east hill. The name 'Xiangshan' is derived from the name of the spices "Xiangge" found extensively on these hill slopes. It was reconstructed some time in 1707, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty patterned on an old temple that existed there. Longmen Grottoes Administration, expanded the temple in 2002, by adding the "Beltry, the Drum Tower, the Wing Room, the Hall of Mahavira and Hall of Nine Persons, Eighteen Arhats, the Villa of Jiang Jieshi and Song Meiling". New additions included board walks, compound wall and a new gate from the southern end of the temple.<ref name=Guide/>

===Bai Garden temple===
[[File:洛阳龙门白居易墓.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Bai Juyi]]
Bai Garden is temple situated on the Pipa peak, to the north of the east hill (Xiangshan Hill). It was re-built in 1709 by Tang Youzeng of the Qing Dynasty. The temple is surrounded by thick vegetation of pine and cypress trees.<ref name=Guide/>

===Tomb of Bai Juyi===
The Tomb of [[Bai Juyi]] on the east bank is of the well-known poet during the Tang Dynasty rule who lived in [[Luoyang]] during his later years. The tomb is located on the hill top. It is approached from west bank after crossing a bridge across the Yi River. The tomb is a circular mound of earth of 4 meters height with a circumference of 52 meters. The tomb is 2.80 meters high and has the poets name inscribed on it as Bai Juyi.<ref name=Guide/>

==Preservation and restoration==
[[File:Longmen 2008 11 04 001.jpg|thumb|right|Delamination of the limestone from which the figures are carved]]
As one of the major activities achieved in this direction is the recognition given to the monuments by UNESCO in declaring the Longmen’s Grottoes as a heritage monument, after due evaluation over a period, and inscribing it in the World Heritage List based on "Criteria (i), (ii), and (iii); Criterion (i), the sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity; Criterion (ii) the Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia; and Criterion (iii), the high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes." This also enjoins on the Government of China to take adequate steps to preserve the monuments to its heritage status as per guidelines issued from time to time after frequent inspections of the site.<ref name=Evaluate/>

The Longmen Grottoes have undergone many concerted efforts of identifying, demarcating, planning and implementing restoration works since 1951. To start with, a weather monitoring station was established near the grottoes to assess the environmental conditions prevailing in the area to plan appropriate restoration measures. This was followed by intensive restoration works, initially in the form of strengthening of the rock bases to arrest seepage of water from the roofs and sides of the grottoes. Overgrown vegetation with roots was cleared. Approach conditions to access the caves were newly installed in the form of railings, footpaths and walkways with steps. All the efforts taken by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government of China]] over the last nearly six decades has ensured that the grottoes are preserved in a fairly presentable state of conservation. All this has been achieved by integrated action by three institutions namely; the China Institution of Cultural Relics Protection who provided the professional scientific inputs, the [[China University of Geosciences]] and the Longmen Cultural Relics Care Agency. Funds for the studies and restoration works have been provided for under the Revised Five-Year and Ten-Year Plans approved by the People’s Government of Luoyang City, in 1999.<ref name=Evaluate/>

==See also==
* [[Chinese art]]
* [[Mogao Caves]]
* [[Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China]]
* [[Yungang Grottoes]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Longmen Grottoes}}
*{{en}} [http://www.longmen.com/en/ Official website]
*{{en}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003 UNESCO - Longmen Grottoes]
* [http://pratyeka.org/longmen/ Photos]

{{Henan topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{National parks of China}}

{{coord|34|33|20|N|112|28|11|E|display=title|region:CN-41_type:landmark_source:dewiki}}

[[Category:493 establishments]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhist grottoes|Longmen]]
[[Category:Luoyang]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]
[[Category:Chinese architectural history]]
[[Category:National parks of China|Longmen]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:History of Henan]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Henan]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Chinese sculpture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Henan]]
[[Category:Caves of Henan]]
[[Category:AAAAA-rated tourist attractions]]

Glen Canyon Dam

2013-03-28T05:11:11Z

Avihu: /* Recreation */ typo

{{Infobox dam
| name = Glen Canyon Dam
| official_name =
| image = Glen_Canyon_Dam.jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption = The dam and [[Glen Canyon Bridge]] viewed from the front
| image_alt =
| location_map = USA West
| location_map_width =
| location_map_text = Location of Glen Canyon Dam in the western U.S.
| lat_d = 36
| lat_m = 56
| lat_s = 15
| lat_NS = N
| long_d = 111
| long_m = 29
| long_s = 04
| long_EW = W
| coordinates_type = type:landmark
| coordinates_display= inline,title
| coordinates_ref = <ref name="GNIS">{{cite gnis|id=5056|name=Glen Canyon Dam|entrydate=1980-02-08|accessdate=2011-05-21}}</ref>
| country =
| locale = [[Coconino County, Arizona|Coconino County]], [[Arizona]], [[United States]]
| status =
| construction_began = 1956
| open = 1966
| demolished =
| cost = $135 million
| owner = [[U.S. Bureau of Reclamation]]
| type = Concrete thick arch-gravity
| height = {{convert|710|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="dimensions"/>
| height_thalweg =
| height_foundation =
| length = {{convert|1560|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="dimensions"/>
| crest_width = {{convert|25|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="dimensions"/>
| base_width = {{convert|300|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="dimensions"/>
| curve_radius =
| volume = {{convert|5370000|yd3|m3|abbr=on}}<ref name="dimensions"/>
| crest_elevation = {{convert|3715|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="dimensions"/>
| crosses = [[Colorado River]]
| spillways =
| spillway_type = Twin concrete tunnels, controlled by double radial gates
| spillway_capacity = {{convert|276000|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Hoover75"/>
| reservoir = [[Lake Powell]]
| reservoir_capacity = {{convert|26214900|acre.ft|km3|abbr=on}}
| active_capacity = {{convert|20876000|acre.ft|km3|abbr=on}}
| inactive_capacity = {{convert|4000000|acre.ft|km3|abbr=on}}
| reservoir_catchment= {{convert|108335|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}<ref name="Hydraulics">{{cite web|url=http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Facility.jsp?fac_Name=Glen+Canyon+Dam&groupName=Hydraulics+%26+Hydrology|title=Glen Canyon Dam Hydraulics & Hydrology|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|work=Colorado River Storage Project|date=2009-05-29|accessdate=2012-05-30}}</ref>
| reservoir_surface = {{convert|161390|acre|ha|abbr=on}}
| reservoir_elevation= {{convert|3700|ft|m|abbr=on}} (max)
| reservoir_max_depth= {{convert|583|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| reservoir_length =
| reservoir_max_width=
| hydraulic_head = {{convert|510|ft|m|abbr=on}} (max)<ref name="powerplant"/>
| tidal_range =
| plant_owner =
| plant_operator =
| plant_commission = 1964<ref name="powerplant"/>
| plant_licence_exp =
| plant_decommission =
| plant_type =
| turbines = 5x 165 MW, 3x 157 MW [[Francis turbine|Francis]]<ref name="powerplant"/>
| installed_capacity = 1296 MW<ref name="powerplant"/>
| max_planned_cap =
| capacity_factor =
| average_annual_gen = 3.46 billion [[kilowatt hour|KWh]]<ref name="powerplant"/>
| net_generation =
| website =
| as_of =
| extra =
}}

'''Glen Canyon Dam''' is a concrete [[arch dam]] on the [[Colorado River]] in northern [[Arizona]] in the [[United States]], near the town of [[Page, Arizona|Page]]. The dam was built to provide [[hydroelectricity]] and flow regulation from the upper Colorado River Basin to the lower. Its [[reservoir]] is called [[Lake Powell]], and is the second largest artificial lake in the country, extending upriver well into [[Utah]]. The dam is named for [[Glen Canyon]], a colorful series of gorges, most of which now lies under the reservoir.

The dam was proposed in the 1950s as part of the [[Colorado River Storage Project]], a [[U.S. Bureau of Reclamation]] (USBR) federal water project that would develop reservoir storage on the upper Colorado River and several of its major tributaries. The project's main purpose was to allow the upper basin to better utilize its allocation of river flow as designated in the 1922 [[Colorado River Compact]], and a second purpose was to provide water storage to ensure the delivery of sufficient water to the lower basin during years of drought. However, problems arose when the USBR proposed to build dams in the federally protected [[Echo Park (Colorado)|Echo Park]] canyon in Utah. After a long series of legal battles with environmentalist organizations such as the [[Sierra Club]], they settled for a high dam at Glen Canyon.

Construction of Glen Canyon Dam started in 1956 and was not finished until 1966. When the reservoir filled, the dam began to deliver a steady, regulated flow of water downstream and a supply of electricity to the region. In 1983, major floods nearly led to the dam's collapse, but disaster was averted by a close margin. By taming floods and other factors that once characterized the Colorado, the dam has led to major physical and ecological changes in the lower river. Controversy continues over the effects both positive and negative of the dam, which has also been antagonized in many literary works.

==Background==
In 1922, six U.S. states signed the [[Colorado River Compact]] to officially allocate the flow of the Colorado River and its tributaries. Each half of the Colorado River Basin – the upper basin, comprising [[Colorado]], [[New Mexico]], [[Utah]] and [[Wyoming]] – and the lower basin, with [[California]] and [[Nevada]] – was allotted {{convert|7500000|acre.ft|km3}} of water annually,<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.snwa.com/html/wr_colrvr_law.html
|title=Law of the River
|publisher=Southern Nevada Water Authority
|work=Conservation
|date=
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}</ref> and [[International Boundary and Water Commission#The border and water treaties|a treaty between the U.S. and Mexico]] was signed in 1944 allocating {{convert|1500000|acre.ft|km3}} to the latter country.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/g1000/pdfiles/mextrety.pdf
|title=Treaty Between the United States of America and Mexico: Utilization of Waters of the Colorado and Tijuana Rivers and of the Rio Grande
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|work=
|date=1944-02-03
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}</ref> The third lower basin state, Arizona, did not ratify the Compact until 1944 because it was concerned that California might seek to appropriate a portion of its share before it could be put to use. The total, {{convert|16500000|acre.ft|km3}} annually, was believed to represent the river's flow at the time as measured at [[Lee's Ferry|Lee's Ferry, Arizona]] (the official dividing point of the upper and lower basins), {{convert|16|mi|km}} downstream of present-day Glen Canyon Dam, while in fact it turned out to be the result of one of the Southwest's climatic shifts during the past 800 years. The actual annual flow past Lee's Ferry is now believed to be about {{convert|13500000|acre.ft|km3}}.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://livingrivers.org/pdfs/TheOne-DamSolution.pdf
|title=The One-Dam Solution: Preliminary report to the Bureau of Reclamation on proposed reoperation strategies for Glen Canyon and Hoover Dam under low water conditions
|publisher=Living Rivers
|work=
|date=2005-07
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}</ref><ref name="fluct">{{cite web
|url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-05/uoa-hcr052506.php
|title=Historic Colorado River streamflows reconstructed back to 1490
|publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science
|work=EurekAlert
|date=2006-05-25
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}</ref>

Annual discharge from the Colorado River and its tributaries ranges from {{convert|4000000|to|22000000|acre.ft|km3}},<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/crsp/benefits.html
|title=CRSP Benefits
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|work=Colorado River Storage Project
|date=2009-09-21
|accessdate=2011-06-01}}</ref> and 10-year averages may fluctuate as much as {{convert|1000000|acre.ft|km3}}.<ref name="fluct"/> In addition, the Colorado carries a heavy silt load that led to difficulties for the irrigation interests in the lower Colorado River Valley that were a primary benefactor of the treaties. The general consensus among inhabitants of the Colorado River basin and government officials was that a high dam had to be built on the Colorado to provide flood control and carry-over water storage for times of drought. Possible locations for this dam were debated for years, and in fact the Bureau of Reclamation's first study for a dam at Glen Canyon was made in 1924, in addition to studies for locations at [[Black Canyon of the Colorado|Black]] and Boulder Canyons lower on the Colorado, below Grand Canyon.<ref>Rogers, p. 9</ref> However, these studies found that the lower Colorado sites had stronger foundation rock, might result in less reservoir seepage and were easier to access.

The initial need for a reservoir was realized in 1936 with the completion of [[Hoover Dam]] in Black Canyon, marking the first time man held control of the Colorado.<ref>Stevens, pp. 15-18</ref> However, even with [[Lake Mead]]'s mammoth storage capacity, it was not able to handle the worst floods or droughts, and was filling with sediment at a rate that would render it useless in a few hundred years.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/dams/boulder_dam2/chap3.htm
|title=Chapter 3 – The Benefits
|publisher=U.S. National Park Service
|work=Lake Mead: The Story of Boulder Dam
|date=2008-02-01
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}</ref> But most importantly, Hoover only controlled the lower portion of the river, and the upper basin, whose rivers flowed wild and free, had no way to ensure it could utilize its water allotment in dry years because of the lack of sufficient storage.<ref name="CRSP">{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Project.jsp?proj_Name=Colorado%20River%20Storage%20Project
|title=Colorado River Storage Project
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|date=2010-05-04
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}</ref> Arizona also had qualms over the chosen site of Hoover Dam, because it was located in a relatively inaccessible northwestern corner of the state and was too far to provide water to the Gila River Valley, its major population center. A dam at Glen Canyon, just upstream of Lee's Ferry, would both be located entirely within that state and provide much of the power needed to pump water from the Colorado River to Phoenix and Tucson. Finally, the Glen Canyon dam would provide flow regulation between Lee's Ferry and Lake Mead which would make it more economically feasible for the USBR to go ahead with even more ambitious plans to construct hydroelectric generating facilities in the Grand Canyon as part of the Pacific Southwest Water Plan (see [[Bridge Canyon Dam]]).

[[File:Lee's Ferry.JPG|thumb|left|[[Lee's Ferry]], the official dividing point between the upper and lower Colorado River]]
This lack of water surcharge or insurance for the upper Colorado River basin led to a demand for what would later become the [[Colorado River Storage Project]]. The general outline of this project was for a dam on the Colorado River at Glen Canyon, several other dams on the [[Gunnison River|Gunnison]] and [[San Juan River (Colorado River)|San Juan]] tributaries of the Colorado, and a pair of dams to be built on the [[Green River (Utah)|Green River]], the Colorado's major upper tributary, at [[Echo Park (Colorado)|Echo Park]] and Split Mountain. The two Green River dams would have submerged more than {{convert|110|mi|km}} of canyons in the federally protected [[Dinosaur National Monument]], a move abhorred by environmentalists who did not want to see a repeat of the 1924 [[O'Shaughnessy Dam]] controversy, when a dam was built in a scenic valley in [[Yosemite National Park]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/colorado/chap9.htm
|title=Chapter IX: Dinosaur National Monument (continued)
|publisher=U.S. National Park Service
|work=A Survey of the Recreational Resources of the Colorado River Basin
|date=2004-09-06
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}</ref>

Led by [[David Brower]], the environmentalist organization [[Sierra Club]] fought a protracted battle against the Bureau of Reclamation, on the basis that "building the dam would not only destroy a unique wilderness area, but would set a terrible precedent for exploiting resources in America's national parks and monuments".<ref>Billington, Jackson and Melosi, p. 398</ref> In the mid-1950s, the USBR agreed not to build the two dams – an act widely hailed as a major victory for the American environmentalist movement – but only if they could go ahead without opposition with other proposed dams at [[Flaming Gorge Dam|Flaming Gorge]] and Glen Canyon.<ref>Billington and Jackson, p. 337</ref> In fact, Brower and the Sierra Club supported the expansion of the proposed dam at Glen Canyon to replace the storage that would have been provided by the Echo Park dam on the Green River. The only qualm that the environmentalists had about the proposed Glen Canyon Dam was that high elevations of its reservoir would extend into [[Rainbow Bridge National Monument]], and a proposal to build a barrier to keep water out of the monument was fought over and litigated for years until it was permanently shelved in 1973.<ref>Martin, pp. 304–307</ref> The Colorado River Storage Project was authorized in April 1956, and groundbreaking of Glen Canyon Dam began in October of the same year.<ref name="Rogers, p. 16">Rogers, p. 16</ref> A common misconception is that the environmentalists were given a choice between damming Echo Park and damming Glen Canyon, but the USBR "had always planned to build a dam at Glen Canyon, regardless of the outcome of the Echo Park debate".<ref>Rogers, p. 13</ref>

In 1963, when construction on the dam was well underway, the Sierra Club published a book on Glen Canyon, ''[[Sierra Club Books#Exhibit Format|The Place No One Knew]]'', lamenting the loss of the scenic gorge before most of the American public had a chance to visit, or indeed know it. Brower had visited Glen Canyon shortly after the decision to build the dam, and "realized once he arrived that this was not a place for a reservoir".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.glencanyon.org/brower/browerhome.php
|title=David R. Brower (1912-2000)
|publisher=Glen Canyon Institute
|work=
|date=
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}</ref> This was not strictly true as a handful of hikers and boaters ([[John Wesley Powell]] for whom the reservoir is named, leader of the [[Powell Geographic Expedition of 1869]], among them) had explored the canyon pre-dam, and some had even been interviewed by Brower. As said to Brower by writer [[Wallace Stegner]], who had been to the canyon in 1947, "Echo doesn't hold a candle to Glen."<ref>Rogers, p. 14</ref>

==Construction==

===Site preparations===
Glen Canyon's design was overall based on that of Hoover Dam, a massive concrete arch-gravity structure anchored in solid bedrock, with several changes. The engineers wanted the dam to rely predominantly on its arch shape to carry the tremendous pressure of the impounded water into the canyon walls instead of depending on the sheer weight of the structure to hold the reservoir back, as had been done at Hoover. However, most of the rock in the region consists of porous and relatively weak [[Navajo sandstone]] in contrast to the stronger rock at the Hoover Dam site, forcing the Glen Canyon design to follow more conservative lines by greatly thickening the abutments, thus increasing the surface area through which the weight of dam and reservoir would be transmitted to the rock and relieving the pressure per square inch on the highly breakable cliffs. The primary designer and overseer of construction was veteran Reclamation engineer [[Lem F. Wylie]], who had worked on the Hoover Dam project and had been chief engineer of six other USBR dams.<ref>Billington, Jackson and Melosi, p. 184</ref>{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}

Before building the dam, Reclamation identified two possible sites, both located in the narrow lower reaches of Glen Canyon shortly upstream of Lee's Ferry. One, just {{convert|4|mi|km}} upstream, was originally considered the superior site, but the final decision was to build the dam {{convert|16.5|mi|km}} upstream because of stronger rock and easier access to the gravel mining area at the confluence of [[Wahweap Creek]] with the Colorado.<ref>Rogers, p. 15</ref> The dam site lay in a remote, rugged area of the [[Colorado Plateau]], more than {{convert|30|mi|km}} from the closest paved road, [[U.S. Highway 89]], and a whole new road had to be constructed, branching off from Highway 89 north of [[Flagstaff, Arizona]], and running through the dam site to its terminus at [[Kanab, Utah]].<ref>Parks, p. 10</ref> Because of the isolated location, acquiring the land at the dam and reservoir sites was not incredibly difficult, but still conflicts arose with the ranchers and miners in the area (many of the [[Navajo people|Navajo]] tribe).<ref name="Rogers, p. 16"/> Much of the land acquired for the dam was through an exchange with the Navajo, in which the tribe ceded Manson Mesa south of the dam site for a similar-sized chunk of land in New Mexico, which the Navajo had long coveted.

[[File:Glen Canyon Before Dam.jpg|thumb|right|Glen Canyon damsite from the air in November 1957, prior to construction of the Glen Canyon Bridge]]
As a road link was obviously needed for transport across the canyon from one end of the dam site to the other, a bridge had to be built, several hundred feet downstream of the dam and capable of carrying not only workers but heavy construction material. An earlier [[footbridge]] built of chicken wire and metal grates certainly did not fit the bill. The contract for building the bridge was awarded to Peter Kiewit Sons and the Judson Pacific Murphy Co. for $4 million and construction began in late 1956, reaching completion on August 11, 1957.<ref name="Rogers, p. 20">Rogers, p. 20</ref> When finished, the [[Glen Canyon Bridge]] was in itself a marvel of engineering: {{convert|1271|ft|m}} long and rising {{convert|700|ft|m}} above the river, it was the highest bridge of its kind in the United States and one of the highest in the world. By 1959, the bridge itself was a major tourist attraction and it was said that "motorists [were] driving miles out of their way just to be thrilled by its dizzying height".<ref>{{cite news
|title=A Span For A Dam
|work=LIFE Magazine
|publisher=Time Inc.
|date=1959-03-16
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}</ref>

Workers flooded into the dam site beginning in the mid-late 1950s, and the construction camp started out as a haphazardly organized [[trailer park]] that grew with the workforce.<ref>Nersesian, p. 295</ref> During the construction of the Glen Canyon Bridge, Reclamation also began planning a [[company town]] to house the workers. This resulted in the town of [[Page, Arizona]], named for former Reclamation commissioner [[John C. Page]]. By 1959, Page had a host of temporary buildings, electricity, and a small school serving the workers' children. As the city grew, it gathered additional features, including numerous stores and a hospital, even a jeweler's.<ref name="Rogers, p. 20"/> It was intended to serve a maximum population of eight thousand, accounting for the workers' families; the peak workforce would eventually exceed 2,500 in the busiest phases of construction.<ref>Parks, p. 12</ref>

===River diversion===
In 1956, work began on the two diversion tunnels that would carry the Colorado River around the dam site during construction. Each of the tunnels was {{convert|2700|ft|m}} long and {{convert|41|ft|m}} in diameter, and had a combined capacity of {{convert|200000|cuft/s|m3/s}}.<ref>Parks, p. 25</ref> The diversion tunnel at river right would be used for carrying the river's normal flow around the dam site, while the left tunnel, {{convert|33|ft|m}} above the water, would only be used during floods. The lower reaches of the tunnels would later be used to form the lower ends of the dam's spillways.<ref>Powell, pp. 12-13</ref> On October 15, 1956, [[President of the United States|President]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] pressed a button on his desk in the capital of [[Washington D.C.]], sending a telegraph signal that set off the first blast of dynamite at the portal of the right diversion tunnel.<ref name="construction">{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/crsp/gc/history.html
|title=Glen Canyon Dam Construction History
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|work=Upper Colorado Region: Colorado River Storage Project
|date=2008-11-25
|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> Drilling the tunnels through the porous Navajo sandstone abutting the dam site posed major problems for the excavation crews of the Mountain States Construction Company, which won the contract for the diversion tunnels in 1956.<ref>Rogers, p. 23</ref>

First, transporting workers and equipment to the bottom of the canyon was extremely difficult. Initially, transport was done by barge from the Wahweap Creek gravel deposits shortly upstream, but this was dangerous and was replaced by a vertical cable system when a barge capsized, spilling tons of machinery into the river.<ref>Rogers, p. 22</ref> The geology of the area also posed problems. During excavation, the rock frequently broke apart or "slabbed" and collapsed into the tunnels, and metal bolts had to be drilled into the rock to secure it. The largest such event, on August 5, 1958, sent {{convert|5200|yd3|m3}} crashing down onto the upper portal of the left diversion tunnel. Material excavated out of the tunnels and excavations for the dam abutments on the canyon walls was used to build the two [[cofferdam]]s that would keep the damsite dry during construction of the dam itself, the last of which was finished in February 1960. The upstream cofferdam was {{convert|168|ft|m}} high, and it alone could store several million acre-feet of water to protect the dam site from flooding in the event that inflows exceeded the capacity of the diversion tunnels. On February 11, 1959, the right diversion tunnel was completed and began to carry the flow of the Colorado. The left tunnel was finished over three months later on May 19, 1959, slightly behind schedule.<ref>{{cite news
|last=Stimson
|first=Thomas E.
|title=The Dam That Spans the Canyon
|work=Popular Mechanics
|date=1960-10
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oNsDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA117
|pages=117–121, 314
|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

===Concrete placement and completion===
With the Colorado River safely out of the dam site, construction could begin on the actual main body of the dam. The contract was given to the Merritt-Chapman & Scott Corporation for an astonishingly low $107,955,552. Unfortunately, right before construction could start, about 750 workers organized a [[Strike action|strike]] because of a wage reduction due to the completion of public facilities at Page. In late 1959, salaries were raised by $4 a day, quelling the strikers. Concrete placement started on June 16, 1960, and started at a sluggish but growing pace. In 1962 the workforce topped out at nearly 2,500 employees laboring on the dam.<ref>Rogers, p. 24</ref> Construction would ultimately claim eighteen lives and injure numerous other workers, but contrary to popular myth, no workers were buried alive in the concrete.<ref name="FAQ"/> Cement needed to make concrete for the dam came from the [[Phoenix Cement Company]] plant constructed for the purpose in [[Clarkdale, Arizona|Clarkdale]], south of [[Flagstaff, Arizona|Flagstaff]].<ref name="50 and Growing">{{cite news|title=Phoenix Cement: 50 & Growing|url=http://verdenews.com/main.asp?SectionID=1&subsectionID=1&articleID=33133|work=Verde Independent|publisher=Western News&Info|date=April 14, 2009|accessdate=March 20, 2013}}</ref>

[[File:Glen Canyon Dam plans.jpg|thumb|left|Architectural plans for the Glen Canyon Dam and ancillary structures]]
A huge [[concrete plant]] capable of putting out 1,450 tons per hour was installed, and a pair of cableways with movable towers with capacities of 50 and 25 tons each spanned the canyon, carrying the 12-ton concrete buckets to their final destinations on the steadily rising crest of the dam. The concrete was poured into modular {{convert|7.5|ft|m|adj=on}} high wooden blocks or "forms", the largest measuring up to {{convert|60|ft|m}} by {{convert|210|ft|m}};<ref name="FAQ"/> more than 3,000 of these blocks made up the main structure of the dam. Once the concrete dried, the wooden scaffolding was removed and shifted upwards to accommodate the next load of concrete. As construction efficiency increased, the workforce slowly decreased, as new methods of transportation and placement were implemented including conveyors and remotely controlled buckets. By late 1962, concrete was being poured into the dam at a rate of {{convert|8000|yd3|m3}} per day even as the workforce was scaled down to about 1,500.<ref name="Rogers25">Rogers, p. 25</ref>

At the beginning of 1963, the dam was high enough to begin impounding water; huge steel gates were closed over the diversion tunnels on January 2, and Lake Powell began to rise. On that day, Sierra Club leader David Brower entered the Oval Office in a last-ditch effort to save Glen Canyon from inundation – but failed to convince the president.<ref name="restorationbrower">{{cite web
|url=http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/199703/brower.asp
|title=Let the River Run Through It: More than forty years ago David Brower made a mistake. Now he says it's time to bring Glen Canyon back to life.
|publisher=Sierra Club
|work=Sierra Magazine
|date=1997-03
|accessdate=2011-05-24}}</ref> Construction continued and on September 13, 1963, the dam was topped out.<ref name="Rogers25"/> Work on the power plant and spillways began directly after the dam wall was complete. The spillway tunnels were excavated around both abutments of the dam and drop steeply from their control gates on Lake Powell to merge with the lower ends of the diversion tunnels. This measure saved cost, but introduced a weak point in the spillways – the point where the spillways met the diversion tunnels now had an abrupt directional change of 55 degrees. The upper ends of the diversion tunnels were then sealed with solid concrete. The first electricity was generated on September 4, 1964, with the power sent into the regional electric grid through a pair of long-distance transmission lines as far as [[Phoenix, Arizona]] and [[Farmington, New Mexico]].<ref name="construction"/>

==Later history==

===1983 floods and legacy===
{{Further2|[[Risks to the Glen Canyon Dam#Floods|Risks to the Glen Canyon Dam]]}}
During the first half of 1983, a deep snowpack in the Colorado River [[headwaters]], heavy spring rain and a rapid rise in temperatures that precipitated swift snowmelt combined to create perfect conditions for maximum runoff on the Colorado River. Faulty weather forecasts delayed emergency releases from the dam to prepare for the coming high water, and by June water was pouring into the reservoir at over {{convert|120000|cuft/s|m3/s}}. Even with the power plant and river [[outlet works]] running at full capacity, Lake Powell continued to rise to the point to which the [[spillway]]s had to be opened. Other than brief tests in 1980, this was the only time the spillways had ever been used.<ref>Powell, p. 11</ref>

At the beginning of June dam operators opened the gates on the left spillway, sending {{convert|10000|cuft/s|m3/s}}, just 7.2% of capacity, down the tunnel into the river below. After a few days, the entire dam suddenly began to shake violently. The spillway was closed down for inspections and workers discovered that the flow of water was causing heavy [[cavitation]] – the explosive collapse of air bubbles in water moving at high speed – which was damaging the concrete lining and eroding away at the rock below.<ref>{{cite web
|last=Catchpoole
|first=David
|url=http://creation.com/beware-the-bubbles-burst
|title=Beware the bubble’s burst: Increased knowledge about cavitation highlights the destructive power of fast-flowing water
|publisher=Creation Ministries International
|date=2007-10-24
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref> Additionally, the spillway tunnels were designed to feed into the lower ends of the diversion tunnels used during construction as an economic measure. Concrete plugs separate the spillway tunnels from the upper ends of the diversion tunnels, which connect to the bottom of the reservoir. This was rapidly being destroyed by the cavitation and it was feared that a connection would be made to the bottom of Lake Powell, causing it to catastrophically burst through the dam abutment.<ref>Powell, p. 14</ref>

[[File:Glen Canyon Spillway Gates.jpg|thumb|left|Right spillway gates during 1983 flood, showing flashboards that were installed to increase the water level]]
Meanwhile, snow continued melting in the Rockies and Lake Powell continued to rise rapidly. To delay having to use the spillways, Reclamation installed plywood flashboards (later replaced by steel) atop the gates to increase the lake level.<ref>Schneiderman, p. 11</ref> Even this additional capacity was exhausted; discharges through the left spillway reached {{convert|32000|cuft/s|m3/s}} and the right spillway gates were also opened. Flows downstream at Lee's Ferry peaked at {{convert|97300|cuft/s|m3/s}}, which was and still is the highest water flow recorded there since early construction work at the dam site in 1958.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nwis.waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/peak?site_no=09380000&agency_cd=USGS&format=html|title=USGS Gage #09380000 on the Colorado River at Lee's Ferry, AZ – Peak Streamflow|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|work=National Water Information System|date=1884–2011|accessdate=2012-06-03}}</ref> On July 15, Lake Powell reached its highest recorded level in history. Just as it seemed inevitable that the dam would fail, inflows fell and the dam was saved. Upon inspection, it was found that cavitation had caused massive gouging damage to both spillways, carrying away thousands of tons of concrete, steel rebar and huge chunks of rock.<ref>Powell, p. 3</ref>

Repairs to the spillways commenced as soon as possible and continued well into 1984. Aeration slots were installed at the bottom of each spillway to break up and absorb the shock of the bubbles formed by cavitation. In 1984, the Colorado River basin produced even more runoff than 1983, but fortunately Reclamation had drawn down the reservoir enough that it absorbed most of the early high flows. Nevertheless, Lake Powell rapidly approached the top of the spillway gates and construction efforts were subsequently focused on the left spillway in order to get it in operation in time. On August 12, the left spillway gates were opened, releasing water at a rate of {{convert|50000|cuft/s|m3/s}}. The spillway was undamaged, proving the worth of the re-engineering and ensuring that Glen Canyon Dam will also be able to hold against future floods with the magnitude of 1983.<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://www.riversimulator.org/Resources/Legal/GCD/GCDemergency1983.pdf
|title=The Confluence
|journal=Colorado Plateau River Guides
|last=Weisheit
|first=John
|page=21
|volume=3
|issue=3
|year=1996
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|last=Frizell
|first=K. Warren
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab/pubs/PAP/PAP-0479.pdf
|title=Spillway Tests At Glen Canyon Dam
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|work=Hydraulics Branch, Division of Research and Laboratory Services, Engineering and Research Center
|date=1985-07
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref>

===Continuing debates===
Long after the Glen Canyon Dam was built and continuing to the present day, heated debate continues between those who believe the dam should remain in place and those who think it should be removed. "Without Glen Canyon Dam, the big sponge of Lake Powell to absorb the flood years, there's no way that the upper basin states could put their seven and a half million acre feet of water to use. They say now of course that Glen Canyon isn't needed, you don't divert any water out of Lake Powell, well, you do divert water out of Lake Powell by transfer. When you divert water through the mountains in the Utah and Colorado into other uses, it's really out of Lake Powell because it's the big storage that's possible there-- makes possible the upper basin a development," said Former Bureau of Reclamation Commissioner [[Floyd Dominy]], a figure heavily associated with the building of Glen Canyon Dam and many of the other big dams built by Reclamation.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.kued.org/productions/glencanyon/interviews/dominy.html
|title=Interview: Floyd Dominy
|publisher=KUED
|work=Glen Canyon: A Dam, Water and the West
|date=
|accessdate=2011-05-28}}</ref> On the other end of the line, David Brower called the dam his worst mistake and "the biggest sin I ever committed" because of the compromise his organization made to build it instead of Echo Park.<ref>Adler, p. 15</ref>

On March 21, 1981, one of the more interesting anti-dam protests against Glen Canyon Dam occurred. Four members of the environmental group [[Earth First!]] made the then-emerging organization's debut by unfurling a {{convert|300|ft|m|adj=on}} tapered black sheet of plastic down the face of the dam, making it appear as if a gigantic crack had appeared in the structure, as more than a hundred people looked on. However, authorities were unable to find the individuals responsible.<ref>{{cite web
|last=Gilmore
|first=Jeff
|url=http://www.ajelp.com/comments/defending-environmentalists-punching-bag-lake-powell/
|title=Defending Environmentalists' Punching Bag: Lake Powell
|publisher=University of Arizona
|work=James E. Rogers College of Law
|date=
|accessdate=2011-05-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|last=Morrison
|first=Patt
|title=Terrorists or Saviors? : Environment: U.S. claims that Earth First! engaged in criminal conspiracy to disrupt nuclear facilities. The defense says the government is out to discredit the organization.
|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1991-06-16/news/mn-1526_1_nuclear-facilities
|work=Los Angeles Times
|date=1991-06-16
|accessdate=2011-05-28}}</ref>

==Design==

===Structure and storage===
The Glen Canyon Dam impounds the Colorado River about {{convert|1|mi|km|abbr=on}} northwest of Page in the narrow lower reach of Glen Canyon and {{convert|16.4|mi|km}} upstream of Lee's Ferry. The dam is {{convert|710|ft|m}} high from the crest to the foundations and has a crest length of {{convert|1560|ft|m}}. The maximum height above the river is about {{convert|583|ft|m}}.<ref name="dimensions">{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Facility.jsp?fac_Name=Glen+Canyon+Dam&groupName=Dimensions
|title=Dimensions
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|work=Glen Canyon Dam
|date=2009-05-29
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref> Overall, the dam relies on its arched design to carry the reservoir's weight into the canyon walls, but because of the sheer scale of the structure and the relatively weak surrounding rock, the dam has medium thickness of about {{convert|300|ft|m}} at the widest point. The crest is {{convert|3715|ft|m}} above sea level and the river immediately downstream sits at {{convert|3132|ft|m}}.<ref name="dimensions"/>

Two [[spillway]]s and four high pressure [[outlet works]] protect the dam against floods. Located on both sides of the dam shortly upstream, the spillways are concrete-lined tunnels that drop sharply through the canyon walls abutting the dam, emptying into the lower ends of the diversion tunnels to save the expense of digging new tunnels.<ref name="overview">{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Facility.jsp?fac_Name=Glen+Canyon+Dam&groupName=Overview
|title=Overview
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|work=Glen Canyon Dam
|date=2009-05-29
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref> Each spillway is controlled by two {{convert|40|ft|m|adj=on}} long, {{convert|52.5|ft|m|adj=on}} high [[radial gate]]s and is capable of carrying {{convert|138000|cuft/s|m3/s}} for a combined capacity of {{convert|276000|cuft/s|m3/s}}.<ref name="Hoover75">Hoover Dam 75th Anniversary History Symposium, p. 282</ref> The river outlets consist of four {{convert|8|ft|m|adj=on}} diameter pipes each controlled by a follower gate and hollow-jet valve with a capacity of {{convert|15000|cuft/s|m3/s}}.<ref name="overview"/> Glen Canyon's spillways were used for flood purposes only once in 1983, which caused severe damage that nearly led to dam failure (see section above).

[[File:DamGlenCanyonPower.JPG|thumb|right|The interior of Glen Canyon Dam's power plant, showing six of the eight generators]]
The power plant at Glen Canyon Dam is located at the foot of the structure and contains eight 155,500 [[horsepower]] generators with a combined capacity of 1,296 [[megawatt]]s (MW). Each generator is driven by a turbine which is in turn fed by a [[penstock]] with a starting diameter of {{convert|15|ft|m}}, narrowing to {{convert|14|ft|m}} as it enters the turbines. Five generators are rated at 165 MW and the remaining three have a capacity of 157 MW each. Before an uprating project in the late 20th century, each of the generators were rated at 118.75 MW for a total of 950 MW. The maximum [[hydraulic head]] for the power plant is {{convert|510|ft|m}}. Power generated at Glen Canyon is distributed by the [[Western Area Power Administration]].<ref name="powerplant">{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Powerplant.jsp?fac_Name=Glen%20Canyon%20Powerplant
|title=Glen Canyon Powerplant
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|work=Glen Canyon Dam
|date=2009-05-13
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref>

Lake Powell is the [[List of largest reservoirs in the United States|second-largest reservoir in the United States]], with a full storage capacity of some {{convert|26214900|acre.ft|km3}}. The original design storage capacity of Powell was some {{convert|27000000|acre.ft|km3}}, but some of it has been compromised by sedimentation. At maximum pool, the reservoir reaches {{convert|186|mi|km}} upstream to the mouth of [[Cataract Canyon]], covering {{convert|252|sqmi|km2}} with a twisting, winding shoreline of over {{convert|2000|mi|km}}. The active capacity is {{convert|20876000|acre.ft|km3}} and the inactive capacity is {{convert|4000000|acre.ft|km3}} (the lowest point where electricity can still be generated). The dead pool volume is {{convert|1900000|acre.ft|km3}}, marking the lowest point where water can be released through the dam.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} Although the dam lies in northern Arizona, the vast majority of the reservoir is actually in southern Utah. Many arms branch off the lake, the longest being those formed by Wahweap Creek, Navajo Creek, Last Chance Creek, the San Juan River, the Escalante River, Halls Creek, and Bullfrog Creek. The reservoir lies mainly in the [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]].<ref>{{cite map
|publisher=ACME Mapper
|title=USGS Topo Maps for United States
|year=
|cartography=[[United States Geological Survey]]
|accessdate=2009-10-29
|url=http://mapper.acme.com/}}</ref>

===Operations===
By and large, the Glen Canyon Dam's main purpose is to fulfill the agreement in the Colorado River Compact made by the upper basin states to allow at least {{convert|7500000|acre.ft|km3}} of water to flow annually past Lee's Ferry for use by Arizona, Nevada and California. The dam is operated to maintain a minimum annual release volume of {{convert|8230000|acre.ft|km3}} or about {{convert|11350|cuft/s|m3/s}}, which is well over the amount stipulated by the compact but not enough to deliver enough water to Mexico as written in the 1944 ''Treaty for the Utilization of Waters of the Colorado and Tijuana Rivers and of the Rio Grande''.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} Water for delivery to Mexico is provided by the additional amount released from Glen Canyon – about {{convert|730000|acre.ft|km3}} in the average year – as well as tributaries entering the Colorado between Glen Canyon and Hoover Dam, as well as tributaries below Hoover, although many of those have been diverted for irrigation in central Arizona.<ref name="reservoirs">{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/programs/strategies/FEIS/AppB.pdf
|title=Colorado River System Facilities and Current River System Operations From Lake Powell to SIB
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|date=
|accessdate=2011-05-25}}</ref>

[[File:Arizona, Lake Powell 01.jpg|thumb|left|The lower end of Lake Powell, with Glen Canyon Dam in the foreground]]
When the dam was first built, the set annual release volume was believed to be the minimum sustainable flow of the Colorado River past the dam site minus the Upper Basin's allocation of 7.5 million acre feet. Reclamation's studies suggested that the Colorado and other tributaries that feed into the reservoir, such as the [[San Juan River (Colorado River)|San Juan]] and [[Escalante River|Escalante]], would dump more water into the reservoir during spring runoff than could be efficiently released to maximize power generation on an average of one out of every four years, so the reservoir is operated to reach a peak annual volume of 90% of capacity during July, with power plant releases scheduled based on runoff forecasts.<ref name="reservoirs"/> The 1983 and 1984 floods dramatically noted that runoff could not be predicted accurately enough all the time. Since then, even though Glen Canyon was never built for the purpose of flood control, Reclamation has maintained a minimum of {{convert|2400000|acre.ft|km3}} of flood-storage space in the reservoir (approximately 9% of Lake Powell's capacity) to be available on January 1 of any year.<ref>National Research Council & Committee to Review the Glen Canyon Environmental Studies, p. 56</ref> In the 21st century, protracted drought caused Lake Powell to drop significantly, reaching a record low of 33% full in 2005, with 2011 being the first year of relief after eight straight years of low water.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}

The dam's powerplant is operated as a "cash register" power station, meaning that sales of the electricity it generates was used to pay for the original construction cost and is used for maintenance needs as well as a source of revenue for the Bureau of Reclamation.<ref name="restorationbrower"/> In fact, the primary function of the dam is power production; it wields more than 75% of the hydroelectric capacity of the entire Colorado River Storage Project. The dam also serves as a primary [[peaking power]] plant and [[black start]] power source for the electrical grid of much of the southern [[Intermountain West]].<ref name="FAQ"/><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.kued.org/productions/glencanyon/interviews/wirth.html
|title=Interview: Barry Wirth
|publisher=KUED
|work=Glen Canyon: A Dam, Water and the West
|date=
|accessdate=2011-06-01}}</ref> Colorado River flows fluctuate daily below the dam, as much as {{convert|15000|to|22000|cuft/s|m3/s}} every 24 hours, depending on power demand.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/amp/pdfs/sp_appndxG_ROD.pdf
|title=Record of Decision: Operation of Glen Canyon Dam Final Environmental Impact Statement
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|work=
|date=1996-10-09
|accessdate=2011-05-25}}</ref> Minimums may drop as low as {{convert|1000|cuft/s|m3/s}} in December and highs as much as {{convert|31500|cuft/s|m3/s}} in June and July (the full discharge capacity of the turbines).<ref>National Research Council & Committee to Review the Glen Canyon Environmental Studies, p. 51</ref> In an average year, the power plant uses only about one-fourth of its full capacity,<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www2.kenyon.edu/projects/Dams/gec02tfin.html
|title=Economic Costs of the Glen Canyon Dam
|publisher=Kenyon College
|work=
|date=
|accessdate=2011-06-01}}</ref> producing 3.454 billion [[kilowatt hour]]s (KWh) annually.<ref name="powerplant"/><ref name="FAQ">{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/crsp/gc/faq.html
|title=Glen Canyon Dam – Frequently Asked Questions
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|work=Colorado River Storage Project
|date=2008-11-25
|accessdate=2011-05-25}}</ref> Annual power output has ranged from a high of nearly 10.4 billion KWh in 1984 to less than 2.0 billion KWh in 2002.

==Environmental impact==
[[File:Glen Canyon Dam MC.jpg|thumb|right|425px|View of the Colorado immediately downstream of Glen Canyon Dam (right). The green, clear water is caused by the dam trapping sediment, which would naturally cause the river to have a reddish-brown color.]]
Because of its tremendous ecological effect on the Colorado River, the Glen Canyon Dam has inspired heavy controversy from environmentalists. Because of its location in the desert amid porous geology, Lake Powell causes huge evaporation and seepage losses. It is estimated that between {{convert|675000|acre.ft|km3}} and {{convert|1000000|acre.ft|km3}}, with an average of {{convert|860000|acre.ft|km3}}, is lost from the reservoir each year. This amounts to 6-8% of the Colorado River's flow, an increasingly valuable amount of water in an arid land for both humans and the animals and plants that live along the river.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.glencanyon.org/library/water.php
|title=Water Supply and Lake Powell
|publisher=Glen Canyon Institute
|date=
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref>

Like all dams, Glen Canyon traps silt, but because the Colorado is an especially high-sediment river, the dam has posed even worse consequences for the river between it and [[Lake Mead]] (essentially, the Grand Canyon). About 100 million tons of sediment are trapped behind the dam annually, equal to about 30,000 dump truck loads daily.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.glencanyon.org/library/sediment.php
|title=Sediment and Lake Powell
|publisher=Glen Canyon Institute
|date=
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref> Because of the dam, sediment deposited by the Colorado and its tributaries is slowly filling up the canyon, and the most optimistic projections put the useful life of the reservoir at 300–700 years. If no action is taken such as [[dredging]], in a few hundred years, sediment deposits will begin to build up at the foot of the dam and will gradually block the different outlets used to release water. Thus, if drought intervenes during the same period, the dam may not be able to release water due to the blockage of the river outlets and penstocks. The Colorado below the dam would be reduced to a trickle, causing unprecedented loss of riverine life.<ref>{{cite news
|last=Powell
|first=James
|url=http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/5617/
|title=Calamity on the Colorado
|work=Orion Magazine
|date=July–August 2010
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref>

The Colorado through Grand Canyon now lacks the source of sediment it needs to build [[sandbar]]s and islands, and these natural fluvial formations within the canyon have now suffered severe erosion damage. The floods that once scoured the river yearly are now contained behind the dam except in the worst cases; the elimination of this periodic scouring has promoted vegetation encroachment which not only has considerably changed the [[riparian zone]] environment but has created problems for tourism, wherein hikers and rafters often cannot find good spots to camp due to overgrowth. Flow control has also caused an inability of the river to carry away the [[rockslide]]s that are common along the canyons, leading to the creation of incrementally dangerous [[rapid]]s that pose a hazard to fish and boaters alike. Before the dam, the Colorado commonly reached flows of more than {{convert|90000|cuft/s|m3/s}} during the spring; this has been limited to less than {{convert|35000|cuft/s|m3/s}} most years with few exceptions.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.gcdamp.gov/keyresc/sediment.html
|title=Sediment and River Sand Bars in the Grand Canyon
|publisher=Glen Canyon Dam Adaptive Management Program
|date=2006-12-04
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|last=Infalt
|first=Susan B.
|url=https://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~shlemonc/html/trips/Grand%20Canyon%20web/html/reports/PDFs/Infalt.pdf
|title=Colorado River Native Riparian Vegetation in Grand Canyon: How Has Glen Canyon Dam Impacted These Communities?
|publisher=University of California Davis
|work=Department of Geology
|date=2005-03-10
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref>

Glen Canyon, which Lake Powell flooded, was really more of a narrow and steep sided valley than a canyon and was once described as the "biological heart" of the Colorado because of its abundant riparian growth and streamside habitat on the numerous low [[river terrace]]s. The canyon once supported 79 plant species, 189 bird species and 34 kinds of mammals.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.humanistsofutah.org/2004/DamCrisis_Aug-04.html
|title=Lake Powell Reservoir and Glen Canyon Dam: Dam in Crisis
|publisher=Humanists of Utah
|date=2004-08
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref> Below the dam, the Colorado has turned into a "death zone for native fish"<ref>{{cite news
|last=Minard
|first=Anne
|title=Re-opening Glen Canyon's floodgates
|work=High Country News
|date=2002-07-08
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref> such as the endangered [[humpback chub]] as said by Nikolai Ramsey of the Grand Canyon Trust. Throughout most of the year, water released by Glen Canyon is a consistent {{convert|47|F|C}} due to a [[thermal mass]] effect in Lake Powell where the water typically released from hundreds of feet below the lake surface through the penstocks is insulated from temperature fluctuations by the thick layer of water above it. Pre-dam, the river ranged from over {{convert|80|F|C}} in the heat of summer to just above {{convert|32|F|C}} in winter.<ref name = "LivingRivers">{{cite web
|url=http://www.livingrivers.net/campaigns/grandcanyon/article1.cfm
|title=Grand Canyon & Glen Canyon Dam: The Basics
|publisher=Living Rivers
|work=Save Grand Canyon Again
|date=
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref>

In addition to the effect this has on native fish species, biologist and veteran river guide Michael P. Ghiglieri proposed many drowning deaths by boaters in the Grand Canyon Colorado have been caused or exacerbated by rapid hypothermia and hypothermic shock caused by entering the cold water. He further noted during the record post-dam high-flow season of 1983 ([[Glen Canyon Dam#Important events in 1983 and 1984|mentioned above]]), there was only one boating fatality in the canyon, providing a strong challenge to views that the dam, by reducing and mediating river flows, increases the safety of canyon river users. The river water temperature in 1983 was significantly higher than normal, due to a large portion of the water having come from overflows of warmer surface water over the spillways of Glen Canyon Dam, rather than the colder lower levels which feed the penstocks.<ref>Ghiglieri, pp. 211-215</ref>

==Restoration efforts==
On March 26, 1996, the penstocks and two of the outlet works' bypass tubes at Glen Canyon Dam were opened to maximum capacity, producing a flood crest of about {{convert|45000|cuft/s|m3/s}} on the Colorado River. This was not due to any flood or mechanical failure, but rather was a controlled effort to assist the recovery of the damaged riverine ecosystem by mimicking the spring freshets that once swept through the canyons yearly. The flow appeared to have scoured clean numerous pockets of encroaching vegetation, carried away rockslides that had become dangerous to boaters, and rearranged sand and gravel bars along the river, and was considered an environmental success.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/grandcan/flood.html
|title=Controlled Flood: Can Large Releases of Water Restore Habitats in Grand Canyon?
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|work=Pacific Coastal & Marine Science Center
|date=2005-04-21
|accessdate=2011-05-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.hcn.org/issues/230/11324
|last=Minard
|first=Anne
|title=Re-opening Glen Canyon's floodgates
|work=High Country News
|date=2002-07-08
|accessdate=2011-05-31}}</ref>

Contrary to the initial results, the following years revealed that the offensive vegetation had not been carried away as previously thought – only buried, and had mostly recovered within six months. The surface area of sandbars had been increased, but much of the material had been eroded from the submerged portions of the bars and deposited on top, making them unstable, rather than scoured from the riverbed as hoped.<ref>{{Cite article
|url=http://www.agci.org/dB/PDFs/03S1_TMelis_Sediment.pdf
|title=Recent Sediment Studies Refute Glen Canyon Dam Hypothesis
|publisher=Aspen Global Change Institute
|journal=American Geophysical Union
|volume=83
|number=27
|pages=273, 277-278
|date=2002-06-18
|accessdate=2011-05-31}}</ref> Reclamation has repeated the floods periodically, another time in 2004, 2008,
<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,335181,00.html
|author=Associated Press
|title=Man-Made Flood Rushes Through Grand Canyon
|work=Fox News
|date=2008-03-06
|accessdate=2011-05-31}}</ref>
and again in 2012.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.azcentral.com/travel/articles/20121116floodgates-opening-restore-colorado-river.html
|author=Arizona Republic
|title=Floodgates opening to restore the Colorado River
|work=Gannett
|date=2012-11-19
|accessdate=2012-11-19}}</ref>

Nevertheless, some continue to believe that the dam has too large and severe of an effect on the river's ecology to make restoration efforts worthwhile.<ref name="LivingRivers"/>

==Recreation==
Lake Powell is one of the most popular houseboating and water-skiing areas in the United States; the [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]], which surrounds the reservoir, receives more than 1.9 million visitors annually.

About 300,000 of these tourists travel via boat to [[Rainbow Bridge National Monument|Rainbow Bridge]] in Utah, a large natural arch once very hard to access, but now easily reachable because one of the arms of the reservoir extends near it.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nps.gov/rabr/index.htm
|title=Rainbow Bridge National Monument
|publisher=U.S. National Park Service
|work=
|date=2010-03-10
|accessdate=2011-06-24}}</ref>

Glen Canyon National Recreation Area draws more than two million visitors annually. Recreational activities include [[boating]], [[fishing]], [[waterskiing]], [[Personal water craft|jet-skiing]], and hiking. Prepared campgrounds can be found at each marina, but many visitors choose to rent a [[houseboat]] or bring their own camping equipment, find a secluded spot somewhere in the canyons, and make their own camp (there are no restrictions on where visitors can stay).

Currently most Marinas on the lake don't have [[Automatic Identification System]] monitoring stations that transmit boat positions to the AIS websites for the boating community. A substantial number of vessels on the lake do not have AIS transponders, so extra precautions must be taken with respect to boating safety. The telemetry system used to monitor the hydrologic activity of the lake by the federal government agencies in charge of the dam does not at this point support AIS monitoring, creating an additional safety gap.

Because most of the lake is surrounded by steep sandstone walls, access to the lake is limited to developed marinas:

# [[Lee's Ferry]] Subdistrict
# Page/[[Wahweap]] Marina
# [[Antelope Point]] Marina
# [[Halls Crossing, Utah]] Marina
# [[Bullfrog Marina]]
# [[Hite, Lake Powell|Hite Marina]]

The following marinas are accessible only by boat:
# [[Dangling Rope Marina]]
# [[Rainbow Bridge National Monument]]
# [[Escalante Subdistrict]]

==In popular culture==
*[[Edward Abbey]]'s novel ''[[The Monkey Wrench Gang]]'' describes the fictional efforts of a group of environmentalists who fantasize about blowing up the dam.
*In detective novel ''[[Wet Desert]]'' by [[Gary Hansen]], the Glen Canyon Dam is destroyed by environmental terrorists.
*The dam was used as a shooting location for the 2011 ''[[Doctor Who]]'' episode "[[Day of the Moon]]."
*The dam was used as a location in the television cult classic, ''[[Route 66 (TV series)|Route 66]] ''. "Layout at Glen Canyon" (episode 9, season 1) was broadcast December 2, 1960.

==See also==
*[[List of dams and reservoirs in the United States]]
*[[Navajo Generating Station]]

==References==
{{reflist|33em}}

==Works cited==
{{refbegin|33em}}
*{{cite book
|last=Adler
|first=Robert W.
|title=Restoring Colorado River ecosystems: a troubled sense of immensity
|publisher=Island Press
|year=2007
|isbn=1-59726-057-6
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}
*{{cite book
|authors=Billington, David P.; Jackson, Donald Conrad
|title=Big dams of the New Deal era: a confluence of engineering and politics
|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press
|year=2006
|isbn=0-8061-3795-9
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}
*{{cite book
|authors=Billington, David P.; Jackson, Donald C.; Melosi, Martin V.
|title=The History of Large Federal Dams: Planning, Design, and Construction
|publisher=Government Printing Office
|year=2005
|isbn=0-16-072823-1
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}
*{{cite book |title=Over the Edge: Death in Grand Canyon (Revised and Updated) |last=Ghiglieri |first=Michael P. |authorlink= |coauthors=Myers, Thomas M. |year=2001 |publisher=Puma Press |location=Flagstaff |isbn=0-9700973-1-X |pages=211–215 |edition=1st, tenth revision}}
*{{cite book
|author=Martin, Russell
|title=A Story That Stands Like A Dam: Glen Canyon and the Struggle for the Soul of the West
|publisher=Henry Holt and Company
|edition=1
|isbn=0-8050-0822-5
|year=1990}}
*{{cite book
|author=National Research Council, Committee to Review the Glen Canyon Environmental Studies
|title=River resource management in the Grand Canyon
|publisher=National Academies Press
|year=1996
|isbn=0-309-05448-6
|accessdate=2011-05-25}}
*{{cite book
|last=Nersesian
|first=Roy L.
|title=Energy for the 21st Century: A Comprehensive Guide to Conventional and Alternative Services
|publisher=M.E. Sharpe
|year=2010
|isbn=0-7656-2413-3
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}
*{{cite book
|last=Parks
|first=Timothy L.
|title=Glen Canyon Dam
|publisher=Arcadia Publishing
|series=Images of America
|isbn=0-7385-2875-7
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}
*{{cite book
|last=Powell
|first=James Lawrence
|title=Dead pool: Lake Powell, global warming, and the future of water in the West
|publisher=University of California Press
|isbn=0-520-25477-5
|year=2008
|accessdate=2011-05-23}}
*{{cite web
|last=Rogers
|first=Jedediah
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/projects//ImageServer?imgName=Doc_1232657383034.pdf
|title=Glen Canyon Unit
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|year=2006
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}
*{{cite book
|last=Schneiderman
|first=Jill S.
|title=The earth around us: maintaining a livable planet
|publisher=Westview Press
|year=2003
|isbn=0-8133-4091-8
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}
*{{cite book
|last=Stevens
|first=Joseph E.
|title=Hoover Dam: An American Adventure
|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press
|year=1990
|isbn=0-8061-2283-8
|accessdate=2011-05-22}}
*{{cite book
|editors=Wiltshire, Richard L.; Gilbert, David R.; Rogers, Jerry R.
|title=Hoover Dam 75th Anniversary History Symposium: Proceedings of The Hoover Dam 75th Anniversary History Symposium October 21–22, 2010 Las Vegas, Nevada
|publisher=ASCE Publications
|year=2010
|isbn=0-7844-1141-7
|accessdate=2011-05-27}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Glen Canyon Dam}}
*[http://www.usbr.gov/uc/envdocs/eis/gc/gcdOpsFEIS.html 1995 Glen Canyon EIS]
*[http://explorepdx.com/glen.html Glen Canyon Before Flooding – 1962]
*[http://www.glencanyon.org/ Glen Canyon Institute]
*[http://www.nps.gov/glca/index.htm Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]
*[http://www.glencanyonnha.org/ Glen Canyon Natural History Association]
*[http://www.usbr.gov/uc/water/rsvrs/ops/crsp_40_gc.html USBR Lake Powell daily water levels]

{{CRSP}}
{{Colorado River system}}
{{Generating stations in Arizona}}

[[Category:Arch dams]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Coconino County, Arizona]]
[[Category:Colorado River]]
[[Category:Dams in Arizona]]
[[Category:Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]]
[[Category:Hydroelectric power plants in Arizona]]
[[Category:Landmarks in Arizona]]
[[Category:U.S. Route 89]]
[[Category:United States Bureau of Reclamation dams]]
[[Category:Dams completed in 1966]]
[[Category:Energy infrastructure completed in 1966]]

Monoamine neurotransmitter

2013-03-15T05:55:13Z

Avihu: /* External links */ wikidata

[[Image:Norepinephrine structure with descriptor.svg|thumb|right|180px|[[Norepinephrine]] is a monoamine neurotransmitter]]
[[image:Monoamine receptor tree.svg|thumb|right|350px| A phylogenetic tree showing how a number of monoamine receptors are related to each other.]]
'''Monoamine neurotransmitters''' are [[neurotransmitter]]s and [[neuromodulator]]s that contain one [[amino]] group that is connected to an [[aromaticity | aromatic]] ring by a two-carbon chain (-CH2-CH2-). All [[monoamines]] are derived from aromatic [[amino acid]]s like [[phenylalanine]], [[tyrosine]], [[tryptophan]], and the [[thyroid hormone]]s by the action of [[aromatic amino acid decarboxylase]] [[enzyme]]s.

== Examples ==

* [[Histamine]] (His/H is Diamine)
* [[Catecholamine]]s:
** [[Dopamine]] (DA)
** [[Noradrenaline]] (NA) (Norepinephrine, NE)
** [[Adrenaline]] (Epinephrine)
* [[Tryptamine]]s:
** [[Serotonin]] (5-HT)
** [[Melatonin]]
* [[Trace amine]]s:
** [[Phenylethylamine|β-Phenylethylamine]] (PEA, β-PEA)
** [[Tyramine]]
** [[Tryptamine]]
** [[Octopamine]]
** [[3-Iodothyronamine]]
** [[Thyronamine]]s, a new group of compounds derived from thyroid hormones

Specific transporter [[protein]]s called [[monoamine transporter]]s that transport monoamines in or out of a cell exist. These are the [[dopamine transporter]] (DAT), [[serotonin transporter]] (SERT), and the [[norepinephrine transporter]] (NET) in the outer [[cell membrane]] and the [[vesicular monoamine transporter]] ([[VMAT1]] and [[VMAT2]]) in the membrane of intracellular [[vesicle (biology) | vesicle]]s.

After release into the [[synaptic cleft]], monoamine neurotransmitter action is ended by reuptake into the presynaptic terminal. There, they can be repackaged into synaptic vesicles or degraded by the [[enzyme]] [[monoamine oxidase]] (MAO), which is a target of [[monoamine oxidase inhibitors]], a class of [[antidepressants]].

==Microevolution==
As demonstrated by the wide existence of monoamine transmitters, an organism's ability to modify its behavior is advantageous to its survival. This system is found in various species such as nematodes, lobsters, desert locusts, hens, mice and zebra finches. <ref>Lovheim, H. (2012). A new three-dimensional model for emotions and monoamine neurotransmitters. ''Medical Hypotheses'', 78, 341-348. Retrieved from http://journals1.scholarsportal.info.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/tmp/68054133680581668.pdf </ref>

==Disorders==
Disorders of monoamine neurotransmitters exist, part of a growing number of neurotransmitter disorders identified. Such disorders are responsible for [[biosynthesis]] degradation and difficulty in transporting neurotransmitters such as [[dopamine]], [[norepinephrine]], [[epinephrine]], or [[serotonin]]. Monoamine neurotransmitter disorders mimic the symptoms of other more prevalent neurological disorders (e.g. [[cerebral palsy]]) and thus are frequently misdiagnosed. <ref>Kurian MA, Gissen P, Smith M, Heales SJ, Clayton PT. 2011. The monoamine neurotransmitter disorders: An expanding range of neurological syndromes. Lancet Neurology 10(8):721-33. </ref>

==See also==
* [[Monoamine oxidase]]
* [[Monoamine transporter]]
* [[Neurotransmitter]]
* [[Monoamine Hypothesis]]
* [[Biogenic amine]]
* [[Trace amine]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{MeshName|Biogenic+monoamines}}

{{Neurotransmitters}}
{{Adrenergics}}
{{Dopaminergics}}
{{Serotonergics}}
{{TAAR ligands}}

[[Category:Neurotransmitters]]

[[fa:مونو آمین]]
[[fi:Hermoston välittäjäaine#Monoamiinit]]

Colorado Plateau

2013-03-09T21:13:29Z

Avihu: /* Geology */ fix link

[[File:Colorado Plateaus map.png|thumb|A map of the Colorado Plateau.]]
[[File:Four Corners Monument (1).jpg|thumb|The [[Four Corners Monument]] is where the states of [[Arizona]], [[Utah]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]] meet. (The states are listed in clockwise order.)]]

The '''Colorado Plateau''', also called the '''Colorado Plateau Province''', is a [[United States physiographic region|physiographic region]] of the [[Intermontane Plateaus]], roughly centered on the [[Four Corners]] region of the [[southwestern United States]]. The province covers an area of 337,000 km2 (130,000 mi2) within western [[Colorado]], northwestern [[New Mexico]], southern and eastern [[Utah]], and northern [[Arizona]]. About 90% of the area is drained by the [[Colorado River (US)|Colorado River]] and its main [[tributaries]]: the [[Green River (Utah)|Green]], [[San Juan River (Colorado River)|San Juan]], and [[Little Colorado River|Little Colorado]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Leighty |first=Dr. Robert D. = | coauthors = |title=Colorado Plateau Physiographic Province |work=Contract Report |publisher=Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DOD) Information Sciences Office |year=2001 |url=http://www.tec.army.mil/publications/ifsar/lafinal08_01/five/5.1.5_frame.htm |accessdate=2007-12-25 }}</ref><ref>Kiver, Eugene P. and David V. Harris, 1999, ''Geology of U.S. Parklands,'' Wiley, 5th ed., page 395, ISBN 0-471-33218-6</ref>

The Colorado Plateau is largely made up of [[desert|high desert]], with scattered areas of forests. In the southwest corner of the Colorado Plateau lies the [[Grand Canyon]] of the Colorado River. Much of the Plateau's landscape is related, in both appearance and geologic history, to the Grand Canyon. The nickname "Red Rock Country" suggests the brightly colored rock left bare to the view by dryness and erosion. [[dome (geology)|Domes]], [[hoodoo (geology)|hoodoos]], fins, [[reef]]s, goblins, river [[narrows]], [[natural bridge]]s, and [[slot canyon]]s are only some of the additional features typical of the Plateau.

The Colorado Plateau has the greatest concentration of U.S. [[National Park Service]] (NPS) units in the [[list of National Parks of the United States|country]]. Among its ten [[National Park]]s are [[Grand Canyon National Park|Grand Canyon]], [[Zion National Park|Zion]], [[Bryce Canyon National Park|Bryce Canyon]], [[Capitol Reef National Park|Capitol Reef]], [[Canyonlands National Park|Canyonlands]], [[Arches National Park|Arches]], [[Mesa Verde National Park|Mesa Verde]], and [[Petrified Forest National Park|Petrified Forest]]. Among its 17 [[National Monument (United States)|National Monument]]s are [[Dinosaur National Monument|Dinosaur]], [[Hovenweep National Monument|Hovenweep]], [[Wupatki National Monument|Wupatki]], [[Sunset Crater#Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument|Sunset Crater Volcano]], [[Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument|Grand Staircase-Escalante]], [[Natural Bridges National Monument|Natural Bridges]], [[Canyons of the Ancients National Monument|Canyons of the Ancients]], and [[Colorado National Monument|Colorado]].

==Geography==
[[File:four corners.jpg|thumb|The [[Four Corners]] region and the Colorado Plateau. Click image to see state lines.]]
[[File:Grand Junction Trip 92007 012.JPG|thumb|The Book Cliffs of western [[Colorado]].]]
[[File:Grand Junction Trip 92007 135.JPG|thumb|The [[Green River (Utah)|Green River]] runs north to south from [[Wyoming]], briefly through [[Colorado]], and converges with the [[Colorado River]] in southeastern Utah.]]
[[File:Sunset in Ojito Wilderness, NM.jpg|thumb|Sunset in Ojito Wilderness, near [[Albuquerque, NM]] ]]

The province is bounded by the [[Rocky Mountains]] in Colorado, and by the [[Uinta Mountains]] and [[Wasatch Mountains]] branches of the Rockies in northern and central Utah. It is also bounded by the [[Rio Grande Rift]], [[Mogollon Rim]] and the [[Basin and Range Province]]. Isolated ranges of the [[Southern Rocky Mountains]] such as the [[San Juan Mountains]] in [[Colorado]] and the [[La Sal Mountains]] in [[Utah]] intermix into the central and southern parts of the Colorado Plateau.
It is composed of seven sections:<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 367, figure 8-1</ref>
*[[Uinta Basin]] Section
*High Plateaus Section
*[[Grand Canyon]] Section
*[[Canyon Lands]] Section
*[[Navajo section|Navajo Section]]
*[[Datil-Mogollon Section]]<ref name="NM-Env">{{cite web |last=Hawley |first=John W. | authorlink = | coauthors = |title=New Mexico’s Environment, Physiographic Provinces |publisher=|url=http://www.nmmastergardeners.org/Pdf%20FILES/NM's%20Environment.pdf |accessdate=2007-12-25 }}</ref>
*[[Acoma-Zuni Section]]<ref name="NM-Env" />

As the name implies, the High Plateaus Section is, on average, the highest section. North-south trending [[normal fault]]s that include the Hurricane, Sevier, Grand Wash, and Paunsaugunt separate the section's component plateaus.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 366</ref> This fault pattern is caused by the tensional forces pulling apart the adjacent Basin and Range province to the west, making this section transitional.

Occupying the southeast corner of the Colorado Plateau is the Datil Section. Thick sequences of mid-[[Tertiary]] to late-[[Cenozoic]]-aged [[lava]] covers this section.

Development of the province has in large part been influenced by structural features in its oldest rocks. Part of the [[Wasatch Line]] and its various faults form the western edge of the province. Faults that run parallel to the Wasatch Fault that lies along the [[Wasatch Range]] form the boundaries between the plateaus in the High Plateaus Section.<ref name="U.S. Parklands page 376">''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 376</ref> The Uinta Basin, Uncompahgre Uplift, and the Paradox Basin were also created by movement along structural weaknesses in the region's oldest rock.

In Utah, the province includes several higher [[fault (geology)|fault-separated]] [[plateau]]s:
*[[Awapa Plateau]]
*[[Aquarius Plateau]]
*[[Kaiparowits Plateau]]
*[[Markagunt Plateau]]
*[[Paunsaugunt Plateau]]
*[[Sevier Plateau]]
*[[Fishlake Plateau]]
*[[Pavant Plateau]]
*[[Gunnison Plateau]] and the
*[[Tavaputs Plateau]].

Some sources also include the Tushar Mountain Plateau as part of the Colorado Plateau, but others do not. The mostly flat-lying [[sedimentary rock]] units that make up these plateaus are found in component plateaus that are between 1500 m (5000 ft) to over 3350 m (11,000 ft) above [[sea level]]. A supersequence of these rocks is exposed in the various cliffs and canyons (including the [[Grand Canyon]]) that make up the [[Grand Staircase]]. Increasingly younger east-west trending escarpments of the Grand Staircase extend north of the Grand Canyon and are named for their color:

*[[Chocolate Cliffs]],
*[[Vermillion Cliffs]],
*[[White Cliffs (Utah)|White Cliffs]],
*[[Gray Cliffs]], and the
*[[Pink Cliffs]].<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands,'' page 369</ref>

Within these rocks are abundant [[mineral]] resources that include [[uranium]], [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]]. Study of the area's unusually clear geologic history (which is laid bare due to the arid and semiarid conditions) has greatly advanced that science.

A [[rain shadow]] from the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] far to the west and the many ranges of the Basin and Range means that the Colorado Plateau receives 15 to 40 cm (6 to 16 in.) of annual precipitation.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 369</ref> Higher areas receive more precipitation and are covered in forests of pine, fir, and spruce.

Though it can be said that the Plateau roughly centers on the Four Corners, [[Black Mesa (Arizona)|Black Mesa]] in northern Arizona is much closer to the east-west, north-south midpoint of the Plateau Province. Lying southeast of Glen Canyon and southwest of Monument Valley at the north end of the Hopi Reservation, this remote coal-laden highland has about half of the Colorado Plateau's acreage north of it, half south of it, half west of it, and half east of it.

==History==
The [[Ancestral Puebloan People]] lived in the region from around 2000 to 700 years ago.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 374, "Trouble in Paradise"</ref>

A party from Santa Fe led by Fathers Dominguez and Escalante, unsuccessfully seeking an overland route to California, made a five-month out-and-back trip through much of the Plateau in 1776-1777.<ref>Gregory Crampton, Standing Up Country, Alfred Knopf, NY, 1964, pp. 43-46</ref>

[[United States Army|U.S. Army]] Major and geologist [[John Wesley Powell]] explored the area in 1869 and 1872 despite having lost one arm in the [[American Civil War]]. Using fragile boats and small groups of men the [[Powell Geographic Expedition]] charted this largely unknown region of the United States for the federal government.

Construction of the [[Hoover Dam]] in the 1930s and the [[Glen Canyon Dam]] in the 1960s changed the character of the Colorado River. Dramatically reduced sediment load changed its color from reddish brown (''Colorado'' is [[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "colored" referring to its red color) to mostly clear. The apparent green color is from [[algae]] on the riverbed's rocks, not from any significant amount of suspended material. The lack of sediment has also starved [[sand bar]]s and [[beach]]es but an experimental 12 day long controlled flood from Glen Canyon Dam in 1996 showed substantial restoration. Similar floods are planned for every 5 to 10 years.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 375</ref>

==Geology==
[[File:Zion 045.jpg|thumb||The red cliffs of the Colorado Plateau tower above the northern Mojave Desert.]]
[[File:SEUtahStrat.JPG|thumb|The [[Permian]] through [[Jurassic]] stratigraphy of the Colorado Plateau area of southeastern [[Utah]] that makes up much of the famous prominent rock formations in protected areas such as [[Capitol Reef National Park]] and [[Canyonlands National Park]]. From top to bottom: Rounded tan domes of the [[Navajo Sandstone]], layered red [[Kayenta Formation]], cliff-forming, vertically-jointed, red [[Wingate Sandstone]], slope-forming, purplish [[Chinle Formation]], layered, lighter-red [[Moenkopi Formation]], and white, layered [[Cutler Formation]] sandstone. Picture from [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]], Utah.]]
[[File:Dirty devil river.jpg|thumb|upright|Erosion-resistant sandstones of Mesozoic age result in bands of continuous cliffs, central Colorado Plateau.]]
[[File:MODIS1000013.jpg|thumb||[[MODIS]] satellite image of Grand Canyon, [[Lake Powell]] (black, left of center) and the Colorado Plateau. White areas are snow-capped.]]

One of the most geologically intriguing features of the Colorado Plateau is its remarkable stability. Relatively little rock deformation such as [[fault (geology)|fault]]ing and [[fold (geology)|fold]]ing has affected this high, thick crustal block within the last 600 million years or so. In contrast, provinces that have suffered severe deformation surround the plateau. Mountain building thrust up the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the north and east and tremendous, earth-stretching tension created the [[Basin and Range province]] to the west and south. Sub ranges of the [[Southern Rocky Mountains]] are scattered throughout the Colorado Plateau.

The [[Precambrian]] and [[Paleozoic]] history of the Colorado Plateau is best revealed near its southern end where the [[Grand Canyon]] has exposed rocks with ages that span almost 2 billion years. The oldest rocks at river level are igneous and metamorphic and have been lumped together as "Vishnu Basement Rocks"; the oldest ages recorded by these rocks fall in the range 1950 to 1680 million years. An erosion surface on the "Vishnu Basement Rocks" is covered by sedimentary rocks and basalt flows, and these rocks formed in the interval from about 1250 to 750 million years ago: in turn, they were uplifted and split into a range of [[fault-block mountain]]s.<ref>For the whole paragraph except where noted: ''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 383, "Precambrian and Paleozoic"</ref> Erosion greatly reduced this mountain range prior to the encroachment of a seaway along the passive western edge of the continent in the early Paleozoic. At the canyon rim is the Kaibab Formation, limestone deposited in the late Paleozoic (Permian) about 270 million years ago.

A 12,000 to 15,000 ft. (3700 to 4600 m) high extension of the [[Ancestral Rocky Mountains]] called the Uncompahgre Mountains were uplifted and the adjacent Paradox Basin subsided. Almost 4 mi. (6.4 km) of sediment from the mountains and [[evaporite]]s from the sea were deposited (see [[geology of the Canyonlands area]] for detail).<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 383</ref>
Most of the [[formation (geology)|formations]] were deposited in warm shallow seas and near-shore environments (such as [[beach]]es and [[swamp]]s) as the seashore repeatedly advanced and retreated over the edge of a proto-North America (for detail, see [[geology of the Grand Canyon area]]). The province was probably on a [[continental margin]] throughout the late Precambrian and most of the [[Paleozoic]] era. Igneous rocks injected millions of years later form a marbled network through parts of the Colorado Plateau's darker metamorphic basement. By 600 million years ago North America had been leveled off to a remarkably smooth surface.

Throughout the Paleozoic Era, tropical seas periodically inundated the Colorado Plateau region. Thick layers of limestone, sandstone, siltstone, and shale were laid down in the shallow marine waters. During times when the seas retreated, stream deposits and dune sands were deposited or older layers were removed by erosion. Over 300 million years passed as layer upon layer of sediment accumulated.

It was not until the upheavals that coincided with the formation of the supercontinent [[Pangea]] began about 250 million years ago that deposits of marine sediment waned and terrestrial deposits dominate. In late Paleozoic and much of the [[Mesozoic]] era the region was affected by a series of [[orogeny|orogenies]] ([[mountain]]-building events) that deformed western North America and caused a great deal of uplift. Eruptions from volcanic mountain ranges to the west buried vast regions beneath ashy debris. Short-lived rivers, lakes, and inland seas left sedimentary records of their passage. [[Stream]]s, [[pond]]s and [[lake]]s created formations such as the Chinle, Moenave, and Kayenta in the Mesozoic era. Later a vast [[desert]] formed the Navajo and Temple Cap formations and dry near-shore environment formed the Carmel (see [[geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area]] for details).

The area was again covered by a warm shallow sea when the [[Cretaceous Seaway]] opened in late Mesozoic time. The Dakota Sandstone and the Tropic Shale were deposited in the warm shallow waters of this advancing and retreating seaway. Several other formations were also created but were mostly [[erosion|eroded]] following two major periods of uplift.

The [[Laramide orogeny]] closed the seaway and uplifted a large belt of crust from [[Montana]] to [[Mexico]], with the Colorado Plateau region being the largest block. [[Thrust fault]]s in [[Colorado]] are thought to have formed from a slight clockwise movement of the region, which acted as a rigid crustal block. The Colorado Plateau Province was uplifted largely as a single block, possibly due to its relative thickness. This relative thickness may be why compressional forces from the orogeny were mostly transmitted through the province instead of deforming it.<ref name="U.S. Parklands page 376"/> Pre-existing weaknesses in Precambrian rocks were exploited and reactivated by the compression. It was along these ancient faults and other deeply-buried structures that much of the province's relatively small and gently-inclined flexures (such as [[anticline]]s, [[syncline]]s, and [[monocline]]s) formed.<ref name="U.S. Parklands page 376"/> Some of the prominent isolated mountain ranges of the Plateau, such as [[Ute Mountain]] and the [[Carrizo Mountains]], both near the [[Four Corners]], are cored by igneous rocks that were emplaced about 70 million years ago.

Minor uplift events continued through the start of the [[Cenozoic]] era and were accompanied by some [[basalt]]ic lava eruptions and mild deformation. The colorful [[Claron Formation]] that forms the delicate [[hoodoo (geology)|hoodoo]]s of Bryce Amphitheater and Cedar Breaks was then laid down as sediments in cool [[stream]]s and [[lakes]] (see [[geology of the Bryce Canyon area]] for details). The flat-lying Chuska Sandstone was deposited about 34 million years ago; the sandstone is predominantly of eolian origin and locally more than 500 meters thick. The Chuska Sandstone caps the [[Chuska mountains]], and it lies unconformably on Mesozoic rocks deformed during the [[Laramide orogeny]].

Younger igneous rocks form spectacular topographic features. The [[Henry Mountains]], [[La Sal Range]], and [[Abajo Mountains]], ranges that dominate many views in southeastern Utah, are formed about igneous rocks that were intruded in the interval from 20 to 31 million years: some igneous intrusions in these mountains form [[laccolith]]s, a form of intrusion recognized by [[Grove Karl Gilbert]] during his studies of the [[Henry Mountains]]. Ship Rock (also called [[Shiprock]]), in northwestern New Mexico, and Church Rock and [[El Capitan (Arizona)|Agathla]], near [[Monument Valley]], are erosional remnants of potassium-rich igneous rocks and associated breccias of the Navajo Volcanic Field, produced about 25 million years ago. The Hopi Buttes in northeastern Arizona are held up by resistant sheets of sodic volcanic rocks, extruded about 7 million years ago. More recent igneous rocks are concentrated nearer the margins of the Colorado Plateau. The [[San Francisco Peaks]] near [[Flagstaff, Arizona|Flagstaff]], south of the [[Grand Canyon]], are volcanic landforms produced by igneous activity that began in that area about 6 million years ago and continued until 1064 C.E., when basalt erupted in [[Sunset Crater National Monument]]. [[Mount Taylor (New Mexico)|Mount Taylor]], near [[Grants, New Mexico]], is a volcanic structure with a history similar to that of the San Francisco Peaks: a basalt flow closer to Grants was extruded only about 3000 years ago (see [[El Malpais National Monument]]). These young igneous rocks may record processes in the Earth's mantle that are eating away at deep margins of the relatively stable block of the Plateau.

Tectonic activity resumed in Mid Cenozoic time and started to unevenly uplift and slightly tilt the Colorado Plateau region and the region to the west some 20 million years ago (as much as 3 kilometers of uplift occurred). Streams had their [[stream gradient|gradient]] increased and they responded by [[downcutting]] faster. [[Headward erosion]] and [[mass wasting]] helped to erode cliffs back into their fault-bounded plateaus, widening the basins in-between. Some plateaus have been so severely reduced in size this way that they become [[mesa]]s or even [[butte]]s. [[Monocline]]s form as a result of uplift bending the rock units. Eroded monoclines leave steeply tilted resistant rock called a hogback and the less steep version is a cuesta.

[[Image:The Three Patriarchs in Zion Canyon.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Cliffs of Navajo Sandstone in [[Zion National Park]]]]

Great tension developed in the crust, probably related to changing plate motions far to the west. As the crust stretched, the [[Basin and Range province]] broke up into a multitude of down-dropped valleys and elongate mountains. Major faults, such as the [[Hurricane Fault]], developed that separate the two regions. The dry climate was in large part a [[rainshadow effect]] resulting from the rise of the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] further west. Yet for some reason not fully understood, the neighboring Colorado Plateau was able to preserve its structural integrity and remained a single tectonic block.

A second mystery was that while the lower layers of the Plateau appeared to be sinking, overall the Plateau was rising. The reason for this was discovered upon analyzing data from the [[USARRAY]] project. It was found that the [[asthenosphere]] had invaded the overlying [[lithosphere]]. The asthenosphere erodes the lower levels of the Plateau. At the same time, as it cools, it expands and lifts the upper layers of the Plateau.<ref>{{cite web|title=Why is the Colorado Plateau Rising?|url=http://geology.com/press-release/colorado-plateau/|work=Geology.com|accessdate=9 May 2011}}</ref> Eventually, the great block of Colorado Plateau crust rose a kilometer higher than the Basin and Range. As the land rose, the streams responded by cutting ever deeper stream channels. The most well-known of these streams, the [[Colorado River (US)|Colorado River]], began to carve the [[Grand Canyon]] less than 6 million years ago in response to sagging caused by the opening of the [[Gulf of California]] to the southwest.

The [[Pleistocene]] epoch brought periodic [[ice age]]s and a cooler, wetter climate. This increased erosion at higher elevations with the introduction of [[alpine glacier]]s while mid-elevations were attacked by [[frost wedging]] and lower areas by more vigorous stream scouring. [[Pluvial]] lakes also formed during this time. Glaciers and pluvial lakes disappeared and the climate warmed and became drier with the start of [[Holocene]] epoch.

==Energy generation==
[[Image:Grand Junction Trip 92007 098.JPG|thumb|[[Castle Gate Power Plant]] near [[Helper, Utah|Helper, UT]].]]
[[Image:HappyValley 016.JPG|thumb|Coal mine in [[Carbon County, Utah|Carbon County, UT]].]]
[[Image:Oilwellut.jpg|thumb|[[Oil well]] in the [[Uinta Basin]], [[Utah]].]]
Electrical power generation is one of the major industries that takes place in the Colorado Plateau region. Most electrical generation comes from [[coal fired]] power plants.

==Natural resources==
===Petroleum===

The rocks of the Colorado Plateau are a source of oil and a major source of [[natural gas]]. Major petroleum deposits are present in the [[San Juan Basin]] of [[New Mexico]] and [[Colorado]], the [[Uinta Basin]] of [[Utah]], the [[Piceance Basin]] of [[Colorado]], and the [[Paradox Basin]] of [[Utah]], [[Colorado]], and [[Arizona]].

===Uranium===
{{main|Uranium mining in Utah|}}
The Colorado Plateau holds major uranium deposits, and there was a uranium boom in the 1950s. The [[Moab uranium mill tailings pile|Atlas Uranium Mill]] near Moab has left a problematic tailings pile for cleanup.

===Coal===
Major coal deposits are being mined in the Colorado Plateau in [[Utah]], [[Arizona]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]], though large coal mining projects, such as on the [[Kaiparowits Plateau]], have been proposed and defeated politically. The ITT Power Project, eventually located in [[Lynndyl, Utah]], near Delta, was originally suggested for Salt Wash near Capitol Reef National Park. After a firestorm of opposition, it was moved to a less beloved site. In Utah the largest deposits are in aptly named Carbon County. In Arizona the biggest operation is on [[Black Mesa (Arizona)|Black Mesa]], supplying coal to Navajo Power Plant.

===Gilsonite and uintatite===
Perhaps the only one of its kind, a [[gilsonite]] plant near Bonanza, southeast of [[Vernal, Utah]], mines this unique, lustrous, brittle form of asphalt, for use in "varnishes, paints,...ink, waterproofing compounds, electrical insulation,...roofing materials."<ref>{{cite book|title=Utah: A Guide to the State|year=1982|page=590}}</ref>

===Oil shale===
There are large deposits of [[oil shale]], primarily in the northeastern Colorado Plateau.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}}

===Scenic beauty===
The scenic appeal of this unique landscape had become, well before the end of the twentieth century, its greatest financial natural resource. The amount of commercial benefit to the four states of the Colorado Plateau from tourism exceeded that of any other natural resource.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}}

==Protected lands==
[[Image:Imperial Point Grand Canyon.jpg|thumb|[[North Rim]] of the [[Grand Canyon National Park]], [[Arizona]].]]
[[Image:Blue Mesa Painted Desert.jpg|thumb|[[Painted_Desert,_Arizona|Painted Desert]] seen from Blue Mesa, [[Petrified Forest National Park]]]]
[[Image:Lake Powell Above Wahweap Marina.jpg|thumb|Erosional features within [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]].]]
[[Image:100 1802 edited-1.jpg|thumb|[[Cliff Palace]] at [[Mesa Verde National Park]], [[Colorado]].]]
[[Image:Coral Pink Sand Dunes State Park.jpg|thumb|[[Coral Pink Sand Dunes State Park]], [[Utah]].]]

This relatively high semi-arid province produces many distinctive erosional features such as arches, [[arroyo (creek)|arroyo]]s, [[canyon]]s, [[cliff]]s, fins, [[natural arch|natural bridge]]s, pinnacles, [[hoodoo (geology)|hoodoo]]s, and [[monolith]]s that, in various places and extents, have been protected. Also protected are areas of historic or cultural significance, such as the [[pueblo]]s of the [[Anasazi]] culture. There are nine [[U.S. National Park]]s, a National Historical Park, sixteen [[U.S. National Monument]]s and dozens of [[wilderness area]]s in the province along with millions of acres in [[U.S. National Forest]]s, many state parks, and other protected lands. In fact, this region has the highest concentration of parklands in [[North America]].<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 365</ref> [[Lake Powell]], in foreground, is not a natural lake but a reservoir impounded by [[Glen Canyon Dam]].

National parks (from south to north to south clockwise):
*[[Petrified Forest National Park]]
*[[Grand Canyon National Park]]
*[[Zion National Park]]
*[[Bryce Canyon National Park]]
*[[Capitol Reef National Park]]
*[[Canyonlands National Park]]
*[[Arches National Park]]
*[[Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park]]
*[[Mesa Verde National Park]]
*[[Chaco Culture National Historical Park]]

National Monuments (alphabetical):
*[[Aztec Ruins National Monument]]
*[[Canyon De Chelly National Monument]]
*[[Canyons of the Ancients National Monument]]
*[[Cedar Breaks National Monument]]
*[[Colorado National Monument]]
*[[Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument]]
*[[Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument]]
*[[El Malpais National Monument]]
*[[El Morro National Monument]]
*[[Hovenweep National Monument]]
*[[Navajo National Monument]]
*[[Natural Bridges National Monument]]
*[[Rainbow Bridge National Monument]]
*[[Sunset Crater National Monument]]
*[[Vermilion Cliffs National Monument]]
*[[Walnut Canyon National Monument]]
*[[Wupatki National Monument]]

Wilderness areas:
<table><tr><td valign=top>
*[[Kachina Peaks Wilderness]]
*[[Strawberry Crater Wilderness]]
*[[Kendrick Mountain Wilderness]]
*[[Beaver Dam Mountains Wilderness]]
*[[Paiute Wilderness]]
*[[Grand Wash Cliffs Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Logan Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Trumbull Wilderness]]
*[[Kanab Creek Wilderness]]
*[[Cottonwood Point Wilderness]]
*[[Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness]]
*[[Saddle Mountain Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Baldy Wilderness]]
*[[Escudilla Wilderness]]
*[[Black Ridge Canyons Wilderness]]
</td><td valign=top>
*[[Flat Tops Wilderness]]
*[[Uncompahgre Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Sneffels Wilderness]]
*[[Lizard Head Wilderness]]
*[[Weminuche Wilderness]]
*[[South San Juan Wilderness]]
*[[Cebolla Wilderness]]
*[[Ojito Wilderness]]
*[[West Malpais Wilderness]]
*[[Bisti/De-Na-Zin Wilderness]]
*[[Pine Valley Mountain Wilderness]]
*[[Ashdown Gorge Wilderness]]
*[[Box-Death Hollow Wilderness]]
*[[Dark Canyon Wilderness]]
*[[High Uintas Wilderness]]
</td></tr></table>

Other notable protected areas include: [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]], [[Dead Horse Point State Park]], [[Goosenecks State Park]], the [[San Rafael Swell]], the [[Grand Gulch Primitive Area]], [[Kodachrome Basin State Park]], [[Goblin Valley State Park]] and [[Barringer Crater]].

Sedona, Arizona and Oak Creek Canyon lie on the south-central border of the Plateau. Many but not all of the Sedona area's cliff formations are protected as wilderness. The area has the visual appeal of a national park, but with a small, rapidly growing town in the center.

==See also==
*[[Deserts]]
*[[Rocky Mountains]]
*[[Mojave Desert]]
*[[Great Basin]]
*[[Sonoran Desert]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
* Kiver, Eugene P. and David V. Harris, 1999, Geology of U.S. Parklands, Wiley, 5th ed., ISBN 0-471-33218-6

==Further reading==
[[Image:Grandjunctionalpineloop 032.jpg|thumb|[[Prickly Pear]] cactus are common throughout the Colorado Plateau region.]]
* Donald L. Baars, ''Red Rock Country: The Geologic History of the Colorado Plateau'', Doubleday (1972), hardcover, ISBN 0-385-01341-8
* Donald L. Baars, ''Traveler's Guide to the Geology of the Colorado Plateau'', University of Utah Press (2002), trade paperback, 250 pages, ISBN 0-87480-715-8
* W. Scott Baldridge, ''Geology of the American Southwest: A Journey Through Two Billion Years of Plate-Tectonic History'', Cambridge University Press (2004), 280 pages, ISBN 0-521-01666-5
* Crampton, C. Gregory, ''Standing Up Country: The Canyon Lands of Utah and Arizona,'' Rio Nuevo Publishers (September 2000), ISBN 1-887896-15-5
* Fillmore, Robert. ''Geological Evolution of the Colorado Plateau of Eastern Utah and Western Colorado''. University of Utah Press (2011). ISBN 978-1-60781-004-9
*''Geology of National Parks: Fifth Edition'', Ann G. Harris, Esther Tuttle, Sherwood D., Tuttle (Iowa, Kendall/Hunt Publishing; 1997), pages 2–3, 19-20, 25 ISBN 0-7872-5353-7
*''Physical Geology: Eight Edition'', Plummer, McGeary, Carlson, (McGraw-Hill: Boston; 1999), page 320 ISBN 0-697-37404-1
*''Earth System History'', Steven M. Stanley, (W.H. Freeman and Company; 1999), pages 511-513, 537 ISBN 0-7167-2882-6
*[http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/province/coloplat.html USGS - Geologic Provinces of the United States: Colorado Plateau Province] (some adapted public domain text)
* Annabelle Foos, ''Geology of the Colorado Plateau'', [http://www2.nature.nps.gov/geology/education/foos/plateau.pdf National Park Service PDF] Accessed 12/21/2005.
* Ward Roylance, ''Utah: A Guide to the State,'' Utah: A Guide to the State Foundation; Salt Lake City; 1982; 779 pp
* Look, Al, 1947, ''A Thousand Million Years on the Colorado Plateau,'' Golden Bell Publications, Fifth printing 1971, 300 pages.
* Stephen Trimble, ''The Bright Edge: A Guide to the National Parks of the Colorado Plateau." Museum of Northern Arizona Press, 1979.

==External links==
{{Commons and category|Colorado Plateau}}

{{Colorado River system}}
{{Geography topics}}
{{Deserts}}
{{Colorado}}
{{Utah}}
{{Arizona}}
{{New Mexico}}

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[[Category:Colorado Plateau| ]]
[[Category:Physiographic provinces]]
[[Category:Deserts of North America]]
[[Category:Deserts of the United States]]
[[Category:Deserts of Arizona]]
[[Category:Deserts of Colorado]]
[[Category:Deserts of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Deserts of Utah]]
[[Category:Regions of Arizona]]
[[Category:Regions of Colorado]]
[[Category:Regions of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Regions of Utah]]

Colorado Plateau

2013-03-08T13:36:42Z

Avihu: /* Geology */ fix link

[[File:Colorado Plateaus map.png|thumb|A map of the Colorado Plateau.]]
[[File:Four Corners Monument (1).jpg|thumb|The [[Four Corners Monument]] is where the states of [[Arizona]], [[Utah]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]] meet. (The states are listed in clockwise order.)]]

The '''Colorado Plateau''', also called the '''Colorado Plateau Province''', is a [[United States physiographic region|physiographic region]] of the [[Intermontane Plateaus]], roughly centered on the [[Four Corners]] region of the [[southwestern United States]]. The province covers an area of 337,000 km2 (130,000 mi2) within western [[Colorado]], northwestern [[New Mexico]], southern and eastern [[Utah]], and northern [[Arizona]]. About 90% of the area is drained by the [[Colorado River (US)|Colorado River]] and its main [[tributaries]]: the [[Green River (Utah)|Green]], [[San Juan River (Colorado River)|San Juan]], and [[Little Colorado River|Little Colorado]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Leighty |first=Dr. Robert D. = | coauthors = |title=Colorado Plateau Physiographic Province |work=Contract Report |publisher=Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DOD) Information Sciences Office |year=2001 |url=http://www.tec.army.mil/publications/ifsar/lafinal08_01/five/5.1.5_frame.htm |accessdate=2007-12-25 }}</ref><ref>Kiver, Eugene P. and David V. Harris, 1999, ''Geology of U.S. Parklands,'' Wiley, 5th ed., page 395, ISBN 0-471-33218-6</ref>

The Colorado Plateau is largely made up of [[desert|high desert]], with scattered areas of forests. In the southwest corner of the Colorado Plateau lies the [[Grand Canyon]] of the Colorado River. Much of the Plateau's landscape is related, in both appearance and geologic history, to the Grand Canyon. The nickname "Red Rock Country" suggests the brightly colored rock left bare to the view by dryness and erosion. [[dome (geology)|Domes]], [[hoodoo (geology)|hoodoos]], fins, [[reef]]s, goblins, river [[narrows]], [[natural bridge]]s, and [[slot canyon]]s are only some of the additional features typical of the Plateau.

The Colorado Plateau has the greatest concentration of U.S. [[National Park Service]] (NPS) units in the [[list of National Parks of the United States|country]]. Among its ten [[National Park]]s are [[Grand Canyon National Park|Grand Canyon]], [[Zion National Park|Zion]], [[Bryce Canyon National Park|Bryce Canyon]], [[Capitol Reef National Park|Capitol Reef]], [[Canyonlands National Park|Canyonlands]], [[Arches National Park|Arches]], [[Mesa Verde National Park|Mesa Verde]], and [[Petrified Forest National Park|Petrified Forest]]. Among its 17 [[National Monument (United States)|National Monument]]s are [[Dinosaur National Monument|Dinosaur]], [[Hovenweep National Monument|Hovenweep]], [[Wupatki National Monument|Wupatki]], [[Sunset Crater#Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument|Sunset Crater Volcano]], [[Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument|Grand Staircase-Escalante]], [[Natural Bridges National Monument|Natural Bridges]], [[Canyons of the Ancients National Monument|Canyons of the Ancients]], and [[Colorado National Monument|Colorado]].

==Geography==
[[File:four corners.jpg|thumb|The [[Four Corners]] region and the Colorado Plateau. Click image to see state lines.]]
[[File:Grand Junction Trip 92007 012.JPG|thumb|The Book Cliffs of western [[Colorado]].]]
[[File:Grand Junction Trip 92007 135.JPG|thumb|The [[Green River (Utah)|Green River]] runs north to south from [[Wyoming]], briefly through [[Colorado]], and converges with the [[Colorado River]] in southeastern Utah.]]
[[File:Sunset in Ojito Wilderness, NM.jpg|thumb|Sunset in Ojito Wilderness, near [[Albuquerque, NM]] ]]

The province is bounded by the [[Rocky Mountains]] in Colorado, and by the [[Uinta Mountains]] and [[Wasatch Mountains]] branches of the Rockies in northern and central Utah. It is also bounded by the [[Rio Grande Rift]], [[Mogollon Rim]] and the [[Basin and Range Province]]. Isolated ranges of the [[Southern Rocky Mountains]] such as the [[San Juan Mountains]] in [[Colorado]] and the [[La Sal Mountains]] in [[Utah]] intermix into the central and southern parts of the Colorado Plateau.
It is composed of seven sections:<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 367, figure 8-1</ref>
*[[Uinta Basin]] Section
*High Plateaus Section
*[[Grand Canyon]] Section
*[[Canyon Lands]] Section
*[[Navajo section|Navajo Section]]
*[[Datil-Mogollon Section]]<ref name="NM-Env">{{cite web |last=Hawley |first=John W. | authorlink = | coauthors = |title=New Mexico’s Environment, Physiographic Provinces |publisher=|url=http://www.nmmastergardeners.org/Pdf%20FILES/NM's%20Environment.pdf |accessdate=2007-12-25 }}</ref>
*[[Acoma-Zuni Section]]<ref name="NM-Env" />

As the name implies, the High Plateaus Section is, on average, the highest section. North-south trending [[normal fault]]s that include the Hurricane, Sevier, Grand Wash, and Paunsaugunt separate the section's component plateaus.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 366</ref> This fault pattern is caused by the tensional forces pulling apart the adjacent Basin and Range province to the west, making this section transitional.

Occupying the southeast corner of the Colorado Plateau is the Datil Section. Thick sequences of mid-[[Tertiary]] to late-[[Cenozoic]]-aged [[lava]] covers this section.

Development of the province has in large part been influenced by structural features in its oldest rocks. Part of the [[Wasatch Line]] and its various faults form the western edge of the province. Faults that run parallel to the Wasatch Fault that lies along the [[Wasatch Range]] form the boundaries between the plateaus in the High Plateaus Section.<ref name="U.S. Parklands page 376">''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 376</ref> The Uinta Basin, Uncompahgre Uplift, and the Paradox Basin were also created by movement along structural weaknesses in the region's oldest rock.

In Utah, the province includes several higher [[fault (geology)|fault-separated]] [[plateau]]s:
*[[Awapa Plateau]]
*[[Aquarius Plateau]]
*[[Kaiparowits Plateau]]
*[[Markagunt Plateau]]
*[[Paunsaugunt Plateau]]
*[[Sevier Plateau]]
*[[Fishlake Plateau]]
*[[Pavant Plateau]]
*[[Gunnison Plateau]] and the
*[[Tavaputs Plateau]].

Some sources also include the Tushar Mountain Plateau as part of the Colorado Plateau, but others do not. The mostly flat-lying [[sedimentary rock]] units that make up these plateaus are found in component plateaus that are between 1500 m (5000 ft) to over 3350 m (11,000 ft) above [[sea level]]. A supersequence of these rocks is exposed in the various cliffs and canyons (including the [[Grand Canyon]]) that make up the [[Grand Staircase]]. Increasingly younger east-west trending escarpments of the Grand Staircase extend north of the Grand Canyon and are named for their color:

*[[Chocolate Cliffs]],
*[[Vermillion Cliffs]],
*[[White Cliffs (Utah)|White Cliffs]],
*[[Gray Cliffs]], and the
*[[Pink Cliffs]].<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands,'' page 369</ref>

Within these rocks are abundant [[mineral]] resources that include [[uranium]], [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]]. Study of the area's unusually clear geologic history (which is laid bare due to the arid and semiarid conditions) has greatly advanced that science.

A [[rain shadow]] from the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] far to the west and the many ranges of the Basin and Range means that the Colorado Plateau receives 15 to 40 cm (6 to 16 in.) of annual precipitation.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 369</ref> Higher areas receive more precipitation and are covered in forests of pine, fir, and spruce.

Though it can be said that the Plateau roughly centers on the Four Corners, [[Black Mesa (Arizona)|Black Mesa]] in northern Arizona is much closer to the east-west, north-south midpoint of the Plateau Province. Lying southeast of Glen Canyon and southwest of Monument Valley at the north end of the Hopi Reservation, this remote coal-laden highland has about half of the Colorado Plateau's acreage north of it, half south of it, half west of it, and half east of it.

==History==
The [[Ancestral Puebloan People]] lived in the region from around 2000 to 700 years ago.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 374, "Trouble in Paradise"</ref>

A party from Santa Fe led by Fathers Dominguez and Escalante, unsuccessfully seeking an overland route to California, made a five-month out-and-back trip through much of the Plateau in 1776-1777.<ref>Gregory Crampton, Standing Up Country, Alfred Knopf, NY, 1964, pp. 43-46</ref>

[[United States Army|U.S. Army]] Major and geologist [[John Wesley Powell]] explored the area in 1869 and 1872 despite having lost one arm in the [[American Civil War]]. Using fragile boats and small groups of men the [[Powell Geographic Expedition]] charted this largely unknown region of the United States for the federal government.

Construction of the [[Hoover Dam]] in the 1930s and the [[Glen Canyon Dam]] in the 1960s changed the character of the Colorado River. Dramatically reduced sediment load changed its color from reddish brown (''Colorado'' is [[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "colored" referring to its red color) to mostly clear. The apparent green color is from [[algae]] on the riverbed's rocks, not from any significant amount of suspended material. The lack of sediment has also starved [[sand bar]]s and [[beach]]es but an experimental 12 day long controlled flood from Glen Canyon Dam in 1996 showed substantial restoration. Similar floods are planned for every 5 to 10 years.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 375</ref>

==Geology==
[[File:Zion 045.jpg|thumb||The red cliffs of the Colorado Plateau tower above the northern Mojave Desert.]]
[[File:SEUtahStrat.JPG|thumb|The [[Permian]] through [[Jurassic]] stratigraphy of the Colorado Plateau area of southeastern [[Utah]] that makes up much of the famous prominent rock formations in protected areas such as [[Capitol Reef National Park]] and [[Canyonlands National Park]]. From top to bottom: Rounded tan domes of the [[Navajo Sandstone]], layered red [[Kayenta Formation]], cliff-forming, vertically-jointed, red [[Wingate Sandstone]], slope-forming, purplish [[Chinle Formation]], layered, lighter-red [[Moenkopi Formation]], and white, layered [[Cutler Formation]] sandstone. Picture from [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]], Utah.]]
[[File:Dirty devil river.jpg|thumb|upright|Erosion-resistant sandstones of Mesozoic age result in bands of continuous cliffs, central Colorado Plateau.]]
[[File:MODIS1000013.jpg|thumb||[[MODIS]] satellite image of Grand Canyon, [[Lake Powell]] (black, left of center) and the Colorado Plateau. White areas are snow-capped.]]

One of the most geologically intriguing features of the Colorado Plateau is its remarkable stability. Relatively little rock deformation such as [[fault (geology)|fault]]ing and [[fold (geology)|fold]]ing has affected this high, thick crustal block within the last 600 million years or so. In contrast, provinces that have suffered severe deformation surround the plateau. Mountain building thrust up the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the north and east and tremendous, earth-stretching tension created the [[Basin and Range province]] to the west and south. Sub ranges of the [[Southern Rocky Mountains]] are scattered throughout the Colorado Plateau.

The [[Precambrian]] and [[Paleozoic]] history of the Colorado Plateau is best revealed near its southern end where the [[Grand Canyon]] has exposed rocks with ages that span almost 2 billion years. The oldest rocks at river level are igneous and metamorphic and have been lumped together as "Vishnu Basement Rocks"; the oldest ages recorded by these rocks fall in the range 1950 to 1680 million years. An erosion surface on the "Vishnu Basement Rocks" is covered by sedimentary rocks and basalt flows, and these rocks formed in the interval from about 1250 to 750 million years ago: in turn, they were uplifted and split into a range of [[fault-block mountain]]s.<ref>For the whole paragraph except where noted: ''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 383, "Precambrian and Paleozoic"</ref> Erosion greatly reduced this mountain range prior to the encroachment of a seaway along the passive western edge of the continent in the early Paleozoic. At the canyon rim is the Kaibab Formation, limestone deposited in the late Paleozoic (Permian) about 270 million years ago.

A 12,000 to 15,000 ft. (3700 to 4600 m) high extension of the [[Ancestral Rocky Mountains]] called the Uncompahgre Mountains were uplifted and the adjacent Paradox Basin subsided. Almost 4 mi. (6.4 km) of sediment from the mountains and [[evaporite]]s from the sea were deposited (see [[geology of the Canyonlands area]] for detail).<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 383</ref>
Most of the [[formation (geology)|formations]] were deposited in warm shallow seas and near-shore environments (such as [[beach]]es and [[swamp]]s) as the seashore repeatedly advanced and retreated over the edge of a proto-North America (for detail, see [[geology of the Grand Canyon area]]). The province was probably on a [[continental margin]] throughout the late Precambrian and most of the [[Paleozoic]] era. Igneous rocks injected millions of years later form a marbled network through parts of the Colorado Plateau's darker metamorphic basement. By 600 million years ago North America had been leveled off to a remarkably smooth surface.

Throughout the Paleozoic Era, tropical seas periodically inundated the Colorado Plateau region. Thick layers of limestone, sandstone, siltstone, and shale were laid down in the shallow marine waters. During times when the seas retreated, stream deposits and dune sands were deposited or older layers were removed by erosion. Over 300 million years passed as layer upon layer of sediment accumulated.

It was not until the upheavals that coincided with the formation of the supercontinent [[Pangea]] began about 250 million years ago that deposits of marine sediment waned and terrestrial deposits dominate. In late Paleozoic and much of the [[Mesozoic]] era the region was affected by a series of [[orogeny|orogenies]] ([[mountain]]-building events) that deformed western North America and caused a great deal of uplift. Eruptions from volcanic mountain ranges to the west buried vast regions beneath ashy debris. Short-lived rivers, lakes, and inland seas left sedimentary records of their passage. [[Stream]]s, [[pond]]s and [[lake]]s created formations such as the Chinle, Moenave, and Kayenta in the Mesozoic era. Later a vast [[desert]] formed the Navajo and Temple Cap formations and dry near-shore environment formed the Carmel (see [[geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area]] for details).

The area was again covered by a warm shallow sea when the [[Cretaceous Seaway]] opened in late Mesozoic time. The Dakota Sandstone and the Tropic Shale were deposited in the warm shallow waters of this advancing and retreating seaway. Several other formations were also created but were mostly [[erosion|eroded]] following two major periods of uplift.

The [[Laramide orogeny]] closed the seaway and uplifted a large belt of crust from [[Montana]] to [[Mexico]], with the Colorado Plateau region being the largest block. [[Thrust fault]]s in [[Colorado]] are thought to have formed from a slight clockwise movement of the region, which acted as a rigid crustal block. The Colorado Plateau Province was uplifted largely as a single block, possibly due to its relative thickness. This relative thickness may be why compressional forces from the orogeny were mostly transmitted through the province instead of deforming it.<ref name="U.S. Parklands page 376"/> Pre-existing weaknesses in Precambrian rocks were exploited and reactivated by the compression. It was along these ancient faults and other deeply-buried structures that much of the province's relatively small and gently-inclined flexures (such as [[anticline]]s, [[syncline]]s, and [[monocline]]s) formed.<ref name="U.S. Parklands page 376"/> Some of the prominent isolated mountain ranges of the Plateau, such as [[Ute Mountain]] and the [[Carrizo Mountains]], both near the [[Four Corners]], are cored by igneous rocks that were emplaced about 70 million years ago.

Minor uplift events continued through the start of the [[Cenozoic]] era and were accompanied by some [[basalt]]ic lava eruptions and mild deformation. The colorful [[Claron Formation]] that forms the delicate [[hoodoo (geology)|hoodoo]]s of Bryce Amphitheater and Cedar Breaks was then laid down as sediments in cool [[stream]]s and [[lakes]] (see [[geology of the Bryce Canyon area]] for details). The flat-lying Chuska Sandstone was deposited about 34 million years ago; the sandstone is predominantly of eolian origin and locally more than 500 meters thick. The Chuska Sandstone caps the [[Chuska mountains]], and it lies unconformably on Mesozoic rocks deformed during the [[Laramide orogeny]].

Younger igneous rocks form spectacular topographic features. The [[Henry Mountains]], [[La Sal Range]], and [[Abajo Mountains]], ranges that dominate many views in southeastern Utah, are formed about igneous rocks that were intruded in the interval from 20 to 31 million years: some igneous intrusions in these mountains form [[laccolith]]s, a form of intrusion recognized by [[Grove Karl Gilbert]] during his studies of the [[Henry Mountains]]. Ship Rock (also called [[Shiprock]]), in northwestern New Mexico, and Church Rock and [[El Capitan (Arizona)|Agathla]], near [[Monument Valley]], are erosional remnants of potassium-rich igneous rocks and associated breccias of the Navajo Volcanic Field, produced about 25 million years ago. The Hopi Buttes in northeastern Arizona are held up by resistant sheets of sodic volcanic rocks, extruded about 7 million years ago. More recent igneous rocks are concentrated nearer the margins of the Colorado Plateau. The [[San Francisco Peaks]] near [[Flagstaff, Arizona|Flagstaff]], south of the [[Grand Canyon]], are volcanic landforms produced by igneous activity that began in that area about 6 million years ago and continued until 1064 C.E., when basalt erupted in [[Sunset Crater National Monument]]. [[Mount Taylor (New Mexico)|Mount Taylor]], near [[Grants, New Mexico]], is a volcanic structure with a history similar to that of the San Francisco Peaks: a basalt flow closer to Grants was extruded only about 3000 years ago (see [[El Malpais National Monument]]). These young igneous rocks may record processes in the Earth's mantle that are eating away at deep margins of the relatively stable block of the Plateau.

Tectonic activity resumed in Mid Cenozoic time and started to unevenly uplift and slightly tilt the Colorado Plateau region and the region to the west some 20 million years ago (as much as 3 kilometers of uplift occurred). Streams had their [[stream gradient|gradient]] increased and they responded by [[downcutting]] faster. [[Headward erosion]] and [[mass wasting]] helped to erode cliffs back into their fault-bounded plateaus, widening the basins in-between. Some plateaus have been so severely reduced in size this way that they become [[mesa]]s or even [[butte]]s. [[Monocline]]s form as a result of uplift bending the rock units. Eroded monoclines leave steeply tilted resistant rock called a hogback and the less steep version is a cuesta.

[[Image:The Three Patriarchs in Zion Canyon.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Cliffs of Navajo Sandstone in [[Zion National Park]]]]

Great tension developed in the crust, probably related to changing plate motions far to the west. As the crust stretched, the [[Basin and Range]] province broke up into a multitude of down-dropped valleys and elongate mountains. Major faults, such as the [[Hurricane Fault]], developed that separate the two regions. The dry climate was in large part a [[rainshadow effect]] resulting from the rise of the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] further west. Yet for some reason not fully understood, the neighboring Colorado Plateau was able to preserve its structural integrity and remained a single tectonic block.

A second mystery was that while the lower layers of the Plateau appeared to be sinking, overall the Plateau was rising. The reason for this was discovered upon analyzing data from the [[USARRAY]] project. It was found that the [[asthenosphere]] had invaded the overlying [[lithosphere]]. The asthenosphere erodes the lower levels of the Plateau. At the same time, as it cools, it expands and lifts the upper layers of the Plateau.<ref>{{cite web|title=Why is the Colorado Plateau Rising?|url=http://geology.com/press-release/colorado-plateau/|work=Geology.com|accessdate=9 May 2011}}</ref> Eventually, the great block of Colorado Plateau crust rose a kilometer higher than the Basin and Range. As the land rose, the streams responded by cutting ever deeper stream channels. The most well-known of these streams, the [[Colorado River (US)|Colorado River]], began to carve the [[Grand Canyon]] less than 6 million years ago in response to sagging caused by the opening of the [[Gulf of California]] to the southwest.

The [[Pleistocene]] epoch brought periodic [[ice age]]s and a cooler, wetter climate. This increased erosion at higher elevations with the introduction of [[alpine glacier]]s while mid-elevations were attacked by [[frost wedging]] and lower areas by more vigorous stream scouring. [[Pluvial]] lakes also formed during this time. Glaciers and pluvial lakes disappeared and the climate warmed and became drier with the start of [[Holocene]] epoch.

==Energy generation==
[[Image:Grand Junction Trip 92007 098.JPG|thumb|[[Castle Gate Power Plant]] near [[Helper, Utah|Helper, UT]].]]
[[Image:HappyValley 016.JPG|thumb|Coal mine in [[Carbon County, Utah|Carbon County, UT]].]]
[[Image:Oilwellut.jpg|thumb|[[Oil well]] in the [[Uinta Basin]], [[Utah]].]]
Electrical power generation is one of the major industries that takes place in the Colorado Plateau region. Most electrical generation comes from [[coal fired]] power plants.

==Natural resources==
===Petroleum===

The rocks of the Colorado Plateau are a source of oil and a major source of [[natural gas]]. Major petroleum deposits are present in the [[San Juan Basin]] of [[New Mexico]] and [[Colorado]], the [[Uinta Basin]] of [[Utah]], the [[Piceance Basin]] of [[Colorado]], and the [[Paradox Basin]] of [[Utah]], [[Colorado]], and [[Arizona]].

===Uranium===
{{main|Uranium mining in Utah|}}
The Colorado Plateau holds major uranium deposits, and there was a uranium boom in the 1950s. The [[Moab uranium mill tailings pile|Atlas Uranium Mill]] near Moab has left a problematic tailings pile for cleanup.

===Coal===
Major coal deposits are being mined in the Colorado Plateau in [[Utah]], [[Arizona]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]], though large coal mining projects, such as on the [[Kaiparowits Plateau]], have been proposed and defeated politically. The ITT Power Project, eventually located in [[Lynndyl, Utah]], near Delta, was originally suggested for Salt Wash near Capitol Reef National Park. After a firestorm of opposition, it was moved to a less beloved site. In Utah the largest deposits are in aptly named Carbon County. In Arizona the biggest operation is on [[Black Mesa (Arizona)|Black Mesa]], supplying coal to Navajo Power Plant.

===Gilsonite and uintatite===
Perhaps the only one of its kind, a [[gilsonite]] plant near Bonanza, southeast of [[Vernal, Utah]], mines this unique, lustrous, brittle form of asphalt, for use in "varnishes, paints,...ink, waterproofing compounds, electrical insulation,...roofing materials."<ref>{{cite book|title=Utah: A Guide to the State|year=1982|page=590}}</ref>

===Oil shale===
There are large deposits of [[oil shale]], primarily in the northeastern Colorado Plateau.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}}

===Scenic beauty===
The scenic appeal of this unique landscape had become, well before the end of the twentieth century, its greatest financial natural resource. The amount of commercial benefit to the four states of the Colorado Plateau from tourism exceeded that of any other natural resource.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}}

==Protected lands==
[[Image:Imperial Point Grand Canyon.jpg|thumb|[[North Rim]] of the [[Grand Canyon National Park]], [[Arizona]].]]
[[Image:Blue Mesa Painted Desert.jpg|thumb|[[Painted_Desert,_Arizona|Painted Desert]] seen from Blue Mesa, [[Petrified Forest National Park]]]]
[[Image:Lake Powell Above Wahweap Marina.jpg|thumb|Erosional features within [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]].]]
[[Image:100 1802 edited-1.jpg|thumb|[[Cliff Palace]] at [[Mesa Verde National Park]], [[Colorado]].]]
[[Image:Coral Pink Sand Dunes State Park.jpg|thumb|[[Coral Pink Sand Dunes State Park]], [[Utah]].]]

This relatively high semi-arid province produces many distinctive erosional features such as arches, [[arroyo (creek)|arroyo]]s, [[canyon]]s, [[cliff]]s, fins, [[natural arch|natural bridge]]s, pinnacles, [[hoodoo (geology)|hoodoo]]s, and [[monolith]]s that, in various places and extents, have been protected. Also protected are areas of historic or cultural significance, such as the [[pueblo]]s of the [[Anasazi]] culture. There are nine [[U.S. National Park]]s, a National Historical Park, sixteen [[U.S. National Monument]]s and dozens of [[wilderness area]]s in the province along with millions of acres in [[U.S. National Forest]]s, many state parks, and other protected lands. In fact, this region has the highest concentration of parklands in [[North America]].<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 365</ref> [[Lake Powell]], in foreground, is not a natural lake but a reservoir impounded by [[Glen Canyon Dam]].

National parks (from south to north to south clockwise):
*[[Petrified Forest National Park]]
*[[Grand Canyon National Park]]
*[[Zion National Park]]
*[[Bryce Canyon National Park]]
*[[Capitol Reef National Park]]
*[[Canyonlands National Park]]
*[[Arches National Park]]
*[[Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park]]
*[[Mesa Verde National Park]]
*[[Chaco Culture National Historical Park]]

National Monuments (alphabetical):
*[[Aztec Ruins National Monument]]
*[[Canyon De Chelly National Monument]]
*[[Canyons of the Ancients National Monument]]
*[[Cedar Breaks National Monument]]
*[[Colorado National Monument]]
*[[Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument]]
*[[Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument]]
*[[El Malpais National Monument]]
*[[El Morro National Monument]]
*[[Hovenweep National Monument]]
*[[Navajo National Monument]]
*[[Natural Bridges National Monument]]
*[[Rainbow Bridge National Monument]]
*[[Sunset Crater National Monument]]
*[[Vermilion Cliffs National Monument]]
*[[Walnut Canyon National Monument]]
*[[Wupatki National Monument]]

Wilderness areas:
<table><tr><td valign=top>
*[[Kachina Peaks Wilderness]]
*[[Strawberry Crater Wilderness]]
*[[Kendrick Mountain Wilderness]]
*[[Beaver Dam Mountains Wilderness]]
*[[Paiute Wilderness]]
*[[Grand Wash Cliffs Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Logan Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Trumbull Wilderness]]
*[[Kanab Creek Wilderness]]
*[[Cottonwood Point Wilderness]]
*[[Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness]]
*[[Saddle Mountain Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Baldy Wilderness]]
*[[Escudilla Wilderness]]
*[[Black Ridge Canyons Wilderness]]
</td><td valign=top>
*[[Flat Tops Wilderness]]
*[[Uncompahgre Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Sneffels Wilderness]]
*[[Lizard Head Wilderness]]
*[[Weminuche Wilderness]]
*[[South San Juan Wilderness]]
*[[Cebolla Wilderness]]
*[[Ojito Wilderness]]
*[[West Malpais Wilderness]]
*[[Bisti/De-Na-Zin Wilderness]]
*[[Pine Valley Mountain Wilderness]]
*[[Ashdown Gorge Wilderness]]
*[[Box-Death Hollow Wilderness]]
*[[Dark Canyon Wilderness]]
*[[High Uintas Wilderness]]
</td></tr></table>

Other notable protected areas include: [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]], [[Dead Horse Point State Park]], [[Goosenecks State Park]], the [[San Rafael Swell]], the [[Grand Gulch Primitive Area]], [[Kodachrome Basin State Park]], [[Goblin Valley State Park]] and [[Barringer Crater]].

Sedona, Arizona and Oak Creek Canyon lie on the south-central border of the Plateau. Many but not all of the Sedona area's cliff formations are protected as wilderness. The area has the visual appeal of a national park, but with a small, rapidly growing town in the center.

==See also==
*[[Deserts]]
*[[Rocky Mountains]]
*[[Mojave Desert]]
*[[Great Basin]]
*[[Sonoran Desert]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
* Kiver, Eugene P. and David V. Harris, 1999, Geology of U.S. Parklands, Wiley, 5th ed., ISBN 0-471-33218-6

==Further reading==
[[Image:Grandjunctionalpineloop 032.jpg|thumb|[[Prickly Pear]] cactus are common throughout the Colorado Plateau region.]]
* Donald L. Baars, ''Red Rock Country: The Geologic History of the Colorado Plateau'', Doubleday (1972), hardcover, ISBN 0-385-01341-8
* Donald L. Baars, ''Traveler's Guide to the Geology of the Colorado Plateau'', University of Utah Press (2002), trade paperback, 250 pages, ISBN 0-87480-715-8
* W. Scott Baldridge, ''Geology of the American Southwest: A Journey Through Two Billion Years of Plate-Tectonic History'', Cambridge University Press (2004), 280 pages, ISBN 0-521-01666-5
* Crampton, C. Gregory, ''Standing Up Country: The Canyon Lands of Utah and Arizona,'' Rio Nuevo Publishers (September 2000), ISBN 1-887896-15-5
* Fillmore, Robert. ''Geological Evolution of the Colorado Plateau of Eastern Utah and Western Colorado''. University of Utah Press (2011). ISBN 978-1-60781-004-9
*''Geology of National Parks: Fifth Edition'', Ann G. Harris, Esther Tuttle, Sherwood D., Tuttle (Iowa, Kendall/Hunt Publishing; 1997), pages 2–3, 19-20, 25 ISBN 0-7872-5353-7
*''Physical Geology: Eight Edition'', Plummer, McGeary, Carlson, (McGraw-Hill: Boston; 1999), page 320 ISBN 0-697-37404-1
*''Earth System History'', Steven M. Stanley, (W.H. Freeman and Company; 1999), pages 511-513, 537 ISBN 0-7167-2882-6
*[http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/province/coloplat.html USGS - Geologic Provinces of the United States: Colorado Plateau Province] (some adapted public domain text)
* Annabelle Foos, ''Geology of the Colorado Plateau'', [http://www2.nature.nps.gov/geology/education/foos/plateau.pdf National Park Service PDF] Accessed 12/21/2005.
* Ward Roylance, ''Utah: A Guide to the State,'' Utah: A Guide to the State Foundation; Salt Lake City; 1982; 779 pp
* Look, Al, 1947, ''A Thousand Million Years on the Colorado Plateau,'' Golden Bell Publications, Fifth printing 1971, 300 pages.
* Stephen Trimble, ''The Bright Edge: A Guide to the National Parks of the Colorado Plateau." Museum of Northern Arizona Press, 1979.

==External links==
{{Commons and category|Colorado Plateau}}

{{Colorado River system}}
{{Geography topics}}
{{Deserts}}
{{Colorado}}
{{Utah}}
{{Arizona}}
{{New Mexico}}

{{coord|37|N|110|W|scale:2500000_source:GNIS|display=title}}

[[Category:Colorado Plateau| ]]
[[Category:Physiographic provinces]]
[[Category:Deserts of North America]]
[[Category:Deserts of the United States]]
[[Category:Deserts of Arizona]]
[[Category:Deserts of Colorado]]
[[Category:Deserts of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Deserts of Utah]]
[[Category:Regions of Arizona]]
[[Category:Regions of Colorado]]
[[Category:Regions of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Regions of Utah]]

Colorado Plateau

2013-03-01T19:04:50Z

Avihu: /* Geography */ fix link

[[File:Colorado Plateaus map.png|thumb|A map of the Colorado Plateau.]]
[[File:Four Corners Monument (1).jpg|thumb|The [[Four Corners Monument]] is where the states of [[Arizona]], [[Utah]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]] meet. (The states are listed in clockwise order.)]]

The '''Colorado Plateau''', also called the '''Colorado Plateau Province''', is a [[United States physiographic region|physiographic region]] of the [[Intermontane Plateaus]], roughly centered on the [[Four Corners]] region of the [[southwestern United States]]. The province covers an area of 337,000 km2 (130,000 mi2) within western [[Colorado]], northwestern [[New Mexico]], southern and eastern [[Utah]], and northern [[Arizona]]. About 90% of the area is drained by the [[Colorado River (US)|Colorado River]] and its main [[tributaries]]: the [[Green River (Utah)|Green]], [[San Juan River (Colorado River)|San Juan]], and [[Little Colorado River|Little Colorado]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Leighty |first=Dr. Robert D. = | coauthors = |title=Colorado Plateau Physiographic Province |work=Contract Report |publisher=Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DOD) Information Sciences Office |year=2001 |url=http://www.tec.army.mil/publications/ifsar/lafinal08_01/five/5.1.5_frame.htm |accessdate=2007-12-25 }}</ref><ref>Kiver, Eugene P. and David V. Harris, 1999, ''Geology of U.S. Parklands,'' Wiley, 5th ed., page 395, ISBN 0-471-33218-6</ref>

The Colorado Plateau is largely made up of [[desert|high desert]], with scattered areas of forests. In the southwest corner of the Colorado Plateau lies the [[Grand Canyon]] of the Colorado River. Much of the Plateau's landscape is related, in both appearance and geologic history, to the Grand Canyon. The nickname "Red Rock Country" suggests the brightly colored rock left bare to the view by dryness and erosion. [[dome (geology)|Domes]], [[hoodoo (geology)|hoodoos]], fins, [[reef]]s, goblins, river [[narrows]], [[natural bridge]]s, and [[slot canyon]]s are only some of the additional features typical of the Plateau.

The Colorado Plateau has the greatest concentration of U.S. [[National Park Service]] (NPS) units in the [[list of National Parks of the United States|country]]. Among its ten [[National Park]]s are [[Grand Canyon National Park|Grand Canyon]], [[Zion National Park|Zion]], [[Bryce Canyon National Park|Bryce Canyon]], [[Capitol Reef National Park|Capitol Reef]], [[Canyonlands National Park|Canyonlands]], [[Arches National Park|Arches]], [[Mesa Verde National Park|Mesa Verde]], and [[Petrified Forest National Park|Petrified Forest]]. Among its 17 [[National Monument (United States)|National Monument]]s are [[Dinosaur National Monument|Dinosaur]], [[Hovenweep National Monument|Hovenweep]], [[Wupatki National Monument|Wupatki]], [[Sunset Crater#Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument|Sunset Crater Volcano]], [[Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument|Grand Staircase-Escalante]], [[Natural Bridges National Monument|Natural Bridges]], [[Canyons of the Ancients National Monument|Canyons of the Ancients]], and [[Colorado National Monument|Colorado]].

==Geography==
[[File:four corners.jpg|thumb|The [[Four Corners]] region and the Colorado Plateau. Click image to see state lines.]]
[[File:Grand Junction Trip 92007 012.JPG|thumb|The Book Cliffs of western [[Colorado]].]]
[[File:Grand Junction Trip 92007 135.JPG|thumb|The [[Green River (Utah)|Green River]] runs north to south from [[Wyoming]], briefly through [[Colorado]], and converges with the [[Colorado River]] in southeastern Utah.]]
[[File:Sunset in Ojito Wilderness, NM.jpg|thumb|Sunset in Ojito Wilderness, near [[Albuquerque, NM]] ]]

The province is bounded by the [[Rocky Mountains]] in Colorado, and by the [[Uinta Mountains]] and [[Wasatch Mountains]] branches of the Rockies in northern and central Utah. It is also bounded by the [[Rio Grande Rift]], [[Mogollon Rim]] and the [[Basin and Range Province]]. Isolated ranges of the [[Southern Rocky Mountains]] such as the [[San Juan Mountains]] in [[Colorado]] and the [[La Sal Mountains]] in [[Utah]] intermix into the central and southern parts of the Colorado Plateau.
It is composed of seven sections:<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 367, figure 8-1</ref>
*[[Uinta Basin]] Section
*High Plateaus Section
*[[Grand Canyon]] Section
*[[Canyon Lands]] Section
*[[Navajo section|Navajo Section]]
*[[Datil-Mogollon Section]]<ref name="NM-Env">{{cite web |last=Hawley |first=John W. | authorlink = | coauthors = |title=New Mexico’s Environment, Physiographic Provinces |publisher=|url=http://www.nmmastergardeners.org/Pdf%20FILES/NM's%20Environment.pdf |accessdate=2007-12-25 }}</ref>
*[[Acoma-Zuni Section]]<ref name="NM-Env" />

As the name implies, the High Plateaus Section is, on average, the highest section. North-south trending [[normal fault]]s that include the Hurricane, Sevier, Grand Wash, and Paunsaugunt separate the section's component plateaus.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 366</ref> This fault pattern is caused by the tensional forces pulling apart the adjacent Basin and Range province to the west, making this section transitional.

Occupying the southeast corner of the Colorado Plateau is the Datil Section. Thick sequences of mid-[[Tertiary]] to late-[[Cenozoic]]-aged [[lava]] covers this section.

Development of the province has in large part been influenced by structural features in its oldest rocks. Part of the [[Wasatch Line]] and its various faults form the western edge of the province. Faults that run parallel to the Wasatch Fault that lies along the [[Wasatch Range]] form the boundaries between the plateaus in the High Plateaus Section.<ref name="U.S. Parklands page 376">''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 376</ref> The Uinta Basin, Uncompahgre Uplift, and the Paradox Basin were also created by movement along structural weaknesses in the region's oldest rock.

In Utah, the province includes several higher [[fault (geology)|fault-separated]] [[plateau]]s:
*[[Awapa Plateau]]
*[[Aquarius Plateau]]
*[[Kaiparowits Plateau]]
*[[Markagunt Plateau]]
*[[Paunsaugunt Plateau]]
*[[Sevier Plateau]]
*[[Fishlake Plateau]]
*[[Pavant Plateau]]
*[[Gunnison Plateau]] and the
*[[Tavaputs Plateau]].

Some sources also include the Tushar Mountain Plateau as part of the Colorado Plateau, but others do not. The mostly flat-lying [[sedimentary rock]] units that make up these plateaus are found in component plateaus that are between 1500 m (5000 ft) to over 3350 m (11,000 ft) above [[sea level]]. A supersequence of these rocks is exposed in the various cliffs and canyons (including the [[Grand Canyon]]) that make up the [[Grand Staircase]]. Increasingly younger east-west trending escarpments of the Grand Staircase extend north of the Grand Canyon and are named for their color:

*[[Chocolate Cliffs]],
*[[Vermillion Cliffs]],
*[[White Cliffs (Utah)|White Cliffs]],
*[[Gray Cliffs]], and the
*[[Pink Cliffs]].<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands,'' page 369</ref>

Within these rocks are abundant [[mineral]] resources that include [[uranium]], [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]]. Study of the area's unusually clear geologic history (which is laid bare due to the arid and semiarid conditions) has greatly advanced that science.

A [[rain shadow]] from the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] far to the west and the many ranges of the Basin and Range means that the Colorado Plateau receives 15 to 40 cm (6 to 16 in.) of annual precipitation.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 369</ref> Higher areas receive more precipitation and are covered in forests of pine, fir, and spruce.

Though it can be said that the Plateau roughly centers on the Four Corners, [[Black Mesa (Arizona)|Black Mesa]] in northern Arizona is much closer to the east-west, north-south midpoint of the Plateau Province. Lying southeast of Glen Canyon and southwest of Monument Valley at the north end of the Hopi Reservation, this remote coal-laden highland has about half of the Colorado Plateau's acreage north of it, half south of it, half west of it, and half east of it.

==History==
The [[Ancestral Puebloan People]] lived in the region from around 2000 to 700 years ago.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 374, "Trouble in Paradise"</ref>

A party from Santa Fe led by Fathers Dominguez and Escalante, unsuccessfully seeking an overland route to California, made a five-month out-and-back trip through much of the Plateau in 1776-1777.<ref>Gregory Crampton, Standing Up Country, Alfred Knopf, NY, 1964, pp. 43-46</ref>

[[United States Army|U.S. Army]] Major and geologist [[John Wesley Powell]] explored the area in 1869 and 1872 despite having lost one arm in the [[American Civil War]]. Using fragile boats and small groups of men the [[Powell Geographic Expedition]] charted this largely unknown region of the United States for the federal government.

Construction of the [[Hoover Dam]] in the 1930s and the [[Glen Canyon Dam]] in the 1960s changed the character of the Colorado River. Dramatically reduced sediment load changed its color from reddish brown (''Colorado'' is [[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "colored" referring to its red color) to mostly clear. The apparent green color is from [[algae]] on the riverbed's rocks, not from any significant amount of suspended material. The lack of sediment has also starved [[sand bar]]s and [[beach]]es but an experimental 12 day long controlled flood from Glen Canyon Dam in 1996 showed substantial restoration. Similar floods are planned for every 5 to 10 years.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 375</ref>

==Geology==
[[File:Zion 045.jpg|thumb||The red cliffs of the Colorado Plateau tower above the northern Mojave Desert.]]
[[File:SEUtahStrat.JPG|thumb|The [[Permian]] through [[Jurassic]] stratigraphy of the Colorado Plateau area of southeastern [[Utah]] that makes up much of the famous prominent rock formations in protected areas such as [[Capitol Reef National Park]] and [[Canyonlands National Park]]. From top to bottom: Rounded tan domes of the [[Navajo Sandstone]], layered red [[Kayenta Formation]], cliff-forming, vertically-jointed, red [[Wingate Sandstone]], slope-forming, purplish [[Chinle Formation]], layered, lighter-red [[Moenkopi Formation]], and white, layered [[Cutler Formation]] sandstone. Picture from [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]], Utah.]]
[[File:Dirty devil river.jpg|thumb|upright|Erosion-resistant sandstones of Mesozoic age result in bands of continuous cliffs, central Colorado Plateau.]]
[[File:MODIS1000013.jpg|thumb||[[MODIS]] satellite image of Grand Canyon, [[Lake Powell]] (black, left of center) and the Colorado Plateau. White areas are snow-capped.]]

One of the most geologically intriguing features of the Colorado Plateau is its remarkable stability. Relatively little rock deformation such as [[fault (geology)|fault]]ing and [[fold (geology)|fold]]ing has affected this high, thick crustal block within the last 600 million years or so. In contrast, provinces that have suffered severe deformation surround the plateau. Mountain building thrust up the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the north and east and tremendous, earth-stretching tension created the [[Basin and Range]] province to the west and south. Sub ranges of the [[Southern Rocky Mountains]] are scattered throughout the Colorado Plateau.

The [[Precambrian]] and [[Paleozoic]] history of the Colorado Plateau is best revealed near its southern end where the [[Grand Canyon]] has exposed rocks with ages that span almost 2 billion years. The oldest rocks at river level are igneous and metamorphic and have been lumped together as "Vishnu Basement Rocks"; the oldest ages recorded by these rocks fall in the range 1950 to 1680 million years. An erosion surface on the "Vishnu Basement Rocks" is covered by sedimentary rocks and basalt flows, and these rocks formed in the interval from about 1250 to 750 million years ago: in turn, they were uplifted and split into a range of [[fault-block mountain]]s.<ref>For the whole paragraph except where noted: ''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 383, "Precambrian and Paleozoic"</ref> Erosion greatly reduced this mountain range prior to the encroachment of a seaway along the passive western edge of the continent in the early Paleozoic. At the canyon rim is the Kaibab Formation, limestone deposited in the late Paleozoic (Permian) about 270 million years ago.

A 12,000 to 15,000 ft. (3700 to 4600 m) high extension of the [[Ancestral Rocky Mountains]] called the Uncompahgre Mountains were uplifted and the adjacent Paradox Basin subsided. Almost 4 mi. (6.4 km) of sediment from the mountains and [[evaporite]]s from the sea were deposited (see [[geology of the Canyonlands area]] for detail).<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 383</ref>
Most of the [[formation (geology)|formations]] were deposited in warm shallow seas and near-shore environments (such as [[beach]]es and [[swamp]]s) as the seashore repeatedly advanced and retreated over the edge of a proto-North America (for detail, see [[geology of the Grand Canyon area]]). The province was probably on a [[continental margin]] throughout the late Precambrian and most of the [[Paleozoic]] era. Igneous rocks injected millions of years later form a marbled network through parts of the Colorado Plateau's darker metamorphic basement. By 600 million years ago North America had been leveled off to a remarkably smooth surface.

Throughout the Paleozoic Era, tropical seas periodically inundated the Colorado Plateau region. Thick layers of limestone, sandstone, siltstone, and shale were laid down in the shallow marine waters. During times when the seas retreated, stream deposits and dune sands were deposited or older layers were removed by erosion. Over 300 million years passed as layer upon layer of sediment accumulated.

It was not until the upheavals that coincided with the formation of the supercontinent [[Pangea]] began about 250 million years ago that deposits of marine sediment waned and terrestrial deposits dominate. In late Paleozoic and much of the [[Mesozoic]] era the region was affected by a series of [[orogeny|orogenies]] ([[mountain]]-building events) that deformed western North America and caused a great deal of uplift. Eruptions from volcanic mountain ranges to the west buried vast regions beneath ashy debris. Short-lived rivers, lakes, and inland seas left sedimentary records of their passage. [[Stream]]s, [[pond]]s and [[lake]]s created formations such as the Chinle, Moenave, and Kayenta in the Mesozoic era. Later a vast [[desert]] formed the Navajo and Temple Cap formations and dry near-shore environment formed the Carmel (see [[geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area]] for details).

The area was again covered by a warm shallow sea when the [[Cretaceous Seaway]] opened in late Mesozoic time. The Dakota Sandstone and the Tropic Shale were deposited in the warm shallow waters of this advancing and retreating seaway. Several other formations were also created but were mostly [[erosion|eroded]] following two major periods of uplift.

The [[Laramide orogeny]] closed the seaway and uplifted a large belt of crust from [[Montana]] to [[Mexico]], with the Colorado Plateau region being the largest block. [[Thrust fault]]s in [[Colorado]] are thought to have formed from a slight clockwise movement of the region, which acted as a rigid crustal block. The Colorado Plateau Province was uplifted largely as a single block, possibly due to its relative thickness. This relative thickness may be why compressional forces from the orogeny were mostly transmitted through the province instead of deforming it.<ref name="U.S. Parklands page 376"/> Pre-existing weaknesses in Precambrian rocks were exploited and reactivated by the compression. It was along these ancient faults and other deeply-buried structures that much of the province's relatively small and gently-inclined flexures (such as [[anticline]]s, [[syncline]]s, and [[monocline]]s) formed.<ref name="U.S. Parklands page 376"/> Some of the prominent isolated mountain ranges of the Plateau, such as [[Ute Mountain]] and the [[Carrizo Mountains]], both near the [[Four Corners]], are cored by igneous rocks that were emplaced about 70 million years ago.

Minor uplift events continued through the start of the [[Cenozoic]] era and were accompanied by some [[basalt]]ic lava eruptions and mild deformation. The colorful [[Claron Formation]] that forms the delicate [[hoodoo (geology)|hoodoo]]s of Bryce Amphitheater and Cedar Breaks was then laid down as sediments in cool [[stream]]s and [[lakes]] (see [[geology of the Bryce Canyon area]] for details). The flat-lying Chuska Sandstone was deposited about 34 million years ago; the sandstone is predominantly of eolian origin and locally more than 500 meters thick. The Chuska Sandstone caps the [[Chuska mountains]], and it lies unconformably on Mesozoic rocks deformed during the [[Laramide orogeny]].

Younger igneous rocks form spectacular topographic features. The [[Henry Mountains]], [[La Sal Range]], and [[Abajo Mountains]], ranges that dominate many views in southeastern Utah, are formed about igneous rocks that were intruded in the interval from 20 to 31 million years: some igneous intrusions in these mountains form [[laccolith]]s, a form of intrusion recognized by [[Grove Karl Gilbert]] during his studies of the [[Henry Mountains]]. Ship Rock (also called [[Shiprock]]), in northwestern New Mexico, and Church Rock and [[El Capitan (Arizona)|Agathla]], near [[Monument Valley]], are erosional remnants of potassium-rich igneous rocks and associated breccias of the Navajo Volcanic Field, produced about 25 million years ago. The Hopi Buttes in northeastern Arizona are held up by resistant sheets of sodic volcanic rocks, extruded about 7 million years ago. More recent igneous rocks are concentrated nearer the margins of the Colorado Plateau. The [[San Francisco Peaks]] near [[Flagstaff, Arizona|Flagstaff]], south of the [[Grand Canyon]], are volcanic landforms produced by igneous activity that began in that area about 6 million years ago and continued until 1064 C.E., when basalt erupted in [[Sunset Crater National Monument]]. [[Mount Taylor (New Mexico)|Mount Taylor]], near [[Grants, New Mexico]], is a volcanic structure with a history similar to that of the San Francisco Peaks: a basalt flow closer to Grants was extruded only about 3000 years ago (see [[El Malpais National Monument]]). These young igneous rocks may record processes in the Earth's mantle that are eating away at deep margins of the relatively stable block of the Plateau.

Tectonic activity resumed in Mid Cenozoic time and started to unevenly uplift and slightly tilt the Colorado Plateau region and the region to the west some 20 million years ago (as much as 3 kilometers of uplift occurred). Streams had their [[stream gradient|gradient]] increased and they responded by [[downcutting]] faster. [[Headward erosion]] and [[mass wasting]] helped to erode cliffs back into their fault-bounded plateaus, widening the basins in-between. Some plateaus have been so severely reduced in size this way that they become [[mesa]]s or even [[butte]]s. [[Monocline]]s form as a result of uplift bending the rock units. Eroded monoclines leave steeply tilted resistant rock called a hogback and the less steep version is a cuesta.

[[Image:The Three Patriarchs in Zion Canyon.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Cliffs of Navajo Sandstone in [[Zion National Park]]]]

Great tension developed in the crust, probably related to changing plate motions far to the west. As the crust stretched, the [[Basin and Range]] province broke up into a multitude of down-dropped valleys and elongate mountains. Major faults, such as the [[Hurricane Fault]], developed that separate the two regions. The dry climate was in large part a [[rainshadow effect]] resulting from the rise of the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] further west. Yet for some reason not fully understood, the neighboring Colorado Plateau was able to preserve its structural integrity and remained a single tectonic block.

A second mystery was that while the lower layers of the Plateau appeared to be sinking, overall the Plateau was rising. The reason for this was discovered upon analyzing data from the [[USARRAY]] project. It was found that the [[asthenosphere]] had invaded the overlying [[lithosphere]]. The asthenosphere erodes the lower levels of the Plateau. At the same time, as it cools, it expands and lifts the upper layers of the Plateau.<ref>{{cite web|title=Why is the Colorado Plateau Rising?|url=http://geology.com/press-release/colorado-plateau/|work=Geology.com|accessdate=9 May 2011}}</ref> Eventually, the great block of Colorado Plateau crust rose a kilometer higher than the Basin and Range. As the land rose, the streams responded by cutting ever deeper stream channels. The most well-known of these streams, the [[Colorado River (US)|Colorado River]], began to carve the [[Grand Canyon]] less than 6 million years ago in response to sagging caused by the opening of the [[Gulf of California]] to the southwest.

The [[Pleistocene]] epoch brought periodic [[ice age]]s and a cooler, wetter climate. This increased erosion at higher elevations with the introduction of [[alpine glacier]]s while mid-elevations were attacked by [[frost wedging]] and lower areas by more vigorous stream scouring. [[Pluvial]] lakes also formed during this time. Glaciers and pluvial lakes disappeared and the climate warmed and became drier with the start of [[Holocene]] epoch.

==Energy generation==
[[Image:Grand Junction Trip 92007 098.JPG|thumb|[[Castle Gate Power Plant]] near [[Helper, Utah|Helper, UT]].]]
[[Image:HappyValley 016.JPG|thumb|Coal mine in [[Carbon County, Utah|Carbon County, UT]].]]
[[Image:Oilwellut.jpg|thumb|[[Oil well]] in the [[Uinta Basin]], [[Utah]].]]
Electrical power generation is one of the major industries that takes place in the Colorado Plateau region. Most electrical generation comes from [[coal fired]] power plants.

==Natural resources==
===Petroleum===

The rocks of the Colorado Plateau are a source of oil and a major source of [[natural gas]]. Major petroleum deposits are present in the [[San Juan Basin]] of [[New Mexico]] and [[Colorado]], the [[Uinta Basin]] of [[Utah]], the [[Piceance Basin]] of [[Colorado]], and the [[Paradox Basin]] of [[Utah]], [[Colorado]], and [[Arizona]].

===Uranium===
{{main|Uranium mining in Utah|}}
The Colorado Plateau holds major uranium deposits, and there was a uranium boom in the 1950s. The [[Moab uranium mill tailings pile|Atlas Uranium Mill]] near Moab has left a problematic tailings pile for cleanup.

===Coal===
Major coal deposits are being mined in the Colorado Plateau in [[Utah]], [[Arizona]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]], though large coal mining projects, such as on the [[Kaiparowits Plateau]], have been proposed and defeated politically. The ITT Power Project, eventually located in [[Lynndyl, Utah]], near Delta, was originally suggested for Salt Wash near Capitol Reef National Park. After a firestorm of opposition, it was moved to a less beloved site. In Utah the largest deposits are in aptly named Carbon County. In Arizona the biggest operation is on [[Black Mesa (Arizona)|Black Mesa]], supplying coal to Navajo Power Plant.

===Gilsonite and uintatite===
Perhaps the only one of its kind, a [[gilsonite]] plant near Bonanza, southeast of [[Vernal, Utah]], mines this unique, lustrous, brittle form of asphalt, for use in "varnishes, paints,...ink, waterproofing compounds, electrical insulation,...roofing materials."<ref>{{cite book|title=Utah: A Guide to the State|year=1982|page=590}}</ref>

===Oil shale===
There are large deposits of [[oil shale]], primarily in the northeastern Colorado Plateau.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}}

===Scenic beauty===
The scenic appeal of this unique landscape had become, well before the end of the twentieth century, its greatest financial natural resource. The amount of commercial benefit to the four states of the Colorado Plateau from tourism exceeded that of any other natural resource.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}}

==Protected lands==
[[Image:Imperial Point Grand Canyon.jpg|thumb|[[North Rim]] of the [[Grand Canyon National Park]], [[Arizona]].]]
[[Image:Blue Mesa Painted Desert.jpg|thumb|[[Painted_Desert,_Arizona|Painted Desert]] seen from Blue Mesa, [[Petrified Forest National Park]]]]
[[Image:Lake Powell Above Wahweap Marina.jpg|thumb|Erosional features within [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]].]]
[[Image:100 1802 edited-1.jpg|thumb|[[Cliff Palace]] at [[Mesa Verde National Park]], [[Colorado]].]]
[[Image:Coral Pink Sand Dunes State Park.jpg|thumb|[[Coral Pink Sand Dunes State Park]], [[Utah]].]]

This relatively high semi-arid province produces many distinctive erosional features such as arches, [[arroyo (creek)|arroyo]]s, [[canyon]]s, [[cliff]]s, fins, [[natural arch|natural bridge]]s, pinnacles, [[hoodoo (geology)|hoodoo]]s, and [[monolith]]s that, in various places and extents, have been protected. Also protected are areas of historic or cultural significance, such as the [[pueblo]]s of the [[Anasazi]] culture. There are nine [[U.S. National Park]]s, a National Historical Park, sixteen [[U.S. National Monument]]s and dozens of [[wilderness area]]s in the province along with millions of acres in [[U.S. National Forest]]s, many state parks, and other protected lands. In fact, this region has the highest concentration of parklands in [[North America]].<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 365</ref> [[Lake Powell]], in foreground, is not a natural lake but a reservoir impounded by [[Glen Canyon Dam]].

National parks (from south to north to south clockwise):
*[[Petrified Forest National Park]]
*[[Grand Canyon National Park]]
*[[Zion National Park]]
*[[Bryce Canyon National Park]]
*[[Capitol Reef National Park]]
*[[Canyonlands National Park]]
*[[Arches National Park]]
*[[Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park]]
*[[Mesa Verde National Park]]
*[[Chaco Culture National Historical Park]]

National Monuments (alphabetical):
*[[Aztec Ruins National Monument]]
*[[Canyon De Chelly National Monument]]
*[[Canyons of the Ancients National Monument]]
*[[Cedar Breaks National Monument]]
*[[Colorado National Monument]]
*[[Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument]]
*[[Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument]]
*[[El Malpais National Monument]]
*[[El Morro National Monument]]
*[[Hovenweep National Monument]]
*[[Navajo National Monument]]
*[[Natural Bridges National Monument]]
*[[Rainbow Bridge National Monument]]
*[[Sunset Crater National Monument]]
*[[Vermilion Cliffs National Monument]]
*[[Walnut Canyon National Monument]]
*[[Wupatki National Monument]]

Wilderness areas:
<table><tr><td valign=top>
*[[Kachina Peaks Wilderness]]
*[[Strawberry Crater Wilderness]]
*[[Kendrick Mountain Wilderness]]
*[[Beaver Dam Mountains Wilderness]]
*[[Paiute Wilderness]]
*[[Grand Wash Cliffs Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Logan Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Trumbull Wilderness]]
*[[Kanab Creek Wilderness]]
*[[Cottonwood Point Wilderness]]
*[[Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness]]
*[[Saddle Mountain Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Baldy Wilderness]]
*[[Escudilla Wilderness]]
*[[Black Ridge Canyons Wilderness]]
</td><td valign=top>
*[[Flat Tops Wilderness]]
*[[Uncompahgre Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Sneffels Wilderness]]
*[[Lizard Head Wilderness]]
*[[Weminuche Wilderness]]
*[[South San Juan Wilderness]]
*[[Cebolla Wilderness]]
*[[Ojito Wilderness]]
*[[West Malpais Wilderness]]
*[[Bisti/De-Na-Zin Wilderness]]
*[[Pine Valley Mountain Wilderness]]
*[[Ashdown Gorge Wilderness]]
*[[Box-Death Hollow Wilderness]]
*[[Dark Canyon Wilderness]]
*[[High Uintas Wilderness]]
</td></tr></table>

Other notable protected areas include: [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]], [[Dead Horse Point State Park]], [[Goosenecks State Park]], the [[San Rafael Swell]], the [[Grand Gulch Primitive Area]], [[Kodachrome Basin State Park]], [[Goblin Valley State Park]] and [[Barringer Crater]].

Sedona, Arizona and Oak Creek Canyon lie on the south-central border of the Plateau. Many but not all of the Sedona area's cliff formations are protected as wilderness. The area has the visual appeal of a national park, but with a small, rapidly growing town in the center.

==See also==
*[[Deserts]]
*[[Rocky Mountains]]
*[[Mojave Desert]]
*[[Great Basin]]
*[[Sonoran Desert]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
* Kiver, Eugene P. and David V. Harris, 1999, Geology of U.S. Parklands, Wiley, 5th ed., ISBN 0-471-33218-6

==Further reading==
[[Image:Grandjunctionalpineloop 032.jpg|thumb|[[Prickly Pear]] cactus are common throughout the Colorado Plateau region.]]
* Donald L. Baars, ''Red Rock Country: The Geologic History of the Colorado Plateau'', Doubleday (1972), hardcover, ISBN 0-385-01341-8
* Donald L. Baars, ''Traveler's Guide to the Geology of the Colorado Plateau'', University of Utah Press (2002), trade paperback, 250 pages, ISBN 0-87480-715-8
* W. Scott Baldridge, ''Geology of the American Southwest: A Journey Through Two Billion Years of Plate-Tectonic History'', Cambridge University Press (2004), 280 pages, ISBN 0-521-01666-5
* Crampton, C. Gregory, ''Standing Up Country: The Canyon Lands of Utah and Arizona,'' Rio Nuevo Publishers (September 2000), ISBN 1-887896-15-5
* Fillmore, Robert. ''Geological Evolution of the Colorado Plateau of Eastern Utah and Western Colorado''. University of Utah Press (2011). ISBN 978-1-60781-004-9
*''Geology of National Parks: Fifth Edition'', Ann G. Harris, Esther Tuttle, Sherwood D., Tuttle (Iowa, Kendall/Hunt Publishing; 1997), pages 2–3, 19-20, 25 ISBN 0-7872-5353-7
*''Physical Geology: Eight Edition'', Plummer, McGeary, Carlson, (McGraw-Hill: Boston; 1999), page 320 ISBN 0-697-37404-1
*''Earth System History'', Steven M. Stanley, (W.H. Freeman and Company; 1999), pages 511-513, 537 ISBN 0-7167-2882-6
*[http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/province/coloplat.html USGS - Geologic Provinces of the United States: Colorado Plateau Province] (some adapted public domain text)
* Annabelle Foos, ''Geology of the Colorado Plateau'', [http://www2.nature.nps.gov/geology/education/foos/plateau.pdf National Park Service PDF] Accessed 12/21/2005.
* Ward Roylance, ''Utah: A Guide to the State,'' Utah: A Guide to the State Foundation; Salt Lake City; 1982; 779 pp
* Look, Al, 1947, ''A Thousand Million Years on the Colorado Plateau,'' Golden Bell Publications, Fifth printing 1971, 300 pages.
* Stephen Trimble, ''The Bright Edge: A Guide to the National Parks of the Colorado Plateau." Museum of Northern Arizona Press, 1979.

==External links==
{{Commons and category|Colorado Plateau}}

{{Colorado River system}}
{{Geography topics}}
{{Deserts}}
{{Colorado}}
{{Utah}}
{{Arizona}}
{{New Mexico}}

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[[Category:Colorado Plateau| ]]
[[Category:Physiographic provinces]]
[[Category:Deserts of North America]]
[[Category:Deserts of the United States]]
[[Category:Deserts of Arizona]]
[[Category:Deserts of Colorado]]
[[Category:Deserts of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Deserts of Utah]]
[[Category:Regions of Arizona]]
[[Category:Regions of Colorado]]
[[Category:Regions of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Regions of Utah]]

Colorado Plateau

2013-03-01T17:32:10Z

Avihu: fix link

[[File:Colorado Plateaus map.png|thumb|A map of the Colorado Plateau.]]
[[File:Four Corners Monument (1).jpg|thumb|The [[Four Corners Monument]] is where the states of [[Arizona]], [[Utah]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]] meet. (The states are listed in clockwise order.)]]

The '''Colorado Plateau''', also called the '''Colorado Plateau Province''', is a [[United States physiographic region|physiographic region]] of the [[Intermontane Plateaus]], roughly centered on the [[Four Corners]] region of the [[southwestern United States]]. The province covers an area of 337,000 km2 (130,000 mi2) within western [[Colorado]], northwestern [[New Mexico]], southern and eastern [[Utah]], and northern [[Arizona]]. About 90% of the area is drained by the [[Colorado River (US)|Colorado River]] and its main [[tributaries]]: the [[Green River (Utah)|Green]], [[San Juan River (Colorado River)|San Juan]], and [[Little Colorado River|Little Colorado]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Leighty |first=Dr. Robert D. = | coauthors = |title=Colorado Plateau Physiographic Province |work=Contract Report |publisher=Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DOD) Information Sciences Office |year=2001 |url=http://www.tec.army.mil/publications/ifsar/lafinal08_01/five/5.1.5_frame.htm |accessdate=2007-12-25 }}</ref><ref>Kiver, Eugene P. and David V. Harris, 1999, ''Geology of U.S. Parklands,'' Wiley, 5th ed., page 395, ISBN 0-471-33218-6</ref>

The Colorado Plateau is largely made up of [[desert|high desert]], with scattered areas of forests. In the southwest corner of the Colorado Plateau lies the [[Grand Canyon]] of the Colorado River. Much of the Plateau's landscape is related, in both appearance and geologic history, to the Grand Canyon. The nickname "Red Rock Country" suggests the brightly colored rock left bare to the view by dryness and erosion. [[dome (geology)|Domes]], [[hoodoo (geology)|hoodoos]], fins, [[reef]]s, goblins, river [[narrows]], [[natural bridge]]s, and [[slot canyon]]s are only some of the additional features typical of the Plateau.

The Colorado Plateau has the greatest concentration of U.S. [[National Park Service]] (NPS) units in the [[list of National Parks of the United States|country]]. Among its ten [[National Park]]s are [[Grand Canyon National Park|Grand Canyon]], [[Zion National Park|Zion]], [[Bryce Canyon National Park|Bryce Canyon]], [[Capitol Reef National Park|Capitol Reef]], [[Canyonlands National Park|Canyonlands]], [[Arches National Park|Arches]], [[Mesa Verde National Park|Mesa Verde]], and [[Petrified Forest National Park|Petrified Forest]]. Among its 17 [[National Monument (United States)|National Monument]]s are [[Dinosaur National Monument|Dinosaur]], [[Hovenweep National Monument|Hovenweep]], [[Wupatki National Monument|Wupatki]], [[Sunset Crater#Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument|Sunset Crater Volcano]], [[Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument|Grand Staircase-Escalante]], [[Natural Bridges National Monument|Natural Bridges]], [[Canyons of the Ancients National Monument|Canyons of the Ancients]], and [[Colorado National Monument|Colorado]].

==Geography==
[[File:four corners.jpg|thumb|The [[Four Corners]] region and the Colorado Plateau. Click image to see state lines.]]
[[File:Grand Junction Trip 92007 012.JPG|thumb|The Book Cliffs of western [[Colorado]].]]
[[File:Grand Junction Trip 92007 135.JPG|thumb|The [[Green River (Utah)|Green River]] runs north to south from [[Wyoming]], briefly through [[Colorado]], and converges with the [[Colorado River]] in southeastern Utah.]]
[[File:Sunset in Ojito Wilderness, NM.jpg|thumb|Sunset in Ojito Wilderness, near [[Albuquerque, NM]] ]]

The province is bounded by the [[Rocky Mountains]] in Colorado, and by the [[Uinta Mountains]] and [[Wasatch Mountains]] branches of the Rockies in northern and central Utah. It is also bounded by the [[Rio Grande Rift]], [[Mogollon Rim]] and the [[Basin and Range]]. Isolated ranges of the [[Southern Rocky Mountains]] such as the [[San Juan Mountains]] in [[Colorado]] and the [[La Sal Mountains]] in [[Utah]] intermix into the central and southern parts of the Colorado Plateau.
It is composed of seven sections:<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 367, figure 8-1</ref>
*[[Uinta Basin]] Section
*High Plateaus Section
*[[Grand Canyon]] Section
*[[Canyon Lands]] Section
*[[Navajo section|Navajo Section]]
*[[Datil-Mogollon Section]]<ref name="NM-Env">{{cite web |last=Hawley |first=John W. | authorlink = | coauthors = |title=New Mexico’s Environment, Physiographic Provinces |publisher=|url=http://www.nmmastergardeners.org/Pdf%20FILES/NM's%20Environment.pdf |accessdate=2007-12-25 }}</ref>
*[[Acoma-Zuni Section]]<ref name="NM-Env" />

As the name implies, the High Plateaus Section is, on average, the highest section. North-south trending [[normal fault]]s that include the Hurricane, Sevier, Grand Wash, and Paunsaugunt separate the section's component plateaus.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 366</ref> This fault pattern is caused by the tensional forces pulling apart the adjacent Basin and Range province to the west, making this section transitional.

Occupying the southeast corner of the Colorado Plateau is the Datil Section. Thick sequences of mid-[[Tertiary]] to late-[[Cenozoic]]-aged [[lava]] covers this section.

Development of the province has in large part been influenced by structural features in its oldest rocks. Part of the [[Wasatch Line]] and its various faults form the western edge of the province. Faults that run parallel to the Wasatch Fault that lies along the [[Wasatch Range]] form the boundaries between the plateaus in the High Plateaus Section.<ref name="U.S. Parklands page 376">''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 376</ref> The Uinta Basin, Uncompahgre Uplift, and the Paradox Basin were also created by movement along structural weaknesses in the region's oldest rock.

In Utah, the province includes several higher [[fault (geology)|fault-separated]] [[plateau]]s:
*[[Awapa Plateau]]
*[[Aquarius Plateau]]
*[[Kaiparowits Plateau]]
*[[Markagunt Plateau]]
*[[Paunsaugunt Plateau]]
*[[Sevier Plateau]]
*[[Fishlake Plateau]]
*[[Pavant Plateau]]
*[[Gunnison Plateau]] and the
*[[Tavaputs Plateau]].

Some sources also include the Tushar Mountain Plateau as part of the Colorado Plateau, but others do not. The mostly flat-lying [[sedimentary rock]] units that make up these plateaus are found in component plateaus that are between 1500 m (5000 ft) to over 3350 m (11,000 ft) above [[sea level]]. A supersequence of these rocks is exposed in the various cliffs and canyons (including the [[Grand Canyon]]) that make up the [[Grand Staircase]]. Increasingly younger east-west trending escarpments of the Grand Staircase extend north of the Grand Canyon and are named for their color:

*[[Chocolate Cliffs]],
*[[Vermillion Cliffs]],
*[[White Cliffs (Utah)|White Cliffs]],
*[[Gray Cliffs]], and the
*[[Pink Cliffs]].<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands,'' page 369</ref>

Within these rocks are abundant [[mineral]] resources that include [[uranium]], [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]]. Study of the area's unusually clear geologic history (which is laid bare due to the arid and semiarid conditions) has greatly advanced that science.

A [[rain shadow]] from the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] far to the west and the many ranges of the Basin and Range means that the Colorado Plateau receives 15 to 40 cm (6 to 16 in.) of annual precipitation.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 369</ref> Higher areas receive more precipitation and are covered in forests of pine, fir, and spruce.

Though it can be said that the Plateau roughly centers on the Four Corners, [[Black Mesa (Arizona)|Black Mesa]] in northern Arizona is much closer to the east-west, north-south midpoint of the Plateau Province. Lying southeast of Glen Canyon and southwest of Monument Valley at the north end of the Hopi Reservation, this remote coal-laden highland has about half of the Colorado Plateau's acreage north of it, half south of it, half west of it, and half east of it.

==History==
The [[Ancestral Puebloan People]] lived in the region from around 2000 to 700 years ago.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 374, "Trouble in Paradise"</ref>

A party from Santa Fe led by Fathers Dominguez and Escalante, unsuccessfully seeking an overland route to California, made a five-month out-and-back trip through much of the Plateau in 1776-1777.<ref>Gregory Crampton, Standing Up Country, Alfred Knopf, NY, 1964, pp. 43-46</ref>

[[United States Army|U.S. Army]] Major and geologist [[John Wesley Powell]] explored the area in 1869 and 1872 despite having lost one arm in the [[American Civil War]]. Using fragile boats and small groups of men the [[Powell Geographic Expedition]] charted this largely unknown region of the United States for the federal government.

Construction of the [[Hoover Dam]] in the 1930s and the [[Glen Canyon Dam]] in the 1960s changed the character of the Colorado River. Dramatically reduced sediment load changed its color from reddish brown (''Colorado'' is [[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "colored" referring to its red color) to mostly clear. The apparent green color is from [[algae]] on the riverbed's rocks, not from any significant amount of suspended material. The lack of sediment has also starved [[sand bar]]s and [[beach]]es but an experimental 12 day long controlled flood from Glen Canyon Dam in 1996 showed substantial restoration. Similar floods are planned for every 5 to 10 years.<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 375</ref>

==Geology==
[[File:Zion 045.jpg|thumb||The red cliffs of the Colorado Plateau tower above the northern Mojave Desert.]]
[[File:SEUtahStrat.JPG|thumb|The [[Permian]] through [[Jurassic]] stratigraphy of the Colorado Plateau area of southeastern [[Utah]] that makes up much of the famous prominent rock formations in protected areas such as [[Capitol Reef National Park]] and [[Canyonlands National Park]]. From top to bottom: Rounded tan domes of the [[Navajo Sandstone]], layered red [[Kayenta Formation]], cliff-forming, vertically-jointed, red [[Wingate Sandstone]], slope-forming, purplish [[Chinle Formation]], layered, lighter-red [[Moenkopi Formation]], and white, layered [[Cutler Formation]] sandstone. Picture from [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]], Utah.]]
[[File:Dirty devil river.jpg|thumb|upright|Erosion-resistant sandstones of Mesozoic age result in bands of continuous cliffs, central Colorado Plateau.]]
[[File:MODIS1000013.jpg|thumb||[[MODIS]] satellite image of Grand Canyon, [[Lake Powell]] (black, left of center) and the Colorado Plateau. White areas are snow-capped.]]

One of the most geologically intriguing features of the Colorado Plateau is its remarkable stability. Relatively little rock deformation such as [[fault (geology)|fault]]ing and [[fold (geology)|fold]]ing has affected this high, thick crustal block within the last 600 million years or so. In contrast, provinces that have suffered severe deformation surround the plateau. Mountain building thrust up the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the north and east and tremendous, earth-stretching tension created the [[Basin and Range]] province to the west and south. Sub ranges of the [[Southern Rocky Mountains]] are scattered throughout the Colorado Plateau.

The [[Precambrian]] and [[Paleozoic]] history of the Colorado Plateau is best revealed near its southern end where the [[Grand Canyon]] has exposed rocks with ages that span almost 2 billion years. The oldest rocks at river level are igneous and metamorphic and have been lumped together as "Vishnu Basement Rocks"; the oldest ages recorded by these rocks fall in the range 1950 to 1680 million years. An erosion surface on the "Vishnu Basement Rocks" is covered by sedimentary rocks and basalt flows, and these rocks formed in the interval from about 1250 to 750 million years ago: in turn, they were uplifted and split into a range of [[fault-block mountain]]s.<ref>For the whole paragraph except where noted: ''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 383, "Precambrian and Paleozoic"</ref> Erosion greatly reduced this mountain range prior to the encroachment of a seaway along the passive western edge of the continent in the early Paleozoic. At the canyon rim is the Kaibab Formation, limestone deposited in the late Paleozoic (Permian) about 270 million years ago.

A 12,000 to 15,000 ft. (3700 to 4600 m) high extension of the [[Ancestral Rocky Mountains]] called the Uncompahgre Mountains were uplifted and the adjacent Paradox Basin subsided. Almost 4 mi. (6.4 km) of sediment from the mountains and [[evaporite]]s from the sea were deposited (see [[geology of the Canyonlands area]] for detail).<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 383</ref>
Most of the [[formation (geology)|formations]] were deposited in warm shallow seas and near-shore environments (such as [[beach]]es and [[swamp]]s) as the seashore repeatedly advanced and retreated over the edge of a proto-North America (for detail, see [[geology of the Grand Canyon area]]). The province was probably on a [[continental margin]] throughout the late Precambrian and most of the [[Paleozoic]] era. Igneous rocks injected millions of years later form a marbled network through parts of the Colorado Plateau's darker metamorphic basement. By 600 million years ago North America had been leveled off to a remarkably smooth surface.

Throughout the Paleozoic Era, tropical seas periodically inundated the Colorado Plateau region. Thick layers of limestone, sandstone, siltstone, and shale were laid down in the shallow marine waters. During times when the seas retreated, stream deposits and dune sands were deposited or older layers were removed by erosion. Over 300 million years passed as layer upon layer of sediment accumulated.

It was not until the upheavals that coincided with the formation of the supercontinent [[Pangea]] began about 250 million years ago that deposits of marine sediment waned and terrestrial deposits dominate. In late Paleozoic and much of the [[Mesozoic]] era the region was affected by a series of [[orogeny|orogenies]] ([[mountain]]-building events) that deformed western North America and caused a great deal of uplift. Eruptions from volcanic mountain ranges to the west buried vast regions beneath ashy debris. Short-lived rivers, lakes, and inland seas left sedimentary records of their passage. [[Stream]]s, [[pond]]s and [[lake]]s created formations such as the Chinle, Moenave, and Kayenta in the Mesozoic era. Later a vast [[desert]] formed the Navajo and Temple Cap formations and dry near-shore environment formed the Carmel (see [[geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area]] for details).

The area was again covered by a warm shallow sea when the [[Cretaceous Seaway]] opened in late Mesozoic time. The Dakota Sandstone and the Tropic Shale were deposited in the warm shallow waters of this advancing and retreating seaway. Several other formations were also created but were mostly [[erosion|eroded]] following two major periods of uplift.

The [[Laramide orogeny]] closed the seaway and uplifted a large belt of crust from [[Montana]] to [[Mexico]], with the Colorado Plateau region being the largest block. [[Thrust fault]]s in [[Colorado]] are thought to have formed from a slight clockwise movement of the region, which acted as a rigid crustal block. The Colorado Plateau Province was uplifted largely as a single block, possibly due to its relative thickness. This relative thickness may be why compressional forces from the orogeny were mostly transmitted through the province instead of deforming it.<ref name="U.S. Parklands page 376"/> Pre-existing weaknesses in Precambrian rocks were exploited and reactivated by the compression. It was along these ancient faults and other deeply-buried structures that much of the province's relatively small and gently-inclined flexures (such as [[anticline]]s, [[syncline]]s, and [[monocline]]s) formed.<ref name="U.S. Parklands page 376"/> Some of the prominent isolated mountain ranges of the Plateau, such as [[Ute Mountain]] and the [[Carrizo Mountains]], both near the [[Four Corners]], are cored by igneous rocks that were emplaced about 70 million years ago.

Minor uplift events continued through the start of the [[Cenozoic]] era and were accompanied by some [[basalt]]ic lava eruptions and mild deformation. The colorful [[Claron Formation]] that forms the delicate [[hoodoo (geology)|hoodoo]]s of Bryce Amphitheater and Cedar Breaks was then laid down as sediments in cool [[stream]]s and [[lakes]] (see [[geology of the Bryce Canyon area]] for details). The flat-lying Chuska Sandstone was deposited about 34 million years ago; the sandstone is predominantly of eolian origin and locally more than 500 meters thick. The Chuska Sandstone caps the [[Chuska mountains]], and it lies unconformably on Mesozoic rocks deformed during the [[Laramide orogeny]].

Younger igneous rocks form spectacular topographic features. The [[Henry Mountains]], [[La Sal Range]], and [[Abajo Mountains]], ranges that dominate many views in southeastern Utah, are formed about igneous rocks that were intruded in the interval from 20 to 31 million years: some igneous intrusions in these mountains form [[laccolith]]s, a form of intrusion recognized by [[Grove Karl Gilbert]] during his studies of the [[Henry Mountains]]. Ship Rock (also called [[Shiprock]]), in northwestern New Mexico, and Church Rock and [[El Capitan (Arizona)|Agathla]], near [[Monument Valley]], are erosional remnants of potassium-rich igneous rocks and associated breccias of the Navajo Volcanic Field, produced about 25 million years ago. The Hopi Buttes in northeastern Arizona are held up by resistant sheets of sodic volcanic rocks, extruded about 7 million years ago. More recent igneous rocks are concentrated nearer the margins of the Colorado Plateau. The [[San Francisco Peaks]] near [[Flagstaff, Arizona|Flagstaff]], south of the [[Grand Canyon]], are volcanic landforms produced by igneous activity that began in that area about 6 million years ago and continued until 1064 C.E., when basalt erupted in [[Sunset Crater National Monument]]. [[Mount Taylor (New Mexico)|Mount Taylor]], near [[Grants, New Mexico]], is a volcanic structure with a history similar to that of the San Francisco Peaks: a basalt flow closer to Grants was extruded only about 3000 years ago (see [[El Malpais National Monument]]). These young igneous rocks may record processes in the Earth's mantle that are eating away at deep margins of the relatively stable block of the Plateau.

Tectonic activity resumed in Mid Cenozoic time and started to unevenly uplift and slightly tilt the Colorado Plateau region and the region to the west some 20 million years ago (as much as 3 kilometers of uplift occurred). Streams had their [[stream gradient|gradient]] increased and they responded by [[downcutting]] faster. [[Headward erosion]] and [[mass wasting]] helped to erode cliffs back into their fault-bounded plateaus, widening the basins in-between. Some plateaus have been so severely reduced in size this way that they become [[mesa]]s or even [[butte]]s. [[Monocline]]s form as a result of uplift bending the rock units. Eroded monoclines leave steeply tilted resistant rock called a hogback and the less steep version is a cuesta.

[[Image:The Three Patriarchs in Zion Canyon.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Cliffs of Navajo Sandstone in [[Zion National Park]]]]

Great tension developed in the crust, probably related to changing plate motions far to the west. As the crust stretched, the [[Basin and Range]] province broke up into a multitude of down-dropped valleys and elongate mountains. Major faults, such as the [[Hurricane Fault]], developed that separate the two regions. The dry climate was in large part a [[rainshadow effect]] resulting from the rise of the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] further west. Yet for some reason not fully understood, the neighboring Colorado Plateau was able to preserve its structural integrity and remained a single tectonic block.

A second mystery was that while the lower layers of the Plateau appeared to be sinking, overall the Plateau was rising. The reason for this was discovered upon analyzing data from the [[USARRAY]] project. It was found that the [[asthenosphere]] had invaded the overlying [[lithosphere]]. The asthenosphere erodes the lower levels of the Plateau. At the same time, as it cools, it expands and lifts the upper layers of the Plateau.<ref>{{cite web|title=Why is the Colorado Plateau Rising?|url=http://geology.com/press-release/colorado-plateau/|work=Geology.com|accessdate=9 May 2011}}</ref> Eventually, the great block of Colorado Plateau crust rose a kilometer higher than the Basin and Range. As the land rose, the streams responded by cutting ever deeper stream channels. The most well-known of these streams, the [[Colorado River (US)|Colorado River]], began to carve the [[Grand Canyon]] less than 6 million years ago in response to sagging caused by the opening of the [[Gulf of California]] to the southwest.

The [[Pleistocene]] epoch brought periodic [[ice age]]s and a cooler, wetter climate. This increased erosion at higher elevations with the introduction of [[alpine glacier]]s while mid-elevations were attacked by [[frost wedging]] and lower areas by more vigorous stream scouring. [[Pluvial]] lakes also formed during this time. Glaciers and pluvial lakes disappeared and the climate warmed and became drier with the start of [[Holocene]] epoch.

==Energy generation==
[[Image:Grand Junction Trip 92007 098.JPG|thumb|[[Castle Gate Power Plant]] near [[Helper, Utah|Helper, UT]].]]
[[Image:HappyValley 016.JPG|thumb|Coal mine in [[Carbon County, Utah|Carbon County, UT]].]]
[[Image:Oilwellut.jpg|thumb|[[Oil well]] in the [[Uinta Basin]], [[Utah]].]]
Electrical power generation is one of the major industries that takes place in the Colorado Plateau region. Most electrical generation comes from [[coal fired]] power plants.

==Natural resources==
===Petroleum===

The rocks of the Colorado Plateau are a source of oil and a major source of [[natural gas]]. Major petroleum deposits are present in the [[San Juan Basin]] of [[New Mexico]] and [[Colorado]], the [[Uinta Basin]] of [[Utah]], the [[Piceance Basin]] of [[Colorado]], and the [[Paradox Basin]] of [[Utah]], [[Colorado]], and [[Arizona]].

===Uranium===
{{main|Uranium mining in Utah|}}
The Colorado Plateau holds major uranium deposits, and there was a uranium boom in the 1950s. The [[Moab uranium mill tailings pile|Atlas Uranium Mill]] near Moab has left a problematic tailings pile for cleanup.

===Coal===
Major coal deposits are being mined in the Colorado Plateau in [[Utah]], [[Arizona]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]], though large coal mining projects, such as on the [[Kaiparowits Plateau]], have been proposed and defeated politically. The ITT Power Project, eventually located in [[Lynndyl, Utah]], near Delta, was originally suggested for Salt Wash near Capitol Reef National Park. After a firestorm of opposition, it was moved to a less beloved site. In Utah the largest deposits are in aptly named Carbon County. In Arizona the biggest operation is on [[Black Mesa (Arizona)|Black Mesa]], supplying coal to Navajo Power Plant.

===Gilsonite and uintatite===
Perhaps the only one of its kind, a [[gilsonite]] plant near Bonanza, southeast of [[Vernal, Utah]], mines this unique, lustrous, brittle form of asphalt, for use in "varnishes, paints,...ink, waterproofing compounds, electrical insulation,...roofing materials."<ref>{{cite book|title=Utah: A Guide to the State|year=1982|page=590}}</ref>

===Oil shale===
There are large deposits of [[oil shale]], primarily in the northeastern Colorado Plateau.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}}

===Scenic beauty===
The scenic appeal of this unique landscape had become, well before the end of the twentieth century, its greatest financial natural resource. The amount of commercial benefit to the four states of the Colorado Plateau from tourism exceeded that of any other natural resource.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}}

==Protected lands==
[[Image:Imperial Point Grand Canyon.jpg|thumb|[[North Rim]] of the [[Grand Canyon National Park]], [[Arizona]].]]
[[Image:Blue Mesa Painted Desert.jpg|thumb|[[Painted_Desert,_Arizona|Painted Desert]] seen from Blue Mesa, [[Petrified Forest National Park]]]]
[[Image:Lake Powell Above Wahweap Marina.jpg|thumb|Erosional features within [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]].]]
[[Image:100 1802 edited-1.jpg|thumb|[[Cliff Palace]] at [[Mesa Verde National Park]], [[Colorado]].]]
[[Image:Coral Pink Sand Dunes State Park.jpg|thumb|[[Coral Pink Sand Dunes State Park]], [[Utah]].]]

This relatively high semi-arid province produces many distinctive erosional features such as arches, [[arroyo (creek)|arroyo]]s, [[canyon]]s, [[cliff]]s, fins, [[natural arch|natural bridge]]s, pinnacles, [[hoodoo (geology)|hoodoo]]s, and [[monolith]]s that, in various places and extents, have been protected. Also protected are areas of historic or cultural significance, such as the [[pueblo]]s of the [[Anasazi]] culture. There are nine [[U.S. National Park]]s, a National Historical Park, sixteen [[U.S. National Monument]]s and dozens of [[wilderness area]]s in the province along with millions of acres in [[U.S. National Forest]]s, many state parks, and other protected lands. In fact, this region has the highest concentration of parklands in [[North America]].<ref>''Geology of U.S. Parklands'', page 365</ref> [[Lake Powell]], in foreground, is not a natural lake but a reservoir impounded by [[Glen Canyon Dam]].

National parks (from south to north to south clockwise):
*[[Petrified Forest National Park]]
*[[Grand Canyon National Park]]
*[[Zion National Park]]
*[[Bryce Canyon National Park]]
*[[Capitol Reef National Park]]
*[[Canyonlands National Park]]
*[[Arches National Park]]
*[[Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park]]
*[[Mesa Verde National Park]]
*[[Chaco Culture National Historical Park]]

National Monuments (alphabetical):
*[[Aztec Ruins National Monument]]
*[[Canyon De Chelly National Monument]]
*[[Canyons of the Ancients National Monument]]
*[[Cedar Breaks National Monument]]
*[[Colorado National Monument]]
*[[Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument]]
*[[Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument]]
*[[El Malpais National Monument]]
*[[El Morro National Monument]]
*[[Hovenweep National Monument]]
*[[Navajo National Monument]]
*[[Natural Bridges National Monument]]
*[[Rainbow Bridge National Monument]]
*[[Sunset Crater National Monument]]
*[[Vermilion Cliffs National Monument]]
*[[Walnut Canyon National Monument]]
*[[Wupatki National Monument]]

Wilderness areas:
<table><tr><td valign=top>
*[[Kachina Peaks Wilderness]]
*[[Strawberry Crater Wilderness]]
*[[Kendrick Mountain Wilderness]]
*[[Beaver Dam Mountains Wilderness]]
*[[Paiute Wilderness]]
*[[Grand Wash Cliffs Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Logan Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Trumbull Wilderness]]
*[[Kanab Creek Wilderness]]
*[[Cottonwood Point Wilderness]]
*[[Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness]]
*[[Saddle Mountain Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Baldy Wilderness]]
*[[Escudilla Wilderness]]
*[[Black Ridge Canyons Wilderness]]
</td><td valign=top>
*[[Flat Tops Wilderness]]
*[[Uncompahgre Wilderness]]
*[[Mount Sneffels Wilderness]]
*[[Lizard Head Wilderness]]
*[[Weminuche Wilderness]]
*[[South San Juan Wilderness]]
*[[Cebolla Wilderness]]
*[[Ojito Wilderness]]
*[[West Malpais Wilderness]]
*[[Bisti/De-Na-Zin Wilderness]]
*[[Pine Valley Mountain Wilderness]]
*[[Ashdown Gorge Wilderness]]
*[[Box-Death Hollow Wilderness]]
*[[Dark Canyon Wilderness]]
*[[High Uintas Wilderness]]
</td></tr></table>

Other notable protected areas include: [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]], [[Dead Horse Point State Park]], [[Goosenecks State Park]], the [[San Rafael Swell]], the [[Grand Gulch Primitive Area]], [[Kodachrome Basin State Park]], [[Goblin Valley State Park]] and [[Barringer Crater]].

Sedona, Arizona and Oak Creek Canyon lie on the south-central border of the Plateau. Many but not all of the Sedona area's cliff formations are protected as wilderness. The area has the visual appeal of a national park, but with a small, rapidly growing town in the center.

==See also==
*[[Deserts]]
*[[Rocky Mountains]]
*[[Mojave Desert]]
*[[Great Basin]]
*[[Sonoran Desert]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
* Kiver, Eugene P. and David V. Harris, 1999, Geology of U.S. Parklands, Wiley, 5th ed., ISBN 0-471-33218-6

==Further reading==
[[Image:Grandjunctionalpineloop 032.jpg|thumb|[[Prickly Pear]] cactus are common throughout the Colorado Plateau region.]]
* Donald L. Baars, ''Red Rock Country: The Geologic History of the Colorado Plateau'', Doubleday (1972), hardcover, ISBN 0-385-01341-8
* Donald L. Baars, ''Traveler's Guide to the Geology of the Colorado Plateau'', University of Utah Press (2002), trade paperback, 250 pages, ISBN 0-87480-715-8
* W. Scott Baldridge, ''Geology of the American Southwest: A Journey Through Two Billion Years of Plate-Tectonic History'', Cambridge University Press (2004), 280 pages, ISBN 0-521-01666-5
* Crampton, C. Gregory, ''Standing Up Country: The Canyon Lands of Utah and Arizona,'' Rio Nuevo Publishers (September 2000), ISBN 1-887896-15-5
* Fillmore, Robert. ''Geological Evolution of the Colorado Plateau of Eastern Utah and Western Colorado''. University of Utah Press (2011). ISBN 978-1-60781-004-9
*''Geology of National Parks: Fifth Edition'', Ann G. Harris, Esther Tuttle, Sherwood D., Tuttle (Iowa, Kendall/Hunt Publishing; 1997), pages 2–3, 19-20, 25 ISBN 0-7872-5353-7
*''Physical Geology: Eight Edition'', Plummer, McGeary, Carlson, (McGraw-Hill: Boston; 1999), page 320 ISBN 0-697-37404-1
*''Earth System History'', Steven M. Stanley, (W.H. Freeman and Company; 1999), pages 511-513, 537 ISBN 0-7167-2882-6
*[http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/province/coloplat.html USGS - Geologic Provinces of the United States: Colorado Plateau Province] (some adapted public domain text)
* Annabelle Foos, ''Geology of the Colorado Plateau'', [http://www2.nature.nps.gov/geology/education/foos/plateau.pdf National Park Service PDF] Accessed 12/21/2005.
* Ward Roylance, ''Utah: A Guide to the State,'' Utah: A Guide to the State Foundation; Salt Lake City; 1982; 779 pp
* Look, Al, 1947, ''A Thousand Million Years on the Colorado Plateau,'' Golden Bell Publications, Fifth printing 1971, 300 pages.
* Stephen Trimble, ''The Bright Edge: A Guide to the National Parks of the Colorado Plateau." Museum of Northern Arizona Press, 1979.

==External links==
{{Commons and category|Colorado Plateau}}

{{Colorado River system}}
{{Geography topics}}
{{Deserts}}
{{Colorado}}
{{Utah}}
{{Arizona}}
{{New Mexico}}

{{coord|37|N|110|W|scale:2500000_source:GNIS|display=title}}

[[Category:Colorado Plateau| ]]
[[Category:Physiographic provinces]]
[[Category:Deserts of North America]]
[[Category:Deserts of the United States]]
[[Category:Deserts of Arizona]]
[[Category:Deserts of Colorado]]
[[Category:Deserts of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Deserts of Utah]]
[[Category:Regions of Arizona]]
[[Category:Regions of Colorado]]
[[Category:Regions of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Regions of Utah]]

Stoping (geology)

2013-02-25T20:33:40Z

Avihu: /* References */ wikidata

{{about|the geological process|the mining term|Stoping (mining)}}
[[File:White granite intruding black basalt.jpg|thumb|White granite intruding and '''stoping''' black basalt, Whale Cove, [[Nunavut]]. The rocks are [[Archean Eon|Archaean]], about 3 by old. Prominent scratches are from the last [[Ice Age]], which is why this outcrop is so clean.]]
'''Stoping''' is a process accommodating the ascent of [[magma]]tic bodies from their sources in the [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] or lower [[Crust (geology)|crust]] to the surface. The theory was independently developed by Canadian geologist [[Reginald Aldworth Daly]] <ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150329/Reginald-Aldworth-Daly | title= Reginald Aldworth Daly|work=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> and American geologist [[Joseph Barrell]].<ref>[http://books.nap.edu/html/biomems/jbarrell.pdf 1925. ''Biographical Memoir of Joseph Barrell'' by Charles Schuchert]</ref>

The process involves the mechanical disintegration of the surrounding country/host rock, typically through fracturing due to pressure increases associated with thermal expansion of the host rock in proximity of the interface with the melt. Once fractures are formed, melt and/or volatiles will typically invade, widening the fracture and promoting the foundering of host rock blocks (i.e. stoped blocks). Once suspended in the melt, stoped blocks may either sink or float depending upon the density of the block relative to that of the melt. Additionally, blocks submerged within melt are subject to further thermally-induced fracturing which may account for the often observed "lack of evidence" for the process of stoping.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Igneous petrology]]
[[Category:Geological processes]]

{{petrology-stub}}

Israel Geological Society

2013-02-25T20:22:28Z

Avihu: wikidata

{{refimprove|date=December 2009}}
{{Refimprove|date=December 2009}}
{{Infobox Non-profit
| Non-profit_name = Israel Geological Society
| Non-profit_logo =
| Non-profit_type = Professional Organization
| founded_date =.
| location = 
| origins =
| key_people = .
| area_served = [[Israel]]
| focus =
| method = Conferences, Publications, Training
| revenue =·
| endowment =·
| num_volunteers =·
| num_employees = .
| num_members = 400
| Non-profit_slogan =
| homepage = [http://www.igs.org.il/eng/index.asp www.igs.org.il]
| tax_exempt =·
| footnotes =·
}}
The '''Israel Geological Society''' (IGS) is a [[non-profit organization]] that is the national organization for [[geologist]]s in [[Israel]], including those working in [[academic institution]]s, [[Research institute|research institutions]] and commercial organizations; it is also open to private individuals interested in [[earth science]]s. The IGS has 400 members, including students, retired individuals and new immigrants. The society is administrated by an annually elected committee, which includes the President and the Vice President and five committee members. The society's activities are funded by the annual membership [[fee]] and by contributions from various institutions and organizations.<ref name=igs>[http://www.igs.org.il/eng/about/about.htm Israel Geological Society] Verified 2010-08-26.</ref>

==Activities==
Main activities of the IGS:<ref name="igs"/>
* The Annual Meeting, for the presentation and discussion of current topics of interest in its fields, including [[lecture]]s, posters and field excursion.
* Earth Sciences Day, with lectures open to the general public.
* The ''[[Israel Journal of Earth Sciences]],'' a professional journal. It is published annually in English in four issues. The journal is a primary journal for the publication of Earth Sciences research in the region, and is distributed to all society members and to [[Library|libraries]] in Israel and abroad.
* Society Awards—annual awards for research achievements in earth sciences and a medal for outstanding contribution to [[public awareness]] of the subject.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.igs.org.il/eng/index.asp Israel Geological Society]

[[Category:Geology societies]]

{{sci-org-stub}}

Granoblastic

2013-02-23T21:03:44Z

Avihu: wikidata

'''Granoblastic''' is an adjective describing an [[Anhedral_(petrology)|anhedral]] [[phaneritic]] equi-granular [[metamorphic rock]] texture. Granoblastic texture is typical of [[quartzite]], [[marble]] and other [[foliation|non-foliated]] metamorphic rocks without [[porphyroblast]]s. Characteristics defining granoblastic texture include: grains visible to the unaided eye, sutured boundaries and approximately equidimensional grains. The grain boundaries intersect at 120° triple junctions under ideal conditions. Variation from the ideal results from stress produced foliation during crystallization resulting in [[schistose]] textures.

==References==
*[http://www.maden.hacettepe.edu.tr/dmmrt/index.html Dictionary of Mining, Mineral, and Related Terms]
*[http://teachserv.earth.ox.ac.uk/courses/es2-metrock/tex/1tex02.html Metamorphic Microstructures]

[[Category:Metamorphic rocks]]
{{petrology-stub}}

Talk:Clarence Dutton

2013-02-23T20:00:42Z

Avihu: /* "In 1875 he began work as a geologist for the U.S. Geological Survey" */ new section

{{WikiProject Biography
|living=no
|class=Start
|s&a-work-group=yes
|listas=Dutton, Clarence
}}
----

==Review comments==
Some suggestions for improvement as the article is expanded:

*[[Template:Infobox Scientist]] should be added
*Photograph/portrait should be added from a source with a free license, if available
*Some basic biographical information required, including any family details, circumstances of death
*Lead needs expanding to cover all aspects of the subject's life and research
*After expansion, article should be divided into appropriate subheadings
*Information on research should be expanded
*References should be expanded and preferably converted to inline format
*External links to useful online resources should be added if available
[[User:Espresso Addict|Espresso Addict]] 01:10, 24 July 2007 (UTC)

:Mostly done, [[User:Tillman|Pete Tillman]] ([[User talk:Tillman|talk]]) 20:38, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

== "In 1875 he began work as a geologist for the U.S. Geological Survey" ==

U.S. Geological Survey was created by an act of Congress on March 3, 1879, so it could not employ Dutton in 1875. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 20:00, 23 February 2013 (UTC)

Talk:Geology of the Grand Canyon area

2013-02-22T17:38:54Z

Avihu: /* Volcanic activity dams the new canyon */

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== Old talk ==
Hi Mav, re the centre/right thing, I disagree, but not enough to want to argue about it - if we are going to center it, why don't we go the whole way and make it as wide as we can? I know, I know, but the Grand Canyon is perhaps the only page that would really justify this kind of treatment! [[User:Mark Richards|Mark Richards]] 20:12, 28 Apr 2004 (UTC)

:We are limited by what people with 800x600 screens can see. --[[User:Maveric149|mav]]

----

I removed this from the Grand Canyon page - I think its all covered here. Wow - there is SO much work to do on this still! Let's go! [[User:Mark Richards|Mark Richards]] 19:34, 28 Apr 2004 (UTC)

The strata, from the bottom to top, are:

* Early Proterozoic Schist and Granite: 1.7 billion years ago
o Vishnu Schist
* The Earlier Unconformity: 1.7 to 1.25 billion years ago
* The Middle and Late Proterozoic Grand Canyon Supergroup: 1250 to 820 million years ago
o The Uncar Group
o Bass Limestone
o Hotauta Conglomerate
o Hakatai Shale
o Shinumo Quartzite
o Dox Sandstone
o Cardena Lavas
* Nakoweap Formation: 1 billion years ago
* The Chuar Group: 950 million years ago
* The Sixtymile Formation: 820 million years ago
* The Great Unconformity: 820 to 570 million years ago
* Paleozoic Sediments: 570 to 245 million years ago
* The Cambrian Tonto Group: 570 to 505 million years ago
* A Pre-Devonian Unconformity: 505 to 360 million years ago
* Devonian Deposits: 408 to 360 million years ago
o Devonian River Channels
o Temple Butte Formation
* The Redwall Limestone: 360 to 320 million years ago
o Surprise Canyon Formation
* The Supai Group: 320 to 286 million years ago
o Watahomigi
o Manakacha
o Wescogame
o Esplanade
* The Hermit Shale: 286 to 245 million years ago
* Coconino Sandstone
* The Toroweap Formation
* The Kaibab Formation
* Mesozoic Geology: 245 to 66 million years ago
o Shinarump Conglomerate
o Moenkopi Formation
o Chinle Shale
o Chinle Formation
o Moenave Formation
o Kayenta Formation
o Navajo Sandstone
o Caramel Sandstones
o Entrada Sandstones
o San Rafael Group
o Dakota Sandstone

:Yep - still a lot to do. --[[User:Maveric149|mav]]

== Invisible references ==

Invisible references via the [[Template:Inote|Inote template]] (see [[Template talk:Inote|talk page]]) are now implemented in this article. Your comments appreciated. [[User:Mozzerati|Mozzerati]] 21:44, 2005 Apr 20 (UTC)

== Should there be any talk about the current controvery over the grand canyon's age? ==

These articles suggest that there may be some controversy in the government's stance on the geological age of the grand canyon.

[http://www.peer.org/news/news_id.php?row_id=801]
[http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2004%2F01%2F08%2FMNGOI452ET8.DTL] —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:Chrisdab|Chrisdab]] ([[User talk:Chrisdab|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Chrisdab|contribs]]) 22:23, 6 January 2007 (UTC).
:See the discussion at [[Talk:Grand_Canyon]]. The fact that the government may choose to ignore science does not mean that the age of the Grand Canyon is controversial. [[User:Geologyguy|Geologyguy]] 22:37, 6 January 2007 (UTC)
::: There is more then one theory on how the Grand Canyon formed. And this also includes differences in the age of the Grand Canyon. If someone has literature, please show it here. --[[Special:Contributions/41.18.46.57|41.18.46.57]] ([[User talk:41.18.46.57|talk]]) 07:39, 11 July 2009 (UTC)
::::If you have a reliable source about any other geological estimates of the age of the canyon, please mention it. But I'm pretty sure that the ice age is the only valid theory for it's formation. [[User:Aunt Entropy|Auntie E]] ([[User talk:Aunt Entropy|talk]]) 13:08, 11 July 2009 (UTC)
::::Canyon formation likely went faster during the ice age due to increased precipitation but I would not say that it caused the canyon's formation. Rather, downcutting of the Colorado River as the Colorado Plateau rose and the Gulf of California opened up is the consensus view. --[[User:Mav|mav]] ([[User talk:Mav|talk]]) 02:23, 31 August 2009 (UTC)
:A tempest in a young-Earther crackpot does not a scientific controversy make. --[[User:Mav|mav]] ([[User talk:Mav|talk]]) 02:23, 31 August 2009 (UTC)

There is certainly scientific uncertainty over the exact age of the Grand Canyon as evidenced by the ongoing research. The NPS Grand Canyon website contains lots of scientifically valid information and I could find no hint of a younger age for the canyon. The statement is made on the website that the canyon is 5-6 million years old and shows new and older rock formations with ages of a few hundred million to billions of years old. I was just at the canyon a few weeks ago. I guess I should have polled the employees for an age estimate :). [[User:Desoto10|Desoto10]] ([[User talk:Desoto10|talk]]) 01:04, 17 September 2009 (UTC)
:From what I've read, it is much more an issue of definitions; Did something we know as the "Grand Canyon" exist prior to 5 to 6 million years ago? Well, it depends on whether or not you call one or the other of the (at least) two ancestral canyons that eventually merged, the "Grand Canyon" or not. IMO, the Grand Canyon did not exist until the merger and we have a ballpark figure for when that happened. Unfortunately, much of the downcutting prior to 5 to 6 million years ago occurred in Mesozoic-aged strata that have since been almost completely removed from the Grand Canyon area. Much was also carried away by expansion of the canyon itself. Pitty. I would love to know where the upper canyon emptied and exactly how the merger happened. --[[User:Mav|mav]] ([[User talk:Mav|talk]]) 13:02, 20 September 2009 (UTC)

== Why name it 'Vishnu Schist'? ==

What about the history of the names given to various layers? Especially, the 'Vishnu Schist', whats the origin of this name?
''''JB, 15-May-2007, Australia''''
:Most geological formation names are based on some local geographic feature in the area where the rock unit was described. I know there is a Vishnu's Temple in the Grand Canyon, and maybe other similarly named locations. Many of the geographic features, including many with names from Hindu theology such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Krishna, were given by USGS explorer Clarence Dutton in 1880-81. Hope this helps. Cheers [[User:Geologyguy|Geologyguy]] 02:11, 15 May 2007 (UTC)

:: Also, [[Zoroaster]], as in the Zoroaster Granite, is a prophet from the religion [[Zoroastrianism]].

:In almost all cases, that info is more appropriate in articles about the individual formations. --[[User:Mav|mav]] ([[User talk:Mav|talk]]) 02:24, 31 August 2009 (UTC)

== Photo not of a crinoid? ==

In the section "Hermit, Coconino, Toroweap, and Kaibab", there is a photograph with the caption "Fossils, such as this one of a crinoid, are common in the Toroweap and Kaibab formations". The predominant feature in the photo looks like the pedicle valve of a Productid brachiopod. Although there might be some crinozoid stems in the photo, I think the caption should be changed to "Fossils, such as this one of a brachiopod...". Or am I just missing something? —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Sonomadiver@gmail.com|Sonomadiver@gmail.com]] ([[User talk:Sonomadiver@gmail.com|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sonomadiver@gmail.com|contribs]]) 21:39, 6 July 2010 (UTC) 

:You're not missing anything, the original source of the photo confirms that the large fossil is a brachiopod. I'll modify the caption accordingly. Thanks for spotting that. [[User:Mikenorton|Mikenorton]] ([[User talk:Mikenorton|talk]]) 22:17, 6 July 2010 (UTC)

:Thanks for the feedback! - sonomadiver

== Galeros Formation ==

From the article "Galeros Formation is a mainly '''greenish''' formation composed of interbedded sandstone, limestone, and '''shale''' with '''some shale'''. It '''ranges in color from red to purple'''".
*"Shale with some shale" looks like an error.
* What is the color of Galeros Formation?
[[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 06:21, 1 September 2012 (UTC)

:Fixed some wording, the redundant "some shale" bit and took out the "red to purple". The colors and lithology of the formation are variable, don't have the ref used -- but for the brief summary given that may work. Details of the group are available in: Ford, T.D. and Breed, W.J., 1973, Late Precambrian Chuar Group, Grand Canyon, Arizona: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 84, no. 4, p. 1243-1260. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 13:54, 1 September 2012 (UTC)

== Toroweap Formation ==

Toroweap Formation is "is a '''ledge- and cliff-former'''" and is divided into the following three members: Seligman is a '''slope-forming''', Brady Canyon is a '''cliff-forming''' and Wood Ranch is a '''slope-forming'''. Two out of three are slope-forming, but the formation as a whole is a ledge- and cliff-former? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 18:22, 8 September 2012 (UTC)

:Changed per [[Toroweap Formation]] and strat column (fig 1). [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 00:13, 9 September 2012 (UTC)

== Volcanic activity dams the new canyon ==

From the article "Dams that were 150 to '''400 feet''' (46 to 120 m) high were overtopped by their lakes in 2 to '''17 days''' while dams '''200''' to 1,000 '''feet''' (61 to 300 m) high were overtopped in '''22 years'''. 400 feet dams in just up to 17 days, but 200 feet dams in 22 '''years'''? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:44, 14 September 2012 (UTC)

:That does seem off a bit ... don't have the book (Beus, Stanely S.; Morales, Michael, eds. (2003). Grand Canyon Geology (2nd ed.). New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512299-2) used as a reference to check. Looks like that was added by [[User:Mav]] at 03:40, 14 September 2009. I'll ask him to stretch his memory back 3 years or maybe check the source and add / fix for clarification. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 00:55, 15 September 2012 (UTC)

:Yep - Page 321 does say "22 years" but now that I think about it, it ''must'' be an error in the book since the sentence right before that says that overtopping was very rapid. 22 "days" makes much more sense in that regard. Absent another source confirming that, our only recourse is to comment out that part. I'll do that. --[[user:mav|mav]] ([[User:Mav/Reviews|reviews needed]]) 13:54, 15 September 2012 (UTC)
::Well, I found source that corroborate the 22 years period. See the description of Prospect Dam on pages 34 and 35 of [http://books.google.ca/books?id=CAVQJfipgB4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=22%20years&f=false Jeremy Schmidt, ''The Grand Canyon National Park: A Natural History Guide'']. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:36, 22 February 2013 (UTC)

== The Bass Limestone ==

From the article "The Bass Limestone was deposited in a shallow sea near the coast as a mix of '''limestone''', sandstone, and shale. It is '''120 to 340''' feet (37 to 100 m) thick and '''grayish''' in color." According the [http://3dparks.wr.usgs.gov/coloradoplateau/lexicon/bass.htm USGS site] it contains dolomite and not limestone (contrary to the formation name), it's color is "Red-brown and reddish-gray" and it is "260 to 300 ft" thick. The color and the thickness are just small variations from what is written in the article, but the lithology is not. By the way the elaborate [http://www.rockhounds.com/grand_hikes/geology/bass_limestone.shtml Rock Hounds site] also specify dolomite instead of limestone. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:34, 17 September 2012 (UTC)
:Vsmith? Mav? Anyone? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 16:48, 19 September 2012 (UTC)
::The Harris ref (through Google books p 21) does state that and is in disagreement with the USGS website. Harris has only a brief mention of the Bass - essentially what is in the article and no more. The USGS site switches to Bass Formation and gives a bit more detail, including the dolomite part. I suppose it could be read as the Bass was deposited as a limestone which was later dolomitized... but that's reading more than the refs explicitly state. I'd say, go with the more detailed USGS ref. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 00:51, 20 September 2012 (UTC)
:::That's what I did in my translation of the article into Hebrew. In the Hebrew Wikipedia we have a rule that you can use source only if you read it yourself. Unfortunately almost all the books in the reference section of the English article are unavailable through Google books, so I had no choice but to search for replacements and this how I got to find this discrepancy between the Article and the USGS site. I leave it to you guys to update the English version. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:25, 20 September 2012 (UTC)

== Vishnu Schist ==

From the article "when '''thousands of feet''' of volcanic ash, mud, sand, and silt were laid down in a '''shallow''' backarc basin similar to the modern Sea of Japan", this need a bit of clarification. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:08, 30 September 2012 (UTC)
:?? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 15:00, 2 October 2012 (UTC)
::???? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 19:53, 28 October 2012 (UTC)

The first two paragraphs became a bit confused with lots of edits and use of different refs. Some edits made in an attempt to clear that up a bit. Please take a look. --[[user:mav|mav]] ([[User:Mav/Reviews|reviews needed]]) 22:17, 28 October 2012 (UTC)
:I am not sure that deleting the reference to "thousands of feet" is doing justice to the article. In the article [http://www2.nature.nps.gov/geology/education/foos/grand.pdf GEOLOGY OF GRAND CANYON NATIONAL PARK, NORTH RIM], Annabelle Foos from the Geology Department, University of Akron is very specific "The oldest rocks exposed in the Grand Canyon are the Proterozoic Vishnu schist. Approximately 2 billion years ago, '''25,000 feet''' of sediments and volcanic material were deposited on the sea floor". [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 05:03, 29 October 2012 (UTC)

== quote from Beus and Morales ==
{{hat}}
Grand Canyon Geology by Beus and Morales is considered the "Bible" of geology on Grand Canyon. So any quote from it is significant and it is why it is referenced numerous times in this article. Here is the entire quote.
:"The Coconino Sandstone is composed of ''fine-grained, well-sorted, and rounded quartz grains'' and minor amounts of potassium feldspar. The cement is primarily silica in the form of quartz overgrowths. These textural and mineralogic characteristics ''are compatible with an eolian environment'' in which sediment transport involves numerous grain-to-grain collisions. These collision result in the mechanical destruction of less stable grains and in winnowing by the wind. ''As McKee (1979) correctly pointed out, however, these characteristics do not substantiate conclusively a wind-blown origin''. Although paleocurrent trends suggest a northern source for this sand, we cannot identify the source(s) of such a large quantity of quartz in the Coconino, as well as in correlative units to the north such as the Weber Sandstone in Utah and the Tensleep Sandstone in Wyoming and Montana." (pg 193, first edition)

This is not waffling. This is the way real geologists talk. McKee is a giant among geologist who have studied Grand Canyon and Larry Middleton, David Elliot and Michael Morales, authors of this chapter on the Coconino Sandstone, back up McKee's statement. In fact they say, "''few geologists, except for McKee and Reiche, have studied the Coconino''." (p. 183) The reason why they stay open as to it being eolian or not is because they cannot find a source for the sand up wind, in the direction from which the sand obviously came. As I said, to not include the statement by McKee gives an inaccurate account of what geologists have to say about the Coconino. You may find some geologists who insist that the Coconino is eolian, but they do not have the experience of McKee and the authors of this book.

Lets see the full quotes by Blakey and Kiever and who they quote about the Coconino. (I'll bet they quote Beus and Morales). [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 16:46, 1 October 2012 (UTC)

:The quote is regarding the "frosted" quartz grains specifically. Read the entire Coconino section - it's all about wind blown dune sands with abundant evidence ... so why the need for that one quote about "frosted grains"? What about the abundant material available there about the dune forms, stratifications and sedimentology of the formation? Picking a single quote that may support your pov is called "cherry picking". [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 19:54, 1 October 2012 (UTC)

::Which quote? Blakey and Kiever or Beus and Morales? Beus and Morales don't say anything about frosted grains. Yes, the Beus and Morales do believe that the Coconino is eolian formed, based on McKee's work, but they also go to the trouble of leaving the door open for other possibilities and quoting McKee to do so. So to make a dogmatic statement that the Coconino is, without doubt, eolian is pov. It ignores what the authors actually say. They do spend a lot of time comparing the Coconino with eolian depositional systems, but fail to compare it with any other possible depositional system. Apparently, while on one hand they say there could be other possibilities, they don't take the time to look into it. Thus, as good as Grand Canyon Geology is, the authors let their expectations keep them from being as thorough as scientists ought to be. Inserting what McKee has to say is important to the article. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 21:05, 1 October 2012 (UTC)
:The quote you provided above. The evidence provided in the references supports an eolian origin. What evidence is there of a different origin? No need to "keep the door open" for some other non-specified origin. In science "the door" is always open -where's the evidence to consider? [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 00:01, 2 October 2012 (UTC)

::The paragraph I quoted from Beus and Morales does not mention anything about frosted grains. In fact, frosted grains are not mentioned at all in their article (in the first edition). And a point of fact is that all grains of the coconino sandstone are frosted because the process of diagenesis (becoming rock) chemically glued the grains together by quartz overgrowth. That overgrowth chemically frosts the grains ''in situ'' and says nothing about the condition of the grains before diagenesis. The mechanical frosting of grains in sand dunes is a completely different process and looks different, and which becomes masked in the process of chemical overgrowth. And any process to try to remove the chemical frosting will remove evidence of mechanical frosting as well. Beus and Morales do not mention anything about mechanical frosting of grains in the first edition. Perhaps they do in the second edition, I don't have that volume yet.
::You have it backwards. Evidence does not support an explanation, in this case, eolian deposition, as Kuhn has pointed out over and over. Rather, eolian deposition explains evidence. McKee and Beus and Morales provide the perspective that eolian deposition is not the only possible explanation for the evidence. But they do not explore other explanations, probably because they think that eolian deposition is the best explanation. I am trying to introduce in to the article the same cautious perspective of Beus and Morales that other explanations are possible however seemly remote. One thing that science has shown is that anytime dogmatic statements are made, something comes along later to make a fool out of those making the statements. I don't see any reason not to include their cautions perspective into the article. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 17:00, 2 October 2012 (UTC)

If you have refs providing evidence of an alternate origin explanation, please provide it. Otherwise the waffle quote is not needed. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 12:06, 5 October 2012 (UTC)
:Perhaps you should go tell Beus and Moralas to remove their "waffle" statement from their book. As I already said, it is not a "waffle" statement, but only in your imagination. You are intent on hiding what they actually say, which anyone can read for themselves. Why are you trying to cover it up? On what authority do you claim to have greater insight than Beus or Moralas saying that they don't know what they are talking about so their full thoughts are not needed? Hiding facts is just a bad as telling lies. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 15:50, 5 October 2012 (UTC)
::Please read [[WP:agf]] and [[WP:NPA]]. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 01:01, 6 October 2012 (UTC)
:::Nice things to hide motives behind. You don't agf when I include what Beus and Moralas really say. You assume that I am introducing spurious ideas. Beus and Moralas are not waffling when they say what they say. So it is not waffling to include it in the article. By calling Beus and Moralas' statement waffling means you know more than they do. But they are the experts and you are just an editor. You are not arguing against me, but against Beus and Moralas. So unless you can come up with expert testimony that says Beus and Moralas don't know what they are talking about, I'm going to put their perspective statement back into the article. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 03:35, 7 October 2012 (UTC)
If you have [[WP:reliable sources]] that provide alternate explanations, then simply suggest them here. Do a search on google scholar for the Coconino Sandstone and see what the scientists working on the area say. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 14:27, 7 October 2012 (UTC)
: I give up. You win. There is nothing one can do when up against someone who is so adept and excluding truth. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 00:18, 14 October 2012 (UTC)

===HerbertHuey a sockpuppet===
Blocked as a sock of {{user|Allenroyboy}}. [[User:Dougweller|Dougweller]] ([[User talk:Dougweller|talk]]) 15:06, 27 December 2012 (UTC)
{{hab}}

== Supai Group ==
In this section, a part reads, "thickness of 600 to 700 feet (200 to 200 m)." The metric part needs to be looked up from the original source and updated (I could use conversions to write "(183 to 213 m)", but that doesn't seem like a good change). — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/24.94.232.216|24.94.232.216]] ([[User talk:24.94.232.216|talk]]) 05:42, 11 November 2012 (UTC) 
:The metric part is an automated conversion showing only one significant digit. Normally that is correct given the likely ambiguity in the cited data ("600 to 700 feet"), but a difference of only 100 feet rounds to 200 meters for both cited values in the range when only one sig fig is used. So I got rid of the convert template and just give ''(around 200 m)'' for the metric conversion. --[[user:mav|mav]] ([[User:Mav/Reviews|reviews needed]]) 14:10, 11 November 2012 (UTC)

Talk:Geology of the Grand Canyon area

2013-02-22T17:38:11Z

Avihu: /* Volcanic activity dams the new canyon */ error

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== Old talk ==
Hi Mav, re the centre/right thing, I disagree, but not enough to want to argue about it - if we are going to center it, why don't we go the whole way and make it as wide as we can? I know, I know, but the Grand Canyon is perhaps the only page that would really justify this kind of treatment! [[User:Mark Richards|Mark Richards]] 20:12, 28 Apr 2004 (UTC)

:We are limited by what people with 800x600 screens can see. --[[User:Maveric149|mav]]

----

I removed this from the Grand Canyon page - I think its all covered here. Wow - there is SO much work to do on this still! Let's go! [[User:Mark Richards|Mark Richards]] 19:34, 28 Apr 2004 (UTC)

The strata, from the bottom to top, are:

* Early Proterozoic Schist and Granite: 1.7 billion years ago
o Vishnu Schist
* The Earlier Unconformity: 1.7 to 1.25 billion years ago
* The Middle and Late Proterozoic Grand Canyon Supergroup: 1250 to 820 million years ago
o The Uncar Group
o Bass Limestone
o Hotauta Conglomerate
o Hakatai Shale
o Shinumo Quartzite
o Dox Sandstone
o Cardena Lavas
* Nakoweap Formation: 1 billion years ago
* The Chuar Group: 950 million years ago
* The Sixtymile Formation: 820 million years ago
* The Great Unconformity: 820 to 570 million years ago
* Paleozoic Sediments: 570 to 245 million years ago
* The Cambrian Tonto Group: 570 to 505 million years ago
* A Pre-Devonian Unconformity: 505 to 360 million years ago
* Devonian Deposits: 408 to 360 million years ago
o Devonian River Channels
o Temple Butte Formation
* The Redwall Limestone: 360 to 320 million years ago
o Surprise Canyon Formation
* The Supai Group: 320 to 286 million years ago
o Watahomigi
o Manakacha
o Wescogame
o Esplanade
* The Hermit Shale: 286 to 245 million years ago
* Coconino Sandstone
* The Toroweap Formation
* The Kaibab Formation
* Mesozoic Geology: 245 to 66 million years ago
o Shinarump Conglomerate
o Moenkopi Formation
o Chinle Shale
o Chinle Formation
o Moenave Formation
o Kayenta Formation
o Navajo Sandstone
o Caramel Sandstones
o Entrada Sandstones
o San Rafael Group
o Dakota Sandstone

:Yep - still a lot to do. --[[User:Maveric149|mav]]

== Invisible references ==

Invisible references via the [[Template:Inote|Inote template]] (see [[Template talk:Inote|talk page]]) are now implemented in this article. Your comments appreciated. [[User:Mozzerati|Mozzerati]] 21:44, 2005 Apr 20 (UTC)

== Should there be any talk about the current controvery over the grand canyon's age? ==

These articles suggest that there may be some controversy in the government's stance on the geological age of the grand canyon.

[http://www.peer.org/news/news_id.php?row_id=801]
[http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2004%2F01%2F08%2FMNGOI452ET8.DTL] —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:Chrisdab|Chrisdab]] ([[User talk:Chrisdab|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Chrisdab|contribs]]) 22:23, 6 January 2007 (UTC).
:See the discussion at [[Talk:Grand_Canyon]]. The fact that the government may choose to ignore science does not mean that the age of the Grand Canyon is controversial. [[User:Geologyguy|Geologyguy]] 22:37, 6 January 2007 (UTC)
::: There is more then one theory on how the Grand Canyon formed. And this also includes differences in the age of the Grand Canyon. If someone has literature, please show it here. --[[Special:Contributions/41.18.46.57|41.18.46.57]] ([[User talk:41.18.46.57|talk]]) 07:39, 11 July 2009 (UTC)
::::If you have a reliable source about any other geological estimates of the age of the canyon, please mention it. But I'm pretty sure that the ice age is the only valid theory for it's formation. [[User:Aunt Entropy|Auntie E]] ([[User talk:Aunt Entropy|talk]]) 13:08, 11 July 2009 (UTC)
::::Canyon formation likely went faster during the ice age due to increased precipitation but I would not say that it caused the canyon's formation. Rather, downcutting of the Colorado River as the Colorado Plateau rose and the Gulf of California opened up is the consensus view. --[[User:Mav|mav]] ([[User talk:Mav|talk]]) 02:23, 31 August 2009 (UTC)
:A tempest in a young-Earther crackpot does not a scientific controversy make. --[[User:Mav|mav]] ([[User talk:Mav|talk]]) 02:23, 31 August 2009 (UTC)

There is certainly scientific uncertainty over the exact age of the Grand Canyon as evidenced by the ongoing research. The NPS Grand Canyon website contains lots of scientifically valid information and I could find no hint of a younger age for the canyon. The statement is made on the website that the canyon is 5-6 million years old and shows new and older rock formations with ages of a few hundred million to billions of years old. I was just at the canyon a few weeks ago. I guess I should have polled the employees for an age estimate :). [[User:Desoto10|Desoto10]] ([[User talk:Desoto10|talk]]) 01:04, 17 September 2009 (UTC)
:From what I've read, it is much more an issue of definitions; Did something we know as the "Grand Canyon" exist prior to 5 to 6 million years ago? Well, it depends on whether or not you call one or the other of the (at least) two ancestral canyons that eventually merged, the "Grand Canyon" or not. IMO, the Grand Canyon did not exist until the merger and we have a ballpark figure for when that happened. Unfortunately, much of the downcutting prior to 5 to 6 million years ago occurred in Mesozoic-aged strata that have since been almost completely removed from the Grand Canyon area. Much was also carried away by expansion of the canyon itself. Pitty. I would love to know where the upper canyon emptied and exactly how the merger happened. --[[User:Mav|mav]] ([[User talk:Mav|talk]]) 13:02, 20 September 2009 (UTC)

== Why name it 'Vishnu Schist'? ==

What about the history of the names given to various layers? Especially, the 'Vishnu Schist', whats the origin of this name?
''''JB, 15-May-2007, Australia''''
:Most geological formation names are based on some local geographic feature in the area where the rock unit was described. I know there is a Vishnu's Temple in the Grand Canyon, and maybe other similarly named locations. Many of the geographic features, including many with names from Hindu theology such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Krishna, were given by USGS explorer Clarence Dutton in 1880-81. Hope this helps. Cheers [[User:Geologyguy|Geologyguy]] 02:11, 15 May 2007 (UTC)

:: Also, [[Zoroaster]], as in the Zoroaster Granite, is a prophet from the religion [[Zoroastrianism]].

:In almost all cases, that info is more appropriate in articles about the individual formations. --[[User:Mav|mav]] ([[User talk:Mav|talk]]) 02:24, 31 August 2009 (UTC)

== Photo not of a crinoid? ==

In the section "Hermit, Coconino, Toroweap, and Kaibab", there is a photograph with the caption "Fossils, such as this one of a crinoid, are common in the Toroweap and Kaibab formations". The predominant feature in the photo looks like the pedicle valve of a Productid brachiopod. Although there might be some crinozoid stems in the photo, I think the caption should be changed to "Fossils, such as this one of a brachiopod...". Or am I just missing something? —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Sonomadiver@gmail.com|Sonomadiver@gmail.com]] ([[User talk:Sonomadiver@gmail.com|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sonomadiver@gmail.com|contribs]]) 21:39, 6 July 2010 (UTC) 

:You're not missing anything, the original source of the photo confirms that the large fossil is a brachiopod. I'll modify the caption accordingly. Thanks for spotting that. [[User:Mikenorton|Mikenorton]] ([[User talk:Mikenorton|talk]]) 22:17, 6 July 2010 (UTC)

:Thanks for the feedback! - sonomadiver

== Galeros Formation ==

From the article "Galeros Formation is a mainly '''greenish''' formation composed of interbedded sandstone, limestone, and '''shale''' with '''some shale'''. It '''ranges in color from red to purple'''".
*"Shale with some shale" looks like an error.
* What is the color of Galeros Formation?
[[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 06:21, 1 September 2012 (UTC)

:Fixed some wording, the redundant "some shale" bit and took out the "red to purple". The colors and lithology of the formation are variable, don't have the ref used -- but for the brief summary given that may work. Details of the group are available in: Ford, T.D. and Breed, W.J., 1973, Late Precambrian Chuar Group, Grand Canyon, Arizona: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 84, no. 4, p. 1243-1260. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 13:54, 1 September 2012 (UTC)

== Toroweap Formation ==

Toroweap Formation is "is a '''ledge- and cliff-former'''" and is divided into the following three members: Seligman is a '''slope-forming''', Brady Canyon is a '''cliff-forming''' and Wood Ranch is a '''slope-forming'''. Two out of three are slope-forming, but the formation as a whole is a ledge- and cliff-former? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 18:22, 8 September 2012 (UTC)

:Changed per [[Toroweap Formation]] and strat column (fig 1). [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 00:13, 9 September 2012 (UTC)

== Volcanic activity dams the new canyon ==

From the article "Dams that were 150 to '''400 feet''' (46 to 120 m) high were overtopped by their lakes in 2 to '''17 days''' while dams '''200''' to 1,000 '''feet''' (61 to 300 m) high were overtopped in '''22 years'''. 400 feet dams in just up to 17 days, but 200 feet dams in 22 '''years'''? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:44, 14 September 2012 (UTC)

:That does seem off a bit ... don't have the book (Beus, Stanely S.; Morales, Michael, eds. (2003). Grand Canyon Geology (2nd ed.). New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512299-2) used as a reference to check. Looks like that was added by [[User:Mav]] at 03:40, 14 September 2009. I'll ask him to stretch his memory back 3 years or maybe check the source and add / fix for clarification. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 00:55, 15 September 2012 (UTC)

:Yep - Page 321 does say "22 years" but now that I think about it, it ''must'' be an error in the book since the sentence right before that says that overtopping was very rapid. 22 "days" makes much more sense in that regard. Absent another source confirming that, our only recourse is to comment out that part. I'll do that. --[[user:mav|mav]] ([[User:Mav/Reviews|reviews needed]]) 13:54, 15 September 2012 (UTC)
::well, I found source that corroborate the 22 years period. See the description of Prospect Dam on pages 34 and 35 of [http://books.google.ca/books?id=CAVQJfipgB4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=22%20years&f=false Jeremy Schmidt, ''The Grand Canyon National Park: A Natural History Guide'']. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:36, 22 February 2013 (UTC)

== The Bass Limestone ==

From the article "The Bass Limestone was deposited in a shallow sea near the coast as a mix of '''limestone''', sandstone, and shale. It is '''120 to 340''' feet (37 to 100 m) thick and '''grayish''' in color." According the [http://3dparks.wr.usgs.gov/coloradoplateau/lexicon/bass.htm USGS site] it contains dolomite and not limestone (contrary to the formation name), it's color is "Red-brown and reddish-gray" and it is "260 to 300 ft" thick. The color and the thickness are just small variations from what is written in the article, but the lithology is not. By the way the elaborate [http://www.rockhounds.com/grand_hikes/geology/bass_limestone.shtml Rock Hounds site] also specify dolomite instead of limestone. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:34, 17 September 2012 (UTC)
:Vsmith? Mav? Anyone? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 16:48, 19 September 2012 (UTC)
::The Harris ref (through Google books p 21) does state that and is in disagreement with the USGS website. Harris has only a brief mention of the Bass - essentially what is in the article and no more. The USGS site switches to Bass Formation and gives a bit more detail, including the dolomite part. I suppose it could be read as the Bass was deposited as a limestone which was later dolomitized... but that's reading more than the refs explicitly state. I'd say, go with the more detailed USGS ref. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 00:51, 20 September 2012 (UTC)
:::That's what I did in my translation of the article into Hebrew. In the Hebrew Wikipedia we have a rule that you can use source only if you read it yourself. Unfortunately almost all the books in the reference section of the English article are unavailable through Google books, so I had no choice but to search for replacements and this how I got to find this discrepancy between the Article and the USGS site. I leave it to you guys to update the English version. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:25, 20 September 2012 (UTC)

== Vishnu Schist ==

From the article "when '''thousands of feet''' of volcanic ash, mud, sand, and silt were laid down in a '''shallow''' backarc basin similar to the modern Sea of Japan", this need a bit of clarification. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:08, 30 September 2012 (UTC)
:?? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 15:00, 2 October 2012 (UTC)
::???? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 19:53, 28 October 2012 (UTC)

The first two paragraphs became a bit confused with lots of edits and use of different refs. Some edits made in an attempt to clear that up a bit. Please take a look. --[[user:mav|mav]] ([[User:Mav/Reviews|reviews needed]]) 22:17, 28 October 2012 (UTC)
:I am not sure that deleting the reference to "thousands of feet" is doing justice to the article. In the article [http://www2.nature.nps.gov/geology/education/foos/grand.pdf GEOLOGY OF GRAND CANYON NATIONAL PARK, NORTH RIM], Annabelle Foos from the Geology Department, University of Akron is very specific "The oldest rocks exposed in the Grand Canyon are the Proterozoic Vishnu schist. Approximately 2 billion years ago, '''25,000 feet''' of sediments and volcanic material were deposited on the sea floor". [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 05:03, 29 October 2012 (UTC)

== quote from Beus and Morales ==
{{hat}}
Grand Canyon Geology by Beus and Morales is considered the "Bible" of geology on Grand Canyon. So any quote from it is significant and it is why it is referenced numerous times in this article. Here is the entire quote.
:"The Coconino Sandstone is composed of ''fine-grained, well-sorted, and rounded quartz grains'' and minor amounts of potassium feldspar. The cement is primarily silica in the form of quartz overgrowths. These textural and mineralogic characteristics ''are compatible with an eolian environment'' in which sediment transport involves numerous grain-to-grain collisions. These collision result in the mechanical destruction of less stable grains and in winnowing by the wind. ''As McKee (1979) correctly pointed out, however, these characteristics do not substantiate conclusively a wind-blown origin''. Although paleocurrent trends suggest a northern source for this sand, we cannot identify the source(s) of such a large quantity of quartz in the Coconino, as well as in correlative units to the north such as the Weber Sandstone in Utah and the Tensleep Sandstone in Wyoming and Montana." (pg 193, first edition)

This is not waffling. This is the way real geologists talk. McKee is a giant among geologist who have studied Grand Canyon and Larry Middleton, David Elliot and Michael Morales, authors of this chapter on the Coconino Sandstone, back up McKee's statement. In fact they say, "''few geologists, except for McKee and Reiche, have studied the Coconino''." (p. 183) The reason why they stay open as to it being eolian or not is because they cannot find a source for the sand up wind, in the direction from which the sand obviously came. As I said, to not include the statement by McKee gives an inaccurate account of what geologists have to say about the Coconino. You may find some geologists who insist that the Coconino is eolian, but they do not have the experience of McKee and the authors of this book.

Lets see the full quotes by Blakey and Kiever and who they quote about the Coconino. (I'll bet they quote Beus and Morales). [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 16:46, 1 October 2012 (UTC)

:The quote is regarding the "frosted" quartz grains specifically. Read the entire Coconino section - it's all about wind blown dune sands with abundant evidence ... so why the need for that one quote about "frosted grains"? What about the abundant material available there about the dune forms, stratifications and sedimentology of the formation? Picking a single quote that may support your pov is called "cherry picking". [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 19:54, 1 October 2012 (UTC)

::Which quote? Blakey and Kiever or Beus and Morales? Beus and Morales don't say anything about frosted grains. Yes, the Beus and Morales do believe that the Coconino is eolian formed, based on McKee's work, but they also go to the trouble of leaving the door open for other possibilities and quoting McKee to do so. So to make a dogmatic statement that the Coconino is, without doubt, eolian is pov. It ignores what the authors actually say. They do spend a lot of time comparing the Coconino with eolian depositional systems, but fail to compare it with any other possible depositional system. Apparently, while on one hand they say there could be other possibilities, they don't take the time to look into it. Thus, as good as Grand Canyon Geology is, the authors let their expectations keep them from being as thorough as scientists ought to be. Inserting what McKee has to say is important to the article. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 21:05, 1 October 2012 (UTC)
:The quote you provided above. The evidence provided in the references supports an eolian origin. What evidence is there of a different origin? No need to "keep the door open" for some other non-specified origin. In science "the door" is always open -where's the evidence to consider? [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 00:01, 2 October 2012 (UTC)

::The paragraph I quoted from Beus and Morales does not mention anything about frosted grains. In fact, frosted grains are not mentioned at all in their article (in the first edition). And a point of fact is that all grains of the coconino sandstone are frosted because the process of diagenesis (becoming rock) chemically glued the grains together by quartz overgrowth. That overgrowth chemically frosts the grains ''in situ'' and says nothing about the condition of the grains before diagenesis. The mechanical frosting of grains in sand dunes is a completely different process and looks different, and which becomes masked in the process of chemical overgrowth. And any process to try to remove the chemical frosting will remove evidence of mechanical frosting as well. Beus and Morales do not mention anything about mechanical frosting of grains in the first edition. Perhaps they do in the second edition, I don't have that volume yet.
::You have it backwards. Evidence does not support an explanation, in this case, eolian deposition, as Kuhn has pointed out over and over. Rather, eolian deposition explains evidence. McKee and Beus and Morales provide the perspective that eolian deposition is not the only possible explanation for the evidence. But they do not explore other explanations, probably because they think that eolian deposition is the best explanation. I am trying to introduce in to the article the same cautious perspective of Beus and Morales that other explanations are possible however seemly remote. One thing that science has shown is that anytime dogmatic statements are made, something comes along later to make a fool out of those making the statements. I don't see any reason not to include their cautions perspective into the article. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 17:00, 2 October 2012 (UTC)

If you have refs providing evidence of an alternate origin explanation, please provide it. Otherwise the waffle quote is not needed. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 12:06, 5 October 2012 (UTC)
:Perhaps you should go tell Beus and Moralas to remove their "waffle" statement from their book. As I already said, it is not a "waffle" statement, but only in your imagination. You are intent on hiding what they actually say, which anyone can read for themselves. Why are you trying to cover it up? On what authority do you claim to have greater insight than Beus or Moralas saying that they don't know what they are talking about so their full thoughts are not needed? Hiding facts is just a bad as telling lies. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 15:50, 5 October 2012 (UTC)
::Please read [[WP:agf]] and [[WP:NPA]]. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 01:01, 6 October 2012 (UTC)
:::Nice things to hide motives behind. You don't agf when I include what Beus and Moralas really say. You assume that I am introducing spurious ideas. Beus and Moralas are not waffling when they say what they say. So it is not waffling to include it in the article. By calling Beus and Moralas' statement waffling means you know more than they do. But they are the experts and you are just an editor. You are not arguing against me, but against Beus and Moralas. So unless you can come up with expert testimony that says Beus and Moralas don't know what they are talking about, I'm going to put their perspective statement back into the article. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 03:35, 7 October 2012 (UTC)
If you have [[WP:reliable sources]] that provide alternate explanations, then simply suggest them here. Do a search on google scholar for the Coconino Sandstone and see what the scientists working on the area say. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 14:27, 7 October 2012 (UTC)
: I give up. You win. There is nothing one can do when up against someone who is so adept and excluding truth. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 00:18, 14 October 2012 (UTC)

===HerbertHuey a sockpuppet===
Blocked as a sock of {{user|Allenroyboy}}. [[User:Dougweller|Dougweller]] ([[User talk:Dougweller|talk]]) 15:06, 27 December 2012 (UTC)
{{hab}}

== Supai Group ==
In this section, a part reads, "thickness of 600 to 700 feet (200 to 200 m)." The metric part needs to be looked up from the original source and updated (I could use conversions to write "(183 to 213 m)", but that doesn't seem like a good change). — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/24.94.232.216|24.94.232.216]] ([[User talk:24.94.232.216|talk]]) 05:42, 11 November 2012 (UTC) 
:The metric part is an automated conversion showing only one significant digit. Normally that is correct given the likely ambiguity in the cited data ("600 to 700 feet"), but a difference of only 100 feet rounds to 200 meters for both cited values in the range when only one sig fig is used. So I got rid of the convert template and just give ''(around 200 m)'' for the metric conversion. --[[user:mav|mav]] ([[User:Mav/Reviews|reviews needed]]) 14:10, 11 November 2012 (UTC)

Talk:Geology of the Grand Canyon area

2013-02-22T17:36:58Z

Avihu: /* Volcanic activity dams the new canyon */ It seems that the 22 years was right after all

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== Old talk ==
Hi Mav, re the centre/right thing, I disagree, but not enough to want to argue about it - if we are going to center it, why don't we go the whole way and make it as wide as we can? I know, I know, but the Grand Canyon is perhaps the only page that would really justify this kind of treatment! [[User:Mark Richards|Mark Richards]] 20:12, 28 Apr 2004 (UTC)

:We are limited by what people with 800x600 screens can see. --[[User:Maveric149|mav]]

----

I removed this from the Grand Canyon page - I think its all covered here. Wow - there is SO much work to do on this still! Let's go! [[User:Mark Richards|Mark Richards]] 19:34, 28 Apr 2004 (UTC)

The strata, from the bottom to top, are:

* Early Proterozoic Schist and Granite: 1.7 billion years ago
o Vishnu Schist
* The Earlier Unconformity: 1.7 to 1.25 billion years ago
* The Middle and Late Proterozoic Grand Canyon Supergroup: 1250 to 820 million years ago
o The Uncar Group
o Bass Limestone
o Hotauta Conglomerate
o Hakatai Shale
o Shinumo Quartzite
o Dox Sandstone
o Cardena Lavas
* Nakoweap Formation: 1 billion years ago
* The Chuar Group: 950 million years ago
* The Sixtymile Formation: 820 million years ago
* The Great Unconformity: 820 to 570 million years ago
* Paleozoic Sediments: 570 to 245 million years ago
* The Cambrian Tonto Group: 570 to 505 million years ago
* A Pre-Devonian Unconformity: 505 to 360 million years ago
* Devonian Deposits: 408 to 360 million years ago
o Devonian River Channels
o Temple Butte Formation
* The Redwall Limestone: 360 to 320 million years ago
o Surprise Canyon Formation
* The Supai Group: 320 to 286 million years ago
o Watahomigi
o Manakacha
o Wescogame
o Esplanade
* The Hermit Shale: 286 to 245 million years ago
* Coconino Sandstone
* The Toroweap Formation
* The Kaibab Formation
* Mesozoic Geology: 245 to 66 million years ago
o Shinarump Conglomerate
o Moenkopi Formation
o Chinle Shale
o Chinle Formation
o Moenave Formation
o Kayenta Formation
o Navajo Sandstone
o Caramel Sandstones
o Entrada Sandstones
o San Rafael Group
o Dakota Sandstone

:Yep - still a lot to do. --[[User:Maveric149|mav]]

== Invisible references ==

Invisible references via the [[Template:Inote|Inote template]] (see [[Template talk:Inote|talk page]]) are now implemented in this article. Your comments appreciated. [[User:Mozzerati|Mozzerati]] 21:44, 2005 Apr 20 (UTC)

== Should there be any talk about the current controvery over the grand canyon's age? ==

These articles suggest that there may be some controversy in the government's stance on the geological age of the grand canyon.

[http://www.peer.org/news/news_id.php?row_id=801]
[http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2004%2F01%2F08%2FMNGOI452ET8.DTL] —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:Chrisdab|Chrisdab]] ([[User talk:Chrisdab|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Chrisdab|contribs]]) 22:23, 6 January 2007 (UTC).
:See the discussion at [[Talk:Grand_Canyon]]. The fact that the government may choose to ignore science does not mean that the age of the Grand Canyon is controversial. [[User:Geologyguy|Geologyguy]] 22:37, 6 January 2007 (UTC)
::: There is more then one theory on how the Grand Canyon formed. And this also includes differences in the age of the Grand Canyon. If someone has literature, please show it here. --[[Special:Contributions/41.18.46.57|41.18.46.57]] ([[User talk:41.18.46.57|talk]]) 07:39, 11 July 2009 (UTC)
::::If you have a reliable source about any other geological estimates of the age of the canyon, please mention it. But I'm pretty sure that the ice age is the only valid theory for it's formation. [[User:Aunt Entropy|Auntie E]] ([[User talk:Aunt Entropy|talk]]) 13:08, 11 July 2009 (UTC)
::::Canyon formation likely went faster during the ice age due to increased precipitation but I would not say that it caused the canyon's formation. Rather, downcutting of the Colorado River as the Colorado Plateau rose and the Gulf of California opened up is the consensus view. --[[User:Mav|mav]] ([[User talk:Mav|talk]]) 02:23, 31 August 2009 (UTC)
:A tempest in a young-Earther crackpot does not a scientific controversy make. --[[User:Mav|mav]] ([[User talk:Mav|talk]]) 02:23, 31 August 2009 (UTC)

There is certainly scientific uncertainty over the exact age of the Grand Canyon as evidenced by the ongoing research. The NPS Grand Canyon website contains lots of scientifically valid information and I could find no hint of a younger age for the canyon. The statement is made on the website that the canyon is 5-6 million years old and shows new and older rock formations with ages of a few hundred million to billions of years old. I was just at the canyon a few weeks ago. I guess I should have polled the employees for an age estimate :). [[User:Desoto10|Desoto10]] ([[User talk:Desoto10|talk]]) 01:04, 17 September 2009 (UTC)
:From what I've read, it is much more an issue of definitions; Did something we know as the "Grand Canyon" exist prior to 5 to 6 million years ago? Well, it depends on whether or not you call one or the other of the (at least) two ancestral canyons that eventually merged, the "Grand Canyon" or not. IMO, the Grand Canyon did not exist until the merger and we have a ballpark figure for when that happened. Unfortunately, much of the downcutting prior to 5 to 6 million years ago occurred in Mesozoic-aged strata that have since been almost completely removed from the Grand Canyon area. Much was also carried away by expansion of the canyon itself. Pitty. I would love to know where the upper canyon emptied and exactly how the merger happened. --[[User:Mav|mav]] ([[User talk:Mav|talk]]) 13:02, 20 September 2009 (UTC)

== Why name it 'Vishnu Schist'? ==

What about the history of the names given to various layers? Especially, the 'Vishnu Schist', whats the origin of this name?
''''JB, 15-May-2007, Australia''''
:Most geological formation names are based on some local geographic feature in the area where the rock unit was described. I know there is a Vishnu's Temple in the Grand Canyon, and maybe other similarly named locations. Many of the geographic features, including many with names from Hindu theology such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Krishna, were given by USGS explorer Clarence Dutton in 1880-81. Hope this helps. Cheers [[User:Geologyguy|Geologyguy]] 02:11, 15 May 2007 (UTC)

:: Also, [[Zoroaster]], as in the Zoroaster Granite, is a prophet from the religion [[Zoroastrianism]].

:In almost all cases, that info is more appropriate in articles about the individual formations. --[[User:Mav|mav]] ([[User talk:Mav|talk]]) 02:24, 31 August 2009 (UTC)

== Photo not of a crinoid? ==

In the section "Hermit, Coconino, Toroweap, and Kaibab", there is a photograph with the caption "Fossils, such as this one of a crinoid, are common in the Toroweap and Kaibab formations". The predominant feature in the photo looks like the pedicle valve of a Productid brachiopod. Although there might be some crinozoid stems in the photo, I think the caption should be changed to "Fossils, such as this one of a brachiopod...". Or am I just missing something? —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Sonomadiver@gmail.com|Sonomadiver@gmail.com]] ([[User talk:Sonomadiver@gmail.com|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sonomadiver@gmail.com|contribs]]) 21:39, 6 July 2010 (UTC) 

:You're not missing anything, the original source of the photo confirms that the large fossil is a brachiopod. I'll modify the caption accordingly. Thanks for spotting that. [[User:Mikenorton|Mikenorton]] ([[User talk:Mikenorton|talk]]) 22:17, 6 July 2010 (UTC)

:Thanks for the feedback! - sonomadiver

== Galeros Formation ==

From the article "Galeros Formation is a mainly '''greenish''' formation composed of interbedded sandstone, limestone, and '''shale''' with '''some shale'''. It '''ranges in color from red to purple'''".
*"Shale with some shale" looks like an error.
* What is the color of Galeros Formation?
[[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 06:21, 1 September 2012 (UTC)

:Fixed some wording, the redundant "some shale" bit and took out the "red to purple". The colors and lithology of the formation are variable, don't have the ref used -- but for the brief summary given that may work. Details of the group are available in: Ford, T.D. and Breed, W.J., 1973, Late Precambrian Chuar Group, Grand Canyon, Arizona: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 84, no. 4, p. 1243-1260. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 13:54, 1 September 2012 (UTC)

== Toroweap Formation ==

Toroweap Formation is "is a '''ledge- and cliff-former'''" and is divided into the following three members: Seligman is a '''slope-forming''', Brady Canyon is a '''cliff-forming''' and Wood Ranch is a '''slope-forming'''. Two out of three are slope-forming, but the formation as a whole is a ledge- and cliff-former? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 18:22, 8 September 2012 (UTC)

:Changed per [[Toroweap Formation]] and strat column (fig 1). [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 00:13, 9 September 2012 (UTC)

== Volcanic activity dams the new canyon ==

From the article "Dams that were 150 to '''400 feet''' (46 to 120 m) high were overtopped by their lakes in 2 to '''17 days''' while dams '''200''' to 1,000 '''feet''' (61 to 300 m) high were overtopped in '''22 years'''. 400 feet dams in just up to 17 days, but 200 feet dams in 22 '''years'''? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:44, 14 September 2012 (UTC)

:That does seem off a bit ... don't have the book (Beus, Stanely S.; Morales, Michael, eds. (2003). Grand Canyon Geology (2nd ed.). New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512299-2) used as a reference to check. Looks like that was added by [[User:Mav]] at 03:40, 14 September 2009. I'll ask him to stretch his memory back 3 years or maybe check the source and add / fix for clarification. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 00:55, 15 September 2012 (UTC)

:Yep - Page 321 does say "22 years" but now that I think about it, it ''must'' be an error in the book since the sentence right before that says that overtopping was very rapid. 22 "days" makes much more sense in that regard. Absent another source confirming that, our only recourse is to comment out that part. I'll do that. --[[user:mav|mav]] ([[User:Mav/Reviews|reviews needed]]) 13:54, 15 September 2012 (UTC)
::well, I found source that corroborate the 22 years period. See the description of Prospect Dam on pages 34 and 35 of [
http://books.google.ca/books?id=CAVQJfipgB4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=22%20years&f=false Jeremy Schmidt, ''The Grand Canyon National Park: A Natural History Guide'']. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:36, 22 February 2013 (UTC)

== The Bass Limestone ==

From the article "The Bass Limestone was deposited in a shallow sea near the coast as a mix of '''limestone''', sandstone, and shale. It is '''120 to 340''' feet (37 to 100 m) thick and '''grayish''' in color." According the [http://3dparks.wr.usgs.gov/coloradoplateau/lexicon/bass.htm USGS site] it contains dolomite and not limestone (contrary to the formation name), it's color is "Red-brown and reddish-gray" and it is "260 to 300 ft" thick. The color and the thickness are just small variations from what is written in the article, but the lithology is not. By the way the elaborate [http://www.rockhounds.com/grand_hikes/geology/bass_limestone.shtml Rock Hounds site] also specify dolomite instead of limestone. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:34, 17 September 2012 (UTC)
:Vsmith? Mav? Anyone? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 16:48, 19 September 2012 (UTC)
::The Harris ref (through Google books p 21) does state that and is in disagreement with the USGS website. Harris has only a brief mention of the Bass - essentially what is in the article and no more. The USGS site switches to Bass Formation and gives a bit more detail, including the dolomite part. I suppose it could be read as the Bass was deposited as a limestone which was later dolomitized... but that's reading more than the refs explicitly state. I'd say, go with the more detailed USGS ref. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 00:51, 20 September 2012 (UTC)
:::That's what I did in my translation of the article into Hebrew. In the Hebrew Wikipedia we have a rule that you can use source only if you read it yourself. Unfortunately almost all the books in the reference section of the English article are unavailable through Google books, so I had no choice but to search for replacements and this how I got to find this discrepancy between the Article and the USGS site. I leave it to you guys to update the English version. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:25, 20 September 2012 (UTC)

== Vishnu Schist ==

From the article "when '''thousands of feet''' of volcanic ash, mud, sand, and silt were laid down in a '''shallow''' backarc basin similar to the modern Sea of Japan", this need a bit of clarification. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 17:08, 30 September 2012 (UTC)
:?? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 15:00, 2 October 2012 (UTC)
::???? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 19:53, 28 October 2012 (UTC)

The first two paragraphs became a bit confused with lots of edits and use of different refs. Some edits made in an attempt to clear that up a bit. Please take a look. --[[user:mav|mav]] ([[User:Mav/Reviews|reviews needed]]) 22:17, 28 October 2012 (UTC)
:I am not sure that deleting the reference to "thousands of feet" is doing justice to the article. In the article [http://www2.nature.nps.gov/geology/education/foos/grand.pdf GEOLOGY OF GRAND CANYON NATIONAL PARK, NORTH RIM], Annabelle Foos from the Geology Department, University of Akron is very specific "The oldest rocks exposed in the Grand Canyon are the Proterozoic Vishnu schist. Approximately 2 billion years ago, '''25,000 feet''' of sediments and volcanic material were deposited on the sea floor". [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 05:03, 29 October 2012 (UTC)

== quote from Beus and Morales ==
{{hat}}
Grand Canyon Geology by Beus and Morales is considered the "Bible" of geology on Grand Canyon. So any quote from it is significant and it is why it is referenced numerous times in this article. Here is the entire quote.
:"The Coconino Sandstone is composed of ''fine-grained, well-sorted, and rounded quartz grains'' and minor amounts of potassium feldspar. The cement is primarily silica in the form of quartz overgrowths. These textural and mineralogic characteristics ''are compatible with an eolian environment'' in which sediment transport involves numerous grain-to-grain collisions. These collision result in the mechanical destruction of less stable grains and in winnowing by the wind. ''As McKee (1979) correctly pointed out, however, these characteristics do not substantiate conclusively a wind-blown origin''. Although paleocurrent trends suggest a northern source for this sand, we cannot identify the source(s) of such a large quantity of quartz in the Coconino, as well as in correlative units to the north such as the Weber Sandstone in Utah and the Tensleep Sandstone in Wyoming and Montana." (pg 193, first edition)

This is not waffling. This is the way real geologists talk. McKee is a giant among geologist who have studied Grand Canyon and Larry Middleton, David Elliot and Michael Morales, authors of this chapter on the Coconino Sandstone, back up McKee's statement. In fact they say, "''few geologists, except for McKee and Reiche, have studied the Coconino''." (p. 183) The reason why they stay open as to it being eolian or not is because they cannot find a source for the sand up wind, in the direction from which the sand obviously came. As I said, to not include the statement by McKee gives an inaccurate account of what geologists have to say about the Coconino. You may find some geologists who insist that the Coconino is eolian, but they do not have the experience of McKee and the authors of this book.

Lets see the full quotes by Blakey and Kiever and who they quote about the Coconino. (I'll bet they quote Beus and Morales). [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 16:46, 1 October 2012 (UTC)

:The quote is regarding the "frosted" quartz grains specifically. Read the entire Coconino section - it's all about wind blown dune sands with abundant evidence ... so why the need for that one quote about "frosted grains"? What about the abundant material available there about the dune forms, stratifications and sedimentology of the formation? Picking a single quote that may support your pov is called "cherry picking". [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 19:54, 1 October 2012 (UTC)

::Which quote? Blakey and Kiever or Beus and Morales? Beus and Morales don't say anything about frosted grains. Yes, the Beus and Morales do believe that the Coconino is eolian formed, based on McKee's work, but they also go to the trouble of leaving the door open for other possibilities and quoting McKee to do so. So to make a dogmatic statement that the Coconino is, without doubt, eolian is pov. It ignores what the authors actually say. They do spend a lot of time comparing the Coconino with eolian depositional systems, but fail to compare it with any other possible depositional system. Apparently, while on one hand they say there could be other possibilities, they don't take the time to look into it. Thus, as good as Grand Canyon Geology is, the authors let their expectations keep them from being as thorough as scientists ought to be. Inserting what McKee has to say is important to the article. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 21:05, 1 October 2012 (UTC)
:The quote you provided above. The evidence provided in the references supports an eolian origin. What evidence is there of a different origin? No need to "keep the door open" for some other non-specified origin. In science "the door" is always open -where's the evidence to consider? [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 00:01, 2 October 2012 (UTC)

::The paragraph I quoted from Beus and Morales does not mention anything about frosted grains. In fact, frosted grains are not mentioned at all in their article (in the first edition). And a point of fact is that all grains of the coconino sandstone are frosted because the process of diagenesis (becoming rock) chemically glued the grains together by quartz overgrowth. That overgrowth chemically frosts the grains ''in situ'' and says nothing about the condition of the grains before diagenesis. The mechanical frosting of grains in sand dunes is a completely different process and looks different, and which becomes masked in the process of chemical overgrowth. And any process to try to remove the chemical frosting will remove evidence of mechanical frosting as well. Beus and Morales do not mention anything about mechanical frosting of grains in the first edition. Perhaps they do in the second edition, I don't have that volume yet.
::You have it backwards. Evidence does not support an explanation, in this case, eolian deposition, as Kuhn has pointed out over and over. Rather, eolian deposition explains evidence. McKee and Beus and Morales provide the perspective that eolian deposition is not the only possible explanation for the evidence. But they do not explore other explanations, probably because they think that eolian deposition is the best explanation. I am trying to introduce in to the article the same cautious perspective of Beus and Morales that other explanations are possible however seemly remote. One thing that science has shown is that anytime dogmatic statements are made, something comes along later to make a fool out of those making the statements. I don't see any reason not to include their cautions perspective into the article. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 17:00, 2 October 2012 (UTC)

If you have refs providing evidence of an alternate origin explanation, please provide it. Otherwise the waffle quote is not needed. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 12:06, 5 October 2012 (UTC)
:Perhaps you should go tell Beus and Moralas to remove their "waffle" statement from their book. As I already said, it is not a "waffle" statement, but only in your imagination. You are intent on hiding what they actually say, which anyone can read for themselves. Why are you trying to cover it up? On what authority do you claim to have greater insight than Beus or Moralas saying that they don't know what they are talking about so their full thoughts are not needed? Hiding facts is just a bad as telling lies. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 15:50, 5 October 2012 (UTC)
::Please read [[WP:agf]] and [[WP:NPA]]. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 01:01, 6 October 2012 (UTC)
:::Nice things to hide motives behind. You don't agf when I include what Beus and Moralas really say. You assume that I am introducing spurious ideas. Beus and Moralas are not waffling when they say what they say. So it is not waffling to include it in the article. By calling Beus and Moralas' statement waffling means you know more than they do. But they are the experts and you are just an editor. You are not arguing against me, but against Beus and Moralas. So unless you can come up with expert testimony that says Beus and Moralas don't know what they are talking about, I'm going to put their perspective statement back into the article. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 03:35, 7 October 2012 (UTC)
If you have [[WP:reliable sources]] that provide alternate explanations, then simply suggest them here. Do a search on google scholar for the Coconino Sandstone and see what the scientists working on the area say. [[User:Vsmith|Vsmith]] ([[User talk:Vsmith|talk]]) 14:27, 7 October 2012 (UTC)
: I give up. You win. There is nothing one can do when up against someone who is so adept and excluding truth. [[User:HerbertHuey|HerbertHuey]] ([[User talk:HerbertHuey|talk]]) 00:18, 14 October 2012 (UTC)

===HerbertHuey a sockpuppet===
Blocked as a sock of {{user|Allenroyboy}}. [[User:Dougweller|Dougweller]] ([[User talk:Dougweller|talk]]) 15:06, 27 December 2012 (UTC)
{{hab}}

== Supai Group ==
In this section, a part reads, "thickness of 600 to 700 feet (200 to 200 m)." The metric part needs to be looked up from the original source and updated (I could use conversions to write "(183 to 213 m)", but that doesn't seem like a good change). — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/24.94.232.216|24.94.232.216]] ([[User talk:24.94.232.216|talk]]) 05:42, 11 November 2012 (UTC) 
:The metric part is an automated conversion showing only one significant digit. Normally that is correct given the likely ambiguity in the cited data ("600 to 700 feet"), but a difference of only 100 feet rounds to 200 meters for both cited values in the range when only one sig fig is used. So I got rid of the convert template and just give ''(around 200 m)'' for the metric conversion. --[[user:mav|mav]] ([[User:Mav/Reviews|reviews needed]]) 14:10, 11 November 2012 (UTC)

Mei Pass

2013-02-16T12:33:25Z

Avihu: wikidata

{{Unreferenced|date=December 2009}}
'''Mei Pass''' ({{Zh|s=梅关|t=梅關|p=Méi Guān}}, [[Gan language|Gan]]: Mi-guan; literally "[[Prunus mume|Plum]] Pass") is a strategic site around 30 km north of [[Nanxiong]] (南雄) Municipality, [[Guangdong]] province, [[China]]. It is situated in the [[Meiling Mountains]] (梅岭), forming the boundary between the provinces of [[Jiangxi]] and Guangdong.

The site of Mei Pass has been significant since the [[Qin Dynasty]]. Its name probably dates from this early period. It was part of one of the five transport routes from the [[Yangtze River]] valley to [[Nanhai District|Nanhai]] in present day [[Guangzhou]]. During [[Tang Dynasty]] times, the site was called variously Qin Pass (秦关) and Hengpu Pass (横浦关). In 716, the Chancellor [[Zhang Jiuling]] constructed a five metre wide road through the pass as part of the trade route along the [[Gan River]]. Of the old gallery road, Zhang wrote:

:Formerly, an abandoned road in the east of the pass,
:Forbidding in the extreme, a hardship for men.
:An unswerving course: you clambered aloft
:On the outskirts of several miles of heavy forest,
:With flying bridges, clinging to the brink
:Halfway up a thousand fathoms [900 m] of layered cliffs ?

In the [[Song Dynasty]] fortifications were constructed on the pass and the characters representing Mei Pass were carved on it. The Tang road was improved with brick paving. The surviving fortifications have "Majestic pass of Nanyue" (南粤雄关) carved on the northern side and "First pass of Lingnan" (岭南第一关) carved on the other side. (Both Nanyue and Lingnan are alternative names for Guangdong.)

Until recent decades, Mei Pass was an important thoroughfare for the overland trade south to Guangdong, as well as a militarily significant boundary. In 1928, [[Mao Zedong]] attempted to cross the pass from Jiangxi into Guangdong. In the 1930s, the Communist commander [[Chen Yi (communist)|Chen Yi]] spent three years in the vicinity of Mei Pass fighting a protracted guerilla war against [[Kuomintang]] encirclement.

Mei Pass has been designated as a [[Major Site to Be Protected for Its Historical and Cultural Value at the National Level#Sites Protected at various levels|Cultural Relic Protection Unit]] by the provincial authorities and draws small numbers of domestic tourists. Around eight kilometres of the Tang road and most of the Song fortifications are still extant. Most visit in winter, when the [[Prunus mume|plum]] blossoms are in full bloom.

{{Coord missing|Guangdong|Jiangxi}}
{{Mountain passes of China}}
[[Category:Mountain passes of China]]
[[Category:Geography of Guangdong]]
[[Category:Geography of Jiangxi]]

Talk:Wuyi Mountains

2013-02-08T20:18:25Z

Avihu: /* Cathayshan or Cathaysian? */ new section

{{Talk header}}
{{WikiProjectBannerShell|1=
{{WikiProject World Heritage Sites|class=Start|importance=Mid}}
{{Mountain|class=Start|importance=High}}
{{WPCHINA|class=Start|importance=Mid}}
}}
.......hi —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/71.60.70.121|71.60.70.121]] ([[User talk:71.60.70.121|talk]]) 00:38, 19 March 2010 (UTC) 

== World heritage site area size ==

If the "The mountains cover an area of '''60''' km²" how come that "The world heritage site has an area of '''999.75''' square kilometres within an additional buffer zone of '''278.88''' km²"? I admit that those numbers were taken from UNESCO site, but this does make sense, especially after reading in the only reference in the article (Britannica Educational Publishing (2010). The Geography of China: Sacred and Historic Places) the following sentence: "A protected area of about 38 square miles ('''100''' square km) was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1999." Could it be that all the UNESCO site numbers should be divided be 10? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 18:38, 1 February 2013 (UTC)

== Cathayshan or Cathaysian? ==

Searching for the term "Cathayshan fold system" in the geology section of the article I came across a similar term, but with slightly different spelling: Cathaysian. See for example in [[Glossary of history]], but more importantly in [http://books.google.co.il/books?id=ShzwRGs5mDYC&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=Cathaysian+fold+system&source=bl&ots=BhO9FeE6Ev&sig=UeEhfB7od0KI1m7f-uaNW3Uo4Po&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Dl0VUbHEA4S1tAbr9YD4Ag&sqi=2&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Cathaysian%20fold%20system&f=false Uranium Deposits of the World: Asia] or [http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/50/91/00/PDF/Charvet-JAsianEarthScience-2010.pdf Structural development of the Lower Paleozoic belt of South China: Genesis of an intracontinental orogen]. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 20:18, 8 February 2013 (UTC)

Talk:Wuyi Mountains

2013-02-01T18:38:20Z

Avihu: /* World heritage site area size */ new section

Ulawun

2013-01-25T20:15:52Z

Avihu: +he:

{{Infobox mountain
| name = Ulawun
| photo = Ulawun.jpg
| photo_caption = Ulawun issuing passive steaming
| elevation_m = 2334
| elevation_ref =
| prominence_m = 2334
| map = Papua New Guinea
| map_caption =
| label_position = right
| listing = [[Ultra prominent peak|Ultra]]
| location = [[West New Britain]], [[Papua New Guinea]]
| range =
| lat_d = 5 | lat_m = 03 | lat_s = 00 | lat_NS = S
| long_d = 151 | long_m = 20 | long_s = 00 | long_EW = E
| coordinates_ref =
| topo =
| type = [[Stratovolcano]]
| age =
| volcanic_arc/belt = Bismarck volcanic arc
| last_eruption = 2012
| first_ascent =
| easiest_route =
}}
[[File:Ulawun steam plume.jpg|thumb|A steam plume over the sea from the Ulawun is clearly visible on this satellite image.]]

'''Ulawun''' is a [[basalt]]ic and [[andesitic]] [[stratovolcano]] situated on the island of [[New Britain]], [[Papua New Guinea]], about 130 km southwest of [[Rabaul]]. It is the highest mountain in the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] at {{Convert|2334|m|ft|0}}, and one of the most active volcanoes in Papua New Guinea. The first recorded eruption of Ulawun was by [[William Dampier]] in 1700. Several thousand people live near the volcano; there have been 22 recorded eruptions since the 18th century.

==Recent activity==

The last few years have seen almost constant activity at Ulawun, with frequent small explosions.

Volcanoes in Papua New Guinea are some of the world's most prolific sources of [[sulphur dioxide]]. Recent studies have shown that Ulawun releases about 7 kg/s of SO2, which is about 2% of the global total of SO2 emissions into the atmosphere.

==See also==
* [[List of volcanoes in Papua New Guinea]]

==References==

* McGonigle A.J.S., Oppenheimer C., Tsanev V.I. ''et al.'' (2004), '' Sulphur dioxide fluxes from Papua New Guinea's volcanoes'', Geophysical Research Letters, v. 31, issue 8

==External links==
* [http://www.mineral.gov.pg/volcObs/ulawun.htm Information from the Papua New Guinea Geological Survey]
* {{cite gvp
| vnum = 0502-12=
| title = Ulawun
| accessdate = 2010-03-15 }}

{{Decade Volcanoes}}

[[Category:Decade Volcanoes]]
[[Category:Stratovolcanoes]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of New Britain]]
[[Category:Mountains of Papua New Guinea]]
[[Category:Active volcanoes]]
[[Category:VEI-4 volcanoes]]

{{PapuaNewGuinea-geo-stub}}

[[br:Ulawun]]
[[de:Ulawun]]
[[es:Ulawun]]
[[fr:Ulawun]]
[[it:Vulcano Ulawun]]
[[he:אולאוון]]
[[nl:Ulawun]]
[[ja:ウラウン山]]
[[pl:Ulawan]]
[[ru:Улавун]]
[[fi:Ulawun]]
[[uk:Улавун]]
[[zh:烏拉旺火山]]

Samaria Gorge

2013-01-24T05:07:55Z

Avihu: +he:

[[Image:Landkarte Westkreta.jpg|thumb|200px|Samariá Gorge national park]]
[[Image:SamariaGorge.jpg|thumb|200px|Samaria Gorge]]
[[Image:Samaria park001.jpg|thumb|right|upright|200px|Entrance to the Gorge]]
[[Image:Samaria2r.jpg|thumb|right|upright|200px|Upper entrance]]
[[Image:Samaria park002.jpg|thumb|200x|Samaria Gorge]]
[[Image:Crete-Samaria.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Portes - the narrowest part]]
The '''Samariá Gorge''' ({{lang-el|Φαράγγι Σαμαριάς}} or just ''Φάραγγας'') is a
[[National Park]] of [[Greece]] on the island of [[Crete]] - a major tourist attraction of the island - and a [[Man and the Biosphere Programme|World's Biosphere Reserve]].

The gorge is in southwest Crete in the regional unit of [[Chania (regional unit)|Chania]]. It was created by a small river running between the White Mountains (Lefká Óri) and Mt. Volakias. There are a number of other gorges in the White Mountains. While some say that the gorge is 18 km long, this distance refers to the distance between the settlement of Omalos on the northern side of the plateau and the village of [[Agia Roumeli]]. In fact, the gorge is 16 km long, starting at an altitude of 1,250 m at the northern entrance, and ending at the shores of the Libyan Sea in [[Agia Roumeli]]. The walk through Samaria National Park is 13 km long, but one has to walk another three kilometers to [[Agia Roumeli]] from the park exit, making the hike 16 km long. The most famous part of the gorge is the stretch known as the Gates (or, albeit incorrectly, as "Iron Gates"), where the sides of the gorge close in to a width of only four meters and soar up to a height of almost 300 meters (1,000 feet).
The gorge became a national park in 1962, particularly as a refuge for the rare [[kri-kri]] (Cretan [[goat]]), which is largely restricted to the park and an island just off the shore of [[Agia Marina, Crete|Agia Marina]]. There are several other [[endemic (ecology)|endemic species]] in the gorge and surrounding area, as well as many other species of flowers and birds.

The village of Samariá lies just inside the gorge. It was finally abandoned by the last remaining inhabitants in 1962 to make way for the park. The village and the gorge take their names from the village's ancient church, Óssia María.

A must for visitors to Crete is to complete the walk down the gorge from the Omalos plateau to Agia Roumeli on the Libyan Sea, at which point tourists sail to the nearby village of [[Hora Sfakion]] and catch a coach back to Chania. The walk takes five to seven hours and can be strenuous, especially at the peak of summer.

Local tourist operators provide organized tours to the Gorge. These include bus transportation from one's hotel to the entrance (near Omalos village), and a bus connection that will be waiting for hikers after they disembark the ferry in Sfakia (Chora Sfakion). If you are on your own, you can make a one-day round trip from Chania (see below) or from Sougia or Paleochora. Note that the morning buses from Sougia and Paleochora do not operate on Sunday. The ferries leave Agia Roumeli to Chora Sfakion (eastbound) and to Sougia/Paleochora (westbound) at 17:00.

There also exists a "lazy way" - from Agia Roumeli to the Gates, and back.

==Information provided by the Chania Forest Protection Service<ref>Leaflet from NPS Tourist Office, 27/4/2008</ref>==
* Visits to the National park are allowed from May 1 to October 15.
* Park visiting hours are 07:00 to 15:00 daily. From 15:00 to sunset, visitors are allowed to walk a distance of only two kilometers within the park, either from Xyloskalo or from Agia Roumeli.
* Within the park it is strictly prohibited to camp, stay overnight, light fires, or swim in the streams of the gorge.

===How to visit from Chania===
* There are daily buses starting from [[Chania]] to the head of the gorge, called Xyloskalo. The buses, marked "OMALOS", depart Chania Central Bus Station at 07:45; the fare for a round trip is €14.40.
* The morning buses take one hour. The gorge is {{convert|12.8|km|mi|abbr=on}} long, but there is another distance of {{convert|3.2|km|mi|abbr=on}} to walk after leaving the gorge to reach Agia Roumeli; you need five to six hours to walk the 16 km. Be aware that it's always going downhill and thus is strenuous to the knees.
* The entrance fee is €5 (no reduced price for children or students, 2011).
* There is plenty of drinking water all along the gorge. Sneakers or hiking boots are recommended.
* At the end of the gorge plus {{convert|3.2|km|mi|abbr=on}} is Agia Roumeli, a village with restaurants and accommodation, and boats to Chora Sfakion or Sougia. To return the same day, take the 17:00 boat (fare: €9.00, 2011) to Chora Sfakion.
* From Chora Sfakion, buses return to Chania, departing at 18:30; the bus always waits for the boat to arrive.
* Tickets for the two buses can be reserved at the ticket office at the Chania bus station. The ticket for the boat can be purchased in Agia Roumeli only .
* There are daily guided tours operated by various travel agencies, whose cost is usually around €20 (2011) and which includes fare for buses and the tour guide. The price does not include boat tickets (€9.00)and entrance fees (€5.00), which is usually collected separately on the bus.

== Other gorges in Crete ==
*[[Agia Eirini Gorge]]
*[[Gorge of the Dead]]
*[[Ha Gorge]]
*[[Imbros Gorge]]
*[[Kotsifos Gorge]]
*[[Kourtaliotiko Gorge]]
*[[Richtis Gorge]]
*[[Sarakina Gorge]]

== External links ==
{{commons category|Samaria Gorge}}
*[http://www.samariagorge.eu/ Samaria gorge portal]
*[http://www.matala-holidays.gr/samaria.php Photos and Information about Samaria Gorge]
*[http://www.west-crete.com/samaria-gorge.htm Guide to the gorge of Samaria]
*[http://www.mikes-walks.co.uk/Walks/Specials/Samaria/samaria.html Description of a walk down the Gorge]
*[http://www.meteo.gr/stations/samaria/ Xyloskalo current weather conditions]

== References ==

<references/>
{{National parks of Greece}}
{{coord|35|16|16|N|23|57|41|E|region:GR-94_type:landmark|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Samaria Gorge}}
[[Category:Biosphere reserves of Greece]]
[[Category:Chania (regional unit)]]
[[Category:Gorges of Crete]]
[[Category:National parks of Greece]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Crete]]

[[bg:Самария (Крит)]]
[[ca:Gorja de Samarià]]
[[cs:Samaria]]
[[de:Samaria-Schlucht]]
[[el:Φαράγγι της Σαμαριάς]]
[[es:Parque nacional de Samaria]]
[[fr:Gorges de Samaria]]
[[it:Gole di Samariá]]
[[he:קניון סאמריה]]
[[lt:Samarijos tarpeklis]]
[[nl:Samariakloof]]
[[no:Samariaravinen]]
[[pl:Wąwóz Samariá]]
[[ro:Cheile Samaria]]
[[ru:Самарийское ущелье]]
[[fi:Samarián rotko]]
[[th:อุทยานแห่งชาติซามาเรียกอร์จ]]
[[uk:Національний парк Білі Гори]]
[[zh:萨马利亚峡谷]]

Komatiite

2013-01-23T19:36:26Z

Avihu: +he:

[[File:KomatiiteCanada 682By512.jpg|thumb|right|Komatiite sample collected from the [[Abitibi greenstone belt]] near [[Englehart, Ontario]], Canada. Specimen is 9 cm wide. Bladed olivine crystals are visible, though spinifex texture is weak or absent in this sample.]]
'''Komatiite''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|icon|k|oʊ|ˈ|m|ɑː|t|ɪ|.|aɪ|t}})<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessscience.com/overflow.aspx?searchStr=Rock&stype=4&term=Rock&p=44|title=McGraw-Hill AccessScience: Dictionary}}</ref> is a type of [[ultramafic]] [[Mantle (geology)|mantle-derived]] [[volcanic rock]]. Komatiites have low [[silicon]], [[potassium]] and [[aluminium]], and high to extremely high [[magnesium]] content. Komatiite was named for its [[Type locality (geology)|type locality]] along the [[Komati River]] in [[South Africa]].

True komatiites are very rare and essentially restricted to rocks of [[Archean|Archaean]] age, with few [[Proterozoic]] or [[Phanerozoic]] komatiites known (although high-magnesian [[lamprophyre]]s are known from the [[Mesozoic]]). This restriction in age is thought to be due to cooling of the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]], which may have been up to 500 °C hotter during the early to middle Archaean (3.8 to 2.8 Ga). The early [[Earth]] had much higher heat production, due to the residual heat from planetary accretion, as well as the greater abundance of [[radioactive]] elements.

Geographically, komatiites are restricted in distribution to the Archaean [[shield (geology)|shield]] areas. Komatiites occur with other ultramafic and high-magnesian [[mafic]] [[volcanic]] rocks in Archaean [[greenstone belt]]s. The youngest komatiites are from the island of [[Gorgona, Colombia|Gorgona]] on the Caribbean oceanic plateau off the Pacific coast of [[Colombia]].



== Petrology ==
[[Magmas]] of komatiitic compositions have a very high [[melting point]], with calculated eruption temperatures in excess of 1600 °C. [[Basalt]]ic [[lava]]s normally have eruption temperatures of about 1100 to 1250 °C. The higher melting temperatures required to produce komatiite have been attributed to the presumed higher [[geothermal gradient]]s in the Archean Earth.

Komatiitic lava would have behaved as a [[supercritical fluid]] when it erupted (possessing the viscosity of [[gas]] but with the density of rock). Compared to the basaltic lava of the [[Hawaiian eruption|Hawaiian]] [[Mantle plume|plume]] basalts at ~1200 °C, which flows the way [[treacle]] or honey does, the komatiitic lava would have flowed swiftly across the surface, leaving extremely thin lava flows (down to 10 mm thick). The major komatiitic sequences preserved in Archaean rocks are thus considered to be [[lava tubes]], ponds of lava etc., where the komatiitic lava accumulated.

Komatiite chemistry is thought to be different from that of basaltic and other common mantle-produced magmas, because of differences in degrees of [[partial melting]]. Komatiites are considered to have been formed by high degrees of partial melting, usually greater than 50%, and hence have high MgO with low K2O and other incompatible elements. [[Kimberlite]], another magnesium-rich igneous rock, is relatively rich in potassium and in other [[incompatible element]]s, and is thought to form as a result of less than a percent or so of partial melting fluxed by water and carbon dioxide.

There are two geochemical classes of komatiite; aluminium undepleted komatiite (AUDK) (also known as Group I komatiites) and aluminium depleted komatiite (ADK) (also known as Group II komatiites). These two classes of komatiite represent a real petrological source difference between the two types related to depth of melt generation. Al-depleted komatiites have been modeled by melting experiments as being produced by high degrees of partial melting of hydrous mantle at low pressure where Al-bearing pyroxenes in the source are not melted, whereas Al-undepleted komatiites are produced by high degree partial melts at greater depth, allowing melting of Al-rich pyroxene.

[[Boninite]] magmatism is similar to komatiite magmatism but is driven more by melting induced by volatile flows above a [[subduction zone]] than by decompression melting. Boninites with 10-18% MgO tend to have higher [[Incompatible element|large-ion lithophile elements]] (LILE) (Ba, Rb, Sr) than komatiites.

Komatiitic [[magma]]s are considered to be a source for spatially associated [[tholeiite basalt]]s based on a study linking the two rock types in the [[Karelia]]n [[greenstone belt]] of northwest [[Russia]].

== Mineralogy ==
[[File:KomatiiteGraph.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Graph of komatiite geochemistry MgO% vs Cr ppm, from basal flows, Wannaway, Western Australia]]The pristine volcanic mineralogy of komatiites is composed of forsteritic [[olivine]] (Fo90 and upwards), calcic and often chromian [[pyroxene]], [[anorthite]] (An85 an upwards) and [[chromite]].

A considerable population of komatiite examples show a [[cumulate rocks|cumulate texture]] and [[Geomorphology|morphology]]. The usual cumulate [[mineralogy]] is highly [[magnesium]] rich [[forsterite]] olivine, though chromian pyroxene cumulates are also possible (though rarer).

Volcanic rocks rich in magnesium may be produced by accumulation of olivine [[phenocrysts]] in basalt melts of normal chemistry: an example is [[picrite]]. Part of the evidence that komatiites are not magnesium-rich simply because of cumulate olivine is textural: some contain [[Texture (geology)|spinifex]], a texture attributable to rapid [[crystallization]] of the olivine from a magnesium-rich melt.

Another line of evidence is that the MgO content of olivines formed in komatiites is toward the nearly pure MgO forsterite composition, which can only be achieved in bulk by crystallisation of olivine from a highly magnesian melt.

The often rarely preserved flow top [[breccia]] and pillow margin zones in some komatiite flows are essentially volcanic glass, [[quenched]] in contact with overlying water or air. Because they are quenched, they represent the liquid composition of the komatiites, and thus record an [[anhydrous]] MgO content of up to 32% MgO. Some of the highest magnesian komatiites with clear textural preservation are those of the [[Weltevreden Formation]] of the [[Barberton belt]] in [[South Africa]], where liquids with up to 34% MgO can be inferred using bulk rock and olivine compositions.

The mineralogy of a komatiite varies systematically through the typical [[stratigraphic]] section of a komatiite flow and reflects magmatic processes which komatiites are susceptible to during their eruption and cooling. The typical mineralogical variation is from a flow base composed of olivine cumulate, to a [[Texture (geology)|spinifex]] textured zone composed of bladed olivine and ideally a pyroxene spinifex zone and olivine-rich chill zone on the upper eruptive rind of the flow unit. The "spinifex" texture is named after an [[Australian]] [[grass]] that grows in clumps with similar shapes.

Primary (magmatic) mineral species also encountered in komatiites include olivine, the pyroxenes [[augite]], [[pigeonite]] and [[bronzite]], [[plagioclase]], [[chromite]], [[ilmenite]] and rarely pargasitic [[amphibole]]. Secondary (metamorphic) minerals include [[serpentine group|serpentine]], [[Chlorite group|chlorite]], amphibole, sodic plagioclase, [[quartz]], iron oxides and rarely [[phlogopite]], [[baddeleyite]], and [[pyrope]] or hydrogrossular [[garnet]].

== Metamorphism ==
All known komatites have been metamorphosed, therefore should technically be termed 'metakomatiite' though the prefix meta is inevitably assumed. Because of this ubiquitous [[metamorphism]], the mineralogy of a komatiite reflects primary magmatic chemistry, and the metamorphic fluids which have affected the rocks. Komatiites are usually highly altered and [[serpentinite|serpentinized]] or [[carbonated]] from metamorphism and [[metasomatism]]. This results in significant changes to the mineralogy of the komatiites and the texture is rarely preserved.

=== Hydration vs Carbonation ===
The metamorphic mineralogy of ultramafic rocks, particularly komatiites, is only partially controlled by composition. The character of the [[connate fluids]] which are present during low temperature metamorphism whether [[Metamorphism#Prograde and retrograde metamorphism|prograde]] or [[Metamorphism#Prograde and retrograde metamorphism|retrograde]] control the metamorphic assemblage of a metakomatiite (''hereafter the prefix meta- is assumed'').

The factor controlling the mineral assemblage is the [[partial pressure]] of [[carbon dioxide]] within the metamorphic fluid, called the XCO2. If XCO2 is above 0.5, the metamorphic reactions favor formation of [[talc]], [[magnesite]] (magnesium carbonate), and [[tremolite]] amphibole. These are classed as [[talc carbonate|talc-carbonation]] reactions. Below XCO2 of 0.5, metamorphic reactions in the presence of water favor production of [[serpentinite]].

There are thus two main classes of metamorphic komatiite; carbonated and hydrated. Carbonated komatiites and peridotites form a series of rocks dominated by the minerals chlorite, [[talc]], [[magnesite]] or [[dolomite]] and [[tremolite]]. Hydrated metamorphic rock assemblages are dominated by the minerals chlorite, [[serpentine group|serpentine]]-[[antigorite]], [[brucite]]. Traces of talc, tremolite and dolomite may be present, as it is very rare that no carbon dioxide is present in metamorphic fluids. At higher metamorphic grades, [[anthophyllite]], [[enstatite]], [[olivine]] and [[diopside]] dominate as the rock mass dehydrates.

=== Mineralogic variations in komatiite flow facies ===
Komatiite tends to [[Fractional crystallization (geology)|fractionate]] from high-magnesium compositions in the flow bases where olivine cumulates dominate, to lower magnesium compositions higher up in the flow. Thus, the current metamorphic mineralogy of a komatiite will reflect the chemistry, which in turn represents an inference as to its volcanological [[facies]] and stratigraphic position.

Typical metamorphic mineralogy is [[tremolite]]-[[Chlorite group|chlorite]], or [[talc]]-chlorite mineralogy in the upper spinifex zones. The more magnesian-rich olivine-rich flow base facies tend to be free from tremolite and chlorite mineralogy and are dominated by either [[serpentine group|serpentine]]-[[brucite]] +/- [[anthophyllite]] if hydrated, or talc-[[magnesite]] if carbonated. The upper flow facies tend to be dominated by talc, chlorite, tremolite, and other magnesian amphiboles ([[anthophyllite]], [[cummingtonite]], [[gedrite]], etc.).

For example, the typical flow facies (see below) may have the following mineralogy;
{| border="0" cellpadding="2"
|+
|-
! Facies: !! Hydrated !! Carbonated
|-
! A1
| Chlorite-Tremolite || Talc-chlorite-Tremolite
|-
! A2
| Serpentine-Tremolite-Chlorite || Talc-Tremolite-Chlorite
|-
! A3
| Serpentine-Chlorite || Talc-Magnesite-Tremolite-Chlorite
|-
! B1
| Serpentine-Chlorite-Anthophyllite || Talc-Magnesite
|-
! B2
| Massive Serpentine-Brucite || Massive Talc-Magnesite
|-
! B3
| Serpentine-Brucite-Chlorite || Talc-Magnesite-Tremolite-Chlorite
|}

== Geochemistry ==
Komatiite can be classified according to the following geochemical criteria;
* SiO2; typically 40 - 45%
* MgO greater than 18%
* Low K2O (<0.5%)
* Low CaO and Na2O (<2% combined)
* Low Ba, Cs, Rb ([[incompatible element]]) enrichment; ΣLILE <1,000ppm
* High [[Nickel|Ni]] (>400ppm), [[Chromium|Cr]] (>800ppm), [[Cobalt|Co]] (>150ppm)

The above geochemical classification must be the essentially unaltered magma chemistry and not the result of [[cumulate rocks|crystal accumulation]] (as in [[peridotite]]). Through a typical komatiite flow sequence the chemistry of the rock will change according to the internal fractionation which occurs during eruption. This tends to lower MgO, Cr, Ni towards the top, and increases Al, K2O, Na and CaO and SiO2 toward the top of the flow.

Rocks with high MgO, high K2O and Ba, Cs, Rb etc. may be [[lamprophyre]]s, [[kimberlite]]s or other rare ultramafic, potassic or [[ultrapotassic]] rocks.

== Morphology and occurrence ==
Komatiites often show [[pillow lava]] structure, autobrecciated upper margins consistent with underwater eruption forming a rigid upper skin to the lava flows, under which considerable lava tubes and pools accumulate. Proximal volcanic facies are thinner and interleaved with sulfidic sediments, black shales, [[chert]]s and tholeiitic [[basalts]]. Komatiites were produced from a relatively wet [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]]. Evidence of this is from their association with [[felsic]]s, occurrences of komatiitic [[tuff]]s, [[Niobium]] anomalies and by S- and H2O-borne rich mineralizations.

===Textural features===
A common and distinctive texture is known as ''spinifex texture'' and consists of long [[Crystal habit|acicular]] phenocrysts of olivine (or [[pseudomorph]]s of alteration minerals after olivine) which give the rock a bladed appearance especially on a weathered surface. The spinifex texture is the result of rapid crystallization of a supercooled liquid.

Crystal growth is retarded due to the superfluid nature of the komatiite, and proceeds in a 'flash freeze' to form the spinifex texture.

''Harrisite texture'', first described from the locality of [[Harris Bay]], [[Rùm]], [[Scotland]], is formed by nucleation of crystals on the floor of the lava flow chamber. Harrisites are known to form megacrystal aggregates of pyroxene and olivine up to 1 metre in length.

[[File:KomatiiteA2.jpg|left|thumb|A2 facies dendritic feathery olivine crystals, drill hole WDD18, Widgiemooltha, W.A., Australia]]
[[File:KomatiiteA3.jpg|right|thumb|A3 facies bladed olivine spinifex, drill hole WDD18, Widgiemooltha Komatiite, W.A., Australia]]

===Volcanology===
Komatiite [[volcano]] morphology is interpreted to have the general form and structure of a [[shield volcano]], typical of most large [[basalt]] edifices, as the magmatic event which forms komatiites erupts less magnesian materials.

However, the initial flux of the most magnesian magmas is interpreted to form a channelised flow facie, which is envisioned as a fissure vent releasing highly fluid komatiitic lava onto the surface. This then flows outwards from the vent fissure, concentrating into topographical lows, and forming channel environments composed of high MgO olivine [[Cumulate rock|adcumulate]] flanked by a 'sheeted flow facies' aprons of lower MgO olivine and pyroxene thin-flow spinifex sheets.

The typical komatiite lava flow has six stratigraphically related elements;
* A1 - pillowed and variolitic chilled flow top, often grading and transitional with sediment
* A2 - Zone of quickly chilled, feathery acicular olivine-clinopyroxene-glass representing a [[chilled margin]] on the top of the flow unit
* A3 - Olivine spinifex sequence composed of sheaf and book-like olivine spinifex, representing a downward-growing crystal accumulation on the flow top
* B1 - Olivine mesocumulate to orthocumulate, representing a harrisite grown in flowing liquid melt
* B2 - Olivine adcumulate composed of >93% interlocking equant olivine crystals
* B3 - Lower chill margin composed of olivine adcumulate to mesocumulate, with finer grain size.
Individual flow units may not be entirely preserved, as subsequent flow units may thermally erode the A zone spinifex flows. In the distal thin flow facies,
B zones are poorly developed to absent, as not enough through-flowing liquid existed to grow the adcumulate.

The channel and sheeted flows are then covered by high-magnesian basalts and tholeiitic basalts as the volcanic event evolves to less magnesian compositions. The subsequent magmatism, being higher silica melts, tends to form a more typical shield volcano architecture.

===Intrusive komatiites===
Komatiite magma is extremely dense and unlikely to reach the surface, being more likely to pool lower within the crust. Modern (post-2004) interpretations of some of the larger olivine adcumulate bodies in the [[Yilgarn craton]] have revealed that the majority of komatiite olivine adcumulate occurrences are likely to be [[subvolcanic rock|subvolcanic]] to [[intrusive]] in nature.

This is recognised at the Mt Keith [[nickel]] deposit where wall-rock intrusive textures and [[xenolith]]s of [[felsic]] country rocks have been recognised within the low-strain contacts. The previous interpretations of these large komatiite bodies was that they were "super channels" or reactivated channels, which grew to over 500 m in stratigraphic thickness during prolonged volcanism.

These intrusions are considered to be '''channelised sills''', formed by injection of komatiitic magma into the stratigraphy, and inflation of the magma chamber. Economic nickel-mineralised olivine adcumulate bodies may represent a form of sill-like conduit, where magma pools in a staging chamber before erupting onto the surface.

== Economic importance ==
The economic importance of komatiite was first widely recognised in the early 1960s with the discovery of massive nickel sulfide mineralisation at [[Kambalda, Western Australia]]. Komatiite-hosted nickel-copper sulfide mineralisation today accounts for about 14% of the world's nickel production, mostly from Australia, Canada and South Africa.

Komatiites are associated with [[nickel]] and [[gold]] deposits in [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[South Africa]] and most recently in the Guiana shield of [[South America]].

==See also==
* [[Kambalda type komatiitic nickel ore deposits|Komatiitic Ni-Cu-PGE mineralisation]]
* [[Rock microstructure]]
* [[List of rock textures]]
* [[List of rock types]]
* [[Igneous rocks]]
* [[Ultramafic|Definition of ultramafic rocks]]
* [[Cumulate rocks]]

==References==
{{More footnotes|article|date=February 2008}}
* Hess, P. C. (1989), ''Origins of Igneous Rocks'', President and Fellows of Harvard College (pp. 276–285), ISBN 0-674-64481-6.
* Hill R.E.T, Barnes S.J., Gole M.J. and Dowling S.E., 1990. ''Physical volcanology of komatiites; A field guide to the komatiites of the Norseman-Wiluna Greenstone Belt, Eastern Goldfields Province, Yilgarn Block, Western Australia.'', Geological Society of Australia. ISBN 0-909869-55-3
* Blatt, Harvey and Robert Tracy (1996), ''Petrology'', 2nd ed., Freeman (pp. 196–7), ISBN 0-7167-2438-3.
* S. A. Svetov, A. I. Svetova, and H. Huhma, 1999, ''Geochemistry of the Komatiite–Tholeiite Rock Association in the Vedlozero–Segozero Archean Greenstone Belt, Central Karelia'', Geochemistry International, Vol. 39, Suppl. 1, 2001, pp. S24–S38. [http://geoserv.karelia.ru/rus/htm_files/Personal/Svetov%20S_A/GeoChemS1_01SvetovLO.pdf PDF] accessed 7-25-2005
* Vernon R.H., 2004, ''A Practical Guide to Rock Microstructure'', (pp. 43–69, 150-152) Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81443-X
*Arndt, N.T. and Nisbet, E.G. 1982. Komatiites. Unwin Hyman, ISBN 0-04-552019-4. Hardcover: 543 pp.
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/Unusual%20lava.html Unusual lava types] accessed 7-25-2005
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0512118 Komatiites and astrobiology]
* [http://www.mantleplumes.org/Komatiites.html Komatiites and the Plume Debate]
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~carlkop/iofire.html Volcanic fireworks on Io]
* [http://christian.nicollet.free.fr/page/Canada/komatiites.html Photos of Abitibi komatiite, Canada] (with text in French) retrieved 2009-05-17

{{Igneous rocks}}

[[Category:Ultramafic rocks]]
[[Category:Volcanology]]
[[Category:Igneous petrology]]
[[Category:Metamorphic rocks]]
[[Category:Volcanic rocks]]

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Talk:Komatiite

2013-01-20T16:49:06Z

Avihu: /* Copyright? */ new section

{{WikiProject Volcanoes|class=B|importance=Mid}}
{{WikiProject Geology
|class= C
|importance= Mid
|attention=
|needs-infobox=
|peer-review=
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}}

== French Guyana komatiitic diamonds ==
It is worth discussing this first.
For instance, the Dachine diamond occurrence is within a talc-schist, which is a metamorphosed ultramafic rock. It is therefore not sufficient to say that because the rock geochemically meets the criteria of a komatiite that it is a komatiite.
For instance Magee and Taylor (1999) [http://wwwrses.anu.edu.au/////admin/annrep/ar1999/8_P&EP.pdf here] argue that the Dachine talc-schist is actually probably a shoshonite occurrence. From my knowledge of the ultramafic dykes of Gympie, Australia, which were also shoshonites, these can look extremely similar to komatiites, especially when alteration strips away their LILE element enrichments in Ba, Rb, Sr, etc. So, I, for one, would like to see a definitive reference provided before we re-include the Dachine rocks as an example of a komatiite source rock for diamonds.

However, if it is a shoshonite, this makes for VERY interesting reading because shoshonites are much more widespread than kimberlites, komatiites or lamprites...so thanks whoever brought this to our attention!

[[User:Rolinator|Rolinator]] 04:19, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

== Superfluid? ==

The article said komatiites were erupted as [[Superfluids]]. I think the author meant [[Supercritical Fluid]], a liquid that has properties of both a gas and a liquid. --[[User:Diamonddavej|Diamonddavej]] ([[User talk:Diamonddavej|talk]]) 21:49, 20 October 2008 (UTC)

== Copyright? ==

I did not check the whole article, but the "Morphology and occurrence" paragraph was undoubtedly copied word by word from [http://books.google.co.il/books?id=KeYcHq_rh8MC&pg=PA298&lpg=PA298&dq=%22spinifex+texture+is+the+result+%22&source=bl&ots=EQtaNXDSUM&sig=23rwFsLagGfUH-9E1Laf6QN97yQ&hl=en&sa=X&ei=thz8UKPNLNDdsgbSn4DwCw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22spinifex%20texture%20is%20the%20result%20%22&f=false Earth System Sciences: Felicitation Volumes in Honour of Professor V. K. Verma]. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 16:49, 20 January 2013 (UTC)

Pingyao

2013-01-12T18:01:16Z

Avihu: +he:

{{Infobox settlement
|name = Pingyao County
|native_name = 平遥县
|postal_code = 031100
|postal_code_type = [[Postal code of China|Postal code]]
|pushpin_label_position = bottom
|pushpin_map = China Shanxi
|pushpin_label = Pingyao
|pushpin_label_position = right
|pushpin_map_caption = Location in Shanxi
|pushpin_mapsize = 250
|settlement_type = [[County (People's Republic of China)|County]]
|image_skyline = Pingyao marketstreet.jpg
|image_caption = View from Market Tower
|image_map =
|map_caption = Location of the county
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = [[People's Republic of China]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Province (China)|Province]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Shanxi]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[Prefecture-level city|Prefecture]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Jinzhong]]
|area_code = 0354
|area_total_km2 = 1260
|population =
|population_as_of = 2002
|population_density_km2 = auto
|population_total = 490000
|coordinates_display = inline,title
|coordinates_region = CN
|latNS = N
|latd = 37
|latm = 12
|longEW = E
|longd = 112
|longm = 9
|elevation_ft =
|elevation_m =
|timezone = [[China Standard Time|China Standard]]
|utc_offset = +8
|footnotes = {{designation list | embed=yes
| designation1=WHS
| designation1_offname= Ancient City of Ping Yao
| designation1_date = 1997 (21st [[World Heritage Committee|session]])
| designation1_type = Cultural
| designation1_criteria = ii, iii, iv
| designation1_number = [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/812 812]
| designation1_free1name = State Party
| designation1_free1value = People's Republic of China
| designation1_free2name = Region
| designation1_free2value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia|Asia-Pacific]]
| designation1_free3name = Extensions
| designation1_free3value = 2000; 2001
}}
|website = http://www.pingyao.gov.cn/
}}

'''Pingyao''' ({{zh|c=[[wikt:平|平]][[wikt:遥|遥]]|p=Píngyáo}}) is a [[County (People's Republic of China)|county]] in central [[Shanxi]] province, People's Republic of China. It lies about {{convert|715|km}} from [[Beijing]] and {{convert|80|km}} from the provincial capital, [[Taiyuan]]. During the [[Qing Dynasty]], Pingyao was a financial center of China. Its history dates back 2,700 years, and is one of the best preserved ancient cities in the known world. It is still inhabited by 50,000 residents and is renowned for its well-preserved ancient [[Chinese city wall|city wall]], and is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].

==Historical importance==
Pingyao still retains its city layout from the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] dynasties, conforming to a typical bagua pattern. More than 300 sites in or near the city have ancient ruins. Preserved Ming- and Qing-style residences number close to 4,000. The streets and storefronts still largely retain their historical appearance.

In the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], the county belonged to the kingdom of [[Jin (Chinese state)|Jin]]. It was part of the kingdom of [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]] in the [[Warring States Period]]. In the [[Qin Dynasty]], it was known as Pingtao. During the [[Han Dynasty]], it was known as Zhongdu county. In 1986, the [[People's Republic of China]] designated Pingyao as one of the Chinese Historic and Cultural Cities. It became a [[World Heritage Site]] in 1997, including the outlying [[Zhenguo Temple]] and [[Shuanglin Temple]].

===City walls===
The [[Chinese city wall|city walls]] of Pingyao were constructed in the 3rd year of the [[Hongwu Emperor]] (1370). The walls have six [[barbican]] gates. The north and south sides have one gate each. The east and west sides have two gates each. This pattern is similar to that of a turtle (the head, tail and four legs), earning Pingyao the moniker "Turtle City." The walls measure about 12 meters high, with a [[perimeter]] of 6,000 meters. A 4-meter wide, 4-meter deep [[moat]] can be found just outside the walls. Aside from the four structured towers at the four corners, there are also 72 watchtowers and more than 3,000 [[battlement]]s.
In 2004, part of the southern walls collapsed but were reconstructed. However, the rest of the city walls are still largely intact and are considered among the best-preserved ancient city walls on this scale. This makes the city walls the centerpiece of the Heritage Site.

===Finance===
Pingyao was the financial center of China in the late [[Qing Dynasty]]. During those times, there were as many as 20 financial institutions within the city, comprising more than half of total in the whole country. Among these is "[[Rishengchang]]," considered the first [[bank]] in China. [[Rishengchang]] controlled almost 50% silver trade when its scale reached the top in the whole [[Qing Dynasty]]. It continued to maintain its prosperity until going bankrupt in 1914 because lots of the modern banks were built up. The 2009 film [[Empire_of_Silver_(film)|Empire of Silver]] depicted the tribulations of a Shanxi bank-owning family that lived in Pingyao during the early 20th century.

==Geography and economy==
Pingyao is located on the eastern banks of the [[Fen River]], and is in the southwestern edge of the [[Taiyuan]] basin. It is adjacent to another Chinese Historic and Cultural City [[Qi County, Shanxi|Qi County]]. Pingyao's economy is largely agricultural and the region is famed for its [[beef]]. Other products from the region include [[cereal|grains]], [[cotton]], and [[lacquerware]].

==Threats==
Increases in tourism have put pressure on the ancient walled city of Pingyao. During the tourist high-season, the amount of visitors to the city can reach up to 3 times its maximum capacity per day.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Zhuang Pinghui|title=Tourist Crowds Threaten Heritage|date=May 9, 2007|work=[[South China Morning Post]]|url=http://www.newsgd.com/travel/travelnews/200705100007.htm}}</ref>

Since 2007, [[non-profit organization]] [[Global Heritage Fund]] (GHF) has been working with the Pingyao County Government to protect the city against various problems such as mass tourism and uncontrolled development. GHF's stated goal for the project is to better preserve the cultural heritage of Pingyao ancient city in more comprehensive and systematic approaches as part of an integrated planning, conservation and development program. The Pingyao Cultural Heritage Development Program aims to preserve the [[vernacular architecture]], revitalize and stimulate the traditional arts and establish special historic areas.<ref>[http://globalheritagefund.org/index.php/what_we_do/overview/current_projects/pingyao_china/ Pingyao - Overview] at [[Global Heritage Fund]]</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:PingYaoCity.jpg|Market Tower, 14th century.
File:Hall of Great Acomplishement in the Confucious Temple of Pingyao.JPG|Pingyao's Confucius Temple.
File:Pingyao-shuanglin-si-c01.jpg|A statue inside the Shuanglin Temple in Pingyao.
Image:Pingyao-calles-c02-f.jpg|The street of Pingyao.
File:Jingyi House.JPG|Inside a courtyard house of pingyao.
Image:PingYaoCityWall.jpg|Pingyao's city walls.
File:Pingyao-oldtown.jpg|A Pingyao street.
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
;Attribution
*This article incorporates material translated from the articles [[:zh:平遥|平遥]] and [[:zh:平遥城墙|平遥城墙]] from the Chinese Wikipedia. See [http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E5%B9%B3%E9%81%A5%E5%8E%BF&action=history History] Retrieved 10 May 2005.

==External links==
{{Portal|China}}
{{Commons|Pingyao}}
* [http://www.pingyao.gov.cn/ Official website of Pingyao County Government] {{zh icon}}
* [http://globalheritagefund.org/what_we_do/overview/current_projects/pingyao_china/ Pingyao preservation project summary] at [[Global Heritage Fund]]
* [http://ghn.globalheritagefund.org/?id=9 Explore Pingyao with Google Earth] on [[Global Heritage Network]]
* [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=812 UN World Heritage - Pingyao]

{{World Heritage Sites in China}}
{{County-level divisions of Shanxi}}

[[Category:Ancient cities]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:Cities in Shanxi]]
[[Category:County-level divisions of Shanxi]]
[[Category:Jinzhong]]

[[cs:Pching-jao]]
[[da:Pingyao]]
[[de:Pingyao]]
[[es:Pingyao]]
[[eo:Pingyao]]
[[eu:Pingyao konderria]]
[[fa:پینگ یائو]]
[[fr:Xian de Pingyao]]
[[ko:핑야오 현]]
[[hr:Pingyao]]
[[id:Pingyao]]
[[it:Ping Yao]]
[[he:פינגיאו]]
[[ka:პინიაო]]
[[nl:Pingyao]]
[[ja:平遥県]]
[[no:Pingyao]]
[[pl:Pingyao]]
[[ru:Пинъяо]]
[[sq:Pingyao]]
[[sh:Pingyao]]
[[fi:Pingyao]]
[[sv:Pingyao]]
[[th:ผิงเหยา]]
[[vi:Bình Dao]]
[[zh:平遥县]]

Enstatite

2013-01-12T06:59:54Z

Avihu: Fix he:

{{for|E-type chondrites|Enstatite chondrite}}
{{Infobox mineral
| name = Enstatite
| category = [[Silicate mineral]]
| boxwidth =
| boxbgcolor =
| image =Enstatite-USGS-BYU492.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption =
| formula = MgSiO3
| strunz = 9.DA.05
| symmetry = Orthorhombic dipyramidal [[H-M symbol]]: (2/m 2/m 2/m) [[Space group]]: P bca
| unit cell = a = 18.23 Å, b = 8.84 Å, c = 5.19 Å; Z = 8
| color = White, grey, green, yellow or brown - colorless in thin section.
| habit = Prismatic crystals, commonly lamellar, fibrous, or massive
| system = [[Orthorhombic]]
| twinning = Simple and lamellar on [100]
| cleavage = Good/distinct on [210]
| fracture = Uneven
| tenacity = Brittle
| mohs = 5 to 6
| luster = Vitreous, pearly on cleavage
| refractive = nα = 1.650–1.668; nβ = 1.652–1.673; nγ = 1.659–1.679
| opticalprop = Biaxial (+)
| 2V = 55–90°
| birefringence = δ = 0.009–0.011
| pleochroism = Pale green to pale orange
| streak = White
| gravity = 3.2–3.3
| density =
| melt =
| fusibility =
| diagnostic =
| solubility =
| diaphaneity = Translucent to opaque
| other =
| references = <ref name=HBM>[http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/doclib/hom/enstatite.pdf Handbook of Mineralogy]</ref><ref name=Mindat>[http://www.mindat.org/min-1384.html Mindat]</ref><ref name=Webmin>[http://www.webmineral.com/data/Enstatite.shtml Webmineral data]</ref>
}}

'''Enstatite''' is the magnesium endmember of the [[pyroxene]] [[silicate mineral]] series enstatite (MgSiO3) - ferrosilite (FeSiO3). The magnesium rich members of the [[solid solution]] series are common rock-forming [[mineral]]s found in [[igneous]] and [[metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] rocks. The intermediate composition, (Mg,Fe)SiO3, has historically been known as [[hypersthene]], although this name has been formally abandoned and replaced by orthopyroxene. When determined [[Petrography|petrographically]] or chemically the composition is given as relative proportions of enstatite (En) and ferrosilite (Fs) (e.g., En80Fs20).

==Polymorphs and varieties==
[[File:Enstatite-83152.jpg|thumb|left|Gem quality enstatite from Myanmar (size: 2.4×1.0×0.8 cm)]]
Most natural [[crystal]]s are [[orthorhombic]] ([[space group]] P''bca'') although three [[polymorphism (materials science)|polymorphs]] are known. The high temperature, low pressure polymorphs are protoenstatite and protoferrosilite (also orthorhombic, space group P''bcn'') while the low temperature forms, clinoenstatite and clinoferrosilite, are [[monoclinic]] (space group P2''1/c'').

[[Weathering|Weathered]] enstatite with a small amount of iron takes on a submetallic [[Lustre (mineralogy)|luster]] and a bronze-like color. This material is termed [[bronzite]], although it is more correctly called altered enstatite.

Bronzite and hypersthene were known long before enstatite, which was first described by [[Gustav Adolph Kenngott|G. A. Kenngott]] in 1855.
[[File:Enstatite-pas-146b.jpg|thumb|Bronzite variety from [[Bare Hills]], [[Baltimore County, Maryland]], USA (size: 9.6×7.5×4.9 cm)]]
An emerald-green variety of enstatite is called chrome-enstatite and is cut as a [[gemstone]]. The green color is caused by traces of [[chromium]], hence the varietal name. In addition, bronzite is also sometimes used as a gemstone.

==Identification==
Enstatite and the other orthorhombic pyroxenes are distinguished from those of the monoclinic series by their optical characteristics, such as straight extinction, much weaker [[double refraction]] and stronger [[pleochroism]]. They also have a prismatic [[cleavage (crystal)|cleavage]] that is perfect in two directions at 90 degrees. Enstatite is white, gray, greenish, or brown in color; its [[hardness]] is 5–6 on the [[Mohs scale]], and its [[specific gravity]] is 3.2–3.3.

==Occurrence==
Isolated crystals are rare, but orthopyroxene is an essential constituent of various types of [[igneous rock]]s and [[metamorphic rock]]s. Magnesian orthopyroxene occurs in [[Intrusion (geology)|plutonic]] rocks such as [[gabbro]] (norite) and [[diorite]]. It may form small idiomorphic phenocrysts and also groundmass grains in volcanic rocks such as [[basalt]], [[andesite]], and [[dacite]].

Enstatite, close to En90Fs10 in composition, is an essential mineral in typical [[peridotite]] and [[pyroxenite]] of the [[Earth's mantle]]. [[Xenolith]]s of peridotite are common in [[kimberlite]] and in some [[basalt]]. Measurements of the [[calcium]], [[aluminum]], and [[chromium]] contents of enstatite in these xenoliths have been crucial in reconstructing the depths from which the xenoliths were plucked by the ascending magmas.

Orthopyroxene is an important constituent of some metamorphic rocks such as [[granulite]]. Orthopyroxene near pure enstatite in composition occurs in some metamorphosed [[serpentine group|serpentine]]s. Large crystals, a foot in length and mostly altered to [[steatite]], were found in 1874 in the [[apatite]] veins traversing [[mica]]-[[schist]] and [[hornblende]]-schist at the apatite mine of Kjörrestad, near Brevig in southern [[Norway]].

Enstatite is a common mineral in meteorites. [[Crystal]]s have been found in stony and iron [[meteorite]]s, including one that fell at [[Potůčky|Breitenbach]] in the [[Ore Mountains]], [[Bohemia]]. In some meteorites, together with [[olivine]] it forms the bulk of the material; it can occur in small spherical masses, or [[chondrule]]s, with an internal radiated structure.

==Enstatite in Space==
Enstatite is one of the few silicate minerals that have been observed in crystalline form outside our Solar System, particularly around evolved stars and [[Planetary Nebulae]] such as [[NGC 6302]]. Enstatite is thought to be one of the early stages for the formation of crystalline silicates in space and many correlations have been noted between the occurrence of the mineral and the structure of the object around which it has been observed.{{fact|date=September 2008}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
*Deer, W. A., Howie, R. A., and Zussman, J. (1992). ''[[An introduction to the rock-forming minerals]] (2nd ed.)''. Harlow: Longman ISBN 0-582-30094-0

;Attribution
*{{1911|wstitle=Enstatite}}

{{Commons category}}

[[Category:Inosilicates]]
[[Category:Magnesium minerals]]
[[Category:Iron minerals]]
[[Category:Pyroxene group]]
[[Category:Orthorhombic minerals]]

[[ar:إنستاتايت]]
[[be:Энстатыт]]
[[ca:Enstatita]]
[[cs:Enstatit]]
[[de:Enstatit]]
[[es:Enstatita]]
[[eu:Enstatita]]
[[fa:انستاتیت]]
[[fr:Enstatite]]
[[hr:Enstatit]]
[[it:Enstatite]]
[[he:אנסטטיט]]
[[ka:ენსტატიტი]]
[[kk:Энстатит]]
[[hu:Ensztatit]]
[[nl:Enstatiet]]
[[ja:頑火輝石]]
[[pl:Enstatyt]]
[[ru:Энстатит]]
[[sr:Енстатит]]
[[sh:Enstatit]]
[[fi:Enstatiitti]]
[[uk:Енстатит]]

Zhenguo Temple

2013-01-11T13:22:28Z

Avihu: /* Wanfo Hall */ fix an error

{{Infobox religious building
| building_name = Zhenguo Temple
| image = Zhenguo Temple1.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| alt = The Wanfo Hall of Zhenguo Temple. The tiled roof is decorated with small, ornate dragons. There is one door opening to a bricked courtyard
| caption = The Wanfo Hall of Zhenguo Temple
| map_type =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| location = [[Pingyao]]
| geo =
| latitude =
| longitude =
| religious_affiliation = [[Buddhist]]
| province = [[Shanxi]]
| year_completed = 963 [[Northern Han Dynasty]]
| length =
| width =
| height_max =
}}
'''Zhenguo Temple''' ({{zh|s={{linktext|镇|国|寺}}|t={{linktext|镇|國|寺}}|p={{linktext|Zhèn| Gúo| Sì}}}}) is a [[Buddhist]] temple located 10 km from [[Pingyao]] in the village of Hadongcun, in [[Shanxi Province]], [[China]]. The temple's oldest hall, the Wanfo Hall, was built in 963 during the [[Northern Han]] dynasty, and is notable for featuring very large [[Dougong|brackets]] that hold up the roof and flying eaves. The sculptures inside the hall are among the only examples of 10th century Buddhist sculpture in China.

==History==
The history of the temple begins in 963, when it was recorded that Wanfo Hall (万佛殿) was built. The date is written on a beam in the hall, and is also the date given by a local history of [[Pingyao]] county written in the 19th century. A [[stela]] written in 1819 also confirms this date.<ref>Steinhardt (1997), 77.</ref> Wanfo Hall is the oldest building at Zhenguo temple, and is the only surviving building that dates from the short-lived [[Northern Han]] dynasty.<ref>Steinhardt (2002), 117.</ref> Although little is known of the temple's history, stelae record that it was renovated in 1540 and in 1816.<ref>Zhao (2007), 94.</ref> In 1997, along with Pingyao city and [[Shuanglin Temple]], the Zhenguo temple was inscribed on the [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage]] list as ‘Ancient City of Pingyao’.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web
|year=1996
|month=
|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/812.pdf
|title=Pingyao Ancient City Evaluation
|publisher=UNESCO
|accessdate=2009-10-13 }}
</ref>

==Layout==
The temple contains two main halls and a gate, with two courtyards in between the three buildings. There is a wall surrounding the entire complex. The temple opens to the south, with the Tianwang Hall (天王殿) acting as the temple’s gate.<ref name=s78>Steinhardt (1997), 78.</ref> The next hall, to the north, is the Wanfo Hall, and the final hall is called Sanfo Hall (三佛殿), which dates from the [[Qing Dynasty]]. The northern courtyard also features two minor halls facing to the east and west called the [[Guanyin]] (观音殿) and Dizang Halls (地藏殿), which both date from the [[Ming Dynasty]].<ref>Miller (2000), 83.</ref> There are also two bell towers located on either side of the Tianwang Hall.<ref name=s78/>

===Wanfo Hall===
[[File:Zhenguo Temple 2.jpg|alt=Shown inside the high-ceilinged hall is a large, gold-colored statue seated cross-legged on an ornately decorated throne, flanked by two figures in richly coloured robes.|thumb|200px|Statues inside the Wanfo Hall]]
The most important hall in the temple is Wanfo Hall (Hall of 10,000 Buddhas), one of China's oldest wooden buildings. It is a three-bay single-eaves [[Hip roof|hip]] and [[gable]]d hall that is nearly square in shape, measures 11.6 by 10.8 meters, and is 8.8 m high.<ref>Miller (2000), 83-84.</ref> Despite the building's small size, and features that would identify it as a regular hall (such as [[Column|pillars]] that have been implanted directly into the floor instead of on a stone [[pedestal]]), the structure is quite complex. There are doors at the front and back of the hall. In addition, the front of the hall has two windows on either side of the door. There are twelve pillars supporting the structure.<ref name=s78/> The corner and column-top [[Bracket (architecture)|brackets]] holding up the roof are of the 7th degree, one of the most complex and large types according to [[Yingzao Fashi]]. These bracket sets are nearly 2.5 meters high – 70% the height of the [[column]]s. Inter-columnar brackets that occur between every two pillars are of the 5th degree. The hall has no ceiling, and the upper and lower set of rafters are exposed.<ref>Steinhardt (1997), 79.</ref> Nancy Steinhardt speculates that the complex brackets on what would have been a humble structure were an attempt by the Northern Han rulers to build a magnificent structure with limited resources.<ref>Steinhardt (1997), 80.</ref>

The hall contains eleven sculptures from the Northern Han period. These are the only Chinese sculptures from the period that survive from outside the [[Mogao Grottoes]].<ref>Steinhardt (1997), 77.</ref> There is a main statue of [[Sakyamuni]] flanked by [[Bodhisattvas]] and the Heavenly Kings.<ref name="Howard 376">Howard (2006), 375.</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Howard, Angela Falco, et al. ''Chinese Sculpture''. New Haven: [[Yale University Press]], 2006. ISBN 0-300-10065-5
* Miller, Tracy. "Constructing Religion: Song Dynasty Architecture and the Jinci Temple Complex." Diss. University of Pennsylvania, 2000.
* Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. ''Liao Architecture''. Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1997. ISBN 0-8248-1843-1
* Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman ed. ''Chinese Architecture''. New Haven: Yale University, 2002. ISBN 978-0-300-09559-3
* Zhao Yu, {{zh icon}} ed. ''Shanxi''. Beijing: Chinese Travel Press, 2007. ISBN 978-7-5032-3001-1
{{Buddhist temples in China}}

{{coord|37|17|06|N|112|16|44|E|source:kolossus-plwiki|display=title}}

[[Category:World Heritage Sites in China]]
[[Category:Buddhist temples in Shanxi]]

{{good article}}

[[es:Templo de Zhenguo]]
[[pl:Świątynia Zhenguo]]
[[zh:镇国寺]]

Talk:Pingyao

2013-01-11T09:10:34Z

Avihu: /* Extensions */ new section

{{Talk header}}
{{WikiProjectBannerShell|1=
{{WikiProject World Heritage Sites|class=Start|importance=Mid}}
{{WPCHINA|class=Start|importance=Mid|cities=yes}}
}}

== Picture of the old town ==

Hello,

I suggest [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Pingyao-oldtown.jpg this] higher-resolution picture of the ancient city to put in the upper right box. It shows more detail of the Bell Tower, more "street life" and its colors are more vivid. (I took it myself in August 2005.)

Which picture do you prefer?

[[User:Benzh|Benzh]] ([[User talk:Benzh|talk]]) 14:13, 28 January 2008 (UTC)
:I liked your picture so I changed it. [[User:Mutt|Mutt]] ([[User talk:Mutt|talk]]) 06:29, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

== Extensions ==

There is no mention in [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/812/documents/ UNESCO site] to extensions in 2000 or 2001 as the template in the article specify. [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 09:10, 11 January 2013 (UTC)

Talk:Zhenguo Temple

2013-01-11T08:07:55Z

Avihu: /* Coordinates */ new section

{{ArticleHistory
| action1 = GAN
| action1date = 03:24, 9 November 2009 (UTC)
| action1link = Talk:Zhenguo Temple/GA1
| action1result = listed
| action1oldid = 324773516

| currentstatus = GA
| dykdate = 20 October 2009
| dyklink = Wikipedia:Recent additions 249#20 October 2009
| topic = arts
}}
{{WikiProjectBannerShell|1=
{{WikiProject Architecture|class=GA|importance=mid}}
{{WikiProject Buddhism|class=GA|importance=high}}
{{WikiProject World Heritage Sites|class=GA|importance=top}}
{{WikiProject China|class=GA|importance=high|history=yes}}
}}

== Coordinates ==

The coordinates given in the article points to an empty field. Is the real coordinates 37.285618,112.270998? [[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 08:07, 11 January 2013 (UTC)

George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney

2013-01-05T20:17:35Z

Avihu: +he:

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2011}}
:''George Macartney should not be confused with [[George Macartney (British consul)|Sir George Macartney]], a later British statesman.''
{{Infobox Officeholder
| honorific-prefix = [[The Right Honourable]]
|name=The Earl Macartney
| honorific-suffix = [[Order of the Bath|KB]]
|image=George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney by Lemuel Francis Abbott.jpg
|caption=Portrait of Lord Macartney by [[Lemuel Francis Abbott]].
|birth_date={{birth date|1737|5|14|df=y}}
|birth_place= [[Lissanoure]], [[Loughguile]], [[Ballymoney]], [[County Antrim]] [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]]
|death_date={{death date and age|1806|5|31|1737|5|14|df=y}}
|death_place= [[Chiswick]], [[Middlesex]], England, United Kingdom
|alma_mater=[[Trinity College, Dublin]]
|influences=[[Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland]]
|office=[[List of colonial heads of Grenada|Governor of Grenada]]
|term=1776–1779
|monarch=[[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]]
|predecessor=[[Sir William Young, 1st Baronet|William Young]]
|successor=Jean-François, comte de Durat
|office1=[[Governor of Madras]]
|monarch1=[[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]]
|term_start1=22 June 1781
|term_end1=14 June 1785
|predecessor1=Sir Thomas Rumbold
|successor1=Sir [[Archibald Campbell (British Army officer)|Archibald Campbell]]
|office2=[[Cape Colony|Governor of Cape Colony]]
|term2=1797–1798
|monarch2=[[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]]
|predecessor2=Abraham Josias Sluysken
|successor2=[[Francis Dundas]]
}}
'''George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney''', [[Order of the Bath|KB]] (14 May 1737 – 31 May 1806) was an [[Kingdom of Ireland|Irish]]-born [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[wikt:statesman|statesman]], [[colonial administrator]] and [[diplomat]]. He is often remembered for his observation following [[Great Britain in the Seven Years War|Britain's success in the Seven Years War]] and subsequent territorial expansion at the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] that Britain now controlled "[[Empire on which the sun never sets|a vast Empire, on which the sun never sets]]".

==Early years==
George Macartney was an Irishman descended from an old [[Scotland|Scottish]] family, the Macartneys of [[Auchinleck]], who had settled in 1649 at Lissanoure, in [[Loughguile]], [[Ballymoney]], [[County Antrim]], Ireland, where he was born. After graduating from [[Trinity College, Dublin]], in 1759, he became a student of the [[Inns of Court|Temple, London]]. Through [[Stephen Fox, 2nd Baron Holland|Stephen Fox]], elder brother of [[Charles James Fox]], he was taken up by [[Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland|Lord Holland]].

Appointed envoy extraordinary to [[Russia]] in 1764, he succeeded in negotiating with [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]] an alliance between Great Britain and that country. He was returned in 1768 to the [[Irish House of Commons]] as Member of Parliament for [[Armagh Borough (Parliament of Ireland constituency)|Armagh Borough]], in order to discharge the duties of [[Chief Secretary for Ireland]]. On resigning this office he was [[knight]]ed.

In 1775 he became governor of the [[British West Indies]] was created '''Baron Macartney''' in the [[Peerage of Ireland]] in 1776. He was elected to a seat in the British parliament ([[Bere Alston (UK Parliament constituency)|Bere Alston]]) from 1780 to 1781.

== Governor of Madras ==
Mccartney was the [[Governors of Madras|Governor of Madras]] (now known as [[Chennai]]) from 1781 to 1785. During his's tenure as governor, renovation and strengthening of the walls of [[Fort St. George]] was commenced after the siege of [[Thomas Arthur, comte de Lally|Lally]] and completed in 1783. It was also during this time that most of the buildings and barracks in the western portion of the Fort were erected. The Palace Street, the Arsenal, the Hanover square and the Western Barracks were constructed during this time. The streets in the eastern side of the Fort were also altered.

It was also during this time that idea of a police force for Madras was thought of. Popham, the brainchild of the steer which would bear his name (Popham's Broadway) submitted a plan for the establishment of a regular police force for Madras and for the building of direct and cross drains in every street. He also advocated measures for the naming and lighting of streets, for the regular registration of births and deaths and for the licensing of liquor, arrack and toddy shops. A Board of Police assisted by a Kotwal was subsequently formed. The Kotwal was to be the officer of the markets under the Superintendent of Police.<ref>[http://www.chennaicorporation.com/aboutcoc/che_history13.htm Reforms of George MaCartney from 'Corporation of Chennai' website]</ref>

He negotiated the [[Treaty of Mangalore]] which brought an end to the [[Second Anglo-Mysore War]] in 1784.<ref>Turnbull p.180</ref>

Mccartney declined the governor-generalship of India (then the British territories administered by the [[British East India Company]]) and returned to Britain in 1786.

==Embassy to China==
[[File:LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg|thumb|Lord Marcartney saluting the [[Qianlong]] Emperor, 1793.]]
After being created '''Earl Macartney''' in the Irish peerage (1792), he was appointed the first envoy of Britain to China (his visit followed more than a hundred years after the first visit to England by a Chinese man, [[Michael Shen Fu-Tsung]] in 1685). He led the [[Macartney Embassy]] to Beijing in 1792 with a large British delegation on board a 64-gun man-of-war, [[HMS Lion (1777)|HMS ''Lion'']]. The embassy was ultimately not successful. This was not due to Macartney's refusal to [[kowtow]] in the presence of the [[Qianlong Emperor]], as is commonly believed. It was also not a result of the Chinese reliance on tradition in dictating foreign policy but rather a result of competing world views which were uncomprehending and incompatible. After the conclusion of the embassy, Qianlong sent a letter to [[King George III]], explaining in greater depth the reasons for his refusal to grant the requests of the embassy.<ref>[http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/2c/texts/1792QianlongLetterGeorgeIII.htm Ch'ien Lung, (Qianlong) Letter to George III]</ref>

The Macartney Embassy is historically significant because it marked a missed opportunity by the Chinese to move toward some kind of accommodation with the West. This failure would continue to plague the [[Qing Dynasty]] as it encountered increasing foreign pressures and internal unrest during the 19th century.

The policies of the [[Thirteen Factories]] remained. The embassy returned to Britain in 1794 without obtaining any concession from China. However, the mission could be construed as a success because it brought back detailed observations. Sir [[George Leonard Staunton|George Staunton]] was charged with producing the official account of the expedition after their return. This multi-volume work was taken chiefly from the papers of Lord Maccauley and from the papers of Sir [[Erasmus Gower]], who was Commander of the expedition. Sir [[Joseph Banks]], the [[President of the Royal Society|President]] of the [[Royal Society]], was responsible for selecting and arranging engraving of the illustrations in this official record.<ref>Banks, Joseph. State Library of New South Wales, Papers of Sir Joseph Banks; Section 12: Lord Macartney’s embassy to China; [http://www2.sl.nsw.gov.au/banks/series_62/62_view.cfm Series 62: Papers concerning publication of the account of Lord Macartney's Embassy to China, ca 1797.]</ref>

===Selected quotes===
[[File:George Earl Macartney.jpg|thumb|200px|Lord Macartney]]
Mccartney's journal from the embassy to China included observations and opinions which have become famously associated with the British diplomat<ref>Zhang, Xiantao. (2007). {{Google books||''The origins of the modern Chinese press: the Influence of the Protestant Missionary Press in late Qing China,'' p. 33|page=33}}, excerpt, "In 1793, Lord Macartney, after failing in his diplomatic mission to make China extend trade with Britain, famously remarked that the empire of China was 'an old, crazy, first-rate Man of War', which had intimidated its neighbours 'merely by her bulk and appearance' ...."</ref>
*{{cquote|The Empire of China is an old, crazy, first-rate Man of War, which a fortunate succession of and vigilant officers have contrived to keep afloat for these hundred and fifty years past, and to overawe their neighbours merely by her bulk and appearance. But whenever an insufficient man happens to have the command on deck, adieu to the discipline and safety of the ship. She may, perhaps, not sink outright; she may drift some time as a wreck, and will then be dashed to pieces on the shore; but she can never be rebuilt on the old bottom.<ref>Perdue, Peter. (2005). {{Google books|4Zm_Bj6zc7EC|''China Marches West: the Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia,'' p. 505|page=505}}; Robbins, Helen Henrietta Macartney (1908). {{Google books|QmgtAAAAYAAJ|''Our First Ambassador to China: An Account of the Life of George, Earl of Macartney with Extracts from His Letters, and the Narrative of His Experiences in China, as Told by Himself, 1737–1806, from Hitherto Unpublished Correspondence and Documents,'' p. 386.|page=386}}</ref>}}

*{{cquote|The breaking-up of the power of China (no very improbable event) would occasion a complete subversion of the commerce, not only of Asia, but a very sensible change in the other quarters of the world. The industry and the ingenuity of the Chinese would be checked and enfeebled, but they would not be annihilated. Her ports would no longer be barricaded; they would be attempted by all the adventures of all trading nations, who would search every channel, creek, and cranny of China for a market, and for some time be the cause of much rivalry and disorder. Nevertheless, as Great Britain, from the weight of her riches and the genius and spirits of her people, is become the first political, marine, and commercial Power on the globe, it is reasonable to think that she would prove the greatest gainer by such a revolution as I have alluded to, and rise superior over every competitor.<ref>Robbins, {{Google books|QmgtAAAAYAAJ| p. 386.|page=386}}</ref>}}

==Later life==
On his return from a confidential mission to Italy in 1795, he was raised to the British peerage as Baron Macartney, and in the end of 1796 was appointed governor of the newly acquired territory of the [[Cape Colony]], where he remained until ill health compelled him to resign in November 1798. He died at [[Chiswick]], [[Middlesex]], on 31 May 1806, the title becoming extinct, and his property, after the death of his widow (Lady Jane Stuart, daughter of the [[John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute|3rd Earl of Bute]]; they were married in 1768), going to his niece, whose son took the name.

==See also==
{{wikiquote|George Macartney}}
* [[William Pitt Amherst, 1st Earl Amherst]]
* [[Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest]]

==Notes==
[[File:Le songe du lord Macartney gouverneur de l ile de la Grenade prise par d Estaing 1779.jpg|thumb|right|Allegorical engraving of George Macartney after his capture at the battle of Grenada (1779).]]
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* [[John Barrow (English statesman)|Barrow]], John. (1807). [http://books.google.com/books?id=hc00JEmKC10C&dq=An+account+of+Macartney's+embassy+to+China&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 ''Some Account of the Public Life, and a Selection from the Unpublished Writings, of the Earl of Macartney,''] 2 vols. London: T. Cadell and W. Davies.
* Cranmer-Byng, J. L. "Lord Macartney’s Embassy to Peking in 1793." ''Journal of Oriental Studies.'' Vol. 4, Nos. 1,2 (1957–58): 117–187.
* Esherick, Joseph W. "Cherishing Sources from Afar." ''Modern China'' Vol. 24, No. 2 (1998): 135–61.
* Jacques, Martin. (2009). ''When China Rules the World: the End of the Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order.'' New York: Penguin Press. 13-ISBN 9781594201851/10-ISBN 1594201854; [http://www.worldcat.org/title/when-china-rules-the-world-the-end-of-the-western-world-and-the-birth-of-a-new-global-order/oclc/423217571 OCLC 423217571]
* Hevia, James Louis. (1995). [http://books.google.com/books?id=Uj6d9_4F0EIC&dq=An+account+of+Macartney's+embassy+to+China&lr=&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 ''Cherishing Men from Afar: Qing Guest Ritual and the Macartney Embassy of 1793.''] Durham: [[Duke University Press]]. 10-ISBN 0-8223-1637-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8223-1637-4
* Hibbert, Christopher. "The Dragon Wakes. China and the West, 1793–1911"
* Peyrefitte, Alain. (1992). [http://books.google.com/books?id=xTF2AAAACAAJ&dq=The+Immobile+Empire&lr=&client=firefox-a ''The Immobile Empire''] (Jon Rotschild, translator). New York: [[Alfred A. Knopf]]/[[Random House]]. 10-ISBN 0-394-58654-9; 13-ISBN 978-0-394-58654-0
** Peyrefitte, Allain. (1990). ''Images de l'Empire immobile ou le choc des mondes. Récit historique.'' Paris: [[Fayard]]. 10-ISBN 02213023832 {{Please check ISBN|reason=Invalid length.}}; 13-ISBN 978-2-213-02383-0 (paper)
* Robbins, Helen Henrietta Macartney (1908). [http://ebook.lib.hku.hk/CTWE/B36599578/ ''Our First Ambassador to China: An Account of the Life of George, Earl of Macartney with Extracts from His Letters, and the Narrative of His Experiences in China, as Told by Himself, 1737–1806, from Hitherto Unpublished Correspondence and Documents.''] London : John Murray. Digitized by [[University of Hong Kong]] [[University of Hong Kong#Libraries|Libraries]], [http://lib.hku.hk/database/ Digital Initiatives,] [http://xml.lib.hku.hk/gsdl/db/ctwe/search.shtml "China Through Western Eyes."]
* Rockhill, William Woodville. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1833980 "Diplomatic Missions to the Court of China: The Kotow Question I,"] ''The American Historical Review,'' Vol. 2, No. 3 (Apr. 1897), pp. 427–442.
* Rockhill, William Woodville. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1833980 "Diplomatic Missions to the Court of China: The Kotow Question II,"] ''The American Historical Review,'' Vol. 2, No. 4 (Jul. 1897), pp. 627–643.
* [[George Leonard Staunton|Staunton]], George Leonard. (1797). [http://books.google.com/books?id=8qdIAAAAMAAJ&dq=An+account+of+Macartney's+embassy+to+China&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 ''An Authentic Account of and Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China,''] 3 vols. London: G. Nichol.
* Turnbull, Patrick. ''Warren Hastings''. New English Library, 1975.

*{{1911}}

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{{Persondata 
| NAME = Macartney, George Macartney, 1st Earl
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Irish politician
| DATE OF BIRTH = 14 May 1737
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Lissanoure]], [[Loughguile]], [[Ballymoney]], [[County Antrim]], Ireland, United Kingdom
| DATE OF DEATH = 31 May 1806
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Chiswick]], [[Middlesex]], England, United Kingdom
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Macartney, George Macartney, 1st Earl}}
[[Category:1737 births]]
[[Category:1806 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century Irish people]]
[[Category:19th-century Irish people]]
[[Category:Ambassadors to China]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of Great Britain to Russia]]
[[Category:Governors of the Cape Colony]]
[[Category:Diplomatic peers]]
[[Category:Duellists]]
[[Category:Governors of Madras]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of Ireland]]
[[Category:Knights Companion of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Members of the Parliament of Ireland (pre-1801)]]
[[Category:People associated with the British East India Company]]
[[Category:People associated with Trinity College, Dublin]]
[[Category:People from County Antrim]]
[[Category:Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies]]
[[Category:Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for Scottish constituencies]]
[[Category:British MPs 1768–1774]]
[[Category:British MPs 1774–1780]]
[[Category:British MPs 1780–1784]]
[[Category:Irish MPs 1769–1776]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of Ireland]]

[[af:George Macartney]]
[[da:George Macartney]]
[[de:George Macartney, 1. Earl Macartney]]
[[fr:George Macartney]]
[[ko:제1대 매카트니 백작 조지 매카트니]]
[[it:George Macartney]]
[[he:ג'ורג' מקרטני]]
[[nl:George Macartney]]
[[ja:ジョージ・マカートニー]]
[[no:George Macartney]]
[[pl:George Macartney, 1. hrabia Macartney]]
[[ru:Макартни, Джордж]]
[[sv:George Macartney]]
[[zh:喬治·馬戛爾尼，第一代馬戛爾尼伯爵]]

George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney

2013-01-04T20:50:07Z

Avihu: /* Governor of Madras */ better link

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2011}}
:''George Macartney should not be confused with [[George Macartney (British consul)|Sir George Macartney]], a later British statesman.''
{{Infobox Officeholder
| honorific-prefix = [[The Right Honourable]]
|name=The Earl Macartney
| honorific-suffix = [[Order of the Bath|KB]]
|image=George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney by Lemuel Francis Abbott.jpg
|caption=Portrait of Lord Macartney by [[Lemuel Francis Abbott]].
|birth_date={{birth date|1737|5|14|df=y}}
|birth_place= [[Lissanoure]], [[Loughguile]], [[Ballymoney]], [[County Antrim]] [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]]
|death_date={{death date and age|1806|5|31|1737|5|14|df=y}}
|death_place= [[Chiswick]], [[Middlesex]], England, United Kingdom
|alma_mater=[[Trinity College, Dublin]]
|influences=[[Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland]]
|office=[[List of colonial heads of Grenada|Governor of Grenada]]
|term=1776–1779
|monarch=[[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]]
|predecessor=[[Sir William Young, 1st Baronet|William Young]]
|successor=Jean-François, comte de Durat
|office1=[[Governor of Madras]]
|monarch1=[[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]]
|term_start1=22 June 1781
|term_end1=14 June 1785
|predecessor1=Sir Thomas Rumbold
|successor1=Sir [[Archibald Campbell (British Army officer)|Archibald Campbell]]
|office2=[[Cape Colony|Governor of Cape Colony]]
|term2=1797–1798
|monarch2=[[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]]
|predecessor2=Abraham Josias Sluysken
|successor2=[[Francis Dundas]]
}}
'''George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney''', [[Order of the Bath|KB]] (14 May 1737 – 31 May 1806) was an [[Kingdom of Ireland|Irish]]-born [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[wikt:statesman|statesman]], [[colonial administrator]] and [[diplomat]]. He is often remembered for his observation following [[Great Britain in the Seven Years War|Britain's success in the Seven Years War]] and subsequent territorial expansion at the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] that Britain now controlled "[[Empire on which the sun never sets|a vast Empire, on which the sun never sets]]".

==Early years==
George Macartney was an Irishman descended from an old [[Scotland|Scottish]] family, the Macartneys of [[Auchinleck]], who had settled in 1649 at Lissanoure, in [[Loughguile]], [[Ballymoney]], [[County Antrim]], Ireland, where he was born. After graduating from [[Trinity College, Dublin]], in 1759, he became a student of the [[Inns of Court|Temple, London]]. Through [[Stephen Fox, 2nd Baron Holland|Stephen Fox]], elder brother of [[Charles James Fox]], he was taken up by [[Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland|Lord Holland]].

Appointed envoy extraordinary to [[Russia]] in 1764, he succeeded in negotiating with [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]] an alliance between Great Britain and that country. He was returned in 1768 to the [[Irish House of Commons]] as Member of Parliament for [[Armagh Borough (Parliament of Ireland constituency)|Armagh Borough]], in order to discharge the duties of [[Chief Secretary for Ireland]]. On resigning this office he was [[knight]]ed.

In 1775 he became governor of the [[British West Indies]] was created '''Baron Macartney''' in the [[Peerage of Ireland]] in 1776. He was elected to a seat in the British parliament ([[Bere Alston (UK Parliament constituency)|Bere Alston]]) from 1780 to 1781.

== Governor of Madras ==
Mccartney was the [[Governors of Madras|Governor of Madras]] (now known as [[Chennai]]) from 1781 to 1785. During his's tenure as governor, renovation and strengthening of the walls of [[Fort St. George]] was commenced after the siege of [[Thomas Arthur, comte de Lally|Lally]] and completed in 1783. It was also during this time that most of the buildings and barracks in the western portion of the Fort were erected. The Palace Street, the Arsenal, the Hanover square and the Western Barracks were constructed during this time. The streets in the eastern side of the Fort were also altered.

It was also during this time that idea of a police force for Madras was thought of. Popham, the brainchild of the steer which would bear his name (Popham's Broadway) submitted a plan for the establishment of a regular police force for Madras and for the building of direct and cross drains in every street. He also advocated measures for the naming and lighting of streets, for the regular registration of births and deaths and for the licensing of liquor, arrack and toddy shops. A Board of Police assisted by a Kotwal was subsequently formed. The Kotwal was to be the officer of the markets under the Superintendent of Police.<ref>[http://www.chennaicorporation.com/aboutcoc/che_history13.htm Reforms of George MaCartney from 'Corporation of Chennai' website]</ref>

He negotiated the [[Treaty of Mangalore]] which brought an end to the [[Second Anglo-Mysore War]] in 1784.<ref>Turnbull p.180</ref>

Mccartney declined the governor-generalship of India (then the British territories administered by the [[British East India Company]]) and returned to Britain in 1786.

==Embassy to China==
[[File:LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg|thumb|Lord Marcartney saluting the [[Qianlong]] Emperor, 1793.]]
After being created '''Earl Macartney''' in the Irish peerage (1792), he was appointed the first envoy of Britain to China (his visit followed more than a hundred years after the first visit to England by a Chinese man, [[Michael Shen Fu-Tsung]] in 1685). He led the [[Macartney Embassy]] to Beijing in 1792 with a large British delegation on board a 64-gun man-of-war, [[HMS Lion (1777)|HMS ''Lion'']]. The embassy was ultimately not successful. This was not due to Macartney's refusal to [[kowtow]] in the presence of the [[Qianlong Emperor]], as is commonly believed. It was also not a result of the Chinese reliance on tradition in dictating foreign policy but rather a result of competing world views which were uncomprehending and incompatible. After the conclusion of the embassy, Qianlong sent a letter to [[King George III]], explaining in greater depth the reasons for his refusal to grant the requests of the embassy.<ref>[http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/2c/texts/1792QianlongLetterGeorgeIII.htm Ch'ien Lung, (Qianlong) Letter to George III]</ref>

The Macartney Embassy is historically significant because it marked a missed opportunity by the Chinese to move toward some kind of accommodation with the West. This failure would continue to plague the [[Qing Dynasty]] as it encountered increasing foreign pressures and internal unrest during the 19th century.

The policies of the [[Thirteen Factories]] remained. The embassy returned to Britain in 1794 without obtaining any concession from China. However, the mission could be construed as a success because it brought back detailed observations. Sir [[George Leonard Staunton|George Staunton]] was charged with producing the official account of the expedition after their return. This multi-volume work was taken chiefly from the papers of Lord Maccauley and from the papers of Sir [[Erasmus Gower]], who was Commander of the expedition. Sir [[Joseph Banks]], the [[President of the Royal Society|President]] of the [[Royal Society]], was responsible for selecting and arranging engraving of the illustrations in this official record.<ref>Banks, Joseph. State Library of New South Wales, Papers of Sir Joseph Banks; Section 12: Lord Macartney’s embassy to China; [http://www2.sl.nsw.gov.au/banks/series_62/62_view.cfm Series 62: Papers concerning publication of the account of Lord Macartney's Embassy to China, ca 1797.]</ref>

===Selected quotes===
[[File:George Earl Macartney.jpg|thumb|200px|Lord Macartney]]
Mccartney's journal from the embassy to China included observations and opinions which have become famously associated with the British diplomat<ref>Zhang, Xiantao. (2007). {{Google books||''The origins of the modern Chinese press: the Influence of the Protestant Missionary Press in late Qing China,'' p. 33|page=33}}, excerpt, "In 1793, Lord Macartney, after failing in his diplomatic mission to make China extend trade with Britain, famously remarked that the empire of China was 'an old, crazy, first-rate Man of War', which had intimidated its neighbours 'merely by her bulk and appearance' ...."</ref>
*{{cquote|The Empire of China is an old, crazy, first-rate Man of War, which a fortunate succession of and vigilant officers have contrived to keep afloat for these hundred and fifty years past, and to overawe their neighbours merely by her bulk and appearance. But whenever an insufficient man happens to have the command on deck, adieu to the discipline and safety of the ship. She may, perhaps, not sink outright; she may drift some time as a wreck, and will then be dashed to pieces on the shore; but she can never be rebuilt on the old bottom.<ref>Perdue, Peter. (2005). {{Google books|4Zm_Bj6zc7EC|''China Marches West: the Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia,'' p. 505|page=505}}; Robbins, Helen Henrietta Macartney (1908). {{Google books|QmgtAAAAYAAJ|''Our First Ambassador to China: An Account of the Life of George, Earl of Macartney with Extracts from His Letters, and the Narrative of His Experiences in China, as Told by Himself, 1737–1806, from Hitherto Unpublished Correspondence and Documents,'' p. 386.|page=386}}</ref>}}

*{{cquote|The breaking-up of the power of China (no very improbable event) would occasion a complete subversion of the commerce, not only of Asia, but a very sensible change in the other quarters of the world. The industry and the ingenuity of the Chinese would be checked and enfeebled, but they would not be annihilated. Her ports would no longer be barricaded; they would be attempted by all the adventures of all trading nations, who would search every channel, creek, and cranny of China for a market, and for some time be the cause of much rivalry and disorder. Nevertheless, as Great Britain, from the weight of her riches and the genius and spirits of her people, is become the first political, marine, and commercial Power on the globe, it is reasonable to think that she would prove the greatest gainer by such a revolution as I have alluded to, and rise superior over every competitor.<ref>Robbins, {{Google books|QmgtAAAAYAAJ| p. 386.|page=386}}</ref>}}

==Later life==
On his return from a confidential mission to Italy in 1795, he was raised to the British peerage as Baron Macartney, and in the end of 1796 was appointed governor of the newly acquired territory of the [[Cape Colony]], where he remained until ill health compelled him to resign in November 1798. He died at [[Chiswick]], [[Middlesex]], on 31 May 1806, the title becoming extinct, and his property, after the death of his widow (Lady Jane Stuart, daughter of the [[John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute|3rd Earl of Bute]]; they were married in 1768), going to his niece, whose son took the name.

==See also==
{{wikiquote|George Macartney}}
* [[William Pitt Amherst, 1st Earl Amherst]]
* [[Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest]]

==Notes==
[[File:Le songe du lord Macartney gouverneur de l ile de la Grenade prise par d Estaing 1779.jpg|thumb|right|Allegorical engraving of George Macartney after his capture at the battle of Grenada (1779).]]
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* [[John Barrow (English statesman)|Barrow]], John. (1807). [http://books.google.com/books?id=hc00JEmKC10C&dq=An+account+of+Macartney's+embassy+to+China&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 ''Some Account of the Public Life, and a Selection from the Unpublished Writings, of the Earl of Macartney,''] 2 vols. London: T. Cadell and W. Davies.
* Cranmer-Byng, J. L. "Lord Macartney’s Embassy to Peking in 1793." ''Journal of Oriental Studies.'' Vol. 4, Nos. 1,2 (1957–58): 117–187.
* Esherick, Joseph W. "Cherishing Sources from Afar." ''Modern China'' Vol. 24, No. 2 (1998): 135–61.
* Jacques, Martin. (2009). ''When China Rules the World: the End of the Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order.'' New York: Penguin Press. 13-ISBN 9781594201851/10-ISBN 1594201854; [http://www.worldcat.org/title/when-china-rules-the-world-the-end-of-the-western-world-and-the-birth-of-a-new-global-order/oclc/423217571 OCLC 423217571]
* Hevia, James Louis. (1995). [http://books.google.com/books?id=Uj6d9_4F0EIC&dq=An+account+of+Macartney's+embassy+to+China&lr=&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 ''Cherishing Men from Afar: Qing Guest Ritual and the Macartney Embassy of 1793.''] Durham: [[Duke University Press]]. 10-ISBN 0-8223-1637-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8223-1637-4
* Hibbert, Christopher. "The Dragon Wakes. China and the West, 1793–1911"
* Peyrefitte, Alain. (1992). [http://books.google.com/books?id=xTF2AAAACAAJ&dq=The+Immobile+Empire&lr=&client=firefox-a ''The Immobile Empire''] (Jon Rotschild, translator). New York: [[Alfred A. Knopf]]/[[Random House]]. 10-ISBN 0-394-58654-9; 13-ISBN 978-0-394-58654-0
** Peyrefitte, Allain. (1990). ''Images de l'Empire immobile ou le choc des mondes. Récit historique.'' Paris: [[Fayard]]. 10-ISBN 02213023832 {{Please check ISBN|reason=Invalid length.}}; 13-ISBN 978-2-213-02383-0 (paper)
* Robbins, Helen Henrietta Macartney (1908). [http://ebook.lib.hku.hk/CTWE/B36599578/ ''Our First Ambassador to China: An Account of the Life of George, Earl of Macartney with Extracts from His Letters, and the Narrative of His Experiences in China, as Told by Himself, 1737–1806, from Hitherto Unpublished Correspondence and Documents.''] London : John Murray. Digitized by [[University of Hong Kong]] [[University of Hong Kong#Libraries|Libraries]], [http://lib.hku.hk/database/ Digital Initiatives,] [http://xml.lib.hku.hk/gsdl/db/ctwe/search.shtml "China Through Western Eyes."]
* Rockhill, William Woodville. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1833980 "Diplomatic Missions to the Court of China: The Kotow Question I,"] ''The American Historical Review,'' Vol. 2, No. 3 (Apr. 1897), pp. 427–442.
* Rockhill, William Woodville. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1833980 "Diplomatic Missions to the Court of China: The Kotow Question II,"] ''The American Historical Review,'' Vol. 2, No. 4 (Jul. 1897), pp. 627–643.
* [[George Leonard Staunton|Staunton]], George Leonard. (1797). [http://books.google.com/books?id=8qdIAAAAMAAJ&dq=An+account+of+Macartney's+embassy+to+China&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 ''An Authentic Account of and Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China,''] 3 vols. London: G. Nichol.
* Turnbull, Patrick. ''Warren Hastings''. New English Library, 1975.

*{{1911}}

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{{Persondata 
| NAME = Macartney, George Macartney, 1st Earl
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Irish politician
| DATE OF BIRTH = 14 May 1737
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Lissanoure]], [[Loughguile]], [[Ballymoney]], [[County Antrim]], Ireland, United Kingdom
| DATE OF DEATH = 31 May 1806
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Chiswick]], [[Middlesex]], England, United Kingdom
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Macartney, George Macartney, 1st Earl}}
[[Category:1737 births]]
[[Category:1806 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century Irish people]]
[[Category:19th-century Irish people]]
[[Category:Ambassadors to China]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of Great Britain to Russia]]
[[Category:Governors of the Cape Colony]]
[[Category:Diplomatic peers]]
[[Category:Duellists]]
[[Category:Governors of Madras]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of Ireland]]
[[Category:Knights Companion of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Members of the Parliament of Ireland (pre-1801)]]
[[Category:People associated with the British East India Company]]
[[Category:People associated with Trinity College, Dublin]]
[[Category:People from County Antrim]]
[[Category:Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies]]
[[Category:Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for Scottish constituencies]]
[[Category:British MPs 1768–1774]]
[[Category:British MPs 1774–1780]]
[[Category:British MPs 1780–1784]]
[[Category:Irish MPs 1769–1776]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of Ireland]]

[[af:George Macartney]]
[[da:George Macartney]]
[[de:George Macartney, 1. Earl Macartney]]
[[fr:George Macartney]]
[[ko:제1대 매카트니 백작 조지 매카트니]]
[[it:George Macartney]]
[[nl:George Macartney]]
[[ja:ジョージ・マカートニー]]
[[no:George Macartney]]
[[pl:George Macartney, 1. hrabia Macartney]]
[[ru:Макартни, Джордж]]
[[sv:George Macartney]]
[[zh:喬治·馬戛爾尼，第一代馬戛爾尼伯爵]]

Talk:George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney

2013-01-04T20:26:05Z

Avihu: /* "In 1775 he became governor of the British West Indies" */ new section

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==Membership of Parliaments==
The dates in the text for his membership of the British parliament, and its sequence with his membership of the Irish parliament, were inconsistent with the summary boxes. I have made them consistent, but have no source to check the accuracy of any of it; the reference on the text does not refer to his election. Also the dates we now have make him an MP at the same time as being governor of Madras; I don't suppose that's impossible, but it should be checked. [[User:Seglea|seglea]] ([[User talk:Seglea|talk]]) 20:09, 1 December 2009 (UTC)

==Selected quotes ==
The selected quotes identify the 1908 source:
* Robbins, Helen Henrietta Macartney (1908). [http://ebook.lib.hku.hk/CTWE/B36599578/ ''Our First Ambassador to China: An Account of the Life of George, Earl of Macartney with Extracts from His Letters, and the Narrative of His Experiences in China, as Told by Himself, 1737-1806, from Hitherto Unpublished Correspondence and Documents.''] London : John Murray. Digitized by [[University of Hong Kong]] [[University of Hong Kong#Libraries|Libraries]], [http://lib.hku.hk/database/ Digital Initiatives,] [http://xml.lib.hku.hk/gsdl/db/ctwe/search.shtml "China Through Western Eyes."]
However, the specific pages for each quote are not shown.The section appears to be the subject of serial disputes or a slow-motion edit war. Blocks of text are deleted (and then restored) with no more than a brief edit summary as explanation or no comment, e.g.,
* '''2008''': [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Macartney,_1st_Earl_Macartney&diff=247782688&oldid=247636043 diff] 15:15, 26 October 2008 [[User:Arilang1234|Arilang1234]] (talk | contribs) (15,637 bytes)
* '''2010''': [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Macartney,_1st_Earl_Macartney&diff=384605661&oldid=384581988 diff] 16:21, 13 September 2010 178.97.182.90 (talk) (15,928 bytes) (''→Extracts from Journal of Embassy to China'')
* '''2011''': [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Macartney,_1st_Earl_Macartney&diff=409141192&oldid=408778002 diff] 10:36, 21 January 2011 [[User:Arilang1234|Arilang1234]] (16,249 bytes) (''Remove possible copyvios'')

This strategic section-blanking tactic is inconsistent with [[WP:Five Pillars]].

Compare [[User:Arilang1234|Arilang1234]]'s edit at [[Macartney Embassy]]:
* '''2009''': [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macartney_Embassy&diff=315191913&oldid=314650351 diff] 23:17, 20 September 2009 [[User:Arilang1234|Arilang1234]] (17,192 bytes) (→See also)
This is an appropriate topic for talk page discussion. --[[User:Tenmei|Tenmei]] ([[User talk:Tenmei|talk]]) 14:18, 21 January 2011 (UTC)

*Just because you ''can'' copy freely doesn't mean you should... If you want it in, I suggest that it be rewritten in prose and woven in to the article. Having one quarter of the article as straight quotes from a PD text is just plain bone-idleness. Please refer to [[WP:QUOTEFARM]]. --[[User:Ohconfucius|Ohconfucius]] [[User talk:Ohconfucius|¡digame!]] 14:49, 21 January 2011 (UTC)

::[[User:Ohconfucius|Ohconfucius]] -- Not "bone-idelness", although the phrase does have allure and charm. Mccartney is a controversial figure, and these selected quotes have been deleted and restored and deleted without discussion more than once. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Quotations&action=history "quote farm"] overlay identifies a legitimate issue, yes; but in this specific case, it obscures and complicates the resolution of a somewhat different, long-standing problem which is evidenced in the edit history of this article. This line of reasoning illustrates a problem which is described more fully at [[WP:Escalating alphabeticals]]. In other words, the reflexive "quotefarm" reaction caused you to overlook an [[elephant in the room]]. Please reconsider; and see [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elephant_in_the_room&diff=326751820&oldid=326606945 here] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Ohconfucius/archive14&oldid=341093678#Elephant_in_the_room here]. --[[User:Tenmei|Tenmei]] ([[User talk:Tenmei|talk]]) 16:34, 21 January 2011 (UTC)

== "In 1775 he became governor of the British West Indies" ==

#Not true, he was just [http://www.newulsterbiography.co.uk/index.php/home/viewPerson/901 governor of Grenada, the Grenadines and Tobago in the West Indies]
#Why omit [[Capture of Grenada (1779)|the facts about how his job was ended]]?
#What about the fact that he was a [http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1754-1790/member/macartney-sir-george-1737-1806 French prisoner of war for a short period]
[[User:Avihu|Avihu]] ([[User talk:Avihu|talk]]) 20:26, 4 January 2013 (UTC)

Planctae

2013-01-04T09:09:26Z

Avihu: +he:

In [[Greek mythology]], the '''Planctae''' ({{lang-el|Πλαγκταὶ}}, ''Planktai'', "Wanderers") or '''Wandering Rocks''' were a group of rocks, between which the sea was mercilessly violent. The [[Argo]] (led by [[Jason]]) was the only ship to navigate them successfully (with divine help from [[Hera]], [[Thetis]], and the [[Nereids]]). Jason chose to brave the Planctae instead of braving [[Scylla]] and [[Charybdis]].

In the ''[[Odyssey]]'' of [[Homer]], the sorceress [[Circe]] tells [[Odysseus]] of the "Wandering Rocks" or "Roving Rocks" that have only been successfully passed by the ''[[Argo]]'' when ''homeward'' bound. These rocks smash ships and the remaining timbers are scattered by the sea or destroyed by flames. The rocks lie on one of two potential routes to [[Ithaca]]; the alternative, which is taken by Odysseus, leads to [[Scylla and Charybdis]]. Furthermore,
in the ''Odyssey'' of Homer, it was [[Hera]], for her love of [[Jason]], who sped the Argo through the Symplegades safely.<ref>Homer, "The Odyssey", XII, 78-80</ref>

The rocks also appear on the journey in the ''[[Argonautica]]'' by [[Apollonius of Rhodes]], who also locates them near Scylla and Charybdis, but beyond them rather than as an alternative route.<ref>Apollonius, The Argonautica, 4.782-788</ref> Apollonius distinguishes between two sets of dangerous rocks. Namely, the Symplegades and the Planctae. The Symplegades were encountered on the way to the [[Golden Fleece]] and the Planctae were encountered on the return voyage. Which god or goddess helped the Argonauts safely sail through the Clashing Rocks is unclear in the text. [[Athena]] helped in the former task, while [[Thetis]] and the [[Nereids]] helped in the latter one. However, the plans to help Jason pass these obstacles were ultimately orchestrated by Hera according to Apollonius, thus agreeing with Homer.<ref>Apollonius of Rhodes, "Jason and the Golden Fleece", Trans. Richard Hunter, Oxford University Press, Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, 1993, p. 158, note 117. Book II, 597-598 and Book IV, 859-958.</ref>

The similarities and differences between the Wandering Rocks and the [[Symplegades]] has been much debated by scholars, as have potential locations for them. (See also ''[[Geography of the Odyssey]]''.) As [[Scylla and Charybdis]] have often been located in the [[Straits of Messina]], this has led some (like [[E. V. Rieu]]) to suggest the Wandering Rocks were located around [[Sicily]], with their flames and smoke coming from [[Mount Etna]]. An alternative theory of the geography of the ''Odyssey'' places Circe, the [[Siren]]s, Scylla & Charybdis and the Wandering Rocks, all mentioned in the stories of both Jason and Odysseus, in [[Geography of the Odyssey#Around Greece|north west Greece]]. [[Tim Severin]] noted that the island of [[Sesola]] off the coast of [[Levkas]] looked very similar to the rocks from the Argo story, and also that the area is near a geological fault; he hypothesises that, due to both its similarity with the legends of the Symplegades and the stories of the ''Argo'' sailing home via the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] and [[Ionian Sea]]s, the original legend was copied to the area. Severin also supports his theory with locations for Scylla and Charybdis being located on the other side of Levkas, noting that the name "[[Cape Skilla]]" is still used for a nearby headland on the mainland.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Mythological islands]]
[[Category:Locations in Greek mythology]]

[[he:הסלעים הנודדים]]