https://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=BirczaninWikipedia - User contributions [en]2024-12-28T20:50:25ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.8https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Artillery_brigades&diff=633394359Category:Artillery brigades2014-11-11T15:58:14Z<p>Birczanin: iw</p>
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<div>[[Category:Artillery units and formations]]<br />
[[Category:Brigades by type]]<br />
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[[pl:Kategoria:Brygady artylerii]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Salyut_program&diff=527014723Category:Salyut program2012-12-08T12:49:24Z<p>Birczanin: iw</p>
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<div>{{Commons cat|Salyut}}<br />
[[Category:Space stations]]<br />
[[Category:Manned spacecraft]]<br />
[[Category:Manned space program of the Soviet Union]]<br />
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[[bg:Категория:Програма Салют]]<br />
[[cs:Kategorie:Program Saljut]]<br />
[[de:Kategorie:Saljut]]<br />
[[es:Categoría:Programa Salyut]]<br />
[[fa:رده:برنامه فضایی سالیوت]]<br />
[[fr:Catégorie:Programme Saliout]]<br />
[[it:Categoria:Programma Saljut]]<br />
[[he:קטגוריה:תוכנית סאליוט]]<br />
[[hu:Kategória:Szaljut-program]]<br />
[[nl:Categorie:Saljoetprogramma]]<br />
[[ja:Category:サリュート計画]]<br />
[[no:Kategori:Saljut-programmet]]<br />
[[nn:Kategori:Saljut-programmet]]<br />
[[pt:Categoria:Programa Salyut]]<br />
[[ru:Категория:Орбитальные станции серии «Салют»]]<br />
[[sk:Kategória:Program Saľut]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Програма «Салют»]]<br />
[[zh:Category:禮炮計畫]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Ghost_towns&diff=526010258Category:Ghost towns2012-12-02T13:06:08Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>Articles about '''[[ghost town]]s''': former communities that have been abandoned, usually because the economic activity which supported the town has failed, or because of economic decline, natural or human-caused disasters.<br />
{{Commons cat|Ghost towns}}<br />
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[[Category:Urban studies and planning]]<br />
[[Category:Urban decay]]<br />
[[Category:Towns]]<br />
[[Category:Former populated places]]<br />
[[Category:Former cities|*Ghost towns]]<br />
[[Category:Rural geography]]<br />
[[Category:Great Depression]]<br />
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[[an:Categoría:Despoblatos]]<br />
[[be-x-old:Катэгорыя:Пакінутыя гарады]]<br />
[[bg:Категория:Градове призраци]]<br />
[[ca:Categoria:Despoblats]]<br />
[[cs:Kategorie:Zaniklá města]]<br />
[[da:Kategori:Spøgelsesbyer]]<br />
[[de:Kategorie:Geisterstadt]]<br />
[[es:Categoría:Despoblados]]<br />
[[eo:Kategorio:Fantomurboj]]<br />
[[eu:Kategoria:Herri hustuak]]<br />
[[fr:Catégorie:Ville fantôme]]<br />
[[ko:분류:유령 도시]]<br />
[[hr:Kategorija:Napuštena naselja]]<br />
[[id:Kategori:Kota hantu]]<br />
[[it:Categoria:Città fantasma]]<br />
[[he:קטגוריה:ערי רפאים]]<br />
[[lt:Kategorija:Miestai vaiduokliai]]<br />
[[hu:Kategória:Szellemvárosok]]<br />
[[nl:Categorie:Verlaten plaats]]<br />
[[ja:Category:ゴーストタウン]]<br />
[[no:Kategori:Spøkelsesbyer]]<br />
[[nn:Kategori:Spøkelsesbyar]]<br />
[[pl:Kategoria:Opuszczone miejscowości]]<br />
[[pt:Categoria:Cidades fantasmas]]<br />
[[ro:Categorie:Orașe-fantomă]]<br />
[[ru:Категория:Покинутые города]]<br />
[[simple:Category:Ghost towns]]<br />
[[szl:Kategoryjo:Uopuszczůne wśe]]<br />
[[sr:Категорија:Пуста насеља]]<br />
[[fi:Luokka:Aavekaupungit]]<br />
[[sv:Kategori:Övergivna orter]]<br />
[[th:หมวดหมู่:เมืองผี]]<br />
[[tr:Kategori:Hayalet kasabaları]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Колишні села]]<br />
[[bat-smg:Kateguorėjė:Miestā pamieklės]]<br />
[[zh:Category:鬼鎮]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Finnish_ethnologists&diff=526006748Category:Finnish ethnologists2012-12-02T12:32:05Z<p>Birczanin: iw</p>
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<div>[[Category:Finnish scientists|Ethnologists]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnologists by nationality]]<br />
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[[fr:Catégorie:Ethnologue finlandais]]<br />
[[fi:Luokka:Suomalaiset kansatieteilijät]]<br />
[[sv:Kategori:Finländska etnologer]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Фінські етнографи]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Belgian_ethnologists&diff=526006509Category:Belgian ethnologists2012-12-02T12:29:28Z<p>Birczanin: iw</p>
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<div>[[Category:Belgian scientists|Ethnologists]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnologists by nationality]]<br />
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[[uk:Категорія:Бельгійські етнографи]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Belgian_physicists&diff=526006190Category:Belgian physicists2012-12-02T12:25:28Z<p>Birczanin: iw</p>
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<div>{{Commons cat|Physicists from Belgium}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Belgian physicists}}<br />
[[Category:Belgian scientists|Physicists]]<br />
[[Category:Physicists by nationality]]<br />
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[[ar:تصنيف:فيزيائيون بلجيكيون]]<br />
[[bg:Категория:Белгийски физици]]<br />
[[cs:Kategorie:Belgičtí fyzici]]<br />
[[es:Categoría:Físicos de Bélgica]]<br />
[[eo:Kategorio:Belgaj fizikistoj]]<br />
[[eu:Kategoria:Belgikako fisikariak]]<br />
[[fa:رده:فیزیکدانان اهل بلژیک]]<br />
[[fr:Catégorie:Physicien belge]]<br />
[[it:Categoria:Fisici belgi]]<br />
[[nl:Categorie:Belgisch natuurkundige]]<br />
[[ja:Category:ベルギーの物理学者]]<br />
[[pl:Kategoria:Belgijscy fizycy]]<br />
[[pt:Categoria:Físicos da Bélgica]]<br />
[[ro:Categorie:Fizicieni belgieni]]<br />
[[ru:Категория:Физики Бельгии]]<br />
[[simple:Category:Belgian physicists]]<br />
[[sk:Kategória:Belgickí fyzici]]<br />
[[sl:Kategorija:Belgijski fiziki]]<br />
[[fi:Luokka:Belgialaiset fyysikot]]<br />
[[sv:Kategori:Belgiska fysiker]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Бельгійські фізики]]<br />
[[zh:Category:比利时物理学家]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Bishops_in_Germany&diff=525244694Category:Bishops in Germany2012-11-28T01:35:59Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>[[Category:Bishops by country|Germany]]<br />
[[Category:German religious leaders]]<br />
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[[uk:Категорія:Німецькі єпископи]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pi%C4%85tkowa,_Przemy%C5%9Bl_County&diff=524624778Piątkowa, Przemyśl County2012-11-24T09:55:39Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>{{other places|Piątkowa}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Piątkowa<br />
| settlement_type = Village<br />
| total_type = &nbsp;<br />
| image_flag =<br />
| image_shield =<br />
| image_map =<br />
| coordinates_region = PL<br />
| subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]<br />
| subdivision_name = {{POL}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[Voivodeships of Poland|Voivodeship]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Subcarpathian Voivodeship|Subcarpathian]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[Powiat|County]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Przemyśl County]]<br />
| subdivision_type3 = [[Gmina]]<br />
| subdivision_name3 = [[Gmina Dubiecko|Dubiecko]]<br />
|pushpin_map=Poland<br />
|latd=49|latm=45|lats=38|latNS=N<br />
|longd=22|longm=21|longs=42|longEW=E<br />
| elevation_m =<br />
| population_total =<br />
| website = }}<br />
'''Piątkowa''' {{IPAc-pl|p|j|o|n|t|'|k|o|w|a}} is a [[village]] in the administrative district of [[Gmina Dubiecko]], within [[Przemyśl County]], [[Subcarpathian Voivodeship]], in south-eastern Poland.<ref name="TERYT">{{cite web |url=http://www.stat.gov.pl/broker/access/prefile/listPreFiles.jspa |title=Central Statistical Office (GUS) &ndash; TERYT (National Register of Territorial Land Apportionment Journal) |date=2008-06-01 |language=Polish}}</ref> It lies approximately {{convert|8|km|mi|0}} south of [[Dubiecko]], {{convert|30|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} west of [[Przemyśl]], and {{convert|40|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} south-east of the regional capital [[Rzeszów]].<br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
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<br><br />
{{Gmina Dubiecko}}<br />
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{{coord|49|45|37.9|N|22|21|42.3|E|source:plwiki_region:PL_scale:10000|display=title}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Piatkowa, Przemysl County}}<br />
[[Category:Villages in Przemyśl County]]<br />
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{{Przemyśl-geo-stub}}<br />
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[[pl:Piątkowa (powiat przemyski)]]<br />
[[uk:Пяткова]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mynkivtsi,_Kamianets-Podilskyi_Raion,_Khmelnytskyi_Oblast&diff=517340415Mynkivtsi, Kamianets-Podilskyi Raion, Khmelnytskyi Oblast2012-10-12T07:35:30Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>{{Other uses|Mynkivtsi (disambiguation){{!}}Mynkivtsi}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement <!--more fields are available for this Infobox--See Template:Infobox Settlement--><br />
|settlement_type = Village<br />
|coordinates_region = UA<br />
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]<br />
|subdivision_name = {{UKR}}<br />
|subdivision_type1 =[[Oblast]]<br />
|subdivision_name1 =[[Khmelnytskyi Oblast]]<br />
|established_title = Established<br />
|established_date = 1922<br />
|timezone=[[Eastern European Time|EET]]<br />
|utc_offset=+2<br />
|timezone_DST=[[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]<br />
|utc_offset_DST=+3<br />
|official_name = Mynkivtsi<br />
|native_name = Миньківці<br />
|image_shield =<br />
|image_flag =<br />
|subdivision_type2=[[Raion]]<br />
|subdivision_name2 = [[Dunaivtsi Raion]]<br />
|image_map =<br />
|map_caption= Map of Ukraine with Khmelnytskyi<br />
|pushpin_map = Ukraine<br />
|pushpin_label_position = <!-- the position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --><br />
|pushpin_map_caption =<br />
|pushpin_mapsize =<br />
|pushpin_map1 =<br />
|pushpin_label_position1 = <!-- the position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --><br />
|pushpin_map_caption1 =<br />
|pushpin_mapsize1 =<br />
|latd=48 |latm=51 |lats=14 |latNS=N<br />
| longd=27 |longm=06 |longs=27 |longEW=E<br />
| elevation_m = 177<br />
|area_total_km2 = 4.184<br />
|area_land_km2 = 49444<br />
|area_water_km2 =<br />
| population_total = 1479<br />
| population_as_of = 2001<br />
| population_density_km2 = 29.910<br />
|postal_code_type=[[Postal code]]<br />
|postal_code = 32463<br />
| |area_code=+380-3858<br />
| blank1_info = |blank1_name=<br />
| website = [http://gska2.rada.gov.ua/pls/z7502/A005?rdat1=30.01.2009&rf7571=35876 Page on Official Website of [[Verkhovna Rada]]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Mynkivtsi''' ({{Lang-uk|Миньківці}}, {{Lang-ru|Миньковцы}}, {{lang-pl|Minkowce}})&nbsp;&mdash; [[village]] in [[Dunaivtsi Raion]], [[Khmelnytskyi Oblast]] ([[oblast|province]]), [[Ukraine]]. The village is located on the river Ushytsya, 43&nbsp;km away from the railway station Dunaivtsi and 89&nbsp;km away from [[Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine|Khmelnytskyi]]. Population is 1,479 inhabitants (as of 2001).<br />
{{Commonscat|Mynkivtsi}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
* [http://gska2.rada.gov.ua/pls/z7502/A005?rdat1=30.01.2009&rf7571=35876 Page on Official Website of [[Verkhovna Rada]]]<br />
* [http://mynkivtsi.ucoz.ua/ Website of village]<br />
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{{Khmelnytskyi Oblast}}<br />
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{{Coord|48|51|N|27|06|E|region:UA_type:city|display=title}}<br />
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[[Category:Villages in Khmelnytskyi Oblast]]<br />
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{{Khmelnytskyi-geo-stub}}<br />
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{{Link GA|uk}}<br />
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[[pl:Mińkowce]]<br />
[[ru:Миньковцы (Дунаевецкий район)]]<br />
[[uk:Миньківці (Дунаєвецький район)]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Urban_warfare&diff=503906056Urban warfare2012-07-24T07:11:30Z<p>Birczanin: /* External links */ iw</p>
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<div>{{history of war}}<br />
'''Urban warfare''' is [[combat]] conducted in [[urban area]]s such as [[town]]s and [[city|cities]]. Urban combat is very different from combat in the open at both the [[Military operations|operational]] and [[Military tactics|tactical]] level. Complicating factors in urban warfare include the presence of [[civilian]]s and the complexity of the [[Urban Terrain|urban terrain]].<br />
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Some civilians may be difficult to distinguish from combatants such as armed [[militia]]s and [[gangs]], and particularly individuals who are simply trying to protect their homes from attackers. Tactics are complicated by a [[Three-dimensional space|three-dimensional]] environment, limited [[Field of view|fields of view]] and [[Field of fire (weaponry)|fire]] because of buildings, enhanced concealment and cover for defenders, below-ground infrastructure, and the ease of placement of [[booby trap]]s and [[sniper]]s.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
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== Military terminology ==<br />
[[File:DM-SD-06-06300.JPEG|thumb|JGSDF soldiers from 20th Infantry Regiment practice MOUT tactics in the Ojojibara Maneuver Area of Sendai, Japan during Exercise Forest Light 2004 with [[US Marines]].]]<br />
The [[United States armed forces|United States military]] term for urban warfare is ''UO'' an abbreviation for ''urban operations''. The previously used US military term ''MOUT'', an abbreviation for ''military operations in urban terrain'', has been replaced by UO, although the term MOUT Site is still in use. <br />
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The [[Military of the United Kingdom|British military]] terms are ''OBUA'' (operations in built-up areas), ''FIBUA'' (fighting in built-up areas), or sometimes (colloquially) ''FISH'' (fighting in someone's house),<ref>{{cite news | title=The final battle for Basra is near, says Iraqi general | publisher=The Independent | date=2008-03-24 | url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/the-final-battle-for-basra-is-near-says-iraqi-general-798409.html | accessdate=2008-04-11 | location=London | first=Kim | last=Sengupta}}</ref> or ''FISH and CHIPS'' (fighting in someone's house and causing havoc in people's streets).<ref>{{Citation |first=Chris |last=Hunter |year=2009 |origyear=2007 |title=Eight Lives Down: The Most Dangerous Job in the World in the Most Dangerous Place in the World |edition=Delta Trade Paperback |publisher=[[Random House]] |isbn=978-0-553-38528-1 |p=204}}</ref>. <br />
<br />
The term ''FOFO'' (fighting in fortified objectives) refers to clearing enemy personnel from narrow and entrenched places like bunkers, trenches and strongholds; the dismantling of mines and wires; and the securing of footholds in enemy areas.<ref>[http://www.specialoperations.com/Foreign/Singapore/Guards/Training/FOFO.htm FOFO.] Retrieved December 7, 2007.</ref><br />
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[[Israel Defense Forces]] calls urban warfare לש"ב (pronounced ''LASHAB''), a [[Hebrew]] acronym for ''warfare on urban terrain''. LASHAB in the IDF includes large-scale tactics (such as utilization of heavy [[armored personnel carrier]]s, [[armored bulldozer]]s, [[UAV]]s for intelligence, etc.), [[CQB]] training for fighting forces (how a small team of infantry soldiers should fight in close and built spaces). IDF's LASHAB was developed mainly in recent decades, after [[Operation Peace for Galilee]] (1982) included urban warfare in [[Beirut]] and Lebanese villages, and was further developed during the [[Second Intifada]] (2000–2005) in which IDF soldiers entered and engaged in fighting in [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] cities, villages and refugee camps. The IDF has a special large and advanced facility for training soldiers and units in urban warfare. {{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
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== Urban operations ==<br />
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[[File:Manila Walled City Destruction May 1945.jpg|thumb|right|[[Manila]], the capital of the Philippines, devastated during the [[Battle of Manila (1945)]]]]<br />
Urban military operations in [[World War II]] often relied on large quantities of [[artillery]] fire and air support varying from ground attack fighters to heavy bombers. In some particularly vicious urban warfare operations such as [[Battle of Stalingrad|Stalingrad]] and [[Warsaw Uprising|Warsaw]], all weapons were used irrespective of their consequences. {{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
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However, when liberating occupied territory some restraint was often applied, particularly in urban settings. For example, [[Military history of Canada during the Second World War|Canadian operations]] in both [[Battle of Ortona|Ortona]] and [[Battle of Groningen|Groningen]] avoided the use of artillery altogether to spare civilians and buildings,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.canadiansoldiers.com/mediawiki-1.5.5/index.php?title=Ortona |publisher=canadiansoldiers.com |title= Ortona |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080109192120/http://www.canadiansoldiers.com/mediawiki-1.5.5/index.php?title=Ortona |archivedate=2008-01-09}}</ref><ref>"In spite of the severe fighting ... great crowds of (Dutch) civilians thronged the streets (of Groningen) &mdash; apparently more excited than frightened by the sound of nearby rifle and machine-gun fire. Out of regard for these civilians, the Canadians did not shell or bomb the city, thereby accepting the possibility of delay and additional casualties" {{harv|Stacey|1966|loc=Chapter XX: The Rhine Crossing and the 2nd Corps' Advance to the North Sea 23 March-22 April 1945}}</ref> and during the Battle of Manila in 1945, General MacArthur initially placed a ban on artillery and air strikes to save civilian lives.<br />
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Armies are bound by [[laws of war]] governing [[military necessity]] to the amount of force which can be applied when attacking an area where there are known to be civilians. Until the 1970s this was covered by customary law and IV [[Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)#Hague Convention of 1907|Hague Convention]] "''The Laws and Customs of War on Land''" of 1907 and specifically articles 25–29. This has since been supplemented by the "''Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of [[Protocol I|International]] and [[Protocol II|Non-International]] Armed Conflicts''."<br />
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Sometimes [[distinction (law)|distinction]] and [[proportionality (law)|proportionality]], as in the case of the Canadians in [[Ortona]], causes the attacking force to restrain from using all the force they could when attacking a city. In other cases, such as the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] and the [[Battle of Berlin]], both armies considered evacuating civilians only to find it impractical.{{sfn|Beevor|2002|p=318}} <br />
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When [[Russia]]n forces [[Battle of Grozny (1999–2000)|attacked Grozny]] in 1999, large amounts of artillery fire were used. The [[Russian Ground Forces|Russian Army]] handled the issue of civilian casualties by warning the inhabitants that they were going to launch an all-out assault on [[Grozny]] and requested that all civilians leave the city before the start of the artillery [[bombardment]].{{sfn|BBC staff|1999|loc=Russia will pay for Chechnya}}<br />
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Fighting in an [[urban environment]] can offer some advantages to a weaker defending force or to [[guerrilla]] fighters through ambush-induced attrition losses. The attacking army must account for three dimensions more often,<ref>{{cite web | last = Staten | first = C.L. | date = 2003-03-29 | url = http://www.emergency.com/2003/urban_warfare_considerations.htm | title = Urban Warfare Considerations; Understanding and Combating Irregular and Guerrilla Forces During A "Conventional War" In Iraq | publisher = Emergency Response and Research Institute | accessdate = 2006-07-22 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060613032538/http://www.emergency.com/2003/urban_warfare_considerations.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2006-06-13}}</ref> and consequently expend greater amounts of manpower in order to secure a myriad of structures, and mountains of rubble. <br />
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[[Ferroconcrete]] structures will be ruined by heavy bombardment, but it is very difficult to demolish such a building totally when it is well defended. [[Soviet forces]] had to fight room by room; while defending the [[Red October Steel Factory]] during the [[Battle of Stalingrad#Beginning of the battle|Battle of Stalingrad]], and in 1945, during the [[Race to Berlin|race]] to [[Battle in Berlin#In the city centre|capture the Reichstag]]; despite heavy bombardment with artillery at point blank range (including [[203 mm howitzer M1931 (B-4)|203 mm howitzers]]).{{sfn|Beevor|2002|p=354,355}}<br />
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It is also difficult to destroy [[wikt:underground|underground]] or heavily fortified structures such as [[bunker]]s and utility tunnels; during the [[Battle of Budapest]] in 1944 fighting broke out in the sewers, as both Axis and Soviet troops used them for troops movement.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
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==Urban warfare tactics==<br />
<br />
[[File:JP 03-06 Urban Terrain.PNG|thumb|right|Urban warfare is fought within the constraints of the [[Urban Terrain|urban terrain]].]]<br />
[[File:Lokajski 002.jpg|thumb|right|[[Home Army]] soldiers assault a fortified house in [[downtown]] [[Warsaw]] during the [[Warsaw Uprising]] of 1944]]<br />
The characteristics of an average city include tall buildings, narrow alleys, [[sewage]] tunnels and possibly a [[rapid transit|subway]] system. Defenders may have the advantage of detailed local knowledge of the area, right down to the layout inside of buildings and means of travel not shown on maps. {{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
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The buildings can provide excellent [[sniping]] posts while alleys and rubble-filled streets are ideal for planting [[booby trap]]s. Defenders can move from one part of the city to another undetected using underground tunnels and spring [[ambush]]es. {{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
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Meanwhile, the attackers tend to become more exposed than the defender as they must use the open streets more often, unfamiliar with the defenders' secret and hidden routes. During a house to house search the attacker is often also exposed on the streets.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
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===Battle of Monterrey, Mexico===<br />
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The [[Battle of Monterrey]] was the US Army's first major encounter with urban warfare. It occurred in September 1846 when the US Army under Zachary Taylor invaded the town. The US Army had no prior training in urban warfare and the Mexican defenders hid on rooftops, shot through loopholes, and stationed cannons in the middle of the city's streets. The houses at Monterrey were made of thick [[adobe]], with strong double doors and few windows. The rooftops were lined with a two foot tall wall that acted as a parapet for the defending soldiers. Each home was a fort unto itself. {{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
<br />
On September 21, 1846 the US Army which included some of its best soldiers, recent West Point graduates, marched down the city's streets and were cut down by the Mexican defenders. They could not see the men hidden behind walls, loopholes, or rooftops. They tried to march straight down the street until the intense fire drove them to hide in adjacent buildings. Taylor tried to move artillery into the city but it could not hit the well-hidden defenders any better than the US soldiers could. Two days later the US again assaulted the city from two sides and this time they fought differently.<ref>Urban Warfare - [http://www.battleofmonterrey.com/urbanwarfare.html Battle of Monterrey.com]</ref> <br />
<br />
Not wanting to repeat the mistakes of the 21st, General William Jenkins Worth listened to his Texan advisers. These men had fought in Mexican cities before at the [[Mier Expedition|Battle of Mier]] in 1842 and the [[Siege of Béxar|Battle of Bexar]] in 1835. They understood that the army needed to "[[Mouse-holing|mouse hole]]" through each house and root out the defenders in close combat.{{sfn|Dishman|2009|p={{Page needed|date=February 2012}}}}<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvnb|Dishman|2010|p={{Page needed|date=February 2012}}}}</ref><br />
<br />
Worth's men used pick axes to chip holes in the adobe walls of the homes, in the roof of the house from where the soldiers could drop in, or used ladders to climb to the top of a rooftop and assault the Mexican defenders in hand-to-hand combat. The typical assault on a home would include one man who would run to the door of the house and chip the door away with a pick axe under covering fire. Once the door showed signs of weakening, 3-4 other soldiers would run to the door and barge in with revolvers blazing. Worth lost few men on the 23rd using these new urban warfare techniques.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><br />
<br />
===Battle of Berlin===<br />
[[File:Reichstag after the allied bombing of Berlin.jpg|thumb|The [[Reichstag (building)|Reichstag]] after its capture in 1945]]<br />
{{see also|Battle in Berlin}}<br />
<br />
A Soviet combat group was a mixed arms unit of about eighty men, divided into [[fireteam|assault group]]s of six to eight men, closely supported by field artillery. These were tactical units which were able to apply the tactics of house to house fighting that the Soviets had been forced to develop and refine at each ''Festungsstadt'' (fortress city) they had encountered from Stalingrad to Berlin.{{sfn|Beevor|2002|p=317}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Destruction in a Berlin street.jpg|thumb|A devastated street in Berlin city centre, 3 July 1945.]]<br />
The German tactics in the battle of Berlin were dictated by three considerations: the experience that the Germans had gained during five years of war; the physical characteristics of Berlin; and the tactics used by the Soviets.<br />
<br />
Most of the central districts of Berlin consisted of city blocks with straight wide roads, intersected by several waterways, parks and large railway marshalling yards. The terrain was predominantly flat but there were some low hills like that of [[Kreuzberg (Tempelhofer Berge)|Kreuzberg]] that is 66m above sea level.{{sfn|Prakash|Kruse|2008|pp=44–46}}<ref>"A Prussian law of 1875, enacted to cover the streets of Berlin, prescribed that the main streets should be 95 feet or more in width, secondary thoroughfares from 65 to 95 feet and the local streets from 40 to 65 feet." {{harv|McDonnald|1951|p=720}}</ref><ref>"The Berlin streets are for the most part very broad and straight. They are surprisingly even; there is not a hill worthy of the name in the whole of the city" {{harv|Siepen|2011|p=7}}.</ref><ref>"The highest hill in the ridge was the Kreuzberg, which stood at 217 feet (66 m). It became the site of a from the [[Prussian National Monument for the Liberation Wars|Schinkel-designed monument]] erected in 1821 and gave its name to the most famous of Berlin's districts" {{harv|Urban Land Institute|2006|p=88}}.</ref> <br />
<br />
Much of the housing stock consisted of apartment blocks built in the second half of the 19th century. Most of those, thanks to housing regulations and few elevators, were five stories high, built around a courtyard which could be reached from the street through a corridor large enough to take a horse and cart or small trucks used to deliver coal. In many places these apartment blocks were built around several courtyards, one behind the other, each one reached through the outer courtyards by a ground-level tunnel similar to that between the first courtyard and the road. The larger, more expensive [[apartment|flat]]s faced the street and the smaller, less expensive ones were found around the inner courtyards.<br />
{{sfn|Ladd|1998|pp=99–102}}<ref group=nb>The poorer tenement blocks were known as "[[Tenement#Berlin|Rent-barracks]]" (''Mietskasernen'')</ref><br />
<br />
Just as the Soviets had learned a lot about urban warfare, so had the Germans. The ''[[Waffen-SS]]'' did not use the makeshift barricades erected close to street corners, because these could be raked by artillery fire from guns firing over open sights further along the straight streets.{{sfn|Beevor|2002|pp=316-319}} Instead, they put snipers and machine guns on the upper floors and the roofs - a safer deployment as the Soviet tanks could not elevate their guns that high. They also put men armed with ''[[panzerfaust]]s'' in cellar windows to ambush tanks as they moved down the streets. These tactics were quickly adopted by the [[Hitler Youth]] and the First World War ''[[Volkssturm]]'' veterans.{{sfn|Beevor|2002|pp=316-319}}<br />
<br />
To counter these tactics, Soviet sub-machine gunners [[tank desant|rode the tanks]] and sprayed every doorway and window, but this meant the tank could not traverse its turret quickly. The other solution was to rely on heavy howitzers (152&nbsp;mm and 203&nbsp;mm) firing over open sights to blast defended buildings and to use anti-aircraft guns against defenders posted on the higher floors.{{sfn|Beevor|2002|pp=316-319}}<br />
<br />
Soviet combat groups started to move from house to house instead of directly down the streets. They moved through the apartments and cellars [[mouse-holing|blasting holes through the walls]] of adjacent buildings (for which the Soviets found abandoned German ''panzerfausts'' were very effective), while others fought across the roof tops and through the attics.{{sfn|Beevor|2002|pp=316-319}}<br />
<br />
These tactics took the Germans lying in ambush for tanks in the flanks. [[Flamethrowers]] and grenades were very effective, but as the Berlin civilian population had not been evacuated these tactics inevitably killed many civilians.{{sfn|Beevor|2002|pp=316-319}}<br />
<br />
===First Chechen War===<br />
{{see also|Battle of Grozny (1994-1995)}}<br />
<br />
During the [[First Chechen War]] most of the Chechen fighters had been trained in the Soviet armed forces. They were divided into combat groups consisting of 15 to 20 personnel, subdivided into three or four-man [[fire team]]s. A fire team consisted of an antitank gunner, usually armed with a Russian made [[RPG-7]]s or [[RPG-18]]s, a machine gunner and a sniper. The team would be supported by ammunition runners and assistant gunners. To destroy Russian armoured vehicles in [[Grozny]], five or six hunter-killer fire teams deployed at ground level, in second and third stories, and in basements. The snipers and machine gunners would pin down the supporting infantry while the antitank gunners would engage the armoured vehicle aiming at the top, rear and sides of vehicles.<ref name=LG>{{harvnb|Grau|1997|lc="Chechen Anti-armor Techniques"}}.</ref><br />
<br />
Initially the Russians were taken by surprise. Their armoured columns that were supposed to take the city without difficulty as Soviet forces had taken [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|Budapest in 1956]] were decimated in fighting more reminiscent of the [[Battle of Budapest]] in late 1944. As in the Soviet assault on Berlin, as a short term measure they deployed [[self-propelled]] [[anti-aircraft gun]]s ([[ZSU-23-4]] and [[2K22M]]) to engage the Chechen combat groups, as their tank's main gun did not have the elevation and depression to engage the fire teams and an armoured vehicle's machine gun could not suppress the fire of half a dozen different fire teams simultaneously.<ref name=LG/><br />
<br />
In the long term the Russians brought in more infantry and began a systematic advance through the city, house by house and block by block, with dismounted Russian infantry moving in support of armour. In proactive moves the Russians started to set up ambush points of their own and then move armour towards them to lure the Chechen combat groups into ambushes.<ref name=LG/><br />
<br />
As with the Soviets tank crews in Berlin in 1945, who attached industrially produced wire mesh screens (commonly confused with bedsprings in the west) to the outside of their turrets to reduce the damage done by German ''panzerfausts'', some of the Russian armour was fitted quickly with a cage of wire mesh mounted some 25–30 centimetres away from the hull armor to defeat the shaped charges of the Chechen RPGs.<ref name=LG/><ref>"Then they went in again for festooning their vehicles with bedsprings and other metal to make the ''panzerfausts'' explode prematurely" {{harv|Beevor|2002|p=317}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Operation Defensive Shield ===<br />
<br />
'''[[Operation Defensive Shield]]''' was a [[counter-terrorism]] military operation conducted by the [[Israel Defense Force]] in April [[2002]] as a response to a wave of [[suicide bombing]]s by [[Palestinian political violence|Palestinian factions]] which claimed the lives of hundreds of Israeli civilians.<br />
<br />
The two major battles were held in [[Nablus]] and [[Jenin]].<br />
<br />
{{see also|Battle of Nablus}}<br />
In Nablus, the [[Paratroopers Brigade]] and the [[Golani Brigade]], backed by reservist [[tank|armor force]] and [[Combat Engineering Corps|combat engineers]] with [[IDF Caterpillar D9|armored Caterpillar D9]] [[bulldozer]]s, entered to Nablus, killing 70 militants and arresting hundreds, while sustaining only one casualty. The forces deployed many small teams, advancing in non-linear manner from many directions, utilising [[sniper]]s and air support. The battle ended quickly with a decisive Israeli victory.<br />
<br />
{{see also|Battle of Jenin}}<br />
[[File:IDF-D9L003.jpg|thumb|An [[IDF Caterpillar D9]]L [[armored bulldozer]].]]<br />
In [[Jenin]] the battle was much harder and fierce. Unlike in Nablus, the forces who fought in Jenin were mainly reserve forces. The Palestinian militants [[booby trap|booby-trapped]] the city and the refugee camp with thousands of explosive charges, some were very large and most were concealed in civilian houses and on the streets.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} After 13 Israeli soldiers were killed in an [[ambush]] combined with booby traps, snipers and [[suicide bomber]]s, the IDF changed its tactics from slow advancing [[infantry]] soldiers backed by [[attack helicopter]]s to a heavy use of [[IDF Caterpillar D9|Caterpillar D9]] [[armored bulldozer]]s. The heavily armored bulldozers began by clearing booby traps and ended with razing many houses, mainly in the center of the refugee camp. The D9 armored bulldozers were unstoppable and impervious to Palestinian attacks and by razing booby-trapped houses and buildings which used as gun posts they forced the militants in Jenin to surrender. Due to the destruction of houses and unverified rumors, the Palestinian spread accusations of massacre in Jenin, which were later refuted.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} In total, 56 Palestinians and 23 Israeli soldiers were killed in the battle of Jenin.<br />
<br />
In total, Operation Defensive Shield was considered an Israeli victory and a turning-point in the [[Second Intifada]]. Although the suicide bombings did not stop completely, their number decreased sharply. Israel continued in daily military raids onto Palestinian cities and towns to arrest militants and destroy terror facilities.<br />
<br />
==Close-quarters battle==<br />
<br />
[[File:USMC 469.jpg|thumb|right|[[United States Marine Corps|US Marines]] fight in the city of [[Fallujah]] during [[Operation Phantom Fury]]/[[Operation Phantom Fury|Operation Al Fajr (New Dawn)]] in November 2004.]]<br />
[[File:US Navy 101210-N-4044H-153 A Navy special warfare specialist (SEAL) assigned to Seal Team 17, a unit {{sic|hide=y|comprised| of}} both active and reserve component.jpg|thumb|right|Simulated city used for training on [[San Clemente Island]]]]<br />
{{main|Close quarters combat}}<br />
<br />
The term close-quarter battle refers to fighting methods within buildings, streets, narrow alleys and other places where visibility and maneuverability are limited.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
<br />
Both ''close-quarters-battle'' (CQB) and ''urban operations'' (UO) are related to urban warfare, but while UO refers mainly to the [[macromanagement]] factor (i.e. sending troops, using of heavy [[armoured fighting vehicle]]s, battle management), CQB refers to the [[micromanagement]] factor&mdash;namely: how a small squad of infantry troops should fight in urban environments and/or inside buildings in order to achieve its goals with minimal casualties.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
<br />
As a doctrine, CQB concerns topics such as:<br />
:* [[Weapons]] and [[ammunition]] most suitable for the mission{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
:* Extra gear, such as [[bulletproof vest]]s and [[Night vision goggles|night vision devices]]{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
:* Accurate [[Explosive material|explosive]]s{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
:* Routines and drills for engaging the enemy, securing a perimeter, clearing a room, etc.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
:* Team maneuvers{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
:* Methods and [[military tactics|tactics]]{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
<br />
It should be noted that military CQB doctrine is different from police CQB doctrine, mainly because the military usually operates in hostile areas while the police operates within docile populations.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
<br />
Armies that often engage in urban warfare operations may train most of their infantry in CQB doctrine.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* ''[[Battleplan]]'' (documentary TV series)<br />
* [[Military urbanism]]<br />
* [[Mouse-holing]]<br />
* [[Siege warfare]]<br />
* [[Urban guerrilla warfare]]<br />
* [[Urban Warrior]]<br />
* [[Urban Terrain]]<br />
* [[Second Battle of Fallujah]]<br />
* [[Civilian casualty ratio]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
;Footnotes<br />
{{Reflist|group=nb}}<br />
<br />
;Citations<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*{{cite news|ref=harv |author=BBC staff |date=7 December 1999 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/553304.stm |title=Russia will pay for Chechnya |publisher=[[BBC]]}}<br />
*{{cite book|ref=harv |last=Beevor |first=Antony |authorlink=Antony Beevor |title=[[Berlin: The Downfall 1945]] |location=London; New York |publisher=Viking-Penguin Books. |year=2002 |isbn=0-670-03041-4 |pages=316–319}}<br />
*{{cite journal|ref=harv |last=Dishman |first=Chris |date=August 2009 |title=Street Fight in Monterrey |journal=Military Heritage Magazine}}<br />
*{{cite book|ref=harv |last=Dishman |first=Christopher |year=2010 |title=A Perfect Gibraltar: The Battle for Monterrey, Mexico |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=0-8061-4140-9}}<br />
*{{cite book|ref=harv |last=Grau |first=Lester W.|date=January 1997 |url=http://fmso.leavenworth.army.mil/documents/rusav/rusav.htm |title=Russian-Manufactured Armored Vehicle Vulnerability in Urban Combat: The Chechnya Experience |publisher=Red Thrust Star |chapter=Chechen Anti-armor Techniques}}<br />
*{{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Ladd |first=Brian |year=1998 |title=The Ghosts of Berlin: Confronting German History in the Urban Landscape |edition=illustrated |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-46762-7 |page=[http://books.google.com/books?id=T4RDOfb3XgQC&pg=PA99&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false 99]–102}}<br />
*{{Cite encyclopaedia |ref=harv |editor-last=McDonnald |editor-first=Alexander Hopkins |year=1951 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia Americana |volume=6 |publisher=Americana Corporationn |page=720}}<br />
*{{Cite book|ref=harv |last=Prakash |first=Gyan |last2=Kruse |first2=Kevin Michael |year=2008 |title=The spaces of the modern city: imaginaries, politics, and everyday life |edition=illustrated |publisher=Princeton University Press, |isbn=978-0-691-13343-0 |pages=[http://books.google.com/books?id=rDGd7HDMFp4C&pg=PA44 44]–46}}<br />
*{{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Siepen |first=Edith |year=2011 |title=Peeps at Great Cities - Berlin |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-3-86403-134-2 |page=[http://books.google.com/books?id=j4gTGOMAOyEC&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false 7]}}<br />
*{{cite book|ref=harv |last=Stacey |first=C.P. |year=1966 |series=Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War|title=Volume III: The Victory Campaign: The Operations in North West Europe 1944-1945 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/Canada/CA/Victory/index.html |page=}} <br />
*{{Cite journal|ref=harv |author=Urban Land Institute |year=2006 |journal=Urban land |volume= 65 |issue=9-12 |publisher=Urban Land Institute |page=88}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{commons|Urban warfare}}<br />
* [http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp3_06.pdf Handbook for Joint Urban Operations]<br />
* [http://www.uw-forum.com BF1942 Desert Combat (feel the Urban Warfare)]<br />
* [http://smallwarsjournal.com/reference/urbanoperations.php Small Wars Journal] - Urban operations, reading guide.<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Urban Warfare}}<br />
[[Category:Sniper warfare]]<br />
[[Category:Urban warfare| ]]<br />
[[Category:Urban guerrilla warfare| ]]<br />
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[[zh:城鎮戰]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Military_of_Venezuela&diff=472789215Category:Military of Venezuela2012-01-23T12:18:44Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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[[uk:Категорія:Збройні сили Венесуели]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edmontonia&diff=472788552Edmontonia2012-01-23T12:12:20Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Automatic taxobox<br />
| name = ''Edmontonia''<br />
| fossil_range = [[Late Cretaceous]], {{fossilrange|76.5|65.5}}<br />
| image = Edmontonia mount.jpg<br />
| image_width = 200px<br />
| image_caption = Mounted skeleton<br />
| authority = [[Charles M. Sternberg|Sternberg]], 1928<br />
| subdivision_ranks = Species<br />
| subdivision = <br />
*''E. longiceps'' <small>Sternberg, 1928 ([[type species|type]])</small><br />
*''E. rugosidens'' <small>(Gilmore, 1930 [originally ''[[Palaeoscincus]] rugosidens''])</small><br />
*''E. schlessmani'' <small>(Bakker, 1988 [originally ''Denversaurus schlessmani''])</small><br />
| synonyms =<br />
* '''''Denversaurus''''' <small>Bakker, 1988</small><br />
}}<br />
'''''Edmontonia''''' was an [[Armour (zoology)|armoured]] [[dinosaur]], a part of the [[nodosaur]] family from the Late [[Cretaceous]] [[Period (geology)|Period]]. It is named after the Edmonton Formation (now the [[Horseshoe Canyon Formation]]), the unit of rock it was found in.<br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
[[File:Edmontonia dinosaur.png|thumb|left|An artist's depiction of ''Edmontonia'']] <br />
''Edmontonia'' was bulky and [[tank]]-like at roughly 6.6&nbsp;m (22&nbsp;ft)<ref name="ageofdinosaursedmontonia"/> long and 2&nbsp;m (6&nbsp;ft) high.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} It had small, ridged bony plates on its back and head and many sharp spikes along its back and tail. The four largest spikes jutted out from the shoulders on each side, two of which were split into subspines in some specimens.<ref name="ageofdinosaursedmontonia"/> Its skull had a [[pear]]-like shape when viewed from above.<ref name="ageofdinosaursedmontonia"/> (Compare 26 feet long and 8 feet high for the [[M1 Abrams]] army tank.)<br />
<br />
==Discovery and species==<br />
[[File:Edmontonia armour.jpg|thumb|left|''Edmontonia'' armour]] <br />
The [[type species]] of ''Edmontonia'', ''E. longiceps'' was discovered in 1924 by George Paterson. It wasn't named until 1928 by [[Charles M. Sternberg|C. M. Sternberg]]. ''E. rugosidens'', formally named by [[Charles W. Gilmore|Gilmore]] in 1930, is reported from the Aguja formation in [[Texas]]. ''Edmontonia'' species include:<br />
* ''E. longiceps'', the [[type species|type]]), is known from the middle [[Horseshoe Canyon Formation]] (Unit 2) dated to 71.5-71 million years ago.<ref name=ABS09>{{cite journal |last=Arbour |first=V. M. |coauthors=Burns, M. E.; and Sissons, R. L. |year=2009 |title=A redescription of the ankylosaurid dinosaur ''Dyoplosaurus acutosquameus'' Parks, 1924 (Ornithischia: Ankylosauria) and a revision of the genus |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=1117–1135 |doi=10.1671/039.029.0405}}</ref><br />
* ''E. rugosidens'', is sometimes given its own genus, ''Chassternbergia'', first coined as a [[subgenus]] by Dr. [[Robert T. Bakker]] in 1988 (''Edmontonia (Chassternbergia) rugosidens'') and based on differences in skull proportion from ''E. longiceps'' and its earlier time period.<ref name="RTB88">Bakker, R.T. (1988). Review of the Late Cretaceous nodosauroid Dinosauria: ''Denversaurus schlessmani'', a new [[Armour (zoology)|armor]]-plated dinosaur from the Latest Cretaceous of South Dakota, the last survivor of the nodosaurians, with comments on Stegosaur-Nodosaur relationships. ''Hunteria'' 1(3):1-23.(1988).</ref><ref name="TF00">Ford, T.L. (2000). A review of ankylosaur osteoderms from New Mexico and a preliminary review of ankylosaur armor. In: Lucas, S.G., and Heckert, A.B. (eds.). ''Dinosaurs of New Mexico.'' New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 17:157-176.</ref> This subgenus or genus is not generally accepted;<ref name="KC01">{{cite book|title=The Armored Dinosaurs|year=2001|chapter=Phylogenetic analysis of the Ankylosauria|editor=Carpenter, Kenneth(ed)|author=Carpenter K|pages=455–484|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-33964-2}}</ref><ref name="V04">{{cite book|title=The Dinosauria (Second Edition)|year=2004|chapter=Ankylosauria|editor=Weishampel, D. B., Dodson, P., and Osmólska, H. (eds.)|author=Vickaryous, M.K., Maryańska, T., and Weishampel, D.B., |pages=363–392|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0-520-24209-2}}</ref> It is found in the lower [[Dinosaur Park Formation]], dating about 76.5-75 million years ago.<ref name=ABS09/><!--[Etymology of ''Chassternbergia'': In honor of Charles Mortram Sternberg (1885-1981), a Canadian paleontologist who, in 1928, named and described ''Edmontonia longiceps'', a nodosaurid ankylosaur which Robert Bakker would later use as the basis for proposing the new nodosaurid family Edmontoniidae, which would include a new subgenus, ''Chassternbergia'' as well as the new genus ''Denversaurus schlessmani''. Sternberg, honored for his earlier work on ''Edmontonia longiceps''.<ref name=dinoname>''Chassternbergia'' etymology, courtesy of [http://www.dinosaurnames.net www.dinosaurnames.net]</ref>]--> <br />
* And ''E. australis'',<ref name="TF00"/> which is known from cervical scutes only, and is considered to be a [[nomen dubium|dubious name]]<ref name="KC01"/> or a synonym of ''[[Glyptodontopelta]] mimus.''<ref name=MEB08>{{cite journal|doi=10.1671/0272-4634-28.4.1102|last=Burns|first=Michael E.|year=2008|title=Taxonomic utility of ankylosaur (Dinosauria, Ornithischia) osteoderms: ''Glyptodontopelta mimus'' Ford, 2000: a test case|journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology|volume=28|issue=4|pages=1102–1109}}</ref><br />
<br />
Usually included in this genus is ''Denversaurus schlessmani'' ("Schlessman's [[Denver]] [[lizard]]"). This [[taxon]] was erected by Bakker in 1988 for a skull from the [[Maastrichtian|Late Maastrichtian]] [[Upper Cretaceous]] [[Lance Formation]] of [[South Dakota]],<ref name="RTB88"/> but considered by later workers to belong to ''Edmontonia rugosidens''.<ref name="V04"/> The [[holotype|type specimen]] of ''Denversaurus'' is in the collections of the Denver Museum of Natural History (now the [[Denver Museum of Nature and Science]]), Denver, [[Colorado]] (for which the genus was named).<br />
<br />
==Paleobiology==<br />
[[File:Edmontonia model.jpg|thumb|''Edmontonia'' model, [[Royal Tyrrell Museum]].]] <br />
[[File:Edmontonia restoration.jpg|thumb|left|Life restoration of two ''Edmontonia'' from 1922]] <br />
The large spikes were probably used between males in contests of strength to defend territory or gain mates.<ref name="ageofdinosaursedmontonia"/> The spikes would also have been useful for intimidating predators or rival males, protection, or for self-defense.<ref name="ageofdinosaursedmontonia"/> To protect itself from predators, an ''Edmontonia'' might have crouched down on the ground to minimize the possibility of attack to its defenseless underbelly.<br />
<br />
Rings in the petrified wood of trees contemporary with ''Edmontonia'' show evidence of strong seasonal changes in precipitation and temperature;<ref name="ageofdinosaursedmontonia"/> this may hold an explanation for why so many specimens have been found with their armor plating and spikes in the same position they were in life.<ref name="ageofdinosaursedmontonia"/> The ''Edmontonia'' could have died due to drought, dried up, and then rapidly became covered in sediment when the rainy season began.<ref name="ageofdinosaursedmontonia">"Edmontonia." In: Dodson, Peter & Britt, Brooks & Carpenter, Kenneth & Forster, Catherine A. & Gillette, David D. & Norell, Mark A. & Olshevsky, George & Parrish, J. Michael & Weishampel, David B. ''The Age of Dinosaurs''. Publications International, LTD. p. 141. ISBN 0-7853-0443-6.</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Portal|Dinosaurs}}<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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[[Category:Cretaceous dinosaurs]]<br />
[[Category:Dinosaurs of North America]]<br />
[[Category:Ankylosaurs]]<br />
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[[ca:Edmontonia]]<br />
[[cs:Edmontonia]]<br />
[[cy:Edmontonia]]<br />
[[de:Edmontonia]]<br />
[[es:Edmontonia]]<br />
[[eo:Edmontonio]]<br />
[[fa:ادمونتونیا]]<br />
[[fr:Edmontonia]]<br />
[[ko:에드몬토니아]]<br />
[[it:Edmontonia]]<br />
[[la:Edmontonia]]<br />
[[hu:Edmontonia]]<br />
[[nl:Edmontonia]]<br />
[[ja:エドモントニア]]<br />
[[no:Edmontonia]]<br />
[[pl:Edmontonia]]<br />
[[pt:Edmontonia]]<br />
[[ru:Эдмонтония]]<br />
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[[zh:埃德蒙顿甲龙]]<br />
[[uk:Едмонтонія]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Serge_Moscovici&diff=472587021Serge Moscovici2012-01-22T10:31:56Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Serge Moscovici''' (born 14 June 1925 as '''Srul Herş Moscovici — Srul Hersh Moskovitch''') is a [[Romania]]n-born [[France|French]] [[social psychology|social psychologist]], currently the director of the ''[[Laboratoire Européen de Psychologie Sociale]]'' ("European Laboratory of Social Psychology"), which he co-founded in 1974 at the ''[[Maison des sciences de l'homme]]'' in [[Paris]]. He is a member of the [[European Academy of Sciences and Arts]] and Officer of the ''[[Légion d'honneur]]'', as well as a member of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] and honorary member of the [[Hungarian Academy of Sciences]]. Moscovici's son, [[Pierre Moscovici]], is a well-known French politician.<br />
<br />
==Biography==<br />
Moscovici was born in [[Brăila]] into a [[History of the Jews in Romania|Jewish]] family<sup>[http://translate.google.com/translate?sl=fr&tl=en&js=n&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&layout=2&eotf=1&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.alliancefr.com%2Fpierre-moscovici-desir-d-avenir-news0%2C39%2C3729.html]</sup>, the son of a grain merchant.<ref name="balzan">{{fr icon}} [http://www.balzan.com/en%5CPrizewinners%5CSergeMoscovici%5CBiobibliography_French.aspx ''Donées biographiques sur Serge Moscovici''], at the [[Balzan Prize|International Balzan Foundation]] (retrieved June 17, 2007)</ref><ref name="moscovicijurnalul">{{ro icon}} Lavinia Betea, [http://www.jurnalul.ro/articole/60354/moscovici-victima-regimului-antonescu "Moscovici, victima regimului Antonescu"], in ''[[Jurnalul Naţional]]'', October 24, 2004 (retrieved June 17, 2007)</ref> He frequently relocated, together with his father, spending time in [[Cahul]], [[Galaţi]], and [[Bucharest]].<ref name="balzan"/><ref name="moscovicijurnalul"/> Later, he indicated that his stay in [[Bessarabia]] had contributed to his image of a homeland.<ref name="moscovicijurnalul"/> From an early age, Moscovici suffered the effects of [[Anti-semitism|anti-semitic discrimination]]: in 1938, he was expelled from a [[Bucharest]] high school on the basis of newly-issued anti-semitic legislation.<ref name="balzan"/><ref name="moscovicijurnalul"/><ref name="instreperes">{{fr icon}} [http://psycho.univ-lyon2.fr/article.php3?id_article=347 ''Serge Moscovici. Repères bio-bibliographiques''], at the Institut de Psychologie (retrieved June 17, 2007)</ref> In later years, he commented on the impact of the Iron Guard, and expressed criticism for [[intellectual]]s associated with it ([[Emil Cioran]] and [[Mircea Eliade]]).<ref name="moscovicijurnalul"/><br />
<br />
Moscovici trained as a [[mechanic]] at the Bucharest [[vocational school]] ''Ciocanul''.<ref name="moscovicijurnalul"/> Faced with an ideological choice between [[Zionism]] and [[communism]], he opted for the latter, and, in 1939, joined the then-illegal [[Romanian Communist Party]], being introduced by a clandestine activist whom he knew by the pseudonym ''Kappa''.<ref name="moscovicijurnalul"/><br />
<br />
During [[World War II]], Moscovici witnessed the [[Iron Guard]]-instigated [[Legionnaires' Rebellion and Bucharest Pogrom|Bucharest Pogrom]] in January 1941, and was later interned by the [[Ion Antonescu]] regime in a [[Penal labour|forced labor camp]], where, together with other persons of his age, he worked on construction teams until being set free by the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Red Army]] in 1944.<ref name="balzan"/><ref name="moscovicijurnalul"/><ref name="instreperes"/> During those years, he taught himself [[French language|French]] and educated himself by reading philosophical works (including those of [[Baruch Spinoza]] and [[René Descartes]]).<ref name="balzan"/><ref name="instreperes"/> <br />
<br />
Subsequently, Moscovici travelled extensively, notably visiting [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]], [[Germany]] and [[Austria]].<ref name="balzan"/> During the late stage of [[World War II]] he met [[Isidore Isou]], the founder of [[lettrism]], with whom he founded the artistic and literary review ''Da'' towards the end of 1944 (''Da'' was quickly [[censorship|censored]]).<ref name="instreperes"/> Refusing promotion on the basis of political affiliation at a time when the Communist Party participated in Romania's governments, he became instead a [[welder]] in the large Bucharest factory owned by [[Nicolae Malaxa]].<ref name="moscovicijurnalul"/> <br />
<br />
Initially welcoming [[Soviet occupation of Romania|Soviet occupation]], Moscovici grew progressively disillusioned with communist politics, and noted the incidence of antisemitism among Red Army soldiers.<ref>{{ro icon}} Ştefan Ionescu, [http://www.idee.ro/holocaust/pdf/mem_supr.pdf ''În umbra morţii. Memoria supravieţuitorilor Holocaustului în România''], at [http://www.idee.ro/ Idee Communication] (retrieved June 17, 2007)</ref> As the [[Communist Romania|communist regime]] was taking over and the [[Cold War]] erupted, he helped Zionist dissidents cross the border illegally.<ref name="moscovicijurnalul"/> For this, he was implicated in a 1947 trial held in [[Timişoara]], and decided to leave Romania for good.<ref name="moscovicijurnalul"/> Choosing clandestine immigration, he arrived in France a year later, passing through [[Hungary]] and Austria, and spending time in a [[refugee camp]] in [[Italy]].<ref name="balzan"/><ref name="moscovicijurnalul"/><ref name="instreperes"/> <br />
<br />
In [[Paris]], helped by a refugee fund, he studied [[psychology]] at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]], while being employed by an industrial enterprise.<ref name="balzan"/><ref name="instreperes"/> At the time, Moscovici became close to Paris-based writers, including the Romanian-born Jewish [[Paul Celan]] and [[Isaac Chiva]].<ref name="balzan"/><ref name="chiva">{{ro icon}} [[Isaac Chiva]], [http://www.observatorcultural.ro/informatiiarticol.phtml?xid=15837&print=true "Pogromul de la Iaşi"], in ''[[Observator Cultural]]'' (retrieved June 17, 2007)</ref> In reference to himself, Celan, and Moscovici, Chiva later recalled: "For us, people on the [[Left-wing politics|Left]], but who had fled communism, the first period in Paris, in a capital where the intellectual environments were developing under full-scale [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] enthusiasm, was very harsh. We were caught between a rock and a hard place: on one side, the French university environment who saw us as «[[Fascism|fascists]]». [...] On the other, the Romanian exiles, most of all the [[Nationalism|nationalist]] students, when not outright on the [[far right]], who did not shy away from denouncing us as communist «[[Mole (espionage)|moles]]» in the pay of Bucharest or [[Moscow]]."<ref name="chiva"/><br />
<br />
Moscovici's 1961 thesis (''La psychanalyse, son image, son public''), directed by the [[psychoanalyst]] [[Daniel Lagache]], explored the [[social representations]] of psychoanalysis in France.<ref name="instreperes"/> Moscovici also studied [[epistemology]] and [[history of science]]s with philosopher [[Alexandre Koyré]]. During the 1960s, he was invited to the [[United States]] by the [[Princeton University]]'s [[Institute for Advanced Study]]; he also worked at [[Stanford University]] and [[Yale University|Yale]], before returning to Paris to teach at the ''[[École pratique des hautes études]]''.<ref name="balzan"/><ref name="instreperes"/> Serge Moscovici has been a visiting professor at the [[The New School]] in [[New York City]], at the [[Rousseau Institute]] in [[Geneva]], as well as at the ''[[Université catholique de Louvain]]'' and the [[University of Cambridge]].<ref name="instreperes"/><br />
<br />
By 1968, together with [[Brice Lalonde]] and others, he became involved in [[green politics]], and even ran in elections for the office of [[List of mayors of Paris|Mayor of Paris]] for what later became ''[[The Greens (France)|Les Verts]]''.<ref name="moscovicijurnalul"/> A [[doctor honoris causa]] of several universities, Moscovici was the recipient of the [[Balzan Prize]] in 2003 for Social Psychology.<ref name="balzan"/><ref name="instreperes"/><br />
<br />
In 1997, Serge Moscovici authored an [[Autobiography|autobiographical]] essay titled ''Chronique des années égarées'' ("Chronicle of the Mislaid Years"). It was translated into [[Romanian language|Romanian]] as ''Cronica anilor risipiţi'' (published by [[Polirom]] in 1999).<br />
<br />
==Research==<br />
His research focus was on [[group psychology]] and he began his career by investigating the way knowledge is reformulated as groups take hold of it, distorting it from its original form. His theory of ''social representations'' is now widespread in understanding this process of cultural ''[[Telephone (game)|Chinese whispers]]''. Influenced by [[Gabriel Tarde]], he later criticized American research into majority influence ([[conformity (psychology)|conformity]]) and instead investigated the effects of minority influence, where the opinions of a small group influence those of a larger one.<ref name="balzan"/> He also researched the dynamics of group decisions and consensus-forming.<br />
<br />
===Minority influence===<br />
Moscovici claimed that majority influence in many ways was misleading – if the majority was indeed all-powerful, we would all end up thinking the same.<ref name="balzan"/> Drawing attention to the works of [[Gabriel Tarde]], he pointed to the fact that most major social movements have been started by individuals and small groups (e.g. [[Christianity]], [[Buddhism]], the [[Suffragette]] movement, [[Nazism]], etc.) and that without an outspoken minority, we would have no innovation or social change.<br />
<br />
The study he is most famous for, ''Influences of a consistent minority on the responses of a majority in a colour perception task'', is now seen as one of the defining investigations into the effects of minority influence:<br />
*Aims: To investigate the process of innovation by looking at how a consistent minority affect the opinions of a larger group, possibly creating doubt and leading them to question and alter their views<br />
*Procedures: Participants were first given an eye test to check that they were not colour blind. They were then placed in a group of four participants and two confederates. they were all shown 36 slides that were different shades of blue and asked to state the colour out loud. There were two groups in the experiment. In the first group the confederates were consistent and answered green for every slide. In the second group the confederates were inconsistent and answered green 24 times and blue 12 times.<br />
*Findings: For 8.42% of the trials, participants agreed with the minority and said that the slides were green. Overall, 32% of the participants agreed at least once.<br />
*Conclusions: The study suggested that minorities can indeed exert an effect over the opinion of a majority. Not to the same degree as majority influence, but the fact that almost a third of people agreed at least once is significant. However, this also leaves two thirds who never agreed. In a follow up experiment, Moscovici demonstrated that consistency was the key factor in [[minority influence]], by instructing the stooges to be inconsistent. The effect fell off sharply.<br />
<br />
==Works==<br />
* ''La psychanalyse, son image, son public'', [[University Presses of France]], 1961/1976<br />
* ''Reconversion industrielle et changements sociaux. Un exemple: la chapellerie dans l'Aude'', [[Armand Colin]], 1961<br />
* ''L’expérience du mouvement. Jean-Baptiste Baliani, disciple et critique de Galilée'', [[Hermann]], 1967<br />
* ''Essai sur l’histoire humaine de la nature'', [[Groupe Flammarion|Flammarion]], 1968/1977<br />
* ''La société contre nature'', [[Union Générale d’éditions]], 1972 / [[Seuil]], 1994<br />
* ''Hommes domestiques et hommes sauvages'', Union Générale d’éditions, 1974<br />
* ''Social influence and social change'', [[Academic Press]], 1976.<br />
* ''Psychologie des minorités actives'', University Presses of France, 1979<br />
* ''L'Age des foules: un traité historique de psychologie des masses'', [[Fayard]], 1981 (about [[Gustave Le Bon]]'s invention of [[crowd psychology]] and [[Gabriel Tarde]])<br />
* ''La Machine à faire les dieux'', Fayard, 1988<br />
* ''Chronique des années égarées: récit autobiographique'', [[Stock]], 1997<br />
* ''Social Representations: Explorations in Social Psychology'', [[Polity Press]], 2000<br />
* ''De la Nature. Pour penser l'écologie'', Métailié, 2002<br />
* ''Réenchanter la nature. Entretiens avec Pascal Dibie'', [[Aube]], 2002.<br />
* Moscovici, S., Lage, E. and Naffrenchoux, M. (1969) "Influences of a consistent minority on the responses of a majority in a colour perception task", ''[[Sociometry]]'', Vol.32, pp.&nbsp;365–80. cited in Cardwell, M. and Flanagan, C. (2003) ''Psychology AS The Complete Companion'', Nelson Thornes<br />
* Serge Moscovici and [[Ivana Markova]] (2006) The Making of Modern Social Psychology: The Hidden Story of How an International Social Science was Created. Cambridge and Oxford: Polity Press.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Crowd psychology]]<br />
*[[Gustave Le Bon]]<br />
*[[Gabriel Tarde]]<br />
*[[Minority influence]]<br />
Moscovici Serge Invention of Society: Psychological Explanations for Social Phenomena (1993) Polity Press<br />
Moscovici Serge, Doise Willem (trans W.D.Hall) Conflict and Consensus: General Theory of Collective Decisions (1994) Sage<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*Mirilia Bonnes (ed.), ''La Vita, il percorso intellettuale, i temi, le opere'', Milano, [[Franco Angeli]], 1999<br />
*Fabrice Buschini, Nikos Kalampalikis (eds.), ''Penser la vie, le social, la nature. Mélanges en l'honneur de Serge Moscovici'', Paris, Editions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme, 2001<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*{{en icon}}/{{fr icon}} [http://www.leps.msh-paris.fr/eng/leps_home.htm European Laboratory of Social Psychology website]<br />
<br />
{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]. --><br />
| NAME = Moscovici, Serge<br />
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =<br />
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}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Moscovici, Serge}}<br />
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[[Category:Romanian magazine editors]]<br />
[[Category:Romanian magazine founders]]<br />
[[Category:French memoirists]]<br />
[[Category:French political writers]]<br />
[[Category:French psychologists]]<br />
[[Category:People from Brăila]]<br />
[[Category:Political philosophers]]<br />
[[Category:Romanian communists]]<br />
[[Category:Romanian expatriates in France]]<br />
[[Category:French people of Romanian descent]]<br />
[[Category:Romanian Jews]]<br />
[[Category:Social psychologists]]<br />
[[Category:University of Paris alumni]]<br />
[[Category:University of Paris faculty]]<br />
[[Category:Officiers of the Légion d'honneur]]<br />
[[Category:The Greens (France) politicians]]<br />
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[[cs:Serge Moscovici]]<br />
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[[ru:Московичи, Серж]]<br />
[[sl:Serge Moscovici]]<br />
[[uk:Серж Московічі]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:1921_in_Italy&diff=472586381Category:1921 in Italy2012-01-22T10:24:47Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>{{Portal|Italy}}<br />
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[[uk:Категорія:1921 рік в Італії]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sebastian_Kudas&diff=472465545Sebastian Kudas2012-01-21T18:06:15Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Kudas1.jpg|thumb|200px|Sebastian Kudas]]<br />
'''Sebastian Ludwik Kudas''' (born 31st August [[1978]] in [[Kraków]]) - polish graphic artist (drawer), illustrator, and [[Piwnica pod Baranami]]’s stage designer.<br />
<br />
Sebastian L. Kudas has been bound with „Piwnica pod Baranami” since [[1995]], thanks to [[Jerzy Skarżyński (stage designer)|Jerzy Skarżyński]] and [[Piotr Skrzynecki]], as a stage designer and drawer. He accomplished several dozen stage designs for Piwnica’s performances (also abroad: [[Stockholm]], [[Malmo]], [[Oslo]], [[Wien]], [[Chicago]], [[Toronto]] and [[New York]]), Piwnica artists’ recitals and a documentary about Wisława Szymborska directed by Antoni Krauze.<br />
<br />
As an illustrator, he cooperated mainly with [[Jacek Kaczmarski]], [[Ewa Lipska]], [[Jan Nowicki]], [[Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz]], [[Janusz Radek]]. He illustrated unique publications, among others „Epitafia” by [[Wisława Szymborska]], Ewa Lipska, [[Bronisław Maj]], [[Michał Rusinek]] and „Apologia Balceroviciana” and „Balceroviciana varia”, published by café Nowa Prowincja. In [[1999]], together with Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz and [[Grzegorz Turnau]], he founded „Chwilowa Grupa Artystyczna TRIO” (Temporary Artistic Group TRIO); the group had exhibitions in [[Gliwice]], [[Bytom]], [[Jelenia Góra]] and Kraków. In [[2001]], together with [[Barbara Stępniak-Wilk]] and Maciej Dancewicz, he founded „Grupa Apokryficzna” (Apocryphal Group). He worked as an assistant director with [[Antoni Krauze]] (a documentary about „Piwnica pod Baranami) and [[Marta Meszaros]] (a theatrical performance „Tramwaj zwany pożądaniem” - „Streetcar Named Desire”).<br />
<br />
Kudas cooperated with newspapers and magazines „Dziennik Polski”, „Przekrój”, „Zwierciadło” and "Bluszcz". His drawings were exhibited in Kraków, [[Sopot]], [[Częstochowa]], [[Sandomierz]], [[Tarnobrzeg]] but also in Wien, [[Ebenfurth]] and [[Nurnberg]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1997]] Kudas was chosen to Artistic Board of „Piwnica Pod Baranami”. In [[2007]] his work earned him Wiesław Dymny’s Award, awarded by Wiesław Dymny’s Foundation in Montreal, for versatile an artistic activity.<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* http://www.piwnicapodbaranami.krakow.pl/galerie/kudas/sebastian.html<br />
* http://www.nowaprowincja.krakow.pl/kudas.html<br />
* http://teatr-mickiewicza.pl/v-przez-dotyk/rozmowa-sebastian-kudas.html<br />
* http://www.bg.agh.edu.pl/PIWNICA/index.php?m=05-9<br />
* http://www.mateuszkurcewicz.pl/wiersz.html<br />
* http://www.deerwith.it/tag/sebastian-kudas<br />
* http://lipska.wydawnictwoliterackie.pl/galeria_kartki.php<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
* Rainer Maria Rillke - GODZINKI/DAS STUNDENBUCH (Lublin 1997, 83-86236-61-2)<br />
* Joanna Olczak- Ronikier - PIWNICA POD BARANAMI (Warszawa 1997, ISBN83-7180-661-2<br />
* Jan Nowicki - MIĘDZY NIEBEM A ZIEMIĄ (Gdansk 2000, ISBN 83-87342-27-0)<br />
* GRUPA APOKRYFICZNA (Krakow 2001, ISBN 83-86774-12-6)<br />
* Leszek Wójtowicz - DOM NA GROBLACH (Warszawa 2003, ISBN 83-221-0752-8)<br />
* Ewa Lipska, Sebastian L. Kudas - LEKTURA ISTNIENIA (Krakow 2004, ISBN<br />
83-86774-32-0)<br />
* Mateusz Kurcewicz - LUNAŚWIAT (Sekowo 2006, ISBN 83-921453-2-1)<br />
* Wacław Krupiński - GŁOWY PIWNICZNE (Krakow 2007, ISBN 978-83-08-04103-1)<br />
* Jerzy Illg - MÓJ ZNAK (Krakow 2009. ISBN 978-83-240-1282-4)<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kudas, Sebastian}}<br />
[[Category:Polish scenic designers]]<br />
[[Category:Polish illustrators]]<br />
[[Category:1978 births]]<br />
[[Category:People from Kraków]]<br />
<br />
[[pl:Sebastian Kudas]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sebastian_Kudas&diff=472280167Sebastian Kudas2012-01-20T16:53:39Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Kudas1.jpg|thumb|200px|Sebastian Kudas]]<br />
'''Sebastian Ludwik Kudas''' (born 31st August [[1978]] in [[Kraków]]) - polish graphic artist (drawer), illustrator, and [[Piwnica pod Baranami]]’s stage designer.<br />
<br />
Sebastian L. Kudas has been bound with „Piwnica pod Baranami” since [[1995]], thanks to [[Jerzy Skarżyński (stage designer)|Jerzy Skarżyński]] and [[Piotr Skrzynecki]], as a stage designer and drawer. He accomplished several dozen stage designs for Piwnica’s performances (also abroad: [[Stockholm]], [[Malmo]], [[Oslo]], [[Wien]], [[Chicago]], [[Toronto]] and [[New York]]), Piwnica artists’ recitals and a documentary about Wisława Szymborska directed by Antoni Krauze.<br />
<br />
As an illustrator, he cooperated mainly with [[Jacek Kaczmarski]], [[Ewa Lipska]], [[Jan Nowicki]], [[Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz]], [[Janusz Radek]]. He illustrated unique publications, among others „Epitafia” by [[Wisława Szymborska]], Ewa Lipska, [[Bronisław Maj]], [[Michał Rusinek]] and „Apologia Balceroviciana” and „Balceroviciana varia”, published by café Nowa Prowincja. In [[1999]], together with Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz and [[Grzegorz Turnau]], he founded „Chwilowa Grupa Artystyczna TRIO” (Temporary Artistic Group TRIO); the group had exhibitions in [[Gliwice]], [[Bytom]], [[Jelenia Góra]] and Kraków. In [[2001]], together with [[Barbara Stępniak-Wilk]] and Maciej Dancewicz, he founded „Grupa Apokryficzna” (Apocryphal Group). He worked as an assistant director with [[Antoni Krauze]] (a documentary about „Piwnica pod Baranami) and [[Marta Meszaros]] (a theatrical performance „Tramwaj zwany pożądaniem” - „Streetcar Named Desire”).<br />
<br />
Kudas cooperated with newspapers and magazines „Dziennik Polski”, „Przekrój”, „Zwierciadło” and "Bluszcz". His drawings were exhibited in Kraków, [[Sopot]], [[Częstochowa]], [[Sandomierz]], [[Tarnobrzeg]] but also in Wien, [[Ebenfurth]] and [[Nurnberg]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1997]] Kudas was chosen to Artistic Board of „Piwnica Pod Baranami”. In [[2007]] his work earned him Wiesław Dymny’s Award, awarded by Wiesław Dymny’s Foundation in Montreal, for versatile an artistic activity.<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* http://www.piwnicapodbaranami.krakow.pl/galerie/kudas/sebastian.html<br />
* http://www.nowaprowincja.krakow.pl/kudas.html<br />
* http://teatr-mickiewicza.pl/v-przez-dotyk/rozmowa-sebastian-kudas.html<br />
* http://www.bg.agh.edu.pl/PIWNICA/index.php?m=05-9<br />
* http://www.mateuszkurcewicz.pl/wiersz.html<br />
* http://www.deerwith.it/tag/sebastian-kudas<br />
* http://lipska.wydawnictwoliterackie.pl/galeria_kartki.php<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
* Rainer Maria Rillke - GODZINKI/DAS STUNDENBUCH (Lublin 1997, 83-86236-61-2)<br />
* Joanna Olczak- Ronikier - PIWNICA POD BARANAMI (Warszawa 1997, ISBN83-7180-661-2<br />
* Jan Nowicki - MIĘDZY NIEBEM A ZIEMIĄ (Gdansk 2000, ISBN 83-87342-27-0)<br />
* GRUPA APOKRYFICZNA (Krakow 2001, ISBN 83-86774-12-6)<br />
* Leszek Wójtowicz - DOM NA GROBLACH (Warszawa 2003, ISBN 83-221-0752-8)<br />
* Ewa Lipska, Sebastian L. Kudas - LEKTURA ISTNIENIA (Krakow 2004, ISBN<br />
83-86774-32-0)<br />
* Mateusz Kurcewicz - LUNAŚWIAT (Sekowo 2006, ISBN 83-921453-2-1)<br />
* Wacław Krupiński - GŁOWY PIWNICZNE (Krakow 2007, ISBN 978-83-08-04103-1)<br />
* Jerzy Illg - MÓJ ZNAK (Krakow 2009. ISBN 978-83-240-1282-4)<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kudas, Sebastian}}<br />
[[Category:Polish scenic designers]]<br />
[[Category:Polish illustrators]]<br />
[[Category:1978 births]]<br />
<br />
[[pl:Sebastian Kudas]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sebastian_Kudas&diff=472279900Sebastian Kudas2012-01-20T16:52:13Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Kudas1.jpg|thumb|200px|Sebastian Kudas]]<br />
'''Sebastian Ludwik Kudas''' (born 31st August [[1978]] in [[Kraków]]) - polish graphic artist (drawer), illustrator, and [[Piwnica pod Baranami]]’s stage designer.<br />
<br />
Sebastian L. Kudas has been bound with „Piwnica pod Baranami” since [[1995]], thanks to [[Jerzy Skarżyński (stage designer)|Jerzy Skarżyński]] and [[Piotr Skrzynecki]], as a stage designer and drawer. He accomplished several dozen stage designs for Piwnica’s performances (also abroad: [[Stockholm]], [[Malmo]], [[Oslo]], [[Wien]], [[Chicago]], [[Toronto]] and [[New York]]), Piwnica artists’ recitals and a documentary about Wisława Szymborska directed by Antoni Krauze.<br />
<br />
As an illustrator, he cooperated mainly with [[Jacek Kaczmarski]], [[Ewa Lipska]], [[Jan Nowicki]], [[Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz]], [[Janusz Radek]]. He illustrated unique publications, among others „Epitafia” by [[Wisława Szymborska]], Ewa Lipska, [[Bronisław Maj]], [[Michał Rusinek]] and „Apologia Balceroviciana” and „Balceroviciana varia”, published by café Nowa Prowincja. In [[1999]], together with Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz and [[Grzegorz Turnau]], he founded „Chwilowa Grupa Artystyczna TRIO” (Temporary Artistic Group TRIO); the group had exhibitions in [[Gliwice]], [[Bytom]], [[Jelenia Góra]] and Kraków. In [[2001]], together with [[Barbara Stępniak-Wilk]] and Maciej Dancewicz, he founded „Grupa Apokryficzna” (Apocryphal Group). He worked as an assistant director with Antoni Krauze (a documentary about „Piwnica pod Baranami) and Marta Meszaros (a theatrical performance „Tramwaj zwany pożądaniem” - „Streetcar Named Desire”).<br />
<br />
Kudas cooperated with newspapers and magazines „Dziennik Polski”, „Przekrój”, „Zwierciadło” and "Bluszcz". His drawings were exhibited in Kraków, [[Sopot]], [[Częstochowa]], [[Sandomierz]], [[Tarnobrzeg]] but also in Wien, [[Ebenfurth]] and [[Nurnberg]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1997]] Kudas was chosen to Artistic Board of „Piwnica Pod Baranami”. In [[2007]] his work earned him Wiesław Dymny’s Award, awarded by Wiesław Dymny’s Foundation in Montreal, for versatile an artistic activity.<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* http://www.piwnicapodbaranami.krakow.pl/galerie/kudas/sebastian.html<br />
* http://www.nowaprowincja.krakow.pl/kudas.html<br />
* http://teatr-mickiewicza.pl/v-przez-dotyk/rozmowa-sebastian-kudas.html<br />
* http://www.bg.agh.edu.pl/PIWNICA/index.php?m=05-9<br />
* http://www.mateuszkurcewicz.pl/wiersz.html<br />
* http://www.deerwith.it/tag/sebastian-kudas<br />
* http://lipska.wydawnictwoliterackie.pl/galeria_kartki.php<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
* Rainer Maria Rillke - GODZINKI/DAS STUNDENBUCH (Lublin 1997, 83-86236-61-2)<br />
* Joanna Olczak- Ronikier - PIWNICA POD BARANAMI (Warszawa 1997, ISBN83-7180-661-2<br />
* Jan Nowicki - MIĘDZY NIEBEM A ZIEMIĄ (Gdansk 2000, ISBN 83-87342-27-0)<br />
* GRUPA APOKRYFICZNA (Krakow 2001, ISBN 83-86774-12-6)<br />
* Leszek Wójtowicz - DOM NA GROBLACH (Warszawa 2003, ISBN 83-221-0752-8)<br />
* Ewa Lipska, Sebastian L. Kudas - LEKTURA ISTNIENIA (Krakow 2004, ISBN<br />
83-86774-32-0)<br />
* Mateusz Kurcewicz - LUNAŚWIAT (Sekowo 2006, ISBN 83-921453-2-1)<br />
* Wacław Krupiński - GŁOWY PIWNICZNE (Krakow 2007, ISBN 978-83-08-04103-1)<br />
* Jerzy Illg - MÓJ ZNAK (Krakow 2009. ISBN 978-83-240-1282-4)<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kudas, Sebastian}}<br />
[[Category:Polish scenic designers]]<br />
[[Category:Polish illustrators]]<br />
[[Category:1978 births]]<br />
<br />
[[pl:Sebastian Kudas]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sebastian_Kudas&diff=472279499Sebastian Kudas2012-01-20T16:49:51Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Kudas1.jpg|thumb|200px|Sebastian Kudas]]<br />
'''Sebastian Ludwik Kudas''' (born 31st August [[1978]] in [[Kraków]]) - polish graphic artist (drawer), illustrator, and [[Piwnica pod Baranami]]’s stage designer.<br />
<br />
Sebastian L. Kudas has been bound with „Piwnica pod Baranami” since [[1995]], thanks to [[Jerzy Skarżyński]] and [[Piotr Skrzynecki]], as a stage designer and drawer. He accomplished several dozen stage designs for Piwnica’s performances (also abroad: [[Stockholm]], [[Malmo]], [[Oslo]], [[Wien]], [[Chicago]], [[Toronto]] and [[New York]]), Piwnica artists’ recitals and a documentary about Wisława Szymborska directed by Antoni Krauze.<br />
<br />
As an illustrator, he cooperated mainly with [[Jacek Kaczmarski]], [[Ewa Lipska]], [[Jan Nowicki]], [[Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz]], [[Janusz Radek]]. He illustrated unique publications, among others „Epitafia” by [[Wisława Szymborska]], Ewa Lipska, [[Bronisław Maj]], [[Michał Rusinek]] and „Apologia Balceroviciana” and „Balceroviciana varia”, published by café Nowa Prowincja. In [[1999]], together with Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz and [[Grzegorz Turnau]], he founded „Chwilowa Grupa Artystyczna TRIO” (Temporary Artistic Group TRIO); the group had exhibitions in [[Gliwice]], [[Bytom]], [[Jelenia Góra]] and Kraków. In [[2001]], together with [[Barbara Stępniak-Wilk]] and Maciej Dancewicz, he founded „Grupa Apokryficzna” (Apocryphal Group). He worked as an assistant director with Antoni Krauze (a documentary about „Piwnica pod Baranami) and Marta Meszaros (a theatrical performance „Tramwaj zwany pożądaniem” - „Streetcar Named Desire”).<br />
<br />
Kudas cooperated with newspapers and magazines „Dziennik Polski”, „Przekrój”, „Zwierciadło” and "Bluszcz". His drawings were exhibited in Kraków, [[Sopot]], [[Częstochowa]], [[Sandomierz]], [[Tarnobrzeg]] but also in Wien, [[Ebenfurth]] and [[Nurnberg]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1997]] Kudas was chosen to Artistic Board of „Piwnica Pod Baranami”. In [[2007]] his work earned him Wiesław Dymny’s Award, awarded by Wiesław Dymny’s Foundation in Montreal, for versatile an artistic activity.<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* http://www.piwnicapodbaranami.krakow.pl/galerie/kudas/sebastian.html<br />
* http://www.nowaprowincja.krakow.pl/kudas.html<br />
* http://teatr-mickiewicza.pl/v-przez-dotyk/rozmowa-sebastian-kudas.html<br />
* http://www.bg.agh.edu.pl/PIWNICA/index.php?m=05-9<br />
* http://www.mateuszkurcewicz.pl/wiersz.html<br />
* http://www.deerwith.it/tag/sebastian-kudas<br />
* http://lipska.wydawnictwoliterackie.pl/galeria_kartki.php<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
* Rainer Maria Rillke - GODZINKI/DAS STUNDENBUCH (Lublin 1997, 83-86236-61-2)<br />
* Joanna Olczak- Ronikier - PIWNICA POD BARANAMI (Warszawa 1997, ISBN83-7180-661-2<br />
* Jan Nowicki - MIĘDZY NIEBEM A ZIEMIĄ (Gdansk 2000, ISBN 83-87342-27-0)<br />
* GRUPA APOKRYFICZNA (Krakow 2001, ISBN 83-86774-12-6)<br />
* Leszek Wójtowicz - DOM NA GROBLACH (Warszawa 2003, ISBN 83-221-0752-8)<br />
* Ewa Lipska, Sebastian L. Kudas - LEKTURA ISTNIENIA (Krakow 2004, ISBN<br />
83-86774-32-0)<br />
* Mateusz Kurcewicz - LUNAŚWIAT (Sekowo 2006, ISBN 83-921453-2-1)<br />
* Wacław Krupiński - GŁOWY PIWNICZNE (Krakow 2007, ISBN 978-83-08-04103-1)<br />
* Jerzy Illg - MÓJ ZNAK (Krakow 2009. ISBN 978-83-240-1282-4)<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kudas, Sebastian}}<br />
[[Category:Polish scenic designers]]<br />
[[Category:Polish illustrators]]<br />
[[Category:1978 births]]<br />
<br />
[[pl:Sebastian Kudas]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sebastian_Kudas&diff=472273995Sebastian Kudas2012-01-20T16:18:35Z<p>Birczanin: /* Linki */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Sebastian Ludwik Kudas''' (born 31st August [[1978]] in [[Kraków]]) - polish graphic artist (drawer), illustrator, and [[Piwnica pod Baranami]]’s stage designer.<br />
<br />
Sebastian L. Kudas has been bound with „Piwnica pod Baranami” since [[1995]], thanks to [[Jerzy Skarżyński]] and [[Piotr Skrzynecki]], as a stage designer and drawer. He accomplished several dozen stage designs for Piwnica’s performances (also abroad: [[Stockholm]], [[Malmo]], [[Oslo]], [[Wien]], [[Chicago]], [[Toronto]] and [[New York]]), Piwnica artists’ recitals and a documentary about Wisława Szymborska directed by Antoni Krauze.<br />
<br />
As an illustrator, he cooperated mainly with [[Jacek Kaczmarski]], [[Ewa Lipska]], [[Jan Nowicki]], [[Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz]], [[Janusz Radek]]. He illustrated unique publications, among others „Epitafia” by [[Wisława Szymborska]], Ewa Lipska, [[Bronisław Maj]], [[Michał Rusinek]] and „Apologia Balceroviciana” and „Balceroviciana varia”, published by café Nowa Prowincja. In [[1999]], together with Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz and [[Grzegorz Turnau]], he founded „Chwilowa Grupa Artystyczna TRIO” (Temporary Artistic Group TRIO); the group had exhibitions in [[Gliwice]], [[Bytom]], [[Jelenia Góra]] and Kraków. In [[2001]], together with [[Barbara Stępniak-Wilk]] and Maciej Dancewicz, he founded „Grupa Apokryficzna” (Apocryphal Group). He worked as an assistant director with Antoni Krauze (a documentary about „Piwnica pod Baranami) and Marta Meszaros (a theatrical performance „Tramwaj zwany pożądaniem” - „Streetcar Named Desire”).<br />
<br />
Kudas cooperated with newspapers and magazines „Dziennik Polski”, „Przekrój”, „Zwierciadło” and "Bluszcz". His drawings were exhibited in Kraków, [[Sopot]], [[Częstochowa]], [[Sandomierz]], [[Tarnobrzeg]] but also in Wien, [[Ebenfurth]] and [[Nurnberg]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1997]] Kudas was chosen to Artistic Board of „Piwnica Pod Baranami”. In [[2007]] his work earned him Wiesław Dymny’s Award, awarded by Wiesław Dymny’s Foundation in Montreal, for versatile an artistic activity.<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* http://www.piwnicapodbaranami.krakow.pl/galerie/kudas/sebastian.html<br />
* http://www.nowaprowincja.krakow.pl/kudas.html<br />
* http://teatr-mickiewicza.pl/v-przez-dotyk/rozmowa-sebastian-kudas.html<br />
* http://www.bg.agh.edu.pl/PIWNICA/index.php?m=05-9<br />
* http://www.mateuszkurcewicz.pl/wiersz.html<br />
* http://www.deerwith.it/tag/sebastian-kudas<br />
* http://lipska.wydawnictwoliterackie.pl/galeria_kartki.php<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
* Rainer Maria Rillke - GODZINKI/DAS STUNDENBUCH (Lublin 1997, 83-86236-61-2)<br />
* Joanna Olczak- Ronikier - PIWNICA POD BARANAMI (Warszawa 1997, ISBN83-7180-661-2<br />
* Jan Nowicki - MIĘDZY NIEBEM A ZIEMIĄ (Gdansk 2000, ISBN 83-87342-27-0)<br />
* GRUPA APOKRYFICZNA (Krakow 2001, ISBN 83-86774-12-6)<br />
* Leszek Wójtowicz - DOM NA GROBLACH (Warszawa 2003, ISBN 83-221-0752-8)<br />
* Ewa Lipska, Sebastian L. Kudas - LEKTURA ISTNIENIA (Krakow 2004, ISBN<br />
83-86774-32-0)<br />
* Mateusz Kurcewicz - LUNAŚWIAT (Sekowo 2006, ISBN 83-921453-2-1)<br />
* Wacław Krupiński - GŁOWY PIWNICZNE (Krakow 2007, ISBN 978-83-08-04103-1)<br />
* Jerzy Illg - MÓJ ZNAK (Krakow 2009. ISBN 978-83-240-1282-4)<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kudas, Sebastian}}<br />
[[Category:Polish scenic designers]]<br />
[[Category:Polish illustrators]]<br />
[[Category:1978 births]]<br />
<br />
[[pl:Sebastian Kudas]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sebastian_Kudas&diff=472273800Sebastian Kudas2012-01-20T16:17:25Z<p>Birczanin: /* Bibliography */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Sebastian Ludwik Kudas''' (born 31st August [[1978]] in [[Kraków]]) - polish graphic artist (drawer), illustrator, and [[Piwnica pod Baranami]]’s stage designer.<br />
<br />
Sebastian L. Kudas has been bound with „Piwnica pod Baranami” since [[1995]], thanks to [[Jerzy Skarżyński]] and [[Piotr Skrzynecki]], as a stage designer and drawer. He accomplished several dozen stage designs for Piwnica’s performances (also abroad: [[Stockholm]], [[Malmo]], [[Oslo]], [[Wien]], [[Chicago]], [[Toronto]] and [[New York]]), Piwnica artists’ recitals and a documentary about Wisława Szymborska directed by Antoni Krauze.<br />
<br />
As an illustrator, he cooperated mainly with [[Jacek Kaczmarski]], [[Ewa Lipska]], [[Jan Nowicki]], [[Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz]], [[Janusz Radek]]. He illustrated unique publications, among others „Epitafia” by [[Wisława Szymborska]], Ewa Lipska, [[Bronisław Maj]], [[Michał Rusinek]] and „Apologia Balceroviciana” and „Balceroviciana varia”, published by café Nowa Prowincja. In [[1999]], together with Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz and [[Grzegorz Turnau]], he founded „Chwilowa Grupa Artystyczna TRIO” (Temporary Artistic Group TRIO); the group had exhibitions in [[Gliwice]], [[Bytom]], [[Jelenia Góra]] and Kraków. In [[2001]], together with [[Barbara Stępniak-Wilk]] and Maciej Dancewicz, he founded „Grupa Apokryficzna” (Apocryphal Group). He worked as an assistant director with Antoni Krauze (a documentary about „Piwnica pod Baranami) and Marta Meszaros (a theatrical performance „Tramwaj zwany pożądaniem” - „Streetcar Named Desire”).<br />
<br />
Kudas cooperated with newspapers and magazines „Dziennik Polski”, „Przekrój”, „Zwierciadło” and "Bluszcz". His drawings were exhibited in Kraków, [[Sopot]], [[Częstochowa]], [[Sandomierz]], [[Tarnobrzeg]] but also in Wien, [[Ebenfurth]] and [[Nurnberg]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1997]] Kudas was chosen to Artistic Board of „Piwnica Pod Baranami”. In [[2007]] his work earned him Wiesław Dymny’s Award, awarded by Wiesław Dymny’s Foundation in Montreal, for versatile an artistic activity.<br />
<br />
== Linki ==<br />
* http://www.piwnicapodbaranami.krakow.pl/galerie/kudas/sebastian.html<br />
* http://www.nowaprowincja.krakow.pl/kudas.html<br />
* http://teatr-mickiewicza.pl/v-przez-dotyk/rozmowa-sebastian-kudas.html<br />
* http://www.bg.agh.edu.pl/PIWNICA/index.php?m=05-9<br />
* http://www.mateuszkurcewicz.pl/wiersz.html<br />
* http://www.deerwith.it/tag/sebastian-kudas<br />
* http://lipska.wydawnictwoliterackie.pl/galeria_kartki.php<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
* Rainer Maria Rillke - GODZINKI/DAS STUNDENBUCH (Lublin 1997, 83-86236-61-2)<br />
* Joanna Olczak- Ronikier - PIWNICA POD BARANAMI (Warszawa 1997, ISBN83-7180-661-2<br />
* Jan Nowicki - MIĘDZY NIEBEM A ZIEMIĄ (Gdansk 2000, ISBN 83-87342-27-0)<br />
* GRUPA APOKRYFICZNA (Krakow 2001, ISBN 83-86774-12-6)<br />
* Leszek Wójtowicz - DOM NA GROBLACH (Warszawa 2003, ISBN 83-221-0752-8)<br />
* Ewa Lipska, Sebastian L. Kudas - LEKTURA ISTNIENIA (Krakow 2004, ISBN<br />
83-86774-32-0)<br />
* Mateusz Kurcewicz - LUNAŚWIAT (Sekowo 2006, ISBN 83-921453-2-1)<br />
* Wacław Krupiński - GŁOWY PIWNICZNE (Krakow 2007, ISBN 978-83-08-04103-1)<br />
* Jerzy Illg - MÓJ ZNAK (Krakow 2009. ISBN 978-83-240-1282-4)<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kudas, Sebastian}}<br />
[[Category:Polish scenic designers]]<br />
[[Category:Polish illustrators]]<br />
[[Category:1978 births]]<br />
<br />
[[pl:Sebastian Kudas]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sebastian_Kudas&diff=472273645Sebastian Kudas2012-01-20T16:16:34Z<p>Birczanin: /* Bibliography */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Sebastian Ludwik Kudas''' (born 31st August [[1978]] in [[Kraków]]) - polish graphic artist (drawer), illustrator, and [[Piwnica pod Baranami]]’s stage designer.<br />
<br />
Sebastian L. Kudas has been bound with „Piwnica pod Baranami” since [[1995]], thanks to [[Jerzy Skarżyński]] and [[Piotr Skrzynecki]], as a stage designer and drawer. He accomplished several dozen stage designs for Piwnica’s performances (also abroad: [[Stockholm]], [[Malmo]], [[Oslo]], [[Wien]], [[Chicago]], [[Toronto]] and [[New York]]), Piwnica artists’ recitals and a documentary about Wisława Szymborska directed by Antoni Krauze.<br />
<br />
As an illustrator, he cooperated mainly with [[Jacek Kaczmarski]], [[Ewa Lipska]], [[Jan Nowicki]], [[Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz]], [[Janusz Radek]]. He illustrated unique publications, among others „Epitafia” by [[Wisława Szymborska]], Ewa Lipska, [[Bronisław Maj]], [[Michał Rusinek]] and „Apologia Balceroviciana” and „Balceroviciana varia”, published by café Nowa Prowincja. In [[1999]], together with Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz and [[Grzegorz Turnau]], he founded „Chwilowa Grupa Artystyczna TRIO” (Temporary Artistic Group TRIO); the group had exhibitions in [[Gliwice]], [[Bytom]], [[Jelenia Góra]] and Kraków. In [[2001]], together with [[Barbara Stępniak-Wilk]] and Maciej Dancewicz, he founded „Grupa Apokryficzna” (Apocryphal Group). He worked as an assistant director with Antoni Krauze (a documentary about „Piwnica pod Baranami) and Marta Meszaros (a theatrical performance „Tramwaj zwany pożądaniem” - „Streetcar Named Desire”).<br />
<br />
Kudas cooperated with newspapers and magazines „Dziennik Polski”, „Przekrój”, „Zwierciadło” and "Bluszcz". His drawings were exhibited in Kraków, [[Sopot]], [[Częstochowa]], [[Sandomierz]], [[Tarnobrzeg]] but also in Wien, [[Ebenfurth]] and [[Nurnberg]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1997]] Kudas was chosen to Artistic Board of „Piwnica Pod Baranami”. In [[2007]] his work earned him Wiesław Dymny’s Award, awarded by Wiesław Dymny’s Foundation in Montreal, for versatile an artistic activity.<br />
<br />
== Linki ==<br />
* http://www.piwnicapodbaranami.krakow.pl/galerie/kudas/sebastian.html<br />
* http://www.nowaprowincja.krakow.pl/kudas.html<br />
* http://teatr-mickiewicza.pl/v-przez-dotyk/rozmowa-sebastian-kudas.html<br />
* http://www.bg.agh.edu.pl/PIWNICA/index.php?m=05-9<br />
* http://www.mateuszkurcewicz.pl/wiersz.html<br />
* http://www.deerwith.it/tag/sebastian-kudas<br />
* http://lipska.wydawnictwoliterackie.pl/galeria_kartki.php<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
* Rainer Maria Rillke - GODZINKI/DAS STUNDENBUCH (Lublin 1997, 83-86236-61-2)<br />
* Joanna Olczak- Ronikier - PIWNICA POD BARANAMI (Warszawa 1997, ISBN83-7180-661-2<br />
* Jan Nowicki - MIĘDZY NIEBEM A ZIEMIĄ (Gdansk 2000, ISBN 83-87342-27-0)<br />
* GRUPA APOKRYFICZNA (Krakow 2001, ISBN 83-86774-12-6)<br />
* Leszek Wójtowicz - DOM NA GROBLACH (Warszawa 2003, ISBN 83-221-0752-8)<br />
* Ewa Lipska, Sebastian L. Kudas - LEKTURA ISTNIENIA (Krakow 2004, ISBN<br />
83-86774-32-0)<br />
* Mateusz Kurcewicz - LUNAŚWIAT (Sekowo 2006, ISBN 83-921453-2-1)<br />
* Wacław Krupiński - GŁOWY PIWNICZNE (Krakow 2007, ISBN 978-83-08-04103-1)<br />
* Jerzy Illg - MÓJ ZNAK (Krakow 2009. ISBN 978-83-240-1282-4)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Polish scenic designers]]<br />
[[Category:Polish illustrators]]<br />
[[Category:1978 births]]<br />
<br />
[[pl:Sebastian Kudas]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sebastian_Kudas&diff=472273486Sebastian Kudas2012-01-20T16:15:40Z<p>Birczanin: /* Bibliography */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Sebastian Ludwik Kudas''' (born 31st August [[1978]] in [[Kraków]]) - polish graphic artist (drawer), illustrator, and [[Piwnica pod Baranami]]’s stage designer.<br />
<br />
Sebastian L. Kudas has been bound with „Piwnica pod Baranami” since [[1995]], thanks to [[Jerzy Skarżyński]] and [[Piotr Skrzynecki]], as a stage designer and drawer. He accomplished several dozen stage designs for Piwnica’s performances (also abroad: [[Stockholm]], [[Malmo]], [[Oslo]], [[Wien]], [[Chicago]], [[Toronto]] and [[New York]]), Piwnica artists’ recitals and a documentary about Wisława Szymborska directed by Antoni Krauze.<br />
<br />
As an illustrator, he cooperated mainly with [[Jacek Kaczmarski]], [[Ewa Lipska]], [[Jan Nowicki]], [[Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz]], [[Janusz Radek]]. He illustrated unique publications, among others „Epitafia” by [[Wisława Szymborska]], Ewa Lipska, [[Bronisław Maj]], [[Michał Rusinek]] and „Apologia Balceroviciana” and „Balceroviciana varia”, published by café Nowa Prowincja. In [[1999]], together with Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz and [[Grzegorz Turnau]], he founded „Chwilowa Grupa Artystyczna TRIO” (Temporary Artistic Group TRIO); the group had exhibitions in [[Gliwice]], [[Bytom]], [[Jelenia Góra]] and Kraków. In [[2001]], together with [[Barbara Stępniak-Wilk]] and Maciej Dancewicz, he founded „Grupa Apokryficzna” (Apocryphal Group). He worked as an assistant director with Antoni Krauze (a documentary about „Piwnica pod Baranami) and Marta Meszaros (a theatrical performance „Tramwaj zwany pożądaniem” - „Streetcar Named Desire”).<br />
<br />
Kudas cooperated with newspapers and magazines „Dziennik Polski”, „Przekrój”, „Zwierciadło” and "Bluszcz". His drawings were exhibited in Kraków, [[Sopot]], [[Częstochowa]], [[Sandomierz]], [[Tarnobrzeg]] but also in Wien, [[Ebenfurth]] and [[Nurnberg]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1997]] Kudas was chosen to Artistic Board of „Piwnica Pod Baranami”. In [[2007]] his work earned him Wiesław Dymny’s Award, awarded by Wiesław Dymny’s Foundation in Montreal, for versatile an artistic activity.<br />
<br />
== Linki ==<br />
* http://www.piwnicapodbaranami.krakow.pl/galerie/kudas/sebastian.html<br />
* http://www.nowaprowincja.krakow.pl/kudas.html<br />
* http://teatr-mickiewicza.pl/v-przez-dotyk/rozmowa-sebastian-kudas.html<br />
* http://www.bg.agh.edu.pl/PIWNICA/index.php?m=05-9<br />
* http://www.mateuszkurcewicz.pl/wiersz.html<br />
* http://www.deerwith.it/tag/sebastian-kudas<br />
* http://lipska.wydawnictwoliterackie.pl/galeria_kartki.php<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
* Rainer Maria Rillke - GODZINKI/DAS STUNDENBUCH (Lublin 1997, 83-86236-61-2)<br />
* Joanna Olczak- Ronikier - PIWNICA POD BARANAMI (Warszawa 1997, ISBN83-7180-661-2<br />
* Jan Nowicki - MIĘDZY NIEBEM A ZIEMIĄ (Gdansk 2000, ISBN 83-87342-27-0)<br />
* GRUPA APOKRYFICZNA (Krakow 2001, ISBN 83-86774-12-6)<br />
* Leszek Wójtowicz - DOM NA GROBLACH (Warszawa 2003, ISBN 83-221-0752-8)<br />
* Ewa Lipska, Sebastian L. Kudas - LEKTURA ISTNIENIA (Krakow 2004, ISBN<br />
83-86774-32-0)<br />
* Mateusz Kurcewicz - LUNAŚWIAT (Sekowo 2006, ISBN 83-921453-2-1)<br />
* Wacław Krupiński - GŁOWY PIWNICZNE (Krakow 2007, ISBN 978-83-08-04103-1)<br />
* Jerzy Illg - MÓJ ZNAK (Krakow 2009. ISBN 978-83-240-1282-4)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Polish illustrators]]<br />
[[Category:1978 births]]<br />
<br />
[[pl:Sebastian Kudas]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sebastian_Kudas&diff=472273346Sebastian Kudas2012-01-20T16:14:57Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Sebastian Ludwik Kudas''' (born 31st August [[1978]] in [[Kraków]]) - polish graphic artist (drawer), illustrator, and [[Piwnica pod Baranami]]’s stage designer.<br />
<br />
Sebastian L. Kudas has been bound with „Piwnica pod Baranami” since [[1995]], thanks to [[Jerzy Skarżyński]] and [[Piotr Skrzynecki]], as a stage designer and drawer. He accomplished several dozen stage designs for Piwnica’s performances (also abroad: [[Stockholm]], [[Malmo]], [[Oslo]], [[Wien]], [[Chicago]], [[Toronto]] and [[New York]]), Piwnica artists’ recitals and a documentary about Wisława Szymborska directed by Antoni Krauze.<br />
<br />
As an illustrator, he cooperated mainly with [[Jacek Kaczmarski]], [[Ewa Lipska]], [[Jan Nowicki]], [[Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz]], [[Janusz Radek]]. He illustrated unique publications, among others „Epitafia” by [[Wisława Szymborska]], Ewa Lipska, [[Bronisław Maj]], [[Michał Rusinek]] and „Apologia Balceroviciana” and „Balceroviciana varia”, published by café Nowa Prowincja. In [[1999]], together with Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz and [[Grzegorz Turnau]], he founded „Chwilowa Grupa Artystyczna TRIO” (Temporary Artistic Group TRIO); the group had exhibitions in [[Gliwice]], [[Bytom]], [[Jelenia Góra]] and Kraków. In [[2001]], together with [[Barbara Stępniak-Wilk]] and Maciej Dancewicz, he founded „Grupa Apokryficzna” (Apocryphal Group). He worked as an assistant director with Antoni Krauze (a documentary about „Piwnica pod Baranami) and Marta Meszaros (a theatrical performance „Tramwaj zwany pożądaniem” - „Streetcar Named Desire”).<br />
<br />
Kudas cooperated with newspapers and magazines „Dziennik Polski”, „Przekrój”, „Zwierciadło” and "Bluszcz". His drawings were exhibited in Kraków, [[Sopot]], [[Częstochowa]], [[Sandomierz]], [[Tarnobrzeg]] but also in Wien, [[Ebenfurth]] and [[Nurnberg]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1997]] Kudas was chosen to Artistic Board of „Piwnica Pod Baranami”. In [[2007]] his work earned him Wiesław Dymny’s Award, awarded by Wiesław Dymny’s Foundation in Montreal, for versatile an artistic activity.<br />
<br />
== Linki ==<br />
* http://www.piwnicapodbaranami.krakow.pl/galerie/kudas/sebastian.html<br />
* http://www.nowaprowincja.krakow.pl/kudas.html<br />
* http://teatr-mickiewicza.pl/v-przez-dotyk/rozmowa-sebastian-kudas.html<br />
* http://www.bg.agh.edu.pl/PIWNICA/index.php?m=05-9<br />
* http://www.mateuszkurcewicz.pl/wiersz.html<br />
* http://www.deerwith.it/tag/sebastian-kudas<br />
* http://lipska.wydawnictwoliterackie.pl/galeria_kartki.php<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
* Rainer Maria Rillke - GODZINKI/DAS STUNDENBUCH (Lublin 1997, 83-86236-61-2)<br />
* Joanna Olczak- Ronikier - PIWNICA POD BARANAMI (Warszawa 1997, ISBN83-7180-661-2<br />
* Jan Nowicki - MIĘDZY NIEBEM A ZIEMIĄ (Gdansk 2000, ISBN 83-87342-27-0)<br />
* GRUPA APOKRYFICZNA (Krakow 2001, ISBN 83-86774-12-6)<br />
* Leszek Wójtowicz - DOM NA GROBLACH (Warszawa 2003, ISBN 83-221-0752-8)<br />
* Ewa Lipska, Sebastian L. Kudas - LEKTURA ISTNIENIA (Krakow 2004, ISBN<br />
83-86774-32-0)<br />
* Mateusz Kurcewicz - LUNAŚWIAT (Sekowo 2006, ISBN 83-921453-2-1)<br />
* Wacław Krupiński - GŁOWY PIWNICZNE (Krakow 2007, ISBN 978-83-08-04103-1)<br />
* Jerzy Illg - MÓJ ZNAK (Krakow 2009. ISBN 978-83-240-1282-4)<br />
<br />
[[Category:1978 births]]<br />
<br />
[[pl:Sebastian Kudas]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sebastian_Kudas&diff=472273194Sebastian Kudas2012-01-20T16:14:05Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Sebastian Ludwik Kudas''' (born 31st August [[1978]] in [[Kraków]]) - polish graphic artist (drawer), illustrator, and [[Piwnica pod Baranami]]’s stage designer.<br />
<br />
Sebastian L. Kudas has been bound with „Piwnica pod Baranami” since [[1995]], thanks to [[Jerzy Skarżyński]] and [[Piotr Skrzynecki]], as a stage designer and drawer. He accomplished several dozen stage designs for Piwnica’s performances (also abroad: [[Stockholm]], [[Malmo]], [[Oslo]], [[Wien]], [[Chicago]], [[Toronto]] and [[New York]]), Piwnica artists’ recitals and a documentary about Wisława Szymborska directed by Antoni Krauze.<br />
<br />
As an illustrator, he cooperated mainly with [[Jacek Kaczmarski]], [[Ewa Lipska]], [[Jan Nowicki]], [[Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz]], [[Janusz Radek]]. He illustrated unique publications, among others „Epitafia” by [[Wisława Szymborska]], Ewa Lipska, [[Bronisław Maj]], [[Michał Rusinek]] and „Apologia Balceroviciana” and „Balceroviciana varia”, published by café Nowa Prowincja. In [[1999]], together with Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz and [[Grzegorz Turnau]], he founded „Chwilowa Grupa Artystyczna TRIO” (Temporary Artistic Group TRIO); the group had exhibitions in [[Gliwice]], [[Bytom]], [[Jelenia Góra]] and Kraków. In [[2001]], together with [[Barbara Stępniak-Wilk]] and Maciej Dancewicz, he founded „Grupa Apokryficzna” (Apocryphal Group). He worked as an assistant director with Antoni Krauze (a documentary about „Piwnica pod Baranami) and Marta Meszaros (a theatrical performance „Tramwaj zwany pożądaniem” - „Streetcar Named Desire”).<br />
<br />
Kudas cooperated with newspapers and magazines „Dziennik Polski”, „Przekrój”, „Zwierciadło” and "Bluszcz". His drawings were exhibited in Kraków, [[Sopot]], [[Częstochowa]], [[Sandomierz]], [[Tarnobrzeg]] but also in Wien, [[Ebenfurth]] and [[Nurnberg]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1997]] Kudas was chosen to Artistic Board of „Piwnica Pod Baranami”. In [[2007]] his work earned him Wiesław Dymny’s Award, awarded by Wiesław Dymny’s Foundation in Montreal, for versatile an artistic activity.<br />
<br />
== Linki ==<br />
* http://www.piwnicapodbaranami.krakow.pl/galerie/kudas/sebastian.html<br />
* http://www.nowaprowincja.krakow.pl/kudas.html<br />
* http://teatr-mickiewicza.pl/v-przez-dotyk/rozmowa-sebastian-kudas.html<br />
* http://www.bg.agh.edu.pl/PIWNICA/index.php?m=05-9<br />
* http://www.mateuszkurcewicz.pl/wiersz.html<br />
* http://www.deerwith.it/tag/sebastian-kudas<br />
* http://lipska.wydawnictwoliterackie.pl/galeria_kartki.php<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
* Rainer Maria Rillke - GODZINKI/DAS STUNDENBUCH (Lublin 1997, 83-86236-61-2)<br />
* Joanna Olczak- Ronikier - PIWNICA POD BARANAMI (Warszawa 1997, ISBN83-7180-661-2<br />
* Jan Nowicki - MIĘDZY NIEBEM A ZIEMIĄ (Gdansk 2000, ISBN 83-87342-27-0)<br />
* GRUPA APOKRYFICZNA (Krakow 2001, ISBN 83-86774-12-6)<br />
* Leszek Wójtowicz - DOM NA GROBLACH (Warszawa 2003, ISBN 83-221-0752-8)<br />
* Ewa Lipska, Sebastian L. Kudas - LEKTURA ISTNIENIA (Krakow 2004, ISBN<br />
83-86774-32-0)<br />
* Mateusz Kurcewicz - LUNAŚWIAT (Sekowo 2006, ISBN 83-921453-2-1)<br />
* Wacław Krupiński - GŁOWY PIWNICZNE (Krakow 2007, ISBN 978-83-08-04103-1)<br />
* Jerzy Illg - MÓJ ZNAK (Krakow 2009. ISBN 978-83-240-1282-4)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Born in 1978]]<br />
<br />
[[pl:Sebastian Kudas]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sebastian_Kudas&diff=472272993Sebastian Kudas2012-01-20T16:12:59Z<p>Birczanin: ←Created page with ''''Sebastian Ludwik Kudas''' (born 31st August 1978 in Kraków) - polish graphic artist (drawer), illustrator, and Piwnica pod Baranami’s stage des...'</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Sebastian Ludwik Kudas''' (born 31st August [[1978]] in [[Kraków]]) - polish graphic artist (drawer), illustrator, and [[Piwnica pod Baranami]]’s stage designer.<br />
<br />
Sebastian L. Kudas has been bound with „Piwnica pod Baranami” since [[1995]], thanks to [[Jerzy Skarżyński]] and [[Piotr Skrzynecki]], as a stage designer and drawer. He accomplished several dozen stage designs for Piwnica’s performances (also abroad: [[Stockholm]], [[Malmo]], [[Oslo]], [[Wien]], [[Chicago]], [[Toronto]] and [[New York]]), Piwnica artists’ recitals and a documentary about Wisława Szymborska directed by Antoni Krauze.<br />
<br />
As an illustrator, he cooperated mainly with [[Jacek Kaczmarski]], [[Ewa Lipska]], [[Jan Nowicki]], [[Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz]], [[Janusz Radek]]. He illustrated unique publications, among others „Epitafia” by [[Wisława Szymborska]], Ewa Lipska, [[Bronisław Maj]], [[Michał Rusinek]] and „Apologia Balceroviciana” and „Balceroviciana varia”, published by café Nowa Prowincja. In [[1999]], together with Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz and [[Grzegorz Turnau]], he founded „Chwilowa Grupa Artystyczna TRIO” (Temporary Artistic Group TRIO); the group had exhibitions in [[Gliwice]], [[Bytom]], [[Jelenia Góra]] and Kraków. In [[2001]], together with [[Barbara Stępniak-Wilk]] and Maciej Dancewicz, he founded „Grupa Apokryficzna” (Apocryphal Group). He worked as an assistant director with Antoni Krauze (a documentary about „Piwnica pod Baranami) and Marta Meszaros (a theatrical performance „Tramwaj zwany pożądaniem” - „Streetcar Named Desire”).<br />
<br />
Kudas cooperated with newspapers and magazines „Dziennik Polski”, „Przekrój”, „Zwierciadło” and "Bluszcz". His drawings were exhibited in Kraków, [[Sopot]], [[Częstochowa]], [[Sandomierz]], [[Tarnobrzeg]] but also in Wien, [[Ebenfurth]] and [[Nurnberg]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1997]] Kudas was chosen to Artistic Board of „Piwnica Pod Baranami”. In [[2007]] his work earned him Wiesław Dymny’s Award, awarded by Wiesław Dymny’s Foundation in Montreal, for versatile an artistic activity.<br />
<br />
== Linki ==<br />
* http://www.piwnicapodbaranami.krakow.pl/galerie/kudas/sebastian.html<br />
* http://www.nowaprowincja.krakow.pl/kudas.html<br />
* http://teatr-mickiewicza.pl/v-przez-dotyk/rozmowa-sebastian-kudas.html<br />
* http://www.bg.agh.edu.pl/PIWNICA/index.php?m=05-9<br />
* http://www.mateuszkurcewicz.pl/wiersz.html<br />
* http://www.deerwith.it/tag/sebastian-kudas<br />
* http://lipska.wydawnictwoliterackie.pl/galeria_kartki.php<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
* Rainer Maria Rillke - GODZINKI/DAS STUNDENBUCH (Lublin 1997, 83-86236-61-2)<br />
* Joanna Olczak- Ronikier - PIWNICA POD BARANAMI (Warszawa 1997, ISBN83-7180-661-2<br />
* Jan Nowicki - MIĘDZY NIEBEM A ZIEMIĄ (Gdansk 2000, ISBN 83-87342-27-0)<br />
* GRUPA APOKRYFICZNA (Krakow 2001, ISBN 83-86774-12-6)<br />
* Leszek Wójtowicz - DOM NA GROBLACH (Warszawa 2003, ISBN 83-221-0752-8)<br />
* Ewa Lipska, Sebastian L. Kudas - LEKTURA ISTNIENIA (Krakow 2004, ISBN<br />
83-86774-32-0)<br />
* Mateusz Kurcewicz - LUNAŚWIAT (Sekowo 2006, ISBN 83-921453-2-1)<br />
* Wacław Krupiński - GŁOWY PIWNICZNE (Krakow 2007, ISBN 978-83-08-04103-1)<br />
* Jerzy Illg - MÓJ ZNAK (Krakow 2009. ISBN 978-83-240-1282-4)</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nowica,_Lesser_Poland_Voivodeship&diff=471851153Nowica, Lesser Poland Voivodeship2012-01-17T11:50:40Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{otherplaces|Nowica}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Nowica<br />
| settlement_type = Village<br />
| total_type = &nbsp;<br />
| image_flag =<br />
| image_shield =<br />
| image_map =<br />
| coordinates_region = PL<br />
| subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]<br />
| subdivision_name = {{POL}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[Voivodeships of Poland|Voivodeship]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Lesser Poland Voivodeship|Lesser Poland]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[Powiat|County]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Gorlice County|Gorlice]]<br />
| subdivision_type3 = [[Gmina]]<br />
| subdivision_name3 = [[Gmina Uście Gorlickie|Uście Gorlickie]]<br />
|pushpin_map=Poland<br />
|latd=49|latm=33|lats=|latNS=N<br />
|longd=21|longm=11|longs=|longEW=E<br />
| elevation_m =<br />
| population_total = 120<br />
| website = }}<br />
'''Nowica''' {{IPAc-pl|n|o|'|w|i|c|a}} is a [[village]] in the administrative district of [[Gmina Uście Gorlickie]], within [[Gorlice County]], [[Lesser Poland Voivodeship]], in southern [[Poland]], close to the border with [[Slovakia]].<ref name="TERYT">{{cite web |url=http://www.stat.gov.pl/broker/access/prefile/listPreFiles.jspa |title=Central Statistical Office (GUS) &ndash; TERYT (National Register of Territorial Land Apportionment Journal) |date=2008-06-01 |language=Polish}}</ref> It lies approximately {{convert|5|km|mi|0}} north-east of [[Uście Gorlickie]], {{convert|12|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} south of [[Gorlice]], and {{convert|106|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} south-east of the regional capital [[Kraków]].<br />
<br />
The village has a population of 120.The population includes Polish and Lemko ethnicities. <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br><br />
{{Gmina Uście Gorlickie}}<br />
<br />
{{coord|49.5500|N|21.1833|E|type:city_region:PL_source:GNS-enwiki|display=title}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Villages in Gorlice County|Nowica]]<br />
{{Gorlice-geo-stub}}<br />
<br />
[[pl:Nowica (województwo małopolskie)]]<br />
[[uk:Новиця (Горлицький повіт)]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Moscow&diff=471850361History of Moscow2012-01-17T11:42:46Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{refimprove|date=March 2011}}<br />
The city of [[Moscow]] gradually grew around the [[Moscow Kremlin]], beginning in the 14th century. It was the capital of [[Great Russia]], also known as [[Muscovy]], from 1340 to 1712, the capital of the [[Soviet Union]] from 1922 to 1991, and since 1991 of the [[Russian Federation]].<br />
<br />
Situated on either bank of the eponymous [[Moskva River]], the city during the 16th to 17th centuries grew up in five concentric divisions, formerly separated from one another by walls: the [[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]] ("fortress"), [[Kitaigorod]] ("walled town", but interpreted as "Chinatown" by [[folk etymology]]), [[Bielygorod]] ("white town"), [[Zemlianoigorod]] (earthworks town), and [[Miestchanskygorod]] ("bourgeois town") outside the city walls.<br />
After the [[Fire of Moscow (1812)|fire of 1812]], the city ramparts were replaced with the [[Boulevard Ring]] and [[Garden Ring]] roads, replacing the walls around Bielygorod and Zemlianoigorod, respectively.<br />
The city's population grew from 250,000 to above a million in the 19th century, and from one to ten million in the 20th century, putting it among the top twenty of the [[World's largest cities|world's most populous cities]] today.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Coat of Arms of Moscow.svg|right|thumb|200px|The modern [[coat of arms of Moscow]] (adopted 1993) shows [[Saint George and the Dragon]], based on a heraldic tradition originating in the 11th century with [[Yaroslav I the Wise|Yaroslav I]] of Kiev and adopted by the rulers of [[Vladimir-Suzdal]] in the 12th century ([[Alexander Nevsky]]) and eventually by [[Muscovy]] in the 14th century ([[Dmitry Donskoy]]).]]<br />
<br />
==Prehistory==<br />
The oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the [[Neolithic]] (Schukinskaya site on the [[Moscow River]]). Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered (the burial ground of the Fatyanovskaya culture, the site of the [[Iron Age]] settlement of [[Dyakovskaya culture]], on the territory of [[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]], [[Sparrow Hills]], [[Setun River]], Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc.<br />
<br />
The etymology of the name ''Moskva'' is [[Uralic languages|Uralic]], perhaps [[Volga-Finnic languages|Volga-Finnic]] ([[Mordvinic]] or [[Merya]]{{Clarify|date=April 2011}})).<br />
In the 9th century, the [[Oka River]] was part of the [[Volga trade route]], and the upper Volga watershed became an area of contact between the indigenous Uralic peoples such as the [[Merya]] and the expanding [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] ([[Volga Bulgars]]), [[Germanic people|Germanic]] ([[Varangians]]) and [[early Slavs|Slavic]] peoples.<br />
The earliest [[early East Slavs|East Slavic]] tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the [[Vyatichi]] and [[Krivichi]].<br />
The Moskva River was incorporated as part of [[Rostov-Suzdal]] into the [[Kievan Rus]] in the 11th century. By AD 1100, a minor settlement had appeared on the mouth of the [[Neglinnaya River]].<br />
<br />
==Early history (1147-1283)==<br />
{{see|Kievan Rus|Vladimir-Suzdal}}<br />
The first reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a meeting place of [[Yuri Dolgorukiy]] and [[Sviatoslav Olgovich]]. At the time it was a minor town on the western border of [[Vladimir-Suzdal|Vladimir-Suzdal Principality]].<br />
<br />
In 1156, [[Knjaz]] [[Yury Dolgoruky]] fortified the town with a timber fence and a moat. In the course of the [[Mongol invasion of Rus]], the [[Golden Horde]] burned the city to the ground and killed its inhabitants.<br />
<br />
The timber fort ''na Moskvě'' "on the Moscow river" was inherited by [[Daniel of Moscow|Daniel]], the youngest son of [[Alexander Nevsky]], in the 1260s, at the time considered the least valuable of his father's possessions.<br />
Daniel was still a child at the time, and the fort was governed by ''tiuns'' (deputies), appointed by Daniel's paternal uncle, [[Yaroslav of Tver]].<br />
<br />
Daniel came of age in the 1270s and became involved in the power struggles of the principality with lasting success.<br />
Siding with his brother [[Dmitry of Pereslavl|Dmitry]] in his bid for the rule of Novgorod. From 1283 he acted as the ruler of an independent principality alongside Dmitry, who became Grand Duke of Vladimir.<br />
Daniel has been credited with founding the first Moscow monasteries, dedicated to the Lord's Epiphany and to Saint Daniel.<br />
<br />
==Grand Duchy (1283-1547)==<br />
{{main|Grand Duchy of Moscow}}<br />
Daniel I ruled Moscow as [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Grand Duke]] until 1303 and established it as a prosperous city which would eclipse its parent principality of Vladimir by the 1320s.<br />
On the right bank of the Moskva River, at a distance of 5 miles from the Kremlin not later than in 1282 Daniel founded the first monastery with the wooden church of St. Daniel-Stylite. Now it is the Danilov Monastery. Daniel died in 1303, at the age of 42. Before his death he became a monk and, according to his will, was buried in the cemetery of the St. Daniel Monastery.<br />
<br />
Moscow was stable and prosperous for many years and attracted a large numbers of refugees from across Russia. The Rurikids maintained large landholdings by practicing [[primogeniture]], whereby all land was passed to the eldest sons, rather than dividing it up among all sons. By 1304, [[Yury of Moscow]] contested with [[Mikhail of Tver]] for the throne of the principality of [[Vladimir]]. [[Ivan I of Russia|Ivan I]] eventually defeated [[Tver]] to become the sole collector of taxes for the [[Mongol]] rulers, making Moscow the capital of [[Vladimir-Suzdal]]. By paying high tribute, Ivan won an important concession from the [[Khan (title)|Khan]].<br />
<br />
While Khan of the [[Golden Horde]] initially attempted to limit Moscow's influence, when the growth of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] began to threaten all of Russia, the Khan strengthened Moscow to counterbalance Lithuania, allowing it to become one of the most powerful cities in Russia. In 1380, prince [[Dmitry Donskoy]] of Moscow led a united Russian army to an important victory over the Mongols in the [[Battle of Kulikovo]]. Afterwards, Moscow took the leading role in liberating Russia from Mongol domination. In 1480, [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]] had [[Great standing on the Ugra river|finally broken the Russians free]] from Tatar control, and Moscow became the capital of an empire that would eventually encompass all of Russia and [[Siberia]], and parts of many other lands.<br />
<br />
The original [[Moscow Kremlin]] was built during the 14th century. It was reconstructed by [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]], who in the 1480s invited architects from [[Renaissance Italy]], such as [[Petrus Antonius Solarius]], who designed the new Kremlin wall and its towers, and [[Marcus Ruffus]] who designed the new palace for the prince.<br />
The Kremlin walls as they now appear are those designed by Solarius, completed in 1495. The Kremlin's Great Bell Tower was built in 1505–08 and augmented to its present height in 1600.<br />
<br />
A trading settlement, or ''posad'', grew up to the east of the Kremlin, in the area known as ''Zaradye'' (Зарядье). In the time of Ivan III, the [[Red Square]], originally named the Hollow Field (Полое поле) appeared.<br />
<br />
<br />
In 1508–1516, the Italian architect [[Aloisio the New|Aleviz Fryazin (Novy)]] arranged for the construction of a moat in front of the eastern wall, which would connect the [[Moskva River|Moskva]] and [[Neglinnaya River|Neglinnaya]] and be filled in with water from Neglinnaya. This moat, known as the [[Alevizov moat]] and having a length of 541 meters, width of 36 meters, and a depth of 9.5–13&nbsp;m was lined with limestone and, in 1533, fenced on both sides with low, 4-meter thick cogged brick walls.<br />
<br />
{{anchor|Tsardom}}<br />
<br />
==Tsardom (1547-1721)==<br />
{{see|Russian Tsardom}}<br />
[[File:Расцвет Кремля. Всехсвятский мост и Кремль в конце XVII века. 1922, бумага на картоне, уголь, акварель, карандаш.jpg|thumb|View of 17th-century Moscow (1922 drawing by [[Apollinary Vasnetsov]])]]<br />
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the three circular defences were built: [[Kitay-gorod]] (Китай-город), the White City (Белый город) and the Earthen City (Земляной город). However, in 1547, two fires destroyed much of the town, and in 1571 the [[Crimean Tatars]] captured Moscow, burning everything except the Kremlin. The annals record that only 30,000 of 200,000 inhabitants survived.<br />
<br />
The [[Crimean Tatars]] attacked again in 1591, but this time were held back by new defense walls, built between 1584 and 1591 by a craftsman named [[Fyodor Kon]].<br />
In 1592, an outer earth rampart with 50 towers was erected around the city, including an area on the right bank of the Moscow River. As an outermost line of defense, a chain of strongly fortified monasteries was established beyond the ramparts to the south and east, principally the [[Novodevichy Convent]] and [[Donskoy Monastery|Donskoy]], [[Danilov Monastery|Danilov]], [[Simonov Monastery|Simonov]], [[Novospassky Monastery|Novospasskiy]], and [[Andronikov Monastery|Andronikov]] monasteries, most of which now house museums. From its ramparts, the city became poetically known as ''Bielokamennaya'', the "White-Walled". The limits of the city as marked by the ramparts built in 1592 are now marked by the [[Garden Ring]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:St Basils Cathedral-500px.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Saint Basil's Cathedral]]<br />
Three square gates existed on the eastern side of the wall, which in the 17th century, were known as: Konstantino-Eleninsky, Spassky, Nikolsky (owing their names to the icons of Constantine and Helen, the Savior and St. Nicholas which hung over them). The last two were directly opposite the Red Square, while the Konstantino-Elenensky gate was located behind Saint Basil's Cathedral.<br />
<br />
The [[Russian famine of 1601 - 1603]] killed perhaps 100,000 in Moscow.<br />
From 1610 through 1612, troops of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] occupied Moscow, as its ruler [[Sigismund III Vasa|Sigismund III]] tried to take the Russian throne. In 1612, the people of [[Nizhny Novgorod]] and other Russian cities conducted by prince [[Dmitry Pozharsky]] and [[Kuzma Minin]] rose against the Polish occupants, [[Time of Troubles|besieged the Kremlin, and expelled them]]. In 1613, the [[Zemsky sobor]] elected [[Michael I of Russia|Michael Romanov]] tsar, establishing the [[Romanov dynasty]].<br />
<br />
During the first half of the 17th century, the population of Moscow doubled from roughly 100,000 to 200,000. BIt expanded beyond its ramparts in the later 17th century. By 1682, there were 692 households established north of the ramparts, by [[Ukrainians]] and [[Belarusians]] abducted from their hometowns in the course of [[Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)]]. These new outskirts of the city came to be known as the ''Meshchanskaya [[sloboda]]'', after Ruthenian ''meshchane'' "town people".<br />
The term ''meshchane'' (мещане) acquired pejorative connotations in 18th century Russia and today means "petty bourgeois" or "narrow-minded philistine".<ref>П.В.Сытин, "Из истории московских улиц", М, 1948, p. 296.</ref><br />
<br />
The entire city of the late 17th century, including the [[sloboda]]s which grew up outside of the city ramparts, are contained within what is today Moscow's [[Central Administrative Okrug]].<br />
<br />
==Empire (1721-1917)==<br />
{{main|Moscow Governorate}}<br />
{{see|Russian Empire}}<br />
[[Image:Coat of Arms of Moscow gubernia (Russian empire).png|thumb|125px|The coat of arms of [[Moscow Governorate]].]]<br />
[[Image:Moskva riverfront.jpg|thumb|left|265px|Moskva riverside in the 19th century.]]<br />
Moscow ceased to be Russia's capital when [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] moved his government to the newly-built [[Saint Petersburg]] on the Baltic coast in 1712.<br />
<br />
After being ruled it from the status of capital, the population of Moscow at first decreased, from 200,000 in the 17th century to 130,000 in 1750. But after 1750, the population grew more than tenfold over the remaining duration of the russian Empire, reaching 1.8 million by 1915.<br />
<br />
[[File:Kniznije lavki.jpg|thumb|Book shops at the Spassky bridge. By [[Apollinary Vasnetsov]]]]<br />
By 1700, the building of cobbled roads had begun. In November of 1730, the permanent street light was introduced, and by 1867 many streets had a gaslight. In 1883, near the [[Prechistinskiye Gates]], arc lamps were installed. In 1741 Moscow was surrounded by a barricade 25 miles long, the [[Kamer-Kollezhskiy barrier]], with 16 gates at which customs tolls were collected. Its line is traced today by a number of streets called ''val'' (“ramparts”).<br />
Between 1781–1804 the [[Mytischinskiy water-pipe]] (the first in Russia) was built. In 1813 a Commission for the Construction of the City of Moscow was established. It launched a great program of rebuilding, including a partial replanning of the city-center. Among many buildings constructed or reconstructed at this time were the [[Grand Kremlin Palace]] and the [[Kremlin Armoury]], the [[Moscow University]], the [[Moscow Manege]] (Riding School), and the [[Bolshoi Theatre]]. In 1903 the [[Moskvoretskaya water-supply]] was completed.<br />
In the early 19th century, the Arch of Konstantino-Elenensky gate was paved with bricks, but the Spassky Gate was the main front gate of the Kremlin and used for royal entrances. From this gate, wooden and (following the 17th century improvements) stone bridges stretched across the moat. Books were sold on this bridge and stone platforms were built nearby for guns - "raskats". The [[Tsar Cannon]] was located on the platform of the [[Lobnoye mesto]].<br />
<br />
The road connecting Moscow with St. Petersburg, now the [[M10 highway (Russia)|M10 highway]], was completed in 1746, its Moscow end following the old [[Tver]] road which had existed since the 16th century. It became known as ''[[Leningradsky Prospekt|Peterburskoye Schosse]]'' after it was paved in the 1780s. [[Petrovsky Palace]] was built in 1776–1780 by [[Matvey Kazakov]] as a railway station specifically reserved for royal journeys from Saint Petersburg to Moscow, while coaches for lesser classes arrived and departed from [[Vsekhsvyatskoye]] station.<br />
<br />
When [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|invaded]] Russia in 1812, the Moscovites were evacuated. It is suspected that the [[Fire of Moscow (1812)|Moscow fire]] was started by accident by Napoleon's troops trying to keep warm.<br />
<br />
[[Moscow State University]] was established in 1755. Its main building was reconstructed after the 1812 fire by [[Domenico Giliardi]]. The ''[[Moskovskiye Vedomosti]]'' newspaper appeared from 1756, originally in weekly intervals, and from 1859 as a daily newspaper.<br />
<br />
The [[Arbat Street]] had been in existence since at least the 15th century, but it was developed into a prestigious area during the 18th century. It was destroyed in the fire of 1812 and was rebuilt completely in the early 19th century.<br />
In the 1830s, general [[Alexander Bashilov]] planned the first regular grid of city streets north from Petrovsky Palace. [[Khodynka]] field south of the highway was used for military training.<br />
Smolensky Rail station (forerunner of present-day [[Belorussky Rail Terminal]]) was inaugurated in 1870.<br />
[[Sokolniki Park]], in the 18th century the home of the tsar's falconers well outside of Moscow, became contiguous with the expanding city in the later 19th century and was developed into a public municipal park in 1878. The suburban [[Savyolovsky Rail Terminal]] was built in 1902.<br />
<br />
In January 1905, the institution of the City Governor, or [[Mayor]], was officially introduced in Moscow, and [[Alexander Adrianov]] became Moscow's first official mayor.<br />
<br />
==Soviet era (1917-1991)==<br />
{{see|Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic}}<br />
[[Image:Plan of Moscow 1917.jpg|upright|thumb|Plan of Moscow, 1917]]<br />
Following the success of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], [[Lenin]], fearing possible foreign invasion, moved the capital from Saint Petersburg back to Moscow on March 5, 1918.<br />
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:mayak.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Mayakovskaya metro station during siege of Moscow]] --><br />
[[Image:Moskve-plakat.jpg|thumb|150px|Soviet poster, issued on the 800th anniversary of Moscow. The inscription reads: "glory to you, invincible Moscow, beauty and pride of the Russian people".]]<br />
In the beginning of 20th century, several strikes and armed risings in Moscow paved the way to the [[October Revolution]]. In 1918 the [[Bolsheviks]] moved the seat of government from [[Saint Petersburg]] back to Moscow.<br />
<br />
The [[Moscow Metro]] opened in 1935. The [[Krymsky Bridge]] was completed in 1938, replacing an earlier wooden pontoon of 1786, besides [[List of bridges in Moscow|numerous other bridges]] built during the 1930s.<br />
<br />
During the [[Great Patriotic War]], the [[USSR|Soviet]] State Committee of Defense and the General Staff of the [[Red Army]] were located in Moscow. In 1941 16 divisions of the national volunteers (more than 160,000 people), 25 battalions (18,000 people) and 4 engineering regiments were formed among the Muscovites. In November 1941, German [[Army Group Centre]] was stopped at the outskirts of the city and then driven off in the course of the [[Battle of Moscow]]. Many factories were evacuated, together with much of the government, and from October 20 the city was declared to be in a state of siege. Its remaining inhabitants built and manned antitank defenses, while the city was bombarded from the air. On May 1, 1944 a medal "For the defense of Moscow" and in 1947 another medal "In memory of the 800th anniversary of Moscow" were instituted.<br />
<br />
The postwar years saw a serious housing crisis, solved by the invention of [[Tower block|high-rise apartments]]. There are about 13,000 {{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} of these standardized and prefabricated apartment block, housing the majority of Moscow's population. Apartments were built and partly furnished in the factory before being raised and stacked into tall columns. The popular Soviet-era comic film ''[[Irony of Fate]]'' parodies this construction method.<br />
<br />
The city of [[Zelenograd]] was built in 1958 at 37 km from the city center to the north-west, along the [[Leningradskoye Shosse]], and incorporated as one of Moscow's [[Administrative divisions of Moscow|administrative ogrkugs]]. [[Moscow State University]] moved to its campus on [[Sparrow Hills]] in 1953.<br />
<br />
On May 8, 1965 due to the actual 20th anniversary of the victory in [[World War II]] Moscow was awarded a title of the [[Hero City]]. In 1980 it hosted the [[1980 Summer Olympics|Summer Olympic Games]].<br />
<br />
The [[MKAD]] ring road was opened in 1961. It had four lanes running 109 km along the city borders.<br />
The MKAD marked the administrative boundaries of the city of Moscow until the 1980s, when outlying suburbs beyond the ring road began to be incorporated.<br />
<br />
In 1991 Moscow was the scene of a [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991|coup attempt]] by conservators opposed to the [[Perestroika|liberal reforms]] of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]].<br />
<br />
==Recent history (1991 to present)==<br />
When the USSR was dissolved in the same year, Moscow became a capital of [[Russia]]. Since then, the emergence of a market economy in Moscow has produced an explosion of Western-style retailing, services, architecture, and lifestyles.{{Clarify|date=April 2011}}<br />
<br />
The city has continued to grow during the 1990s to 2000s, its population rising from below nine to above ten million.<br />
In 1995-1997 the [[MKAD]] ring road was widened from the initial four to ten lanes.<br />
In December 2002 [[Bulvar Dmitriya Donskogo]] became the first Moscow Metro station that opened beyond the limits of MKAD. The [[Third Ring Road (Moscow)|Third Ring Road]], intermediate between the early 19th-century [[Garden Ring]] and the Soviet era [[MKAD|outer ring road]], was completed in 2004.<br />
<br />
==Historical demographics==<br />
[[Image:Population Development Moscow.png|500px|right|thumb|Graphic: population progress]]<br />
The city's population is rapidly increasing. The ubiquitous presence of legal and illegal permanent and temporary migrants plus merging suburbs raise the total population to about 13.5 mln people.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}<br />
<br />
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{|<br />
! style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;" | Year<br />
! style="background:#efefef;text-align:right;" | Population<br />
|-<br />
| 1350 || align="right" | 30 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1400 || align="right" | 40 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1600 || align="right" | 100 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1638 || align="right" | 200 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1710 || align="right" | 160 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1725 || align="right" | 145 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1738 || align="right" | 138 400<br />
|-<br />
| 1750 || align="right" | 130 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1775 || align="right" | 161 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1785 || align="right" | 188 700<br />
|-<br />
| 1800 || align="right" | 250 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1811 || align="right" | 300 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1813 || align="right" | 215 000<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{|<br />
! style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;" | Year<br />
! style="background:#efefef;text-align:right;" | Population<br />
|-<br />
| 1825 || align="right" | 241 500<br />
|-<br />
| 1840 || align="right" | 349 100<br />
|-<br />
| 1852 || align="right" | 373 800<br />
|-<br />
| 1858 || align="right" | 336 400<br />
|-<br />
| 1864 || align="right" | 351 600<br />
|-<br />
| 1868 || align="right" | 416 400<br />
|-<br />
| 1871 || align="right" | 601 969<br />
|-<br />
| 1886 || align="right" | 753 459<br />
|-<br />
| 1891 || align="right" | 822 400<br />
|-<br />
| 1897 || align="right" | 1 038 600<br />
|-<br />
| 1900 || align="right" | 1 175 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1908 || align="right" | 1 359 200<br />
|-<br />
| 1912 || align="right" | 1 617 157<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
| valign="top" |<br />
{|<br />
! style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;" | Year<br />
! style="background:#efefef;text-align:right;" | Population<br />
|-<br />
| 1915 || align="right" | 1 817 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1920 || align="right" | 1 028 200<br />
|-<br />
| 1926 || align="right" | 2 019 500<br />
|-<br />
| 1936 || align="right" | 3 641 500<br />
|-<br />
| 1939 || align="right" | 4 137 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1956 || align="right" | 4 847 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1959 || align="right" | 5 032 000<br />
|-<br />
| 1970 || align="right" | 6 941 961<br />
|-<br />
| 1979 || align="right" | 7 830 509<br />
|-<br />
| 1989 || align="right" | 8 769 117<br />
|-<br />
| 2002 || align="right" | 10 126 424<br />
|-<br />
| 2005 || align="right" | 10 407 000<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Vsia Moskva]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
*{{CathEncy|wstitle=Moscow}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Moscow}}<br />
[[Category:History of Moscow| ]]<br />
<br />
[[be-x-old:Гісторыя Масквы]]<br />
[[da:Moskvas historie]]<br />
[[es:Historia de Moscú]]<br />
[[fr:Histoire de Moscou]]<br />
[[gl:Historia urbana de Moscova]]<br />
[[hu:Moszkva története]]<br />
[[ja:モスクワの歴史]]<br />
[[pt:História de Moscou]]<br />
[[ru:История Москвы]]<br />
[[sk:Dejiny Moskvy]]<br />
[[udm:Муско (история)]]<br />
[[zh:莫斯科歷史]]<br />
[[uk:Історія Москви]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christmas_in_Ukraine&diff=469882296Christmas in Ukraine2012-01-06T11:08:44Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hnizdovsky Rizdvo1.gif|thumb|300px|Ukrainian [[Christmas card]] by [[Jacques Hnizdovsky]]]]<br />
The '''Ukrainian Christmas''' festive days according to the [[Julian calendar]], start on 6 January, [[Christmas Eve]], and end on 19 January, "Jordan" or [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]].<ref>[http://www.infoukes.com/culture/traditions/christmas/ Christmas Traditions<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
==Sviaty Vechir (Holy Evening)==<br />
[[Image:Kutya.jpg|thumb|left|Kutia]]<br />
''[[Twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper|Sviata Vecherya]]'' or "Holy Supper" is the central tradition of the Christmas Eve celebrations in Ukrainian homes. The dinner table sometimes has a few wisps of hay on the embroidered table cloth as a reminder of the manger in Bethlehem.<br />
<br />
[[Kutia]] (sweet grain pudding) is traditionally served at the [[Ukrainian cuisine|Ukrainian]] Christmas dinner table. It is often the first dish in the traditional [[twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper]] (also known as ''Svyaty Vechir'') and is rarely served at other times of the year.<ref>[http://www.infoukes.com/culture/traditions/christmas/sviat_vechir.html Sviat Vechir<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> <br />
<br />
==Koliadky (Caroling)==<br />
[[Image:Christmas Stamp of Ukraine 1997 3.jpg|thumb|Ukrainian Stamp commemorating Caroling]]<br />
At the end of the Sviata Vechera the family often sings Ukrainian [[Christmas carol]]s. In many communities the old Ukrainian tradition of caroling is carried on by groups of young people and members of organizations and churches calling at homes and collecting donations. The Ukrainian song "[[Shchedryk]]" became the basis for the world famous Christmas carol, "[[Carol of the Bells]]".<br />
<br />
==Svyatyi Mykolai (Saint Nicholas)==<br />
[[Image:Christmas Stamp of Ukraine 2006 2.jpg|thumb|left|2006 [[Christmas stamp]], Ukraine, showing St. Nicholas and children.]]<br />
The image of [[Saint Nicolas|Svyatyi Mykolai]] as a person who brings the [[Christmas]] gifts for children, the feast of which is marked on December 19th. It is supposed, that children should find their Christmas gifts under their pillow on that morning.<br />
<br />
==Didukh (Grandfather)==<br />
[[Image:Diduch-Lviv.jpg|thumb|right|2008 [[Didukh]] in [[Lviv|L'viv]], Ukraine.]]<br />
When the children see the first Star in the eastern evening sky, symbolizing the trek of the [[Three Wise Men]], the Sviata Vecherya may begin. In farming communities the head of the household now brings in a sheaf of wheat called the didukh which represents the importance of the ancient and rich wheat crops of Ukraine, the staff of life through the centuries. Didukh means literally "grandfather spirit" so it symbolizes the family's ancestors. In city homes a few stalks of golden wheat in a vase are often used to decorate the table.<br />
<br />
==Shopka (Nativity scene)==<br />
{{Empty section|date=July 2010}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*"[[Carol of the Bells]]"<br />
* [[Ukraine]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ukrainian culture|*]]<br />
[[Category:Christmas traditions by country|Ukraine]]<br />
<br />
[[de:Ukrainische Weihnachten]]<br />
[[pl:Boże Narodzenie na Ukrainie]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Jerzy_Skar%C5%BCy%C5%84ski_(athlete)&diff=469678408Talk:Jerzy Skarżyński (athlete)2012-01-05T08:22:41Z<p>Birczanin: moved Talk:Jerzy Skarżyński to Talk:Jerzy Skarżyński (runner): disambig</p>
<hr />
<div>{{WikiProjectBannerShell|1=<br />
{{WikiProject Biography<br />
|living=yes<br />
|class=Stub<br />
|sports-priority=low<br />
|sports-work-group=yes<br />
|listas=Skarzynski, Jerzy <br />
}}<br />
{{WikiProject Poland|class=Stub|importance=}}<br />
{{WikiProject Athletics|class=Stub|importance=}}<br />
| blp=yes<br />
}}</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Skar%C5%BCy%C5%84ski_(athlete)&diff=469678404Jerzy Skarżyński (athlete)2012-01-05T08:22:40Z<p>Birczanin: moved Jerzy Skarżyński to Jerzy Skarżyński (runner): disambig</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Jerzy Skarżyński''' (born 13 January 1956) is a retired [[Poland|Polish]] runner who specialized in the [[marathon]].<br />
<br />
He finished fifteenth in the marathon at the [[1986 European Athletics Championships – Men's Marathon|1986 European Championships]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://todor66.com/athletics/europe/1986/Men_Marathon.html|title=Men Marathon European Championships 1986 Stuttgart (GER)|publisher=Todor Krastev|accessdate=6 January 2011}}</ref> He won the [[Warsaw Marathon]] in 1989 and the [[Leipzig Marathon]] in 1991.<br />
<br />
His personal best time was 2.11.42 hours, achieved in April 1986 in [[Debno]].<ref>[http://hem.bredband.net/athletics/atb-m24.htm World men's all-time best marathon] (last updated 2001)</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]. --><br />
| NAME = Skarzynski, Jerzy<br />
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =<br />
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Polish long distance runner<br />
| DATE OF BIRTH = 13 January 1956<br />
| PLACE OF BIRTH =<br />
| DATE OF DEATH =<br />
| PLACE OF DEATH =<br />
}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Skarzynski, Jerzy}}<br />
[[Category:1956 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Polish long-distance runners]]<br />
[[Category:Leipzig Marathon winners]]<br />
<br />
{{Poland-athletics-bio-stub}}</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kyiv_National_Academic_Molodyy_Theatre&diff=462888830Kyiv National Academic Molodyy Theatre2011-11-28T12:26:38Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Expand Ukrainian|Київський академічний Молодий театр|topic=struct|date=January 2010}}<br />
The '''Kiev Academic Youth Theatre''' ({{lang-uk|Київський академічний Молодий театр}}) is a youth [[theatre]] in [[Kiev]] in [[Ukraine]]. It was founded in 1979 and opened on 14 December 1979. The first performance of the Youth Theatre was on April 26, 1980.<br />
{{Commonscat|Kiev Academic Youth Theatre}}<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://molody.kiev.ua/ Official site]<br />
<br />
{{Kiev Theaters}}<br />
<br />
{{coord|50|26|53.84|N|30|31|1.53|E|region:UA|display=title}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Theatres in Kiev]]<br />
[[Category:1979 establishments]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Theatre-stub}}<br />
{{Ukraine-struct-stub}}<br />
<br />
[[mk:Киевски академски младински театар]]<br />
[[ru:Киевский академический Молодой театр]]<br />
[[uk:Київський академічний Молодий театр]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Earthquakes_in_Uzbekistan&diff=459689019Category:Earthquakes in Uzbekistan2011-11-08T20:59:41Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Earthquakes by country|Uzb]] <br />
[[Category:Earthquakes in Asia|Uzb]] <br />
[[Category:Natural disasters in Uzbekistan]]<br />
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[[uk:Категорія:Землетруси в Узбекистані]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Earthquakes_in_Russia&diff=459688605Category:Earthquakes in Russia2011-11-08T20:56:46Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>[[Category:Natural disasters in Russia]]<br />
[[Category:Earthquakes by country|Russia]]<br />
[[Category:Earthquakes in Asia|Russia]]<br />
[[Category:Earthquakes in Europe|Russia]]<br />
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[[bs:Kategorija:Potresi u Rusiji]]<br />
[[bg:Категория:Земетресения в Русия]]<br />
[[es:Categoría:Terremotos en Rusia]]<br />
[[fa:رده:زمینلرزههای روسیه]]<br />
[[ru:Категория:Землетрясения в России]]<br />
[[sv:Kategori:Jordbävningar i Ryssland]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Землетруси у Росії]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Earthquakes_in_Mexico&diff=459688249Category:Earthquakes in Mexico2011-11-08T20:54:18Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>{{Commons cat|Earthquakes in Mexico}}<br />
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[[Category:Natural disasters in Mexico]]<br />
[[Category:Earthquakes by country|Mexico]]<br />
[[Category:Earthquakes in North America|Mex ]]<br />
[[Category:Geology of Mexico]]<br />
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[[bg:Категория:Земетресения в Мексико]]<br />
[[da:Kategori:Jordskælv i Mexico]]<br />
[[es:Categoría:Terremotos en México]]<br />
[[ja:Category:メキシコの地震]]<br />
[[no:Kategori:Jordskjelv i Mexico]]<br />
[[pt:Categoria:Sismos no México]]<br />
[[ru:Категория:Землетрясения в Мексике]]<br />
[[sv:Kategori:Jordbävningar i Mexiko]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Землетруси у Мексиці]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Ukraine%E2%80%93United_States_relations&diff=458739841Category:Ukraine–United States relations2011-11-03T01:35:19Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>{{cat main}}<br />
[[Category:Bilateral relations of Ukraine|United States]]<br />
[[Category:Bilateral relations of the United States|Ukraine]]<br />
[[Category:United States – European relations|Ukraine]]<br />
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[[uk:Категорія:Українсько-американські відносини]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Hungarian-language_operettas&diff=458738422Category:Hungarian-language operettas2011-11-03T01:24:37Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>[[Category:Hungarian music|Operettas]]<br />
[[Category:Operettas]]<br />
[[Category:Hungarian-language operas|Operettas]]<br />
[[Category:Operas by language|Hungarian]]<br />
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[[uk:Категорія:Угорські опери]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Romanian-language_operas&diff=458738300Category:Romanian-language operas2011-11-03T01:23:42Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>[[Opera]]s in the [[Romanian (language)|Romanian]] language<br />
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[[Category:Operas by language]]<br />
[[Category:Romanian music]]<br />
[[Category:Romanian language]]<br />
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[[uk:Категорія:Румунські опери]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:People_from_Coventry&diff=458144601Category:People from Coventry2011-10-30T16:24:21Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>{{England people message<br />
| place= Coventry<br />
| district = Coventry<br />
| county= the West Midlands (county)<br />
| old-county= Warwickshire<br />
| year= 1974<br />
}}<br />
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[[fr:Catégorie:Naissance à Coventry]]<br />
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[[pt:Categoria:Naturais de Coventry]]<br />
[[ru:Категория:Персоналии:Ковентри (Англия)]]<br />
[[sco:Category:Fowk frae Coventry]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Персоналії:Ковентрі]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Combat_helmets&diff=458143489Category:Combat helmets2011-10-30T16:15:29Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>{{Cat main|Combat helmet}}<br />
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[[Category:Helmets]]<br />
[[Category:Military personal equipment]]<br />
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[[ru:Категория:Военная каска]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Шоломи]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Ukrainian_literary_awards&diff=457791692Category:Ukrainian literary awards2011-10-28T09:22:37Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>[[Category:Literary awards by country]]<br />
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[[Category:Ukrainian literature]]<br />
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[[uk:Категорія:Літературні нагороди України]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:British_literary_awards&diff=457791614Category:British literary awards2011-10-28T09:21:39Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>{{Portal box|United Kingdom|Literature}}<br />
[[United Kingdom|British]] literary awards.<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:British Literary Awards}}<br />
[[Category:British literature|Awards]]<br />
[[Category:Literary awards by country]]<br />
[[Category:British awards|Literary]]<br />
[[Category:English literature]]<br />
[[Category:History of literature in the United Kingdom]]<br />
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[[de:Kategorie:Literaturpreis (Vereinigtes Königreich)]]<br />
[[es:Categoría:Premios literarios del Reino Unido]]<br />
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[[it:Categoria:Premi letterari britannici]]<br />
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[[ja:Category:イギリスの文学賞]]<br />
[[no:Kategori:Britiske litteraturpriser]]<br />
[[ro:Categorie:Premii literare în Marea Britanie]]<br />
[[ru:Категория:Литературные премии Великобритании]]<br />
[[sv:Kategori:Brittiska litteraturpriser]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Літературні нагороди Великобританії]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Aemilii&diff=457785638Category:Aemilii2011-10-28T08:08:41Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>[[Category:Roman gentes]]<br />
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[[bg:Категория:Емилии]]<br />
[[ca:Categoria:Gens Emília]]<br />
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[[ja:Category:アエミリウス氏族]]<br />
[[pl:Kategoria:Emiliusze]]<br />
[[ru:Категория:Эмилии]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Емілії]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Caravaggio&diff=457785221Category:Caravaggio2011-10-28T08:03:13Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>{{Commons|Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio}}<br />
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Articles related to [[Caravaggio|Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio]], [[Baroque]] artist of the early 17th century.<br />
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[[Category:Categories named after artists]]<br />
[[Category:Categories named after Italian people]]<br />
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[[ar:تصنيف:كارافاجيو]]<br />
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[[th:หมวดหมู่:คาราวัจโจ]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Караваджо]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Tennis_equipment&diff=457653099Category:Tennis equipment2011-10-27T13:25:29Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>{{Commons cat|Tennis equipment}}<br />
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[[Category:Tennis|Equipment]]<br />
[[Category:Sports equipment]]<br />
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[[cs:Kategorie:Tenisové vybavení]]<br />
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[[gv:Ronney:Cullee leddoge]]<br />
[[he:קטגוריה:ציוד טניס]]<br />
[[ko:분류:테니스 장비]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Тенісний інвентар]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Brazilian_athletes&diff=457652388Category:Brazilian athletes2011-10-27T13:19:48Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>{{Commons cat|Athletes from Brazil}}<br />
{{catdiffuse}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Brazilian athletes}}<br />
[[Category:Athletes by nationality|Brazilian]]<br />
[[Category:Brazilian sportspeople|Athletes]]<br />
[[Category:Athletics in Brazil|Athletes]]<br />
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[[cs:Kategorie:Brazilští atleti]]<br />
[[de:Kategorie:Leichtathlet (Brasilien)]]<br />
[[es:Categoría:Atletas de Brasil]]<br />
[[fr:Catégorie:Athlète brésilien]]<br />
[[gl:Categoría:Atletas do Brasil]]<br />
[[it:Categoria:Atleti brasiliani]]<br />
[[hu:Kategória:Brazil atléták]]<br />
[[mn:Ангилал:Бразилын хөнгөн атлетикчид]]<br />
[[nl:Categorie:Braziliaans atleet]]<br />
[[ja:Category:ブラジルの陸上競技選手]]<br />
[[no:Kategori:Brasilianske friidrettsutøvere]]<br />
[[pl:Kategoria:Brazylijscy lekkoatleci]]<br />
[[pt:Categoria:Atletas do Brasil]]<br />
[[ru:Категория:Легкоатлеты Бразилии]]<br />
[[sk:Kategória:Brazílski atléti]]<br />
[[sr:Категорија:Бразилски атлетичари]]<br />
[[fi:Luokka:Brasilialaiset yleisurheilijat]]<br />
[[sv:Kategori:Brasilianska friidrottare]]<br />
[[tr:Kategori:Brezilyalı atletler]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Бразильські легкоатлети]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Bulgarian_athletes&diff=457652250Category:Bulgarian athletes2011-10-27T13:18:44Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>{{Commons cat|Athletes from Bulgaria}}<br />
{{catdiffuse}}<br />
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[[Category:Athletes by nationality|Bulgarian]]<br />
[[Category:Bulgarian sportspeople|Athletes]]<br />
[[Category:Athletics in Bulgaria|Athletes]]<br />
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[[bg:Категория:Български лекоатлети]]<br />
[[cs:Kategorie:Bulharští atleti]]<br />
[[da:Kategori:Atletikudøvere fra Bulgarien]]<br />
[[de:Kategorie:Leichtathlet (Bulgarien)]]<br />
[[et:Kategooria:Bulgaaria kergejõustiklased]]<br />
[[es:Categoría:Atletas de Bulgaria]]<br />
[[fr:Catégorie:Athlète bulgare]]<br />
[[it:Categoria:Atleti bulgari]]<br />
[[he:קטגוריה:אתלטים בולגרים]]<br />
[[lv:Kategorija:Bulgārijas vieglatlēti]]<br />
[[lb:Kategorie:Bulgaresch Liichtathleten]]<br />
[[lt:Kategorija:Bulgarijos lengvaatlečiai]]<br />
[[mn:Ангилал:Болгарын хөнгөн атлетикчид]]<br />
[[nl:Categorie:Bulgaars atleet]]<br />
[[ja:Category:ブルガリアの陸上競技選手]]<br />
[[no:Kategori:Bulgarske friidrettsutøvere]]<br />
[[pl:Kategoria:Bułgarscy lekkoatleci]]<br />
[[pt:Categoria:Atletas da Bulgária]]<br />
[[ru:Категория:Легкоатлеты Болгарии]]<br />
[[simple:Category:Bulgarian athletes]]<br />
[[sk:Kategória:Bulharskí atléti]]<br />
[[sr:Категорија:Бугарски атлетичари]]<br />
[[fi:Luokka:Bulgarialaiset yleisurheilijat]]<br />
[[sv:Kategori:Bulgariska friidrottare]]<br />
[[tr:Kategori:Bulgar atletler]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Болгарські легкоатлети]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Spanish_athletes&diff=457652062Category:Spanish athletes2011-10-27T13:17:14Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>{{Commons cat|Athletes from Spain}}<br />
{{catdiffuse}}<br />
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[[Category:Athletes by nationality|Spanish]]<br />
[[Category:Spanish sportspeople|Athletes]]<br />
[[Category:Athletics in Spain|Athletes]]<br />
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[[an:Categoría:Atletas d'Espanya]]<br />
[[ca:Categoria:Atletes espanyols]]<br />
[[cs:Kategorie:Španělští atleti]]<br />
[[da:Kategori:Atleter fra Spanien]]<br />
[[de:Kategorie:Leichtathlet (Spanien)]]<br />
[[es:Categoría:Atletas de España]]<br />
[[eu:Kategoria:Espainiako atletak]]<br />
[[fr:Catégorie:Athlète espagnol]]<br />
[[gl:Categoría:Atletas de España]]<br />
[[it:Categoria:Atleti spagnoli]]<br />
[[mn:Ангилал:Испанийн хөнгөн атлетикчид]]<br />
[[nl:Categorie:Spaans atleet]]<br />
[[ja:Category:スペインの陸上競技選手]]<br />
[[no:Kategori:Spanske friidrettsutøvere]]<br />
[[pl:Kategoria:Hiszpańscy lekkoatleci]]<br />
[[pt:Categoria:Atletas da Espanha]]<br />
[[ru:Категория:Легкоатлеты Испании]]<br />
[[simple:Category:Spanish athletes]]<br />
[[sk:Kategória:Španielski atléti]]<br />
[[sl:Kategorija:Španski atleti]]<br />
[[sr:Категорија:Шпански атлетичари]]<br />
[[fi:Luokka:Espanjalaiset yleisurheilijat]]<br />
[[sv:Kategori:Spanska friidrottare]]<br />
[[tr:Kategori:İspanyol atletler]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Іспанські легкоатлети]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Czechoslovak_athletes&diff=457651917Category:Czechoslovak athletes2011-10-27T13:15:55Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>Athletes who represented Czechoslovakia.<br />
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[[Category:Czechoslovak sportspeople|Athletes]]<br />
[[Category:Athletes by nationality]]<br />
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[[an:Categoría:Atletas de Checoslovaquia]]<br />
[[cs:Kategorie:Českoslovenští atleti]]<br />
[[de:Kategorie:Leichtathlet (Tschechoslowakei)]]<br />
[[et:Kategooria:Tšehhoslovakkia kergejõustiklased]]<br />
[[el:Κατηγορία:Τσεχοσλοβάκοι αθλητές του στίβου]]<br />
[[es:Categoría:Atletas de Checoslovaquia]]<br />
[[fr:Catégorie:Athlète tchécoslovaque]]<br />
[[he:קטגוריה:אתלטים צ'כוסלובקים]]<br />
[[mn:Ангилал:Чехословакийн хөнгөн атлетикчид]]<br />
[[nl:Categorie:Tsjecho-Slowaaks atleet]]<br />
[[ja:Category:チェコスロバキアの陸上競技選手]]<br />
[[no:Kategori:Tsjekkoslovakiske friidrettsutøvere]]<br />
[[pl:Kategoria:Czechosłowaccy lekkoatleci]]<br />
[[pt:Categoria:Atletas da Checoslováquia]]<br />
[[ru:Категория:Легкоатлеты Чехословакии]]<br />
[[sk:Kategória:Česko-slovenskí atléti]]<br />
[[sr:Категорија:Чехословачки атлетичари]]<br />
[[fi:Luokka:Tšekkoslovakialaiset yleisurheilijat]]<br />
[[sv:Kategori:Tjeckoslovakiska friidrottare]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Чехословацькі легкоатлети]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2nd_Light_Division_(Wehrmacht)&diff=4576511222nd Light Division (Wehrmacht)2011-10-27T13:09:14Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''2nd Light Division''' (sometimes described as ''Light Mechanized'' or ''Light Panzer'' to distinguish it from ''Light infantry'' divisions) was created in November 1938. In 1939 it fought in the [[Invasion of Poland (1939)|Invasion of Poland]]. Afterwards it was reorganized as the '''[[7th Panzer Division]]''' afterward, in October 1939.<br />
<br />
As the 7th Panzer Division it participated in the 1940 [[Battle of France]] under the command of the soon-to-be-famous [[Erwin Rommel]], earning its nickname ''Gespenster-Division'' ("Ghost Division",) because it advanced so rapidly into and beyond the French front lines that higher headquarters lost track of where it was. It remained in France on occupation duty until early 1941.<br />
<br />
In June 1941 it joined [[Operation Barbarossa]] and fought on the [[Eastern Front (WWII)|Eastern Front]] until the spring of 1942, when it was shipped back to France for rehabilitation. It returned to the east in early 1943 and was used in the attempt to shore up the front line after the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] and continued with [[Army Group South]] as the Germans were pushed back through the Ukraine. In July 1944 it was transferred to [[Army Group Center]] and moved northward to fight in [[Lithuania]] and [[Courland]]. It continued to be driven westward along with the front lines until it surrendered to the Soviets at [[Schwerin]] in [[Pomerania]] at the war's end in May 1945.<br />
<br />
==War Crimes==<br />
Soldiers from the division took part in atrocities against Polish citizens during [[September Campaign]].<br />
On the 12th of September in the village of Kozłowice, soldiers of the division killed 5 Polish [[prisoners of war]].<br />
Near Opatowiec 45 Polish prisoners of war were killed by the soldiers of the division.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
* [[Panzertruppe]], [[Panzer]], [[Panzer division]]<br />
* [[Division (military)]], [[Military unit]]<br />
* [[German Army|Heer]], [[Wehrmacht]], [[List of German divisions in WWII]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
'''Note:''' The Web references may require you to follow links to cover the unit's entire history.<br />
* Wendel, Marcus (2004). "[http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=970 2. Leichte-Division]". Retrieved April 11, 2005.<br />
* "[http://www.lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de/Gliederungen/leichte%20Panzerdivisionen/2leDiv.htm 2. leichte Division]". German language article at www.lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de. Retrieved April 11, 2005.<br />
* Szymon Datner (1974). Zbrodnie Wehrmachtu (Crimes of the Wehrmacht)<br />
<br />
{{German Armoured Divisions of World War II}}<br />
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[[Category:German World War II divisions]]<br />
[[Category:German panzer divisions|0*02]]<br />
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1938]]<br />
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{{Germany-WWII-stub}}<br />
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[[fr:2e Division légère]]<br />
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[[sr:2. лака дивизија (Немачка)]]<br />
[[uk:2-а легка піхотна дивізія (Третій Рейх)]]</div>Birczaninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Armoured_trains&diff=457535393Category:Armoured trains2011-10-26T19:24:37Z<p>Birczanin: </p>
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<div>{{Commons cat|Armoured trains}}<br />
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[[Category:Armoured fighting vehicles by type]]<br />
[[Category:Military railway equipment]]<br />
[[Category:Trains]]<br />
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[[ja:Category:装甲列車]]<br />
[[pl:Kategoria:Pociągi pancerne]]<br />
[[ru:Категория:Бронепоезда]]<br />
[[sr:Категорија:Оклопни возови]]<br />
[[uk:Категорія:Панцерні потяги]]</div>Birczanin