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Phthalates

2024-11-14T19:49:32Z

Brandmeister:

{{short description|Any ester derived from phthalic acid}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
[[Image:Phthalates.svg|thumb|right|General chemical structure of orthophthalates. (R and R' are general placeholders.)]]
'''Phthalates''' ({{IPAc-en|US|ˈ|θ|æ|l|eɪ|t|s}},<ref>"{{YouTube|id=QH5PbE8wwMY|title=ACC Addresses Phthalates Safety"}}: video of Steve Risotto of the American Chemistry Council, uploaded by user AmericanChemistry on 23 October 2009, retrieved 23 December 2011.</ref> {{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|θ|a:|l|eɪ|t|s|,|_|ˈ|f|θ|æ|l|ɪ|t|s}}<ref>{{Cite OED|phthalate}}</ref><ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/phthalate "phthalate"] in Collins English Dictionary</ref>), or '''phthalate esters''', are [[ester]]s of [[phthalic acid]]. They are mainly used as [[plasticizer]]s, i.e., substances added to [[plastic]]s to increase their flexibility, transparency, durability, and longevity. They are used primarily to soften [[polyvinyl chloride]] (PVC). Note that while phthalates are usually [[plasticizer]]s, not all plasticizers are phthalates. The two terms are specific and unique and cannot be used interchangeably.

Lower-molecular-weight phthalates are being replaced in many products in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[European Union]] over health concerns.<ref name=":1">{{CELEX|32011R0143|text=Commission Regulation (EU) No 143/2011 of 17 February 2011 amending Annex XIV to Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (‘REACH’)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/assessing-and-managing-chemicals-under-tsca/phthalates|title=Phthalates {{!}} Assessing and Managing Chemicals Under TSCA|date=2015-09-21|website=www.epa.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-04-07}}</ref> They are being replaced by higher molecular-weight phthalates as well as non-phthalic plasticizers.

==Prevalence and human exposure==
Due to the ubiquity of plasticized plastics, the majority of people are exposed to some level of phthalates. For example, most Americans tested by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] have [[metabolite]]s of multiple phthalates in their urine.<ref name=":3">{{cite report|url=https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/pdf/Pthalates_FactSheet.pdf|title=Pthalates Fact Sheet|date=November 2009|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|author=}}</ref>
In February 2009, the Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission published a review of methods to measure phthalates in food.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://irmm.jrc.ec.europa.eu/publications/technical_reports/food,_biotechnology_and_health/Documents/eur_23682_en-phthalates.pdf | title = Methods for the determination of phthalates in food | publisher = European Commission, Joint Research Centre | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720161821/http://irmm.jrc.ec.europa.eu/publications/technical_reports/food,_biotechnology_and_health/Documents/eur_23682_en-phthalates.pdf| archive-date=20 July 2011}}</ref>

In 2021, a study looked for phthalates in 64 fast food items. Phthalate [[Di-n-butyl_phthalate|DnBP]] was detected in 81 percent of the samples, while [[DEHP]] was found in 70 percent. [[Bis(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate|Diethylhexyl terephthalate]] (DEHT), the main alternative to DEHP, was detected in 86%.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Edwards L, McCray NL, VanNoy BN, Yau A, Geller RJ, Adamkiewicz G, Zota AR | title = Phthalate and novel plasticizer concentrations in food items from U.S. fast food chains: a preliminary analysis | language = en-US | journal = Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology | date = October 2021 | volume = 32 | issue = 3 | pages = 366–373 | pmid = 34702987 | doi = 10.1038/s41370-021-00392-8 | pmc = 9119856 | doi-access = free }}</ref> A 2024 study by [[Consumer Reports]] found phthalates in all but one of the grocery store and fast foods they tested.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-04 |title=The Plastic Chemicals Hiding in Your Food |url=https://www.consumerreports.org/health/food-contaminants/the-plastic-chemicals-hiding-in-your-food-a7358224781/ |access-date=2024-01-17 |website=Consumer Reports |language=en-US}}</ref>

Exposure to phthalates is more likely in women and people of color.<ref name=":12">{{cite journal | vauthors = Huang T, Saxena AR, Isganaitis E, James-Todd T | title = Gender and racial/ethnic differences in the associations of urinary phthalate metabolites with markers of diabetes risk: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001-2008 | journal = Environmental Health | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 6 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24499162 | pmc = 3922428 | doi = 10.1186/1476-069X-13-6 | bibcode = 2014EnvHe..13....6H | doi-access = free }}</ref> Differences were found between Mexican-Americans, blacks, and whites in terms of the overall risk of disturbance of glucose homeostasis. With Mexican-Americans having a fasting blood glucose (FBG) increase of 5.82 mg/dL, blacks having a fasting blood glucose increase of 3.63 mg/dL, and whites having a fasting blood glucose increase of 1.79 mg/dL, there was evidence of an increased risk for minorities.<ref name=":12" /> Overall, the study concludes that phthalates may alter glucose homeostasis and [[insulin sensitivity]], and that different populations may be more severely impacted. Higher levels of some phthalate metabolites were associated with elevated FBG, fasting insulin, and insulin resistance. Non-Hispanic black women and Hispanic women have higher levels of some phthalate metabolites.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = James-Todd TM, Meeker JD, Huang T, Hauser R, Seely EW, [[Kelly K. Ferguson|Ferguson KK]], Rich-Edwards JW, McElrath TF | display-authors = 6 | title = Racial and ethnic variations in phthalate metabolite concentration changes across full-term pregnancies | journal = Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology | volume = 27 | issue = 2 | pages = 160–166 | date = March 2017 | pmid = 26860587 | pmc = 4980273 | doi = 10.1038/jes.2016.2 | bibcode = 2017JESEE..27..160J }}</ref>

==Production==
Phthalates are produced industrially by the acid [[catalysed]] reaction of [[phthalic anhydride]] with excess [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohol]]. The synthesis of [[diethyl phthalate]] is illustrative of this:

[[File:Synthesis-DEP.png|300px|center|frameless]]

The properties of the phthalate can be varied by changing the alcohol,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Krauskopf LG | title=Plasticizer structure/performance relationships |journal=Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology |date=September 1993 |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=140–147 |doi=10.1002/vnl.730150306}}</ref> allowing for an almost limitless range of products, although only around 30 are, or have been, commercially important. Phthalates' share of the global plasticisers market has been decreasing since around 2000. Despite this the global production of phthalates has continued to rise. In 2015 total production of was around 5.5 million tonnes,<ref name="OECD">{{cite journal | vauthors = Holland M |title=Socio-economic assessment of phthalates |journal=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |series=OECD Environment Working Papers |date=6 June 2018 |page=15 |doi=10.1787/a38a0e34-en|s2cid=134543052 |doi-access=free }}</ref> up from around 2.7 million tonnes in the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web |title=TR 019 – An Assessment of Occurrence and Effects of Dialkyl-o-Phthalates in the Environment |url=https://www.ecetoc.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/ECETOC-TR-019.pdf |publisher=[[ECETOC]] |date=1985-05-29}}</ref> The reason for this has been the increasing size of the plasticiser market (a smaller slice of a much bigger pie), driven by increases in PVC production, which nearly doubled between 2000 and 2020.<ref name=Geyer2017>{{cite journal |last1=Geyer |first1=Roland |last2=Jambeck |first2=Jenna R. |author-link2=Jenna Jambeck |last3=Law |first3=Kara Lavender |title=Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made |journal=Science Advances |date=July 2017 |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=e1700782 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1700782 |pmid=28776036 |pmc=5517107 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E0782G |doi-access=free}}</ref> The People's Republic of China is the largest consumer, accounting for around 45% of all use. Europe and the United States together account for around 25% of use, with the remainder widely spread around the world.<ref name="OECD" />

{| class="wikitable" style="width:72em"
|+ Common phthalates Ordered by molecular weight, commercially important compounds shown in bold
|-
! Name
! Abbreviation
! style=max-width:4em | Alcohol carbon number
! style=max-width:5em |[[Molecular weight]] (g/mol)
! style=min-width:5em |[[CAS registry number|CAS No.]]
! Properties of concern for human health ([[ECHA]] classification 2022)<ref>{{cite web |title=Search for Chemicals - ECHA |url=https://echa.europa.eu/search-for-chemicals? |website=echa.europa.eu |publisher=European Chemicals Agency |access-date=9 June 2022 |quote=Enter CAS No's to validate manually}}</ref>
|-
| [[Dimethyl phthalate]] || DMP || 1 || 194.18 || 131-11-3 ||
|-
| [[Diethyl phthalate]] || DEP || 2 || 222.24 || 84-66-2 || Under assessment as endocrine disrupting
|-
| Diallyl phthalate || DAP || 3 || 246.26 || 131-17-9 || Skin sensitising
|-
| Di-n-propyl phthalate || DPP || 3 || 250.29 || 131-16-8 ||
|-
| '''[[Di-n-butyl phthalate]]''' || '''DBP''' || 4 || 278.34 || 84-74-2 || Toxic to reproduction, endocrine disrupting, under assessment as [[Persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic substances|PBT]]
|-
| [[Diisobutyl phthalate]] || DIBP || 4 || 278.34 || 84-69-5 || Toxic to reproduction, endocrine disrupting
|-
| [[Bis(2-methoxyethyl) phthalate|Di-2-methoxyethyl phthalate]] || DMEP || 3 || 282.29 || 117-82-8 || Toxic to reproduction
|-
| Butyl cyclohexyl phthalate || BCP || 4 – 6 || 304.38 || 84-64-0 ||
|-
| Di-n-pentyl phthalate || DNPP || 5 || 306.4 || 131-18-0 || Toxic to reproduction
|-
| Dicyclohexyl phthalate || DCP || 6 || 330.42 || 84-61-7 || Toxic to reproduction, endocrine disrupting, skin sensitising
|-
| '''[[Butyl benzyl phthalate]]''' || '''BBP''' || 4 – 7 || 312.36 || 85-68-7 || Toxic to reproduction, endocrine disrupting
|-
| Di-n-hexyl phthalate || DNHP || 6 || 334.45 || 84-75-3 || Toxic to reproduction
|-
| Diisohexyl phthalate || DIHxP || 6 || 334.45 || 146-50-9, || Toxic to reproduction
|-
| [[Diisoheptyl phthalate]] || DIHpP || 7 || 362.5 || 41451-28-9 || Toxic to reproduction
|-
| Butyl decyl phthalate || BDP || 4 – 10 || 362.5 || 89-19-0 ||
|-
| [[Dibutoxy ethyl phthalate]] || DBEP || 6 || 366.45 || 117-83-9 ||
|-
| '''[[Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate]]''' || '''DEHP, DOP''' || 8 || 390.56 || 117-81-7 || Toxic to reproduction, endocrine disrupting
|-
| Di(n-octyl) phthalate || DNOP || 8 || 390.56 || 117-84-0 || Not classified but some uses restricted
|-
| Diisooctyl phthalate || DIOP || 8 || 390.56 || 27554-26-3 || Toxic to reproduction
|-
| n-Octyl n-decyl phthalate || ODP || 8 – 10 || 418.61 || 119-07-3||
|-
| '''[[Diisononyl phthalate]]''' || '''DINP''' || 9 || 418.61 || 28553-12-0 || Not classified but some uses restricted
|-
| '''[[DPHP|Di(2-propylheptyl) phthalate]]''' || '''DPHP''' || 10 || 446.66 || 53306-54-0 || Under assessment as endocrine disrupting
|-
| '''[[Diisodecyl phthalate]]''' || '''DIDP''' || 10 || 446.66 || 26761-40-0 ||
|-
| Diundecyl phthalate || DUP || 11 || 474.72 || 3648-20-2 ||
|-
| Diisoundecyl phthalate || DIUP || 11 || 474.72 || 85507-79-5 ||
|-
| Ditridecyl phthalate || DTDP || 13 || 530.82 || 119-06-2 ||
|-
| Diisotridecyl phthalate || DITP || 13 || 530.82 || 68515-47-9 ||
|}

===Natural occurrence===
Various plants and microorganisms have been reported to naturally produce small amounts of phthalate esters ([[endogenous]] phthalates).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang H, Hua Y, Chen J, Li X, Bai X, Wang H | title = Organism-derived phthalate derivatives as bioactive natural products | journal = Journal of Environmental Science and Health. Part C, Environmental Carcinogenesis & Ecotoxicology Reviews | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 125–144 | date = 3 July 2018 | pmid = 30444179 | doi = 10.1080/10590501.2018.1490512 | bibcode = 2018JESHC..36..125Z | s2cid = 53565519 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Roy RN | title = Bioactive natural derivatives of phthalate ester | journal = Critical Reviews in Biotechnology | volume = 40 | issue = 7 | pages = 913–929 | date = November 2020 | pmid = 32683987 | doi = 10.1080/07388551.2020.1789838 | s2cid = 220654942 }}</ref> [[Biosynthesis]] is believed to involve a modified [[Shikimate pathway]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tian C, Ni J, Chang F, Liu S, Xu N, Sun W, Xie Y, Guo Y, Ma Y, Yang Z, Dang C, Huang Y, Tian Z, Wang Y | display-authors = 6 | title = Bio-Source of di-n-butyl phthalate production by filamentous fungi | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 19791 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26857605 | pmc = 4746570 | doi = 10.1038/srep19791 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...619791T }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Enikeev AG, Semenov AA, Permyakov AV, Sokolova NA, Gamburg KZ, Dudareva LV |title=Biosynthesis of Ortho-Phtalic Acid Esters in Plant and Cell Cultures |journal=Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology |date=May 2019 |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=294–297 |doi=10.1134/S0003683819020066|s2cid=174809331 }}</ref> The extent of this natural production is not fully known, but it may create a background of phthalate pollution.

==Uses==
===PVC plasticisers===
[[File:'Twin and Earth' electrical cable. BS 6004, 6mm².jpg|thumb|right|Plasticised PVC has excellent electrical insulation properties and is extensively used as sheathing for wires and cables.]]

Between 90 and 95% of all phthalates are used as plasticisers for the production of flexible PVC.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Latini G, De Felice C, Verrotti A | title = Plasticizers, infant nutrition and reproductive health | journal = Reproductive Toxicology | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 27–33 | date = November 2004 | pmid = 15336709 | doi = 10.1016/j.reprotox.2004.05.011 | bibcode = 2004RepTx..19...27L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bi M, Liu W, Luan X, Li M, Liu M, Liu W, Cui Z | title = Production, Use, and Fate of Phthalic Acid Esters for Polyvinyl Chloride Products in China | journal = Environmental Science & Technology | volume = 55 | issue = 20 | pages = 13980–13989 | date = October 2021 | pmid = 34617437 | doi = 10.1021/acs.est.1c02374 | s2cid = 238422673 | bibcode = 2021EnST...5513980B }}</ref> They were the first commercially important compounds for this role,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Semon WL, Stahl GA |title=History of Vinyl Chloride Polymers |journal=Journal of Macromolecular Science: Part A - Chemistry |date=April 1981 |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=1263–1278 |doi=10.1080/00222338108066464}}</ref> a historic advantage that has led to them becoming firmly embedded in flexible PVC technology.<ref name="additives handbook" /> Among the [[Commodity plastics|common plastics]], PVC is unique in its acceptance of large amounts of plasticizer with gradual changes in physical properties from a rigid solid to a soft gel.<ref name="additives handbook">{{cite book | vauthors = Krauskopf LG |title=Plastics additives handbook |date=2009 |publisher=Carl Hanser Verlag |location=Munich |isbn=978-3-446-40801-2 |pages=485–511 |edition=6. |chapter=3.13 Plasticizers}}</ref> Phthalates derived from alcohols with 7-13 carbon atoms occupy a privileged position as general purpose plasticizers, suitable for almost all flexible PVC applications.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Godwin A |title=Uses of Phthalates and Other Plasticizers |url=https://www.cpsc.gov/s3fs-public/godwin.pdf |website=cpsc.gov |publisher=ExxonMobil Chemical Company |access-date=19 May 2022 |date=July 26, 2010}}</ref><ref name="additives handbook" /> Phthalates larger than this have limited compatibility in PVC, with di(isotridecyl) phthalate representing the practical upper limit. Conversely, plasticizers derived from alcohols with 4-6 carbon atoms are too volatile to be used on their own, but have been used alongside other compounds as secondary plasticizers, where they improve low-temperature flexibility. Compounds derived from alcohols with 1-3 carbon atoms are not used as plasticizers in PVC at all, due excessive fuming at processing temperatures (typically 180-210 °C).<ref name="additives handbook" />

Historically DINP, [[DEHP]], BBP, DBP, and DIHP have been the most important phthalates, however many of these are now facing regulatory pressure and gradual phase-outs. Almost all phthalates derived from alcohols with between 3 and 8 carbons are classed as toxic by [[ECHA]]. This includes [[Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate]] (DEHP or DOP), which has long been the most widely used phthalate, with commercial production dating back to the 1930s.<ref>{{cite book |title=IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans Volume 29: Some industrial chemicals and dyestuffs. |date=1982 |publisher=[[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] |location=[Lyon] |isbn=978-92-832-1229-4 |page=271 |url=https://publications.iarc.fr/_publications/media/download/1577/2f8d8229f8923fd2509f7f95e848ba6bf7f88766.pdf}}</ref><ref name=ceresana /> In the EU, the use of DEHP is restricted under [[Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals|REACH]] and it can only be used in specific cases if an authorisation has been granted; similar restrictions exist in many other jurisdictions. Despite this, the phase-out of DEHP is slow and it was still the most frequently used plasticizer in 2018, with an estimated global production of 3.24 million tonnes.<ref name=ceresana /> DINP and DIDP are used as a substitutes for DEHP in many applications, as they are not classified as hazardous.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ventrice P, Ventrice D, Russo E, De Sarro G | title = Phthalates: European regulation, chemistry, pharmacokinetic and related toxicity | journal = Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 88–96 | date = July 2013 | pmid = 23603460 | doi = 10.1016/j.etap.2013.03.014 | bibcode = 2013EnvTP..36...88V }}</ref> Non-phthalate plasticizers are also being increasingly used.

Almost 90% of all plasticizers are used in PVC, giving this material improved flexibility and durability.<ref>David F. Cadogan and Christopher J. Howick "Plasticizers" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2000, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a20_439}}</ref> The majority is used in films and cable sheathing.<ref name=ceresana>{{cite web |title=Market Report Plasticizers: Industry Analysis{{!}}Market Research |url=https://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/chemicals/plasticizers/ |website=www.ceresana.com |access-date=19 May 2022}}</ref> Flexible PVC can consist of over 85% plasticizer by mass, however unplasticized PVC (UPVC) should not contain any.

{| class="wikitable" style="width:71em"
|+ PVC properties as a function of phthalate plasticizer level<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Krauskopf LG |title=Plastics additives handbook |date=2009 |publisher=[[Carl Hanser Verlag]] |location=Munich |isbn=978-3-446-40801-2 |page=495 |edition=6.}}</ref>
! !! Plasticizer content (% [[DINP]] by weight) !! [[Specific gravity]] (20 °C) !! [[Shore hardness]] (type A, 15 s) !! [[Flexural rigidity|Flexural stiffness]] ([[Megapascal|Mpa]]) !! [[Ultimate tensile strength|Tensile strength]] (Mpa) !! Elongation at break (%) !! Example applications
|-
| Rigid || 0 || 1.4 || || 900 || 41 || <15 || Unplasticized PVC (UPVC): window frames and sills, doors, [[Plastic pipework#uPVC (unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride)|rigid pipe]]
|-
| Semi-rigid || 25 || 1.26 || 94 || 69 || 31 || 225 || [[Sheet vinyl flooring|Vinyl flooring]], flexible pipe, thin films ([[stretch wrap]]), advertising banners
|-
| Flexible || 33 || 1.22 || 84 || 12 || 21 || 295 || Wire and cable insulation, flexible pipe
|-
| Very flexible || 44 || 1.17 || 66 || 3.4 || 14 || 400 || Boots and clothing, inflatables,
|-
| Extremely flexible || 86 || 1.02 || < 10 || || || || Fishing lures ([[soft plastic bait]]), [[polymer clay]], [[plastisol]] inks
|}

===Non-PVC plasticisers===
Phthalates see use as plasticisers in various other polymers, with applications centred around coatings such as lacquers, varnishes, and paints. The addition of phthalates imparts some flexibility to these materials, reducing their tendency to chip.
Phthalates derived from alcohols with between 1-4 carbon atoms are used as plasticisers for [[cellulose]]-type plastics, such as [[cellulose acetate]], [[nitrocellulose]] and [[cellulose acetate butyrate]], with commonly encountered applications including [[nail polish]]. Most phthalates are also compatible with [[alkyd]]s and [[acrylic resin]]s, which are used in both oil and emulsion based paints.

Other plasticised polymer systems include [[polyvinyl butyral]] (particularly the forms used to make [[laminated glass]]), [[Polyvinyl acetate|PVA]] and its co-polymers like [[Polyvinyl chloride acetate|PVCA]]. They are also compatible in [[nylon]], [[polystyrene]], [[polyurethane]]s, and certain [[rubber]]s; but their use in these is very limited.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cadogan DF, Howick CJ |title=Plasticizers |journal=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |date=15 June 2000 |volume=27 |pages=613–614 |doi=10.1002/14356007.a20_439|isbn=3527306730 }}</ref>

Phthalates can plasticise [[ethyl cellulose]], [[polyvinyl acetate phthalate]] (PVAP) and [[cellulose acetate phthalate]] (CAP), all of which are used to make [[enteric coating]]s for [[Tablet (pharmacy)|tablet]] and [[Capsule (pharmacy)|capsule]] medications. These coatings protect drugs from the acidity of the stomach, but allow their release and absorption in the intestines.

===Solvent and phlegmatizer===
Phthalate esters are widely used as solvents for highly reactive [[organic peroxide]]s. Thousands of tonnes are consumed annually for this purpose. The great advantage offered by these esters is that they are [[phlegmatizer]]s, i.e. they minimize the explosive tendencies of a family of chemical compounds that otherwise are potentially dangerous to handle.<ref name=Ullmann>{{Ullmann | vauthors = Herbert K, Götz PH, Siegmeier R, Mayr W | title = Peroxy Compounds, Organic | doi = 10.1002/14356007.a19_199}}</ref> Phthalates have also been used for producing [[plastic explosive]]s such as [[Semtex]].

===Other uses===
Relatively minor amounts of some phthalates find use in personal-care items such as eye shadow, moisturizer, nail polish, liquid soap, and hair spray.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Koo HJ, Lee BM | title = Estimated exposure to phthalates in cosmetics and risk assessment | journal = Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A | volume = 67 | issue = 23–24 | pages = 1901–1914 | date = December 2004 | pmid = 15513891 | doi = 10.1080/15287390490513300 | bibcode = 2004JTEHA..67.1901K | s2cid = 30617587 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hubinger JC, Havery DC | title = Analysis of consumer cosmetic products for phthalate esters | journal = Journal of Cosmetic Science | volume = 57 | issue = 2 | pages = 127–137 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16688376 }}</ref><ref name=Ullmann2>Peter M. Lorz, Friedrich K. Towae, Walter Enke, Rudolf Jäckh, Naresh Bhargava, Wolfgang Hillesheim "Phthalic Acid and Derivatives" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2007, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a20_181.pub2}}</ref> Low-molecular-weight phthalates like [[dimethyl phthalate]] and [[diethyl phthalate]] are used as fixatives for perfumes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Al-Saleh I, Elkhatib R | title = Screening of phthalate esters in 47 branded perfumes | journal = Environmental Science and Pollution Research International | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 455–468 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26310707 | doi = 10.1007/s11356-015-5267-z | bibcode = 2016ESPR...23..455A | s2cid = 22840018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Phthalates in Cosmetics |url=https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetic-ingredients/phthalates-cosmetics |website=U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) |access-date=2 November 2022 |language=en |date=19 May 2022}}</ref> Dimethyl phthalate has been also used as an [[insect repellent]] and is especially useful against [[Ixodidae|ixodid ticks]] responsible for [[Lyme disease]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown M, Hebert AA | title = Insect repellents: an overview | journal = Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology | volume = 36 | issue = 2 Pt 1 | pages = 243–249 | date = February 1997 | pmid = 9039177 | doi = 10.1016/S0190-9622(97)70289-5 }}</ref> and species of mosquitoes such as ''[[Anopheles stephensi]], [[Culex pipiens]] and [[Aedes aegypti]]'',<ref name=":6">{{cite journal | vauthors = Karunamoorthi K, Sabesan S | title = Laboratory evaluation of dimethyl phthalate treated wristbands against three predominant mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) vectors of disease | journal = European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = 443–448 | date = May 2010 | pmid = 20556923 }}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nathan SS, Kalaivani K, Murugan K | title = Effects of neem limonoids on the malaria vector Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae) | journal = Acta Tropica | volume = 96 | issue = 1 | pages = 47–55 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16112073 | doi = 10.1016/j.actatropica.2005.07.002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kalyanasundaram M, Mathew N | title = N,N-diethyl phenylacetamide (DEPA): A safe and effective repellent for personal protection against hematophagous arthropods | journal = Journal of Medical Entomology | volume = 43 | issue = 3 | pages = 518–525 | date = May 2006 | pmid = 16739410 | doi = 10.1603/0022-2585(2006)43[518:NPDASA]2.0.CO;2 | s2cid = 22623121 }}</ref>

Diallyl phthalate is used to prepare [[vinyl ester resin]]s with excellent electrical insulation properties, these are used to manufacture of electronics components. [[Alkyd]]s are sometimes classed as phthalates, as they meet the technical definition, however, being polymeric esters of [[phthalic acid]] their properties and applications are very different.

==History==
The development of [[cellulose nitrate]] plastic in 1846 led to the patent of [[castor oil]] in 1856 for use as the first plasticizer. In 1870, [[camphor]] became the more favored plasticizer for cellulose nitrate. Phthalates were first introduced in the 1920s and quickly replaced the volatile and odorous camphor. In 1931, the commercial availability of [[polyvinyl chloride]] (PVC) and the development of [[Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate|di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate]] (DEHP) began the boom of the plasticizer PVC industry.

==Properties==
Phthalate [[ester]]s usually refers to di[[alkyl]] esters of [[phthalic acid]] (also called 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, not be confused with the [[Structural isomer#Position isomerism|structurally]] [[Phthalic acid#Isomers|isomeric]] [[terephthalic acid|terephthalic]] or [[Isophthalic acid|isophthalic]] acids); the name "phthalate" derives from [[phthalic acid]], which itself is derived from the word "[[naphthalene]]". When added to plastics, phthalates allow the polyvinyl polymers to slide against one another. The phthalates have a clear syrupy liquid consistency and show low water solubility, high oil solubility, and low volatility. The polar [[carboxyl]] group contributes little to the physical properties of the phthalates, except when R and R' are very small (such as ethyl or methyl groups). Phthalates are colorless, odorless liquids produced by the reaction of [[phthalic anhydride]] with [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohol]]s.

The mechanism by which phthalates and related compounds plasticize polar polymers has been a subject of intense study since the 1960s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Daniels PH |title=A brief overview of theories of PVC plasticization and methods used to evaluate PVC-plasticizer interaction |journal=Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology |date=December 2009 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=219–223 |doi=10.1002/vnl.20211|s2cid=137535663 }}</ref> The mechanism is one of polar interactions between the polar centres of the phthalate molecule (the C=O functionality) and the positively charged areas of the vinyl chain, typically residing on the carbon atom of the carbon-chlorine bond. For this to be established, the polymer must be heated in the presence of the plasticizer, first above the [[glass transition temperature|Tg]] of the polymer and then into a melt state. This enables an intimate mix of polymer and plasticizer to be formed, and for these interactions to occur. When cooled, these interactions remain and the network of PVC chains cannot reform (as is present in unplasticized PVC, or PVC-U). The alkyl chains of the phthalate then screen the PVC chains from each other as well. They are blended within the plastic article as a result of the manufacturing process.<ref>{{Cite book |title=PVC handbook | vauthors = Wilkes CE, Summers JW, Daniels CA, Berard M |date=2005-01-01 |publisher=Hanser |isbn=978-3446227149 |oclc=488962111}}</ref>

Because they are not [[chemical bond|chemically bonded]] to the host [[plastic]]s, phthalates are released from the plastic article by relatively gentle means. For example, they can be extracted by extraction with organic solvents and, to some extent, by handling.

===Alternatives===
[[File:European Plasticiser Market Trends 2005 - 2014.jpg|thumb|Market trend in decreasing use of low orthophthalates including DEHP]]
Being inexpensive, nontoxic (in an acute sense), colorless, noncorrosive, biodegradable, and with easily tuned physical properties, phthalate esters are nearly ideal plasticizers. Among the numerous alternative [[plasticizer]]s are [[dioctyl terephthalate]] (DEHT) (a [[terephthalate]] isomeric with DEHP) and [[1,2-cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid diisononyl ester]] (DINCH) (a hydrogenated version of DINP). Both DEHT and DINCH have been used in high volumes for a variety of products used in contact with humans as alternative plasticizers for DEHP and DINP. Some of these products include medical devices, toys, and [[food packaging]].<ref name=":2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bui TT, Giovanoulis G, Cousins AP, Magnér J, Cousins IT, de Wit CA | title = Human exposure, hazard and risk of alternative plasticizers to phthalate esters | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 541 | pages = 451–467 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26410720 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.09.036 | bibcode = 2016ScTEn.541..451B }}</ref> DEHT and DINCH are more hydrophobic than other phthalate alternatives such as bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA) and diisodecyl adipate (DIDA). Since alternative plasticizers such as DEHT and DINCH are more likely to bind to organic matter and airborne particles indoors, exposure occurs primarily through food consumption and contact with dust.<ref name=":2" />

Many bio-based plasticizers based on vegetable oil have been developed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bio-based plasticizer|url=http://www.license.umn.edu/Products/Bio-Based--Phthalate-Free-Polyvinyl-Chloride-Plasticizer__20100213.aspx|publisher=University of Minnesota|access-date=7 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406140605/http://www.license.umn.edu/Products/Bio-Based--Phthalate-Free-Polyvinyl-Chloride-Plasticizer__20100213.aspx|archive-date=6 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Environmental impact==
Phthalates are easily released into the environment. In general, they do not persist due to rapid [[biodegradation]], [[photodegradation]], and [[Anaerobic digestion|anaerobic degradation]]. Outdoor air concentrations are higher in [[city|urban]] and [[suburb]]an areas than in [[Rural area|rural]] and remote areas.<ref name="endo">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rudel RA, Perovich LJ | title = Endocrine disrupting chemicals in indoor and outdoor air | journal = Atmospheric Environment | volume = 43 | issue = 1 | pages = 170–181 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 20047015 | pmc = 2677823 | doi = 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.09.025 | bibcode = 2009AtmEn..43..170R }}</ref> They also pose no acute toxicity.<ref name=Ullmann/>

Because of their [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatility]], [[Diethyl phthalate|DEP]] and [[Dimethyl phthalate|DMP]] are present in higher concentrations in air in comparison with the heavier and less volatile [[Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate|DEHP]]. Higher air temperatures result in higher concentrations of phthalates in the air. [[PVC]] flooring leads to higher concentrations of [[Butyl benzyl phthalate|BBP]] and DEHP, which are more prevalent in dust.<ref name=endo/> A 2012 Swedish study of children found that phthalates from PVC flooring were taken up into their bodies, showing that children can ingest phthalates not only from food but also by breathing and through the skin.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Carlstedt F, Jönsson BA, Bornehag CG | title = PVC flooring is related to human uptake of phthalates in infants | journal = Indoor Air | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 32–39 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 22563949 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0668.2012.00788.x | bibcode = 2013InAir..23...32C | doi-access = }}</ref>

[[Diet (nutrition)|Diet]] is believed to be the main source of DEHP and other phthalates in the general population. Fatty foods such as milk, butter, and meats are a major source. Studies show that exposure to phthalates is greater from ingestion of certain foods, rather than exposure via water bottles, as is most often first thought of with plastic chemicals.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Erythropel HC, Maric M, Nicell JA, Leask RL, Yargeau V | title = Leaching of the plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) from plastic containers and the question of human exposure | journal = Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology | volume = 98 | issue = 24 | pages = 9967–9981 | date = December 2014 | pmid = 25376446 | doi = 10.1007/s00253-014-6183-8 | s2cid = 11715151 }}</ref> Low-molecular-weight phthalates such as DEP, DBP, [[BBzP]] may be dermally absorbed. Inhalational exposure is also significant with the more volatile phthalates.<ref name="phthalates">{{cite journal | vauthors = Heudorf U, Mersch-Sundermann V, Angerer J | title = Phthalates: toxicology and exposure | journal = International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health | volume = 210 | issue = 5 | pages = 623–634 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17889607 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijheh.2007.07.011 | bibcode = 2007IJHEH.210..623H }}</ref>

One study, conducted between 2003 and 2010 analysing data from 9,000 individuals, found that those who reported that they had eaten at a [[fast food restaurant]] had much higher levels of two separate phthalates—DEHP and DiNP—in their urine samples. Even small consumption of [[fast food]] caused higher presence of phthalates. "People who reported eating only a little fast food had DEHP levels that were 15.5 percent higher and DiNP levels that were 25 percent higher than those who said they had eaten none. For people who reported eating a sizable amount, the increase was 24 percent and 39 percent, respectively."<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zota AR, Phillips CA, Mitro SD | title = Recent Fast Food Consumption and Bisphenol A and Phthalates Exposures among the U.S. Population in NHANES, 2003-2010 | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 124 | issue = 10 | pages = 1521–1528 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27072648 | pmc = 5047792 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.1510803 }}</ref>

In a 2008 Bulgarian study, higher dust concentrations of DEHP were found in homes of children with asthma and allergies, compared with healthy children's homes.<ref name="dust">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kolarik B, Bornehag CG, Naydenov K, Sundell J, Stavova P, Nielsen OF |title=The concentrations of phthalates in settled dust in Bulgarian homes in relation to building characteristic and cleaning habits in the family |journal=Atmospheric Environment |date=December 2008 |volume=42 |issue=37 |pages=8553–8559 |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.08.028 |bibcode=2008AtmEn..42.8553K |s2cid=96190203 }}</ref> The author of the study stated, "The concentration of DEHP was found to be significantly associated with wheezing in the last 12 months as reported by the parents."<ref name=dust /> Phthalates were found in almost every sampled home in Bulgaria. The same study found that DEHP, BBzP, and DnOP were in significantly higher concentrations in dust samples collected in homes where polishing agents were used. Data on flooring materials was collected, but there was not a significant difference in concentrations between homes where no polish was used that have balatum (PVC or linoleum) flooring and homes with wood. High frequency of dusting did decrease the concentration.<ref name=dust />

In general, children's exposure to phthalates is greater than that of adults. In a 1990s Canadian study that modeled ambient exposures, it was estimated that daily exposure to DEHP was 9 μg/kg bodyweight/day in infants, 19 μg/kg bodyweight/day in toddlers, 14 μg/kg bodyweight/day in children, and 6 μg/kg bodyweight/day in adults.<ref name=phthalates/> Infants and toddlers are at the greatest risk of exposure, because of their mouthing behavior. Body-care products containing phthalates are a source of exposure for infants. The authors of a 2008 study "observed that reported use of infant lotion, infant powder, and infant shampoo were associated with increased infant urine concentrations of [phthalate metabolites], and this association is strongest in younger infants. These findings suggest that dermal exposures may contribute significantly to phthalate body burden in this population." Although they did not examine health outcomes, they noted that "Young infants are more vulnerable to the potential adverse effects of phthalates given their increased dosage per unit body surface area, metabolic capabilities, and developing endocrine and reproductive systems."<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sathyanarayana S, Karr CJ, Lozano P, Brown E, Calafat AM, Liu F, Swan SH | title = Baby care products: possible sources of infant phthalate exposure | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 121 | issue = 2 | pages = e260–e268 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18245401 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2006-3766 | s2cid = 22218732 }}</ref>

Infants and hospitalized children are particularly susceptible to phthalate exposure. Medical devices and tubing may contain 20–40% Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) by weight, which "easily leach out of tubing when heated (as with warm saline / blood)".<ref name="Sathyanarayana">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sathyanarayana S | title = Phthalates and children's health | journal = Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 34–49 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18237855 | doi = 10.1016/j.cppeds.2007.11.001 }}</ref> Several medical devices contain phthalates including, but not limited to, IV tubing, gloves, nasogastric tubes, and respiratory tubing. The Food and Drug Administration did an extensive risk assessment of phthalates in the medical setting and found that neonates may be exposed to five times greater than the allowed daily tolerable intake. This finding led to the conclusion by the FDA that, "[c]hildren undergoing certain medical procedures may represent a population at increased risk for the effects of DEHP".<ref name="Sathyanarayana" />

In 2008, the Danish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) found a variety of phthalates in [[eraser]]s and warned of health risks when children regularly suck and chew on them. The European Commission [[Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks]] (SCHER), however, considers that, even in the case when children bite off pieces from erasers and swallow them, it is unlikely that this exposure leads to health consequences.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/04_scher/docs/scher_o_106.pdf|title=Opinion on phthalates in school supplies|date=17 October 2008|publisher=Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks, European Commission}}</ref>

Phthalates are also found in some medications, where they are used as inactive ingredients in producing [[enteric coating]]s. Urinary concentrations of [[monobutyl phthalate]], a DBP metabolite of Asacol (a particular formulation of mesalamine) can be 50 times higher than the mean of nonusers.<ref name=meds/> The study showed that exposures from phthalate-containing medications can far exceed population levels from other sources.<ref name="meds">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hernández-Díaz S, Mitchell AA, Kelley KE, Calafat AM, Hauser R | title = Medications as a potential source of exposure to phthalates in the U.S. population | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 117 | issue = 2 | pages = 185–189 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19270786 | pmc = 2649218 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.11766 }}</ref> DBP in medications raises concern about health risks due to the high level of exposures associated with taking these medications, especially in vulnerable segments of the population, including pregnant women and children.<ref name=meds/>

In 2008, the [[United States National Research Council]] recommended that the cumulative effects of phthalates and other [[antiandrogens]] be investigated. It criticized U.S. EPA guidances, which stipulate that, when examining cumulative effects, the chemicals examined should have similar mechanisms of action or similar structures, as too restrictive. It recommended instead that the effects of chemicals that cause similar adverse outcomes should be examined cumulatively.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Phthalates and Cumulative Risk Assessment: The Tasks Ahead|publisher=National Research Council|date=2008-12-18|isbn=9780309128414|language=en|doi=10.17226/12528|pmid=25009926|doi-access=free|author1=National Research Council (US) Committee on the Health Risks of Phthalates}}</ref> Thus, the effect of phthalates should be examined together with other antiandrogens, which otherwise may have been excluded because their mechanisms or structure are different.

==Health effects==
[[File:CBP Seizes Hazardous Toy Dolls (10928300625).jpg|thumb|Toy dolls manufactured in China and seized by [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]] in 2013 due to high phthalate levels]]In studies of rodents exposed to certain phthalates, high doses have been shown to change hormone levels and cause birth defects.<ref name=CDC/> A study in the peer-reviewed journal ''Environmental Pollution'' published October 12, 2021 found that high phthalate levels are weakly correlated with a greater risk of dying from any cause and with a stronger correlation to dying from heart problems, but the calculated [[hazard ratios]] were below 2 in both cases. The study estimated that phthalates may contribute to 91,000–107,000 premature deaths each year among people aged 55–64 in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web| vauthors = LaMotte S |date=12 October 2021|title=Synthetic chemical in consumer products linked to early death, study finds |url= https://www.cnn.com/2021/10/12/health/plastic-chemical-early-death-wellness/index.html |access-date=2021-10-12|website=CNN}}</ref>

===Endocrine disruption===
{{further|Endocrine disruptor#Phthalates}}

Phthalates enter the bloodstream and disrupt sex hormone production, interfering with sexual development in infants and sexual behaviour in adults. Levels of phthalates have been dose-dependently linked to reduced [[anogenital distance]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Swan SH, Main KM, Liu F, Stewart SL, Kruse RL, Calafat AM, Mao CS, Redmon JB, Ternand CL, Sullivan S, Teague JL | display-authors = 6 | title = Decrease in anogenital distance among male infants with prenatal phthalate exposure | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 113 | issue = 8 | pages = 1056–1061 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16079079 | pmc = 1280349 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.8100 | collaboration = Study for Future Families Research Team | doi-access = free }}</ref> decreased sexual desire and satisfaction in women,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Barrett ES, Parlett LE, Wang C, Drobnis EZ, Redmon JB, Swan SH | title = Environmental exposure to di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate is associated with low interest in sexual activity in premenopausal women | journal = Hormones and Behavior | volume = 66 | issue = 5 | pages = 787–792 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25448532 | pmc = 5035677 | doi = 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.10.003 }}</ref> and malformed genital development in rats.

Phthalates act by mimicking the female hormone estrogen, which in turn inhibits production of the male hormone testosterone. As such, phthalates are considered to be [[endocrine disruptor]]s<ref name=DiamantiKandarakis2009 /><ref name=Zamkowska2018>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zamkowska D, Karwacka A, Jurewicz J, Radwan M | title = Environmental exposure to non-persistent endocrine disrupting chemicals and semen quality: An overview of the current epidemiological evidence | journal = International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health | volume = 31 | issue = 4 | pages = 377–414 | date = July 2018 | pmid = 30160090 | doi = 10.13075/ijomeh.1896.01195 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name=Bansal2018>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bansal A, Henao-Mejia J, Simmons RA | title = Immune System: An Emerging Player in Mediating Effects of Endocrine Disruptors on Metabolic Health | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 159 | issue = 1 | pages = 32–45 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 29145569 | pmc = 5761609 | doi = 10.1210/en.2017-00882 }}</ref>—a substance that interferes with the normal hormonal mechanisms that allow a biological organism to interact with its environment, and has sparked demands to ban or restrict its use in baby toys.<ref name=DiamantiKandarakis2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = Diamanti-Kandarakis E, Bourguignon JP, Giudice LC, Hauser R, Prins GS, Soto AM, Zoeller RT, Gore AC | display-authors = 6 | title = Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: an Endocrine Society scientific statement | journal = Endocrine Reviews | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 293–342 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19502515 | pmc = 2726844 | doi = 10.1210/er.2009-0002 }}</ref>

Endocrine disruptors exhibit numerous behaviors that can make studying them a challenge. There can be a lag between when someone is exposed to an endocrine disruptor and any symptoms manifesting themselves–in particular fetal and early childhood exposure may have consequences later in adulthood.<ref name=DiamantiKandarakis2009 /><ref name=Braun2017>{{cite journal | vauthors = Braun JM | title = Early-life exposure to EDCs: role in childhood obesity and neurodevelopment | journal = Nature Reviews. Endocrinology | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 161–173 | date = March 2017 | pmid = 27857130 | pmc = 5322271 | doi = 10.1038/nrendo.2016.186 }}</ref> Many studies refer to this period of fetal and postnatal development as particularly important to development, but studying this is difficult; it is obviously a huge challenge to measure endocrine disruptor exposure during fetal development and then decades later diagnosing any health problems. Additionally, endocrine disruptor exposure can transmit [[epigenetically]] to one's offspring without them being directly exposed to the endocrine disruptors.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Anway MD, Cupp AS, Uzumcu M, Skinner MK | title = Epigenetic transgenerational actions of endocrine disruptors and male fertility | journal = Science | volume = 308 | issue = 5727 | pages = 1466–1469 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 15933200 | doi = 10.1126/science.1108190 | pmc = 11423801 | s2cid = 236588 | bibcode = 2005Sci...308.1466A | url = https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/animalscifacpub/169 }}</ref> Finally, particularly low levels of exposure may still have significant effects, and exposure to multiple endocrine disruptors across a variety of compounds (not just phthalates) may synergistically combine to cause a greater effect.<ref name=DiamantiKandarakis2009 /><ref name=Braun2017 /> Evaluating the actual effects of a specific compound such as a particular phthalate requires examining cumulative exposure across multiple compounds, rather than evaluating one compound in isolation.<ref name=Braun2017 />

A widespread concern about phthalate exposure is the possibility (though not conclusive) that it is the cause of a worldwide drop in male fertility.<ref>{{Cite web| vauthors = Halpern DN | title = What Happens If We Hit Sperm Count Zero?| work = GQ| access-date = 15 November 2018| date = 2018-09-04| url = https://www.gq.com/story/sperm-count-zero}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| vauthors = Belluz J |author-link=Julia Belluz| title = Sperm counts are falling. This isn't the reproductive apocalypse — yet.| work = Vox| access-date = 15 November 2018| date = 2018-09-17| url = https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2018/9/17/17841518/low-sperm-count-semen-male-fertility}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news| issn = 0362-4331| vauthors = Salam M | title = Sperm Count in Western Men Has Dropped Over 50 Percent Since 1973, Paper Finds| work = The New York Times| access-date = 15 November 2018| date = 2018-01-20| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/16/health/male-sperm-count-problem.html}}</ref> Studies have shown that phthalates cause abnormalities in the reproductive systems of animals,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hauser R, Calafat AM | title = Phthalates and human health | journal = Occupational and Environmental Medicine | volume = 62 | issue = 11 | pages = 806–818 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16234408 | pmc = 1740925 | doi = 10.1136/oem.2004.017590 }}</ref> with the greatest effects when the animal is exposed during gestation and immediately thereafter.<ref name=Lyche2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lyche JL, Gutleb AC, Bergman A, Eriksen GS, Murk AJ, Ropstad E, Saunders M, Skaare JU | display-authors = 6 | title = Reproductive and developmental toxicity of phthalates | journal = Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 225–249 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 20183522 | doi = 10.1080/10937400903094091 | bibcode = 2009JTEHB..12..225L | s2cid = 28086323 }}</ref> Numerous studies on adult male humans show the similar result that phthalate exposure correlates with worsening metrics of male fertility, such as semen quality, the quantity of damaged DNA in sperm, decreased sperm motility, decreased semen volume, and other metrics.<ref name=Zamkowska2018 /><ref name=Lyche2009 /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jurewicz J, Hanke W | title = Exposure to phthalates: reproductive outcome and children health. A review of epidemiological studies | journal = International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health | volume = 24 | issue = 2 | pages = 115–141 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21594692 | doi = 10.2478/s13382-011-0022-2 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Phthalates causing harm to the male reproductive system is plausible,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Albert O, Jégou B | title = A critical assessment of the endocrine susceptibility of the human testis to phthalates from fetal life to adulthood | journal = Human Reproduction Update | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 231–249 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 24077978 | doi = 10.1093/humupd/dmt050 | doi-access = free }}</ref> and continues to be researched.

The effect of phthalates on the female reproductive system is also not fully understood yet. Current studies indicate phthalates have negative effects on folliculogenesis and steroidogenesis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hannon PR, Flaws JA | title = The effects of phthalates on the ovary | journal = Frontiers in Endocrinology | volume = 6 | pages = 8 | date = 2015-02-02 | pmid = 25699018 | pmc = 4313599 | doi = 10.3389/fendo.2015.00008 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Early research also shows phthalate exposure may be associated with diabetes and insulin resistance, breast cancer, obesity,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Giulivo M, Lopez de Alda M, Capri E, Barceló D | title = Human exposure to endocrine disrupting compounds: Their role in reproductive systems, metabolic syndrome and breast cancer. A review | journal = Environmental Research | volume = 151 | pages = 251–264 | date = November 2016 | pmid = 27504873 | doi = 10.1016/j.envres.2016.07.011 | bibcode = 2016ER....151..251G }}</ref> metabolic disorders, and immune function.<ref name=Bansal2018 />

There are possible (though not conclusive) associations between phthalate exposure and adverse child neurodevelopment,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Factor-Litvak P, Insel B, Calafat AM, Liu X, Perera F, Rauh VA, Whyatt RM | title = Persistent Associations between Maternal Prenatal Exposure to Phthalates on Child IQ at Age 7 Years | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 9 | issue = 12 | pages = e114003 | date = 10 December 2014 | pmid = 25493564 | pmc = 4262205 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0114003 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...9k4003F }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Balalian AA, Whyatt RM, Liu X, Insel BJ, Rauh VA, Herbstman J, Factor-Litvak P | title = Prenatal and childhood exposure to phthalates and motor skills at age 11 years | journal = Environmental Research | volume = 171 | pages = 416–427 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 30731329 | pmc = 6814270 | doi = 10.1016/j.envres.2019.01.046 | bibcode = 2019ER....171..416B }}</ref> including the development of [[ADHD]] and [[autistic]] behaviors and lower cognitive and motor development.<ref name="Engel_2021">{{cite journal | vauthors = Engel SM, Patisaul HB, Brody C, Hauser R, Zota AR, Bennet DH, Swanson M, Whyatt RM | display-authors = 6 | title = Neurotoxicity of Ortho-Phthalates: Recommendations for Critical Policy Reforms to Protect Brain Development in Children | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 111 | issue = 4 | pages = 687–695 | date = April 2021 | pmid = 33600256 | pmc = 7958063 | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.2020.306014 }}</ref> Most common associations found in medical reports link the phthalates exposure to hyperactivity, aggression, and other adverse behaviors.<ref name="Engel_2021"/> Some studies have found the childhood exposure to be as early as in utero.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Factor-Litvak P, Insel B, Calafat AM, Liu X, Perera F, Rauh VA, Whyatt RM | title = Persistent Associations between Maternal Prenatal Exposure to Phthalates on Child IQ at Age 7 Years | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 9 | issue = 12 | pages = e114003 | date = 2014-12-10 | pmid = 25493564 | pmc = 4262205 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0114003 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...9k4003F }}</ref>

In many cases, there are studies that show connections between phthalates and these negative outcomes, as well as studies that show no connection; this is likely due to the research challenges outlined above, and when resolved, could show that phthalate exposure does not cause health effects, or even that they have a much greater effect than currently predicted.<ref name=Braun2017 /> In all cases, larger studies are needed to demonstrate incontrovertibly what effect phthalate exposure has on human health.

A [[Nature Reviews Endocrinology]] review paper from 2017<ref name=Braun2017 /> gives some advice for avoiding exposure to phthalates for concerned people; while they make pains to state that there is no evidence that shows this advice will positively affect one's health, they suggest (1) eating a balanced diet to avoid ingesting too many endocrine disruptors from a single source, (2) eliminating canned or packaged food in order to limit ingestion of [[DEHP]] phthalates leached from plastics, and (3) eliminating use of any personal product such as moisturizer, perfume, or cosmetics that contain phthalates.<ref name=Braun2017 /> Eliminating personal products containing phthalates can be particularly difficult or impossible due to some countries such as the United States not requiring them to be disclosed in a list of ingredients.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dodson RE, Nishioka M, Standley LJ, Perovich LJ, Brody JG, Rudel RA | title = Endocrine disruptors and asthma-associated chemicals in consumer products | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 120 | issue = 7 | pages = 935–943 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22398195 | pmc = 3404651 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.1104052 }}</ref>

=== Endocannabinoid system disruption ===
Phthalates block [[Cannabinoid receptor type 1|CB1]] as [[Allosteric regulation|allosteric]] [[Agonist|antagonists]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McPartland JM, Guy GW, Di Marzo V | title = Care and feeding of the endocannabinoid system: a systematic review of potential clinical interventions that upregulate the endocannabinoid system | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = e89566 | date = 12 March 2014 | pmid = 24622769 | pmc = 3951193 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0089566 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...989566M }}</ref>

===Other effects===
{{More medical citations needed|section|date=April 2022}}

There may be a link between the [[obesity epidemic]] and endocrine disruption and metabolic interference. Studies conducted on mice exposed to phthalates in utero did not result in metabolic disorder in adults.<ref name="obesity">{{cite journal | vauthors = Desvergne B, Feige JN, Casals-Casas C | title = PPAR-mediated activity of phthalates: A link to the obesity epidemic? | journal = Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology | volume = 304 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 43–48 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19433246 | doi = 10.1016/j.mce.2009.02.017 | s2cid = 12880759 }}</ref> However, "in a national cross-section of U.S. men, concentrations of several prevalent phthalate metabolites showed statistically significant correlations with abnormal obesity and insulin resistance."<ref name="obesity"/> Mono-ethylhexyl-phthalate (MEHP), a metabolite of [[Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate|DEHP]], has been found to interact with all three peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs).<ref name="obesity"/> PPARs are members of the nuclear receptor superfamily. The author of the study stated "The roles of PPARs in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism raise the question of their activation by a sub-class of pollutants, tentatively named metabolic disrupters."<ref name="obesity"/> Phthalates belong to this class of metabolic disruptors. It is a possibility that, over many years of exposure to these metabolic disruptors, they are able to deregulate complex metabolic pathways in a subtle manner.<ref name=obesity />

In order to build up adipose tissue and establish metabolic homeostasis, it has been established that early childhood and puberty are crucial developmental stages. Exposure to endocrine disruptors, such as phthalates, during these crucial developmental stages may negatively affect adipose tissue function and metabolic homeostasis, increasing the risk of obesity.<ref name=":22">{{cite journal | vauthors = Xia B, Zhu Q, Zhao Y, Ge W, Zhao Y, Song Q, Zhou Y, Shi H, Zhang Y | display-authors = 6 | title = Phthalate exposure and childhood overweight and obesity: Urinary metabolomic evidence | journal = Environment International | volume = 121 | issue = Pt 1 | pages = 159–168 | date = December 2018 | pmid = 30208345 | doi = 10.1016/j.envint.2018.09.001 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2018EnInt.121..159X }}</ref> The prevalence of obesity, particularly in children, is rising, according to mounting evidence, which suggests that increased exposure to phthalates through food packaging materials is to blame. In a study conducted on schoolchildren in China, the concentration of mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP) was assessed in urine samples. Additionally, increased exposure to phthalates has been linked to an increase in MnBP. MnBP has been linked to significant increases in weight and obesity in schoolchildren. Significant increases in MnBP concentration were found in the study's urine samples.<ref name=":22" /> The disruption of the arginine and proline metabolism associated with this elevated MnBP concentration as a result of phthalate exposure is thought to be a factor in the pathophysiological changes associated with childhood obesity.

Large amounts of specific phthalates fed to rodents have been shown to damage their [[liver]] and [[testes]],<ref name="CDC">{{cite web | url = https://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/pdf/thirdreport.pdf | title = Third National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals | work = U.S. CDC | date = July 2005 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070401141153/http://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/pdf/thirdreport.pdf |archive-date=1 April 2007 }}</ref> and initial [[animal testing on rodents|rodent studies]] also indicated [[Liver cancer|hepatocarcinogenicity]]. Following this result, [[Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate|di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate]] was listed as a possible [[carcinogen]] by [[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]], [[European Community|EC]], and [[WHO]]. Later studies on primates showed that the mechanism is specific to rodents; humans are resistant to the effect.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chronic Hazard Advisory on Diisononyl Phthalate |url=http://www.cpsc.gov/library/foia/foia01/os/dinp.pdf |page=87 |year=2001 |quote=Human risk is therefore seen as negligible |access-date=2009-01-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005052725/https://www.cpsc.gov/library/foia/foia01/os/dinp.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-05 }}</ref> The carcinogen classification was subsequently withdrawn.

==Legal status==
===Canada===
In 1994, a [[Health Canada]] assessment found that DEHP and another phthalate product, B79P, were harmful to human health. The Canadian federal government responded by banning their use in cosmetics and restricting their use in other applications.<ref name="GovCan">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/chemicals-product-safety/phthalates.html |title=Phthalates |date=6 October 2017 |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=11 July 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

A 2017 assessment found that B79P and DEHP may cause environmental damage. As of 2019, regulations to protect the environment against DEHP and B79P have not yet been put into place.<ref name="GovCan2">{{cite web | url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/chemical-substances/fact-sheets/chemicals-glance/phthalates.html |title=Phthalate Substance Grouping – information sheet |website=canada.ca |date=12 March 2017 |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=11 July 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

===European Union===
[[File:European Plasticisers - Classified and Non Classified.jpg|thumb|Update on non-classified plasticisers and the European REACH Candidate Classification including pending authorisation]]
The use of some phthalates has been restricted in the European Union for use in children's toys since 1999.<ref>{{CELEX|31999D0815|text=1999/815/EC: Commission Decision of 7 December 1999 adopting measures prohibiting the placing on the market of toys and childcare articles intended to be placed in the mouth by children under three years of age made of soft PVC containing one or more of the substances di-iso-nonyl phthalate (DINP), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), di-iso-decyl phthalate (DIDP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DNOP), and butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP)}}</ref> DEHP, [[Butyl benzyl phthalate|BBP]], and DBP are restricted for all toys; DINP, DIDP, and DNOP are restricted only in toys that can be taken into the mouth. The restriction states that the amount of these phthalates may not be greater than 0.1% mass percent of the plasticized part of the toy.

Generally, the high molecular weight phthalates DINP, DIDP, and DPHP have been registered under [[Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals|REACH]] and have demonstrated their safety for use in current applications. They are not classified for any health or environmental effects.

The low molecular weight products BBP, DEHP, DIBP, and DBP were added to the Candidate list of Substances for Authorisation under REACH in 2008–9, and added to the Authorisation list, Annex XIV, in 2012.<ref name=":1" /> This means that from February 2015 they are not allowed to be produced in the EU unless authorisation has been granted for a specific use, however they may still be imported in consumer products.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://chemicalwatch.com/23104/echa-and-denmark-to-prepare-phthalates-restriction | title=Echa and Denmark to prepare phthalates restriction}}</ref> The creation of an Annex XV dossier, which could ban the import of products containing these chemicals, was being prepared jointly by the ECHA and Danish authorities, and expected to be submitted by April 2016.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://echa.europa.eu/registry-of-current-restriction-proposal-intentions/-/substance-rev/6301/term | title=Registry of Intentions - ECHA}}</ref>

In 2006 the Dutch office of [[Greenpeace]] UK sought to encourage the [[European Union]] to ban sex toys that contained phthalates.<ref>[http://www.mskft.com/sex-toys-contain-toxins/ Ms. KFT] Retrieved 22 December 2014 {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20140915175616/http://www.mskft.com/sex-toys-contain-toxins/ |date=15 September 2014 }}</ref>

===United States===
During August 2008, the [[United States Congress]] passed and President [[George W. Bush]] signed the [[Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act]] (CPSIA), which became public law 110–314.<ref>GovTrack.us. "[http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h110-4040 H.R. 4040--110th Congress (2007): Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008], GovTrack.us (database of federal legislation). Retrieved 14 August 2009.</ref> Section 108 of that law specified that as of February 10, 2009, "it shall be unlawful for any person to manufacture for sale, offer for sale, distribute in commerce, or import into the United States any children's toy or child care article that contains concentrations of more than 0.1 percent of" [[DEHP]], [[Dibutyl phthalate|DBP]], or [[Benzyl butyl phthalate|BBP]] and "it shall be unlawful for any person to manufacture for sale, offer for sale, distribute in commerce, or import into the United States any children's toy that can be placed in a child's mouth or child care article that contains concentrations of more than 0.1 percent of" [[DINP]], [[DIDP]], [[DnOP]]. Furthermore, the law requires the establishment of a permanent review board to determine the safety of other phthalates. Prior to this legislation, the Consumer Product Safety Commission had determined that voluntary withdrawals of DEHP and diisononyl phthalate (DINP) from teethers, pacifiers, and rattles had eliminated the risk to children, and advised against enacting a phthalate ban.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=102567295 Public Concern, Not Science, Prompts Plastics Ban] by Jon Hamilton, NPR.</ref>

In another development in 1986, California voters approved an initiative to address their growing concerns about exposure to toxic chemicals. That initiative became the Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986, better known by its original name of Proposition 65.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oehha.ca.gov/prop65/background/p65plain.html|title=OEHHA Proposition 65: Proposition 65 in Plain Language!|work=ca.gov}}</ref> In December 2013 DINP was listed as a chemical "known to the State of California to cause cancer"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oehha.ca.gov/prop65/CRNR_notices/list_changes/122013P65list.html|title=OEHHA Proposition 65 (2013) Diisononyl Phthalate (DINP) listed|work=ca.gov}}</ref> This means that, starting December 2014, companies with ten or more employees manufacturing, distributing or selling the product(s) containing DINP are required to provide a clear and reasonable warning for that product. The California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, charged with maintaining the Proposition 65 list and enforcing its provisions, has implemented a "No Significant Risk Level" of 146 μg/day for DINP.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 1, 2021 |title=Current Proposition 65 No Significant Risk Levels (NSRLs) Maximum Allowable Dose Levels (MADLs) |url=https://oehha.ca.gov/proposition-65/general-info/current-proposition-65-no-significant-risk-levels-nsrls-maximum |access-date=March 23, 2022 |website=California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment}}</ref>

====Legislation, additional====

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Date !! Action || References
|-
| December 14, 2005 || The European Union restricted phthalates from several children's toys. || <ref name = "2005/84/EC" />
|-
| June 8, 2011 || Guarantees the sale of electronic products free of phthalates. || <ref>{{cite web | title = Directive 2011/65/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2011 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (recast) Text with EEA relevance | work = EUR-Lex - 32011L0065 - EN - EUR-Lex. | url = http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2011/65/oj }}</ref>
|-
| July 4, 2017 || Included in the candidate list referred to as substances toxic for reproduction. || <ref>{{cite web | title = Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2017/1210 of 4 July 2017 on the identification of bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) and diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP) as substances of very high concern according to Article 57(f) of Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council (notified under document C(2017) 4462) | work = EUR-Lex - 32017D1210 - EN - EUR-Lex. (n.d.-b). | url = http://data.europa.eu/eli/dec_impl/2017/1210/oj }}</ref>
|-
| November 23, 2021 || DIBP is declared as an [[Endocrine disruptor|endocrine disrupting chemical]]. || <ref>{{cite web | title = Commission Regulation (EU) 2021/2045 of 23 November 2021 amending Annex XIV to Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) | work = EUR-Lex - 32021R2045 - EN - EUR-Lex. | url = http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2021/2045/oj}}</ref>
|-
| August 11, 2021 || The European Parliament eliminates DIBP and other phthalates from sanitary products. || <ref>{{cite web | title = Commission Delegated Directive (EU) 2021/1978 of 11 August 2021 amending, for the purposes of adapting to scientific and technical progress, Annex IV to Directive 2011/65/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards an exemption for the use of bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP) in spare parts recovered from and used for the repair or refurbishment of medical devices | work = EUR-Lex - 32021L1978 - EN - EUR-Lex.| url = http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir_del/2021/1978/oj }}</ref>
|}

==Identification in plastics==
[[File:Plastic-recyc-03.svg|thumb|100px|Some "Type 3" plastics contain Phthalates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Types of Plastic - I-Cycle |url=https://www2.illinois.gov/cms/agency/recycling/i-cycle/Pages/plastics.aspx |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=www2.illinois.gov}}</ref>]]
Phthalates are used in some, but not all, [[PVC]] formulations, and there are no specific labeling requirements for phthalates. PVC plastics are typically used for various containers and hard packaging, medical tubing and bags, and are labeled "Type 3". However, the presence of phthalates rather than other plasticizers is not marked on PVC items. Only unplasticized PVC (uPVC), which is mainly used as a hard construction material, has no plasticizers. If a more accurate test is needed, chemical analysis, for example by [[gas chromatography]] or [[liquid chromatography]], can establish the presence of phthalates.

[[Polyethylene terephthalate]] (PET, PETE, Terylene, Dacron) is the main substance used to package [[bottled water]] and many sodas. Products containing PETE are labeled "Type 1" (with a "1" in the recycle triangle). Although the word "phthalate" appears in the name, PETE does not use phthalates as plasticizers. The terephthalate polymer PETE and the phthalate ester plasticizers are chemically different substances.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.plasticsmythbuster.org/s_mythbuster/sec.asp?CID=1985&DID=8371 |title=Learn the Facts About Food Packaging and Phthalates |publisher=Plasticsmythbuster.org |access-date=2013-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706092722/http://www.plasticsmythbuster.org/s_mythbuster/sec.asp?CID=1985&DID=8371 |archive-date=6 July 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Despite this, however, a number of studies have found phthalates such as DEHP in bottled water and soda.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sax L | title = Polyethylene terephthalate may yield endocrine disruptors | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 118 | issue = 4 | pages = 445–448 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20368129 | pmc = 2854718 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.0901253 }}</ref> One hypothesis is that these may have been introduced during [[plastic recycling]].<ref name=":0" />

== See also ==
* [[Xenoestrogen]]
* Non-phthalate plasticizers such as
**[[1,2-Cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid diisononyl ester]],
**[[Dioctyl terephthalate]], and
**[[Citrate]]s
*[[Antiandrogens in the environment]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

=== Further reading ===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Lovekamp-Swan T, Davis BJ | title = Mechanisms of phthalate ester toxicity in the female reproductive system | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 111 | issue = 2 | pages = 139–145 | date = February 2003 | pmid = 12573895 | pmc = 1241340 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.5658 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Tickner JA, Schettler T, Guidotti T, McCally M, Rossi M | title = Health risks posed by use of Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) in PVC medical devices: a critical review | journal = American Journal of Industrial Medicine | volume = 39 | issue = 1 | pages = 100–111 | date = January 2001 | pmid = 11148020 | doi = 10.1002/1097-0274(200101)39:1<100::AID-AJIM10>3.0.CO;2-Q | s2cid = 23676863 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Kohn MC, Parham F, Masten SA, Portier CJ, Shelby MD, Brock JW, Needham LL | title = Human exposure estimates for phthalates | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 108 | issue = 10 | pages = A440–A442 | date = October 2000 | pmid = 11097556 | pmc = 1240144 | doi = 10.2307/3435033 | jstor = 3435033 }}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/data_tables/chemical_group_12.html|title=National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals. Updated Tables, February 2011|author=Centers for Disease Control|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20100104203206/http://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/data_tables/chemical_group_12.html|archive-date=4 January 2010}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/Phthalates_FactSheet.html|title=Phthalate Fact Sheet|author=Centers for Disease Control|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229125242/http://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/Phthalates_FactSheet.html|archive-date=29 December 2010}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/PHS/PHS.aspid=376&tid=65|title=Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry-Public Health Statement for Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate DEHP|author=Centers for Disease Control|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102151411/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/PHS/PHS.aspid%3D376%26tid%3D65|archive-date=2 November 2019|url-status=dead|access-date=28 December 2021}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Latini G, Del Vecchio A, Massaro M, Verrotti A, De Felice C | title = Phthalate exposure and male infertility | journal = Toxicology | volume = 226 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 90–98 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16905236 | doi = 10.1016/j.tox.2006.07.011 | bibcode = 2006Toxgy.226...90L }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Amaral Mendes JJ | title = The endocrine disrupters: a major medical challenge | journal = Food and Chemical Toxicology | volume = 40 | issue = 6 | pages = 781–788 | date = June 2002 | pmid = 11983272 | doi = 10.1016/S0278-6915(02)00018-2 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
*{{Commons category-inline|Phthalates}}

{{HealthIssuesOfPlastics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Phthalates| ]]
[[Category:Plasticizers]]
[[Category:Suspected testicular toxicants]]
[[Category:Suspected fetotoxicants]]
[[Category:Suspected teratogens]]
[[Category:Endocrine disruptors]]

Template:Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–present) infobox

2024-11-14T19:31:06Z

Brandmeister: consistency with the article title, present and ongoing

<noinclude>{{pp-extended|small=yes}}</noinclude>
<templatestyles src="Plainlist/styles.css"/>
{{#invoke:Infobox military conflict|main
| conflict = Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–2024)
| partof = the [[Hezbollah–Israel conflict]], the [[Middle Eastern crisis (2023–present)]] and the [[Iran–Israel conflict during the Syrian civil war]]
| place = [[Israel]], [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]]
| date = 8 October 2023 – ongoing ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=10|day1=8|year1=2023}})
| result = Low-level conflict leads to the [[2024 Israeli invasion of Lebanon]]
| combatant1 = {{#invoke:flag||Hezbollah}}<ref name="iran-update-january-14-2024">{{#invoke:cite web|| url=https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-january-14-2024 | title=Iran Update, January 14, 2024 | website=[[Institute for the Study of War]] | access-date=15 January 2024 | archive-date=15 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115114935/https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-january-14-2024 | url-status=live }}</ref> {{collapsible list|title=Allies:|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Amal Movement.svg}} [[Amal Movement|Amal]]<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://www.ynetnews.com/article/hkvvexbjt|newspaper=[[Ynet]]news|title=Lebanese Amal movement opposed to Israel but otherwise independent|date=2024-02-08|access-date=2024-10-04|last1=Ari|first1=Lior Ben|archive-date=7 October 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007095224/https://www.ynetnews.com/article/hkvvexbjt|url-status=live}}</ref> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Muslim Brotherhood.png}} [[Islamic Group (Lebanon)|Islamic Group]]<ref name = national>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/lebanon/2023/10/30/fajr-forces-hezbollah-lebanon-israel/|access-date=12 November 2023|title='We're with the resistance': Hezbollah allies the Fajr Forces join Lebanon-Israel front|website=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]]|date=31 October 2023|author=Nada Homsi|archive-date=12 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231112235901/https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/lebanon/2023/10/30/fajr-forces-hezbollah-lebanon-israel/|url-status=live}}</ref> {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party.svg}} [[Syrian Social Nationalist Party in Lebanon|SSNP-L]]<ref name="nna-leb-20231212"/> {{flagicon image|Flag of Hamas.svg}} [[Hamas]]<ref name="hamas">{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/hamas-says-3-members-who-infiltrated-israel-from-lebanon-were-killed-in-iaf-strike/|title=Hamas says 3 members who infiltrated Israel from Lebanon were killed in IAF strike|date=14 October 2023|website=[[The Times of Israel]]|access-date=15 October 2023|archive-date=14 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014234939/https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/hamas-says-3-members-who-infiltrated-israel-from-lebanon-were-killed-in-iaf-strike/|url-status=live}}</ref> {{flagicon image|Black flag.svg}} [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad|PIJ]]<ref name="toi9oct">{{#invoke:cite web||last=Fabian |first=Emanuel |date=9 October 2023 |title=Officer, 2 soldiers killed in clash with terrorists on Lebanon border; mortars fired|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/mortars-fired-from-lebanon-infiltrators-killed-as-6-israelis-hurt-in-gunfight/ |access-date=9 October 2023 |website=[[The Times of Israel]] |language=en-US |archive-date=9 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009170223/https://www.timesofisrael.com/mortars-fired-from-lebanon-infiltrators-killed-as-6-israelis-hurt-in-gunfight/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Popular Resistance Committees]]<ref name="iran-update-september-25-2024">{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-september-25-2024|title=Iran Update, September 25, 2024|website=Institute for the Study of War|access-date=26 September 2024|archive-date=26 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240926110721/https://understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-september-25-2024|url-status=live}}</ref> {{#invoke:flag||Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine}}<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||date=2024-09-30 |title=Three PLFP leaders killed in strike in Kola district of Beirut |url=https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-822453 |access-date=2024-09-30 |website=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |language=en |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930072141/https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-822453 |url-status=live }}</ref> {{#invoke:flag||Syria}} [[Islamic Resistance in Iraq]] {{#invoke:flag||Iran}}}}
| combatant2 = {{#invoke:flag||Israel}} {{collapsible list|title=Allies:|{{flag|United States}}<ref name="aljazeera20241001"/>}}
| commander1 = {{nowrap|{{flagdeco|Hezbollah}} [[Naim Qassem]] {{flagdeco|Hezbollah}} [[Hassan Nasrallah]]{{assassinated|2024 Hezbollah headquarters strike}} {{flagdeco|Hezbollah}} [[Hashem Safieddine]]{{assassinated|October 2024 Dahieh airstrike}} {{flagdeco|Hezbollah}} [[Fuad Shukr]]{{assassinated|Assassination of Fuad Shukr}} {{flagdeco|Hezbollah}} [[Ibrahim Aqil]]{{assassinated|Assassination of Ibrahim Aqil}} {{flagdeco|Hezbollah}} [[Ali Karaki]]{{assassinated|2024 Hezbollah headquarters strike}}}}
| commander2 = {{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Prime Minister of Israel.svg}} [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] {{flagicon image|Flag of Israel Minister of Defence.svg}} [[Israel Katz]] {{flagicon image|Flag of Israel Minister of Defence.svg}} [[Yoav Gallant]]{{#tag:ref|Fired by Netanyahu as defense minister on 5 November 2024|group=lower-alpha}} {{flagicon image|Flag of IDF Chief of Staff.svg}} [[Herzi Halevi]] {{flagicon image|Flag of IDF Northern Command.svg}} [[Ori Gordin]] {{flagicon image|Air Force Ensign of Israel.svg}} [[Tomer Bar]]}}
| casualties1 = {{pb}}
'''Lebanon''':
*3,386+ killed{{#tag:ref|(per Hezbollah, Hamas, PIJ and Lebanese Health Ministry)<ref name="casleb"/>
* 449+ Hezbollah members in Lebanon{{#tag:ref|With 516 Hezbollah deaths confirmed as of 2 October 2024,[https://www.timesofisrael.com/at-least-6-said-killed-in-central-beirut-after-idf-announces-targeted-attack/amp/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241004030649/https://www.timesofisrael.com/at-least-6-said-killed-in-central-beirut-after-idf-announces-targeted-attack/amp/ |date=4 October 2024 }} including 67 in Syria,[https://www.syriahr.com/en/321581/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114134220/https://www.syriahr.com/en/321581/ |date=14 January 2024 }}[https://www.syriahr.com/en/345681/] a total of 449 were confirmed to have died in Lebanon}} (including 2 Saraya personnel)<ref name="resistancebrigades" />
* 40 Palestinian militants 25 killed (8 Oct 2023–31 March 2024; on the border),[https://www.aljazeera.com/news/longform/2024/4/15/mapping-israel-lebanon-cross-border-attacks] 7 killed (2 Jan 2024; in Beirut),[https://www.barrons.com/news/israel-firing-in-south-lebanon-kills-200-since-start-of-gaza-war-d7b2b73c] 7 killed (3 April–15 June 2024; on the border),[https://www.terrorism-info.org.il/en/spotlight-on-terrorism-hezbollah-lebanon-and-syria-april-1-8-2024/][https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1413030/us-withholds-bomb-shipment-to-israel-over-rafah-concerns-day-215-of-the-gaza-war.html][https://www.terrorism-info.org.il/en/spotlight-on-terrorism-hezbollah-lebanon-and-syria-may-12-20-2024/][https://www.terrorism-info.org.il/en/spotlight-on-terrorism-hezbollah-lebanon-and-syria-may-27-june-3-2024/][https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1417425/one-killed-one-injured-in-drone-strike-on-moto-in-south-lebanon-day-253-of-the-gaza-war.html] and a Hamas official assassinated on 9 August,<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||author1=Nils Adler |author2=Farah Najjar |date=2024-08-09 |title=Hamas official killed in Israeli attack in Lebanon's Sidon: Reports |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/8/9/israels-war-on-gaza-live-mediators-push-ceasefire-as-israel-bombs-schools/ |access-date=2024-08-09 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> total of 40 reported killed
* 20 Amal Movement members<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Hamadi |first1=Ghadir |last2=Abdallah |first2=Muntasser |last3=Frakes |first3=Nicholas |last4=Hankins |first4=Amelia |date=22 April 2024 |title=283 bodies recovered from mass grave at Nasser Hospital; Hezbollah shoots down Israeli drone: Day 199 of the Gaza war |url=https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1411200/israeli-drone-shot-down-amal-fighter-killed-in-kfar-kila-day-199-of-the-gaza-war.html |work=L'Orient Today |access-date=22 April 2024 |archive-date=22 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422185242/https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1411200/israeli-drone-shot-down-amal-fighter-killed-in-kfar-kila-day-199-of-the-gaza-war.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1415962/israeli-strikes-on-health-workers-in-southern-lebanon-extremely-alarming-says-human-rights-watch.html|title=Concerns grow as more health and rescue workers killed in Israeli strikes in southern Lebanon|first=Olivia|last=Le Poidevin|date=6 June 2024|work=L'Orient Today}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1417300/day-252.html|title=Gallant rejects French initiative for peace on the Israeli–Lebanese border: Day 252 of the Gaza war|first=Muntasser|last=Abdallah|first2=Marguerita|last2=Sejaan|first3=Nicholas|last3=Frakes|first4=Sally|last4=Abou Aljoud|first5=Tasnim|last5=Chaaban|first6=Romy|last6=Abu-Fadel|date=14 June 2024|work=L'Orient Today|access-date=20 June 2024|archive-date=20 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240620171117/https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1417300/day-252.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 16 Islamic Group members<ref name="three-killed-in-south-lebanon-strikes">[https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1414682/three-killed-in-south-lebanon-strikes-arrests-in-murder-of-transwoman-tiktoker-drug-smuggler-everything-you-need-to-know-to-start-your-wednesday.html Three killed in south Lebanon strikes, arrests in murder of transwoman, TikToker drug smuggler: Everything you need to know to start your Wednesday] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522152803/https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1414682/three-killed-in-south-lebanon-strikes-arrests-in-murder-of-transwoman-tiktoker-drug-smuggler-everything-you-need-to-know-to-start-your-wednesday.html |date=22 May 2024 }} L'Orient Today (22 May 2024)</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1408497/in-hebbarieh-villagers-enter-the-war-against-their-will.html|title=In Hebbarieh, villagers enter the war against their will|first=Mohammed|last=Yassine|first2=Caroline|last2=Hayek|date=27 March 2024|work=L'Orient Today}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1418020/israels-bombardment-of-south-lebanon-resumes-after-quiet-morning-gaza-war-day-260.html|title=Israel fires 2 missiles at eastern edge of Saida: Gaza war, day 260|first=Sally Abou|last=Al Joud|first2=Layal|last2=Dagher|first3=Anne-Marie|last3=El Hage|date=22 June 2024|work=L'Orient Today|access-date=24 June 2024|archive-date=24 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240624024812/https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1418020/israels-bombardment-of-south-lebanon-resumes-after-quiet-morning-gaza-war-day-260.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 3 Islamic Azz Brigades fighters<ref name="iran-update-january-14-2024"/>
* 13 Lebanese security forces members<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||last=Mccready |first=Alastair |date=2024-10-24 |title=Israel's killing of 3 more Lebanese soldiers 'a very serious incident' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/10/24/live-israel-pounds-beirut-in-violent-night-of-attacks-on-south-suburbs |access-date=2024-10-24 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |quote=Since September 29, a total of 13 Lebanese soldiers have been killed.}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.terrorism-info.org.il/en/spotlight-on-terrorism-hezbollah-lebanon-and-syria-march-26-april-1-2024/ |title=Spotlight on Terrorism: Hezbollah, Lebanon and Syria (March 26–April 1, 2024) |date=2 April 2024 |website=terrorism-info.org.il |access-date=24 June 2024 |archive-date=24 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240624025052/https://www.terrorism-info.org.il/en/spotlight-on-terrorism-hezbollah-lebanon-and-syria-march-26-april-1-2024/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1 [[Eagles of the Whirlwind]] fighter<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://english.news.cn/20240102/a8b890480f8f442e995470c98977b33f/c.html |title=3 Hezbollah fighters killed in Lebanon–Israel border confrontations |date=2 January 2024 |work=[[Xinhua News Agency]] |access-date=8 January 2024 |archive-date=8 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240108203653/https://english.news.cn/20240102/a8b890480f8f442e995470c98977b33f/c.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 294+ civilians (including 220+ children)<ref name="casleb">{{Cite news |date=14 November 2024 |title=At least 16 people killed by Israel strikes across Lebanon|url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/live-blog/live-blog-update/least-16-people-killed-israel-strikes-across-lebanon?fid=538001&nid=405861&topic=Israel%2527s%2520war%2520on%2520Gaza|access-date=14 November 2024 |work=[[Middle East Eye]]}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web||last=Robinson |first=Lou |date=2024-08-24 |title=Hezbollah: What weapons does it have? A visual guide |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/08/24/middleeast/hezbollah-weapons-visuals-intl-dg/index.html |access-date=2024-08-24 |website=CNN |language=en |quote=Around 150 civilians have been killed in Israeli strikes, according to CNN's analysis of publicly available figures. |archive-date=24 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240824182827/https://www.cnn.com/2024/08/24/middleeast/hezbollah-weapons-visuals-intl-dg/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web||date=2024-08-17 |title=Lebanon says 10 Syrians killed in Israeli strike on south |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20240817-lebanon-health-ministry-at-least-nine-dead-in-israeli-strike |access-date=2024-08-17 |website=[[France 24]] |language=en |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817172847/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20240817-lebanon-health-ministry-at-least-nine-dead-in-israeli-strike |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="aljazeera20240924">{{#invoke:cite web||last=Marsi |first=Federica |date=2024-09-24 |title=Death toll in Israeli attacks on Lebanon rises: Health Ministry |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/9/24/israel-attacks-lebanon-live-global-calls-for-restraint-as-492-killed |access-date=2024-09-24 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |quote=The death toll from Israeli attacks across Lebanon since Monday has risen to 558, including 50 children and 94 women, according to Lebanon's Health Minister Firass Abiad. He added that at least 1,835 people were wounded in Israeli air raids that hit Beirut and southern Lebanon. |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924000730/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/9/24/israel-attacks-lebanon-live-global-calls-for-restraint-as-492-killed |url-status=live }}</ref>
(610 killed until 15 September 2024 and 1,952+ killed since 16 September 2024)<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||last=Uras |first=Umut |last2=Siddiqui |first2=Usaid |date=2024-10-22 |title=Latest casualty figures from Israeli attacks on Lebanon |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/10/22/live-scenes-of-terror-in-northern-gaza-as-israel-bombs-beirut |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |quote=These are the latest casualty figures issued by the Lebanese Health Ministry: At least 1,952 people have been killed since Israel escalated its attacks on Lebanon in mid-September. At least 2,546 people in Lebanon have been killed, including at least 140 children and 270 women, and 11,862 wounded since the start of Israeli-Hezbollah cross-border attacks in October last year.}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web||date=28 September 2024 |title=الصحة اللبنانية تعلن حصيلة جديدة لضحايا العدوان الإسرائيلي |url=https://www.aljazeera.net/amp/news/2024/9/28/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%86-%D8%AD%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A9-%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9 |access-date=3 October 2024 |website=[[Al Jazeera Arabic]] |language=ar |archive-date=5 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241005214738/https://www.aljazeera.net/amp/news/2024/9/28/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%86-%D8%AD%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A9-%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Update inline|date=October 2024}}
|group=lower-alpha}} (1,356+ killed since [[23 September 2024 Lebanon strikes|23 September 2024]])<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||last=Adler |first=Nils |date=2024-10-15 |title=Lebanon says 41 killed in Israeli attacks on Monday |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/10/15/live-israeli-army-planting-explosives-in-jabalia-amid-siege-of-north-gaza |access-date=2024-10-15 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |quote=The newest figures bring the overall death toll since Israel on September 23 launched an intense air campaign in Lebanon to 1,356.}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://www.aljazeera.net/amp/news/2024/10/3/%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%86%D8%B5%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%82-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%81|title=وزير خارجية لبنان: نصر الله قبِل وقف إطلاق النار مع إسرائيل قبل اغتياله|work=Al Jazeera Arabic|date=3 October 2024|access-date=3 October 2024|language=ar|archive-date=7 October 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007093943/https://www.aljazeera.net/amp/news/2024/10/3/%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%86%D8%B5%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%82-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%81|url-status=live}}</ref>
*14,417+ injured<ref name="casleb"/>
'''Per IDF:'''
*3,000+ Hezbollah fighters killed<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Berman |first=Lazar |date=10 November 2024 |title=In first, Netanyahu said to admit Israel carried out pager attacks on Hezbollah |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/in-first-netanyahu-said-to-admit-israel-carried-out-pager-attacks-on-hezbollah/amp/ |access-date=10 November 2024 |work=[[The Times of Israel]] |quote=The IDF estimates that some 3,000 Hezbollah operatives have been killed in the conflict.}}</ref>
'''Syria:'''
*423 killed{{#tag:ref|(per [[Syrian Observatory for Human Rights]])<ref name="cassyr2023">{{#invoke:cite news||title=Death toll update: Three civilians including woman and her son killed in Israeli airstrikes on the vicinity of Aleppo international airport |url=https://www.syriahr.com/en/321581/ |access-date=31 December 2023 |publisher=[[Syrian Observatory for Human Rights]] |date=31 December 2023 |archive-date=14 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114134220/https://www.syriahr.com/en/321581/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="cassyr2024">{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.syriahr.com/en/349128/|access-date=14 November 2024|title=Israeli fighter jets execute two airstrikes on residential building in Al-Mazzah and Qudsayain Damascus and Rif Dimashq , leaving four individuals de*ad|date=14 November 2024|website=Syrian Observatory for Human Rights}}</ref>
*177 Iran-backed militiamen (including 3 Palestinian fighters)
*77 Hezbollah fighters
*76 Syrian soldiers
*28 IRGC soldiers
*4 unidentified people
*57 civilians
|group=lower-alpha}}
| casualties2 = '''Israel:'''
*75 [[Israeli security forces|security forces]] killed<ref name="shinbet1">{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/authorities-name-44-soldiers-30-police-officers-killed-in-hamas-attack/ |title=Authorities name 794 soldiers, 68 police officers killed in Gaza war |work=[[The Times of Israel]] |access-date=28 July 2024 |quote=Twenty-eight soldiers and a local security officer have also been killed in attacks claimed by Lebanon's Hezbollah and allied terror groups on northern Israel since the fighting started. 43 soldiers were killed during ground operations in Lebanon... The military's list also includes... a soldier killed due to malfunctioning ammunition on the Lebanon border, two soldiers killed in a tank accident in northern Israel... |archive-date=8 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008151607/https://www.timesofisrael.com/authorities-name-44-soldiers-30-police-officers-killed-in-hamas-attack/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
*45 civilians killed<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=12 November 2024 |title=2 men killed as rocket from Lebanon hits Nahariya |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/2-men-killed-as-rocket-from-lebanon-hits-nahariya-2-lightly-hurt-in-second-impact/ |access-date=12 November 2024 |work=The Times of Israel}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=6 November 2024 |title=Victim of Hezbollah rocket fire identified as 18-year-old kibbutz resident, not foreign worker as originally believed |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/victim-of-hezbollah-rocket-fire-identified-as-18-year-old-kibbutz-resident-not-foreign-worker-as-originally-believed/ |access-date=6 November 2024 |work=The Times of Israel}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=3 November 2024 |title=Man dies of wounds sustained during rocket barrage interception in Nahariya last month |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/man-dies-of-wounds-sustained-during-rocket-barrage-interception-in-nahariya-last-month/ |access-date=3 November 2024 |work=The Times of Israel}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=2024-10-31 |title=Two dead in rocket strike north of Haifa |url=https://www.ynetnews.com/article/rkuwyf11zye |access-date=2024-10-31 |work=Ynetnews |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=31 October 2024 |title=Rocket fire from Lebanon kills 5 in deadliest attack on northern Israel since invasion|url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-hamas-war-lebanon-hezbollah-iran-news-10-31-2024-5554f469d1ac348c8da19b7faa3e5fbc|access-date=31 October 2024 |work=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=29 October 2024 |title=Man killed in rocket impact in Ma'alot-Tarshiha |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/one-person-killed-in-rocket-impact-in-maalot-tarshiha/ |access-date=29 October 2024 |work=The Times of Israel}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=25 October 2024 |title=2 killed, 7 hurt as Hezbollah rocket hits northern town of Majd al-Krum |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/2-killed-7-hurt-as-hezbollah-rocket-hits-northern-town-of-majd-al-krum/amp/ |access-date=25 October 2024 |work=The Times of Israel |quote=Hezbollah's attacks on northern Israel since October 2023 have resulted in the deaths of 31 civilians.}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/man-dies-from-wounds-caused-by-defective-iron-dome-missile-amid-hezbollah-attack/|title=Man dies from wounds caused by defective Iron Dome missile amid Hezbollah drone attack|first=Emanuel|last=Fabian|date=9 August 2024|website=[[The Times of Israel]] }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/hezbollah-fires-85-rockets-at-haifa-area-wounding-3-teen-killed-in-crash-during-siren/|title=85 rockets fired at north Sunday, wounding 3; teen killed in crash during siren|first=Emanuel|last=Fabian|date=22 September 2024|work=The Times of Israel|access-date=7 October 2024|archive-date=24 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924060157/https://www.timesofisrael.com/hezbollah-fires-85-rockets-at-haifa-area-wounding-3-teen-killed-in-crash-during-siren/|url-status=live}}</ref>
'''Per Hezbollah:'''
*2,000+ casualties<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/live-blog/israel-hamas-war-live-updates-rcna132693|title=Violence spikes in West Bank as Blinken aims to limit spread of conflict|website=[[NBC News]]|date=7 January 2024|quote=Hezbollah began attacking Israel's northern border in October, targeting Israeli vehicles, command centers and settlements. The militant group alleged in an infographic on Saturday that it caused 2,000 Israeli casualties|access-date=8 January 2024|archive-date=8 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240108125007/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/live-blog/israel-hamas-war-live-updates-rcna132693|url-status=live}}</ref>
| casualties3 = 842,000<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=Lebanon - Mobility Snapshot - Round 58 - 31-10-2024 |url=https://dtm.iom.int/reports/lebanon-mobility-snapshot-round-58-31-10-2024 |website=[[International Organization for Migration|IOM]] |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> – 1.4 million+ Lebanese displaced<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||last=Motamedi |first=Maziar |last2=Uras |first2=Umut |date=2024-10-25 |title=Ceasefire is Lebanon's priority, says PM Mikati |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/10/25/live-israel-accused-of-massacre-in-new-jabalia-raid-strikes-hit-beirut |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |quote=Lebanon's caretaker PM Mikati says his government's priority is reaching "a ceasefire and deterring the Israeli aggression". In a meeting with Blinken, he said there are more than 1.4 million people who have been displaced from the areas that are being attacked by Israel.}}</ref> 96,000 Israelis displaced<ref name="reuters20240111">{{#invoke:cite web||date=11 January 2024 |title=Dangerous stasis on Israel's northern border leaves evacuees in limbo |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/dangerous-stasis-israels-northern-border-leaves-evacuees-limbo-2024-01-11/ |access-date=8 July 2024 |website=[[Reuters]] |language=en |archive-date=9 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240209185025/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/dangerous-stasis-israels-northern-border-leaves-evacuees-limbo-2024-01-11/ |url-status=live }}</ref> 232 Syrian refugees killed by Israeli forces<ref name="syrianrefugees">{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.syriahr.com/en/348470/|title=Israeli military escalation on Lebanon {{!}} 216 Syrian refugees killed in Israeli strikes on Lebanon in 50 days|date=5 November 2024|website=The Syrian Observatory For Human Rights}}</ref>
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–present)}} {{Campaignbox Middle Eastern crisis (2023–present)}} {{Campaignbox Hezbollah–Israel conflict}} {{Campaignbox Israel–Lebanon conflict}} {{Campaignbox Iran–Israel proxy conflict}}
| units1 = {{collapsible list|title=List of units:|
{{flagicon|Hezbollah}} [[Hezbollah armed strength|Hezbollah]]
* {{flagicon|Hezbollah}} [[Lebanese Resistance Brigades]]<ref name="resistancebrigades">{{#invoke:cite web||url=http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/301126|title=Two Resistance Brigades members killed by Israeli shelling|date=23 October 2023|website=[[Naharnet]]|access-date=7 November 2023|archive-date=13 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113005001/https://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/301126|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=12 July 2024 |title="Lebanese Resistance Brigades" targets the Roueisat al-Qarn site with missile weapons, achieves direct hit |url=https://www.nna-leb.gov.lb/en/justice-law/707429/lebanese-resistance-brigades-targets-the-roueisat |work=[[National News Agency (Lebanon)|National News Agency]] }}</ref>
*{{flagicon|Hezbollah}} [[Redwan Force]]<ref>Antonios, Zeina (November 2023). [https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1357811/what-we-know-about-hezbollahs-elite-al-radwan-unit.html Here's what we know about Hezbollah's elite al-Radwan unit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120180524/https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1357811/what-we-know-about-hezbollahs-elite-al-radwan-unit.html |date=20 November 2023 }} today.lorientlejour.com</ref>
* {{flagicon|Hezbollah}} Imam Hussein Division<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/idf-confirms-attack-on-hezbollah-linked-iranian-militia-members-in-lebanon/ |title=IDF confirms attack on Hezbollah-linked Iranian militia members in Lebanon |date=2 March 2024 |website=[[The Times of Israel]] |access-date=6 March 2024 |archive-date=11 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240411102415/http://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/idf-confirms-attack-on-hezbollah-linked-iranian-militia-members-in-lebanon/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Hezbollah}} Badr Unit<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-september-23-2024|title=Iran Update, September 23, 2024|website=Institute for the Study of War|access-date=24 September 2024|archive-date=24 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924082613/https://understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-september-23-2024|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Hezbollah}} Aziz Unit<ref>{{#invoke:cite web|| url=https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-july-5-2024 | title=Iran Update, July 5, 2024 | website=Institute for the Study of War }}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Hezbollah}} Nasr Unit<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||date=8 July 2024 |title=IRAN UPDATE, JULY 8, 2024 |url=https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-july-8-2024 |website=ISW Press |access-date=11 July 2024 |archive-date=11 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240711122811/https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-july-8-2024 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Hezbollah}} Rocket and Missile Unit<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-september-24-2024|title=Iran Update, September 24, 2024|website=Institute for the Study of War|access-date=26 September 2024|archive-date=26 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240926112202/https://understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-september-24-2024|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Hezbollah}} Air defense unit<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=6 July 2024 |title=IDF kills key member of Hezbollah air defense in strike deep inside Lebanon |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/idf-kills-key-member-of-hezbollah-air-defense-in-strike-deep-inside-lebanon/amp/ |access-date=6 July 2024 |work=The Times of Israel |archive-date=6 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240706205201/https://www.timesofisrael.com/idf-kills-key-member-of-hezbollah-air-defense-in-strike-deep-inside-lebanon/amp/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Hezbollah}} Engineering unit<ref name="iran-update-july-18-2024">{{#invoke:cite web|| url=https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-july-18-2024 | title=Iran Update, July 18, 2024 | website=Institute for the Study of War | access-date=19 July 2024 | archive-date=19 July 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240719153724/https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-july-18-2024 | url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Hezbollah}} Drone Unit<ref>{{#invoke:cite web|| url=https://understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-august-5-2024 | title=Iran Update, August 5, 2024 | website=Institute for the Study of War }}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Hezbollah}} [[Syrian Hezbollah]]<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=חדשות |date=16 November 2023 |title=צה"ל תוקף בלבנון אחרי שפצמ"רים שוגרו לעבר מוצב בגליל העליון |language=he |work=Ynet |url=https://www.ynet.co.il/news/article/hj1lbfn46 |access-date=17 November 2023 |archive-date=17 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117022116/https://www.ynet.co.il/news/article/hj1lbfn46 |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{flagicon image|Flag of the Muslim Brotherhood.png}} [[Fajr Forces]]<ref name = national/>
* Khaled Ali unit<ref name="iran-update-july-18-2024"/>
{{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party.svg}} [[Eagles of the Whirlwind]]<ref name="nna-leb-20231212"/> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Syrian Arab Armed Forces.svg}} [[Syrian Armed Forces]]
*{{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Syrian_Arab_Army.svg}} [[Syrian Army]]<ref name="iran-update-october-25-2023"/>
* {{flagicon image|Air Force Ensign of Syria.svg}} [[Syrian Air Defense Force]]<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.arabnews.pk/node/2468371/middle-east|title=Syrian air defenses intercept Israeli strikes in vicinity of Damascus, state media says|date=28 February 2024|website=[[Arab News]] PK}}</ref>
{{flagicon image|Flag of Hamas.svg}} [[Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades]]
* [[Hamas in Lebanon]]
** Al-Aqsa Flood Vanguards<ref name="Al-Aqsa"/>
{{flagicon image|Black flag.svg}} [[Al-Quds Brigades]] 
* Martyr Ali al Aswad Brigade<ref name="iran-update-september-25-2024"/>
{{flagicon image|Flag of the Al-Nasser Salah al-Deen Brigades.svg}} [[Al-Nasser Salah al-Deen Brigades]] [[Abu Ali Mustafa Brigades]] 
Islamic Azz Brigades<ref name="iran-update-january-14-2024"/>
}}
| units2 = {{collapsible list|title=List of units:|
{{armed forces|Israel}}
* {{army|Israel}}
** {{flagicon image|Flag of IDF Northern Command.svg}} [[Northern Command (Israel)|Northern command]]
*** [[File:Logo-ugda-36.png|15px]] [[36th Division (Israel)|36th division]]<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||date=12 February 2024 |title=Hezbollah Blitz Forces IDF To Transfer Largest Military Division To Lebanon Border From Gaza |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/videos/world-news/hezbollah-blitz-forces-idf-to-transfer-largest-military-division-to-lebanon-border-from-gaza-watch-101707710148536.html |access-date=12 February 2024 |website=[[Hindustan Times]] |language=en |archive-date=12 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240212174114/https://www.hindustantimes.com/videos/world-news/hezbollah-blitz-forces-idf-to-transfer-largest-military-division-to-lebanon-border-from-gaza-watch-101707710148536.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
**** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Israeli Golani Brigade.svg}} [[Golani Brigade]]<ref name="inn20231015"/><ref name="jpost20231015"/>
*** [[File:Hativa188.PNG|15px]] [[188th Armored Brigade]]
**** 53rd Battalion<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||date=18 July 2024 |title=Israeli soldier succumbs to wounds sustained in Hezbollah attack |url=https://aje.io/c55wcp?update=3055464 |website=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]}}</ref>
*** [[File:Logo-ugda-91.png|15px]] [[91st Division (Israel)|91st Division]]
**** [[File:Shahaf.png|15px]] 869th Battalion<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://aje.io/8mqpai?update=2888920|title=Israel's war on Gaza updates: Troops met with Hamas fire in Rafah operation: Israel–Palestine conflict|date=9 May 2024|work=Al Jazeera|access-date=9 May 2024|archive-date=1 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240701191419/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/5/9/israels-war-on-gaza-live-biden-admits-israel-used-us-bombs-on-civilians?update=2888920|url-status=live}}</ref>
**** [[File:Logo-hativat-300.png|15px]] 300th Territorial Brigade<ref name="INN12"/>
**** [[File:Logo hativa 8.png|15px]] [[8th Armored Brigade (Israel)|8th Armored Brigade]]<ref name="jpost20231216"/>
*** [[File:תג עוצבת הבשן.png|15px]] [[210th Division (Israel)|210th division]]<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||author=Tom O'Connor |date=19 March 2024 |title=Hezbollah "ready to resist" new Israeli unit sent to Lebanon, Syria borders |url=https://www.newsweek.com/israel-mountain-unit-fight-lebanon-syria-borders-1880948 |access-date=20 March 2024 |website=[[Newsweek]] |language=en |archive-date=20 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240320005116/https://www.newsweek.com/israel-mountain-unit-fight-lebanon-syria-borders-1880948 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*** [[File:Logo-ugda-146.png|15px]] [[146th Division (Israel)|146th Division]]
**** [[File:Logo hativa 228.png|15px]] Alon Brigade
***** Battalion 5030<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://aje.io/dp807f?update=2954943|title=Israeli soldier killed in northern Israel|date=6 June 2024|work=Al Jazeera|access-date=6 June 2024|archive-date=6 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240606162408/https://aje.io/dp807f?update=2954943|url-status=live}}</ref>
** [[File:YiftachBrigade.svg|15px]] [[Yiftach Brigade]]
*** 8679th unit<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||date=4 July 2024|title=Soldier killed as Hezbollah fires 200 rockets, 20 drones in major attack on north|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/hezbollah-fires-200-rockets-launches-20-drones-in-major-attack-on-north/|website=Times of Israel|access-date=4 July 2024|archive-date=4 July 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240704191037/https://www.timesofisrael.com/hezbollah-fires-200-rockets-launches-20-drones-in-major-attack-on-north/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{air force|Israel}}
** {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Israeli_Air_Defense_Network.svg}} [[Air Defense Command (Israel)|Air Defense Command]]
*{{navy|Israel}}
[[File:Mossad seal.svg|20px]] [[Mossad]]<ref>{{#invoke:cite news|| url=https://edition.cnn.com/2024/09/17/middleeast/lebanon-hezbollah-pagers-explosions-intl/index.html | title=Israel behind deadly pager explosions that targeted Hezbollah and injured thousands in Lebanon | first=Charbel | last=Mallo | first2=Tamara | last2=Qiblawi | first3=Jeremy | last3=Diamond | first4=Lauren | last4=Kent | first5=Rob | last5=Picheta | first6=Christian | last6=Edwards | first7=Helen | last7=Regan | date=17 September 2024 | work=[[CNN]] | access-date=22 September 2024 | archive-date=19 September 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240919060924/https://edition.cnn.com/2024/09/17/middleeast/lebanon-hezbollah-pagers-explosions-intl/index.html | url-status=live }}</ref>
}}
| image = File:Israel-Lebanon-Syria-border-Conflict-2023.svg
| caption = {{leftlegend|#0038b8ff|Israel}}{{leftlegend|#f7e117ff|Attested Hezbollah presence in Lebanon}}{{leftlegend|#800080ff|Lebanon under Israeli control}}{{leftlegend|#ce1126ff|Syria}}{{leftlegend|#13e7dbff|[[Golan Heights]] (Israeli-occupied)}}{{left|1={{legend-line|blue dashed 2px|Areas ordered evacuated by Israel}}}} See [[Template:Israeli-Palestinian conflict detailed map|here]] for a more detailed map
| image_size = 300
| notes = {{center|{{navbar|Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–present) infobox}}}}
}}<noinclude>

== References ==

=== Notes ===
{{notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name="INN12">{{#invoke:cite news||date=9 October 2023 |title=Cleared for publication: Deputy IDF Commander killed on Lebanon border |url=https://www.israelnationalnews.com/news/378206 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013011906/https://www.israelnationalnews.com/news/378206 |archive-date=13 October 2023 |access-date=10 October 2023 |work=Israel National News}}</ref>
<ref name="inn20231015">{{#invoke:cite web||date=15 October 2023 |title=אמתי גרנות, בנו של ראש ישיבת 'אורות שאול', נהרג מפגיעת טיל נ"ט בגבול הצפון |url=https://www.inn.co.il/news/616826 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016142310/https://www.inn.co.il/news/616826 |archive-date=16 October 2023 |access-date=16 October 2023 |website=[[Arutz Sheva]] |language=he}}</ref>
<ref name="jpost20231015">{{#invoke:cite web||date=15 October 2023 |title=Two Israelis murdered by Hezbollah anti-tank fire, IDF strikes Lebanon |url=https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-768404 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016084946/https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-768404 |archive-date=16 October 2023 |access-date=16 October 2023 |website=The Jerusalem Post |language=en-US}}</ref>
<ref name="iran-update-october-25-2023">{{#invoke:cite web||date=25 October 2023 |title=Iran Update, October 25, 2023 |url=https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-october-25-2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212085419/https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-october-25-2023 |archive-date=12 December 2023 |access-date=12 December 2023 |website=Institute for the Study of War}}</ref>
<ref name="Al-Aqsa">{{#invoke:cite web||last=Rabih |first=Mounir |date=6 December 2023 |title=Al-Aqsa Flood Vanguards unit: 'Hamasland' in south Lebanon? |url=https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1359928/al-aqsa-flood-vanguards-unit-hamasland-in-south-lebanon.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207185242/https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1359928/al-aqsa-flood-vanguards-unit-hamasland-in-south-lebanon.html |archive-date=7 December 2023 |access-date=7 December 2023 |website=[[l'Orient Today]]}}</ref>
<ref name="nna-leb-20231212">{{#invoke:cite web||date=12 December 2023 |title= القومي أعلن استشهاد أحد مقاتليه وسام محمد سليم |trans-title=The SSNP announced the martyrdom of one of its fighters, Wissam Muhammad Salim |url=https://www.nna-leb.gov.lb/ar/%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9/662898 |access-date=16 December 2023 |website=[[National News Agency (Lebanon)|National News Agency]] |language=ar |archive-date=15 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215170725/https://www.nna-leb.gov.lb/ar/%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9/662898 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="jpost20231216">{{#invoke:cite web||date=16 December 2023 |title=Lebanon drone kills IDF soldier; Hezbollah, IDF continue tensions |url=https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-778304 |access-date=16 December 2023 |website=The Jerusalem Post |language=en-US |archive-date=16 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216213015/https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-778304 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="aljazeera20241001">{{#invoke:cite news||title=US out of step as world reacts to Israel's ground offensive into Lebanon |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/10/1/us-out-of-step-as-world-reacts-to-israels-ground-offensive-into-lebanon |work=Al Jazeera |date=1 October 2024 |access-date=1 October 2024 |archive-date=1 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241001131339/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/10/1/us-out-of-step-as-world-reacts-to-israels-ground-offensive-into-lebanon |url-status=live }}</ref>

}}<noinclude>

Wikipedia:Featured picture candidates/Impeach Nixon

2024-11-13T18:38:08Z

Brandmeister: support

===[[Wikipedia:Featured picture candidates/Impeach Nixon|"Impeach Nixon!" Protests]]===
{{FPCnom/VotingEnds|1731547702}}Voting period ends on 14 Nov 2024 at 01:28:22 (UTC)
[[File:Impeach Nixon retouched.jpg|thumb|right|250px|'''Original''' – Demonstrators in Washington, DC, with sign "Impeach Nixon." on 22 October 1973]]
;Reason:High quality, iconic, and shows the lack of trust in the government at the time of Watergate
;Articles in which this image appears:[[Impeachment process against Richard Nixon]], [[Watergate scandal]], [[Richard Nixon]]
;FP category for this image:[[Wikipedia:Featured pictures/History/American]]
;Creator:Marion S. Trikosko or Thomas J. O'Halloran

* '''Support as nominator''' – [[User:Wcamp9|Wcamp9]] ([[User talk:Wcamp9|talk]]) 01:28, 4 November 2024 (UTC)
* '''Support''' – [[User:Moonreach|Moonreach]] ([[User talk:Moonreach|talk]]) 15:55, 10 November 2024 (UTC)
* '''Support'''.–[[User:VulcanSphere|Vulcan]]❯❯❯[[User talk:VulcanSphere|Sphere!]] 00:33, 13 November 2024 (UTC)
* '''Support''' – [[User:Carlosmarkos2345|Carlosmarkos2345]] ([[User talk:Carlosmarkos2345|talk]]) 07:53, 13 November 2024 (UTC)
* '''Support''', historic EV. [[User:Brandmeister|Brandmeister]][[User talk:Brandmeister|talk]] 18:37, 13 November 2024 (UTC)

{{clear}}
<noinclude>[[Category:Featured picture nominations]] [[Category:Featured picture nominations/November 2024]]</noinclude>

Orbital (novel)

2024-11-13T18:16:11Z

Brandmeister: +2 categories

{{short description|2023 novel by Samantha Harvey}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Orbital
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = Orbital.jpg
| caption =
| author = [[Samantha Harvey (author)|Samantha Harvey]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| series =
| genre =
| publisher = [[Jonathan Cape]]<ref name="Harris Guardian"/> [[Grove Atlantic]]<ref name="Publisher">{{cite web |title=Orbital |url=https://groveatlantic.com/book/orbital/ |website=Grove Atlantic |language=en}}</ref>
| release_date = 2 November 2023
| media_type =
| pages = 224
| isbn = 978-1-7873-3434-2
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}
'''''Orbital''''' is a 2023 novel by English writer [[Samantha Harvey (author)|Samantha Harvey]], published by [[Jonathan Cape]] in the UK and by [[Grove Atlantic]] in the US. The novel, told over the course of 24 hours, follows six astronauts from Japan, Russia, the United States, Britain and Italy (men and women) aboard the [[International Space Station]] as they orbit above the earth. In addition to detailing the official duties and tasks of the astronauts aboard the spacecraft, the novel also features their reflections about humanity and the earth itself touching on subjects such as the existence or nature of God, the meaning of life and new existential threats such as [[climate change]]. In other instances, the novel briefly shifts perspective to include the narrative of an alien, a robot, and a pre-historic human sailing on the sea. Each chapter of the novel covers a single 90 minute orbit around the earth, with 16 orbits in the 24 hours.

The novel was well received by critics. It won the [[2024 Booker Prize]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Orbital by Samantha Harvey wins the Booker Prize 2024 |url=https://thebookerprizes.com/the-booker-library/prize-years/2024 |website=The Booker Prizes |date=12 November 2024}}</ref><ref name="Booker Prize">{{cite web |title=Orbital: Winner of the Booker Prize 2024 |url=https://thebookerprizes.com/the-booker-library/books/orbital|website=[[The Booker Prizes]]|date=2024}}</ref> and was shortlisted for the [[Orwell Prize]] for Political Fiction<ref name="Orwell Foundation">{{cite web |title=Orbital The Orwell Foundation |url=https://www.orwellfoundation.com/political-fiction/orbital/ |website=www.orwellfoundation.com}}</ref> and the [[Ursula K. Le Guin Prize]] for imaginative fiction.<ref name="Ursula K. Le Guin Prize">{{cite web |title=Ursula K. Le Guin — 2024 Prize for Fiction (Shortlist) |url=https://www.ursulakleguin.com/prize24 |website=Ursula K. Le Guin}}</ref>

==Background==
Harvey watched a continuous live stream of Earth from the International Space Station while writing the novel. She initially started work on the novel in the 2010s but then stopped after about 5,000 words after feelings of inadequacy regarding her limited knowledge of the complex subject matter of space travel. Harvey told the [[BBC]] that she stopped writing as she thought "Well, I have never been to space. I could never go to space...Who am I to do this?". However, Harvey restarted writing and completed the novel during the pandemic, when she stopped worrying about "trespassing in space".<ref name="Marshall New York Times">{{cite web |last1=Marshall |first1=Alex |title=Samantha Harvey’s ‘Orbital’ Wins 2024 Booker Prize |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/11/12/arts/booker-prize-winner-orbital-samantha-harvey.html |website=Nytimes.com |publisher=New York Times}}</ref>
==Reception==

Writing for ''[[The New York Times]]'', [[Joshua Ferris]] states that the position of the astronauts high above the earth, their relative isolation from the rest of humanity, give their reflections, their "transporting riffs, those fine rhapsodies!" a new clarity, uncorrupted from biases, tribalism and conflict as present on earth.<ref name="Ferris New York Times">{{cite web |last1=Ferris |first1=Joshua |title=It's Harder to See the World's Problems From 250 Miles Up |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/05/books/review/orbital-samantha-harvey.html |website=[[The New York Times]] }}</ref> Writing for ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[Alexandra Harris]] also stated that the astronauts' introspection and meditation on humanity was the strength of the novel, stating: "The beauty of the book is at work less in its explicit hymns of praise than deep in its rhythms and structures. And it’s here that some of the most compelling thinking goes on – about the spectacular and the ordinary, distance and intimacy."<ref name="Harris Guardian">{{cite web |last1=Harris |first1=Alexandra |title=Orbital by Samantha Harvey review – the astronaut's view |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/nov/16/orbital-by-samantha-harvey-review-the-astronauts-view |website=The Guardian |date=16 November 2023}}</ref> Writing for the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', Bethanne Patrick stated that in featuring the six characters in such close proximity to one another, the work seeks to promote humans' mutual dependence to one another. Patrick concluded: "Harvey manages to bring readers back down to Earth, astounded that they’ve traveled so far in such a short period of time, having finished their own orbit through the realms of her rich imagination."<ref name="Patrick Los Angeles TImes">{{cite web |last1=Patrick |first1=Bethanne |title=Lacking perspective? Try orbiting the Earth at 17,500 miles per hour |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/books/story/2023-12-11/lacking-perspective-try-orbiting-the-earth-at-17-500-miles-per-hour |website=Los Angeles Times |date=11 December 2023}}</ref> Artist [[Edmund de Waal]], chief judge of the Booker Prize, stated that Harvey's writing transformed the Earth into “something for contemplation, something deeply resonant.”<ref name="Marshall New York Times"/>

== Awards ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Award
!Category
!Result
!Ref
|-
! rowspan="3" |2024
|[[Booker Prize]]
|—
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news |title=British author Samantha Harvey wins Booker with space story |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cj0jellz4zro |access-date=12 November 2024 |publisher=BBC News |date=12 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news |last=Rufo |first=Yasmin |date=16 September 2024 |title=Women dominate 2024 Booker Prize shortlist |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c7566xzv3n7o |newspaper=BBC News}}</ref>
|-
|[[Orwell Prize]]
|Political Fiction
|{{sho}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-11 |title=Orwell Prizes 2024 shortlists announced |url=https://www.booksandpublishing.com.au/articles/2024/06/11/253173/orwell-prizes-2024-shortlists-announced/ |access-date=2024-06-24 |publisher=Books+Publishing}}</ref>
|-
|[[Ursula K. Le Guin Prize]]
|—
|{{shortlisted}}
|<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Ursula K. Le Guin — 2024 Prize for Fiction (Shortlist) |url=https://www.ursulakleguin.com/prize24 |access-date=2024-09-17 |website=Ursula K. Le Guin |language=en-US}}</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Novels set in outer space]]
[[Category:International Space Station]]
[[Category:Space exploration novels]]
[[Category:Existentialist novels]]
[[Category:Booker Prize–winning works]]
[[Category:2023 British novels]]

Peanut (squirrel)

2024-11-09T20:37:21Z

Brandmeister: /* top */ male seemingly

{{Short description|American pet (c. 2017 – 2024)}}
{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
<noinclude>{{Requested move notice|1=Death of Peanut the squirrel|2=Talk:Peanut (squirrel)#Requested move 5 November 2024}}</noinclude>
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox animal
|name = Peanut
|image = Peanut the squirrel.png
|image_upright =
|caption = Peanut, pictured in 2020
|othername = P'Nut
|species = [[Eastern gray squirrel]] (''Sciurus carolinensis'')
|breed =
|sex = Male
|birth_date = {{circa|2017}}
|birth_place =
|death_date = {{death date and age|2024|11|1|2017}}
|death_place = [[Pine City, New York]], United States
|death_cause = [[Animal euthanasia|Euthanized]] by the [[New York State Department of Environmental Conservation]]
|resting_place =
|known = {{hlist|Animal sanctuary fundraising|Social media presence|Wildlife law controversy}}
|owner = Mark Longo
|residence = Pine City, New York, U.S.
|years_active = 2017–2024
}}

'''Peanut''' ({{circa|2017}} – November 1, 2024),<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cross |first=Greta |title=Social media star Peanut the Squirrel has been euthanized after being seized from NY home |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2024/11/01/peanut-the-squirrel-euthanized/75992420007/ |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=USA TODAY |language=en-US}}</ref> also known as '''P'Nut''', was a pet male [[eastern gray squirrel]]. Found and rescued by Mark Longo in 2017, he was the subject of a popular [[Instagram]] account. On October 30, 2024, he was seized from his owners' home by the [[New York State Department of Environmental Conservation]] and euthanized soon after. Peanut's death triggered outcry on social media, large-scale backlash from the public, condemnation from various lawmakers, and the introduction of a [[Bill (law)|bill]] aimed at preventing similar incidents in the future.

== Life and social media ==
Peanut was an [[eastern gray squirrel]] found and rescued in 2017 by Mark Longo after the squirrel's mother was killed by a car in New York City.<ref name="Mather2024">{{Cite news |last1=Mather |first1=Victor |last2=Jiménez |first2=Jesus |date=November 1, 2024 |title=After 7 Years, P'Nut the Squirrel Is Taken Away and Then Put Down |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/10/31/nyregion/peanut-squirrel-pet-seized.html |url-access=registration |url-status=live |access-date=November 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20090413022845/http://www.eestiteataja.ee/uudis/kohila-valda-kerkib-suur-teaduslinnak |archive-date=April 13, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="NBC2024">{{Cite news |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=November 1, 2024| title=New York state officials seize Instagram-famous squirrel named Peanut from owner |publisher=[[NBC News]]|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/animal-news/new-york-state-officials-seize-instagram-famous-squirrel-named-peanut-rcna178330 |url-status=live |access-date=November 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.ph/z1Rwt |archive-date=November 1, 2024}}</ref> Longo sought a shelter for Peanut but was unsuccessful, and he bottle-fed the squirrel for the next eight months before deciding that Peanut should be returned to the wild.<ref>{{cite web |title=Greenwich Guy's Viral Squirrel Videos Lead to Marriage, Sprawling Animal Sanctuary |url=https://greenwichfreepress.com/around-town/giving/greenwich-guys-viral-squirrel-videos-lead-to-marriage-sprawling-animal-sanctuary-220147/ |website=Greenwich Free Press |access-date=3 November 2024 |date=6 August 2024}}</ref> Longo released the animal into his backyard, but about a day later, he found Peanut on his porch with half of its tail missing. Longo said he "opened the door, [Peanut] ran inside, and that was the last of Peanut's wildlife career."<ref name="usatodaypredeath">{{cite web |last1=Moses |first1=Allison |date=16 July 2022 |title=Orphaned squirrel lives in New York home with a cat and the man who raised him |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/animalkind/2022/07/14/squirrel-forms-unbreakable-bond-man-who-raised-him/10059722002/ |website=[[USA Today]] |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> It is illegal to keep squirrels as pets in the state of New York,<ref name=Legal/> and in the seven years spent in Longo's care in his hometown of [[Norwalk, Connecticut]],<ref name="NBC2024"/> no license was obtained to legally keep Peanut.<ref name=Legal/><ref name=YahooConservatives/> Longo has stated that he was in the process of filing paperwork to have Peanut certified as an educational animal at the time of the seizure,<ref name=TheGuardian2024/> however, he has not explained why he did not pursue a license in the preceding seven years.<ref name=YahooConservatives/>

While in his care, Longo created an Instagram account sharing videos of Peanut, and by October 2024 the account had amassed 534,000 followers.<ref name="Cross2024">{{Cite news |last=Cross |first=Greta |date=November 1, 2024 |title=Social media star Peanut the Squirrel has been euthanized after being seized from NY home |website=[[USA Today]] |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2024/11/01/peanut-the-squirrel-euthanized/75992420007/ |url-status=live |access-date=November 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.is/LF2AJ |archive-date=November 2, 2024}}</ref> Peanut's social media following also helped steer viewers to Longo's [[OnlyFans]] account, where he called himself "Peanut's dad"<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wickman |first1=Case |title=Why the Death of P'Nut the Squirrel Has Become a National Political Event |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/style/story/pnut-squirrel-trump-musk-election?srsltid=AfmBOoqTUYx6cBc-6Csc3wVgTrIng2_znvP_BKMNwpZDeNpPWNeTmZYy |date=4 November 2024 |website=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]] |access-date=6 November 2024}}</ref> and produced [[pornography]], drawing in $800,000 over one month.<ref name="interview" /><ref name="tribune" /> In April 2023, Longo and his wife moved from Norwalk to upstate New York to found the P'Nuts Freedom Farm Animal Sanctuary.<ref name="NBC2024"/><ref name="TheGuardian2024">{{Cite news |agency=Associated Press |date=November 2, 2024 |title=New York authorities euthanize social media star Peanut the squirrel |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2024/nov/02/peanut-squirrel-euthanized-new-york |url-status=live |access-date=November 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.is/bz4gX |archive-date=November 2, 2024}}</ref> They contributed to half of the sanctuary's expenses, most of which was raised through Peanut's social media presence. According to them, the sanctuary had rescued over 300 animals by November 2024,<ref name="Mather2024"/><ref name="NBC2024"/> however, Longo was not licensed as a [[wildlife rehabilitator]].<ref name=Legal/><ref name=YahooConservatives/>

== Death ==
On October 30, 2024,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Cross |first1=Greta |date=1 November 2024 |title=Social media star Peanut the Squirrel has been killed after being seized from NY home |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2024/11/01/peanut-the-squirrel-euthanized/75992420007/ |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=[[USA TODAY]] |language=en-US}}</ref> Peanut was taken, along with a pet [[raccoon]] named Fred,<ref name="TheGuardian2024" /> from his owner's home in [[Pine City, New York#History|Pine City]], [[Chemung County, New York|Chemung County]], New York, by the [[New York State Department of Environmental Conservation]] (NYSDEC). Two days later, government officials alleged that after his seizure, Peanut had bitten one of the personnel involved,<ref name="Legal">{{Cite web |last1=Santucci |first1=Jeanine |date=4 November 2024 |title=Is it legal to have a pet squirrel? Beloved Peanut the squirrel euthanized in New York |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2024/11/02/peanut-squirrel-euthanized-legal/76009885007/ |access-date=2024-11-03 |website=[[USA TODAY]] |language=en-US}}</ref> and the pets were euthanized to test for [[rabies]],<ref name="Cross2024" /><ref name="Keleshian2024">{{Cite news |last=Keleshian |first=Kristie| date=November 2, 2024 |title=Peanut, the Instagram-famous squirrel, euthanized by New York state authorities |work=[[CBS News]] |publisher=[[WCBS-TV|CBS New York]] |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/newyork/news/instagram-squirrel-peanut-seized-by-new-york-authorities/ |url-status=live |access-date=November 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.is/ZYzF5 |archive-date=November 2, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{unbulleted list citebundle|{{Cite news |last=Howard |first=Jacqueline| date=November 2, 2024 |orig-date=November 1, 2024 |title=Instagram-famous squirrel euthanised by authorities |publisher=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c33e75z83l0o |url-status=live |access-date=November 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.is/gIdCf |archive-date=November 3, 2024}}|{{Cite news |last=Walker |first=Julie |date=November 2, 2024 |title=The man who took in orphaned Peanut the squirrel says it's 'surreal' officials euthanized his pet |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |department=U.S. News| url=https://apnews.com/article/peanut-pet-squirrel-seized-euthanized-45a4cba19e1c49cb0cd58fef0f140f0d |url-status=live |access-date=November 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.is/NGTZE |archive-date=November 2, 2024}}}}</ref> as there are no [[Wiktionary:antemortem|ante-mortem]] rabies testing methods for animals approved by the [[Centers for Disease Control]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Information for Diagnostic Laboratories |url=https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/php/laboratories/diagnostic.html |website=[[Centers for Disease Control]] |publisher=[[United States Department of Health and Human Services]] |language=en-us |date=17 May 2024 |access-date=6 November 2024}}</ref> Longo said that they were in the process of filing paperwork to have the squirrel certified as an educational animal when Peanut was seized.<ref name="TheGuardian2024" /> He later stated that the decision to euthanize the squirrel "won't go unheard".<ref name="CBC2024">{{cite news|agency= Associated Press|date= November 2, 2024|title= Man slams 'surreal' decision by N.Y. to seize, put down social media darling Peanut the squirrel| publisher=[[CBC News]] |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/peanut-squirrel-euthanize-1.7372034 |access-date=November 2, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.is/wip/WT6Ud |archive-date=November 3, 2024}}</ref> The incident has been widely criticized as an example of excessive government intrusion into personal lives and pet ownership rights.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Wickman |first=Kase |date=2024-11-04 |title=Why the Death of P'Nut the Squirrel Has Become a National Political Event |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/style/story/pnut-squirrel-trump-musk-election?srsltid=AfmBOooN2wLFPZjVbSSlwYQdjemuXW0MQeaJyqs03z3Px_jI1vUnAOv9 |access-date=2024-11-06 |magazine=Vanity Fair |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Woislaw |first=Daniel |date=2024-11-04 |title=Government kills pet squirrel P'Nut in Fourth Amendment horror story |url=https://pacificlegal.org/government-kills-pet-squirrel-pnut-in-fourth-amendment-horror-story/ |access-date=2024-11-06 |website=Pacific Legal Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> Longo claimed that the NYSDEC used excessive force during the raid, which, according to Longo, lasted five hours.<ref name="Keleshian2024" /> In an interview with the ''[[New York Post]]'', Longo speculated that the anonymous complaints were motivated by jealousy due to the success of his OnlyFans account.<ref name="interview">{{Cite web |last1=Sheehan |first1=Kevin |last2=Golden |first2=Vaughn |last3=Campanile |first3=Carl |last4=Fitz-Gibbon |first4=Jorge |url=https://nypost.com/2024/11/03/us-news/who-ratted-out-pnut-the-squirrel-owners-have-their-theory-and-its-a-rich-one/ |title=Who ratted out P'nut the squirrel? Grieving owners have their theory — and it's a rich one |date=November 3, 2024 |website=New York Post |quote=The Longos said they bought their 350-acre spread near Elmira with the $800,000 that they made in one month posting their porn online — and P'nut then began pulling his own weight with his separate family-friendly fan base.}}</ref><ref name="tribune">{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2507306/new-york-couple-blames-jealousy-for-pet-squirrel-peanuts-seizure-and-euthanization-by-dec|title=New York couple blames jealousy for pet squirrel Peanut's seizure and euthanization by DEC|date=November 4, 2024|website=[[The Express Tribune]]|access-date=6 November 2024}}</ref>

Peanut's death triggered widespread public backlash, social media outcry, condemnation from several lawmakers, and a proposed bill aimed at preventing similar incidents in the future.<ref>{{Cite web |agency=Associated Press |date=2024-11-04 |title=Man who took in Peanut, the orphaned squirrel, says it's 'surreal' officials euthanized his pet |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/11/04/us/peanut-the-squirrel-euthanized-intl-scli/index.html |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=[[CNN]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Cross |first1=Greta |date=4 November 2024 |title=New York's decision to seize, euthanize Peanut the Squirrel is a 'disgrace,' owner says |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2024/11/04/peanut-the-squirrel-mark-longo-new-york-euthanized-pet/76043660007/ |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=[[USA TODAY]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Duley |first1=Megan |date=2024-11-04 |title=Here's Why the World Is Outraged over New York Squirrel's Death |url=https://wibx950.com/outrage-over-peanut-the-squirrel/ |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=[[WIBX|WIBX-AM (950)]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=November 1, 2024 |title=P'Nut the Squirrel euthanized, owner says 'someone was out to get me' - CUOMO |url=https://www.newsnationnow.com/cuomo-show/pnut-the-squirrel-euthanized-owner-says-someone-was-out-to-get-me-cuomo/ |access-date=November 6, 2024 |website=[[NewsNation]] |language=en}}</ref>

The death of Peanut was used as a [[cause célèbre]] by the [[MAGA]] movement, who blamed it on [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kukreti |first1=Shweta |date=2 November 2024 |title=Who was Peanut? Huge row erupts in US as social media star squirrel euthanised; MAGA converts tragedy into election ploy |url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/news/world/who-was-peanut-huge-row-erupts-in-us-as-social-media-star-squirrel-euthanised-maga-converts-tragedy-into-election-ploy/ar-AA1tnARW |website=[[Microsoft Start]] |access-date=5 November 2024}}</ref><ref name="YahooConservatives">{{cite web |last1=Kaloi |first1=Stephanie |title=Conservative Social Media Rallies Around Peanut the Euthanized Squirrel |url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/conservative-social-media-rallies-around-015809148.html |website=Yahoo News |access-date=4 November 2024 |date=4 November 2024}}</ref> Several prominent [[U.S. Republican Party|Republican]] figures complained about the killing of the squirrel, with some [[Trump campaign]] supporters claiming that the [[Biden-Harris administration]] was too firm regarding licenses for owning wild animals like squirrels as pets.<ref name="BBCConservatives">{{cite web |last1=Faguy |first1=Ana |title=Trump 'fired up' about euthanasia of Peanut the squirrel |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cdj3l1zyj93o |website=[[BBC News]] |access-date=4 November 2024}}</ref><ref name="YahooConservatives" /> Both [[Governor of New York|New York governor]] [[Kathy Hochul]] and [[Vice president of the United States|Vice President]] [[Kamala Harris]] turned down a request to comment on the incident.<ref name="NYTMAGA"/><ref>{{cite web |title=US Elections 2024 {{!}} How the death of a celebrity squirrel became a Republican rallying cry |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/world/us-elections-2024-how-the-death-of-a-celebrity-squirrel-became-a-republican-rallying-cry-3262196 |date=5 November 2024 |website=[[Deccan Herald]] |access-date=6 November 2024 |language=en}}</ref> The Republican vice presidential candidate of the [[2024 United States presidential election|2024 U.S. election]], [[JD Vance]], posted on X that "[[Donald Trump|Don]] is fired up about P'Nut the squirrel"; the official Trump campaign [[TikTok]] account also condemned Peanut's death.<ref name="WTPTMAGA">{{cite news |last1=Hassan |first1=Jennifer |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2024/11/05/peanut-squirrel-election-euthanized-threats/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=registration |access-date=6 November 2024|title=Republicans call to 'avenge' Peanut the squirrel's death at ballot box}}</ref><ref name="NYTMAGA">{{cite web |last1=Nir |first1=Sarah M. |title=How the Death of a Celebrity Squirrel Became a Republican Rallying Cry |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/11/04/nyregion/peanut-the-squirrel-euthanized-trump.html |website=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=registration |access-date=6 November 2024}}</ref> [[Nick Langworthy]] stated his irritation with the NYS DEC, saying that "instead of focusing on critical needs like flood mitigation in places like [[Steuben County, New York|Steuben County]], where local officials have to struggle just to get permits from the DEC to clear debris-filled waterways, they're out seizing pet squirrels."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jeffrey |first1=Joyann |date=4 November 2024 |title=Why was Peanut the squirrel euthanized? The controversy explained |url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/why-peanut-squirrel-euthanized-controversy-214808322.html |publisher=[[Yahoo! News]] |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Forbes |first1=Ahjané |date=2 November 2024 |title=Social media users weigh in on Peanut the Squirrel being euthanized: 'This can't be real' |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2024/11/02/peanut-the-squirrel-euthanized-social-media-reacts/76010292007/ |website=[[USA Today]] |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> Former New York governor [[Andrew Cuomo]] of the Democratic Party also criticized the DEC,<ref name="interview" /><ref name="tribune" /> as did actor [[William Shatner]].<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1853231931506528718 |user=WilliamShatner |title=I just heard about #PeanutTheSquirrel 😞 He was 7 years old & a pet for 7 years. How could he be considered a wild animal when all he knew was being a pet?🤷🏼 You can say that about any animal, then in the State of NY. Shame on the @NYSDEC !🙄 |first=William |last=Shatner |date=2024-11-03}}</ref> On [[Twitter|X (Twitter)]], [[Elon Musk|Elon Musk]] commented that "Government overreach kidnapped an orphan squirrel and executed him."<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2024-11-02 |title=Squirrel Kerfuffle: Trump's Comment On Peanut Is Fake News |url=https://www.barrons.com/news/squirrel-kerfuffle-trump-s-comment-on-peanut-is-fake-news-2664d294 |access-date=2024-11-06 |website=Barron's |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[Jake Blumencranz]], a NYS Assemblyman from [[Long Island]]'s [[New York's 15th State Assembly district|15th Assembly District]], has proposed a bill called "Peanut's Law: Humane Animal Protection Act", an amendment to the New York State Environmental Conservation Law limiting government animal seizures.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.syracuse.com/state/2024/11/nys-assemblyman-introduces-peanuts-law-after-beloved-squirrel-is-euthanized.html|title=NYS Assemblyman introduces Peanut's Law after beloved squirrel is euthanized|website=syracuse.com|date=5 November 2024|access-date=6 November 2024|first=George|last=Herbert}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey]], mice euthanized after orbiting the Moon on [[Apollo 17]] in 1972
* [[Freya (walrus)|Freya]], a young female [[walrus]] killed by the [[Norwegian Directorate of Fisheries]] in 2022
* [[Gangotri (cow)|Gangotri]], a cow at [[Bhaktivedanta Manor]], killed by the [[RSPCA]] in 2007
* [[Geronimo (alpaca)|Geronimo]], a stud [[alpaca]] at [[Wickwar]], South Gloucestershire, euthanized in 2021
* [[Harambe]], an adult [[gorilla]] killed at the [[Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden]] in 2016
* [[Marius (giraffe)|Marius]], a baby giraffe euthanized at [[Copenhagen Zoo]] in 2014
* [[Shambo]], a black [[Holstein Friesian|Friesian bull]] at an interfaith [[Skanda Vale]] temple, slaughtered in 2007

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Instagram|id=peanut_the_squirrel12|name=Peanut the Squirrel}}

[[Category:2010s animal births]]
[[Category:2024 animal deaths]]
[[Category:2024 controversies in the United States]]
[[Category:Animal deaths by euthanasia]]
[[Category:Animal deaths in the United States]]
[[Category:Animal-related controversies]]
[[Category:Animals on the Internet]]
[[Category:Chemung County, New York]]
[[Category:Individual animals in the United States]]
[[Category:Individual squirrels]]
[[Category:Instagram accounts]]
[[Category:Law enforcement controversies in the United States]]
[[Category:November 2024 events in the United States]]
[[Category:Pets in the United States]]
[[Category:Wildlife rehabilitation]]
[[Category:Wildlife law in the United States]]

France

2024-11-09T19:39:07Z

Brandmeister: /* top */

{{Short description|Country in Western Europe}}
{{Redirect2|French Republic|La France|preceding republics|French Republics (disambiguation){{!}}French Republics|other uses|France (disambiguation)|and|Lafrance (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = French Republic
| common_name = France
| native_name = {{Native name|fr|République française}}
| image_flag = Flag of France.svg
| image_coat = Arms of the French Republic.svg
| symbol_width = 75px
| symbol_type = [[Coat of arms of France|Coat of arms]]{{Efn-ur|name=one|The current [[Constitution of France]] does not specify a national emblem.<ref>{{Cite constitution|article=II|polity=France|date=1958}}</ref> The [[Fasces|lictor's fasces]] is very often used to represent the French Republic, although it holds no official status.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elysee.fr/en/french-presidency/the-lictor-s-fasces|date=15 December 2022|title=THE LICTOR'S FASCES|access-date=18 May 2024|archive-date=7 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240407081203/https://www.elysee.fr/en/french-presidency/the-lictor-s-fasces|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition to the coat of arms, France also uses a [[Diplomatic emblem of France|different emblem]] for diplomatic and consular purposes.}}
| other_symbol = [[File:Armoiries république française.svg|90px]]
| other_symbol_type = [[Diplomatic emblem of France|Diplomatic emblem]]
| national_motto = "{{Lang|fr|[[Liberté, égalité, fraternité]]|italics=no}}"
| englishmotto = ("Liberty, Equality, Fraternity")
| national_anthem = "[[La Marseillaise]]" <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em">[[File:La Marseillaise.ogg|alt=sound clip of the Marseillaise French national anthem]]</div>
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:EU-France (orthographic projection).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|France on the globe centred on Europe|[[File:EU-France.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|[[Metropolitan France]] (European part of France) in Europe|[[File:France and its region.png|frameless]]|France and its neighbors|[[File:Territorial waters - France.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show France, its overseas territories and [[Exclusive economic zone of France|its exclusive economic zones]]|Labelled map|default=1}}
| map_caption = {{Map caption|location_color=blue or dark green|region=Europe|region_color=dark grey|subregion=the European Union|subregion_color=green|unbulleted list|Location of the territory of the (red)|[[Adélie Land]] (Antarctic claim; hatched)}}
| capital = [[Paris]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|48|51|N|2|21|E|type:city(2,100,000)_region:FR-75C}}
| largest_city = capital
| languages_type = Official language {{Nobold|and national language}}
| languages = [[French language|French]]{{Efn-ur|name=two|For information about regional languages, see [[Languages of France]].}}{{Infobox|child=yes
| regional_languages = See [[Languages of France]]
| label1 = Nationality {{Nobold|(2021)<ref>{{cite web |title=L'essentiel sur... les immigrés et les étrangers |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/3633212 |website=[[Insee]] |access-date=9 September 2023 |archive-date=26 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626142004/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/3633212 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| data1 = {{Unbulleted list|92.2% [[French people|French]]|7.8% [[Demographics of France|other]]}}}}
| religion_ref = <ref name="gov data">{{cite web |title=Etat des lieux de la laïcité en France - 2021 |url=https://www.gouvernement.fr/sites/default/files/contenu/piece-jointe/2021/02/etat_des_lieux_de_la_laicite_en_france._viavoice_-_observatoire_de_la_laicite._2021.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118103656/https://www.gouvernement.fr/sites/default/files/contenu/piece-jointe/2021/02/etat_des_lieux_de_la_laicite_en_france._viavoice_-_observatoire_de_la_laicite._2021.pdf |archive-date=18 January 2024 |publisher=Observatoire de la laïcité, [[Government of France]] |page=37 |language=fr |type=official statistics}}</ref>
| religion_year = 2021
| religion = {{ublist|item_style=white-space;|50% [[Christianity]]|
33% [[irreligion]]|4% [[Islam]]|4% [[Religion in France|other religions]]}}
| demonym = French
| government_type = Unitary [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential republic]]
| leader_title1 = [[President of France|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Emmanuel Macron]]
| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2 = [[Michel Barnier]]
| leader_title3 = [[List of presidents of the Senate of France|President of the Senate]]
| leader_name3 = [[Gérard Larcher]]
| leader_title4 = [[List of presidents of the National Assembly of France|President of the National Assembly]]
| leader_name4 = [[Yaël Braun-Pivet]]
| legislature = [[French Parliament|Parliament]]
| upper_house = [[Senate (France)|Senate]]
| lower_house = [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of France|Establishment]]
| established_event1 = [[West Francia|Kingdom of the West Franks]] – [[Treaty of Verdun]]
| established_date1 = 10 August 843
| established_event2 = [[Proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy|French Republic]] – [[French First Republic]]
| established_date2 = 22 September 1792
| established_event3 = [[Constitution of France|Current constitution]] – [[French Fifth Republic]]
| established_date3 = 4 October 1958
| area_km2 = 643,801
| area_footnote = <ref name="Field Listing :: Area">{{Cite web |title=Field Listing :: Area |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131115000/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html |archive-date=31 January 2014 |access-date=1 November 2015 |website=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>
| area_rank = 43rd 
| area_sq_mi = 248,600 
| area_label2 = [[Metropolitan France]] ([[Institut géographique national|IGN]])
| area_data2 = {{Cvt|551695|km2}}{{Efn-ur|name=four|French [[Institut géographique national|National Geographic Institute]] data, which includes bodies of water}} ([[List of countries and dependencies by area|50th]])
| area_label3 = Metropolitan France ([[Cadastre]])
| area_data3 = {{Cvt|543940.9|km2}}{{Efn-ur|name=five|French [[Land registration|Land Register]] data, which exclude lakes, ponds and [[glacier]]s larger than 1 km2 (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) as well as the estuaries of rivers}}<ref>{{Cite journal |year=2011 |title=France Métropolitaine |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/comparateur.asp?codgeo=METRODOM-1 |url-status=dead |journal=INSEE |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150828051307/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/comparateur.asp?codgeo=METRODOM-1 |archive-date=28 August 2015}}</ref> ([[List of countries and dependencies by area|50th]])
| population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 68,373,433<ref name="pop_est">{{Cite web |date=16 January 2023 |title=Bilan démographique 2023 – Composantes de la croissance démographique, France |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/7746154?sommaire=7746197#titre-bloc-1 |access-date=2 February 2024 |website=Insee |archive-date=18 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118223724/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/7746154?sommaire=7746197#titre-bloc-1 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| percent_water = 0.86<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surface water and surface water change |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER |access-date=11 October 2020 |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) |archive-date=24 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324133453/https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER |url-status=live }}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = January 2024
| population_estimate_rank = 20th
| population_label2 = Density
| population_data2 = {{Pop density|68373433|643801|km2}} ([[List of countries and territories by population density|106th]])
| population_label3 = Metropolitan France, estimate {{As of|lc=y|January 2024}}
| population_data3 = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 66,142,961<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 January 2024 |title=Bilan démographique 2023 – Composantes de la croissance démographique, France métropolitaine |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/7746154?sommaire=7746197#titre-bloc-3 |access-date=2 February 2024 |website=Insee |archive-date=18 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118223724/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/7746154?sommaire=7746197#titre-bloc-3 |url-status=live }}</ref> ([[List of countries and dependencies by population|23rd]])
| population_density_km2 = 122
| population_density_sq_mi = 313 
| population_density_rank = 89th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $4.359 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.FR">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=132,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (France) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=www.imf.org |date=22 October 2024 |access-date=22 October 2024}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2024
| GDP_PPP_rank = 10th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $65,940<ref name="IMFWEO.FR" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 26th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $3.174 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.FR" />
| GDP_nominal_year = 2024
| GDP_nominal_rank = 7th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $48,011<ref name="IMFWEO.FR" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 23rd
| Gini = 29.8 
| Gini_year = 2022
| Gini_change = increase 
| Gini_ref = <ref name="eurogini">{{Cite web |title=Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi190/default/table?lang=en |access-date=25 November 2023 |website=ec.europa.eu |publisher=[[Eurostat]] |archive-date=9 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009091832/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi190/default/table?lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref>
| HDI = 0.910
| HDI_year = 2022 
| HDI_change = steady 
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2023/24|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=13 March 2024|page=288|access-date=13 March 2024|archive-date=13 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 28th
| currency = {{Unbulleted list
| [[Euro]] ([[Euro sign|€]]) ([[ISO 4217|EUR]]){{Efn-ur|name=six|Whole of the except the overseas territories in the Pacific Ocean}}
| [[CFP franc]] (XPF){{Efn-ur|name=seven|French overseas territories in the Pacific Ocean only}}
}}
| time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]]{{Efn-ur|name=eight|Various other time zones are used in overseas France, from UTC−10 ([[French Polynesia]]) to UTC+12 ([[Wallis and Futana]]). For further information, view [[Time in France]].}}
| utc_offset = +1
| utc_offset_DST = +2
| time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in France|+33]]{{Efn-ur|name=nine|The overseas regions and collectivities form part of the [[Telephone numbers in France|French telephone numbering plan]], but have their own country calling codes: [[Guadeloupe]] +590; [[Martinique]] +596; [[French Guiana]] +594; [[Réunion]] and [[Mayotte]] +262; [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]] +508. The overseas territories are not part of the French telephone numbering plan; their country calling codes are: [[New Caledonia]] +687; [[French Polynesia]] +689; [[Wallis and Futuna]] +681.}}
| cctld = [[.fr]]{{Efn-ur|name=ten|In addition to [[.fr]], several other Internet TLDs are used in French overseas ''départements'' and territories: [[.re]], [[.mq]], [[.gp]], [[.tf]], [[.nc]], [[.pf]], [[.wf]], [[.pm]], [[.gf]] and [[.yt]]. The [[.cat]] domain is used in [[Catalan Countries|Catalan-speaking territories]].}}
| footnotes = Source gives area of metropolitan France as 551,500 km2 (212,900 sq mi) and lists overseas regions separately, whose areas sum to 89,179 km2 (34,432 sq mi). Adding these give the total shown here for the entire French Republic. [[The World Factbook]] reports the total as 643,801 km2 (248,573 sq mi).
| flag_p1 = Flag of France (1794–1815, 1830–1974, 2020–present).svg
}}

'''France''',{{efn|{{IPA|fr|fʁɑ̃s|lang|LL-Q150 (fra)-Fhala.K-France.wav}}}} officially the '''French Republic''',{{efn|{{Langx|fr|link=no|République française}} {{IPA|fr|ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛːz|}}}} is a country located primarily in [[Western Europe]]. Its [[Overseas France|overseas regions and territories]] include [[French Guiana]] in [[South America]], [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]] in the North Atlantic, the [[French West Indies]], and many islands in [[Oceania]] and the [[Indian Ocean]], giving it [[Exclusive economic zone of France|one of the largest discontiguous exclusive economic zones in the world]]. [[Metropolitan France]] shares borders with [[Belgium]] and [[Luxembourg]] to the north, [[Germany]] to the northeast, [[Switzerland]] to the east, [[Italy]] and [[Monaco]] to the southeast, [[Andorra]] and [[Spain]] to the south, and a maritime border with the [[United Kingdom]] to the northwest. Its metropolitan area extends from the [[Rhine]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the [[English Channel]] and the [[North Sea]]. Its [[Regions of France|eighteen integral regions]] (five of which are overseas) span a combined area of {{Cvt|643801|km2}} and have a total population of 68.4 million {{As of|2024|January|lc=y}}.<ref name="Field Listing :: Area"/><ref name=pop_est/> France is a [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential republic]] with its capital in [[Paris]], the [[List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants|country's largest city]] and main cultural and commercial centre.

Metropolitan France was settled during the [[Iron Age]] by [[List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes|Celtic tribes]] known as [[Gauls]] before [[Roman Gaul|Rome annexed the area]] in 51 BC, leading to a distinct [[Gallo-Roman culture]]. In the [[Early Middle Ages]], the [[Franks]] formed the Kingdom of [[Francia]], which became the heartland of the [[Carolingian Empire]]. The [[Treaty of Verdun]] of 843 partitioned the empire, with [[West Francia]] evolving into the [[Kingdom of France]]. In the [[High Middle Ages]], France was a powerful but decentralized [[Feudalism|feudal]] kingdom, but from the mid-14th to the mid-15th centuries, France was plunged into a dynastic conflict with [[Kingdom of England|England]] known as the [[Hundred Years' War]]. In the 16th century, the [[French Renaissance]] saw culture flourish and a [[French colonial empire]] rise.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UX8aeX_Lbi4C&pg=PA1 |title=Memory, Empire, and Postcolonialism: Legacies of French Colonialism |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7391-0821-5 |editor-last=Hargreaves, Alan G. |page=1}}</ref> Internally, France was dominated by the conflict with the [[House of Habsburg]] and the [[French Wars of Religion]] between [[Catholics]] and [[Huguenots]]. France was successful in the [[Thirty Years' War]] and further increased its influence during the reign of [[Louis XIV]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=R.R. Palmer |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernw00palm |title=A History of the Modern World |last2=Joel Colton |year=1978 |edition=5th |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernw00palm/page/161 161] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

The [[French Revolution]] of 1789 overthrew the {{Lang|fr|[[Ancien Régime]]|italic=no}} and produced the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen|Declaration of the Rights of Man]], which expresses the nation's ideals to this day. France reached its political and military zenith in the early 19th century under [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]], subjugating part of continental Europe and establishing the [[First French Empire]]. The collapse of the empire initiated a period of relative decline, in which France endured the [[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]] until the founding of the [[French Second Republic]] which was succeeded by the [[Second French Empire]] upon [[Napoleon III]]'s takeover. His empire collapsed during the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in 1870. This led to the establishment of the [[Third French Republic]], and subsequent decades saw a period of economic prosperity and cultural and scientific flourishing known as the [[Belle Époque]]. France was one of the [[Triple Entente|major participants]] of [[World War I]], from which [[Treaty of Versailles|it emerged victorious]] at great human and economic cost. It was among the [[Allies of World War II]], but it surrendered and [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|was occupied]] in 1940. Following [[Liberation of France|its liberation in 1944]], the short-lived [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] was established and later dissolved in the course of the defeat in the [[Algerian War]]. The current [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republic]] was formed in 1958 by [[Charles de Gaulle]]. Algeria and most French colonies became independent in the 1960s, with the majority retaining [[Françafrique|close economic and military ties with France]].

France retains its centuries-long status as a global centre [[French art|of art]], [[Science and technology in France|science]], and [[French philosophy|philosophy]]. [[List of World Heritage Sites in France|It hosts]] the [[World Heritage Sites by country|fourth-largest]] number of [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]s and is the [[World Tourism rankings|world's leading tourist destination]], receiving 100 million foreign [[Tourism in France|visitors in 2023]].<ref name="tourism.stat"/> A [[developed country]], France has a [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|high nominal per capita income globally]], and [[Economy of France|its advanced economy]] ranks among the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|largest in the world]]. It is a [[great power]],<ref>Jack S. Levy, ''War in the Modern Great Power System, 1495–1975'', (2014) p. 29</ref> being one of the five [[permanent members of the United Nations Security Council]] and an official [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear-weapon state]]. France is a [[Inner Six|founding]] and [[Big Four (Western Europe)|leading]] member of the [[European Union]] and the [[eurozone]],<ref name="superficy" /> as well as a member of the [[Group of Seven]], [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO), [[OECD|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD), and [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie|Francophonie]].

==Etymology==
{{Main|Name of France}}
Originally applied to the whole [[Francia|Frankish Empire]], the name ''France'' comes from the [[Latin]] {{Lang|la|[[Francia]]}}, or "realm of the [[Franks]]".<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of France |url=http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/History/DF_history.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824051936/http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/History/DF_history.shtml |archive-date=24 August 2011 |access-date=17 July 2011 |publisher=Discoverfrance.net}}</ref> The [[name of the Franks]] is related to the English word ''frank'' ("free"): the latter stems from the [[Old French]] {{Lang|ang|franc}} ("free, noble, sincere"), and ultimately from the [[Medieval Latin]] word ''francus'' ("free, exempt from service; freeman, Frank"), a generalisation of the tribal name that emerged as a [[Late Latin]] borrowing of the reconstructed [[Frankish language|Frankish]] [[Endonym and exonym|endonym]] {{Lang|frk|*Frank}}.<ref>Examples: {{Cite encyclopedia |title=frank |encyclopedia=American Heritage Dictionary}} {{Cite encyclopedia|title=frank|encyclopedia=Webster's Third New International Dictionary}} And so on.</ref><ref name=":0" /> It has been suggested that the meaning "free" was adopted because, after the conquest of [[Gaul]], only Franks were free of taxation,<ref>{{Cite book |first=Michel |last=Rouche |title=A History of Private Life: From Pagan Rome to Byzantium |publisher=Belknap Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-674-39974-7 |editor-first=Paul |editor-last=Veyne |page=425 |chapter=The Early Middle Ages in the West |oclc=59830199}}</ref> or more generally because they had the status of freemen in contrast to servants or slaves.<ref name=":0" /> The etymology of ''*Frank'' is uncertain. It is traditionally derived from the [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] word {{Lang|gem-x-proto|frankōn}}, which translates as "javelin" or "lance" (the throwing axe of the Franks was known as the ''[[francisca]]''),<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tarassuk |first1=Leonid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UJbyPwAACAAJ |title=The Complete Encyclopedia of Arms and Weapons: the most comprehensive reference work ever published on arms and armor from prehistoric times to the present with over 1,250 illustrations |last2=Blair |first2=Claude |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-671-42257-8 |page=186 |access-date=5 July 2011}}</ref> although these weapons may have been named because of their use by the Franks, not the other way around.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Origin and meaning of Frank |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/frank |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |language=en |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515001926/https://www.etymonline.com/word/frank |url-status=live }}</ref>

In English, 'France' is pronounced {{IPAc-en|f|r|æ|n|s}} {{Respell|FRANSS}} in American English and {{IPAc-en|f|r|ɑː|n|s}} {{Respell|FRAHNSS}} or {{IPAc-en|f|r|æ|n|s}} {{Respell|FRANSS}} in British English. The pronunciation with {{IPAc-en|ɑː}} is mostly confined to accents with the [[Trap–bath split|trap-bath split]] such as [[Received Pronunciation]], though it can be also heard in some other dialects such as [[Cardiff English]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wells |first=John C. |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |publisher=Longman |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0 |edition=3rd}}; {{Cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Beverley|last2=Mees|first2=Inger M.|editor-last1=Coupland|editor-first1=Nikolas|editor-last2=Thomas|editor-first2=Alan Richard|year=1990|title=English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change|chapter=The Phonetics of Cardiff English|publisher=Multilingual Matters Ltd.|page=96|isbn=978-1-85359-032-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of France}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of French history}}

===Pre-6th century BC===
{{Main|Prehistory of France}}
The oldest traces of [[archaic humans]] in what is now France date from approximately 1.8 million years ago.<ref name="Jean Carpentier 1987 p.17">Jean Carpentier (dir.), François Lebrun (dir.), Alain Tranoy, Élisabeth Carpentier et Jean-Marie Mayeur (préface de Jacques Le Goff), Histoire de France, Points Seuil, coll. " Histoire ", Paris, 2000 (1re éd. 1987), p. 17 {{ISBN|978-2-02-010879-9}}</ref> [[Neanderthal]]s occupied the region into [[Upper Paleolithic|the Upper Paleolithic]] era but were slowly replaced by ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' around 35,000 BC.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jenkins |first=C. |date=2011 |title=A Brief History of France |publisher=[[Little, Brown Book Group]] |chapter=Cro-Magnon Man, Roman Gaul and the Feudal Kingdom |page=6 |isbn=978-1849018128 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=urOeBAAAQBAJ |access-date=19 April 2023 |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419204039/https://books.google.com/books?id=urOeBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> This period witnessed the emergence of [[cave painting]] in the [[Dordogne]] and [[Pyrenees]], including at [[Lascaux]], dated to {{Circa|18,000}} BC.<ref name="Jean Carpentier 1987 p.17"/> At the end of the [[Last Glacial Period]] (10,000 BC), the climate became milder;<ref name="Jean Carpentier 1987 p.17"/> from approximately 7,000 BC, this part of Western Europe entered the [[Neolithic]] era, and its inhabitants became [[Sedentism|sedentary]].

After demographic and [[Agriculture|agricultural]] development between the 4th and 3rd millennia BC, [[Metal Ages|metallurgy appeared]], initially working gold, [[Chalcolithic|copper]] and [[Bronze Age|bronze]], then later [[Iron Age|iron]].<ref>Carpentier ''et al.'' 2000, pp. 20–24.</ref> France has numerous [[megalith]]ic sites from the Neolithic, including the [[Carnac stones]] site (approximately 3,300 BC).

===Antiquity (6th century BC – 5th century AD)===
{{Main|Gaul|Celts|Roman Gaul}}

In 600 BC, [[Ionia]]n [[Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul|Greeks]] from [[Phocaea]] founded the [[Greek colonisation|colony]] of [[Massalia]] (present-day [[Marseille]]).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n1TmVvMwmo4C&pg=RA1-PA754 |title=The Cambridge ancient history |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-08691-2 |page=754 |access-date=23 January 2011}}; {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b8cA8hymTw8C&pg=PA62|title=A history of ancient Greece|author=Claude Orrieux|page=62|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=1999|access-date=23 January 2011|isbn=978-0-631-20309-4}}</ref> Celtic tribes penetrated parts of eastern and northern France, spreading through the rest of the country between the 5th and 3rd century BC.<ref>Carpentier ''et al.'' 2000, p. 29.</ref> Around 390 BC, the Gallic [[Tribal chief|chieftain]] [[Brennus (leader of the Senones)|Brennus]] and his troops made their way to [[Roman Italy]], defeated the Romans in the [[Battle of the Allia]], and besieged and [[ransom]]ed Rome.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cornelius Tacitus, The History, BOOK II, chapter 91 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0080:book=2:chapter=91 |website=perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=12 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240512112050/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0080%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D91 |url-status=live }}</ref> This left Rome weakened, and the Gauls continued to harass the region until 345 BC when they entered into a peace treaty.<ref>Polybius, The Histories, 2.18.19</ref> But the Romans and the Gauls remained adversaries for centuries.<ref>Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome, p. 325</ref>
[[File:France-002364 - Square House (15867600545).jpg|thumb|alt=Maison Carrée temple in Nemausus Corinthian columns and portico|The [[Maison carrée]] was a temple of the [[Gallo-Roman culture|Gallo-Roman]] city of [[Nemausus]] (present-day [[Nîmes]]) and is one of the best-preserved [[Roman temple]]s anywhere]]
Around 125 BC, the south of Gaul was conquered by the Romans, who called this region {{Lang|la|[[Gallia Narbonensis|Provincia Nostra]]}} ("Our Province"), which evolved into [[Provence]] in French.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=13 July 1953 |title=Provence in Stone |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZEIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA77 |magazine=Life |page=77 |access-date=23 January 2011}}</ref> [[Julius Caesar]] conquered the remainder of Gaul and overcame a revolt by Gallic chieftain [[Vercingetorix]] in 52 BC.<ref>Carpentier ''et al.'' 2000, pp. 44–45.</ref> Gaul was divided by [[Augustus]] into provinces<ref name="c53">Carpentier ''et al.'' 2000, pp. 53–55.</ref> and many cities were founded during the [[Roman Gaul|Gallo-Roman period]], including [[Lugdunum]] (present-day [[Lyon]]), the capital of the Gauls.<ref name="c53" /> In 250-290 AD, Roman Gaul suffered a crisis with its [[Limes (Roman Empire)|fortified borders]] attacked by [[barbarian]]s.<ref name="c77">Carpentier et al. 2000, pp. 76–77</ref> The situation improved in the first half of the 4th century, a period of revival and prosperity.<ref>Carpentier ''et al.'' 2000, pp. 79–82.</ref> In 312, Emperor [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]] [[Constantine the Great and Christianity|converted to Christianity]]. Christians, who had been persecuted, increased.<ref>Carpentier ''et al.'' 2000, p. 81.</ref> But from the 5th century, the [[Migration Period|Barbarian Invasions]] resumed.<ref>Carpentier ''et al.'' 2000, p. 84.</ref> [[Teutons|Teutonic]] tribes invaded the region, the [[Visigoths]] settling in the southwest, the [[Burgundians]] along the Rhine River Valley, and the Franks in the north.<ref>Carpentier ''et al.'' 2000, pp. 84–88.</ref>

===Early Middle Ages (5th–10th century)===
{{Main|Francia|Merovingian dynasty|Carolingian dynasty}}
{{See also|List of French monarchs|France in the Middle Ages}}
In [[Late antiquity]], ancient Gaul was divided into Germanic kingdoms and a remaining Gallo-Roman territory. [[Celtic Britons]], fleeing the [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain]], settled in west [[Armorica]]; the Armorican peninsula was renamed [[Brittany]] and [[Celts|Celtic culture]] was revived.

The first leader to unite all Franks was [[Clovis I]], who began his reign as king of the [[Salian Franks]] in 481, routing the last forces of the Roman governors in 486. Clovis said he would be baptised a Christian in the event of victory against the [[Visigothic Kingdom]], which was said to have guaranteed the battle. Clovis [[Franco-Visigothic Wars|regained the southwest from the Visigoths]] and was baptised in 508. Clovis I was the first [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] conqueror after the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire]] to convert to Catholic Christianity; thus France was given the title "Eldest daughter of the Church" by the papacy,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Faith of the Eldest Daughter – Can France retain her Catholic heritage? |url=http://www.wf-f.org/03-1-France.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722112834/http://www.wf-f.org/03-1-France.html |archive-date=22 July 2011 |access-date=17 July 2011 |publisher=Wf-f.org}}</ref> and French kings called "the Most Christian Kings of France".

[[File:Chlodwigs taufe.jpg|thumb|alt=painting of Clovis I conversion to Catholicism in 498, a king being baptised in a tub in a cathedral surrounded by bishop and monks|With [[Clovis I|Clovis]]'s conversion to Catholicism in 498, the [[List of Frankish kings|Frankish monarchy]], [[Elective monarchy|elective]] and [[Secular state|secular]] until then, became [[Hereditary monarchy|hereditary]] and of [[Divine right of kings|divine right]].]]
The Franks embraced the Christian [[Gallo-Roman culture]], and ancient Gaul was renamed ''[[Francia]]'' ("Land of the Franks"). The Germanic Franks adopted [[Romance languages|Romanic languages]]. Clovis made [[Paris]] his capital and established the [[Merovingian dynasty]], but his kingdom would not survive his death. The Franks treated land as a private possession and divided it among their heirs, so four kingdoms emerged from that of Clovis: Paris, [[Orléans]], [[Soissons]], and [[Reims|Rheims]]. The [[Roi fainéant|last Merovingian kings]] [[Power behind the throne|lost power]] to their [[Mayor of the palace|mayors of the palace]] (head of household). One mayor of the palace, [[Charles Martel]], defeated an [[Umayyad invasion of Gaul]] at the [[Battle of Tours]] (732). His son, [[Pepin the Short]], seized the crown of Francia from the weakened Merovingians and founded the [[Carolingian dynasty]]. Pepin's son, [[Charlemagne]], reunited the Frankish kingdoms and built an empire across [[Western Europe|Western]] and [[Central Europe]].

Proclaimed [[Holy Roman Emperor]] by [[Pope Leo III]] and thus establishing the French government's longtime [[History of the Catholic Church in France|historical association]] with the [[Catholic Church]],<ref name="georgetown1">{{Cite web |title=France |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/france |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206213909/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/france |archive-date=6 February 2011 |access-date=14 December 2011 |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]]}} See drop-down essay on "Religion and Politics until the French Revolution"</ref> Charlemagne tried to revive the [[Western Roman Empire]] and its cultural grandeur. Charlemagne's son, [[Louis the Pious|Louis I]] kept the empire united, however in 843, it was divided between Louis' three sons, into [[East Francia]], [[Middle Francia]] and [[West Francia]]. West Francia approximated the area occupied by modern France and was its precursor.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 February 2008 |title=Treaty of Verdun |url=http://history.howstuffworks.com/european-history/treaty-of-verdun.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716063456/http://history.howstuffworks.com/european-history/treaty-of-verdun.htm |archive-date=16 July 2011 |access-date=17 July 2011 |publisher=History.howstuffworks.com}}</ref>

During the 9th and 10th centuries, threatened by [[Viking expansion|Viking invasions]], France became a decentralised state: the nobility's titles and lands became hereditary, and authority of the king became more religious than secular, and so was less effective and challenged by noblemen. Thus was established [[feudalism]] in France. Some king's vassals grew so powerful they posed a threat to the king. After the [[Battle of Hastings]] in 1066, [[William the Conqueror]] added "King of England" to his titles, becoming vassal and the equal of the king of France, creating recurring tensions.

===High and Late Middle Ages (10th–15th century)===
{{See also|France in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Joan of Arc miniature graded.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Joan of Arc]] led the [[French Army]] to several important victories during the [[Hundred Years' War]] (1337–1453), which paved the way for the final victory.]]

The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when [[Hugh Capet]] was crowned [[List of French monarchs|king of the Franks]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of France – The Capetian kings of France: AD 987–1328 |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1008&HistoryID=ab03&gtrack=pthc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806020426/http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1008&HistoryID=ab03&gtrack=pthc |archive-date=6 August 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011 |publisher=Historyworld.net}}</ref> His descendants unified the country through wars and inheritance. From 1190, the Capetian rulers began to be referred as "kings of France" rather than "kings of the Franks".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Babbitt |first=Susan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JyALAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA39 |title=Oresme's Livre de Politiques and the France of Charles V |date=1985 |publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]] |isbn=978-0-871-69751-6 |page=39 |ol=2874232M |access-date=16 November 2023 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175213/https://books.google.com/books?id=JyALAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Later kings expanded their directly possessed [[Crown lands of France|''domaine royal'']] to cover over half of modern France by the 15th century. Royal authority became more assertive, centred on a [[Estates of the realm|hierarchically conceived society]] distinguishing [[French nobility|nobility]], clergy, and [[Estates General (France)|commoners]].

The nobility played a prominent role in [[Crusades]] to restore Christian access to the [[Holy Land]]. French knights made up most reinforcements in the 200 years of the Crusades, in such a fashion that the Arabs referred to crusaders as ''Franj''.<ref name="google.fr">{{Cite book |last1=Nadeau |first1=Jean-Benoit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYDOrzMpgGcC&pg=PT34 |title=The Story of French |last2=Barlow |first2=Julie |year=2008 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-1-4299-3240-0 |pages=34ff |author-link=Jean-Benoît Nadeau |author-link2=Julie Barlow |access-date=16 May 2016 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175328/https://books.google.com/books?id=JYDOrzMpgGcC&pg=PT34#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> French Crusaders imported French into the [[Levant]], making [[Old French]] the base of the ''[[lingua franca]]'' ("Frankish language") of the [[Crusader states]].<ref name="google.fr"/> The [[Albigensian Crusade]] was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical [[Catharism|Cathars]] in the southwest of modern-day France.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=28 April 1961 |title=Massacre of the Pure |magazine=Time |location=New York |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,897752-2,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120172908/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,897752-2,00.html |archive-date=20 January 2008}}</ref>

From the 11th century, the [[House of Plantagenet]], rulers of the [[County of Anjou]], established its dominion over the surrounding provinces of [[Maine (province)|Maine]] and [[Touraine]], then built an "empire" from England to the [[Pyrenees]], covering half of modern France. Tensions between France and the [[Angevin Empire|Plantagenet empire]] would last a hundred years, until [[Philip II of France]] conquered, between 1202 and 1214, most continental possessions of the empire, leaving England and [[Aquitaine]] to the Plantagenets.

[[Charles IV of France|Charles IV the Fair]] died without an heir in 1328.<ref name="guerard">{{Cite book |last=Guerard |first=Albert |title=France: A Modern History |date=1959 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor |pages=100, 101 |author-link=Albert Léon Guérard}}</ref> The crown passed to [[Philip VI of France|Philip of Valois]], rather than Edward of Plantagenet, who became [[Edward III of England]]. During the reign of Philip, the monarchy reached the height of its medieval power.<ref name="guerard"/> However Philip's seat on the throne was contested by Edward in 1337, and England and France entered the off-and-on [[Hundred Years' War]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Templeman |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Templeman |date=1952 |title=Edward III and the beginnings of the Hundred Years War |journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society |volume=2 |pages=69–88 |doi=10.2307/3678784|jstor=3678784 |s2cid=161389883 | issn=0080-4401}}</ref> Boundaries changed, but landholdings inside France by English Kings remained extensive for decades. With charismatic leaders, such as [[Joan of Arc]], French counterattacks won back most English continental territories. France was struck by the [[Black Death]], from which half of the 17 million population died.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Le Roy Ladurie |first=Emmanuel |title=The French peasantry, 1450–1660 |date=1987 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05523-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/frenchpeasantry10000lero/page/32 32] |author-link=Emmanuel}}; {{Cite book |first=Peter |last=Turchin |author-link=Peter Turchin |date=2003 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mUoCrTUo-eEC&pg=PA179 179] |title=Historical dynamics: why states rise and fall |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-11669-3}}</ref>

===Early modern period (15th century–1789)===
{{Main article|Ancien régime|France in the early modern period}}

The [[French Renaissance]] saw cultural development and standardisation of French, which became the [[Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts|official language of France]] and Europe's aristocracy. France became rivals of the [[House of Habsburg]] during the [[Italian Wars]], which would dictate much of their later foreign policy until the mid-18th century. French explorers claimed lands in the Americas, paving expansion of the [[French colonial empire]]. The rise of Protestantism led France to a civil war known as the [[French Wars of Religion]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Massacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/516821/Massacre-of-Saint-Bartholomews-Day |access-date=21 July 2011 |archive-date=4 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504150458/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/516821/Massacre-of-Saint-Bartholomews-Day |url-status=live }}</ref> This forced [[Huguenots]] to flee to Protestant regions such as the [[British Isles]] and [[Switzerland]]. The wars were ended by [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]]'s [[Edict of Nantes]], which granted some freedom of religion to the Huguenots. [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish]] troops,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rex |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uSVVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT302 |title=Tudors: The Illustrated History |year=2014 |publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited |isbn=978-1-4456-4403-5 |via=Google Books |access-date=6 March 2019 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175344/https://books.google.com/books?id=uSVVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT302#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> assisted the Catholics from 1589 to 1594 and invaded France in 1597. Spain and France returned to all-out war between 1635 and 1659. [[Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)|The war]] cost France 300,000 casualties.<ref>Michael Clodfelter, ''Warfare and armed conflicts: a statistical encyclopedia of casualty and other figures, 1492-2015'' (McFarland, 2017) p.40</ref>

Under [[Louis XIII]], [[Cardinal Richelieu]] promoted centralisation of the state and reinforced royal power. He destroyed castles of defiant lords and denounced the use of private armies. By the end of the 1620s, Richelieu established "the royal monopoly of force".<ref>Tilly, Charles (1985). "War making and state making as organized crime," in Bringing the State Back In, eds P.B. Evans, D. Rueschemeyer, & T. Skocpol. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. p. 174.</ref> France fought in the [[Thirty Years' War]], supporting the Protestant side against the Habsburgs. From the 16th to the 19th century, France was responsible for about 10% of the [[Atlantic slave trade|transatlantic slave trade]].<ref name = "BNF">{{Cite web | author = Cécil Vidal | date = May 2021 | url = https://heritage.bnf.fr/france-ameriques/en/slave-trade-article | website = bnf.fr | title = Slave trade | language = en | access-date = 24 January 2023 | archive-date = 24 January 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230124165612/https://heritage.bnf.fr/france-ameriques/en/slave-trade-article | url-status = live }}</ref>

[[File:Louis XIV of France.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|alt=Louis XIV of France standing in plate armour and blue sash facing left holding baton|[[Louis XIV]], the "Sun King", was the [[Absolute monarchy in France|absolute monarch of France]] and made France the leading European power.]]

During [[Louis XIV]]'s minority, trouble known as [[The Fronde]] occurred. This rebellion was driven by feudal lords and [[Parliament|sovereign courts]] as a reaction to the [[Absolutism (European history)|royal absolute power]]. The monarchy reached its peak during the 17th century and reign of Louis XIV. By turning lords into [[courtier]]s at the [[Palace of Versailles]], his command of the military went unchallenged. The "Sun King" made France the leading European power. France became the [[Demographics of France|most populous European country]] and had tremendous influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became the most-used language in diplomacy, science, and literature until the 20th century.<ref name="Language and Diplomacy">{{Cite web |title=Language and Diplomacy |url=http://www.nakedtranslations.com/en/2004/language-and-diplomacy/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721070018/http://www.nakedtranslations.com/en/2004/language-and-diplomacy/ |archive-date=21 July 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011 |publisher=Nakedtranslations.com}}</ref> France took control of territories in the Americas, Africa and Asia. In 1685, Louis XIV [[Edict of Fontainebleau|revoked the Edict of Nantes]], forcing thousands of Huguenots into exile and published the ''[[Code Noir]]'' providing the legal framework for slavery and expelling Jews from French colonies.<ref>{{Cite journal | journal = Louisiana Law Review | title = The Origins and Authors of the Code Noir | author = Vernon Valentine Palmer | url = https://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/lalrev/vol56/iss2/5 | year = 1996 | volume = 56 | issue = 2 | access-date = 24 January 2023 | archive-date = 24 January 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230124174315/https://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/lalrev/vol56/iss2/5/ | url-status = live }}</ref>

Under the wars of [[Louis XV]] (r. 1715–1774), France lost [[New France]] and most [[French India|Indian possessions]] after its defeat in the [[Seven Years' War]] (1756–1763). Its [[Metropolitan France|European territory]] kept growing, however, with acquisitions such as [[Lorraine]] and [[Corsica]]. Louis XV's weak rule, including the decadence of his court, discredited the monarchy, which in part paved the way for the [[French Revolution]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC History: Louis XV (1710–1774) |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/louis_xv.shtml |access-date=21 July 2011 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=17 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017172743/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/louis_xv.shtml |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web|url=http://webspace.qmul.ac.uk/cdhjones/documents/gn_pdf.pdf|title=Scholarly bibliography by Colin Jones (2002)|access-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725101858/http://webspace.qmul.ac.uk/cdhjones/documents/gn_pdf.pdf|archive-date=25 July 2011}}</ref>

[[Louis XVI]] (r. 1774–1793) [[France in the American Revolutionary War|supported America with money, fleets and armies]], helping them win [[American Revolutionary War|independence from Great Britain]]. France gained revenge, but verged on bankruptcy—a factor that contributed to the Revolution. Some of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] occurred in French intellectual circles, and scientific breakthroughs, such as the [[Antoine Lavoisier|naming of oxygen]] (1778) and the first [[Montgolfier brothers|hot air balloon carrying passengers]] (1783), were achieved by French scientists. French explorers took part in the [[European and American voyages of scientific exploration|voyages of scientific exploration]] through maritime expeditions. Enlightenment philosophy, in which [[Rationalism|reason]] is advocated as the primary source of [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]], undermined the power of and support for the monarchy and was a factor in the Revolution.

===Revolutionary France (1789–1799)===
{{Main|French Revolution}}
[[File:Prise de la Bastille.jpg|thumb|alt=drawing of the Storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, smoke of gunfire enveloping stone castle|The [[Storming of the Bastille]] on 14 July 1789 was the most emblematic event of the [[French Revolution]].]]
The French Revolution was a period of political and societal change that began with the [[Estates General of 1789]], and ended with the [[coup of 18 Brumaire]] in 1799 and the formation of the [[French Consulate]]. Many of its ideas are fundamental principles of [[liberal democracy]],<ref>* {{Cite book |last=Livesey |first=James |title=Making Democracy in the French Revolution |date=2001 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-6740-0624-9|page=19}}</ref> while its values and institutions remain central to modern political discourse.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fehér |first=Ferenc |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchrevolution0000unse_a4w7 |title=The French Revolution and the Birth of Modernity |date=1990 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-5200-7120-9 |edition=1992|pages=117–130}}</ref>

[[Causes of the French Revolution|Its causes]] were a combination of social, political and economic factors, which the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'' proved unable to manage. A financial crisis and social distress led in May 1789 to the [[convocation]] of the [[Estates General of 1789|Estates General]], which was converted into a [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] in June. The [[Storming of the Bastille]] on 14 July led to a series of radical measures by the Assembly, among them the [[Abolition of feudalism in France|abolition of feudalism]], state control over the [[Catholic Church in France]], and a [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen|declaration of rights]].

The next three years were dominated by struggle for political control, exacerbated by [[economic depression]]. Military defeats following the outbreak of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] in April 1792 resulted in the [[insurrection of 10 August 1792]]. The [[Proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy|monarchy was abolished]] and replaced by the [[French First Republic]] in September, while [[execution of Louis XVI|Louis XVI was executed]] in January 1793.

After another [[Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793|revolt in June 1793]], the constitution was suspended and power passed from the [[National Convention]] to the [[Committee of Public Safety]]. About 16,000 people were executed in a [[Reign of Terror]], which [[Thermidorian Reaction|ended in July 1794]]. Weakened by external threats and internal opposition, the Republic was replaced in 1795 by the [[French Directory|Directory]]. Four years later in 1799, the [[French Consulate|Consulate]] seized power in a [[Coup of 18 Brumaire|coup]] led by [[Napoleon]].

===Napoleon and 19th century (1799–1914)===
{{Main|France in the long nineteenth century}}
[[File:Jacques-Louis David - The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=painting of Napoleon in 1806 standing with hand in vest attended by staff and Imperial guard regiment|[[Napoleon]], [[Emperor of the French]], built a [[First French Empire|vast empire across Europe]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Frank W. |last=Thackeray |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0ktX_xI1fYC&pg=PA6 |title=Events that Changed the World in the Nineteenth Century |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-313-29076-3 |page=6 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |access-date=1 June 2017 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175816/https://books.google.com/books?id=W0ktX_xI1fYC&pg=PA6 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Napoleon became [[French Consulate|First Consul]] in 1799 and later [[Constitution of the Year XII|Emperor]] of the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] (1804–1814; 1815). Changing sets of [[French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars|European coalitions]] declared [[Napoleonic Wars|wars on Napoleon's empire]]. His armies conquered most of continental Europe with swift victories such as the [[Battle of Jena–Auerstedt|battles of Jena-Auerstadt]] and [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]]. Members of the [[House of Bonaparte|Bonaparte]] family were appointed monarchs in some of the newly established kingdoms.<ref name="Blanning">{{Cite news |last=Blanning |first=Tim |author-link=T. C. W. Blanning|date=April 1998 |title=Napoleon and German identity |volume=48 |work=[[History Today]] |location=London}}</ref>

These victories led to the worldwide expansion of French revolutionary ideals and reforms, such as the [[metric system]], [[Napoleonic Code]] and Declaration of the Rights of Man. In 1812 Napoleon [[French invasion of Russia|attacked Russia]], reaching Moscow. Thereafter his army disintegrated through supply problems, disease, Russian attacks, and finally winter. After this catastrophic campaign and the ensuing [[War of the Sixth Coalition|uprising of European monarchies]] against his rule, Napoleon was defeated. About a million Frenchmen [[Napoleonic Wars casualties|died during the Napoleonic Wars]].<ref name="Blanning"/> After his [[Hundred Days|brief return]] from exile, Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 at the [[Battle of Waterloo]], and the [[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon monarchy was restored]] with new constitutional limitations.

The discredited Bourbon dynasty was overthrown by the [[July Revolution]] of 1830, which established the constitutional [[July Monarchy]]; French troops began the [[French conquest of Algeria|conquest of Algeria]]. Unrest led to the [[French Revolution of 1848]] and the end of the July Monarchy. The abolition of slavery and introduction of male universal suffrage was re-enacted in 1848. In 1852, president of the French Republic, [[Napoleon III|Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte]], Napoleon I's nephew, was proclaimed emperor of the [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]], as Napoleon III. He multiplied French interventions abroad, especially in [[Crimean War|Crimea]], [[Second French intervention in Mexico|Mexico]] and [[Second Italian War of Independence|Italy]]. Napoleon III was unseated following defeat in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870, and his regime replaced by the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]]. By 1875, the French conquest of Algeria was complete, with approximately 825,000 Algerians killed from famine, disease, and violence.<ref name="Kiernan2007">{{Cite book |first=Ben |last=Kiernan |url=https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326 |title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-300-10098-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/374 374] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

[[File:France colonial Empire10.png|thumb|upright=1.6|The first (light blue) and second (dark blue) [[French colonial empire]]]]

France had [[French colonial empire|colonial possessions]] since the beginning of the 17th century, but in the 19th and 20th centuries its [[List of largest empires|empire]] extended greatly and became the second-largest behind the [[British Empire]].<ref name=":8"/> Including metropolitan France, the total area reached almost 13 million square kilometres in the 1920s and 1930s, 9% of the world's land. Known as the ''[[Belle Époque]]'', the turn of the century was characterised by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity and technological, scientific and cultural innovations. In 1905, [[Secular state|state secularism]] was [[1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State|officially established]].

===Early to mid-20th century (1914–1946)===
{{Main|History of France (1900–present)}}
[[File:El 114 de infantería, en París, el 14 de julio de 1917, León Gimpel.jpg|thumb|French [[Poilu]]s posing with their war-torn flag in 1917, during World War I]]
France was [[French entry into World War I|invaded by Germany and defended by Great Britain]] at the start of World War I in August 1914. A rich industrial area in the north was occupied. France and the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] emerged victorious against the [[Central Powers]] at tremendous human cost. It left 1.4 million French soldiers dead, 4% of its population.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 January 2008 |title=France's oldest WWI veteran dies |publisher=BBC News |location=London |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7199127.stm |access-date=13 June 2009 |archive-date=28 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028021340/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7199127.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts (2005). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&pg=PR25 Encyclopedia Of World War I: A Political, Social, And Military History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175903/https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&pg=PR25 |date=18 May 2024 }}''. ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|978-1-85109-420-2}}</ref> Interwar was marked by [[Events preceding World War II in Europe|intense international tensions]] and social reforms introduced by the [[Popular Front (France)|Popular Front government]] (e.g., [[annual leave]], [[Eight-hour day|eight-hour workdays]], [[women in government]]).

In 1940, France was [[Battle of France|invaded and quickly defeated]] by [[Nazi Germany]]. France was divided into a [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|German occupation zone]] in the north, an [[Italian occupation of France|Italian occupation zone]] and an unoccupied territory, the rest of France, which consisted of the southern France and the French empire. The [[Vichy France|Vichy government]], an authoritarian regime collaborating with Germany, ruled the unoccupied territory. [[Free France]], the government-in-exile led by [[Charles de Gaulle]], was set up in London.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crémieux-Brilhac |first=Jean-Louis |title=La France libre |publisher=Gallimard |year=1996 |isbn=2-07-073032-8 |location=Paris |language=fr}}</ref>

From 1942 to 1944, about 160,000 French citizens, including around [[The Holocaust in France|75,000 Jews]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies |url=http://www.holocaust-education.dk/holocaust/deportationer.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416061232/http://www.holocaust-education.dk/holocaust/deportationer.asp |archive-date=16 April 2014 }}; {{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/genocide/jewish_deportation_01.shtml|title=BBC – History – World Wars: The Vichy Policy on Jewish Deportation|publisher=BBC|access-date=18 May 2024|archive-date=21 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240121015257/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/genocide/jewish_deportation_01.shtml|url-status=live}}; France, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, {{Cite web|url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005429|title=France|access-date=16 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206075910/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005429|archive-date=6 December 2014}}</ref> were deported to [[Extermination camp|death]] and [[Internment|concentration camps]].<ref>Noir sur Blanc: Les premières photos du camp de concentration de Buchenwald après la libération,{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.ain.fr/upload/docs/application/pdf/2011-05/dp_expo_schwartz_auf_weiss_nantua_2011bd.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109055804/http://www.ain.fr/upload/docs/application/pdf/2011-05/dp_expo_schwartz_auf_weiss_nantua_2011bd.pdf |archive-date=9 November 2014 |access-date=14 October 2014}} (French)</ref> On 6 June 1944, the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] [[Operation Overlord|invaded Normandy]], and in August they [[Operation Dragoon|invaded Provence]]. The Allies and [[French Resistance]] emerged victorious, and French sovereignty was restored with the [[Provisional Government of the French Republic]] (GPRF). This interim government, established by de Gaulle, continued to [[Western Allied invasion of Germany|wage war against Germany]] and to [[Épuration légale|purge collaborators from office]]. It made important reforms e.g. suffrage extended to women and the creation of a [[Social security in France|social security]] system.

===1946–present===
[[File:De Gaulle-OWI.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|alt=Charles de Gaulle seated in uniform looking left with folded arms|[[Charles de Gaulle]], a hero of World War I, leader of the [[Free French Forces|Free French]] during [[World War II]], and [[President of France]]]]
A new constitution resulted in the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] (1946–1958), which saw strong economic growth (''les [[Trente Glorieuses]]''). France was a founding member of [[NATO]] and attempted to [[First Indochina War|regain control of French Indochina]], but was defeated by the [[Viet Minh]] in 1954. France faced another [[anti-colonialist]] [[Algerian War|conflict in Algeria]], then part of France and home to over one million European settlers ([[Pied-Noir]]). The French systematically used torture and repression, including extrajudicial killings to keep control.<ref name="Macqueen2014">{{Cite book |first=Norrie |last=Macqueen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g1YSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 |title=Colonialism |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-86480-6 |page=131 |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518181347/https://books.google.com/books?id=g1YSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA131#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}; {{Cite news|title=In France, a War of Memories Over Memories of War|first=Michael|last=Kimmelman|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/05/arts/design/05abroad.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=4 March 2009|access-date=18 May 2024|archive-date=23 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523090303/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/05/arts/design/05abroad.html|url-status=live}}</ref> This conflict nearly led to a coup and civil war.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Crozier |first1=Brian |last2=Mansell, Gerard |date=July 1960 |title=France and Algeria |journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]] |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=310–321 |doi=10.2307/2610008 |jstor=2610008|s2cid=153591784 }}</ref>

During the [[May 1958 crisis in France|May 1958 crisis]], the weak Fourth Republic gave way to the [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republic]], which included a strengthened presidency.<ref>{{Cite web |title=From Fourth to Fifth Republic |url=http://seacoast.sunderland.ac.uk/~os0tmc/contem/fifth.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080523234726/http://seacoast.sunderland.ac.uk/~os0tmc/contem/fifth.htm |archive-date=23 May 2008 |publisher=[[University of Sunderland]]}}</ref> The war concluded with the [[Évian Accords]] in 1962 which led to [[1962 Algerian independence referendum|Algerian independence]], at a high price: between half a million and one million deaths and over 2 million internally-displaced Algerians.<ref name="Springer">{{Cite book |title=A New Paradigm of the African State: Fundi wa Afrika |date=2009 |publisher=Springer |page=75}}; {{Cite book|author=David P Forsythe|title=Encyclopedia of Human Rights|year=2009|publisher=OUP US|isbn=978-0-19-533402-9|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1QbX90fmCVUC&pg=PA37 37]}}; {{Cite book|author=Elizabeth Schmidt|title=Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VCMgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-31065-0|page=46|access-date=18 May 2024|archive-date=18 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518181228/https://books.google.com/books?id=VCMgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Around one million Pied-Noirs and [[Harki]]s fled from Algeria to France.<ref name="google4">{{Cite book |last1=Cutts, M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54Oe1WTfBfAC&pg=PA38 |title=The State of the World's Refugees, 2000: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action |last2=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199241040 |page=38 |access-date=2017-01-13}} Referring to Evans, Martin. 2012. ''Algeria: France's Undeclared War''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> A vestige of empire is the [[Overseas France|French overseas departments and territories]].

During the [[Cold War]], de Gaulle pursued a policy of "national independence" towards the [[Western Bloc|Western]] and [[Eastern Bloc|Eastern blocs]]. He withdrew from NATO's military-integrated command (while remaining within the alliance), launched a [[Force de dissuasion|nuclear development programme]] and made France the [[France and weapons of mass destruction|fourth nuclear power]]. He [[Élysée Treaty|restored]] cordial [[France–Germany relations|Franco-German relations]] to create a European counterweight between American and Soviet spheres of influence. However, he opposed any development of a [[Supranational union|supranational Europe]], favouring [[Sovereign state|sovereign nations]]. The revolt of [[May 68|May 1968]] had an enormous social impact; it was a watershed moment when a conservative moral ideal (religion, patriotism, respect for authority) shifted to a more liberal moral ideal (secularism, individualism, sexual revolution). Although the revolt was a political failure (the [[Gaullism|Gaullist]] party emerged stronger than before) it announced a split between the French and de Gaulle, who resigned.<ref>Julian Bourg, ''From revolution to ethics: May 1968 and contemporary French thought'' (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2017).</ref>

In the post-Gaullist era, France remained one of the most developed [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|economies in the world]] but faced crises that resulted in high unemployment rates and increasing public debt. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, France has been at the forefront of the development of a supranational [[European Union]], notably by signing the [[Maastricht Treaty]] in 1992, establishing the [[eurozone]] in 1999 and signing the [[Treaty of Lisbon]] in 2007.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Declaration by the Franco-German Defense and Security Council |url=http://www.elysee.fr/elysee/anglais/speeches_and_documents/2004/declaration_by_the_franco-german_defence_and_security_council.1096.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051025215249/http://www.elysee.fr/elysee/anglais/speeches_and_documents/2004/declaration_by_the_franco-german_defence_and_security_council.1096.html |archive-date=25 October 2005 |access-date=21 July 2011 |publisher=Elysee.fr}}</ref> France has fully reintegrated into NATO and since participated in most NATO-sponsored wars.<ref>{{Cite web |title=France and NATO |url=http://www.rpfrance-otan.org/France-and-NATO |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509044211/http://www.rpfrance-otan.org/France-and-NATO |archive-date=9 May 2014 |website=La France à l'Otan}}</ref> Since the 19th century, France has [[Immigration to France|received many immigrants]], often male [[foreign worker]]s from European Catholic countries who generally returned home when not employed.<ref name="Marie-Christine Weidmann-Koop">Marie-Christine Weidmann-Koop, Rosalie Vermette, "France at the dawn of the twenty-first century, trends and transformations", [https://books.google.com/books?id=cVa46Q7oMlcC&pg=PA160 p. 160]</ref> During the 1970s France faced an economic crisis and allowed new immigrants (mostly from the [[Maghreb]], in northwest Africa)<ref name="Marie-Christine Weidmann-Koop"/> to permanently [[Family reunification|settle in France with their families]] and acquire citizenship. It resulted in hundreds of thousands of Muslims living in subsidised public housing and suffering from high unemployment rates.<ref>Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Michael J. Balz, "The October Riots in France: A Failed Immigration Policy or the Empire Strikes Back?" ''International Migration'' (2006) 44#2 pp. 23–34.</ref> The government had a policy of [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]] of immigrants, where they were expected to adhere to French values and norms.<ref>{{Cite web |title=French Government Revives Assimilation Policy |first=Sylvia|last= Zappi|publisher=Migration Policy Institute|url=http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/french-government-revives-assimilation-policy |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150130222428/http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/french-government-revives-assimilation-policy |archive-date=30 January 2015 |access-date=30 January 2015}}</ref>

Since the [[1995 France bombings|1995 public transport bombings]], France has been targeted by Islamist organisations, notably the [[January 2015 Île-de-France attacks|''Charlie Hebdo'' attack]] in 2015 which provoked the [[Republican marches|largest public rallies]] in French history, gathering 4.4 million people,<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Hinnant |first1=Lori |last2=Adamson |first2=Thomas |date=11 January 2015 |title=Officials: Paris Unity Rally Largest in French History |agency=Associated Press |url=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/E/EU_FRANCE_ATTACKS_RALLY?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2015-01-11-12-51-46 |url-status=dead |access-date=11 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111213526/http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/E/EU_FRANCE_ATTACKS_RALLY?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2015-01-11-12-51-46 |archive-date=11 January 2015 }}; {{Cite news|title=Paris attacks: Millions rally for unity in France|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30765824|access-date=12 January 2015|publisher=BBC News|date=12 January 2015|archive-date=18 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118000629/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30765824|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[November 2015 Paris attacks]] which resulted in 130 deaths, the deadliest attack on French soil since World War II<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 November 2015 |title=Parisians throw open doors in wake of attacks, but Muslims fear repercussions |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/14/paris-attacks-people-throw-open-doors-to-help |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=19 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119045510/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/14/paris-attacks-people-throw-open-doors-to-help |url-status=live }}; {{Cite news|url=http://www.independent.ie/world-news/europe/paris-terror-attacks/paris-terror-attacks-yes-parisians-are-traumatised-but-the-spirit-of-resistance-still-lingers-34201891.html|title=Yes, Parisians are traumatised, but the spirit of resistance still lingers|first=Nafeesa|last=Syeed|newspaper=The Irish Independent|date=15 November 2015|access-date=19 November 2015|archive-date=20 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120093545/http://www.independent.ie/world-news/europe/paris-terror-attacks/paris-terror-attacks-yes-parisians-are-traumatised-but-the-spirit-of-resistance-still-lingers-34201891.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and the deadliest in the European Union since the [[2004 Madrid train bombings|Madrid train bombings in 2004]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 November 2015 |title=Europe's open-border policy may become latest victim of terrorism |newspaper=The Irish Times |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/europe-s-open-border-policy-may-become-latest-victim-of-terrorism-1.2435486 |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322235013/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/europe-s-open-border-policy-may-become-latest-victim-of-terrorism-1.2435486 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Opération Chammal]], France's military efforts to contain [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIS]], killed over 1,000 ISIS troops between 2014 and 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 December 2015 |title=French policies provoke terrorist attacks |url=http://thematadorsghs.us/index.php/2015/12/14/french-policies-provoke-terrorist-attacks |website=The Matador |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922230329/http://thematadorsghs.us/index.php/2015/12/14/french-policies-provoke-terrorist-attacks/ |url-status=live }}; {{Cite book |editor-first=Gabriel |editor-last=Goodliffe |editor-first2=Riccardo |editor-last2=Brizzi |title=France After 2012 |publisher=Berghahn Books |date=2015}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of France}}

===Location and borders===
[[File:Chamonix valley from la Flégère,2010 07.JPG|thumb|[[Chamonix]] valley with the [[Mont Blanc]] at background, the highest mountain in the [[Alps]] and [[Western Europe]] on the border with [[Italy]]]]
The vast majority of France's territory and population is situated in Western Europe and is called [[Metropolitan France]]. It is bordered by the [[North Sea]] in the north, the [[English Channel]] in the northwest, the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the southeast. Its land borders consist of [[Belgium]] and [[Luxembourg]] in the northeast, [[Germany]] and [[Switzerland]] in the east, [[Italy]] and [[Monaco]] in the southeast, and [[Andorra]] and [[Spain]] in the south and southwest. Except for the northeast, most of France's land borders are roughly delineated by natural boundaries and geographic features: to the south and southeast, the Pyrenees and the Alps and the Jura, respectively, and to the east, the Rhine river. Metropolitan France includes various coastal islands, of which the largest is [[Corsica]]. Metropolitan France is situated mostly between latitudes [[41st parallel north|41°]] and [[51st parallel north|51° N]], and longitudes [[6th meridian west|6° W]] and [[10th meridian east|10° E]], on the western edge of Europe, and thus lies within the northern [[temperateness|temperate]] zone. Its continental part covers about 1000 km from north to south and from east to west.

Metropolitan France covers {{Convert|551500|km2|sqmi|0}},<ref name=France/> the largest among [[European Union]] members.<ref name="superficy">{{Cite web |title=Europa Official Site – France |url=http://europa.eu/about-eu/countries/member-countries/france/index_en.htm |access-date=28 October 2014 |publisher=EU |archive-date=22 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022022133/http://europa.eu/about-eu/countries/member-countries/france/index_en.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> France's total land area, with its overseas departments and territories (excluding [[Adélie Land]]), is {{Convert|643801|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, 0.45% of the total land area on Earth. France possesses a wide variety of landscapes, from coastal plains in the north and west to mountain ranges of the [[Alps]] in the southeast, the [[Massif Central]] in the south-central and [[Pyrenees]] in the southwest.

Due to its numerous [[Overseas departments and territories of France|overseas departments and territories]] scattered across the planet, France possesses the second-largest [[exclusive economic zone]] (EEZ) in the world, covering {{Convert|11035000|km2|sqmi|-3|abbr=on}}. Its EEZ covers approximately 8% of the total surface of all the EEZs of the world.

===Geology, topography and hydrography===
[[File:2013.07.05 roussillon - roque anthéron 172.JPG|thumb|Geological formations near [[Roussillon, Vaucluse]]]]
Metropolitan France has a wide variety of topographical sets and natural landscapes. During the [[Hercynian uplift]] in the [[Paleozoic Era]], the [[Armorican Massif]], the [[Massif Central]], the [[Morvan]], the [[Vosges]] and [[Ardennes]] ranges and the island of [[Corsica]] were formed. These massifs delineate several sedimentary basins such as the [[Aquitaine Basin]] in the southwest and the [[Paris Basin]] in the north. Various routes of natural passage, such as the [[Rhône Valley]], allow easy communication. The Alpine, Pyrenean and Jura mountains are much younger and have less eroded forms. At {{Convert|4810.45|m|ft|0}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 November 2009 |title=Mont Blanc shrinks by {{Convert|45|cm|2|abbr=on}} in two years |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |url=https://www.smh.com.au/environment/mont-blanc-shrinks-by-45cm-in-two-years-20091106-i0kk.html |access-date=9 August 2010 |archive-date=14 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214082228/https://www.smh.com.au/environment/mont-blanc-shrinks-by-45cm-in-two-years-20091106-i0kk.html |url-status=live }}</ref> above sea level, [[Mont Blanc]], located in the Alps on the [[France–Italy border]], is the highest point in Western Europe. Although 60% of municipalities are classified as having seismic risks (though moderate).

The coastlines offer contrasting landscapes: mountain ranges along the [[French Riviera]], coastal cliffs such as the [[Côte d'Albâtre]], and wide sandy plains in the [[Languedoc]]. Corsica lies off the Mediterranean coast. France has an extensive river system consisting of the four major rivers [[Seine]], the [[Loire]], the [[Garonne]], the [[Rhône]] and their tributaries, whose combined catchment includes over 62% of the metropolitan territory. The Rhône divides the Massif Central from the Alps and flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the [[Camargue]]. The Garonne meets the [[Dordogne (river)|Dordogne]] just after Bordeaux, forming the [[Gironde estuary]], the largest estuary in Western Europe which after approximately {{Convert|100|km|mi|0}} empties into the Atlantic Ocean.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://medoc-tourisme.com/en/mondes/close-to-estuary/|title=Close to ESTUARY|access-date=18 May 2024|archive-date=9 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709190836/http://medoc-tourisme.com/en/mondes/close-to-estuary/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Other water courses drain towards the Meuse and Rhine along the northeastern borders. France has {{Cvt|11000000|km2}} of marine waters within three oceans under its jurisdiction, of which 97% are overseas.

===Environment===
{{See also|List of national parks of France|Regional natural parks of France|Climate change in France}}
France was one of the first countries to create an environment ministry, in 1971.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Protection of the Environment |url=http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/kid/pages_en/eco6.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425005903/http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/kid/pages_en/eco6.htm |archive-date=25 April 2011}}</ref> France is ranked [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions|19th by carbon dioxide emissions]] due to the country's heavy investment in [[Nuclear power in France|nuclear power]] following the [[1973 oil crisis]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 2011 |title=Nuclear Power in France |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf40.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719055222/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf40.html |archive-date=19 July 2011 |access-date=17 July 2011 |website=World Nuclear Association}}</ref> which now accounts for 75 per cent of its electricity production<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Energy profile of France |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Earth |publisher=Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment |location=Washington, D.C. |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Energy_profile_of_France |access-date=17 July 2011 |date=10 September 2010 |others=Topic editor: Langdon D. Clough |orig-date=First published: 23 April 2010 |editor-first=Cutler J. |editor-last=Cleveland |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429235144/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Energy_profile_of_France |archive-date=29 April 2011 |author=Eia}}</ref> and results in less pollution.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Morgane |last=Remy |date=18 June 2010 |title=CO2 : la France moins pollueuse grâce au nucléaire |trans-title=CO2: France less polluting thanks to nuclear |url=http://www.usinenouvelle.com/article/co2-la-france-moins-pollueuse-grace-au-nucleaire.N133933 |url-status=live |journal=L'Usine Nouvelle |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621042424/http://www.usinenouvelle.com/article/co2-la-france-moins-pollueuse-grace-au-nucleaire.N133933 |archive-date=21 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=7 January 2008 |title=L'énergie nucléaire en France |trans-title=Nuclear energy in France |url=http://www.ambafrance-cn.org/L-energie-nucleaire-en-France.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701211529/http://www.ambafrance-cn.org/L-energie-nucleaire-en-France.html |archive-date=1 July 2010 |website=La France en Chine |language=fr}}</ref> According to the 2020 [[Environmental Performance Index]] conducted by [[Yale]] and [[Columbia University|Columbia]], France was the fifth most environmentally conscious country in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2018 EPI Results {{!}} Environmental Performance Index |url=https://epi.envirocenter.yale.edu/epi-topline |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723205354/https://epi.envirocenter.yale.edu/epi-topline |archive-date=23 July 2019 |access-date=20 August 2019 |website=epi.envirocenter.yale.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hsu |first=A. |display-authors=etal |year=2016 |title=2016 Environmental Performance Index |url=http://epi.yale.edu/sites/default/files/2016EPI_Full_Report_opt.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004102150/http://epi.yale.edu/sites/default/files/2016EPI_Full_Report_opt.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2017 |access-date=14 December 2017 |publisher=Yale University |location=New Haven, CT}}</ref>

Like all European Union state members, France agreed to cut [[carbon emissions]] by at least 20% of 1990 levels by 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |first1=Ian |last1=Traynor |first2=David |last2=Gow |date=21 February 2007 |title=EU promises 20% reduction in carbon emissions by 2020 |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/feb/21/climatechange.climatechangeenvironment |access-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> {{As of|2009}}, French carbon dioxide emissions per capita were lower than that of China.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kanter |first=James |date=1 July 2010 |title=Per-Capita Emissions Rising in China |work=The New York Times |url=https://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/07/01/emissions-soar-in-china-and-india/ |access-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> The country was set to impose a [[carbon tax]] in 2009;<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 September 2009 |title=France Sets Carbon Tax at 17 Euros a Ton |work=The New York Times |agency=Reuters |location=France |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/11/business/global/11carbon.html |access-date=21 July 2011 |archive-date=5 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005052515/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/11/business/global/11carbon.html |url-status=live }}</ref> however, the plan was abandoned due to fears of burdening French businesses.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Saltmarsh |first=Matthew |date=23 March 2010 |title=France Abandons Plan for Carbon Tax |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/24/business/global/24iht-carbon.html |access-date=21 July 2011 |archive-date=30 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430005617/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/24/business/global/24iht-carbon.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Roselière de Pauillac et carrelets sur l'estuaire de la Gironde, France.jpg|thumb|The [[Gironde estuary]] is classified as a [[Gironde estuary and Pertuis sea Marine Nature Park|marine nature park]] and is part of the [[Natura 2000]] network. The left bank is part of the [[Médoc]] [[Regional nature parks of France|regional nature park]]. With a surface area of 635 km2 (245 sq mi), it is the largest estuary in Europe.]]
Forests account for 31 per cent of France's land area—the fourth-highest proportion in Europe—representing an increase of 7 per cent since 1990.<ref>{{Cite news |date=18 July 2019 |title=Why France's forests are getting bigger |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2019/07/18/why-frances-forests-are-getting-bigger |access-date=20 August 2019 |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=21 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821003124/https://www.economist.com/europe/2019/07/18/why-frances-forests-are-getting-bigger |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Countries Compared by Environment > Forest area > % of land area |url=http://www.nationmaster.com/country-info/stats/Environment/Forest-area/%25-of-land-area#2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108120450/http://www.nationmaster.com/country-info/stats/Environment/Forest-area/%25-of-land-area#2005 |archive-date=8 January 2018 |access-date=7 January 2018 |website=Nationmaster.com |publisher=International Statistics}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Evolution of the French forest from 1984 to 1996 |url=http://www.ifn.fr/spip/?rubrique83&lang=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513083104/http://www.ifn.fr/spip/?rubrique83&lang=en |archive-date=13 May 2011 |publisher=Inventaire Forestier National [National Forest Inventory]}}</ref> French forests are some of the most diverse in Europe, comprising more than 140 species of trees.<ref>{{Cite web |title=La forêt en France et dans le monde |trans-title=The forest in France and in the world |url=http://www.lepapier.fr/foret_france.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727011505/http://www.lepapier.fr/foret_france.htm |archive-date=27 July 2010 |website=lepapier.fr |language=fr}}</ref> France had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 4.52/10, ranking it 123rd globally.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{Cite journal |last1=Grantham |first1=H. S. |last2=Duncan |first2=A. |last3=Evans |first3=T. D. |last4=Jones |first4=K. R. |last5=Beyer |first5=H. L. |last6=Schuster |first6=R. |last7=Walston |first7=J. |last8=Ray |first8=J. C. |last9=Robinson |first9=J. G. |last10=Callow |first10=M. |last11=Clements |first11=T. |last12=Costa |first12=H. M. |last13=DeGemmis |first13=A. |last14=Elsen |first14=P. R. |last15=Ervin |first15=J. |year=2020 |title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=5978 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=7723057 |pmid=33293507 |last16=Franco |first16=P. |last17=Goldman |first17=E. |last18=Goetz |first18=S. |last19=Hansen |first19=A. |last20=Hofsvang |first20=E. |last21=Jantz |first21=P. |last22=Jupiter |first22=S. |last23=Kang |first23=A. |last24=Langhammer |first24=P. |last25=Laurance |first25=W. F. |last26=Lieberman |first26=S. |last27=Linkie |first27=M. |last28=Malhi |first28=Y. |last29=Maxwell |first29=S. |last30=Mendez |first30=M. |last31=Mittermeier |first31=R. |last32=Murray |first32=N. J. |last33=Possingham |first33=H. |last34=Radachowsky |first34=J. |last35=Saatchi |first35=S. |last36=Samper |first36=C. |last37=Silverman |first37=J. |last38=Shapiro |first38=A. |last39=Strassburg |first39=B. |last40=Stevens |first40=T. |last41=Stokes |first41=E. |last42=Taylor |first42=R. |last43=Tear |first43=T. |last44=Tizard |first44=R. |last45=Venter |first45=O. |last46=Visconti |first46=P. |last47=Wang |first47=S. |last48=Watson |first48=J. E. M.|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G }}</ref> There are nine [[national park]]s<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parks and other protected areas in France |url=http://www.parks.it/world/FR/Eindex.html |website=Parks.it |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=23 August 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040823215154/http://www.parks.it/world/FR/Eindex.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and 46 [[Protected area|natural parks]] in France.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fédération des parcs naturels régionaux de France |trans-title=Federation of Regional Natural Parks of France |url=http://www.parcs-naturels-regionaux.tm.fr/fr/accueil/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712003310/http://www.parcs-naturels-regionaux.tm.fr/fr/accueil/ |archive-date=12 July 2010 |language=fr}}</ref> A regional nature park<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 July 2013 |title=The regional nature Parks of France |url=http://www.parcs-naturels-regionaux.tm.fr/en/parc.UK2.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722030433/http://www.parcs-naturels-regionaux.tm.fr/en/parc.UK2.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2013 |access-date=22 June 2014 |publisher=Fédération des Parcs naturels régionaux de France [Federation of the regional nature Parks of France]}}</ref> ({{Langx|fr|parc naturel régional|links=no}} or PNR) is a public establishment in France between local authorities and the [[Government of France|national government]] covering an inhabited rural area of outstanding beauty, to protect the scenery and heritage as well as setting up sustainable economic development in the area.<ref>{{Cite book |first=William M. |last=Lafferty |title=Sustainable communities in Europe |publisher=Earthscan |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-85383-791-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VHP96jPKl-0C&pg=PA181 181]}}</ref><ref name="FGTO">{{Cite web |year=2008 |title=Regional Natural Parks |url=http://uk.franceguide.com/Regional-natural-parks.html?NodeID=1&EditoID=205227 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405192042/http://uk.franceguide.com/Regional-natural-parks.html?NodeID=1&EditoID=205227 |archive-date=5 April 2012 |access-date=27 October 2011 |website=France Guide |publisher=Maison de la France}}</ref> {{As of|2019}} there are 54 PNRs in France.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Découvrir les 54 Parcs |url=https://www.parcs-naturels-regionaux.fr/les-parcs-naturels-regionaux-de-france/decouvrir-les-54-parcs |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819171349/https://www.parcs-naturels-regionaux.fr/les-parcs-naturels-regionaux-de-france/decouvrir-les-54-parcs |archive-date=19 August 2019 |access-date=16 October 2019 |website=Fédération des Parcs naturels régionaux de France}}</ref>

==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of France}}
France is a [[representative democracy]] organised as a unitary [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential republic]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitutional Limits on Government: Country Studies – France |url=http://www.democracyweb.org/limits/france.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130828081904/http://democracyweb.org/limits/france.php |archive-date=28 August 2013 |access-date=30 September 2013 |website=Democracy Web: Comparative studies in Freedom}}</ref> Democratic traditions and values are deeply rooted in French culture, identity and politics.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=France {{!}} History, Map, Flag, Capital, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/France |access-date=27 August 2021 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |archive-date=14 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614044325/https://www.britannica.com/place/France |url-status=live }}</ref> The Constitution of the Fifth Republic was approved by [[1958 French constitutional referendum|referendum]] on 28 September 1958, establishing a framework consisting of executive, legislative and judicial branches.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Helen |last=Drake |title=Contemporary France |date=2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-333-79243-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7L8cBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA95 95] |doi=10.1007/978-0-230-36688-6}}</ref> It sought to address the instability of the Third and Fourth Republics by combining elements of both parliamentary and presidential systems, while greatly strengthening the authority of the executive relative to the legislature.<ref name=":1"/>

===Government===
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Emmanuel Macron 2023 (cropped).jpg
| width1 = 152
| caption1 = [[Emmanuel Macron]] [[President of France|President]] since 14 May 2017
| image2 = (Michel Barnier) EPP Summit Brussels, March 2019 (46712419984) (cropped).jpg
| width2 = 160
| caption2 = [[Michel Barnier]] [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] since 5 September 2024
}}

The executive branch has two leaders. The [[President of France|President of the Republic]], currently [[Emmanuel Macron]], is the [[head of state]], elected directly by universal adult suffrage for a five-year term.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Le quinquennat : le référendum du 24 Septembre 2000 |trans-title=The 5-year term: referendum of 24 September 2000 |url=http://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/dossiers/quinquennat/index.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100812105736/http://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/dossiers/quinquennat/index.shtml |archive-date=12 August 2010 |language=fr}}</ref> The [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]], currently [[Michel Barnier]], is the [[head of government]], appointed by the President to lead the [[Government of France|government]]. The President has the power to dissolve Parliament or circumvent it by submitting referendums directly to the people; the President also appoints judges and civil servants, negotiates and ratifies international agreements, as well as serves as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. The Prime Minister determines public policy and oversees the civil service, with an emphasis on domestic matters.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 March 2013 |title=The French National Assembly – Constitution of October 4, 1958 |url=http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/8ab.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313212736/http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/8ab.asp |archive-date=13 March 2013 |access-date=27 August 2021}}</ref> In the [[2022 French presidential election|2022 presidential election]], president Macron was re-elected.<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 April 2022 |title=What's in Emmanuel Macron's intray after his re-election as French president? |language=en |work=the Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/24/whats-in-emmanuel-macrons-intray-after-his-re-election-as-french-president |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=24 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424230933/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/24/whats-in-emmanuel-macrons-intray-after-his-re-election-as-french-president |url-status=live }}</ref> Two months later, in the [[2022 French legislative election|June 2022 legislative elections]], Macron lost his parliamentary majority and had to form a [[minority government]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 July 2022 |title=France learns parliamentary democracy the hard way |language=en |work=Politico |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/france-learns-parliamentary-democracy-the-hard-way/ |access-date=19 June 2023 |archive-date=19 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230619010727/https://www.politico.eu/article/france-learns-parliamentary-democracy-the-hard-way/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Façade Palais Bourbon 3.jpg|thumb|[[Palais Bourbon]], the meeting place of the [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]], the lower legislative chamber of the [[French Parliament]]]]
The legislature consists of the [[French Parliament]], a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] body made up of a [[lower house]], the [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]] (''Assemblée nationale'') and an [[upper house]], the [[Senate (France)|Senate]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The National Assembly and the Senate – General Characteristics of the Parliament |url=http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/synthetic_files/file_4.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205055025/http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/synthetic_files/file_4.asp |archive-date=5 December 2008 |website=Assemblée Nationale}}</ref> Legislators in the National Assembly, known as ''[[députés]]'', represent local constituencies and are directly elected for five-year terms.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Election of deputies |url=http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/election.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110704054719/http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/election.asp |archive-date=4 July 2011 |website=Assemblée Nationale}}</ref> The Assembly has the power to dismiss the government by majority vote. Senators are chosen by an electoral college for six-year terms, with half the seats submitted to election every three years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The senatorial elections |url=http://www.senat.fr/lng/en/election_senateurs.html |website=Sénate |access-date=30 July 2010 |archive-date=15 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615001205/http://www.senat.fr/lng/en/election_senateurs.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Senate's legislative powers are limited; in the event of disagreement between the two chambers, the National Assembly has the final say.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 August 2007 |title=Le role du Sénat |trans-title=What is the purpose of the Senate? |url=http://www.politique.net/2007081801-le-role-du-senat.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618060857/http://www.politique.net/2007081801-le-role-du-senat.htm |archive-date=18 June 2010 |language=fr}}</ref> The parliament is responsible for determining the rules and principles concerning most areas of law, political amnesty, and fiscal policy; however, the government may draft specific details concerning most laws.

From World War II until 2017, French politics was dominated by two politically opposed groupings: one left-wing, the [[French Section of the Workers' International]], which was succeeded by the [[Socialist Party (France)|Socialist Party]] (in 1969); and the other right-wing, the [[Gaullist Party]], whose name changed over time to the [[Rally of the French People]] (1947), the [[Union of Democrats for the Republic]] (1958), the [[Rally for the Republic]] (1976), the [[Union for a Popular Movement]] (2007) and [[The Republicans (France)|The Republicans]] (since 2015). In the 2017 presidential and legislative elections, the [[Radical centrism|radical centrist]] party [[La République En Marche!]] (LREM) became the dominant force, overtaking both Socialists and Republicans. LREM's opponent in the second round of the 2017 and 2022 presidential elections was the growing far-right party [[National Rally]] (RN). Since 2020, [[Europe Ecology – The Greens]] (EELV) have performed well in mayoral elections in major cities<ref>{{Cite web | author = Romain Brunet | website = France24 | title = After green wave in local elections, is France's left back on track? | date = 29 June 2020 | url = https://www.france24.com/en/20200629-after-green-wave-in-local-elections-is-france-s-left-back-on-track | language = en | access-date = 24 January 2023 | archive-date = 24 January 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230124184325/https://www.france24.com/en/20200629-after-green-wave-in-local-elections-is-france-s-left-back-on-track | url-status = live }}</ref> while on a national level, an alliance of Left parties (the [[NUPES]]) was the second-largest voting block elected to the lower house in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web | website = France 24 | title = Takeaways from the final round of France's parliamentary elections | url = https://www.france24.com/en/france/20220620-takeaways-from-the-second-round-of-france-s-parliamentary-elections | date = 20 June 2022 | language = en | access-date = 24 January 2023 | archive-date = 24 January 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230124184314/https://www.france24.com/en/france/20220620-takeaways-from-the-second-round-of-france-s-parliamentary-elections | url-status = live }}</ref> [[right-wing populism|Right-wing populist]] RN became the largest opposition party in the National Assembly in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web | website = Politico | title = The makeover of France's National Rally | url = https://www.politico.eu/article/marine-le-pen-for-frances-national-rally-the-past-still-looms/ | date = 16 October 2022 | language = en | access-date = 19 June 2023 | archive-date = 12 June 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230612180546/https://www.politico.eu/article/marine-le-pen-for-frances-national-rally-the-past-still-looms/ | url-status = live }}</ref>

The electorate is constitutionally empowered to vote on amendments passed by the Parliament and bills submitted by the president. Referendums have played a key role in shaping French politics and even foreign policy; voters have decided on such matters as Algeria's independence, the election of the president by popular vote, the formation of the EU, and the reduction of presidential term limits.<ref>{{Cite web |title=France – Parliamentary composition and functions |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/France |access-date=27 August 2021 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |archive-date=14 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614044325/https://www.britannica.com/place/France |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Administrative divisions===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of France}}
The French Republic is divided into 18 [[Regions of France|regions]] (located in Europe and overseas), five [[Overseas collectivities of France|overseas collectivities]], one [[Overseas territory (France)|overseas territory]], one special collectivity—[[New Caledonia]] and one uninhabited island directly under the authority of the Minister of Overseas France—[[Clipperton Island|Clipperton]].

====Regions====
{{Further|Departments of France}}

{{France Regions Labelled Map}}

Since 2016, France is divided into 18 administrative regions: 13 regions in [[metropolitan France]] (including [[Corsica]]),<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 December 2015 |title=La réforme territoriale |url=http://www.gouvernement.fr/action/la-reforme-territoriale |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151230075909/http://www.gouvernement.fr/action/la-reforme-territoriale |archive-date=30 December 2015 |access-date=1 January 2016 |publisher=Government of France |language=fr}}</ref> and five [[overseas region|overseas]].<ref name=France/> The regions are further subdivided into 101 [[Departments of France|departments]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Departments of France |url=http://www.myfrenchproperty.com/departments/departments.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714142645/http://www.myfrenchproperty.com/departments/departments.php |archive-date=14 July 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011 |publisher=Myfrenchproperty.com |language=fr}}</ref> which are numbered mainly alphabetically. The department number is used in postal codes and was formerly used on [[Vehicle registration plates of France|vehicle registration plates]]. Among the 101 French departments, five ([[French Guiana]], Guadeloupe, [[Martinique]], [[Mayotte]], and [[Réunion]]) are in overseas regions (ROMs) that are simultaneously overseas departments (DOMs), enjoying the same status as metropolitan departments and are thereby included in the European Union.

The 101 departments are subdivided into 335 [[Arrondissements of France|arrondissements]], which are, in turn, subdivided into 2,054 [[Cantons of France|cantons]].<ref name="constituencies">{{Cite web |title=Circonscriptions administratives au 1er janvier 2015 : comparaisons régionales |trans-title=Administrative constituencies of 1 January 2015: regional comparisons |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=99&ref_id=t_0203R |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140430033500/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=99&ref_id=t_0203R |archive-date=30 April 2014 |access-date=5 July 2015 |publisher=[[Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques|INSEE]] |language=fr}}</ref> These cantons are then divided into 36,658 [[Communes of France|communes]], which are municipalities with an elected municipal council.<ref name=constituencies/> Three communes—Paris, Lyon and Marseille—are subdivided into 45 [[Municipal arrondissements of France|municipal arrondissements]].

====Overseas territories and collectivities====
{{Main|Overseas France}}
{{Further|Overseas collectivity|Overseas territory (France)}}In addition to the 18 regions and 101 departments, the French Republic has five [[overseas collectivity|overseas collectivities]] ([[French Polynesia]], [[Saint Barthélemy]], [[Collectivity of Saint Martin|Saint Martin]], [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]], and [[Wallis and Futuna]]), one ''[[sui generis]]'' collectivity ([[New Caledonia]]), one [[overseas territory (France)|overseas territory]] ([[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]]), and one island possession in the Pacific Ocean ([[Clipperton Island]]). Overseas collectivities and territories form part of the French Republic, but do not form part of the European Union or its fiscal area (except for Saint Barthélemy, which seceded from Guadeloupe in 2007). The Pacific Collectivities (COMs) of French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna, and New Caledonia continue to use the [[CFP franc]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Currency and Exchange Rate |url=http://www.thetahititraveler.com/touristinfo/moneycurr.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717034857/http://www.thetahititraveler.com/touristinfo/moneycurr.asp |archive-date=17 July 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011 |publisher=Thetahititraveler.com}}</ref> whose value is strictly linked to that of the euro. In contrast, the five overseas regions used the French franc and now use the euro.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2085rank |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2085rank.html?countryName=France&countryCode=fr&regionCode=eu&rank=7#fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513121037/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2085rank.html?countryName=France&countryCode=fr&regionCode=eu&rank=7#fr |archive-date=13 May 2012 |access-date=29 July 2010 |website=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA}}</ref>

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of France}}
France is a founding member of the United Nations and serves as one of the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent members of the UN Security Council]] with veto rights.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 July 2010 |title=Membership of the Security Councils of the UN |url=https://www.un.org/sc/members.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706231352/http://www.un.org/sc/members.asp |archive-date=6 July 2010}}</ref> In 2015, it was described as "the best networked state in the world" due to its membership in more international institutions than any other country;<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Soft Power 30 |url=http://www.comres.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Report_Final-published.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120204008/http://www.comres.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Report_Final-published.pdf |archive-date=20 November 2015 |website=[[Monocle (media company)|Monocle]]}}</ref> these include the G7, [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Members and Observers |url=http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm |access-date=30 October 2010 |website=World Trade Organization |archive-date=29 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229021759/http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Pacific Community]] (SPC)<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 February 2010 |title=History |url=http://www.spc.int/en/about-spc/history.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100828105101/http://www.spc.int/en/about-spc/history.html |archive-date=28 August 2010 |website=Secretariate of the Pacific Community}}</ref> and the [[Indian Ocean Commission]] (COI).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Les pays membres de la COI |trans-title=IOC member countries |url=http://www.coi-ioc.org/index.php?id=36 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402173028/http://www.coi-ioc.org/index.php?id=36 |archive-date=2 April 2012 |website=Commission de l'Océan Indien {{!}} Indian Ocean Commission |language=fr}}</ref> It is an associate member of the [[Association of Caribbean States]] (ACS)<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 July 1994 |title=About the Association of Caribbean States |url=http://www.acs-aec.org/index.php?q=about-the-acs |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120822100530/http://www.acs-aec.org/index.php?q=about-the-acs |archive-date=22 August 2012 |access-date=22 June 2012 |publisher=Association of Caribbean States}}</ref> and a leading member of the {{Lang|fr|[[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]]|italic=no}} (OIF) of 84 French-speaking countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=84 États et gouvernements |trans-title=84 states and governments |url=http://www.francophonie.org/-Etats-et-gouvernements-.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091003114546/http://www.francophonie.org/-Etats-et-gouvernements-.html |archive-date=3 October 2009 |access-date=22 July 2010 |publisher=Organisation internationale de la Francophonie}}</ref>
[[File:La francophonie mapa.svg|thumb|alt=La Francophonie map (dozens of countries in Africa, Europe, Asia and Latin America are members of this international organisation.|88 states and governments are part of ''[[La Francophonie]]'',<ref>[https://www.francophonie.org/la-francophonie-en-bref-754 La Francophonie en bref] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028202250/https://www.francophonie.org/la-francophonie-en-bref-754 |date=28 October 2019 }}, ''[[La Francophonie]]'', retrieved on 26 January 2020</ref> which promotes values of [[democracy]], [[multilingualism]] and [[cultural diversity]].<ref>Anne Gazeau-Secret, [https://www.cairn.info/revue-geoeconomie-2010-4-page-39.htm Francophonie et diplomatie d'influence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230514003836/https://www.cairn.info/revue-geoeconomie-2010-4-page-39.htm |date=14 May 2023 }}, [[Cairn.info]], dans ''Géoéconomie'' 2010/4 (n° 55), pages 39 à 56</ref> France has been a key member of this global organisation since its inception in 1970.]]
[[File:Inauguration EYE2014 Parlement européen Strasbourg 9 mai 2014.jpg|thumb|alt=European Parliament opening in Strasbourg with crowd and many countries' flags on flagpoles|The [[European Parliament]] in [[Strasbourg]] (near the border with Germany). France is a founding member of all EU institutions.]]

As a significant hub for international relations, France has the [[List of diplomatic missions of France|third-largest assembly]] of [[diplomatic mission]]s, second only to China and the United States. It also hosts the headquarters of several [[international organization|international organisations]], including the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], [[UNESCO]], [[Interpol]], the [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]], and the OIF.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Embassies and consulates |url=http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/ministry_158/embassies-and-consulates_2052/bilateral-embassies_1580.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100908014607/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/ministry_158/embassies-and-consulates_2052/bilateral-embassies_1580.html |archive-date=8 September 2010 |website=France Diplomatie |publisher=The French Ministry of Foreign affairs}}</ref>

French foreign policy after World War II has been largely shaped by membership in the European Union, of which it was a [[Inner Six|founding member]]. Since the [[Élysée Treaty|1960s]], France has developed close ties with reunified Germany to become the [[France–Germany relations|most influential driving force of the EU]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pierre-Louis Germain |date=12 November 2009 |title=L'alliance Franco-allemande au coeur de la puissance européenne |trans-title=The Franco-German alliance at the heart of European power |url=http://www.oftt.eu/perspectives/article/l-alliance-franco-allemande-au-coeur-de-la-puissance-europeenne |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100123092331/http://www.oftt.eu/perspectives/article/l-alliance-franco-allemande-au-coeur-de-la-puissance-europeenne |archive-date=23 January 2010 |publisher=Institut Montaigne |language=fr}}</ref> Since 1904, France has maintained an "[[Entente cordiale]]" with the United Kingdom, and there has been a strengthening of links between the countries, especially [[Defence and Security Co-operation Treaty|militarily]].

France is a member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO), but under President de Gaulle excluded itself from the joint military command, in protest of the [[Special Relationship]] between the United States and Britain, and to preserve the independence of French foreign and security policies. Under [[Nicolas Sarkozy]], France rejoined the NATO joint military command on 4 April 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Isabelle |last=Lasserre |date=11 March 2009 |title=Quand Mitterrand, déjà, négociait le retour de la France dans l'Otan |trans-title=Mitterrand already negotiated the return of France to NATO |url=http://www.lefigaro.fr/international/2009/03/11/01003-20090311ARTFIG00073-quand-mitterrand-deja-negociait-le-retour-dans-l-otan-.php |website=Le Figaro |language=fr |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=2 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302135655/http://www.lefigaro.fr/international/2009/03/11/01003-20090311ARTFIG00073-quand-mitterrand-deja-negociait-le-retour-dans-l-otan-.php |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=12 March 2009 |title=France ends four-decade Nato rift |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7937666.stm |access-date=21 July 2011 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010194350/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7937666.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Roger |first=Patrick |date=11 March 2009 |title=Le retour de la France dans l'OTAN suscite un malaise dans les rangs de la Droite |language=fr |trans-title=The return of France to NATO causes discomfort in the ranks of the right |work=Le Monde |location=Paris |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2009/03/11/le-retour-de-la-france-dans-l-otan-suscite-un-malaise-dans-les-rangs-de-la-droite_1166352_823448.html |access-date=3 July 2010 |archive-date=26 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826010825/http://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2009/03/11/le-retour-de-la-france-dans-l-otan-suscite-un-malaise-dans-les-rangs-de-la-droite_1166352_823448.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

France retains strong political and economic influence in its [[Second French colonial empire|former African colonies]] (''[[Françafrique]]'')<ref>{{Cite web |title=L'empire colonial français |url=http://www.memo.fr/article.asp?ID=CON_COL_009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425142925/http://www.memo.fr/article.asp?ID=CON_COL_009 |archive-date=25 April 2011}}</ref> and has supplied economic aid and troops for peacekeeping missions in [[Ivory Coast]] and [[Chad]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=France involvement in peace-keeping operations |url=http://www.delegfrance-onu-geneve.org/spip.php?article417 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425024055/http://www.delegfrance-onu-geneve.org/spip.php?article417 |archive-date=25 April 2011 |access-date=9 August 2010 |publisher=Delegfrance-onu-geneve.org}}</ref> From 2012 to 2021, France and other African states intervened in support of the [[Mali]]an government in the [[Northern Mali conflict]].

In 2017, France was the world's fourth-largest donor of [[development aid]] in absolute terms, behind the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Official development assistance (ODA) – Net ODA – OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/oda/net-oda.htm |access-date=20 August 2019 |website=theOECD |archive-date=24 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324094137/https://data.oecd.org/oda/net-oda.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> This represents 0.43% of its [[GNP]], the 12th highest among the OECD.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aid to developing countries rebounds in 2013 to reach an all-time high |url=http://www.oecd.org/newsroom/aid-to-developing-countries-rebounds-in-2013-to-reach-an-all-time-high.htm |access-date=3 March 2016 |publisher=OECD |archive-date=23 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623000950/http://www.oecd.org/newsroom/aid-to-developing-countries-rebounds-in-2013-to-reach-an-all-time-high.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Aid is provided by the governmental [[French Development Agency]], which finances primarily humanitarian projects in [[sub-Saharan Africa]],<ref name="aid"/> with an emphasis on "developing infrastructure, access to health care and education, the implementation of appropriate economic policies and the consolidation of the rule of law and democracy".<ref name="aid">[http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france-priorities_1/index.html France priorities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100722114125/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france-priorities_1/index.html|date=22 July 2010}} – France Diplomatie</ref>

===Military===
{{Main|French Armed Forces}}
{{Multiple image
| direction = vertical
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Rafale_-_RIAT_2009_(3751416421).jpg
| caption1 = [[Dassault Rafale]] of the [[Armée de l'Air et de l'Espace]]
| image2 = French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle (R91) underway on 24 April 2019 (190424-M-BP588-1005).jpg
| caption2 = ''[[French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle|Charles de Gaulle]]'' aircraft carrier of the [[French Navy|Marine nationale]]
| image3 = Bastille_Day_2014_Paris_-_Motorised_troops_063.jpg
| caption3 = [[Leclerc tank|AMX Leclerc]] tank of the [[French Army|Armée de terre]]
}}
The French Armed Forces ({{Lang|fr|Forces armées françaises}}) are the military and paramilitary forces of France, under the [[President of France|President of the Republic]] as supreme commander. They consist of the [[French Army]] ({{Lang|fr|Armée de Terre}}), the [[French Navy]] (''Marine Nationale'', formerly called ''Armée de Mer''), the [[French Air and Space Force]] (''Armée de l'Air et de l'Espace''), and the [[National Gendarmerie]] (''Gendarmerie nationale''), which serves as both [[military police]] and civil police in rural areas. Together they are among the [[List of countries by number of troops|largest armed forces in the world]] and the largest in the EU. According to a 2015 study by [[Crédit Suisse]], the French Armed Forces ranked as the world's sixth-most powerful military, and the second most powerful in Europe.<ref name="CreditSuisse2015">{{Cite report |url=http://publications.credit-suisse.com/tasks/render/file/index.cfm?fileid=EE7A6A5D-D9D5-6204-E9E6BB426B47D054 |title=The End of Globalization or a more Multipolar World? |last1=O’Sullivan |first1=Michael |last2=Subramanian |first2=Krithika |date=17 October 2015 |publisher=[[Credit Suisse]] AG |access-date=14 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215235711/http://publications.credit-suisse.com/tasks/render/file/index.cfm?fileid=EE7A6A5D-D9D5-6204-E9E6BB426B47D054 |archive-date=15 February 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> France's annual military expenditure in 2022 was US$53.6 billion, or 1.9% [[List of countries by military expenditure share of GDP|of its GDP]], making it the [[List of countries by military expenditures|eighth biggest military spender in the world]].<ref>[https://www.sipri.org/publications/2019/sipri-fact-sheets/trends-world-military-expenditure-2018 Trends in World Military Expenditure] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308193539/https://www.sipri.org/publications/2019/sipri-fact-sheets/trends-world-military-expenditure-2018 |date=8 March 2020 }} SIPRI. Retrieved 18 December 2019.</ref> There has been no national [[conscription]] since 1997.<ref>{{In lang|fr}} [http://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/dossiers/service-civil/fin-service-militaire-obligatoire.shtml La fin du service militaire obligatoire] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100808230428/http://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/dossiers/service-civil/fin-service-militaire-obligatoire.shtml|date=8 August 2010}} – La documentation française</ref>

France has been a [[List of states with nuclear weapons#Five nuclear-weapon states under the NPT|recognised nuclear state]] since 1960. It is a party to both the [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]] (CTBT)<ref name="status">{{Cite web |date=26 May 2010 |title=Status of signature and ratification |url=http://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/status-of-signature-and-ratification/ |access-date=27 May 2010 |publisher=CTBTO Preparatory Commission |archive-date=25 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925211213/http://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/status-of-signature-and-ratification |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]]. The French nuclear force (formerly known as "''[[Force de Frappe]]''") consists of four [[Triomphant class submarine|''Triomphant'']] class submarines equipped with [[submarine-launched ballistic missile]]s. In addition to the submarine fleet, it is estimated that France has about 60 [[Air-Sol Moyenne Portée|''ASMP'']] medium-range [[Air-to-surface missile|air-to-ground missiles]] with [[Nuclear weapon|nuclear warheads]];<ref>{{In lang|fr}} Centre de Documentation et de Recherche sur la Paix et les Conflits, [http://obsarm.org/obsnuc/puissances-mondiales/france-forces.html ''Etat des forces nucléaires françaises au 15 août 2004''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725004911/http://obsarm.org/obsnuc/puissances-mondiales/france-forces.html|date=25 July 2011}}</ref> 50 are deployed by the Air and Space Force using the [[Dassault Mirage 2000N/2000D|Mirage 2000N]] long-range nuclear strike aircraft, while around 10 are deployed by the French Navy's [[Dassault-Breguet Super Étendard|''Super Étendard Modernisé'' (SEM)]] attack aircraft, which operate from the nuclear-powered [[aircraft carrier]] [[French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle (R91)|''Charles de Gaulle'']].

France has major military industries and one of the largest [[Aerospace manufacturer|aerospace sectors]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=90.07.06: The Aerospace Industry: Its History and How it Affects the U.S. Economy |url=http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1990/7/90.07.06.x.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920085434/http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1990/7/90.07.06.x.html |archive-date=20 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011 |publisher=Yale}}</ref> The country has produced such equipment as the Rafale fighter, the ''Charles de Gaulle'' aircraft carrier, the [[Exocet]] missile and the [[AMX-56 Leclerc|Leclerc]] tank among others. France is a major arms seller,<ref>{{Cite web |first=Thierry |last=Gadault |date=13 June 2002 |title=La France demeure un fournisseur d'armes de premier plan |trans-title=France stays one of the biggest arms supplier] |url=http://lexpansion.lexpress.fr/entreprise/la-france-demeure-un-fournisseur-d-armes-de-premier-plan_95084.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311161443/http://lexpansion.lexpress.fr/entreprise/la-france-demeure-un-fournisseur-d-armes-de-premier-plan_95084.html |archive-date=11 March 2012 |website=L'express |language=fr |quote=En 2001, la France a vendu pour 1,288 milliard de dollars d'équipements militaires, ce qui la met au troisième rang mondial des exportateurs derrière les États-Unis et la Russie. [In 2001, France sold $1,288 billion of military equipment, ranking 3rd in the world for arms exportations behind the USA and Russia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 February 2010 |title=Les ventes d'armes explosent en 2009 |trans-title=Sales of weapons explode in 2009 |url=https://www.20minutes.fr/economie/551139-20100208-economie-les-ventes-d-armes-explosent-en-2009 |access-date=6 January 2017 |website=20 minutes |language=fr |quote=La France est au 4ème rang mondial des exportateurs d'armes, derrière les Etats-Unis, le Royaume-Uni et la Russie, et devant Israël, selon un rapport du ministère de la Défense publié l'an dernier. [France is 4th biggest arms exporter, behind the United States, the United Kingdom and Russia, and ahead of Israel, according to a report of the Ministry of Defense published a year ago.] |archive-date=7 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207155317/http://www.20minutes.fr/economie/551139-20100208-economie-les-ventes-d-armes-explosent-en-2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> with most of its arsenal's designs available for the export market, except for nuclear-powered devices.

One French intelligence unit, the [[Directorate-General for External Security]] (''Direction générale de la sécurité extérieure''), is considered to be a component of the Armed Forces under the authority of the Ministry of Defense. The other, the [[General Directorate for Internal Security|Directorate-General for Internal Security]] (''Direction générale de la Sécurité intérieure'') operates under the authority of the Ministry of the Interior.<ref name="dgsi">{{Cite web |title=La Direction générale de la sécurité intérieure |trans-title=The Directorate General of Internal Security |url=https://www.interieur.gouv.fr/ministere/direction-generale-de-securite-interieure |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240301220550/https://www.interieur.gouv.fr/ministere/direction-generale-de-securite-interieure |archive-date=1 March 2024 |access-date=26 June 2024 |website=[[Minister of the Interior (France)|French Ministry of the Interior]] |language=fr}}</ref> France's [[Cybersecurity|cybersecurity capabilities]] are regularly ranked as some of the most robust of any nation in the world.<ref>Bruce Sussman, [https://www.secureworldexpo.com/industry-news/countries-dedicated-to-cybersecurity The List: Best and Worst Countries for Cybersecurity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415050510/https://www.secureworldexpo.com/industry-news/countries-dedicated-to-cybersecurity |date=15 April 2021 }}, 13 November 2019, Securworld</ref><ref>[https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-d/opb/str/D-STR-GCI.01-2018-PDF-E.pdf Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI) 2018] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240501133326/https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-d/opb/str/D-STR-GCI.01-2018-PDF-E.pdf |date=1 May 2024 }}, [[International Telecommunication Union]]</ref>

French weapons exported totaled 27 billion euros in 2022, up from 11.7 billion euros the previous year 2021. Additionally, the UAE alone contributed more than 16 billion euros arms to the French total.<ref>{{cite web|date=26 July 2023|title=Rafale Sales Help France Reach Arms Exports Record|url=https://www.barrons.com/articles/rafale-sales-help-france-reach-arms-exports-record-9efd68a2}}</ref> Among the largest French defence companies are [[Dassault Group|Dassault]], [[Thales Group|Thales]] and [[Safran]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-04-28 |title=Factbox: France's military and defense contractors |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-defence-factbox-idUSBRE93R01X20130428 |access-date=2023-10-28 |archive-date=28 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028020507/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-defence-factbox-idUSBRE93R01X20130428 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Law===
{{Main|Law of France}}
France uses a [[Civil law (legal system)|civil legal]] system, wherein law arises primarily from written statutes;<ref name=France/> judges are not to make law, but merely to interpret it (though the amount of judicial interpretation in certain areas makes it equivalent to [[case law]] in a [[common law]] system). Basic principles of the [[rule of law]] were laid in the [[Napoleonic Code]] (which was largely based on the royal law codified under [[Louis XIV]]). In agreement with the principles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the law should only prohibit actions detrimental to society.
[[File:Declaration of Human Rights.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=color drawing of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen from 1789|The basic principles that the French Republic must respect are found in the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]].]]

French law is divided into two principal areas: [[private law]] and [[public law]]. Private law includes, in particular, [[civil law (common law)|civil law]] and [[criminal law]]. Public law includes, in particular, [[administrative law]] and [[constitutional law]]. However, in practical terms, French law comprises three principal areas of law: civil law, criminal law, and administrative law. Criminal laws can only address the future and not the past (criminal ''[[Ex post facto law|ex post facto]]'' laws are prohibited).<ref>In European countries, legal doctrine has long faced the question of succession of criminal laws in time: {{Cite journal |last=Buonomo |first=Giampiero |year=2015 |title=La rivendicazione di Gallo |journal=Mondoperaio Edizione Online}}</ref> While administrative law is often a subcategory of civil law in many countries, it is completely separated in France and each body of law is headed by a specific supreme court: [[French judiciary courts|ordinary courts]] (which handle criminal and civil litigation) are headed by the [[Court of Cassation (France)|Court of Cassation]] and administrative courts are headed by the [[Conseil d'Etat (France)|Council of State]]. To be applicable, every law must be officially published in the ''[[Journal officiel de la République française]]''.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024|reason=citation is needed here}}

France does not recognise [[religious law]] as a motivation for the enactment of prohibitions; it has long abolished [[blasphemy]] laws and [[sodomy law]]s (the latter in 1791). However, "offences against [[Decency|public decency]]" (''contraires aux bonnes mœurs'') or [[breach of the peace|disturbing public order]] (''trouble à l'ordre public'') have been used to repress public expressions of homosexuality or street prostitution.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024|reason=citation is needed here}}

France generally has a positive reputation regarding [[LGBT rights in France|LGBT rights]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Country Ranking - Rainbow Europe|url=https://rainbow-europe.org/country-ranking|website=rainbow-europe.org|access-date=28 October 2021|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521004552/https://rainbow-europe.org/country-ranking|url-status=live}}</ref> Since 1999, [[Pacte civil de solidarité|civil unions]] for homosexual couples have been permitted, and since 2013, [[same-sex marriage]] and [[LGBT adoption]] are legal.<ref>{{Cite news |date=18 May 2013 |title=François Hollande signs same-sex marriage into law |publisher=France 24 |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20130518-france-gay-marriage-law-adoption |access-date=27 June 2013 |archive-date=25 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725092955/https://www.france24.com/en/20130518-france-gay-marriage-law-adoption |url-status=live }}</ref> Laws prohibiting discriminatory speech in the press are [[Law on the Freedom of the Press of 29 July 1881|as old as 1881]]. Some consider [[hate speech laws in France]] to be too broad or severe, undermining [[freedom of speech]].<ref>"France: Strict Defamation and Privacy Laws Limit Free Expression – Index on Censorship| Index on Censorship." France: Strict Defamation and Privacy Laws Limit Free Expression – Index on Censorship| Index on Censorship. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 February 2014. {{Cite web |title=France: Strict defamation and privacy laws limit free expression – Index on Censorship |url=http://www.indexoncensorship.org/2013/08/france-faces-restrictions-on-free-expression/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922214544/http://www.indexoncensorship.org/2013/08/france-faces-restrictions-on-free-expression/ |archive-date=22 September 2013 |access-date=18 February 2014}}.</ref>
France has laws against racism and [[antisemitism]],<ref>{{In lang|fr}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20101205103557/http://www.ambafrance-dz.org/ambassade/IMG/Lutte_racisme_et_antisemitisme.pdf La lutte contre le racisme et l'antisémintisme en France]. AmbaFrance</ref> while the 1990 [[Gayssot Act]] prohibits [[Holocaust denial]]. In 2024, France became the first nation in the European Union to explicitly protect [[abortion]] in its [[Constitution of France|constitution]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Niewiarowski |first1=Erik |title=France makes abortion a constitutional right in historic vote |url=https://www.thepinknews.com/2024/03/05/france-makes-abortion-a-constitutional-right-in-historic-vote/ |website=PinkNews |date=5 March 2024 |access-date=5 March 2024 |archive-date=5 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240305152542/https://www.thepinknews.com/2024/03/05/france-makes-abortion-a-constitutional-right-in-historic-vote/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Freedom of religion in France|Freedom of religion]] is constitutionally guaranteed by the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]]. The [[1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State]] is the basis for ''[[laïcité]]'' (state secularism): the state does not formally recognise any religion, [[Concordat in Alsace-Moselle|except in Alsace-Moselle]], which continues to subsidize education and clergy of Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Judaism. Nonetheless, France does recognise religious associations. The Parliament has [[Groups referred to as cults in government reports#France|listed many religious movements as dangerous cults]] since 1995 and has [[French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools|banned wearing conspicuous religious symbols in schools]] since 2004. In 2010, it banned the [[French ban on face covering|wearing of face-covering Islamic veils in public]]; human rights groups such as [[Amnesty International]] and [[Human Rights Watch]] described the law as discriminatory towards Muslims.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Kenneth |last=Roth |date=26 February 2004 |title=Human Rights Watch |url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/02/26/france7666.htm |access-date=31 January 2009 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |archive-date=1 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081101192550/http://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2004/02/26/france7666.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=13 July 2010 |title=France votes to ban full-face veils |publisher=[[Amnesty International]] |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/france-votes-ban-full-face-veils-2010-07-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141207163309/http://www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/france-votes-ban-full-face-veils-2010-07-13 |archive-date=7 December 2014}}</ref> However, it is supported by most of the population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=L'image de l'islam en France |url=http://www.ifop.com/media/poll/2028-1-study_file.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312131944/http://www.ifop.com/media/poll/2028-1-study_file.pdf |archive-date=12 March 2014 |access-date=16 January 2017 |website=ifop.fr |publisher=IFOP |page=22 |language=fr}}</ref>


==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of France}}

[[File:04-2017. París-34.jpg|alt=La Défense, seen from the Eiffel Tower|thumb|[[La Défense]] was in 2017 ranked by [[Ernst & Young]] as the leading [[central business district]] in continental Europe, and the fourth in the world.<ref>[https://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/ey-the-attractiveness-of-world-class-business-districts/$FILE/ey-the-attractiveness-of-world-class-business-districts.pdf The attractiveness of world-class business districts: Paris La Défense vs. its global competitors] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718045821/https://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/ey-the-attractiveness-of-world-class-business-districts/$FILE/ey-the-attractiveness-of-world-class-business-districts.pdf |date=18 July 2020 }}, [[Ernst & Young|EY]], November 2017</ref>]]France has a [[social market economy]], characterised by [[Dirigisme in France|sizeable government involvement]], and [[economic diversity]]. For roughly two centuries, the French economy has [[Angus Maddison statistics of the ten largest economies by GDP (PPP)|consistently ranked]] among the ten largest globally; it is currently the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|world's ninth-largest]] by [[purchasing power parity]], the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|seventh-largest]] by [[nominal GDP]], and the second-largest in the European Union by both metrics.<ref name="data.worldbank.org">{{Cite web |title=GDP, PPP (current international $) |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD?order=wbapi_data_value_2014+wbapi_data_value+wbapi_data_value-last&sort=desc |access-date=1 November 2015 |publisher=The World Bank Group |archive-date=4 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704033414/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD?order=wbapi_data_value_2014+wbapi_data_value+wbapi_data_value-last&sort=desc |url-status=live }}</ref> France is considered an [[economic power]], with membership in the [[Group of Seven]] leading [[Developed country|industrialised countries]], the [[OECD|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD), and the [[G20|Group of Twenty]] largest economies.

France's economy is highly diversified; [[Service sector|services]] represent two-thirds of both the workforce and GDP,<ref>[https://www.eulerhermes.com/en_global/economic-research/country-reports/France.html Country profile: France] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001071241/https://www.eulerhermes.com/en_global/economic-research/country-reports/France.html |date=1 October 2020 }}, [[Euler Hermes]]</ref> while the [[industrial sector]] accounts for a fifth of GDP and a similar proportion of employment. France is the third-biggest manufacturing country in Europe, behind Germany and Italy, and ranks [[List of countries by manufacturing output|eighth in the world by share of global manufacturing output]], at 1.9 per cent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=These are the top 10 manufacturing countries in the world |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/02/countries-manufacturing-trade-exports-economics/ |access-date=10 February 2022 |website=World Economic Forum |date=25 February 2020 |language=en |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314171606/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/02/countries-manufacturing-trade-exports-economics/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Less than 2 per cent of GDP is generated by the [[primary sector]], namely agriculture;<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/france Country profil: France], [[CIA World factbook]]</ref> however, France's agricultural sector is among the largest in value and leads the EU in terms of overall production.<ref>[https://import-export.societegenerale.fr/en/country/france/market-sectors France: the market] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210219011017/https://import-export.societegenerale.fr/en/country/france/market-sectors |date=19 February 2021 }}, [[Société Générale]] (latest Update: September 2020)</ref>

In 2018, France was the fifth-largest trading nation in the world and the second-largest in Europe, with the value of exports representing over a fifth of GDP.<ref name="wto">[https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/wts2019_e/wts2019_e.pdf World Trade Statistical Review 2019] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630220225/https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/wts2019_e/wts2019_e.pdf |date=30 June 2022 }}, [[World Trade Organization]], p. 11</ref> Its membership in the [[eurozone]] and the broader [[European single market]] facilitates access to capital, goods, services, and skilled labour.<ref name="euroc">{{Cite news |last=Andrews |first=Edmund L. |date=1 January 2002 |title=Germans Say Goodbye to the Mark, a Symbol of Strength and Unity |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/01/01/world/germans-say-goodbye-to-the-mark-a-symbol-of-strength-and-unity.html |access-date=18 March 2011 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501031330/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/01/01/world/germans-say-goodbye-to-the-mark-a-symbol-of-strength-and-unity.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite [[Protectionism|protectionist]] policies over certain industries, particularly in agriculture, France has generally played a leading role in fostering free trade and commercial integration in Europe to enhance its economy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=France – Finance |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/France |access-date=28 August 2021 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |archive-date=14 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614044325/https://www.britannica.com/place/France |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Taylor Martin |first=Susan |date=28 December 1998 |title=On Jan. 1, out of many arises one Euro |page=National, 1.A |work=[[St. Petersburg Times]]}}</ref> In 2019, it ranked first in Europe and 13th in the world in [[Foreign Direct Investment|foreign direct investment]], with European countries and the United States being leading sources.<ref name="FDI">[https://www.ey.com/en_gl/attractiveness/20/how-can-europe-reset-the-investment-agenda-now-to-rebuild-its-future How can Europe reset the investment agenda now to rebuild its future?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919025614/https://www.ey.com/en_gl/attractiveness/20/how-can-europe-reset-the-investment-agenda-now-to-rebuild-its-future |date=19 September 2020 }}, [[Ernst&Young|EY]], 28 May 2020</ref> According to the [[Bank of France]] (founded in 1800),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welcome to the Banque de France website {{!}} Banque de France |url=https://www.banque-france.fr/en |access-date=2023-10-28 |website=www.banque-france.fr |archive-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613160441/https://www.banque-france.fr/en |url-status=live }}</ref> the leading recipients of FDI were manufacturing, real estate, finance and insurance.<ref name="lloydsbanktrade.com">{{Cite web |title=Foreign direct investment (FDI) in France – Investing – International Trade Portal International Trade Portal |url=https://www.lloydsbanktrade.com/en/market-potential/france/investment |access-date=28 August 2021 |website=lloydsbanktrade.com |archive-date=28 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828173932/https://www.lloydsbanktrade.com/en/market-potential/france/investment |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Île-de-France|Paris Region]] has the highest concentration of multinational firms in mainland Europe.<ref name="lloydsbanktrade.com"/>

Under the doctrine of [[Dirigiste|''Dirigisme'']], the government historically played a major role in the economy; policies such as [[indicative planning]] and [[Nationalization|nationalisation]] are credited for contributing to three decades of unprecedented postwar economic growth known as ''[[Trente Glorieuses]]''. At its peak in 1982, the public sector accounted for one-fifth of industrial employment and over four-fifths of the credit market. Beginning in the late 20th century, France loosened regulations and state involvement in the economy, with most leading companies now being privately owned; state ownership now dominates only transportation, defence and broadcasting.<ref>{{Cite web |title=France – Economy |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/France |access-date=28 August 2021 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |archive-date=14 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614044325/https://www.britannica.com/place/France |url-status=live }}</ref> Policies aimed at promoting economic dynamism and privatisation have improved France's economic standing globally: it is among the world's 10 most [[Innovation|innovative]] countries in the 2020 [[Bloomberg Innovation Index]],<ref>[https://www.businessinsider.com/these-are-the-10-most-innovative-countries-bloomberg-says-2020-1?IR=T These are the world's most innovative countries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924103951/https://www.businessinsider.com/these-are-the-10-most-innovative-countries-bloomberg-says-2020-1?IR=T |date=24 September 2021 }}, [[Business Insider]]</ref> and the 15th most competitive, according to the 2019 [[Global Competitiveness Report#2019 rankings|Global Competitiveness Report]] (up two places from 2018).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf|title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2019|access-date=29 January 2021|archive-date=9 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009004538/http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Paris stock exchange ({{Langx|fr|links=no|La Bourse de Paris}}) is one of the oldest in the world, created in 1724.<ref>{{Cite news |first=Audrey |last=Vautherot |date=19 November 2007 |title=La Bourse de Paris : une institution depuis 1724 |trans-title=The Paris Stock Exchange: an institution since 1724 |url=http://www.gralon.net/articles/economie-et-finance/bourse/article-la-bourse-de-paris---une-institution-depuis-1724-981.htm |website=Gralon |language=fr |access-date=29 June 2011 |archive-date=8 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908044848/http://www.gralon.net/articles/economie-et-finance/bourse/article-la-bourse-de-paris---une-institution-depuis-1724-981.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2000, it merged with counterparts in Amsterdam and Brussels to form [[Euronext]],<ref name="banque">{{Cite web |author=Embassy of France |title=Embassy of France in Washington: Economy of France |url=http://www.ambafrance-us.org/spip.php?article511 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009235442/http://ambafrance-us.org/spip.php?article511 |archive-date=9 October 2011 |access-date=16 July 2011 |publisher=Ambafrance-us.org}}</ref> which in 2007 merged with the [[New York stock exchange]] to form [[NYSE Euronext]], the world's largest stock exchange.<ref name="banque"/> [[Euronext Paris]], the French branch of NYSE Euronext, is Europe's second-largest stock exchange market. Some examples of the most valuable French companies include [[LVMH]], [[L'Oréal]] and [[Société Générale|Sociéte Générale.]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=French companies by market capitalization |url=https://companiesmarketcap.com/france/largest-companies-in-france-by-market-cap/ |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=companiesmarketcap.com |language=en-us |archive-date=29 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029040137/https://companiesmarketcap.com/france/largest-companies-in-france-by-market-cap/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

France has historically been one of the world's major agricultural centres and remains a "global agricultural powerhouse"; France is the world's sixth-biggest exporter of agricultural products, generating a trade surplus of over €7.4 billion.<ref name="agriculture">{{Cite web |title=France – Agriculture |url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Europe/France-AGRICULTURE.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104104316/http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Europe/France-AGRICULTURE.html |archive-date=4 January 2011 |website=Nations Encyclopedia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Country Memo – France |url=https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/france/memo/ |website=globalEDGE |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404223608/https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/france/memo/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Nicknamed "the granary of the old continent",<ref>{{Cite web |title=Topic: Agriculture in France |url=https://www.statista.com/topics/6215/agriculture-in-france/ |access-date=13 January 2022 |website=Statista |language=en |archive-date=13 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113213540/https://www.statista.com/topics/6215/agriculture-in-france/ |url-status=live }}</ref> over half its total land area is [[Agricultural land|farmland]], of which 45 per cent is devoted to permanent field crops such as cereals. The country's diverse climate, extensive arable land, modern farming technology, and [[Common agricultural policy|EU subsidies]] have made it Europe's leading agricultural producer and exporter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Key figures of the French economy |url=http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france_159/economy_6815/overview-of-the-french-economy_6831/key-figures-of-the-french-economy_1402.html#sommaire_1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100114024542/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france_159/economy_6815/overview-of-the-french-economy_6831/key-figures-of-the-french-economy_1402.html |archive-date=14 January 2010 |website=France Diplomatie |publisher=[[Minister of Foreign Affairs (France)|French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs]] |quote=France is the world's fifth largest exporter of goods (mainly durables). The country ranks fourth in services and third in agriculture (especially in cereals and the agri-food sector). It is the leading producer and exporter of farm products in Europe.}}</ref>

===Tourism===
{{Main|Tourism in France}}
{{Multiple image
| direction = vertical
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Paris_vue_d'ensemble_tour_Eiffel.jpg
| caption1 = The [[Eiffel Tower]] is the world's most-visited paid monument, an icon of both Paris and France.
| image2 = Hafen_von_Nizza.jpg
| caption2 = [[Nice]] on the [[French Riviera]]
| image3 = Mont-Saint-Michel vu du ciel.jpg
| caption3 = [[Mont-Saint-Michel]] and [[Mont-Saint-Michel Bay|its bay]] were listed as [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]s in 1979.
}}

With 100 million international tourist arrivals in 2023,<ref name="tourism.stat">{{cite web |title=World Tourism Barometer |url=https://pre-webunwto.s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2024-06/Barom_PPT_May_2024.pdf?VersionId=U7O62HatlG4eNAj.wcmuQG1PMCjK.Yss |publisher=[[World Tourism Organization]] |access-date=5 July 2024 |language=en |date=May 2024 |page=19}}</ref> France is the [[World Tourism rankings|world's top tourist destination]], ahead of Spain (85 million) and the United States (66 million). However, it ranks third in tourism-derived income due to the shorter duration of visits.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dilorenzo |first=Sarah |date=18 July 2013 |title=France learns to speak 'touriste' |agency=Associated Press |url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/france-learns-speak-touriste-0 |url-status=dead |access-date=20 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130822043825/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/france-learns-speak-touriste-0 |archive-date=22 August 2013}}</ref> The most popular tourist sites include (annual visitors): [[Eiffel Tower]] (6.2 million), [[Palace of Versailles|Château de Versailles]] (2.8 million), {{Lang|fr|[[National Museum of Natural History (France)|Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle]]|italic=no}} (2 million), [[Pont du Gard]] (1.5 million), [[Arc de Triomphe]] (1.2 million), [[Mont Saint-Michel]] (1 million), [[Sainte-Chapelle]] (683,000), [[Château du Haut-Kœnigsbourg]] (549,000), [[Puy de Dôme]] (500,000), [[Musée Picasso]] (441,000), and [[Carcassonne]] (362,000).<ref>{{Cite web |year=2003 |title=Fréquentation des musées et des bâtiments historiques |trans-title=Frequentation of museums and historic buildings |url=http://www2.culture.gouv.fr/deps/mini_chiff_03/fr/musee.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224180811/http://www2.culture.gouv.fr/deps/mini_chiff_03/fr/musee.htm |archive-date=24 December 2007 |language=fr}}</ref>

France, especially Paris, has some of the world's largest museums, including the [[Louvre]], which is the [[List of most visited art museums in the world|most visited art museum in the world]] (7.7 million visitors in 2022), the [[Musée d'Orsay]] (3.3 million), mostly devoted to [[Impressionism]], the [[Musée de l'Orangerie]] (1.02 million), which is home to eight large [[Water Lilies (Monet series)|Water Lily]] murals by [[Claude Monet]], as well as the [[Centre Georges Pompidou]] (3 million), dedicated to [[contemporary art]]. [[Disneyland Paris]] is Europe's most popular theme park, with 15 million combined visitors to the resort's [[Disneyland Park (Paris)|Disneyland Park]] and [[Walt Disney Studios Park]] in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2009 |editor-first=Judith |editor-last=Rubin |title=TEA/AECOM Attraction Attendance Report for 2009 |url=http://www.themeit.com/etea/2009report.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602032710/http://www.themeit.com/etea/2009report.pdf |archive-date=2 June 2010 |access-date=7 October 2010 |publisher=Themed Entertainment Association}}</ref> With more than 10 million tourists a year, the [[French Riviera]] (French: ''Côte d'Azur''), in Southeast France, is the second leading tourist destination in the country, after the [[Île-de-France|Paris Region]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The French Riviera Tourist Board |url=http://www.frenchriviera-tourism.com/regional-tourism-organization/the-french-riviera-tourist-board-06_191.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425152011/http://www.frenchriviera-tourism.com/regional-tourism-organization/the-french-riviera-tourist-board-06_191.html |archive-date=25 April 2011 |access-date=23 January 2011 |website=CÔTE D'AZUR}}</ref> With 6 million tourists a year, the [[Châteaux of the Loire Valley|castles of the Loire Valley]] (French: ''châteaux'') and the [[Loire Valley]] itself are the third leading tourist destination in France.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Foucher |title=Tourism: The Loire Valley, an intoxicating destination for visitors |language=fr |work=TourMaG.com, 1er journal des professionnels du tourisme francophone |url=https://www.tourmag.com/Tourism-The-Loire-Valley-an-intoxicating-destination-for-visitors_a67875.html |access-date=10 October 2018 |archive-date=10 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010174256/https://www.tourmag.com/Tourism-The-Loire-Valley-an-intoxicating-destination-for-visitors_a67875.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=12 July 2017 |title=Chateaux deluxe: 5 best Loire Valley castles |publisher=CNN |url=https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/loire-valley-castles/index.html |access-date=10 October 2018 |archive-date=10 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010213503/https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/loire-valley-castles/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

France has 52 sites inscribed in [[List of World Heritage Sites in France|UNESCO's World Heritage List]] and features cities of high cultural interest, beaches and seaside resorts, ski resorts, as well as rural regions that many enjoy for their beauty and tranquillity ([[Ecotourism|green tourism]]). Small and picturesque French villages are promoted through the association {{Lang|fr|[[Les Plus Beaux Villages de France]]}} (literally "The Most Beautiful Villages of France"). The "[[Remarkable Gardens of France|Remarkable Gardens]]" label is a list of the over 200 gardens classified by the [[Ministry of Culture (France)|Ministry of Culture]]. This label is intended to protect and promote remarkable gardens and parks. France attracts many religious [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrims]] on their [[Way of St. James|way to St. James]], or to [[Lourdes]], a town in the [[Hautes-Pyrénées]] that hosts several million visitors a year.

===Energy===
{{Further|Energy in France}}
[[File:Centrale EDF de Belleville-FR-18-a05.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Nuclear power plant in Cattenom, France four large cooling towers expelling white water vapour against a blue sky|[[Belleville Nuclear Power Plant]]. France derives most of its electricity from [[Nuclear power in France|nuclear power]], the highest percentage in the world. ]]
France is the world's tenth-largest producer of electricity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BP Statistical Review of World Energy July 2021". |url=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/xlsx/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2021-all-data.xlsx |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=8 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210708161824/https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/xlsx/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2021-all-data.xlsx |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Électricité de France]] (EDF), which is majority-owned by the French government, is the country's main producer and distributor of electricity, and one of the world's largest [[Electric utility|electric utility companies]], ranking third in revenue globally.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 March 2019 |title=The ten biggest power companies in 2018 |url=https://www.power-technology.com/features/top-10-power-companies-in-the-world/ |access-date=5 February 2022 |website=Power Technology |language=en-US |archive-date=20 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320191000/https://www.power-technology.com/features/top-10-power-companies-in-the-world/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2018, EDF produced around one-fifth of the [[European Union]]'s electricity, primarily from [[nuclear power]].<ref>[https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Electricity_production,_consumption_and_market_overview#:~:text=Germany%20had%20the%20highest%20level,with%20a%20double%2Ddigit%20share. Electricity production, consumption and market overview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225224703/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Electricity_production,_consumption_and_market_overview#:~:text=Germany%20had%20the%20highest%20level,with%20a%20double%2Ddigit%20share. |date=25 February 2021 }}, [[Eurostat]]</ref> As of 2021, France was the biggest energy exporter in Europe, mostly to the U.K. and Italy,<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Nuclear Power in France {{!}} French Nuclear Energy – World Nuclear Association |url=https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/france.aspx |access-date=5 February 2022 |website=world-nuclear.org |archive-date=7 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207220815/https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/france.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> and the largest net exporter of electricity in the world.<ref name=":3"/>

Since the [[1973 oil crisis]], France has pursued a strong policy of [[energy security]],<ref name=":3"/> namely through [[Nuclear power in France|heavy investment in nuclear energy]]. It is one of 32 countries with [[nuclear power plant]]s, ranking second in the world by the [[Nuclear power by country|number of operational nuclear reactors]], at 56.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PRIS – Miscellaneous reports – Nuclear Share |url=https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/WorldStatistics/NuclearShareofElectricityGeneration.aspx |access-date=5 February 2022 |website=pris.iaea.org |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106100530/https://pris.iaea.org/pris/worldstatistics/nuclearshareofelectricitygeneration.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> Consequently, 70% of France's electricity is generated by nuclear power, the highest proportion in the world by a wide margin;<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2017 |title=Nuclear share figures, 2006–2016 |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Facts-and-Figures/Nuclear-generation-by-country/ |access-date=8 January 2018 |publisher=World Nuclear Association |archive-date=1 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001103413/http://world-nuclear.org/info/Facts-and-Figures/Nuclear-generation-by-country/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> only Slovakia and Ukraine also derive a majority of electricity from nuclear power, at roughly 53% and 51%, respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |title=France |url=https://www.iaea.org/pris/CountryStatistics/CountryDetails.aspx?current=FR |access-date=8 January 2018 |website=IAEA {{!}} PRIS Power Reactor Information System |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency |archive-date=1 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701164912/https://www.iaea.org/pris/CountryStatistics/CountryDetails.aspx?current=FR |url-status=live }}</ref> France is considered a world leader in nuclear technology, with reactors and fuel products being major exports.<ref name=":3"/>

France's significant reliance on nuclear power has resulted in comparatively slower development of [[Renewable energy in France|renewable energy]] sources than in other Western nations. Nevertheless, between 2008 and 2019, France's production capacity from renewable energies rose consistently and nearly doubled.<ref name=":5"/> [[Hydropower]] is by far the leading source, accounting for over half the country's renewable energy sources<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=France |url=https://www.hydropower.org/country-profiles/france |access-date=5 February 2022 |website=hydropower.org |language=en |archive-date=5 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205071915/https://www.hydropower.org/country-profiles/france |url-status=live }}</ref> and contributing 13% of its electricity,<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Topic: Hydropower in France |url=https://www.statista.com/topics/6308/hydropower-in-france/ |access-date=5 February 2022 |website=Statista |language=en |archive-date=5 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205071840/https://www.statista.com/topics/6308/hydropower-in-france/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the highest proportion in Europe after Norway and Turkey.<ref name=":4"/> As with nuclear power, most hydroelectric plants, such as [[Eguzon dam|Eguzon]], [[Étang de Soulcem]], and [[Lac de Vouglans]], are managed by EDF.<ref name=":4"/> France aims to further expand hydropower into 2040.<ref name=":5"/>

===Transport===
{{Main|Transport in France}}
[[File:Creissels_et_Viaduct_de_Millau.jpg|thumb|[[Millau Viaduct]] is the [[List of tallest bridges|tallest bridge in the world]].<ref name=structurae>{{Structurae|title=Millau Viaduct|id=20000351|access-date=12 September 2018}}</ref>]]
France's [[Rail transport in France|railway network]], which stretches {{Convert|29473|km|mi|0}} as of 2008,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chiffres clés du transport Édition 2010 |url=http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Chiffres_transport-pdf.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601124351/http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Chiffres_transport-pdf.pdf |archive-date=1 June 2010 |access-date=7 October 2010 |publisher=[[Ministry of Ecology|Ministère de l'Écologie, de l'Énergie, du Développement Durable et de la Mer]] |language=fr}}</ref> is the second most extensive in Western Europe after [[Rail transport in Germany|Germany]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Country comparison :: railways |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2121rank.html?countryName=France&countryCode=fr&regionCode=eu&rank=9#fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215524/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2121rank.html?countryName=France&countryCode=fr&regionCode=eu&rank=9#fr |archive-date=4 October 2013 |access-date=30 July 2010 |website=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA}}</ref> It is operated by the [[SNCF]], and high-speed trains include the [[Thalys]], the [[Eurostar]] and [[TGV]], which travels at {{Convert|320|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=TGV – The French High-speed Train Service |url=http://h2g2.com/dna/h2g2/A711785 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120716194231/http://h2g2.com/dna/h2g2/A711785 |archive-date=16 July 2012 |access-date=21 July 2011 |website=h2g2 The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: Earth Edition|date=22 April 2002 }}</ref> The Eurostar, along with the [[Eurotunnel Shuttle]], connects with the United Kingdom through the [[Channel Tunnel]]. Rail connections exist to all other neighbouring countries in Europe except Andorra. Intra-urban connections are also well developed, with most major cities having [[Rapid transit|underground]] or tramway services complementing bus services.

There are approximately {{Convert|1027183|km|mi|0}} of serviceable roadway in France, ranking it the most extensive network of the European continent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Country comparison :: roadways |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2085rank.html?countryName=France&countryCode=fr&regionCode=eu&rank=7#fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513121037/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2085rank.html?countryName=France&countryCode=fr&regionCode=eu&rank=7#fr |archive-date=13 May 2012 |access-date=29 July 2010 |website=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA}}</ref> The Paris Region is enveloped with the densest network of roads and highways, which connect it with virtually all parts of the country. French roads also handle substantial international traffic, connecting with cities in neighbouring Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Andorra and Monaco. There is no annual registration fee or [[road tax]]; however, usage of the mostly privately owned motorways is through tolls except in the vicinity of large communes. The new car market is dominated by domestic brands such as [[Renault]], [[Peugeot]] and [[Citroën]].<ref>{{In lang|fr}} L'automobile magazine, hors-série 2003/2004 page 294</ref> France possesses the [[Millau Viaduct]], the world's tallest bridge,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bockman |first=Chris |date=4 November 2003 |title=France builds world's tallest bridge |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3237329.stm |access-date=21 July 2011 |archive-date=10 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810183932/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3237329.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and has built many important bridges such as the [[Pont de Normandie]]. [[Diesel fuel|Diesel]] and [[petrol]]-driven cars and lorries cause a large part of the country's [[air pollution]] and [[greenhouse gas emissions]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Damiani |first=Anne |date=15 April 2021 |title=First lockdown in France improved air quality, avoided thousands of deaths |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/air-pollution/news/first-lockdown-in-france-improved-air-quality-avoided-thousands-of-deaths/ |access-date=2 June 2021 |website=euractiv.com |language=en-GB |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214339/https://www.euractiv.com/section/air-pollution/news/first-lockdown-in-france-improved-air-quality-avoided-thousands-of-deaths/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Yeung |first=Peter |title=How France is testing free public transport |url=https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20210519-how-france-is-testing-free-public-transport |access-date=2 June 2021 |publisher=BBC |language=en |archive-date=1 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601182949/https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20210519-how-france-is-testing-free-public-transport |url-status=live }}</ref>

There are 464 [[List of airports in France|airports]] in France.<ref name=France/> [[Charles de Gaulle Airport]], located in the vicinity of Paris, is the largest and busiest airport in the country, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic and connecting Paris with virtually all major cities across the world. [[Air France]] is the national carrier airline, although numerous private airline companies provide domestic and international travel services. There are ten major ports in France, the largest of which is in [[Marseille]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 April 2008 |title=Strikes block French ports |url=http://www.bdpinternational.com/news/StrikesblockFrenchports.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517035156/http://www.bdpinternational.com/news/StrikesblockFrenchports.asp |archive-date=17 May 2008 |publisher=The Journal of Commerce Online |via=BDP International}}</ref> which also is the largest bordering the Mediterranean Sea.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 June 2009 |title=Marseille : un grand port maritime qui ne demande qu'à se montrer |trans-title=Marseille: a grand seaport just waiting to show |url=http://www.laprovence.com/article/region/marseille-un-grand-port-maritime-qui-ne-demande-qua-se-montrer |website=La Provence |language=fr |access-date=30 July 2010 |archive-date=14 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114060851/http://www.laprovence.com/article/region/marseille-un-grand-port-maritime-qui-ne-demande-qua-se-montrer |url-status=dead }}</ref> {{Convert|12261|km|mi|0}} of waterways traverse France including the [[Canal du Midi]], which connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean through the [[Garonne]] river.<ref name=France/>

===Science and technology===
{{Main|Science and technology in France|List of French inventions and discoveries}}
[[File:Ariane_5_with_James_Webb_Space_Telescope_Prelaunch_(51773093465).jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=Ariane 5 rocket|France is in 2020 the biggest national financial contributor to the [[European Space Agency]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Funding |url=https://www.esa.int/About_Us/Corporate_news/Funding |website=esa.int |access-date=26 March 2020 |archive-date=15 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200115090919/https://www.esa.int/About_Us/Corporate_news/Funding |url-status=live }}</ref> which conceived the [[Ariane (rocket family)|Ariane rocket family]], launched from [[Guiana Space Centre|French Guiana]] ([[Ariane 5]] pictured).]]
Since the [[Middle Ages]], France has contributed to scientific and technological achievement. In the early 11th century, the French-born [[Pope Sylvester II]] reintroduced the [[abacus]] and [[armillary sphere]] and introduced [[Arabic numerals]] and [[clock]]s to much of Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |first=William |last=Godwin |year=1876 |title=Lives of the Necromancers |url=https://archive.org/details/livesnecromance04godwgoog |page=232}}</ref> The [[University of Paris]], founded in the mid-12th century, is still one of the most important academic institutions in the Western world.<ref>André Thuilier, Histoire de l'université de Paris et de la Sorbonne, Paris, Nouvelle librairie de France, 1994</ref> In the 17th century, mathematician and philosopher [[René Descartes]] pioneered [[Rationalism|rationalism as a method for acquiring scientific knowledge]], while [[Blaise Pascal]] became famous for his work on [[probability]] and [[fluid mechanics]]; both were key figures of the [[Scientific Revolution]], which blossomed in Europe during this period. The [[French Academy of Sciences]], founded in the mid-17th century by [[Louis XIV]] to encourage and protect French [[Scientific method|scientific research]], was one of the earliest [[Academy of sciences|national scientific institutions]] in history.

The [[Age of Enlightenment]] was marked by the work of biologist [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Buffon]], one of the first naturalists to recognize [[ecological succession]], and chemist [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]], who discovered the role of [[oxygen]] in [[combustion]]. [[Denis Diderot|Diderot]] and [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert|D'Alembert]] published the ''[[Encyclopédie]]'', which aimed to give the public access to "useful knowledge" that could be applied to everyday life.<ref>Burke, Peter, A social history of knowledge: from Gutenberg to Diderot, Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 2000, p. 17</ref> The [[Industrial Revolution]] of the 19th century saw spectacular scientific developments in France, with [[Augustin Fresnel]] founding modern [[optics]], [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] laying the foundations of [[thermodynamics]], and [[Louis Pasteur]] pioneering [[microbiology]]. Other eminent French scientists of the period have their [[List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower|names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower]].

Famous French scientists of the 20th century include the mathematician and physicist [[Henri Poincaré]]; physicists [[Henri Becquerel]], [[Pierre Curie|Pierre]] and [[Marie Curie]], who remain famous for their work on [[radioactivity]]; physicist [[Paul Langevin]]; and virologist [[Luc Montagnier]], co-discoverer of [[HIV AIDS]]. [[Hand transplantation]] was developed in [[Lyon, France|Lyon]] in 1998 by an international team that included [[Jean-Michel Dubernard]], who afterward performed the first successful double hand transplant.<ref name="dubernard1">{{Cite journal |last1=Lanzetta M |last2=Petruzzo P |last3=Dubernard JM |last4=Margreiter |first4=Raimund |last5=Schuind |first5=Frederic |last6=Breidenbach |first6=Warren |last7=Nolli |first7=Roberta |last8=Schneeberger |first8=Stephan |last9=Van Holder |first9=Carlo |display-authors=3 |date=July 2007 |title=Second report (1998–2006) of the International Registry of Hand and Composite Tissue Transplantation |journal=Transpl Immunol. |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1016/j.trim.2007.03.002 |pmid=17584595}}</ref> [[Remote surgery|Telesurgery]] was [[Lindbergh operation|first performed]] by French surgeons led by [[Jacques Marescaux]] on 7 September 2001 across the Atlantic Ocean.<ref name="istmarescaux">{{Cite web |author=Dr. Ghodoussi |title=Media Collection |url=http://www.intersurgtech.com/media.html |access-date=14 November 2011 |publisher=Interface Surgical Technologies, LLC |archive-date=18 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240218074544/http://www.intersurgtech.com/media.html |url-status=live }}</ref> A [[face transplant]] was first done on 27 November 2005 by [[Bernard Devauchelle]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Austin |first=Naomi |date=17 October 2006 |title=My face transplant saved me |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6058696.stm |access-date=25 November 2007 |archive-date=18 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240218063517/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6058696.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=30 November 2005 |title=Woman has first face transplant |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4484728.stm |access-date=13 December 2014 |archive-date=2 December 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051202050329/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4484728.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> France ranked 12th in the 2024 [[Global Innovation Index]], compared to 16th in 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/assets/67729/2000%20Global%20Innovation%20Index%202024_WEB2.pdf|title=Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship|access-date=2024-10-01|author=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|year=2024|isbn=978-92-805-3681-2|doi= 10.34667/tind.50062|website=www.wipo.int|location=Geneva|page=18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2019 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html |access-date=2 September 2021 |website=www.wipo.int |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101818/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of France}}

[[File:Population density in France.png|upright=1.2|thumb|Population density in France by [[Arrondissements of France|arrondissement]]]]

With an estimated January 2024 population of 68,373,433 people,<ref name=pop_est/> France is the [[List of countries by population#Sovereign states and dependencies by population|20th most populous country in the world]], the third-most populous in Europe (after [[Russia]] and [[Germany]]), and the second most populous in the [[European Union]] (after Germany).

France is an outlier among developed countries, particularly in Europe, for its relatively high rate of [[natural population growth]]: By birth rates alone, it was responsible for almost all natural population growth in the European Union in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bilan démographique 2006: un excédent naturel record |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/1280882#titre-bloc-4 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708232900/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/1280882#titre-bloc-4 |archive-date=8 July 2017 |access-date=22 January 2017 |publisher=Insee |language=fr}}</ref> Between 2006 and 2016, France saw the second-highest overall increase in population in the EU and was one of only four EU countries where natural births accounted for the most population growth.<ref>{{Cite web |title=People in the EU – statistics on demographic changes – Statistics Explained |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/People_in_the_EU_-_statistics_on_demographic_changes |access-date=21 August 2019 |publisher=European Commission |archive-date=21 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821003124/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/People_in_the_EU_-_statistics_on_demographic_changes |url-status=live }}</ref> This was the highest rate since the end of the [[baby boom]] in 1973 and coincides with the rise of the [[total fertility rate]] from a nadir of 1.7 in 1994 to 2.0 in 2010.

{{As of|January 2021}}, the fertility rate declined slightly to 1.84 children per woman, below the [[replacement rate]] of 2.1, and considerably below the high of 4.41 in 1800.<ref>{{Citation |first=Max |last=Roser |title=Total Fertility Rate around the world over the last centuries |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=FRA |work=[[Our World in Data]], [[Gapminder Foundation]] |year=2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708151649/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=FRA |access-date=7 May 2019 |archive-date=8 July 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bilan démographique 2016 |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2554860 |access-date=19 January 2017 |publisher=Insee |language=fr |archive-date=3 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803151003/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2554860 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="population">{{Cite web |title=Bilan démographique 2020 |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/5012724 |access-date=19 January 2021 |publisher=Insee |language=fr |archive-date=19 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119110148/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/5012724 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tableau 44 – Taux de fécondité générale par âge de la mère |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/ppp/bases-de-donnees/irweb/sd2008/dd/excel/sd2008_t44_fe.xls |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427013815/http://www.insee.fr/fr/ppp/bases-de-donnees/irweb/sd2008/dd/excel/sd2008_t44_fe.xls |archive-date=27 April 2011 |access-date=20 January 2011 |publisher=Insee |language=fr}}</ref> France's fertility rate and crude birth rate nonetheless remain among the highest in the EU. However, like many developed nations, the French [[Population ageing|population is aging]]; the average age is 41.7 years, while about a fifth of French people are 65 or over.<ref>{{Citation |title=World Factbook EUROPE : FRANCE |date=4 February 2021 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/france/ |work=[[The World Factbook]] |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=16 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316080837/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/france/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The life expectancy at birth is 82.7 years, the [[List of countries by life expectancy|12th highest in the world]].

From 2006 to 2011, population growth averaged 0.6 per cent per year;<ref name="evol">{{Cite web |title=Évolution générale de la situation démographique, France |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/detail.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=bilan-demo&page=donnees-detaillees/bilan-demo/pop_age3.htm#evol-gen-sit-demo-fe |access-date=20 January 2011 |publisher=Insee |language=fr |archive-date=10 March 2018 |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20180310021332/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/detail.asp?reg_id=0#evol-gen-sit-demo-fe |url-status=live }}</ref> since 2011, annual growth has been between 0.4 and 0.5 per cent annually.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WDI – Home |url=http://datatopics.worldbank.org/world-development-indicators/ |access-date=27 August 2019 |publisher=World Bank |archive-date=27 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827161530/http://datatopics.worldbank.org/world-development-indicators/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Immigrants are major contributors to this trend; in 2010, 27 per cent of newborns in metropolitan France had at least one [[Immigration to France#Immigration per region|foreign-born]] parent and another 24 per cent had at least one parent born outside Europe (excluding French overseas territories).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Naissances selon le pays de naissance des parents 2010 |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/detail.asp?ref_id=ir-sd20101 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927161644/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/detail.asp?ref_id=ir-sd20101 |archive-date=27 September 2013 |publisher=Insee}}</ref>

===Major cities===
{{See also|Functional area (France)|Urban unit}}
France is a highly urbanised country, with its [[List of cities in France over 20,000 population (1999 census)|largest cities]] (in terms of [[Functional area (France)|metropolitan area]] population in 2021<ref>{{cite web |url=https://statistiques-locales.insee.fr/#c=indicator&i=pop_depuis_1876.pop&s=2021&t=A01&view=map13 |title=France par aire d'attraction des villes - Population municipale 2021 >> Tableau |author=INSEE |author-link=INSEE |access-date=2024-07-11}}</ref>) being Paris (13,171,056 inh.), [[Lyon]] (2,308,818), [[Marseille]] (1,888,788), [[Lille]] (1,521,660), [[Toulouse]] (1,490,640), [[Bordeaux]] (1,393,764), [[Nantes]] (1,031,953), [[Strasbourg]] (864,993), [[Montpellier]] (823,120), and [[Rennes]] (771,320). (Note: since its 2020 revision of metropolitan area borders, [[INSEE]] considers that [[Nice]] is a metropolitan area separate from the [[Cannes]]-[[Antibes]] metropolitan area; these two combined would have a population of 1,019,905, as of the 2021 census). [[Rural flight]] was a perennial political issue throughout most of the 20th century.
{{Largest metropolitan areas of France}}

===Ethnic groups===
{{Main|French people}}
Historically, [[French people]] were mainly of [[Celtic peoples|Celtic]]-[[Gauls|Gallic]] origin, with a significant admixture of [[Italic peoples|Italic]] ([[Roman Empire|Romans]]) and [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] ([[Franks]]) groups reflecting centuries of respective migration and settlement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jean-Louis Brunaux |title=Nos ancêtres les Gaulois |date=2008 |editor-last=Seuil |page=261 |trans-title=Our ancestors the Gauls}}</ref> Through the course of the [[Middle Ages]], France incorporated various neighbouring ethnic and linguistic groups, as evidenced by [[Bretons|Breton]] elements in the west, [[Aquitani]]an in the southwest, [[Scandinavian people|Scandinavian]] in the northwest, [[Alemanni]]c in the northeast, and [[Ligures|Ligurian]] in the southeast.

Large-scale immigration over the last century and a half have led to a more multicultural society; beginning with the French Revolution, and further codified in the [[French Constitution|French Constitution of 1958]], the government is prohibited from collecting data on ethnicity and ancestry; most demographic information is drawn from private sector organisations or academic institutions. In 2004, the ''Institut Montaigne'' estimated that within Metropolitan France, 51 million people were White (85% of the population), 6 million were Northwest African (10%), 2 million were Black (3.3%), and 1 million were Asian (1.7%).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Yazid Sabeg |url=http://www.conventioncitoyenne.com/documents/oubliesdelegalite.pdf |title=Les oubliés de l'égalité des chances |last2=Laurence Méhaignerie |date=January 2004 |publisher=[[Institut Montaigne]] |language=fr |trans-title=The forgotten of equal opportunities |author-link=Yazid Sabeg |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=21 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130421134210/http://www.conventioncitoyenne.com/documents/oubliesdelegalite.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=26 March 2009 |title=France's ethnic minorities: To count or not to count |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/node/13377324 |access-date=25 April 2013 |archive-date=26 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526185825/https://www.economist.com/node/13377324 |url-status=live }}</ref>

A 2008 poll conducted jointly by [[INED|the Institut national d'études démographiques]] and [[INSEE|the French National Institute of Statistics]]<ref>{{Cite web |year=2008 |title='Trajectories and Origins' Survey |url=http://teo_english.site.ined.fr/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111202054910/http://teo_english.site.ined.fr/ |archive-date=2 December 2011 |publisher=Ined}}</ref><ref name="Oppenheimer">{{Cite journal |last=Oppenheimer |first=David B. |year=2008 |title=Why France needs to collect data on racial identity...in a French way |journal=Hastings International and Comparative Law Review |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=735–752 |ssrn=1236362}}</ref> estimated that the largest minority ancestry groups were [[Italians in France|Italian]] (5 million), followed by [[Northwest African]] (3–6 million),<ref name="Cohen1995">{{Cite book |first=Robin |last=Cohen |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi |title=The Cambridge Survey of World Migration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-521-44405-7 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=25 November 2009 |title=France's crisis of national identity |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/frances-crisis-of-national-identity-1826942.html |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-date=20 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320064705/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/frances-crisis-of-national-identity-1826942.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>"Les personnes d'origine maghrébine y sont également au nombre de 5 à 6 millions; 3,5 millions ont la nationalité française (don't 500 000 harkis)", Évelyne Perrin, ''Identité Nationale, Amer Ministère'', L'Harmattan, 2010, p. 112 {{ISBN|978-2-296-10839-4}}</ref> [[Afro-French|Sub-Saharan African]] (2.5 million), Armenian (500,000), and Turkish (200,000).<ref>{{Cite web |first=Falila |last=Gbadamassi |title=Les personnes originaires d'Afrique, des Dom-Tom et de la Turquie sont 5,5 millions dans l'Hexagone |url=http://www.afrik.com/article16248.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002085632/http://www.afrik.com/article16248.html |archive-date=2 October 2013 |publisher=Afrik.com}}</ref> There are also sizeable minorities of other [[European ethnic groups]], namely [[Spaniards|Spanish]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[Polish people|Polish]], and [[Greeks|Greek]].<ref name="Cohen1995"/><ref>{{Cite news |last=Richburg |first=Keith B. |date=24 April 2005 |title=Europe's Minority Politicians in Short Supply |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A12396-2005Apr23.html |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116210433/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A12396-2005Apr23.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sachs |first=Susan |date=12 January 2007 |title=In officially colorblind France, blacks have a dream – and now a lobby |work=The Christian Science Monitor |location=Boston |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0112/p01s04-woeu.html |access-date=15 August 2009 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827133159/http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0112/p01s04-woeu.html |url-status=live }}</ref> France has a significant [[Romani people in France|Gitan (Romani)]] population, numbering between 20,000 and 400,000;<ref>{{Cite web |title=National strategy for Roma integration – European Commission – DG Justiceunknown label |url=http://ec.europa.eu/justice/discrimination/roma-integration/france/national-strategy/national_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306140020/http://ec.europa.eu/justice/discrimination/roma-integration/france/national-strategy/national_en.htm |archive-date=6 March 2016}}</ref> many foreign [[Romani people|Roma]] are [[Deportation of Roma migrants from France|expelled back to Bulgaria and Romania frequently.]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Astier |first=Henri |date=13 February 2014 |title=France's unwanted Roma |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-25419423 |publisher=BBC |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=3 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303141958/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-25419423 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Immigration ===
{{Main|Immigration to France}}
It is currently estimated that 40% of the French population is descended at least partially from the different waves of immigration since the early 20th century;<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 November 2005 |title=Paris Riots in Perspective |work=ABC News |location=New York |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=1280843 |access-date=28 June 2020 |archive-date=20 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320064708/https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=1280843 |url-status=live }}</ref> between 1921 and 1935 alone, about 1.1 million net immigrants came to France.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hassell |first=James E. |title=Russian Refugees in France and the United States Between the World Wars |date=1991 |publisher=American Philosophical Society |isbn=978-0-87169-817-9 |series=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=81/7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uUsLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA22 22] |chapter=III. French Government and the Refugees}}</ref> The next largest wave came in the 1960s when around 1.6 million ''[[Pied-Noir|pieds noirs]]'' returned to France following the independence of its Northwest African possessions, Algeria and Morocco.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Markham |first=James M. |date=6 April 1988 |title=For Pieds-Noirs, the Anger Endures |work=The New York Times |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEFDE1539F935A35757C0A96E948260}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Migration and development co-operation |date=1994 |isbn=978-92-871-2611-5 |editor-first=Raimondo Cagiano |editor-last=De Azevedo |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N8VHizsqaH0C&pg=PA25 25]}}</ref> They were joined by numerous former colonial subjects from North and West Africa, as well as numerous European immigrants from Spain and Portugal.

[[File:Calais2015a.jpg|thumb|The [[Calais Jungle]] was a [[refugee]] and [[Economic migrant|illegal migrant]] encampment in the vicinity of [[Calais]], France, that existed from January 2015 to October 2016.]]
France remains a major destination for immigrants, accepting about 200,000 legal immigrants annually.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 November 2010 |title=Flux d'immigration par continent d'origine |trans-title=Immigration flow by continent of origin |url=https://www.ined.fr/fr/tout-savoir-population/chiffres/france/flux-immigration/annee-continent/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523053018/http://www.ined.fr/fr/pop_chiffres/france/flux_immigration/depuis_1994/ |archive-date=23 May 2012 |website=Ined |language=fr}}</ref> In 2005, it was Western Europe's leading recipient of [[refugee|asylum]] seekers, with an estimated 50,000 applications (albeit a 15% decrease from 2004).<ref name="UNHCR">{{Cite book |title=UNHCR Global Report 2005 |publisher=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]] |chapter=Western Europe |access-date=14 December 2006 |chapter-url=http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/4492677f0.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614025835/http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/4492677f0.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2010, France received about 48,100 asylum applications—placing it among the top five asylum recipients in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kalt |first1=Anne |last2=Hossain |first2=Mazeda |last3=Kiss |first3=Ligia |last4=Zimmerman |first4=Cathy |date=March 2013 |title=Asylum Seekers, Violence and Health: A Systematic Review of Research in High-Income Host Countries |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=103 |issue=3 |pages=e30–e42 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.301136 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=3673512 |pmid=23327250}}</ref> In subsequent years it saw the number of applications increase, ultimately doubling to 100,412 in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2017 |title=aida – Asylum Information Database – Country Report: France |url=https://www.asylumineurope.org/sites/default/files/report-download/aida_fr_2017update.pdf |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=26 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201226092504/https://www.asylumineurope.org/sites/default/files/report-download/aida_fr_2017update.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The European Union allows free movement between the member states, although France established controls to curb [[Eastern European]] migration.{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}} Foreigners' rights are established in the [[Code of Entry and Residence of Foreigners and of the Right to Asylum]]. Immigration remains a contentious political issue.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 June 2023 |title=Le regard des Français sur l'immigration |url=https://www.ifop.com/publication/le-regard-des-francais-sur-limmigration-3/ |website=IFOP |language=fr |access-date=20 January 2024 |archive-date=26 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126070820/https://www.ifop.com/publication/le-regard-des-francais-sur-limmigration-3/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2008, the [[Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques|INSEE]] (National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies) estimated that the total number of foreign-born immigrants was around 5 million (8% of the population), while their French-born descendants numbered 6.5 million, or 11% of the population. Thus, nearly a fifth of the country's population were either first or second-generation immigrants, of which more than 5 million were of European origin and 4 million of [[Maghrebis|Maghrebi]] ancestry.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Catherine Borrel |last2=Bertrand Lhommeau |date=30 March 2010 |title=Être né en France d'un parent immigré |trans-title=To be born in France of an immigrant parent |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=ip1287 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203052501/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=ip1287 |archive-date=3 February 2012 |publisher=Insee |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="Insee_1">{{Cite web |year=2008 |title=Répartition des immigrés par pays de naissance |trans-title=Distribution of immigrants by country of birth |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=immigrespaysnais |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026174732/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=immigrespaysnais |archive-date=26 October 2011 |publisher=Insee |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="INSEE1">{{Cite web |first=Catherine |last=Borrel |date=August 2006 |title=Enquêtes annuelles de recensement 2004 et 2005 |trans-title=Annual census surveys 2004 and 2005 |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/ipweb/ip1098/ip1098.html#encadre1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061212212050/http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/ipweb/ip1098/ip1098.html |archive-date=12 December 2006 |access-date=14 December 2006 |publisher=Insee |language=fr}}</ref> In 2008, France granted [[citizenship]] to 137,000 persons, mostly from Morocco, Algeria and Turkey.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Swalec |first=Andrea |date=6 July 2010 |title=Turks and Moroccans top list of new EU citizens |work=Reuters |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-49921620100706 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112223503/http://in.reuters.com/article/2010/07/06/idINIndia-49921620100706 |archive-date=12 January 2012}}</ref> In 2022, more than 320,000 migrants came to France, with the majority coming from [[Africa]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-01-27 |title=Immigration rose in France in 2022, driven by labor needs and foreign students |language=en |work=Le Monde.fr |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/france/article/2023/01/27/immigration-rose-in-france-in-2022-driven-by-labor-needs-and-foreign-students_6013360_7.html |archive-date=2023-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713024531/https://www.lemonde.fr/en/france/article/2023/01/27/immigration-rose-in-france-in-2022-driven-by-labor-needs-and-foreign-students_6013360_7.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2014, the INSEE reported a significant increase in the number of immigrants coming from Spain, Portugal and Italy between 2009 and 2012. According to the institute, this increase resulted from the financial crisis that hit several European countries in that period.<ref name="sudouest.fr">{{Cite news |date=2 December 2014 |title=Qui sont les nouveaux immigrés qui vivent en France? |language=fr |trans-title=Who are the new immigrants living in France? |work=SudOuest |url=http://www.sudouest.fr/2014/11/28/qui-sont-les-nouveaux-immigres-qui-vivent-en-france-1751452-705.php |access-date=3 May 2015 |archive-date=17 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160717001609/http://www.sudouest.fr/2014/11/28/qui-sont-les-nouveaux-immigres-qui-vivent-en-france-1751452-705.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Statistics on Spanish immigrants in France show a growth of 107 per cent between 2009 and 2012, with the population growing from 5,300 to 11,000.<ref name="sudouest.fr"/> Of the total of 229,000 foreigners coming to France in 2012, nearly 8% were Portuguese, 5% British, 5% Spanish, 4% Italian, 4% German, 3% Romanian, and 3% Belgian.<ref name="sudouest.fr"/>

===Language===
{{Main|French language|Languages of France|Organisation internationale de la Francophonie}}
[[File:Map-Francophone World.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=world map of French speaking countries|Map of the [[List of territorial entities where French is an official language|Francophone]] world:
{{Legend|#0c5eb1|Native language}}
{{Legend|#0080ff|Administrative language}}
{{Legend|#9fceff|Secondary or cultural language}}
]]
The official language of France is French,<ref>{{In lang|fr}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20110604145028/http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/constitution/constitution2.htm La Constitution- La Constitution du 4 Octobre 1958] – Légifrance.</ref> a [[Romance language]] derived from [[Latin]]. Since 1635, the [[Académie française]] has been France's official authority on the French language, although its recommendations carry no legal weight. There are also regional languages spoken in France, such as [[Occitan language|Occitan]], [[Breton language|Breton]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[French Flemish|Flemish]] ([[Dutch language|Dutch]] dialect), [[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]] (German dialect), [[Basque language|Basque]], and [[Corsican language|Corsican]] (Italian dialect). Italian was the official language of Corsica until 9 May 1859.<ref>Abalain, Hervé, (2007) ''Le français et les langues historiques de la France'', Éditions Jean-Paul Gisserot, p. 113.</ref>

The Government of France does not regulate the choice of language in publications by individuals, but the use of French is required by law in commercial and workplace communications. In addition to mandating the use of French in the territory of the Republic, the French government tries to promote French in the European Union and globally through institutions such as the {{Lang|fr|[[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]]|italic=no}}. Besides French, there exist 77 vernacular minority languages of France, eight spoken in French metropolitan territory and 69 in the French [[Overseas departments and territories of France|overseas territories]]. It is estimated that between 300 million<ref>{{Cite web |title=French: one of the world's main languages |url=http://about-france.com/french/french-language.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516223437/http://about-france.com/french/french-language.htm |archive-date=16 May 2016 |access-date=21 July 2011 |publisher=About-france.com}}</ref> and 500 million<ref>{{In lang|fr}} [http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/francophonie/francophonie.htm Qu'est-ce que la Francophonie ?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623113030/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/francophonie/francophonie.htm|date=23 June 2011}} – [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]]</ref> people worldwide can speak French, either as a mother tongue or as a second language.

According to the 2007 Adult Education survey, part of a project by the [[European Union]] and carried out in France by the [[INSEE]] and based on a sample of 15,350 persons, French was the native language of 87.2% of the total population, or roughly 55.81 million people, followed by Arabic (3.6%, 2.3 million), Portuguese (1.5%, 960,000), Spanish (1.2%, 770,000) and Italian (1.0%, 640,000). Native speakers of other languages made up the remaining 5.2% of the population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences |url=https://www.gesis.org/en/missy/metadata/AES/2007/Cross-sectional/original#2007-Cross-sectional-MOTHTONG1 |access-date=24 April 2018 |website=gesis.org |archive-date=24 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424202500/https://www.gesis.org/en/missy/metadata/AES/2007/Cross-sectional/original#2007-Cross-sectional-MOTHTONG1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in France}}
[[File:Reims Cathédrale Notre-Dame 5002 (fixed angles).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Notre-Dame de Reims façade, gothic stone cathedral against blue sky|[[Reims Cathedral|Notre-Dame de Reims]] is the Roman Catholic cathedral where the [[Coronation of the French monarch|Kings of France were crowned]] until 1825.{{Efn-ur|The last ''sacre'' was that of [[Charles X of France|Charles X]], 29 May 1825.}}]]
France is a secular country in which [[freedom of religion]] is a constitutional right. The French policy on religion is based on the concept of ''[[laïcité]]'', a strict [[separation of church and state]] under which the government and public life are kept completely secular, detached from any religion. The region of [[Alsace]] and [[Moselle]] is an exception to the general French norm since the [[local law in Alsace-Moselle|local law]] stipulates official status and state funding for [[Lutheranism]], [[Catholicism]], and [[Judaism]]. <ref name=religion2020>{{cite web|last1=Drouhot|first1=Lucas|last2=Simon|first2=Patrick|last3=Tiberj|first3=Vincent|url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/fichier/6793308/IMMFRA23-D2.pdf|title=La diversité religieuse en France : transmissions intergénérationnelles et pratiques selon les origines|trans-title=Religious diversity in France: Intergenerational transmissions and practices according to the origins|publisher=[[Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques|National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (INSEE)|type=official statistics|date=30 March 2023|language=fr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330154402/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/fichier/6793308/IMMFRA23-D2.pdf|archive-date=30 March 2023}}</ref>

[[Catholic Church in France|Catholicism]] has been the main religion in France for more than a millennium, and it was once the country's [[state religion]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wolf|first1=John Baptiste Wolf|title=The Emergence of European Civilization: From the Middle Ages to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century|date=1962|publisher=University of Virginia Press|isbn=9789733203162|page=419|quote=}}</ref> France was traditionally considered the Church's eldest daughter (French: ''Fille aînée de l'Église''), and the [[King of France]] always maintained close links to the Pope,<ref name="Parisse">{{cite book|title=The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 900–c. 1024|volume=III|editor-first=T.|editor-last=Reuter|last=Parisse|first=Michael|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, UK|chapter=Lotharingia|pages=313–315}}</ref> receiving the title ''Most Christian Majesty'' from the Pope in 1464.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095610571 | title=Christian Majesty, His Most }}</ref> However, the French monarchy maintained a significant degree of autonomy, namely through its policy of "[[Gallicanism]]", whereby the king selected bishops rather than the papacy.<ref>Wolfe, M. (2005). Jotham Parsons. The Church in the Republic: Gallicanism and Political Ideology in Renaissance France. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. 2004. pp. ix, 322. The American Historical Review, 110(4), 1254–1255.</ref> Its role nowadays, however, has been greatly reduced, although, as of 2012, among the 47,000 religious buildings in France 94% were still Catholic churches.<ref>{{cite web|date=1 February 2012|title=Observatoire du patrimoine religieux|url=http://www.patrimoine-religieux.fr/rubriques/gauche/actualites/actualites-de-la-base-de-donnees|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126171213/http://www.patrimoine-religieux.fr/rubriques/gauche/actualites/actualites-de-la-base-de-donnees|archive-date=26 November 2013|quote=94% des édifices sont catholiques (dont 50% églises paroissiales, 25% chapelles, 25% édifices appartenant au clergé régulier)}}</ref> After alternating between royal and secular republican governments during the 19th century, in 1905 France passed the [[1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State|1905 law on the Separation of the Churches and the State]], which established the aforementioned principle of ''laïcité''.<ref name="georgetown2">{{cite web|title=France|url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/france|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206213909/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/france|archive-date=6 February 2011|publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]]}}</ref>

The government is prohibited from recognising specific rights to any religious community (with the exception of legacy statutes like those of military chaplains and the aforementioned local law in Alsace-Moselle). It recognises religious organisations according to formal legal criteria that do not address religious doctrine, and religious organisations are expected to refrain from intervening in policymaking.<ref>''Joy of Sects'', Sam Jordison, 2006, p. 166</ref> Some religious groups, such as [[Scientology]], the [[The Family International|Children of God]], the [[Unification Church]], and the [[Order of the Solar Temple]], are considered [[cult]]s (''sectes'' in French, which is considered a pejorative term<ref>{{Cite web |title=Society2; religion in France; beliefs; secularism (laicité) |url=http://www.understandfrance.org/France/Society2.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090916220047/http://www.understandfrance.org/France/Society2.html |archive-date=16 September 2009 |access-date=20 September 2009 |publisher=Understandfrance.org}}{{Self-published source|date=June 2016}}</ref>) in France, and therefore they are not granted the same status as recognised religions.<ref>{{cite web|title=Commission d'enquête sur les sectes|url=http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/rap-enq/r2468.asp|publisher=Assemblee-nationale.fr|access-date=11 February 2008|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225144222/http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/rap-enq/r2468.asp|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Health===
{{Main|Health in France}}
[[File:P1000513_Paris_XIII_Salpetrière_reductwk.JPG|thumb|alt=Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris, stone building with slate dome|The [[Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital]], a teaching hospital in Paris, is one of Europe's largest hospitals.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070117112822/http://www.paris-region.com/ard_uk/upload/document/D176.pdf How to conduct European clinical trials from the Paris Region ?] Clinical Trials. Paris. February 2003</ref>]]
The [[Health in France|French health care system]] is one of [[universal health care]] largely financed by government [[national health insurance]]. In its 2000 assessment of world health care systems, the [[World Health Organization]] found that France provided the "close to best overall health care" in the world.<ref name="who.int">{{Cite web |date=8 December 2010 |title=World Health Organization Assesses the World's Health Systems |url=https://www.who.int/whr/2000/media_centre/press_release/en/ |access-date=6 January 2012 |publisher=Who.int |archive-date=11 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111222713/https://www.who.int/whr/2000/media_centre/press_release/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The French health care system was ranked first worldwide by the World Health Organization in 1997.<ref>[http://www.photius.com/rankings/healthranks.html The ranking, see spreadsheet details for a whole analysis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105190014/http://www.photius.com/rankings/healthranks.html |date=5 January 2010 }} photius.com</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Measuring Overall Health System Performance for 191 Countries |url=https://www.who.int/healthinfo/paper30.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805022057/http://www.who.int/healthinfo/paper30.pdf |archive-date=5 August 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> In 2011, France spent 11.6% of its GDP on health care, or US$4,086 per capita,<ref name="WHO country facts: France">{{Cite web |title=WHO country facts: France |url=https://www.who.int/countries/fra/en/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111212445/http://www.who.int/countries/fra/en/ |archive-date=11 November 2013 |access-date=11 November 2013 |publisher=Who.int}}</ref> a figure much higher than the average spent by countries in Europe. Approximately 77% of health expenditures are covered by government-funded agencies.<ref>The World Health Report 2000: WHO</ref>

Care is generally free for people affected by [[chronic disease]]s (''affections de longues durées'') such as cancer, AIDS or [[cystic fibrosis]]. The life expectancy at birth is 78 years for men and 85 years for women.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Espérance de vie, taux de mortalité et taux de mortalité infantile dans le monde |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=98&ref_id=CMPTEF02216 |publisher=Insee |language=fr |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-date=29 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629191455/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=98&ref_id=CMPTEF02216 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Evolution de l'espérance de vie à divers âges |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATnon02229 |publisher=Insee |language=fr |access-date=1 January 2012 |archive-date=30 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730030227/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATnon02229 |url-status=live }}</ref> There are 3.22 physicians for every 1000 inhabitants in France,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nombre de médecins pour 1000 habitants |url=http://www.statistiques-mondiales.com/medecins.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305131215/http://www.statistiques-mondiales.com/medecins.htm |archive-date=5 March 2010 |publisher=Statistiques mondiales |language=fr}}</ref> and average health care spending per capita was US$4,719 in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dépenses de santé par habitants |url=http://www.statistiques-mondiales.com/sante.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212061623/http://www.statistiques-mondiales.com/sante.htm |archive-date=12 December 2009 |publisher=Statistiques mondiales |language=fr}}</ref>
{{As of|2007}}, approximately 140,000 inhabitants (0.4%) of France are living with HIV/AIDS.<ref name =France/>

===Education===
{{Main|Education in France}}
[[File:Façade_de_l'École_normale_supérieure.JPG|thumb|upright|right|The [[École normale supérieure (Paris)|ENS]] produces among the most [[Nobel Prize]] laureates [[per capita]] in the world.<ref>Tom Clynes, [https://www.nature.com/news/where-nobel-winners-get-their-start-1.20757 Where Nobel winners get their start] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215132436/https://www.nature.com/news/where-nobel-winners-get-their-start-1.20757 |date=15 February 2021 }}, [[Nature (journal)|Nature]], 7 October 2016</ref>]]
In 1802, [[Napoleon]] created the [[lycée]], the second and final stage of secondary education that prepares students for higher education studies or a profession.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Lycée |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/352505/lycee |access-date=22 July 2011 |archive-date=15 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915115742/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/352505/lycee |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Jules Ferry]] is considered the father of the French modern school, leading reforms in the late 19th century that established free, secular and compulsory education (currently mandatory until the age of 16).<ref>{{In lang|fr}} [http://www.senat.fr/rap/l97-504/l97-5041.html II. L'évolution du contenu de l'obligation scolaire] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429205049/http://www.senat.fr/rap/l97-504/l97-5041.html |date=29 April 2011 }}. Sénat.fr</ref><ref>{{In lang|fr}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605080546/http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/site-jeunes/laicite/fiche-dates/fiche-1881-1882/fiche.pdf 1881–1882 : Lois Ferry École publique gratuite, laïque et obligatoire]. Assemblé Nationale</ref>

French education is centralised and divided into three stages: primary, secondary, and higher education. The [[Programme for International Student Assessment]], coordinated by the [[OECD]], ranked France's education as near the OECD average in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Compare your country – PISA 2018 |url=https://www2.compareyourcountry.org/pisa/country/FRA?lg=en |access-date=4 October 2021 |website=www2.compareyourcountry.org |language=en |archive-date=29 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929001406/https://www2.compareyourcountry.org/pisa/country/FRA?lg=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) France report |url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/PISA2018_CN_FRA.pdf |website=oecd |access-date=4 October 2021 |archive-date=29 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929170215/https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/PISA2018_CN_FRA.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> France was one of the PISA-participating countries where school children perceived some of the lowest levels of support and feedback from their teachers.<ref name=":2"/> Schoolchildren in France reported greater concern about the disciplinary climate and behaviour in classrooms compared to other [[OECD]] countries.<ref name=":2"/>

Higher education is divided between [[Universities in France|public universities]] and the prestigious and selective ''[[Grande école|Grandes écoles]]'', such as [[Sciences Po|Sciences Po Paris]] for political studies, [[HEC Paris]] for economics, [[École Polytechnique|Polytechnique]], the [[École des hautes études en sciences sociales]] for social studies and the [[École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris]] that produce high-profile engineers, or the [[École nationale d'administration]] for careers in the [[Grands corps de l'État|Grands Corps]] of the state. The ''Grandes écoles'' have been criticised for alleged [[elitism]], producing many if not most of France's high-ranking civil servants, CEOs and politicians.<ref name="gécoles">{{In lang|fr}} [http://www.lefigaro.fr/formation/2010/01/08/01015-20100108ARTFIG00525-les-grandes-ecoles-dans-la-tourmente-.php Les grandes écoles dans la tourmente] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415162843/http://www.lefigaro.fr/formation/2010/01/08/01015-20100108ARTFIG00525-les-grandes-ecoles-dans-la-tourmente-.php |date=15 April 2016 }} – [[Le Figaro]]</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of France}}

===Art===
{{Main|French art}}
[[File:Claude Monet 1899 Nadar crop.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Claude Monet]], founder of the [[Impressionism|Impressionist]] movement]]

The origins of French art were very much influenced by [[Flemish art]] and by [[Italian art]] at the time of the [[Renaissance]]. [[Jean Fouquet]], the most famous medieval French painter, is said to have been the first to travel to Italy and experience the Early Renaissance firsthand. The Renaissance painting [[School of Fontainebleau]] was directly inspired by Italian painters such as [[Primaticcio]] and [[Rosso Fiorentino]], who both worked in France. Two of the most famous French artists of the time of the [[Baroque era]], [[Nicolas Poussin]] and [[Claude Lorrain]], lived in Italy.

French artists developed the [[rococo]] style in the 18th century, as a more intimate imitation of the old baroque style, the works of the court-endorsed artists [[Antoine Watteau]], [[François Boucher]] and [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]] being the most representative in the country. The French Revolution brought great changes, as [[Napoleon]] favoured artists of [[Neoclassicism|neoclassic style]] such as [[Jacques-Louis David]] and the highly influential [[Académie des Beaux-Arts]] defined the style known as [[Academism]].

In the second part of the 19th century, France's influence over painting grew, with the development of new styles of painting such as [[Impressionism]] and [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]]. The most famous impressionist painters of the period were [[Camille Pissarro]], [[Édouard Manet]], [[Edgar Degas]], [[Claude Monet]] and [[Auguste Renoir]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Guide to Impressionism |url=http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/learn-about-art/guide-to-impressionism/guide-to-impressionism |access-date=22 July 2011 |publisher=National Gallery |archive-date=16 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090716162545/http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/learn-about-art/guide-to-impressionism/guide-to-impressionism |url-status=live }}</ref> The second generation of impressionist-style painters, [[Paul Cézanne]], [[Paul Gauguin]], [[Toulouse-Lautrec]] and [[Georges Seurat]], were also at the avant-garde of artistic evolutions,<ref>{{In lang|fr}} RFI, [http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/063/article_34792.asp Le néo-impressionnisme de Seurat à Paul Klee] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010120343/http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/063/article_34792.asp |date=10 October 2017 }} 15 March 2005</ref> as well as the [[Fauvism|fauvist]] artists [[Henri Matisse]], [[André Derain]] and [[Maurice de Vlaminck]].<ref>National Gallery of Art (United States), [http://www.nga.gov/feature/artnation/fauve/index.shtm The Fauves (dossier)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105195501/http://www.nga.gov/feature/artnation/fauve/index.shtm|date=5 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{In lang|fr}} RFI, [http://www.rfi.fr/culturefr/articles/098/article_63189.asp Vlaminck, version fauve] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010120345/http://www.rfi.fr/culturefr/articles/098/article_63189.asp|date=10 October 2017}}, 25 February 2008</ref>

At the beginning of the 20th century, Cubism was developed by [[Georges Braque]] and the Spanish painter [[Pablo Picasso]], living in Paris. Other foreign artists also settled and worked in or near Paris, such as [[Vincent van Gogh]], [[Marc Chagall]], [[Amedeo Modigliani]] and [[Wassily Kandinsky]].

There are many art museums in France, the most famous of which being the state-owned [[Louvre|Musée du Louvre]], which collects artwork from the 18th century and earlier. The [[Musée d'Orsay]] was inaugurated in 1986 in the old railway station [[Gare d'Orsay]], in a major reorganisation of national art collections, to gather French paintings from the second part of the 19th century (mainly Impressionism and Fauvism movements).<ref>Musée d'Orsay (official website), History of the museum – [http://www.musee-orsay.fr/en/collections/history-of-the-museum/home.html From station to museum]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=31 July 2007 |title=History of the painting collection |url=http://www.musee-orsay.fr/en/collections/history-of-the-collections/painting.html |access-date=22 July 2011 |publisher=Musee-orsay.fr}}</ref> It was voted the best museum in the world in 2018.<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/best-museums-world-2018-musee-dorsay-paris-911-new-york-tripadvisor-a8525151.html The top 10 museums in the world], [[The Independent]], 6 September 2018</ref> Modern works are presented in the [[Musée National d'Art Moderne]], which moved in 1976 to the [[Centre Georges Pompidou]]. These three state-owned museums are visited by close to 17 million people a year.<ref name="sites">{{In lang|fr}} Ministry of Tourism, [http://www.tourisme.gouv.fr/stat_etudes/memento/2009/sites.pdf Sites touristiques en France] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511093631/http://www.tourisme.gouv.fr/stat_etudes/memento/2009/sites.pdf|date=11 May 2011}} page 2 "Palmarès des 30 premiers sites culturels (entrées comptabilisées)" [Ranking of 30 most visited cultural sites in France]</ref>

===Architecture===
{{Main|French architecture}}
[[File:Sainte Chapelle - Upper level 1.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Sainte Chapelle interior showing painted stonework vaulting and stained glass|[[Louis IX of France|Saint Louis]]'s [[Sainte-Chapelle]] represents the French impact on religious architecture.]]
During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers. Some French castles that survived are [[Chinon (castle)|Chinon]], [[Château d'Angers]], the massive [[Château de Vincennes]] and the so-called [[Cathar castles]]. During this era, France had been using [[Romanesque architecture]] like most of Western Europe.

[[Gothic architecture]], originally named ''Opus Francigenum'' meaning "French work",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brodie |first=Allan M. |title=Oxford Art Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-884446-05-4 |chapter=Opus francigenum |doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t063666 |access-date=13 January 2019 |chapter-url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000063666}}</ref> was born in [[Île-de-France]] and was the first French style of architecture to be imitated throughout Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Gothic Period |url=http://www.justfrance.org/france/architecture/001.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718181401/http://www.justfrance.org/france/architecture/001.asp |archive-date=18 July 2011 |access-date=22 July 2011 |publisher=Justfrance.org}}</ref> Northern France is the home of some of the most important Gothic cathedrals and basilicas, the first of these being the [[Saint Denis Basilica]] (used as the royal necropolis); other important French Gothic cathedrals are [[Cathedral of Chartres|Notre-Dame de Chartres]] and [[Amiens Cathedral|Notre-Dame d'Amiens]]. The kings were crowned in another important Gothic church: [[Notre-Dame de Reims]].<ref>{{In lang|fr}} [http://www.cathedrale-reims.culture.fr/histoire.html Histoire et Architecture] – [http://www.cathedrale-reims.culture.fr Site officiel de la Cathedrale de Notre-Dame de Reims] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160717234437/http://www.cathedrale-reims.culture.fr/|date=17 July 2016}}</ref>

The final victory in the Hundred Years' War marked an important stage in the evolution of French architecture. It was the time of the [[French Renaissance]] and several artists from Italy were invited to the French court; many residential palaces were built in the [[Loire Valley]], from 1450 as a first reference the [[Château de Montsoreau]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Loire |first=Mission Val de |title=Charles VII et Louis XI -Know -Val de Loire patrimoine mondial |url=https://www.valdeloire.org/Connaitre/Au-fil-de-l-histoire/Le-Val-de-Loire-siege-du-pouvoir-royal/Charles-VII-et-Louis-XI |access-date=10 October 2018 |website=loirevalley-worldheritage.org}}</ref> Examples of such residential castles include the [[Château de Chambord]], the [[Château de Chenonceau]], or the [[Château d'Amboise]].

Following the Renaissance and the end of the Middle Ages, [[French Baroque architecture|Baroque architecture]] replaced the traditional Gothic style. However, in France, Baroque architecture found greater success in the secular domain than in the religious one.<ref>{{In lang|fr}} Claude Lébedel – Les Splendeurs du Baroque en France: ''Histoire et splendeurs du baroque en France'' page 9: "Si en allant plus loin, on prononce les mots 'art baroque en France', on provoque alors le plus souvent une moue interrogative, parfois seulement étonnée, parfois franchement réprobatrice: Mais voyons, l'art baroque n'existe pas en France!"</ref> In the secular domain, the [[Palace of Versailles]] has many Baroque features. [[Jules Hardouin Mansart]], who designed the extensions to Versailles, was one of the most influential French architects of the Baroque era; he is famous for his dome at [[Les Invalides]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hills |first=Helen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLmFbEdqBDUC&pg=PA86 |title=Architecture and the Politics of Gender in Early Modern Europe |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7546-0309-2 |page=86}}</ref> Some of the most impressive provincial Baroque architecture is found in places that were not yet French such as [[Place Stanislas]] in [[Nancy, France|Nancy]]. On the military architectural side, [[Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban|Vauban]] designed some of the most efficient fortresses in Europe and became an influential military architect; as a result, imitations of his works can be found all over Europe, the Americas, Russia and Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 July 2008 |title=Fortifications of Vauban |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1283 |access-date=9 August 2010 |publisher=UNESCO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Official site of the UNESCO |url=https://en.unesco.org/ |access-date=9 August 2010 |publisher=UNESCO}}</ref>

After the Revolution, the [[Republicanism|Republicans]] favoured [[Neoclassicism]] although it was introduced in France before the revolution with such buildings as the [[Panthéon|Parisian Pantheon]] or the [[Capitole de Toulouse]]. Built during the first French Empire, the [[Arc de Triomphe]] and [[Église de la Madeleine|Sainte Marie-Madeleine]] represent the best example of [[Empire style|Empire-style]] architecture.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtabdzMdbboC&pg=PA48 |title=Paris: City Guide |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-74059-850-7 |page=48}}</ref> Under [[Napoleon III]], a new wave of urbanism and architecture was given birth; extravagant buildings such as the neo-Baroque [[Palais Garnier]] were built. The urban planning of the time was very organised and rigorous; most notably, [[Haussmann's renovation of Paris]]. The architecture associated with this era is named [[Second Empire (architecture)|Second Empire]] in English, the term being taken from the [[Second French Empire]]. At this time there was a strong Gothic resurgence across Europe and in France; the associated architect was [[Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]. In the late 19th century, [[Gustave Eiffel]] designed many bridges, such as the [[Garabit viaduct]], and remains one of the most influential bridge designers of his time, although he is best remembered for the [[Eiffel Tower]].

In the 20th century, French-Swiss architect [[Le Corbusier]] designed several buildings in France. More recently, French architects have combined both modern and old architectural styles. The [[Louvre Pyramid]] is an example of modern architecture added to an older building. The most difficult buildings to integrate within French cities are skyscrapers, as they are visible from afar. For instance, in Paris, since 1977, new buildings had to be under {{Convert| 37| m}}.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Henri |last=Seckel |date=8 July 2008 |title=Urbanisme : Des gratte-ciel à Paris : qu'en pensez-vous  – Posez vos questions |url=http://lci.tf1.fr/posez-vos-questions/2008-07/gratte-ciel-paris-pensez-vous-4872555.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101029152433/http://lci.tf1.fr/posez-vos-questions/2008-07/gratte-ciel-paris-pensez-vous-4872555.html |archive-date=29 October 2010 |publisher=MYTF1News}}</ref> France's largest financial district is [[La Défense]], where a significant number of skyscrapers are located.<ref>[http://www.groupenci.com/uk/ile-de-france/defense.com-square.html In the heart of the main European Business area] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100729154317/http://www.groupenci.com/uk/ile-de-france/defense.com-square.html|date=29 July 2010}} – NCI Business Center</ref> Other massive buildings that are a challenge to integrate into their environment are large bridges; an example of the way this has been done is the [[Millau Viaduct]]. Some famous modern French architects include [[Jean Nouvel]], [[Dominique Perrault]], [[Christian de Portzamparc]] and [[Paul Andreu]].

===Literature and philosophy===
{{Main|French literature|French philosophy}}
[[File:Victor Hugo by Étienne Carjat 1876 - full.jpg|thumb|[[Victor Hugo]], a French [[Romanticism|Romantic]] writer and politician]]

The earliest French literature dates from the [[Middle Age]]s when what is now known as modern France did not have a single, uniform language. There were several languages and dialects, and writers used their own spelling and grammar. Some authors of French medieval texts, such as ''[[Tristan and Iseult]]'' and ''[[Lancelot-Grail]]'' are unknown. Three famous medieval authors are [[Chrétien de Troyes]], [[Christine de Pizan]] ([[Langues d'oïl|langue d'oïl]]), and [[William IX of Aquitaine|Duke William IX of Aquitaine]] ([[Occitan language|langue d'oc]]). Much medieval French poetry and literature was inspired by the legends of the [[Matter of France|Carolingian cycle]], such as the ''[[Song of Roland]]'' and the [[chansons de geste]]. The ''Roman de Renart'', written in 1175 by Perrout de Saint Cloude, tells the story of the medieval character [[Reynard]] ('the Fox') and is another example of early French writing. An important 16th-century writer was [[François Rabelais]], who wrote five popular early [[picaresque]] novels. Rabelais was also in regular communication with [[Marguerite de Navarre]], author of the ''[[Heptameron]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Rabelais and Marguerite de Navarre on Sixteenth-Century Views of Clandestine Marriage | first= Cathleen M. |last= Bauschatz | journal = Sixteenth Century Journal | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 395–408 | date = 2003| doi = 10.2307/20061415 | jstor = 20061415 | s2cid= 163972746 }}</ref> Another 16th-century author was [[Michel de Montaigne]], whose most famous work, ''[[Essays (Montaigne)|Essais]]'', started a literary genre.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Montaigne |url=http://www.humanistictexts.org/montaigne.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525201508/http://www.humanistictexts.org/montaigne.htm |archive-date=25 May 2011 |access-date=22 July 2011 |publisher=Humanistictexts.org}}</ref>

French literature and poetry flourished during the 18th and 19th centuries. [[Denis Diderot]] is best known as the main editor of the ''[[Encyclopédie]]'', whose aim was to sum up all the knowledge of his century and to fight ignorance and [[obscurantism]]. During that same century, [[Charles Perrault]] was a prolific writer of children's fairy tales including ''[[Puss in Boots]]'', ''[[Cinderella]]'', ''[[Sleeping Beauty]]'' and ''[[Bluebeard]]''. At the start of the 19th century, [[symbolism (movement)|symbolist poetry]] was an important movement in French literature, with poets such as [[Charles Baudelaire]], [[Paul Verlaine]] and [[Stéphane Mallarmé]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Le Symbolisme français |url=http://users.skynet.be/litterature/symbolisme/symbolismefrancais.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307192737/http://users.skynet.be/litterature/symbolisme/symbolismefrancais.htm |archive-date=7 March 2018 |access-date=29 July 2010 |website=users.skynet.be}}</ref>

The 19th century saw the writings of many French authors. Victor Hugo is sometimes seen as "the greatest French writer of all time"<ref name="victor">{{Cite web |title=Victor Hugo est le plus grand écrivain français |url=http://www.lecavalierbleu.com/images/30/extrait_75.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723121408/http://www.lecavalierbleu.com/images/30/extrait_75.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2013}}</ref> for excelling in all [[literary genre]]s. Hugo's verse has been compared to that of Shakespeare, [[Dante]] and [[Homer]].<ref name="hugo">{{Cite web |title=Victor Hugo 1802–1885 |url=http://www.enotes.com/victor-hugo-criticism/hugo-victor |access-date=16 July 2011 |publisher=Enotes.com}}</ref> His novel ''[[Les Misérables]]'' is widely seen as one of the greatest novels ever written<ref>{{Cite web |title=All-Time 100 Best Novels List |url=http://www.adherents.com/people/100_novel.html |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051128235020/http://adherents.com/people/100_novel.html |archive-date=28 November 2005 |access-date=22 July 2011 |publisher=Adherents.com}}</ref> and ''[[The Hunchback of Notre-Dame|The Hunchback of Notre Dame]]'' has remained immensely popular. Other major authors of that century include [[Alexandre Dumas]] (''[[The Three Musketeers]]'' and ''[[The Count of Monte-Cristo]]''), [[Jules Verne]] (''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas]]''), [[Émile Zola]] (''[[Les Rougon-Macquart]]''), [[Honoré de Balzac]] (''[[La Comédie humaine]]''), [[Guy de Maupassant]], [[Théophile Gautier]] and [[Stendhal]] (''[[The Red and the Black]]'', ''[[The Charterhouse of Parma]]''), whose works are among the most well known in France and the world.

In the early 20th century France was a haven for literary freedom.<ref name="Beat censors"/> Works banned for obscenity in the US, the UK and other Anglophone nations were published in France decades before they were available in the respective authors' home countries.<ref name="Beat censors">{{Cite news |title=Dirty books and literary freedom: The Lady Chatterley publisher who beat the censors |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/25GtYStZ3wsmZHBt6BCP51p/dirty-books-and-literary-freedom-the-lady-chatterley-publisher-who-beat-the-censors |url-status=live |access-date=28 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117185434/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/25GtYStZ3wsmZHBt6BCP51p/dirty-books-and-literary-freedom-the-lady-chatterley-publisher-who-beat-the-censors |archive-date=17 November 2021}}</ref> The French were disinclined to punish literary figures for their writing, and prosecutions were rare.<ref name="Beat censors"/> Important writers of the 20th century include [[Marcel Proust]], [[Louis-Ferdinand Céline]], [[Jean Cocteau]], [[Albert Camus]], and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. [[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]] wrote ''[[The Little Prince]]'', which is one of the best selling books in history.<ref name="Patrick Modiano">[http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/141009/modiano-strengthens-frances-literature-nobel-dominance Modiano strengthens France's literature Nobel dominance] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018105721/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/141009/modiano-strengthens-frances-literature-nobel-dominance|date=18 October 2014}}, [[Global Post]], 9 October 2014</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-01-22 |title=The Little Prince {{!}} Plot, Analysis, & Facts {{!}} Britannica.com |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Little-Prince |access-date=2023-08-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122012253/https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Little-Prince |archive-date=22 January 2019 }}</ref>

Medieval philosophy was dominated by [[Scholasticism]] until the emergence of [[Humanism in France|Humanism]] in the Renaissance. [[Modern philosophy]] began in France in the 17th century with the philosophy of [[René Descartes]], [[Blaise Pascal]] and [[Nicolas Malebranche]]. Descartes was the first [[Western philosophy|Western philosopher]] since ancient times to attempt to build a philosophical system from the ground up rather than building on the work of predecessors.<ref>Russell, Bertrand (2004) [1945]. ''A History of Western Philosophy''. Routledge. p. 511</ref><ref>Kenny, Anthony (2006). ''The Rise of Modern Philosophy: A New History of Western Philosophy, vol. 3''. Oxford University Press. pp. 40</ref> France in the 18th century saw major philosophical contributions from [[Voltaire]] who came to embody the Enlightenment and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] whose work highly influenced the French Revolution.<ref>{{Cite web |title=VOLTAIRE - University of Kent |url=https://www.kent.ac.uk/ewto/projects/anthology/voltaire.html |access-date=2023-08-30 |website=www.kent.ac.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=David Lay |date=2012-08-01 |title=Review of Rousseau and Revolution |url=https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/rousseau-and-revolution/ |language=en |issn=1538-1617}}</ref> French philosophers made major contributions to the field in the 20th century including the [[Existentialism|existentialist]] works of [[Simone de Beauvoir]], Camus, and Sartre.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-07 |title=Who Were the Most Famous Existentialists? |url=https://www.thecollector.com/who-were-the-most-famous-existentialists/ |access-date=2023-08-30 |website=TheCollector |language=en}}</ref> Other influential contributions during this time include the moral and political works of [[Simone Weil]], contributions to [[structuralism]] including from [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] and the [[Post-structuralism|post-structuralist]] works by [[Michel Foucault]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Norman |first=Max |title=The subversive philosophy of Simone Weil |url=https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/culture/37517/the-subversive-philosophy-of-simone-weil |access-date=2023-12-16 |website=[[Prospect (magazine)|Prospect]] |language=en |date=2021-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207180719/https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/culture/37517/the-subversive-philosophy-of-simone-weil |archive-date=2023-12-07 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pollard |first=Christopher |date=2019-08-26 |title=Explainer: the ideas of Foucault |url=http://theconversation.com/explainer-the-ideas-of-foucault-99758 |access-date=2023-08-30 |website=The Conversation |language=en}}</ref>

===Music===
{{Main|Music of France}}
[[File:Claude Debussy by Atelier Nadar.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Claude Debussy]], a French composer]]
France has a long and varied musical history. It experienced a golden age in the 17th century thanks to Louis XIV, who employed talented musicians and composers in the royal court. Composers of this period include [[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]], [[François Couperin]], [[Michel-Richard Delalande]], [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]] and [[Marin Marais]], all of them composers at the court. After the death of the "Roi Soleil", French musical creation lost dynamism, but in the next century the music of [[Jean-Philippe Rameau]] reached some prestige.{{fact|date=October 2024}} Rameau became the dominant composer of [[French opera]] and the leading French composer of the harpsichord.<ref>Girdlestone, Cuthbert (1969). Jean-Philippe Rameau: His Life and Work (paperback ed.). Dover. p. 14: "It is customary to couple him with Couperin as one couples Haydn with Mozart or Ravel with Debussy."</ref>

In the field of [[classical music]], France has produced a number of notable composers such as [[Gabriel Fauré]], [[Claude Debussy]], [[Maurice Ravel]], and [[Hector Berlioz]]. Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel are the most prominent figures associated with [[Impressionist music]]. The two composers invented new musical forms<ref>{{Cite web |last=Huizenga |first=Tom |date=14 October 2005 |title=Debussy's 'La Mer' Marks 100th Birthday |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4957580 |access-date=22 July 2011 |publisher=NPR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=12 July 2008 |title=Debussy's Musical Game of Deception |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=92338564 |access-date=22 July 2011 |publisher=NPR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Biography of Claude Debussy |url=http://www.classicfm.co.uk/music/composers/c-g/claude-debussy/ |access-date=22 July 2011 |publisher=Classicfm.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Biography of Maurice Ravel |url=http://www.classicfm.co.uk/music/composers/n-r/maurice-ravel/ |access-date=22 July 2011 |publisher=Classicfm.co.uk}}</ref> and new sounds. Debussy was among the most influential composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and his use of non-traditional scales and [[chromaticism]] influenced many composers who followed.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Allen |last=Schrott |title=Claude Debussy – Biography – AllMusic |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/claude-debussy-mn0000768781/biography |website=AllMusic}}</ref> His music is noted for its sensory content and frequent usage of [[atonality]]. [[Erik Satie]] was a key member of the early-20th-century Parisian [[avant-garde]]. [[Francis Poulenc]]'s best-known works are his piano suite ''[[Trois mouvements perpétuels]]'' (1919), the ballet ''[[Les biches]]'' (1923), the ''[[Concert champêtre]]'' (1928) for [[harpsichord]] and orchestra, the opera ''[[Dialogues des Carmélites]]'' (1957) and the ''[[Gloria (Poulenc)|Gloria]]'' (1959) for [[soprano]], choir and orchestra. In the middle of the 20th century, [[Maurice Ohana]], [[Pierre Schaeffer]] and [[Pierre Boulez]] contributed to the evolution of [[contemporary classical music]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schwartz |first=Lloyd |date=24 May 2010 |title=Composer-Conductor Pierre Boulez at 85 |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=126668117 |access-date=22 July 2011 |publisher=NPR}}</ref>

French music then followed the rapid emergence of pop and rock music in the middle of the 20th century. Although English-speaking creations achieved popularity in the country, [[French popular music|French pop music]], known as ''[[chanson française]]'', has also remained very popular. Among the most important French artists of the century are [[Édith Piaf]], [[Georges Brassens]], [[Léo Ferré]], [[Charles Aznavour]] and [[Serge Gainsbourg]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 April 2003 |title=100人の偉大なアーティスト - No. 62 |trans-title=The 100 Greatest Artists – No. 62 |url=http://www.hmv.co.jp/news/newsDetail.asp?newsnum=304080038 |website=ローチケHMV [Roachke HMV] |language=ja}}</ref> Modern pop music has seen the rise of popular [[French hip hop]], [[French rock]], [[techno]]/[[funk]], and [[turntablist]]s/DJs. Although there are very few rock bands in France compared to English-speaking countries,<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 2010 |title=Biography of Noir Désir |url=http://www.rfimusic.com/artist/rock/noir-desir/biography |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430102257/http://www.rfimusic.com/artist/rock/noir-desir/biography |archive-date=30 April 2016 |access-date=11 January 2018 |website=rfi Music |publisher=[[Radio France Internationale|RFI]] Musique |quote=Rock music doesn't come naturally to the French. A Latin country, with more affinity to poetry and melody, France has very rarely produced talented rock musicians. Rock music has other, more Anglo-Saxon ingredients: fury, excess, electricity.}}</ref> bands such as [[Noir Désir]], [[Mano Negra (band)|Mano Negra]], [[Niagara (band)|Niagara]], [[Les Rita Mitsouko]] and more recently [[Superbus (band)|Superbus]], [[Phoenix (band)|Phoenix]] and [[Gojira (band)|Gojira]],<ref name="frmusic">{{Cite web |date=22 June 2009 |title=French music has the whole planet singing |url=http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france_159/culture-and-media_6819/culture_6874/music_5335/french-music-has-the-whole-planet-singing_13031.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222105333/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france_159/culture-and-media_6819/culture_6874/music_5335/french-music-has-the-whole-planet-singing_13031.html |archive-date=22 December 2010 |website=France Diplomatie}}</ref> or [[Shaka Ponk]], have reached worldwide popularity.

===Cinema===
{{Main|Cinema of France}}
[[File:Palmed'or.jpg|thumb|alt=Palme d'Or award in presentation case|A ''[[Palme d'Or]]'' from the [[Cannes Film Festival]], one of the "[[Film festival|Big Three]]" film festivals alongside the [[Venice Film Festival]] and [[Berlin International Film Festival]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dargis |first=Manohla |title=Cannes International Film Festival |work=The New York Times |url=http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/c/cannes_international_film_festival/index.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Lim |first=Dennis |date=15 May 2012 |title=They'll Always Have Cannes |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/16/arts/16iht-lim16.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Woolsey |first=Matt |title=In Pictures: Chic Cannes Hideaways |work=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/2008/05/14/cannes-properties-luxury-forbeslife-cx_mw_0514realestate_slide.html}}</ref>]]

France has historical and strong links with [[Filmmaking|cinema]], with two Frenchmen, Auguste and Louis Lumière (known as the [[Auguste and Louis Lumière|Lumière Brothers]]) credited with creating cinema in 1895.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Larousse |first=Éditions |title=Encyclopédie Larousse en ligne – les frères Lumière |url=http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/personnage/les_frères_Lumière/130661 |website=larousse.fr}}</ref> The world's first female filmmaker, [[Alice Guy-Blaché]], was also from France.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Dargis, Manohla |author-link=Manohla Dargis |last2=Scott, A.O. |author-link2=A. O. Scott |date=20 September 2018 |title=You Know These 20 Movies. Now Meet the Women Behind Them |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/09/14/movies/women-film-history.html |access-date=4 December 2018 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> Several important cinematic movements, including the late 1950s and 1960s [[Nouvelle Vague]], began in the country. It is noted for having a strong film industry, due in part to protections afforded by the government. France remains a leader in filmmaking, {{As of|2015|lc=y}} producing more films than any other European country.<ref>{{Cite web |last=UIS |title=UIS Statistics |url=http://data.uis.unesco.org/?ReportId=5538 |publisher=UNESCO}}</ref><ref name="NYT 1995-02-28">{{Cite news |first=Alan |last=Riding |date=28 February 1995 |title=The Birthplace Celebrates Film's Big 1–0–0 |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/02/28/movies/the-birthplace-celebrates-film-s-big-1-0-0.html}}</ref> The nation also hosts the [[Cannes Festival]], one of the most important and famous film festivals in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 February 2007 |title=Cannes – a festival virgin's guide |url=http://www.cannesguide.com/basics/ |access-date=22 July 2011 |publisher=Cannesguide.com |archive-date=12 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912231419/http://www.cannesguide.com/basics/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cannes Film Festival - Palais des Festivals, Cannes, France |url=http://www.whatsonwhen.com/sisp/index.htm?fx=event&event_id=21731 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610125315/http://www.whatsonwhen.com/sisp/index.htm?fx=event&event_id=21731 |archive-date=10 June 2012 |publisher=Whatsonwhen.com}}</ref>

Apart from its strong and innovative film tradition, France has also been a gathering spot for artists from across Europe and the world. For this reason, French cinema is sometimes intertwined with the cinema of foreign nations. Directors from nations such as Poland ([[Roman Polanski]], [[Krzysztof Kieślowski]], [[Andrzej Żuławski]]), Argentina ([[Gaspar Noé]], [[Edgardo Cozarinsky]]), Russia ([[Alexandre Alexeieff]], [[Anatole Litvak]]), Austria ([[Michael Haneke]]) and Georgia ([[Géla Babluani]], [[Otar Iosseliani]]) are prominent in the ranks of French cinema. Conversely, French directors have had prolific and influential careers in other countries, such as [[Luc Besson]], [[Jacques Tourneur]] or [[Francis Veber]] in the [[Cinema of the United States|United States]]. Although the French film market is dominated by Hollywood, France is the only nation in the world where American films make up the smallest share of total film revenues, at 50%, compared with 77% in Germany and 69% in Japan.<ref name="erudit">{{In lang|fr}} Damien Rousselière [http://www.erudit.org/revue/hphi/2005/v15/n2/801295ar.pdf Cinéma et diversité culturelle: le cinéma indépendant face à la mondialisation des industries culturelles]. ''Horizons philosophiques'' Vol. 15 No. 2 2005</ref> French films account for 35% of the total film revenues of France, which is the highest percentage of national film revenues in the developed world outside the United States, compared to 14% in Spain and 8% in the UK.<ref name = erudit/> In 2013 France was the second greatest exporter of films in the world, after the United States.<ref name="unifrance.org">{{Cite web |title=Enquête sur l'image du cinéma français dans le monde |url=http://www.unifrance.org/actualites/11596/enquete-sur-l-image-du-cinema-francais-dans-le-monde |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213021911/http://www.unifrance.org/actualites/11596/enquete-sur-l-image-du-cinema-francais-dans-le-monde |archive-date=13 December 2014 |website=unifrance.org}}</ref>

As part of its advocacy of [[cultural exception]], a political concept of treating culture differently from other commercial products,<ref>Joëlle Farchy (1999) [http://www.scienceshumaines.com/la-fin-de-l-exception-culturelle_fr_10912.html La Fin de l'exception culturelle ?] [[CNRS]] {{ISBN|978-2-271-05633-7}}</ref> France succeeded in convincing all EU members to refuse to include culture and audiovisuals in the list of liberalised sectors of the WTO in 1993.<ref>[http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/actualites/politique/diversite/wto-en2.htm The cultural exception is not negotiable by Catherine Trautmann] – Ministry of Culture</ref> Moreover, this decision was confirmed in a vote by [[UNESCO]] in 2005: the principle of "cultural exception" won an overwhelming victory with 198 countries voting for it and only 2 countries, the United States and Israel, voting against it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=La Convention UNESCO pour la diversité culturelle : vers un droit international culturel contraignant ? |url=http://www.fnsac-cgt.com/administration/upload/ARTICLE%20UNESCO%20CONF%201602_06%20(3).pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427020210/http://www.fnsac-cgt.com/administration/upload/ARTICLE%20UNESCO%20CONF%201602_06%20%283%29.pdf |archive-date=27 April 2011 |publisher=Fédération Nationale des Syndicats du spectacle du cinéma, de l'audiovisuel et de l'action culturelle |language=fr}}</ref>

===Fashion===
{{Main|French fashion}}
[[File:Channel headquarters bordercropped.jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=Chanel's headquarters storefront window at the Place Vendôme Paris with awning|[[Chanel]]'s headquarters on [[Place Vendôme]], Paris]]

Fashion has been an important industry and cultural export of France since the 17th century, and modern "[[haute couture]]" originated in Paris in the 1860s. Today, Paris, along with London, Milan, and New York City, is considered one of the world's [[fashion capital]]s, and the city is home or headquarters to many of the premier fashion houses. The expression Haute couture is, in France, a legally protected name, guaranteeing certain quality standards.

The association of France with fashion and style ({{Langx|fr|link=no|la mode}}) dates largely to the reign of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]<ref>Kelly, 181. DeJean, chapters 2–4.</ref> when the luxury goods industries in France came increasingly under royal control and the French royal court became, arguably, the arbiter of taste and style in Europe. But France renewed its dominance of the high fashion ({{Langx|fr|link=no|couture {{Noitalic|or}} haute couture}}) industry in the years 1860–1960 through the establishment of the great [[couturier]] houses such as [[Chanel]], [[Christian Dior S.A.|Dior]], and [[Givenchy]]. The French perfume industry is the world leader in its sector and is centred on the town of [[Grasse]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=French perfume |url=http://about-france.com/tourism/french-perfume.htm |publisher=About-France.com}}</ref>

According to 2017 data compiled by [[Deloitte]], [[Louis Vuitton Moet Hennessey]] (LVMH), a French brand, is the largest luxury company in the world by sales, selling more than twice the amount of its nearest competitor.<ref name="mode">[https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ar/Documents/Consumer_and_Industrial_Products/Global-Powers-of-Luxury-Goods-abril-2019.pdf Global Powers of Luxury Goods 2019: Bridging the gap between the old and the new], [[Deloitte]]</ref> Moreover, France also possesses 3 of the top 10 luxury goods companies by sales ([[LVMH]], [[Kering SA]], [[L'Oréal]]), more than any other country in the world.<ref name="mode"/>

===Media===
{{Main|Telecommunications in France}}
[[File:Siège_Figaro,_14_boulevard_Haussmann,_Paris_9e.jpg|thumb|''[[Le Figaro]]'' was founded in 1826 and it is still considered a [[newspaper of record]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Le Figaro |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=5 October 2023 |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/206556/Le-Figaro}}</ref>]]

In 2021, regional daily newspapers, such as ''[[Ouest-France]]'', ''[[Sud Ouest (newspaper)|Sud Ouest]]'', ''[[La Voix du Nord (daily)|La Voix du Nord]]'', ''[[Dauphiné Libéré]]'', ''[[Le Télégramme]]'', and ''[[Le Progrès]]'', more than doubled the sales of national newspapers, such as ''[[Le Monde]]'', ''[[Le Figaro]]'', ''[[L'Équipe]]'' (sports), ''[[Le Parisien]]'', and ''[[Les Echos (France)|Les Echos]]'' (finance). Free dailies, distributed in metropolitan centers, continue to increase their market share.<ref>{{Cite web | website = acpm.fr | date = 2022 | title = L'observatoire de la presse et des médias de L'APCM 2022 | url = https://www.acpm.fr/Media/Files/Plaquette-Observatoire-2022}}</ref> The sector of weekly magazines includes more than 400 specialised weekly magazines published in the country.<ref>{{In lang|fr}} Observatoire de la Presse, [http://observatoire.ojd.com/report/visu/obs/20/do/GP_PMAG Presse Magazine – Synthèse] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100929204536/http://observatoire.ojd.com/report/visu/obs/20/do/GP_PMAG|date=29 September 2010}}</ref>

The most influential news magazines are the left-wing ''[[L'Obs|Le Nouvel Observateur]]'', centrist ''[[L'Express (France)|L'Express]]'' and right-wing ''[[Le Point]]'' (in 2009 more than 400,000 copies),<ref>{{In lang|fr}} Observatoire de la Presse, [http://observatoire.ojd.com/report/visu/obs/20/do/GP_NEWS Presse News] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100929204512/http://observatoire.ojd.com/report/visu/obs/20/do/GP_NEWS|date=29 September 2010}}</ref> but the highest circulation numbers for weeklies are attained by TV magazines and by women's magazines, among them ''[[Marie Claire]]'' and ''[[ELLE]]'', which have foreign versions. Influential weeklies also include investigative and satirical papers ''[[Le Canard Enchaîné]]'' and ''[[Charlie Hebdo]]'', as well as ''[[Paris Match]]''. As in most industrialised nations, the print media have been affected by a [[Newspaper crisis|severe crisis]] with the rise of the internet. In 2008, the government launched a major initiative to help the sector reform and become financially independent,<ref>''[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]'', [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/3125110/Nicolas-Sarkozy-French-media-faces-death-without-reform.html Nicolas Sarkozy: French media faces 'death' without reform] 2 October 2008</ref><ref>French government portal, [http://www.gouvernement.fr/gouvernement/lancement-des-etats-generaux-de-la-presse Lancement des états généraux de la presse] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625023755/http://www.gouvernement.fr/gouvernement/lancement-des-etats-generaux-de-la-presse|date=25 June 2010}} 2 October 2008 [Launching of General State of written media]</ref> but in 2009 it had to give 600,000 euros to help the print media cope with the [[Global financial crisis of 2008–2009|economic crisis]], in addition to existing subsidies.<ref>{{Cite news |first=Angelique |last=Chrisafis |date=23 January 2009 |title=Sarkozy pledges €600m to newspapers |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/jan/23/sarkozy-pledges-state-aid-to-newspapers |access-date=21 June 2012}}</ref>
In 1974, after years of centralised monopoly on radio and television, the governmental agency [[ORTF]] was split into several national institutions, but the three already-existing TV channels and four national radio stations<ref>Radio France, "L'entreprise", [https://web.archive.org/web/20110722004341/http://www.radiofrance.fr/lentreprise/reperes/statuts Repères]. Landmarks of Radio France company</ref><ref name="mediapol">{{In lang|fr}} Vie Publique, [http://www.vie-publique.fr/politiques-publiques/politique-audiovisuel/chronologie Chronologie de la politique de l'audiovisuel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513064756/http://www.vie-publique.fr/politiques-publiques/politique-audiovisuel/chronologie/|date=13 May 2011}} 20 August 2004 [Chronology of policy for audiovisual]</ref> remained under state control. It was only in 1981 that the government allowed free broadcasting in the territory, ending the state monopoly on radio.<ref name=mediapol/>

===Cuisine===
{{Main|French cuisine}}
[[File:French taste of wines.JPG|thumb|[[French wine]]s are usually made to accompany French cuisine.]]

Different regions have different styles. In the north, butter and cream are common ingredients, whereas [[olive oil]] is more commonly used in the south.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Véronique MARTINACHE |date=30 November 2009 |title=La France du beurre et celle de l'huile d'olive maintiennent leurs positions |trans-title=France butter and olive oil maintain their positions |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jvmxWfyZ2tFVA3qcmC7DkX6SMi5g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425112349/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jvmxWfyZ2tFVA3qcmC7DkX6SMi5g |archive-date=25 April 2011}}</ref> Each region of France has traditional specialties: [[cassoulet]] in the southwest, [[Choucroute garnie|choucroute]] in Alsace, [[quiche]] in the [[Lorraine|Lorraine region]], [[beef bourguignon]] in [[Burgundy]], [[Provence|Provençal]] [[tapenade]], etc. France is most famous for its [[French wine|wines]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 May 2008 |title=Wines of France |url=http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/walter/wine/france.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211145428/http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/walter/wine/france.html |archive-date=11 February 2010 |access-date=9 August 2010 |website=Walter's Web}}</ref> and [[List of French cheeses|cheeses]], which are often named for the territory where they are produced ([[Appellation d'origine contrôlée|AOC]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=French Cheese |url=http://www.goodcooking.com/frcheese.htm |access-date=22 July 2011 |publisher=Goodcooking}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=French Cheese |url=http://www.franceway.com/cheese/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827131743/http://www.franceway.com/cheese/ |archive-date=27 August 2010}}</ref> A meal typically consists of three courses, ''entrée'' ('starter'), ''plat principal'' ('main course'), and ''fromage'' ('cheese') or ''dessert'', sometimes with a salad served before the cheese or dessert.

French cuisine is also regarded as a key element of the [[quality of life]] and the attractiveness of France. A French publication, the ''[[Michelin Guide]]'', awards ''Michelin stars'' for excellence to a select few establishments.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Fairburn, Carolyn |date=29 February 1992 |title=Fading stars – Michelin Red Guide |work=[[The Times]] |url=http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:UKNB:LTIB&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=0F91F33FE0903F10&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=102CDD40F14C6BDA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Beale, Victoria |last2=Boxell, James |date=16 July 2011 |title=Falling stars |work=[[Financial Times]] |url=http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:UKNB:FINB&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=13885C564656C1C8&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=102CDD40F14C6BDA}}</ref> The acquisition or loss of a star can have dramatic effects on the success of a restaurant. By 2006, the ''Michelin Guide'' had awarded 620 stars to French restaurants.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Michelin 3 Star Restaurants around the world |url=http://www.3starrestaurants.com/michelin-restaurants-star-guide.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100724032127/http://www.3starrestaurants.com/michelin-restaurants-star-guide.asp |archive-date=24 July 2010 |access-date=30 October 2010 |website=Andy Hayler's 3 Star Restaurant Guide}}</ref>

In addition to its wine tradition, France is also a major producer of beer and rum. The three main French brewing regions are Alsace (60% of national production), Nord-Pas-de-Calais, and Lorraine. [[List of French rums|French rum]] is made in distilleries located on islands in the Atlantic and Indian oceans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Région Guadeloupe-Guadeloupe, a land of cultures and flavours |url=https://www.regionguadeloupe.fr/guadeloupe-regional-council/guadeloupe-a-land-of-cultures-and-flavours/#_ |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=www.regionguadeloupe.fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rum and Reunion Island – La Saga du Rhum |url=https://www.sagadurhum.fr/en/rum-and-reunion-island/ |access-date=2023-09-07 |language=en-GB}}</ref>

===Sports===
{{Main|Sport in France}}
[[File:2020 Tour de France, 2nd stage, before km zero.jpg|thumb|alt=The peloton in the streets of Nice during the 2nd stage of the Tour de France on 30 August 2020|Starting in 1903, the [[Tour de France]] is the most prestigious of [[Grand Tour (cycling)|Grands Tours]], and the world's most famous cycling race.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Union Cycliste Internationale |url=http://www.uciprotour.com/Modules/BUILTIN/getObject.asp?MenuId=MTcxNw&ObjTypeCode=FILE&type=FILE&id=34028&LangId=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114060844/http://www.uciprotour.com/Modules/BUILTIN/getObject.asp?MenuId=MTcxNw&ObjTypeCode=FILE&type=FILE&id=34028&LangId=1 |archive-date=14 November 2012 |access-date=19 May 2012}}</ref>]]

France hosts "the world's biggest annual sporting event", the annual cycling race [[Tour de France]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 July 2019 |title=Tour De France 2019: Everything you need to know |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/18769169 |access-date=15 July 2019 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> Other popular sports played in France include: [[Association football|football]], [[judo]], [[tennis]],<ref>{{In lang|fr}} [http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?ref_id=NATTEF05401&reg_id=0 Les licences sportives en France] – Insee</ref> [[rugby union]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=All you need to know about sport in France |url=http://www.france-pub.com/esport.htm |access-date=11 February 2012 |archive-date=10 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170610041323/http://www.france-pub.com/esport.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[pétanque]]. France has hosted events such as the [[1938 FIFA World Cup|1938]] and [[1998 FIFA World Cup]]s,<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the World Cup Final Draw |url=https://www.fifa.com/mm/document/fifafacts/mcwc/ip-201_10e_fwcdraw-history_8842.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226235749/http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/fifafacts/mcwc/ip-201_10e_fwcdraw-history_8842.pdf |archive-date=26 February 2008 |access-date=22 July 2011}}</ref> the [[2007 Rugby World Cup]],<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110606170717/http://www.rugby.com.au/news/2003_april/france_wins_right_to_host_the_2007_rugby_wor_15381%2C3851.html France wins right to host the 2007 rugby world cup]. Associated Press. 11 April 2003</ref> and the [[2023 Rugby World Cup]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=McLaughlin |first1=Luke |last2=Symons |first2=Harvey |last3=Amani |first3=Julian |date=2023-09-06 |title=Everything you need to know about the 2023 Rugby World Cup |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2023/sep/06/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-2023-rugby-world-cup |access-date=2024-01-12 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The country also hosted the [[1960 European Nations' Cup]], [[UEFA Euro 1984]], [[UEFA Euro 2016]] and [[2019 FIFA Women's World Cup]]. The [[Stade de France]] in [[Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis|Saint-Denis]] is France's largest stadium and was the venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup and 2007 Rugby World Cup finals. Since 1923, France is famous for its [[24 Hours of Le Mans]] [[sports car racing|sports car]] [[endurance racing (motorsport)|endurance race]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Une course légendaire |url=http://www.lemans.org/fr/courses/24h/histoire.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116131353/http://www.lemans.org/fr/courses/24h/histoire.html |archive-date=16 January 2013 |language=fr}} – [http://www.lemans.org Site officiel du 24 heures du Mans]</ref> Several major tennis tournaments take place in France, including the [[Paris Masters]] and the [[French Open]], one of the four [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] tournaments. French [[martial arts]] include [[Savate]] and [[Fencing]].
[[File:Zinedine Zidane 2015 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Zinedine Zidane|Zidane]] is regarded as one of the greatest footballers of all time]]

France has a close association with the Modern [[Olympic Games]]; it was a French aristocrat, Baron [[Pierre de Coubertin]], who suggested the Games' revival, at the end of the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hill |first=Christopher R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0o-9AAAAIAAJ |title=Olympic Politics |publisher=Manchester University Press ND |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7190-4451-9 |page=5 |access-date=5 July 2011}}</ref><ref name="Olympic">[http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/olympic.htm Olympic History] – World Atlas of Travel</ref> After [[Athens]] was awarded the first Games, in reference to the Olympics' Greek origins, Paris hosted the second Games [[1900 Summer Olympics|in 1900]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 August 2018 |title=Paris 1900 Summer Olympics. Official Site of the Olympic Movement |url=http://www.olympic.org/paris-1900-summer-olympics |publisher=International Olympic Committee}}</ref> Paris was the first home of the [[International Olympic Committee]], before it moved to [[Lausanne]].<ref>[http://www.lausanne-tourisme.ch/view.asp?DomID=63416&Language=E Lausanne, olympic capital] – Tourism in Lausanne {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006220349/http://www.lausanne-tourisme.ch/view.asp?DomID=63416&Language=E|date=6 October 2007}}</ref> Since 1900, France has hosted the Olympics on 5 further occasions: the [[1924 Summer Olympics]], the [[2024 Summer Olympics]] both in Paris<ref name="Olympic" /> and three [[Winter Olympic Games|Winter Games]] ([[1924 Winter Olympics|1924]] in [[Chamonix]], [[1968 Winter Olympics|1968]] in [[Grenoble]] and [[1992 Winter Olympics|1992]] in [[Albertville]]).<ref name="Olympic" /> Similar to the Olympics, France introduced Olympics for deaf people (Deaflympics) in [[1924 Summer Deaflympics|1924]] with the idea of a French deaf car mechanic, [[Eugène Rubens-Alcais]] who paved the way to organise the inaugural edition of the [[Summer Deaflympics]] in Paris.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 December 2004 |title=Deaflympics lowdown |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/other_sports/disability_sport/4113957.stm |access-date=8 July 2018}}</ref>

Both the [[France national football team|national football team]] and the [[France national rugby union team|national rugby union team]] are nicknamed "''Les Bleus''" in reference to the team's shirt colour as well as the national [[Flag of France|French tricolour flag]]. Football is the most popular sport in France, with over 1,800,000 registered players and over 18,000 registered clubs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fédération Française de Football |url=https://www.fff.fr/ |website=fff.fr}}</ref>

The French Open, also called Roland-Garros, is a major [[tennis]] tournament held over two weeks between late May and early June at the [[Stade Roland Garros|Stade Roland-Garros]] in Paris. It is the premier clay court tennis championship event in the world and the second of four annual [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] tournaments.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Clarey |first=Christopher |date=30 June 2001 |title=Change Seems Essential to Escape Extinction: Wimbledon: World's Most Loved Dinosaur |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2001/06/30/a20_16.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016123550/http://iht.com/articles/2001/06/30/a20_16.php  |archive-date=16 October 2007 |access-date=26 February 2018 |website=[[International Herald Tribune]]}}</ref>

[[Rugby union]] is popular, particularly in Paris and the southwest of France.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090615002946/http://www.123voyage.com/realsw/tosee/rugby.htm Rugby]. 123 Voyage</ref> The national rugby union team has competed at every [[Rugby World Cup]]; it takes part in the annual [[Six Nations Championship]].

==See also==
{{Portal|France|Europe}}
* [[Outline of France]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
{{Notelist-ur}}

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=France>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/france/|website=The World Factbook|title=Europe :: France|publisher=CIA|date=3 January 2018}}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
{{main|Bibliography of France}}

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Wikijunior:Countries A-Z|France}}
{{Sister project links|voy=France|France}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=2023-04-08|France-2023-SpokenWikipedia.ogg}}
* [http://www.oecd.org/france France] at ''Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development''
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List of states with nuclear weapons

2024-11-05T19:33:51Z

Brandmeister: /* Statistics and force configuration */ copyedit

{{Short description|none}}
{{pp|small=yes}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}

[[File:Nuclear weapons states 2023.svg|thumb|500x500px|Map of [[nuclear weapon|nuclear-armed]] states of the world

{{legend|#5B92E5|[[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|NPT]]-designated nuclear weapon states ([[China and weapons of mass destruction|China]], [[France and weapons of mass destruction|France]], [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|Russia]], [[Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], [[Nuclear weapons of the United States|United States]])}}
{{legend|#ff0000|Other states with nuclear weapons ([[India and weapons of mass destruction|India]], [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction|North Korea]], [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]])}}
{{legend|#d4aa00|Other states presumed to have nuclear weapons ([[Nuclear weapons and Israel|Israel]])}}
{{legend|#1034A6|[[NATO]] or [[Collective Security Treaty Organization|CSTO]] member [[nuclear sharing|nuclear weapons sharing]] states ([[Belgium]], [[Germany and weapons of mass destruction|Germany]], [[Italian nuclear weapons program|Italy]], [[Netherlands and weapons of mass destruction|Netherlands]], [[Turkey]], [[Belarus]])}}
{{legend|#007C59|States formerly possessing nuclear weapons ([[Kazakhstan and weapons of mass destruction|Kazakhstan]], [[South Africa and weapons of mass destruction|South Africa]], [[Ukraine and weapons of mass destruction|Ukraine]])}}]]

{{Nuclear weapons}}

Eight [[sovereign state]]s have publicly announced successful detonation of [[nuclear weapon]]s.<ref name="nuclearweapons1">{{cite web|date=January 2020|title=World Nuclear Forces, SIPRI yearbook 2020 |url=https://www.sipri.org/yearbook/2020/10|access-date=18 June 2020|website=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute}}</ref> [[United Nations Security Council#Permanent members|Five]] are considered to be '''nuclear-weapon states''' ('''NWS''') under the terms of the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]] (NPT). In order of acquisition of nuclear weapons, these are the [[Nuclear weapons of the United States|United States]], [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|Russia]] (the successor of the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|former]] [[Soviet atomic bomb project|Soviet Union]]), the [[Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], [[France and weapons of mass destruction|France]], and [[China and weapons of mass destruction|China]]. Of these, the three NATO members, the United Kingdom, the United States, and France, are sometimes termed the P3.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Murdock|first1=Clark A.|last2=Miller|first2=Franklin|last3=Mackby|first3=Jenifer|title=Trilateral Nuclear Dialogues Role of P3 Nuclear Weapons Consensus Statement|url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/trilateral-nuclear-dialogues-role-p3-nuclear-weapons-consensus-statement|website=Center for Strategic and International Studies|date=13 May 2010|access-date=13 May 2010}}</ref>

Other states that possess nuclear weapons are [[India and weapons of mass destruction|India]], [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]], and [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction|North Korea]]. Since the NPT entered into force in 1970, these three states were not parties to the Treaty and have conducted overt [[nuclear testing|nuclear tests]]. North Korea had been a party to the NPT but withdrew in 2003.

[[Israel]] is also generally understood to [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|have nuclear weapons]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Hersh|first=Seymour|title=The Samson Option|publisher=Random House|chapter=Authors Note|date=27 October 1991|isbn=978-0394570068|author-link=Seymour Hersh}}''"This is a book about how Israel became a nuclear power in secret."'' (First sentence, Authors' Note/Introduction, [[The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy]], Hersh)</ref><ref name="aca">{{cite web|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat|title=Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance|publisher=Arms Control Association|date=July 2019|access-date=5 August 2020|quote=India, Israel, and Pakistan never signed the NPT and possess nuclear arsenals.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/israels-nuclear-arsenal-may-be-different-than-everyone-thinks-2014-11|quote=The country possesses some of the most powerful weaponry on earth, along with delivery systems that give it the ability to strike far beyond its borders.|date=10 November 2014|last=Rosen|first=Armin|website=Business Insider|title=Israel's Nuclear Arsenal Might Be Smaller And More Strategic Than Everyone Thinks|access-date=16 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161206114813/http://www.businessinsider.com/israels-nuclear-arsenal-may-be-different-than-everyone-thinks-2014-11|archive-date=6 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nti.org/learn/countries/israel/|publisher=Nuclear Threat Initiative|quote=While experts generally agree that Israel possesses nuclear weapons, no such current open source consensus exists on the status of Israel's offensive chemical or biological weapons programs.|title=Israel|date=May 2015|access-date=16 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116025240/http://www.nti.org/learn/countries/israel/|archive-date=16 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Stover |first=Dawn |date=16 September 2016 |title=Does Israel really have 200 nuclear weapons, or was Colin Powell exaggerating? |url=http://thebulletin.org/does-israel-really-have-200-nuclear-weapons-or-was-colin-powell-exaggerating9896 |url-status=live |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118031932/http://thebulletin.org/does-israel-really-have-200-nuclear-weapons-or-was-colin-powell-exaggerating9896 |archive-date=18 January 2017 |access-date=16 January 2017 |quote=The boys in Tehran know Israel has 200, all targeted on Tehran, and we have thousands.}} citing primary source private email from Colin Powell to Jeffrey Leeds [https://www.scribd.com/document/324033115/00002715-002?secret_password=f5tkfdHSGvz6LNei71K0] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216050202/https://www.scribd.com/document/324033115/00002715-002?secret_password=f5tkfdHSGvz6LNei71K0|date=16 February 2017}}</ref> but does not acknowledge it, maintaining a [[policy of deliberate ambiguity]].<ref name="guardian121206">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/israel/Story/0,,1970616,00.html|title=Calls for Olmert to resign after nuclear gaffe Israel and the Middle East|newspaper=The Guardian|date=12 December 2006|access-date=15 May 2009|location=London|first=Luke|last=Harding}}</ref> Israel is estimated to possess somewhere between 75 and 400 nuclear warheads.<ref name="sipri.org">[http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/nuclear-forces Nuclear Forces] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150107025723/http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/nuclear-forces|date=7 January 2015}}, [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]], sipri.org</ref><ref>There are a wide range of estimates as to the size of the Israeli nuclear arsenal. For a compiled list of estimates, see [[Avner Cohen]], The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's bargain with the Bomb (Columbia University Press, 2010), Table 1, page xxvii and page 82.</ref> One possible motivation for ''nuclear ambiguity'' is [[Deterrence theory|deterrence]] with minimum political friction.<ref name="NTIIsrael" /><ref name="CohenIsrael">{{cite book| author=Avner Cohen| title=The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's bargain with the Bomb| publisher=Columbia University Press| year=2010}}</ref>

States that formerly possessed nuclear weapons are [[South Africa and weapons of mass destruction|South Africa]] (developed nuclear weapons but then disassembled its arsenal before joining the NPT)<ref>Arms Control and Global Security, Paul R. Viotti – 2010, p 312</ref> and the former Soviet republics of [[Belarus]], [[Kazakhstan and weapons of mass destruction|Kazakhstan]], and [[Ukraine and weapons of mass destruction|Ukraine]], whose weapons were transferred to Russia.

According to the [[Federation of American Scientists]] there are approximately 3,880 active nuclear warheads and 12,119 total nuclear warheads in the world as of 2024.<ref name="Status of World Nuclear Forces">{{Cite web|title=Status of World Nuclear Forces|url=https://fas.org/initiative/status-world-nuclear-forces/|access-date=2024-04-05|website=Federation of American Scientists|language=en-US}}</ref> The [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] (SIPRI) estimated in 2023 that the total number of nuclear warheads acquired by nuclear states reached 12,512. Approximately 9,576 are kept with military stockpiles. About 3,844 warheads are deployed with missiles. 2,000 warheads, which are primarily from Russia and the United States, are maintained for high operational alerts.<ref name=":5">Kristensen, Hans M; Korda, Matt. (2023). "[https://www.sipri.org/yearbook/2023/07 World Nuclear Forces 2023]". In ''[https://www.sipri.org/yearbook/2023 SIPRI Yearbook 2023: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security].''Oxford University Press.</ref>

== Statistics and force configuration ==
{{Weapons of mass destruction}}
[[File:WNF Map 2023.png|thumb|319x319px|Global nuclear stockpiles, January 2023]]
The following is a list of [[Sovereign state|states]] that have acknowledged the possession of [[nuclear weapon]]s or are presumed to possess them, the approximate number of [[warhead]]s under their control, and the year they tested their first weapon and their force configuration. This list is informally known in global politics as the "Nuclear Club".<ref>"Nuclear club", ''Oxford English Dictionary'': "nuclear club n. the nations that possess nuclear weapons." The term's first cited usage is from 1957.</ref><ref>Jane Onyanga-Omara, [https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2016/01/06/nine-nations-possess-nuclear-weapns/78350588/ "The Nuclear Club: Who are the 9 members?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904111359/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2016/01/06/nine-nations-possess-nuclear-weapns/78350588/|date=4 September 2017}}, ''USA TODAY'', 6 January 2016</ref> With the exception of Russia and the United States (which have subjected their nuclear forces to independent verification under various treaties) these figures are estimates, in some cases quite unreliable estimates. In particular, under the [[Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty]] thousands of Russian and US nuclear warheads are inactive in stockpiles awaiting processing. The fissile material contained in the warheads can then be recycled for use in [[Nuclear reactor technology|nuclear reactors]].

From a high of 70,300 active weapons in 1986, {{as of|2024|lc=on||df=US}} there are approximately 3,880 active nuclear warheads and 12,119 total nuclear warheads in the world.<ref name="Status of World Nuclear Forces"/> Many of the decommissioned weapons were simply stored or partially dismantled, not destroyed.<ref>Webster, Paul (July/August 2003). "[https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2009/sep/06/nuclear-weapons-world-us-north-korea-russia-iran Nuclear weapons: how many are there in 2009 and who has them?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108004154/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2009/sep/06/nuclear-weapons-world-us-north-korea-russia-iran|date=2017-01-08}}" ''The Guardian'', 6 September 2009.</ref>

Additionally, since the dawn of the [[Atomic Age]], the [[Nuclear weapons delivery|delivery methods]] of most states with nuclear weapons have evolved—with [[List of nuclear triads|four acquiring a nuclear triad]], while others have consolidated away from land and air deterrents to submarine-based forces.

{{table alignment}}{{sort under}}
{| class="wikitable sortable sort-under col2right col3right col12right "
|+Overview of nuclear states and their capacities
! rowspan=2| Country
! colspan=2| {{longitem|Warheads{{efn|Estimates from the [[Federation of American Scientists]]. The latest update was in January 2023. "Deployed" indicates the total of deployed strategic and non-strategic warheads. Because the number of non-strategic warheads is unknown for many countries, this number should be taken as a minimum. When a range of weapons is given (e.g., 0–10), it generally indicates that the estimate is being made on the amount of fissile material that has likely been produced, and the amount of fissile material needed per warhead depends on estimates of a country's proficiency at nuclear weapon design.}}}}
! colspan=2| First test
! rowspan=2| {{longitem| [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|NPT]] status<ref>{{cite web|title=Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|url=https://treaties.unoda.org/t/npt/participants|access-date=29 August 2023}}</ref>}}
! rowspan=2| {{longitem| [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty|CTBT]] status<ref>{{cite web|title=Status of Signature and Ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|url=http://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/status-of-signature-and-ratification/|access-date=13 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925211213/http://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/status-of-signature-and-ratification|archive-date=25 September 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
! colspan="4"|Delivery method
! rowspan="2"| {{longitem|Tests<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nuclear Testing Tally|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/nucleartesttally|website=www.armscontrol.org|publisher=[[Arms Control Association]]|access-date=14 June 2023|date=August 2022}}</ref>}}
|-
! Total<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|date=2024-06-17|title=Role of nuclear weapons grows as geopolitical relations deteriorate—new SIPRI Yearbook out now {{!}} SIPRI|url=https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2024/role-nuclear-weapons-grows-geopolitical-relations-deteriorate-new-sipri-yearbook-out-now|access-date=2024-06-18|website=www.sipri.org|language=en}}</ref>
! Deployed<ref name=":4" />
! Date
! Site
![[Submarine-launched ballistic missile|Sea]]
![[Strategic bomber|Air]]
![[Intercontinental ballistic missile|Land]]
!Notes
|-
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the United States.svg}} [[Nuclear weapons of the United States|United States]]<ref name=":123">{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|date= 2023|title=Status Of World Nuclear Forces|url=https://fas.org/initiative/status-world-nuclear-forces/|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=79|issue=1|pages=28–52|bibcode=2023BuAtS..79a..28K|doi=10.1080/00963402.2022.2156686|issn=0096-3402|s2cid=255826288|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| 5,044
| 1,770
| 16 July 1945 (''[[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity]]'')
| [[Alamogordo, New Mexico]]
| style='background:#E6F2FF;'| Party
| style='background:#FFFBE6;'|Signatory
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
| [[Nuclear weapons of the United States#Delivery systems|US triad]]<ref name="IISS 2012, pp. 54–55">[[#IISS2012|IISS 2012]], pp. 54–55</ref>
| 1,030
|-
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|Russian Federation]]{{efn|As a part of the [[Soviet Union]]. The Russian Federation has not tested a nuclear weapon since 1991.}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|last3=Reynolds|first3=Eliana|date=2023-05-04|title=Russian nuclear weapons, 2023 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=79|issue=3|pages=174–199|doi=10.1080/00963402.2023.2202542|bibcode=2023BuAtS..79c.174K|s2cid=258559002|issn=0096-3402|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| 5,580
| 1,710
| 29 August 1949 (''[[RDS-1]]'')
| [[Semey|Semipalatinsk]], [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic|Kazakh SSR]]||style='background:#E6F2FF;'| Party
| style='background:#FFFBE6;'|Signatory (ratified, but later revoked ratification)<ref>{{Cite news|date=2023-11-02|title=Putin revokes Russia's ratification of nuclear test ban treaty|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/putin-revokes-russias-ratification-nuclear-test-ban-treaty-2023-11-02/|access-date=2023-11-02|work=Reuters|language=en}}</ref>
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
| [[Nuclear triad#Russia|Russian triad]]<ref name="IISS 2012, pp. 54–55"/>
|715
|-
| {{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of the United Kingdom.svg}} [[Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]}}<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=April 2020|title=FAS World Nuclear Forces|url=https://fas.org/issues/nuclear-weapons/status-world-nuclear-forces/|access-date=18 June 2020|website=Federation of American Scientists}}</ref><ref name="aca" />
| 225
| 120
| 3 October 1952 (''[[Operation Hurricane|Hurricane]]'')
| [[Montebello Islands|Monte Bello Islands]], [[Australia]]||style='background:#E6F2FF;'| Party
| style='background:#E6F2FF;'|Ratifier
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_oppose_vote.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_oppose_vote.svg|19x19px]]
| [[Trident (UK nuclear programme)|Trident submarines]]<ref>[[#IISS2012|IISS 2012]], p. 169</ref>{{efn|See also [[UK Trident programme]]. From the 1960s until the 1990s, the United Kingdom's [[Royal Air Force]] maintained the independent capability to deliver nuclear weapons via its [[V bomber]] fleet.}}
| 45
|-
| {{flagicon image|Flag of France.svg}} [[France and weapons of mass destruction|France]]<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|last3=Johns|first3=Eliana|date=2023-07-04|title=French nuclear weapons, 2023 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=79|issue=4|pages=272–281|doi=10.1080/00963402.2023.2223088|bibcode=2023BuAtS..79d.272K|s2cid=259938405|issn=0096-3402|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| 290
| 280
| 13 February 1960 (''[[Gerboise Bleue (nuclear test)|Gerboise Bleue]]'')
| [[Reggane]], [[French Algeria]]||style='background:#E6F2FF;'| Party
| style='background:#E6F2FF;'|Ratifier
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_oppose_vote.svg|19x19px]]
| [[Triomphant-class submarine|''Triomphant'' submarines]], [[Nuclear triad#Modern capabilities|air capability]]<ref>[[#IISS2012|IISS 2012]], p. 111</ref>{{efn|See also [[Force de dissuasion]]. France formerly possessed a nuclear triad until 1996, when its land-based arsenal was retired.}}
| 210
|-
| {{flagicon image|Flag of China.svg}} [[China and weapons of mass destruction|China]]<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name="aca" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|last3=Reynolds|first3=Eliana|date=2023-03-04|title=Chinese nuclear weapons, 2023 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=79|issue=2|pages=108–133|doi=10.1080/00963402.2023.2178713|bibcode=2023BuAtS..79b.108K|s2cid=257498038|issn=0096-3402|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| 500
| 24
| 16 October 1964 (''[[Project 596|596]]'')
| [[Lop Nur]], [[Xinjiang]]||style='background:#E6F2FF;'| Party
| style='background:#FFFBE6;'|Signatory
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
| [[Nuclear triad#China|Chinese triad]]<ref>''The Long Shadow: Nuclear Weapons and Security in 21st Century Asia'' by Muthiah Alagappa (NUS Press, 2009), page 169: "China has developed strategic nuclear forces made up of land-based missiles, submarine-launched missiles, and bombers. Within this triad, China has also developed weapons of different ranges, capabilities, and survivability."</ref><ref>[[#IISS2012|IISS 2012]], pp. 223–224</ref>
| 45
|-
| {{flagicon image|Flag of India.svg}} [[India and weapons of mass destruction|India]]<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name="aca" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|date=2022-07-04|title=Indian nuclear weapons, 2022 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=78|issue=4|pages=224–236|doi=10.1080/00963402.2022.2087385|bibcode=2022BuAtS..78d.224K|s2cid=250475371|issn=0096-3402|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| 172
| 0
| 18 May 1974 (''[[Smiling Buddha]]'')
| [[Pokhran]], [[Rajasthan]]|| style="background:#FFE6E6;"| Non-party
| style="background:#FFE6E6;"|Non-signatory
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
| [[Nuclear triad#India|Indian triad]]<ref>[[#IISS2012|IISS 2012]], p. 243</ref><ref name="Now, India has a nuclear triad">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Now-India-has-a-nuclear-triad/article16074127.ece|title=Now, India has a nuclear triad|newspaper=The Hindu|date=18 October 2016|access-date=24 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221185205/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Now-India-has-a-nuclear-triad/article16074127.ece|archive-date=21 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Peri|first1=Dinakar|title=India's Nuclear Triad Finally Coming of Age|url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/06/indias-nuclear-triad-finally-coming-of-age/|access-date=10 March 2015|agency=The Diplomat|date=12 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409012807/https://thediplomat.com/2014/06/indias-nuclear-triad-finally-coming-of-age/|archive-date=9 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/Politics/lvVxsu1L5GPLvD7Z5j3baJ/Nuclear-triad-weapons-ready-for-deployment-DRDO.html|title=Nuclear triad weapons ready for deployment: DRDO|date=7 July 2014|access-date=10 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402104712/http://www.livemint.com/Politics/lvVxsu1L5GPLvD7Z5j3baJ/Nuclear-triad-weapons-ready-for-deployment-DRDO.html|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 6
|-
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Pakistan.svg}} [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]]<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /><ref name="aca" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|date=2021-09-03|title=Pakistani nuclear weapons, 2021 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=77|issue=5|pages=265–278|doi=10.1080/00963402.2021.1964258|bibcode=2021BuAtS..77e.265K|s2cid=237434295|issn=0096-3402|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Status of World Nuclear Forces|url=https://fas.org/initiative/status-world-nuclear-forces/|access-date=2023-09-16|website=Federation of American Scientists|language=en-US}}</ref>
| 170<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tellis |first=Ashley |date=2022 |title=Striking Asymmetries: Nuclear Transitions in Southern Asia |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/files/202207-Tellis_Striking_Asymmetries-final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503151619/https://carnegieendowment.org/files/202207-Tellis_Striking_Asymmetries-final.pdf |archive-date=2023-05-03 |access-date=2024-06-18 |publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] |page=168 |quote=On such premises, Pakistan’s nuclear arsenal in 2020 would consist of between 243 and 283 nuclear devices.}}</ref>
| 0|| 28 May 1998 (''[[Chagai-I|Chagai-1]]'')
| [[Ras Koh Hills]], [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]]|| style="background:#FFE6E6;" | Non-party
| style="background:#FFE6E6;" |Non-signatory
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
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| [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction#Delivery systems|Pakistani triad]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mizokami|first=Kyle|date=2021-11-26|title=How Pakistan Developed Its Own Nuclear Triad|url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/reboot/how-pakistan-developed-its-own-nuclear-triad-196943|access-date=2023-07-08|website=The National Interest|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Babur (Hatf 7)|url=https://missilethreat.csis.org/missile/hatf-7/|access-date=2023-07-08|website=Missile Threat|language=en-US}}</ref>
| 2
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| {{flagicon image|Flag of Israel.svg}} [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|Israel]]<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /><ref name="aca"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|date=2022-01-02|title=Israeli nuclear weapons, 2021 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=78|issue=1|pages=38–50|doi=10.1080/00963402.2021.2014239|bibcode=2022BuAtS..78a..38K|s2cid=246010705|issn=0096-3402|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| 90
|0|| [[Nuclear weapons and Israel#Nuclear testing|1960–1979]]<ref>Farr, Warner D (September 1999), The Third Temple's holy of holies: Israel's nuclear weapons, The Counterproliferation Papers, Future Warfare Series 2, USAF Counterproliferation Center, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, retrieved 2 July 2006.</ref>{{efn|Data include the suspected [[Vela incident]] of 22 September 1979.<ref>*{{cite book|last=Hersh|first=Seymour|title=The Samson option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy|isbn=978-0-394-57006-8|publisher=Random House|year=1991}}, page 271</ref>}}||''Unknown''||style='background:#FFE6E6;'| Non-party
| style='background:#FFFBE6;'| Signatory
|[[File:Pictogram-voting_question.svg|18x18px]]
|[[File:Pictogram-voting_question.svg|18x18px]]
|[[File:Pictogram-voting_question.svg|18x18px]]
| [[Nuclear triad#Suspected triad powers|Suspected Israeli triad]]<ref>''An Atlas of Middle Eastern Affairs'' By Ewan W. Anderson, Liam D. Anderson, (Routledge 2013), page 233: "In terms of delivery systems, there is strong evidence that Israel now possesses all three elements of the nuclear triad."</ref><ref>[[#IISS2012|IISS 2012]], p. 328</ref>
| ''Unknown''
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| {{flagicon image|Flag of North Korea.svg}} [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction|North Korea]]<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name="aca" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|date=2022-09-03|title=North Korean nuclear weapons, 2022 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00963402.2022.2109341|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=78|issue=5|pages=273–294|doi=10.1080/00963402.2022.2109341|bibcode=2022BuAtS..78e.273K|s2cid=252132124|issn=0096-3402}}</ref>
| 50
|0|| [[2006 North Korean nuclear test|9 October 2006]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/13/AR2006101300576.html|date=13 October 2006|title=U.S.: Test Points to N. Korea Nuke Blast|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=3 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227130708/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/13/AR2006101300576.html|archive-date=27 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
| [[Kilju County|Kilju]], [[North Hamgyong Province|North Hamgyong]]
| style="background:#FFEEE6;"| Announced withdrawal<ref>{{citation|title=Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons: Declarations, statements, reservations and notes|url=https://treaties.unoda.org/t/npt/declarations/PRK_moscow_ACC}}</ref>
| style="background:#FFE6E6;"|Non-signatory
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|[[File:Symbol_oppose_vote.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
| [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction#Operational delivery systems|North Korean delivery systems]]<ref>[https://missilethreat.csis.org/country/dprk/ CSIS 2022]</ref>
| 6
|}
{{Pie chart|value1=45.4|value2=42.7|value3=4.1|value4=2.4|value5=1.8|value6=1.4|value7=1.3|value8=0.7|value9=0.2|label1=Russia|label2=United States|label3=China|label4=France|label5=United Kingdom|label6=India|label7=Pakistan|label8=Israel|label9=North Korea|caption=Percentage of global nuclear warheads by country|color1=Red|color2=Green|color3=Yellow|color4=Purple|color5=Orange|color6=Brown|color7=Magenta|color8=Blue|color9=Azure}}

== Recognized nuclear-weapon states ==
{{See also|History of nuclear weapons}}
These five states are known to have detonated a nuclear explosive before 1 January 1967 and are thus nuclear weapons states under the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]]. They also happen to be the [[UN Security Council]]'s (UNSC) [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent members]] with [[Veto power in the UN Security Council|veto power]] on UNSC resolutions.

=== United States ===
{{Main|Nuclear weapons of the United States|United States and weapons of mass destruction}}{{See also|Manhattan Project}}[[File:Trinity Test Fireball 16ms.jpg|right|thumb|An early stage in the "[[Trinity test|Trinity]]" fireball, the first man-made [[nuclear explosion]], 1945]]
The United States developed the first nuclear weapons during [[World War II]] in cooperation with the United Kingdom and Canada as part of the [[Manhattan Project]], out of the apprehension that [[Nazi Germany]] would develop them first. It tested the first nuclear weapon on 16 July 1945 ("[[Trinity site|Trinity]]") at 5:30 am, and remains the only country to have used nuclear weapons in war, having [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|bombed]] the Japanese cities of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] in the closing stages of World War II. The project expenditure through 1 October 1945 was reportedly $1.845–$2{{nbs}}billion, in nominal terms,<ref>{{cite book| last = Nichols| first = Kenneth D.| author-link = Kenneth Nichols| title = The Road to Trinity| year = 1987| publisher = William Morrow and Company| location = New York| isbn = 0-688-06910-X| oclc = 15223648|pages=34–35}}</ref><ref name="ej19450807">{{cite news|date=7 August 1945|title=Atomic Bomb Seen as Cheap at Price|page=1|newspaper=Edmonton Journal|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=yuVkAAAAIBAJ&pg=5621%2C2841878|access-date=1 January 2012}}</ref> roughly 0.8 percent of the US GDP in 1945 and equivalent to about ${{Inflation|US|1.9225|1945|r=1|disp=out}}{{nbs}}billion today.{{Inflation-fn|US}}

The United States was the first nation to develop the [[hydrogen bomb]], testing an experimental prototype in 1952 ("[[Ivy Mike]]") and a deployable weapon in 1954 ("[[Castle Bravo]]"). Throughout the [[Cold War]] it continued to modernize and enlarge its nuclear arsenal, but from 1992 on has been involved primarily in a program of [[stockpile stewardship]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Chuck|last=Hansen|title=U.S. nuclear weapons: The secret history|location=Arlington, TX|publisher=Aerofax|year=1988|isbn=978-0-517-56740-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Chuck|last=Hansen|title=The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. nuclear weapons development since 1945|location=Sunnyvale, CA|publisher=Chukelea Publications|year=1995|url=http://www.uscoldwar.com/|access-date=20 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230020259/http://www.uscoldwar.com/|archive-date=30 December 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., ''Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940'' (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998).</ref><ref name="Gross">{{cite magazine|last1=Gross|first1=Daniel A.|title=An Aging Army|magazine=Distillations|date=2016|volume=2|issue=1|pages=26–36|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/an-aging-army|access-date=22 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320230842/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/an-aging-army|archive-date=20 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The US nuclear arsenal contained 31,175 warheads at its Cold War height (in 1966).<ref>{{cite web|title=Fact Sheet: Increasing Transparency in the U.S. Nuclear Weapons Stockpile|url=http://www.defense.gov/npr/docs/10-05-03_Fact_Sheet_US_Nuclear_Transparency__FINAL_w_Date.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150811174503/http://www.defense.gov/npr/docs/10-05-03_Fact_Sheet_US_Nuclear_Transparency__FINAL_w_Date.pdf|archive-date=11 August 2015|publisher=U.S. Department of Defense|access-date=31 August 2013|date=3 May 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> During the Cold War, the United States built more nuclear weapons than all other nations at approximately 70,000 warheads.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nrdc.org/policy-library|title=Policy Library|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822130722/https://www.nrdc.org/policy-library|archive-date=22 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NorrisKristensenGlobal">Robert S. Norris and Hans M. Kristensen, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20081119090924/http://thebulletin.metapress.com/content/c4120650912x74k7/fulltext.pdf Global nuclear stockpiles, 1945–2006]," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 62, no. 4 (July/August 2006), 64–66...</ref>

=== Russia (successor to the Soviet Union) ===
{{Main|Russia and weapons of mass destruction|Strategic Rocket Forces}}
{{See also|Soviet atomic bomb project}}
[[File:US and USSR nuclear stockpiles.svg|thumb|US and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945–2014]]
The Soviet Union tested its first nuclear weapon ("[[RDS-1]]") in 1949. This crash project was developed partially with information obtained via the [[atomic spies]] at the United States' Manhattan Project during and after World War II. The Soviet Union was the second nation to have developed and tested a nuclear weapon. It tested its first megaton-range hydrogen bomb ("[[RDS-37]]") in 1955. The Soviet Union also tested the most powerful explosive ever detonated by humans, ("[[Tsar Bomba]]"), with a theoretical yield of 100 megatons, reduced to 50 when detonated. After its dissolution in 1991, the Soviet weapons entered officially into the possession of its [[Succession of states#Soviet Union|successor state]], the Russian Federation.<ref>{{cite book|first=David|last=Holloway|title=Stalin and the bomb: The Soviet Union and atomic energy, 1939–1956|location=New Haven, CT|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-300-06056-0}}</ref> The Soviet nuclear arsenal contained some 45,000 [[Nuclear weapon|warheads]] at its peak (in 1986), more than any other nation had possessed at any point in history; the Soviet Union built about 55,000 nuclear warheads since 1949.<ref name="NorrisKristensenGlobal" />

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction}}
{{See also|Tube Alloys|British contribution to the Manhattan Project|High Explosive Research|British hydrogen bomb programme}}
[[File:Trident II missile image.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Trident missile]] launched from a [[Royal Navy]] {{sclass|Vanguard|submarine|0}} [[ballistic missile submarine]]]]
The United Kingdom tested its first nuclear weapon ("[[Operation Hurricane|Hurricane]]") in 1952. The UK had provided considerable impetus and initial research for the early conception of the atomic bomb, aided by Austrian, German and Polish physicists working at British universities who had either fled or decided not to return to Nazi Germany or Nazi-controlled territories. The UK collaborated closely with the United States and Canada during the Manhattan Project, but had to develop its own method for manufacturing and detonating a bomb as US secrecy grew after 1945. The United Kingdom was the third country in the world, after the United States and the Soviet Union, to develop and test a nuclear weapon. Its programme was motivated to have an independent deterrent against the Soviet Union, while also maintaining its status as a [[great power]]. It tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1957 ([[Operation Grapple]]), making it the third country to do so after the United States and Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book|first=Margaret|last=Gowing|title=Independence and deterrence: Britain and atomic energy, 1945–1952 |location=London|publisher=Macmillan|year=1974|isbn=978-0-333-15781-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Lorna|last=Arnold|title=Britain and the H-bomb|location=Basingstoke|publisher=Palgrave|year=2001|isbn=978-0-312-23518-5}}</ref>

The [[British Armed Forces]] maintained a fleet of [[V bomber]] [[strategic bombers]] and [[ballistic missile submarine|ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs)]] equipped with nuclear weapons during the Cold War. The [[Royal Navy]] currently maintains a fleet of four {{sclass|Vanguard|submarine|0}} ballistic missile submarines equipped with [[Trident missile|Trident II missiles]]. In 2016, the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|UK House of Commons]] voted to renew the British nuclear weapons system with the {{sclass|Dreadnought|submarine|1}}, without setting a date for the commencement of service of a replacement to the current system.

=== France ===
{{Main|France and weapons of mass destruction|Force de dissuasion}}
[[File:USS Enterprise FS Charles de Gaulle.jpg|thumb|American nuclear-powered carrier [[USS Enterprise (CVN-65)|USS ''Enterprise'']] (left) and French nuclear-powered [[aircraft carrier]] ''[[Charles de Gaulle (R 91)|Charles de Gaulle]]'' (right), each of which carries nuclear-capable [[warplanes]]]]
France tested its first nuclear weapon in 1960 ("[[Gerboise Bleue]]"), based mostly on its own research. It was motivated by the [[Suez Crisis]] diplomatic tension in relation to both the Soviet Union and its allies, the United States and United Kingdom. It was also relevant to retain great power status, alongside the United Kingdom, during the post-colonial Cold War (see: [[Force de frappe]]). France tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1968 ("[[Canopus (nuclear test)|Opération Canopus]]"). After the Cold War, France has disarmed 175 warheads with the reduction and modernization of its arsenal that has now evolved to a dual system based on [[submarine-launched ballistic missiles]] (SLBMs) and medium-range air-to-surface missiles ([[Rafale]] fighter-bombers). However, new nuclear weapons are in development and reformed nuclear squadrons were trained during [[French forces in Afghanistan|Enduring Freedom operations in Afghanistan]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2013}}

France acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1992.<ref name="NPTsignatories">[http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/npt?OpenView Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217025852/http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/npt?OpenView|date=17 December 2014}}, United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs.</ref> In January 2006, President [[Jacques Chirac]] stated a terrorist act or the use of [[weapons of mass destruction]] against France would result in a nuclear counterattack.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4627862.stm France 'would use nuclear arms'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061219022622/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4627862.stm|date=19 December 2006}} (BBC, January 2006)</ref> In February 2015, President [[François Hollande]] stressed the need for a nuclear deterrent in "a dangerous world". He also detailed the French deterrent as "fewer than 300" nuclear warheads, three sets of 16 submarine-launched ballistic missiles and 54 medium-range air-to-surface missiles and urged other states to show similar transparency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Nuclear_deterrent_important_in_dangerous_world_says_Hollande_999.html|title=Nuclear deterrent important in 'dangerous world', says Hollande|work=spacedaily.com|access-date=20 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194041/http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Nuclear_deterrent_important_in_dangerous_world_says_Hollande_999.html|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== China ===
{{Main|China and weapons of mass destruction|People's Liberation Army Rocket Force}}
[[File:1965-01 1964年首次原子弹爆炸2.jpg|thumb|Mushroom cloud from China's first nuclear test, [[Project 596]]]]
China tested its first nuclear weapon device ("[[596 (nuclear test)|596]]") in 1964 at the [[Lop Nur]] test site. The weapon was developed as a deterrent against both the United States and the Soviet Union. Two years later, China had a fission bomb capable of being put onto a [[nuclear missile]]. It tested its first hydrogen bomb ("[[Chinese nuclear test No. 6|Test No. 6]]") in 1967, 32 months after testing its first nuclear weapon (the shortest fission-to-fusion development known in history).<ref>John Wilson Lewis and Xue Litai, ''China Builds the Bomb'' (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1988). {{ISBN|0-8047-1452-5}}</ref> China is the only NPT nuclear-weapon state to give an unqualified negative [[security assurance]] with its "[[no first use]]" policy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuclearthreatinitiative.org/db/china/nfuorg.htm|title=No-First-Use (NFU)|work=Nuclear Threat Initiative|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125101108/http://nuclearthreatinitiative.org/db/china/nfuorg.htm|archive-date=25 January 2010}}</ref><ref name="S/1995/265">{{cite report|url=https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/Disarm%20S1995265.pdf|title=Statement on security assurances issued on 5 April 1995 by the People's Republic of China |publisher=United Nations|date=6 April 1995|id=S/1995/265|access-date=20 September 2012}}</ref> China acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1992.<ref name="NPTsignatories" /> As of 2016, China fielded SLBMs onboard its [[JL-2]] submarines.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|date=4 July 2019|title=Chinese nuclear forces, 2019|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=75|issue=4|pages=171–178|doi=10.1080/00963402.2019.1628511|bibcode=2019BuAtS..75d.171K|issn=0096-3402|doi-access=free}}</ref> As of February 2024, China had an estimated total inventory of approximately 500 warheads.<ref>[https://fas.org/publication/chinese-nuclear-forces-2024-a-significant-expansion/ Chinese Nuclear Forces, 2024: A “Significant Expansion”], Federation of American Scientists, January 16, 2024.</ref>

According to [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute|Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)]], China is in the middle of a significant modernization and expansion of its nuclear arsenal. Its nuclear stockpile is expected to continue growing over the coming decade and some projections suggest that it will deploy at least as many intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) as either Russia or the US in that period. However, China's overall nuclear warhead stockpile is still expected to remain smaller than that of either of those states.<ref name=":5" /> The Yearbook published by SIPRI in 2023 revealed that China's nuclear warheads stockpile increased by 17% in 2022, reaching 410 warheads.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Chinese Nuclear Arsenal Grows by Seventeen Percent in 2022, SIPRI Reports |url=https://www.gcatglance.com/2023/06/chinese-nuclear-arsenal-grows-by-17-percent-in-2022.html|access-date=2023-06-21}}</ref>

[[United States Department of Defense|US Department of Defense]] officials estimate that the Chinese had more than 500 operational nuclear warheads as of May 2023, and it was on track to posess 1,000 nuclear weapons by the year 2030.<ref>[https://media.defense.gov/2023/Oct/19/2003323409/-1/-1/1/2023-MILITARY-AND-SECURITY-DEVELOPMENTS-INVOLVING-THE-PEOPLES-REPUBLIC-OF-CHINA.PDF Military and Security Developments Involving the People's Republic of China: 2023 Annual Report to Congress], U.S. Department of Defense.</ref>

== States declaring possession of nuclear weapons ==

=== India ===
{{Main|India and weapons of mass destruction}}
[[File:Agni-V during its first test flight.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Agni-V]] during its first test flight on 19 April 2012]]
India is not a party to the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]]. Indian officials rejected the NPT in the 1960s on the grounds that it created a world of nuclear "haves" and "have-nots", arguing that it unnecessarily restricted "peaceful activity" (including "peaceful nuclear explosives"), and that India would not accede to international control of their nuclear facilities unless all other countries engaged in [[unilateral disarmament]] of their own nuclear weapons. The Indian position has also asserted that the NPT is in many ways a neo-colonial regime designed to deny security to post-colonial powers.<ref>George Perkovich, ''India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 120–121, and 7.</ref>

The country tested what is called a "[[Peaceful nuclear explosions|peaceful nuclear explosive]]" in 1974 (which became known as "[[Smiling Buddha]]"). The test was the first test developed after the creation of the NPT, and created new questions about how civilian nuclear technology could be diverted secretly to weapons purposes ([[Dual-use technology#Nuclear|dual-use technology]]). India's secret development caused great concern and anger particularly from nations that had supplied [[CIRUS|its nuclear reactors]] for peaceful and power generating needs, such as Canada.<ref>{{cite web|title = 18 MAY 1974 – SMILING BUDDAH |url = https://www.ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/18-may-1974-smiling-buddah|website=CTBTO|access-date=24 January 2018}}</ref> After its 1974 test, India maintained that its nuclear capability was primarily "peaceful", but between 1988 and 1990 it apparently weaponized two dozen nuclear weapons for delivery by air.<ref>George Perkovich, ''India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 293–297.</ref> In 1998 India tested weaponized nuclear warheads ("[[Operation Shakti]]"), including a [[Thermonuclear weapon|thermonuclear device]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaShakti.html|title=India's Nuclear Weapons Program: Operation Shakti|year=1998|access-date=10 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003235010/http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaShakti.html|archive-date=3 October 2006|url-status=live}}</ref> India adopted a "[[no first use]]" policy in 1998.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-08-29|title=No first use nuclear policy: Explained|work=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no-first-use-nuclear-policy-explained/articleshow/70844818.cms|access-date=2023-04-19|issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

In July 2005, US President [[George W. Bush]] and Indian Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] announced a civil nuclear cooperation initiative<ref>{{cite web|url = https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2005/07/20050718-6.html|title = Joint Statement Between President George W. Bush and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh|access-date=15 May 2009|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091227004630/http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2005/07/20050718-6.html|archive-date=27 December 2009|via = [[NARA|National Archives]]|work = [[whitehouse.gov]]|url-status=live}}</ref> that included plans to conclude an [[Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement]]. This initiative came to fruition through a series of steps that included India's announced plan to separate its civil and military nuclear programs in March 2006,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianembassy.org/newsite/press_release/2006/Mar/sepplan.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060903091254/http://www.indianembassy.org/newsite/press_release/2006/Mar/sepplan.pdf|title=Implementation of the India-United States Joint Statement of July 18, 2005: India's Separation Plan|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 September 2006|date=3 September 2006}}</ref> the passage of the [[India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement]] by the [[US Congress]] in December 2006, the conclusion of a US–India nuclear cooperation agreement in July 2007,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2007/89552.htm|title=U.S.- India Civil Nuclear Cooperation Initiative – Bilateral Agreement on Peaceful Nuclear Cooperation|date=27 July 2007|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117140302/https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2007/89552.htm|archive-date=17 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> approval by the [[IAEA]] of an India-specific safeguards agreement,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/News/2008/board010808.html|title=IAEA Board Approves India-Safeguards Agreement|website=Iaea.org|date=31 July 2008|access-date=15 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505234507/http://iaea.org/NewsCenter/News/2008/board010808.html|archive-date=5 May 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> agreement by the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]] to a waiver of export restrictions for India,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/Final_NSG_Statement_India_20080906.pdf|title=Statement on Civil Nuclear Cooperation with India|access-date=18 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081019090645/https://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/Final_NSG_Statement_India_20080906.pdf|archive-date=19 October 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> approval by the US Congress<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/secretary/rm/2008/10/110554.htm|title=Congressional Approval of the U.S.-India Agreement for Cooperation Concerning Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy (123 Agreement)|date=2 October 2008|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117032516/https://2001-2009.state.gov/secretary/rm/2008/10/110554.htm|archive-date=17 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> and culminating in the signature of US–India agreement for civil nuclear cooperation<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/secretary/rm/2008/10/110916.htm|title=Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and Indian Minister of External Affairs Pranab Mukherjee At the Signing of the U.S.-India Civilian Nuclear Cooperation Agreement|date=10 October 2008|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117032418/https://2001-2009.state.gov/secretary/rm/2008/10/110916.htm|archive-date=17 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> in October 2008. The [[US State Department]] said it made it "very clear that we will not recognize India as a nuclear-weapon state".<ref>[http://www.armscontrol.org/interviews/20060518_Joseph Interview With Undersecretary of State for Arms Control and International Security Robert Joseph] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023081854/http://www.armscontrol.org/interviews/20060518_Joseph|date=23 October 2008}}, ''Arms Control Today'', May 2006.</ref> The United States is bound by the [[Hyde Act]] with India and may cease all cooperation with India if India detonates a nuclear explosive device. The US had further said it is not its intention to assist India in the design, construction or operation of sensitive nuclear technologies through the transfer of dual-use items.<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/story/356926.html Was India misled by America on nuclear deal?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910011419/http://www.indianexpress.com/story/356926.html|date=10 September 2008}}, ''Indian Express''.</ref> In establishing an exemption for India, the Nuclear Suppliers Group reserved the right to consult on any future issues which might trouble it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.armscontrol.org/system/files/20080906_Final_NSG_Statement.pdf|title=ACA: Final NSG Statement|access-date=18 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101120200023/http://www.armscontrol.org/system/files/20080906_Final_NSG_Statement.pdf|archive-date=20 November 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> As of June 2024, India was estimated to have a stockpile of 172 warheads.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=India and Pakistan|url=https://armscontrolcenter.org/countries/india-and-pakistan/|access-date=2023-09-16|website=Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":3" />

=== Pakistan ===
{{Main|Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction}}
[[File:Chagaiatomictests.jpg|thumb|241x241px|Debris erupts from a mountain during an underground nuclear weapon detonation carried out as part of Pakistan's [[Chagai-I|Chaghai-I]] series of tests.]]
Pakistan is also not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Pakistan covertly developed nuclear weapons over decades, beginning in the late 1970s. Pakistan first delved into nuclear power after the establishment of its first nuclear power plant near [[Karachi]] with equipment and materials supplied mainly by western nations in the early 1970s. Pakistani Prime Minister [[Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] promised in 1971 that if India could build nuclear weapons then Pakistan would too, according to him: "We will develop Nuclear stockpiles, even if we have to eat grass."<ref>{{cite web| last =Sublettle| first =Carey| title =Historical Background: Zulfikar Ali Bhutto| work =Nuclear weapons archives| publisher =Federation of American Scientists (FAS)| date =15 October 1965| url =http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Pakistan/PakOrigin.html| access-date =19 August 2018| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20131216222126/http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Pakistan/PakOrigin.html| archive-date =16 December 2013| url-status=live}}</ref>

It is believed that Pakistan has possessed nuclear weapons since the mid-1980s.<ref>[http://www.nti.org/country-profiles/pakistan/ NTI Pakistan Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416084022/http://www.nti.org/country-profiles/pakistan/|date=16 April 2012}}, retrieved 22 April 2012.</ref> The United States continued to certify that Pakistan did not possess such weapons until 1990, when sanctions were imposed under the [[Larry Pressler#Pakistan and the Pressler Amendment|Pressler Amendment]], requiring a cutoff of US economic and military assistance to Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iie.com/research/topics/sanctions/pakistan.cfm|title=Case Studies in Sanctions and Terrorism: Pakistan|publisher=Iie.com|access-date=15 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512121259/http://www.iie.com/research/topics/sanctions/pakistan.cfm|archive-date=12 May 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1998, Pakistan conducted its first [[Chagai-I|six nuclear tests]] at the [[Ras Koh Hills]] in response to the five tests conducted by India a few weeks before.

In 2004, the Pakistani metallurgist [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]], a key figure in Pakistan's nuclear weapons program, confessed to heading an international [[black market]] ring involved in selling nuclear weapons technology. In particular, Khan had been selling [[gas centrifuge]] technology to North Korea, Iran, and Libya. Khan denied complicity by the Pakistani government or Army, but this has been called into question by journalists and IAEA officials, and was later contradicted by statements from Khan himself.<ref>See [[A.Q. Khan#Investigation, dismissal, confession, pardon and aftermath|A.Q. Khan: Investigation, dismissal, confession, pardon and aftermath]], for citations and details.</ref>

As of early 2013, Pakistan was estimated to have had a stockpile of around 140 warheads,<ref name="NucDec2017">{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/issues/nuclear-weapons/status-world-nuclear-forces/|title=Status of World Nuclear Forces|website=Federation of American Scientists|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124145358/https://fas.org/issues/nuclear-weapons/status-world-nuclear-forces/|archive-date=24 January 2018|access-date=24 January 2018}}</ref> and in November 2014 it was projected that by 2020 Pakistan would have enough fissile material for 200 warheads.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/Pakistan-to-have-200-nuclear-weapons-by-2020-US-think-tank/articleshow/45250170.cms| title=Pakistan to Have 200 Nuke Weapons by 2020: US Think Tank | newspaper=The Times of india| date=November 2014| access-date=28 November 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141127141607/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/Pakistan-to-have-200-nuclear-weapons-by-2020-US-think-tank/articleshow/45250170.cms| archive-date=27 November 2014| url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2024, [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute|SIPRI]] estimated that Pakistan had a stockpile of around 170 warheads.<ref name=":5" />

=== North Korea ===
{{Main|North Korea and weapons of mass destruction}}

North Korea was a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but announced a withdrawal on 10 January 2003, after the United States accused it of having a secret [[uranium enrichment]] program and cut off energy assistance under the 1994 [[Agreed Framework]]. In February 2005, North Korea claimed to possess functional nuclear weapons, though their lack of a test at the time led many experts to doubt the claim. In October 2006, North Korea stated that, in response to growing intimidation by the United States, it would conduct a nuclear test to confirm its nuclear status. North Korea reported a successful nuclear test on 9 October 2006 (see [[2006 North Korean nuclear test]]). Most US intelligence officials believed that the test was probably only partially successful with a [[nuclear weapon yield|yield]] of less than a kiloton.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Rick|last1=Gladstone|first2=Rogene|last2=Jacquette|accessdate=18 April 2021|title=How the North Korean Nuclear Threat Has Grown|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/17/world/asia/north-korea-nuclear-threat.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=18 February 2017|issn=0362-4331|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|accessdate=18 April 2021|title=TIMELINE:North Korea: climbdowns and tests|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-nuclear-timeline-sb-idUSTRE54O0K020090525|newspaper=Reuters|date=25 May 2009|via=www.reuters.com}}</ref> North Korea conducted a second, higher-yield test on 25 May 2009 (see [[2009 North Korean nuclear test]]) and a third test with still-higher yield on 12 February 2013 (see [[2013 North Korean nuclear test]]).

North Korea claimed to have conducted its [[January 2016 North Korean nuclear test|first hydrogen-bomb test]] on 5 January 2016, though measurements of seismic disturbances indicate that the detonation was not consistent with a hydrogen bomb.<ref>{{cite news|title=North Korea Test Shows Technical Advance|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=7 January 2016|volume=CCLXVII|issue=5|page=A6}}</ref> On 3 September 2017, [[2017 North Korean nuclear test|North Korea detonated a device]], which caused a magnitude 6.1 tremor, consistent with a low-powered [[Thermonuclear weapon|thermonuclear]] detonation; NORSAR estimates the yield at 250 kilotons<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.norsar.no/press/latest-press-release/archive/the-nuclear-explosion-in-north-korea-on-3-september-2017-a-revised-magnitude-assessment-article1548-984.html|title=The nuclear explosion in North Korea on 3 September 2017: A revised magnitude assessment |website=NORSAR.no|access-date=15 September 2017|archive-url = https://archive.today/20170913180851/https://www.norsar.no/press/latest-press-release/archive/the-nuclear-explosion-in-north-korea-on-3-september-2017-a-revised-magnitude-assessment-article1548-984.html|archive-date=13 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> of TNT. In 2018, North Korea announced a halt in nuclear weapons tests and made a conditional commitment to denuclearisation of the [[Korean Peninsula]];<ref>{{cite news|title=North Korea has Begun Dismantlement of the Punggye-ri Nuclear Test Site'|url= https://www.38north.org/2018/05/punggye051418/|work=38north.org|access-date=3 August 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180803213550/https://www.38north.org/2018/05/punggye051418/|archive-date=3 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title='Destruction at North Korea's Nuclear Test Site: A Review in Photos'|url = https://www.38north.org/2018/05/punggye052518/|website=38north.org|access-date=3 August 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180814103301/https://www.38north.org/2018/05/punggye052518/|archive-date=14 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> however, in December 2019, it indicated it no longer considered itself bound by the moratorium.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sang-Hun|first=Choe|date=31 December 2019|title=North Korea Is No Longer Bound by Nuclear Test Moratorium, Kim Says|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/31/world/asia/north-korea-kim-speech.html|access-date=18 June 2020|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

[[Kim Jong Un]] officially declared North Korea a nuclear weapons state during a speech on 9 September 2022, [[Day of the Foundation of the Republic|the country's foundation day]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 September 2022|title=North Korea declares itself a nuclear weapons state, in 'irreversible' move|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/09/asia/north-korea-kim-nuclear-weapons-state-law-intl-hnk/index.html|access-date=9 September 2022|website=[[CNN]]}}</ref>

According to the [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute|Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)]], North Korea's military nuclear programme remains central to its national security strategy and it may have assembled up to 30 nuclear weapons and could produce more. North Korea conducted more than 90 ballistic missile tests during 2022, the highest number it has ever undertaken in a single year.<ref name=":5" />

== States believed to possess nuclear weapons ==

=== Israel ===
{{Main|Nuclear weapons and Israel|Israel and weapons of mass destruction}}

Israel is generally understood to have been the sixth country to develop nuclear weapons, but does not acknowledge it. It had "rudimentary, but deliverable," nuclear weapons available as early as 1966.<ref>{{Citation| title = Israel and the Bomb| place = New York| publisher = Columbia University Press| last = Cohen| first = Avner| year = 1998| isbn = 978-0-231-10482-1| url = https://archive.org/details/israelbomb00cohe|page=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| first = Mohamed| last = ElBaradei| url = http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Transcripts/2004/alahram27072004.html| title = Transcript of the Director General's Interview with Al-Ahram News| author-link = Mohamed ElBaradei| publisher = [[International Atomic Energy Agency]]| date = 27 July 2004| access-date = 3 June 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120418221656/http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/transcripts/2004/alahram27072004.html| archive-date = 18 April 2012| url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NTI">{{cite web| access-date = 23 June 2009| work = Israel| title = Nuclear Overview| format = profile| publisher = NTI| url = http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Israel/Nuclear/| url-status=dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090102210432/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Israel/Nuclear/| archive-date = 2 January 2009}}</ref><ref name="auto">''My Promised Land'', by [[Ari Shavit]], (London 2014), page 188</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Israel's Quest for Yellowcake: The Secret Argentina-Israel Connection, 1963–1966|author=Nuclear Proliferation International History Project|url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/israels-quest-for-yellowcake-the-secret-argentina-israel-connection-1963-1966|publisher=[[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]]|date=28 June 2013|access-date=22 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814114619/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/israels-quest-for-yellowcake-the-secret-argentina-israel-connection-1963-1966|archive-date=14 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/index.html|title=Nuclear Weapons|website=fas.org|access-date=7 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207122117/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/index.html|archive-date=7 December 2010|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NTIIsrael">[http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Israel/Nuclear/index.html NTI Israel Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728090642/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Israel/Nuclear/index.html|date=28 July 2011}} Retrieved 12 July 2007.</ref>{{excessive citations inline|date=August 2024}} Israel is not a party to the NPT. Israel engages in [[Policy of deliberate ambiguity|strategic ambiguity]], saying it would not be the first country to "introduce" nuclear weapons to the Middle East without confirming or denying that it has a nuclear weapons program or arsenal. This policy of "nuclear opacity" has been interpreted as an attempt to get the benefits of [[deterrence theory|deterrence]] with a minimal political cost.<ref name="NTIIsrael" /><ref name="CohenIsrael"/> Due to a US ban on funding countries that have [[weapons of mass destruction]], Israel would lose around $2 billion a year in military and other aid from the US if it admitted to possessing nuclear weapons.<ref name="guardian121206" />

According to the [[Natural Resources Defense Council]] and the [[Federation of American Scientists]], Israel likely possesses around 80–400 nuclear weapons.<ref name="israelcohen">There are a wide range of estimates as to the size of the Israeli nuclear arsenal. For a compiled list of estimates, see [[Avner Cohen]], ''The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's bargain with the Bomb'' (Columbia University Press, 2010), Table 1, page xxvii and page 82.</ref><ref>[https://fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/index.html Israel's Nuclear Weapons] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207122117/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/index.html|date=7 December 2010}}, [[Federation of American Scientists]] (17 August 2000)</ref> The [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] estimates that Israel has approximately 80 intact nuclear weapons, of which 50 are for delivery by [[Jericho II]] medium-range ballistic missiles and 30 are [[gravity bombs]] for delivery by aircraft. [[SIPRI]] also reports that there was renewed speculation in 2012 that Israel may also have developed nuclear-capable [[Popeye Turbo|submarine-launched cruise missiles]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/nuclear-forces/israel|title=Israel|access-date=19 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217155101/http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/nuclear-forces/israel|archive-date=17 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 7 November 2023, during the [[Israel–Hamas war]], Heritage Minister [[Amihai Eliyahu]] said during a radio interview that a nuclear strike would be "one way" to deal with [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]], which commentators and diplomats interpreted as a tacit admission that Israel possesses such a capability. His remarks were criticized by the United States and Russia, and Eliyahu was subsequently suspended from the Israeli cabinet.<ref name="AJ IL Nuclear">{{cite web|title=Israel's nuclear option remark raises 'huge number of questions': Russia's foreign ministry says Israel appeared to have admitted that it has nuclear weapons and is willing to use them.|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/7/israels-nuclear-option-remark-raises-huge-number-of-questions-russia#:~:text=Moscow's%20reaction%20came%20on%20Tuesday,is%20also%20willing%20to%20use|website=Al Jazeera|publisher=Al Jazeera America|access-date=17 Nov 2023}}</ref>

== Launch authority ==

The decision to use nuclear weapons is always restricted to a single person or small group of people. The [[United States]] and [[France]] require their respective presidents to approve the use of nuclear weapons. In the US, the [[Nuclear football|Presidential Emergency Satchel]] is always handled by a nearby aide unless the [[President of the United States|President]] is near a command center. The decision rests with the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. Information from [[China]] is unclear, but "the launch of nuclear weapons is commonly believed to rest with the [[Central Military Commission (China)|Central Military Commission]] of the [[Chinese Communist Party]]."{{Citation needed|date=October 2024|reason=Where is this quote from? This seems like original research}} [[Russia]] grants such power to the [[President of Russia|President]] but may also require approval from the [[Minister of Defence (Russia)|Minister of Defence]] and the [[Chief of the General Staff (Russia)|Chief of the General Staff]]. The [[Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of North Korea|Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces]] has authority in [[North Korea]]. India, Pakistan and Israel have committees for such a decision.<ref name = "UCS Launch Authority">{{cite web|publisher=Union of Concerned Scientists|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/attach/2017/11/Launch-Authority.pdf|title=Whose Finger Is On the Button?|date=December 2017|access-date=21 February 2021}}</ref>

Some countries are known to have delegated launch authority to military personnel in the event that the usual launch authority is incapacitated; whether or not the 'pre-delegated' authority exists at any particular time is kept secret.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Feaver|first1=Peter|last2=Geers|first2=Kenneth|date=October 16, 2017|title="When the Urgency of Time and Circumstances Clearly Does Not Permit . . .": Pre-delegation in Nuclear and Cyber Scenarios|url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2017/10/16/when-urgency-of-time-and-circumstances-clearly-does-not-permit-.-.-.-pre-delegation-in-nuclear-and-cyber-scenarios-pub-73417|archive-url=|website=Carnegie Endowment}}</ref> In the United States, some military commanders have been delegated authority to launch nuclear weapons "when the urgency of time and circumstances clearly does not permit a specific decision by the President."<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-01-08 |title=MILITARY GOT AUTHORITY TO USE NUCLEAR ARMS IN 1957 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1998/03/21/military-got-authority-to-use-nuclear-arms-in-1957/a71f519b-616a-4e75-86d3-424b2d882a4b/ |access-date=2024-10-03 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Russia has a semi automated [[Dead Hand]] system which may allow military commanders to act based on certain pre-defined criteria. British nuclear-armed submarine commanders are issued with "[[letters of last resort]]" written by the Prime Minister containing secret instructions which may or may not give them delegated launch authority.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Taylor|first=Adam|date=July 13, 2016|title=Every new British prime minister pens a handwritten 'letter of last resort' outlining nuclear retaliation|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/07/13/every-new-british-prime-minister-pens-a-hand-written-letter-of-last-resort-outlining-nuclear-retaliaton/|newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Launch authority of nuclear states
|-
! scope="col"| Country
! scope="col"| Authority
! scope="col"| Notes
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Nuclear weapons of the United States|United States]]
| [[President of the United States]]|| See the [[Nuclear football|Presidential Emergency Satchel]].<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" /><ref name="UCS Whose Finger">{{Cite web|title=Whose Finger Is on the Button? {{!}} Union of Concerned Scientists|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/whose-finger-button|access-date=2023-07-06|website=www.ucsusa.org|language=en}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|Russia]]|| [[President of Russia]]
| [[Cheget|Briefcases]] may also be issued to the [[Minister of Defence (Russia)|Minister of Defence]] and the [[Chief of the General Staff (Russia)|Chief of the General Staff]].<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" /><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/si/2004/sep/tsypkinSept04.asp|title=Adventures of the "Nuclear Briefcase"|author=Mikhail Tsypkin|journal=Strategic Insights|volume=3|issue=9|date=September 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040923072304/http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/si/2004/sep/tsypkinSept04.asp|archive-date=23 September 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.themoscowtimes.com/article/1016/42/362896.htm|title=A 2nd Briefcase for Putin|author=Alexander Golts|newspaper=Moscow Times|date=20 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604040029/http://www.themoscowtimes.com/opinion/article/a-2nd-briefcase-for-putin/362896.html|archive-date=4 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="UCS Whose Finger" />
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
| [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]]|| The [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] and a secretly designated 'second' may order a launch, but this may be challenged by Parliament.<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" /><ref name="UCS Whose Finger" />
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|France}} [[France and weapons of mass destruction|France]]
| [[President of France]]||The [[Chief of the Military Staff of the President of the Republic]] and the [[Chief of the Defence Staff (France)|Chief of the Defence Staff]] may also be involved in decisions.<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" /><ref name="UCS Whose Finger" />
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|China}} [[China and weapons of mass destruction|China]]
| [[Central Military Commission (China)|Central Military Commission]]|| The [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|Chairman of the Central Military Commission]] is the [[Supreme Military Command of the People's Republic of China|Supreme Military Commander]].<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" /><ref name="UCS Whose Finger" />
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|India}} [[India and weapons of mass destruction|India]]
| [[Prime Minister of India]]|| [[Nuclear Command Authority (India)|Nuclear Command Authority]] includes an Executive Council and a Political Council.<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" /><ref name="UCS Whose Finger" />
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]]
| [[National Command Authority (Pakistan)|National Command Authority]]|| Requires a consensus of the council's members.<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" /><ref name="UCS Whose Finger" />
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|North Korea}} [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction|North Korea]]
| [[President of the State Affairs of North Korea|President of the State Affairs]]|| The president of the State Affairs is the ultimate decisionmaker in regards to North Korea's nuclear arsenal.<ref>{{Cite web|title=N. Korea adopts nuclear use manual, signaling return to parallel pursuit of nukes, economy|url=https://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_northkorea/1058447.html|access-date=2023-03-25|website=english.hani.co.kr}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|Israel}} [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|Israel]]
| [[Prime Minister of Israel]]|| Requires agreement of the [[Ministry of Defense (Israel)#Minister of Defense|Minister of Defense]] and [[Chief of the General Staff (Israel)|Chief of the General Staff]].<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" />
|}

== Nuclear weapons sharing ==
{{Main|Nuclear sharing}}
{{see also|Germany and weapons of mass destruction|Italian nuclear weapons program|Netherlands and weapons of mass destruction}}

=== Nuclear weapons shared by the United States ===
{|class="wikitable sortable" align="right" border="1"
|+ Weapons provided for nuclear sharing (2021)<ref name=":0">{{cite Q|Q105699219|quote="About 100 of these (versions −3 and −4) are thought to be deployed at six bases in five European countries: Aviano and Ghedi in Italy; Büchel in Germany; Incirlik in Turkey; Kleine Brogel in Belgium; and Volkel in the Netherlands. This number has declined since 2009 partly due to reduction of operational storage capacity at Aviano and Incirlik (Kristensen 2015, 2019c). ... Concerns were raised about the security of the nuclear weapons at the Incirlik base during the failed coup attempt in Turkey in July 2016, and the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee for Europe stated in September 2020 that “our presence, quite honestly, in Turkey is certainly threatened,” and further noted that “we don’t know what’s going to happen to Incirlik” (Gehrke 2020). Despite rumors in late 2017 that the weapons had been “quietly removed” (Hammond 2017), reports in 2019 that US officials had reviewed emergency nuclear weapons evacuation plans (Sanger 2019) indicated that that there were still weapons present at the base. The numbers appear to have been reduced, however, from up to 50 to approximately 20."}}</ref>
! Country|| Base|| Estimated
|-
| {{BEL}}|| [[Kleine Brogel Air Base|Kleine Brogel]]|| 20
|-
| {{DEU}}|| [[Büchel Air Base|Büchel]]|| 20
|-
| {{ITA}}|| [[Aviano Air Base|Aviano]]|| rowspan="2"| 20
|-
| {{ITA}}|| [[Ghedi Air Base|Ghedi]]
|-
| {{NLD}}|| [[Volkel Air Base|Volkel]]|| 20
|-
| {{TUR}}|| [[Incirlik Air Base|Incirlik]]|| 20
|-
! !! !! 100
|-
|}

Under [[NATO]] [[nuclear weapons sharing]], the United States has provided nuclear weapons for Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Turkey to deploy and store.<ref name=NATOSharing>{{cite web|url=http://www.bits.de/public/researchnote/rn97-3.htm|title=Berlin Information-center for Transatlantic Security: NATO Nuclear Sharing and the N.PT – Questions to be Answered|publisher=Bits.de|access-date=15 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519054302/http://www.bits.de/public/researchnote/rn97-3.htm|archive-date=19 May 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> This involves pilots and other staff of the "non-nuclear" NATO states practicing, handling, and delivering the US nuclear bombs, and adapting non-US warplanes to deliver US nuclear bombs. However, since all US nuclear weapons are protected with [[Permissive Action Link]]s, the host states cannot easily arm the bombs without authorization codes from the [[United States Department of Defense|US Department of Defense]].<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rja14/Papers/SE-11.pdf|title=Security Engineering: A Guide to Building Dependable Distributed Systems|chapter=Nuclear Command and Control|publisher=Ross Anderson, University of Cambridge Computing Laboratory|access-date=29 April 2010}}</ref> Former Italian President [[Francesco Cossiga]] acknowledged the presence of US nuclear weapons in Italy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://notizie.tiscali.it/articoli/politica/08/22/cossiga_atomica_in_italia_123.html|title=Cossiga: "In Italia ci sono bombe atomiche Usa"|access-date=16 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928225725/http://notizie.tiscali.it/articoli/politica/08/22/cossiga_atomica_in_italia_123.html|archive-date=28 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> US nuclear weapons were also deployed in [[Canada]] as well as [[Greece]] from 1963. However, the United States withdrew three of the four nuclear-capable weapons systems from Canada by 1972, the fourth by 1984, and all nuclear-capable weapons systems from Greece by 2001.<ref>[https://www.institutmontaigne.org/en/expressions/weapons-mass-debate-greece-key-security-player-both-europe-and-nato Weapons of Mass Debate - Greece: a Key Security Player for both Europe and NATO], Institut Montaigne, 7 December 2001]</ref><ref name="nrdc-euro">{{Cite report|title=U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Europe|url=http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/euro/euro.pdf|author=Hans M. Kristensen|date=February 2005|publisher=[[Natural Resources Defense Council]]|access-date=23 May 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723003003/http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/euro/euro.pdf|archive-date=23 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> {{As of|April 2019}}, the United States maintained around 100 nuclear weapons in Europe, as reflected in the accompanying table.<ref name=":0" />

=== Nuclear weapons shared by Russia ===
{| class="wikitable"; style="float" position="left"; margin-left:15px;"
|+Russian nuclear weapons in host countries
!scope="col"|Country
!scope="col"|Air base
!scope="col"|Warheads
|-
|scope="row"| {{BLR}}
| Probably [[Lida (air base)|Lida]]<ref name="FAS_BLR"/>
| ~130

|}
{{As of|since=y|June 2023}},<ref name="FAS_BLR">{{cite web|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|title=Russian Nuclear Weapons Deployment Plans in Belarus: Is There Visual Confirmation?|url=https://fas.org/publication/russian-nuclear-weapons-deployment-plans-in-belarus-is-there-visual-confirmation/|website=Federation of American Scientists|access-date=17 July 2023|date=30 June 2023}}</ref> the leaders of Russia and Belarus have claimed that a "number of"<ref name="claimed_transfer">{{cite web|last1=Faulconbridge|first1=Guy|title=Lukashenko: I have veto over use of Russian nuclear weapons in Belarus|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/lukashenko-i-have-veto-over-use-russian-nuclear-weapons-belarus-2023-07-06/|website=Reuters|access-date=17 July 2023|date=6 July 2023}}</ref> nuclear weapons are located on Belarusian territory while remaining in Russian possession.<ref name="FAS_BLR"/> Sources hostile to these countries have confirmed that nuclear warheads have been delivered to Belarus, but claim that the first transfers were instead made in August 2023.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Borysenko|first1=Ivan|title=Russia delivers first nuclear warheads to Belarus - Budanov|url=https://english.nv.ua/nation/russia-delivers-first-nuclear-warheads-to-belarus-ukraine-war-news-50350466.html|website=The New Voice of Ukraine|publisher=NV|access-date=10 September 2023}}</ref> Russia's stated intention is to provide Belarus with two delivery systems: dual-capable [[9K720 Iskander|Iskander-M]] missile systems and necessary training and modifications for Belarusian [[Su-25]] aircraft to carry nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Foreign Ministry Announces Conversion of Belarusian Su-25 Aircraft to Carry Nuclear Weapons|url=https://www.eurointegration.com.ua/eng/news/2022/10/15/7148746/|website=eurointegration.com|publisher=European Pravada|access-date=17 October 2022}}</ref>

The deployment of Russian weapons to Belarus was framed by Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] as being equivalent to the deployments of American nuclear weapons to NATO Allies in Europe under international law.<ref name="claimed_transfer"/>

=== Criticism of nuclear weapons sharing ===
Members of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] have called on all countries to "refrain from nuclear sharing for military purposes under any kind of security arrangements."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050508053154/http://www.un.org/events/npt2005/statements/npt02malaysia.pdf Statement on behalf of the non-aligned state parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons], 2 May 2005</ref> The Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad (ISSI) has criticized the arrangement for allegedly violating Articles I and II of the NPT, arguing that "these Articles do not permit the NWS to delegate the control of their nuclear weapons directly or indirectly to others."<ref>[http://www.issi.org.pk/journal/2000_files/no_4/article/6a.htm ISSI – NPT in 2000: Challenges ahead], Zafar Nawaz Jaspal, The Institute of Strategic Studies, Islamabad {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109082520/http://www.issi.org.pk/journal/2000_files/no_4/article/6a.htm|date=9 January 2009}}</ref> NATO has argued that the weapons' sharing is compliant with the NPT because "the US nuclear weapons based in Europe are in the sole possession and under constant and complete custody and control of the United States."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_topics/20091022_NATO_Position_on_nuclear_nonproliferation-eng.pdf|title=NATO's Positions Regarding Nuclear Non-Proliferation, Arms Control and Disarmament and Related Issues|publisher=[[NATO]]|access-date=8 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911033954/http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_topics/20091022_NATO_Position_on_nuclear_nonproliferation-eng.pdf|archive-date=11 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

== States formerly possessing nuclear weapons ==
Nuclear weapons have been present in many nations, often as staging grounds under control of other powers. However, in only one instance has a nation given up nuclear weapons after being in full control of them. The [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|fall of the Soviet Union]] left several [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet republics]] in physical possession of nuclear weapons, although not operational control which was dependent on Russian-controlled electronic [[Permissive Action Link]]s and the Russian command and control system.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNanc3lYUsQC|chapter=Why Ukraine gave up nuclear weapons : nonproliferation incentives and disincentives|author=William C. Martel|pages=88–104|title=Pulling Back from the Nuclear Brink: Reducing and Countering Nuclear Threats|editor=Barry R. Schneider, William L. Dowdy|publisher=Psychology Press|year=1998|isbn=9780714648569|access-date=6 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="pikayev-1994">{{cite journal|url=http://cns.miis.edu/npr/pdfs/pikaye13.pdf|title=Post-Soviet Russia and Ukraine: Who can push the Button?|author=Alexander A. Pikayev|journal=The Nonproliferation Review|volume=1|issue=3|pages=31–46|date=Spring–Summer 1994|doi=10.1080/10736709408436550|access-date=6 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521083227/http://cns.miis.edu/npr/pdfs/pikaye13.pdf|archive-date=21 May 2014|url-status=live | issn=1073-6700 }}</ref> Of these, Kazakhstan and Ukraine continue to have neither their own nuclear weapons nor another state's nuclear weapons stationed in their territory whereas Belarus does again claim to have Russian-owned nuclear weapons stationed on its territory since 2023.

=== South Africa ===
{{Main|South Africa and weapons of mass destruction|Nuclear programme of South Africa}}
[[File:South African nuclear bomb casings.jpg|right|thumb|Alleged spare bomb casings from South Africa's nuclear weapon programme. Their purpose is disputed.<ref name=lewisSA>{{cite web|last1=Lewis|first1=Jeffrey|title=Revisiting South Africa's Bomb|url=http://www.armscontrolwonk.com/archive/1200544/revisiting-south-africas-bomb/|website=Arms Control Wonk. Leading Voice on Arms Control, Disarmament and Non-Proliferation|date=3 December 2015|access-date=6 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151206174810/http://www.armscontrolwonk.com/archive/1200544/revisiting-south-africas-bomb/|archive-date=6 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

[[South Africa]] produced six nuclear weapons in the 1980s, but dismantled them in the early 1990s.

In 1979, there was a detection of a putative covert nuclear test in the [[Indian Ocean]], called the [[Vela incident]]. It has long been speculated that it was a test by Israel, in collaboration with and with the support of South Africa, though this has never been confirmed. South Africa could not have constructed such a nuclear bomb by itself until November 1979, two months after the "double flash" incident.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/23/israel-south-africa-nuclear-weapons|title=Revealed: how Israel offered to sell South Africa nuclear weapons|last=McGreal|first=Chris|location=Washington, D.C.|date=24 May 2010|work=The Guardian|access-date=6 February 2022}}</ref>

South Africa acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1991.<ref>[https://fas.org/nuke/guide/rsa/nuke/index.html Nuclear Weapons Program (South Africa)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016020250/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/rsa/nuke/index.html|date=16 October 2015}}, [[Federation of American Scientists]] (29 May 2000).</ref><ref>Von Wielligh, N. & von Wielligh-Steyn, L. (2015). The Bomb – South Africa's Nuclear Weapons Programme. Pretoria: Litera.</ref>

=== Former Soviet republics ===
{{See also|Ukraine and weapons of mass destruction}}

* [[Kazakhstan]] had 1,400 Soviet-era nuclear weapons on its territory and transferred them all to Russia by 1995, after Kazakhstan acceded to the NPT.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/kazakhstan/index.html|title=Kazakhstan Special Weapons|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]|access-date=7 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117015936/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/kazakhstan/index.html|archive-date=17 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Ukraine]] had as many as 3,000 nuclear weapons deployed on its territory when it became independent from the Soviet Union in 1991, equivalent to the third-largest nuclear arsenal in the world.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} At the time Ukraine acceded to the NPT in December 1994, Ukraine had agreed to dispose of all nuclear weapons within its territory. The warheads were removed from Ukraine by 1996 and disassembled in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/ukraine/|title=Ukraine Special Weapons|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]|access-date=7 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016045730/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/ukraine/|archive-date=16 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite Russia's subsequent and internationally disputed [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexation of Crimea]] in 2014, Ukraine reaffirmed its 1994 decision to accede to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear-weapon state.<ref>[https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/25/joint-statement-united-states-and-ukraine Joint Statement by the United States and Ukraine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216154310/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/25/joint-statement-united-states-and-ukraine|date=16 February 2017}}, 25 March 2014.</ref>
* [[Belarus]], which since 2023 has resumed hosting Russian nuclear weapons, also had single warhead missiles stationed on its territory into the 1990s while a constituent of the Soviet Union. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, 81 single warhead missiles were stationed on newly Belarusian territory, but were all transferred to Russia by 1996. Belarus was a member of the [[Non Proliferation Treaty|Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)]] from May 1992<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/belarus/index.html|title=Belarus Special Weapons|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]|access-date=7 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117022903/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/belarus/index.html|archive-date=17 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> through February 2022, when it held a [[2022 Belarusian constitutional referendum|constitutional referendum]] resulting in the cessation of its non-nuclear status.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Belarus votes to give up non-nuclear status|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/27/belarus-holds-referendum-to-renounce-non-nuclear-status|access-date=2022-03-01|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref>

In connection with their accession to the NPT, all three countries received assurances that their sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity would be respected, as stated in the [[Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances]]. This agreement has been violated by Russia since the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]] began in 2014, during which [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|Russia annexed Crimea]], [[War in Donbas (2014–2022)|occupied Eastern Ukraine]], and in 2022, [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|invaded the remainder of the country]] with no direct response.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Borda|first=Aldo Zammit|title=Ukraine war: what is the Budapest Memorandum and why has Russia's invasion torn it up?|url=http://theconversation.com/ukraine-war-what-is-the-budapest-memorandum-and-why-has-russias-invasion-torn-it-up-178184|access-date=2022-05-05|website=The Conversation|date=2 March 2022|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Pifer|first=Steven|date=2014-04-12|title=The Budapest Memorandum and U.S. Obligations|url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2014/12/04/the-budapest-memorandum-and-u-s-obligations/|access-date=2022-05-05|publisher=[[Brookings Institution]]|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ukraine's forgotten security guarantee: The Budapest Memorandum|url=https://www.dw.com/en/ukraines-forgotten-security-guarantee-the-budapest-memorandum/a-18111097|access-date=2022-05-05|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|date=12 May 2014|language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== Stationed countries ===
Up until the 1990s the US had stationed nuclear weapons outside of its territories and sharing countries.<ref>{{cite web|author=Hans M. Kristensen| title=The Withdrawal of U.S. Nuclear Weapons From South Korea|date=September 28, 2005|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]|url=http://www.nukestrat.com/korea/withdrawal.htm|accessdate=2017-09-24| author-link=Hans M. Kristensen}}</ref>

==== South Korea ====
{{Main|South Korea and weapons of mass destruction}}

==== Philippines ====
{{Main|Philippines and weapons of mass destruction}}

During the [[Cold War]], specifically during the presidency of [[Ferdinand Marcos]] from 1965 to 1986, American nuclear warheads were secretly stockpiled in the [[Philippines]].<ref>{{Citation |title=US stored nukes in Philippines under Marcos–Bayan |date=2024-04-15 |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/58985/us-stored-nukes-in-philippines-under-marcos%E2%80%93bayan#:~:text=Citing%20a%20declassified%20%E2%80%9CTop%20Secret,%E2%80%94as%20early%20as%201966.%E2%80%9D }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB197/nd-17c.pdf|title=Presidential Decision on Categories of Information for Symington Subcommittee to be protected by executive privilege|access-date=2024-04-15}}</ref>

==== Taiwan ====
{{Main|Taiwan and weapons of mass destruction|Timeline of the Republic of China's nuclear program}}

Taiwan was developing capacities to construct nuclear weapons up until 1988.<ref>{{cite book |isbn=978-1-72733-733-4 |publication-place=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[Institute for Science and International Security]] |lccn=2018910946 |first1=David |last1=Albright |first2=Andrea |last2=Stricker |title=Taiwans's Former Nuclear Weapons Program: Nuclear Weapons On-Demand |year=2018 |access-date=13 August 2024 |url=https://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/TaiwansFormerNuclearWeaponsProgram_POD_color_withCover.pdf |archive-date=16 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116043944/https://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/TaiwansFormerNuclearWeaponsProgram_POD_color_withCover.pdf }}</ref><ref>"ROC Chief of the General Staff, General Hau Pei-tsun, met the director of [[American Institute in Taiwan]], David Dean in his office after Colonel Chang's defection in 1988. Dean questioned him with the US satellite imagery detecting a minimized nuclear explosion at the Jioupeng military test field in Pingtung in 1986. Hao answered that, after nearly 20 years of research, ROC had successfully produced a controlled nuclear reaction. Hau recorded the statement in his diary and published on the Issue 1 (2000), but was removed from the later re-issues." {{cite book|last=Hau|first=Pei-tsun|title=Ba nian can mou zong zhang ri ji|trans-title=8-year Diary of the Chief of the General Staff (1981–1989) |url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL13062852M/Ba_nian_can_mou_zong_zhang_ri_ji_(She_hui_ren_wen)#about/about |publisher=[[:zh:天下文化|Commonwealth Publishing]] |date=1 January 2000 |issue=1|isbn=9576216389 |language=zh-TW |location=Taipei|ol=13062852M }}</ref> Before 1974, the United States stationed some of its arsenal in Taiwan.<ref name=nsaebb>{{cite news |work=[[National Security Archive]] |series=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book |issue=20 |first1=Robert S. |last1=Norris |first2=William M. |last2=Arkin |first3=William |last3=Burr |title=United States Secretly Deployed Nuclear Bombs In 27 Countries and Territories During Cold War |date=20 October 1999 |publication-place=Washington, D.C. |url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/news/19991020 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207142738/https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/news/19991020 }}</ref>

==== Japan ====
{{Main|United States nuclear weapons in Japan}}

After World War II the US had nuclear weapons stationed in Japan until the 1970s.

==== Canada ====
{{main|Canada and weapons of mass destruction}}

The US stationed nuclear weapons at [[CFB Goose Bay]] in [[Labrador]] between 1964 and 1984.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canada-and-nuclear-weapons#:~:text=Canada%20helped%20develop%20nuclear%20weapons,nor%20tested%20a%20nuclear%20weapon|title=Canada and Nuclear Weapons|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia|last=Noakes|first=Taylor C.|access-date=17 January 2024}}</ref>

'''Greece'''

The US stationed nuclear weapons in Greece until they were removed in 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Greece|url=https://www.icanw.org/greece|access-date=2024-06-10|website=ICAN|language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{cols|colwidth=21em}}
* [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]]
* [[Doomsday Clock]]
* [[Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country]]
* [[International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons]]
* [[No first use]]
* [[Nuclear disarmament]]
* [[Nuclear latency]]
* [[Nuclear power]]
*[[Nuclear program of Iran]]
* [[Nuclear proliferation]]
* [[Nuclear terrorism]]
* [[Nuclear warfare]]
* [[Nuclear-weapon-free zone]]
{{colend}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book| title=The Military Balance 2012| author=International Institute for Strategic Studies|author-link=International Institute for Strategic Studies| editor-last=Hackett|editor-first = James| date=7 March 2012| publisher=[[Routledge]]|location= London, England| isbn=978-1857436426| ref=IISS2012}}
* {{Citation| title = The Third Temple's holy of holies: Israel's nuclear weapons| first = Warner D.| last = Farr| series = The Counterproliferation Papers, Future Warfare Series| volume = 2| publisher = USAF Counterproliferation Center, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base| url = https://fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/farr.htm|date=September 1999| access-date = 2 July 2006}}.
* [https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/when-did-and-didnt-states-proliferate Philipp C. Bleek, “When Did (and Didn’t) States Proliferate? Chronicling the Spread of Nuclear Weapons,” Discussion Paper (Cambridge, MA: Project on Managing the Atom, Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, June 2017).]
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/ The Nuclear Weapon Archive]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080920020429/http://thebulletin.metapress.com/content/0096-3402/?sortorder=asc&Article%20Category=Nuclear%20Notebook Nuclear Notebook] from [[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]]
* [http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/euro/contents.asp U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Europe: A review of post-Cold War policy, force levels, and war planning] NRDC, February 2005
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071208135127/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/military/proliferation/ Tracking Nuclear Proliferation] Online NewsHour with Jim Lehrer
* [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]'s data on world nuclear forces
* [http://wilsoncenter.org/nuclear-history-documents Nuclear Proliferation International History Project] For more on the history of nuclear proliferation see the Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project website.
* [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/proliferation-watch-us-intelligence-assessments-potential-nuclear-powers-1977%E2%80%932001 Proliferation Watch: US Intelligence Assessments of Potential Nuclear Powers, 1977–2001]

{{Clear}}

{{Military country lists}}
{{Nuclear Technology}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:States With Nuclear Weapons}}
[[Category:Nuclear weapons|*]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Military comparisons lists of countries|Nuclear weapons]]
[[Category:Nuclear weapons policy]]
[[Category:Nuclear proliferation]]
[[Category:Nuclear technology-related lists]]

Red states and blue states

2024-11-05T19:27:00Z

Brandmeister: Undid revision 1255596689 by 128.92.70.70 (talk) broken

{{Short description|U.S. states that vote predominantly for Democrats (blue) or Republicans (red)}}
{{redirect2|Red state|Blue state|other uses|Red State (disambiguation){{!}}Red State|and|Blue State (disambiguation){{!}}Blue State}}
{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2020}}
[[File:Red state, blue state.svg|thumb|350px|Summary of statewide results of the [[2008 United States presidential election|2008]], [[2012 United States presidential election|2012]], [[2016 United States presidential election|2016]] and [[2020 United States presidential election|2020]] presidential elections by state
{{legend|#ff0000|Won by the Republicans in all four elections}}
{{legend|#ff8080|Won by the Republicans in three of the four elections}}
{{legend|#a000a0|Won by each party twice in the four elections}}
{{legend|#80a0ff|Won by the Democrats in three of the four elections}}
{{legend|#0000ff|Won by the Democrats in all four elections}}]]
[[File:Most recent senate election.svg|alt=Map of the last Senate election in each state|thumb|350px|Map based on last Senate election in each state as of 2024]]
Starting with the [[2000 United States presidential election]], the terms "'''red state'''" and "'''blue state'''" have referred to [[US state]]s whose voters vote predominantly for one party—the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] in red states and the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] in blue states—in presidential and other statewide elections.<ref name=latmpexp16>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/tv/la-et-st-electoral-map-20161102-htmlstory.html |work=Los Angeles Times |last=Battaglio |first=Stephen |title=When red meant Democratic and blue was Republican. A brief history of TV electoral maps |date=November 3, 2016 |access-date=November 28, 2018}}</ref><ref name=smithsonian12>{{cite news|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/when-republicans-were-blue-and-democrats-were-red-104176297/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine |last=Enda |first=Jodi| title= When Republicans Were Blue and Democrats Were Red |date=November 2, 2020 |access-date=June 9, 2024}}</ref> By contrast, states where the vote fluctuates between the Democratic and Republican candidates are known as "[[swing states]]" or "'''[[purple states]]'''". Examining patterns within states reveals that the [[Sixth Party System#Scholarly perspectives|reversal]] of the two parties' geographic bases has happened at the state level, but it is more complicated locally, with urban-rural divides associated with many of the largest changes.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal|last1=Gelman|first1=Andrew|year=2014|title=The Twentieth-Century Reversal: How Did the Republican States Switch to the Democrats and Vice Versa?|journal=Statistics and Public Policy|volume=1|pages=1–5|citeseerx=10.1.1.309.9174|doi=10.1080/2330443X.2013.856147|s2cid=154240829}}</ref>
[[File:118th United States Congress Senators.svg|thumb|350x350px|Incumbent senators. Red and blue denote two Republican or two Democratic senators respectively. Purple states denote one Republican and one Democrat from the state. Light blue stripes denote one Independent senator (who caucuses with the Democrats).]]
All states contain considerable numbers of both liberal and conservative voters (i.e., they are "purple") and only appear blue or red on the electoral map because of the [[Plurality voting|winner-take-all]] system used by most states in the [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2013/11/12/most-americans-live-in-purple-america-not-red-or-blue-america/|title=Most Americans live in Purple America, not Red or Blue America|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=September 9, 2016}}</ref> However, the perception of some states as "blue" and some as "red" was reinforced by a degree of partisan stability from election to election—from the [[U.S. presidential election, 2016|2016 presidential election]] to the [[2020 United States presidential election|2020 presidential election]], only five states changed "color"; and as of [[2020 United States presidential election|2020]], 35 out of 50 states have voted for the same party in every presidential election since the red-blue terminology was popularized in 2000, with only 15 having swung between [[2000 United States presidential election|the 2000 presidential election]] and [[2020 United States presidential election|the 2020 election.]] Although many red states and blue states stay in the same category for long periods, they may also switch from blue to red or from red to blue over time.

==Origins of the color schematics==
The colors red and blue are also featured on the [[Flag of the United States|United States flag]]. Traditional political mapmakers, at least throughout the 20th century, had used blue to represent the modern-day Republicans, as well as the earlier [[Federalist Party]]. This may have been a holdover from the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], during which the predominantly Republican north was considered {{nowrap|"blue".<ref name="polidata1">[http://www.polidata.org/elections/red_states_blues_de27a.pdf Polidata] (accessed November 25, 2008).</ref>}} However, at that time, a maker of widely sold maps accompanied them with blue pencils to mark Confederate force movements, while red was for the Union.<ref>{{cite web|title=News of the Wired|first=Susan |last=Schelten |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/13/news-of-the-wired/ |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 13, 2012 |access-date=December 1, 2013}}</ref>

Later, in the [[1888 United States presidential election|1888 presidential election]], [[Grover Cleveland]] and [[Benjamin Harrison]] used maps that coded blue for the Republicans, the color perceived to represent the Union and "[[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]'s Party", and red for the Democrats. The parties themselves had no official colors, with candidates variously using either or both of the national color palette of red and blue (white being unsuitable for printed materials).

There was one historical use, associated with [[Political boss|boss rule]], of blue for Democrats and red for Republicans: during the late 19th century and early 20th century, [[Texas]] county election boards used color-coding to help Spanish-speaking and [[literacy|illiterate]] voters identify the parties;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/pqrsu|title=Handbook of Texas Online – REDS AND BLUES|work=tshaonline.org|access-date=November 7, 2014|date=June 15, 2010}}</ref> however, this system was not applied consistently in Texas and was not replicated in any other state. In 1908, ''[[The New York Times]]'' printed a special color map, using blue for Democrats and yellow for Republicans, to detail [[Theodore Roosevelt]]'s [[1904 United States presidential election|1904 electoral victory]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://100yearsagotoday.blogspot.de/2008/07/july-26-1908-sunday.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120925031120/http://100yearsagotoday.blogspot.de/2008/07/july-26-1908-sunday.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-09-25|title=Blogger|access-date=September 9, 2016}}</ref> That same year, a color [[supplement (publishing)|supplement]] included with a July issue of ''The Washington Post'' used red for Republican-favoring states, blue for Democratic-favoring states, yellow for "doubtful" states and green for [[Territories of the United States|territories]] that did not have a presidential vote.<ref name="visthesa08">{{cite web| title= Thinking about Tim Russert, Red States and Blue States | url= http://www.visualthesaurus.com/cm/wordroutes/1430/ | date= June 17, 2008 | first= Ben | last= Zimmer | publisher= Visual Thesaurus | access-date=November 4, 2010| author-link= Ben Zimmer }}</ref>

===Contrast with other/original color usage and in other countries===
[[File:118th US Congress House.svg|thumb|350x350px|Incumbent House of Representative members by state. The darker the shade, the higher percentage of members of that party. Dark blue and red are 100% members of the party. Purple states are evenly split.]]
The 21st-century association of colors in American politics is contrary to the long-standing conventions of [[political color]] in most other countries whereby red symbols (such as the [[Red flag (politics)|red flag]] or [[red star]]) are associated with [[left-wing politics|leftist politics]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uselectionatlas.org/BOTTOM/faq.php|title=Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections – FAQ|work=uselectionatlas.org|access-date=November 7, 2014}}</ref> including such red states (original term in USA<ref>{{Cite magazine|year=1930|title=RUSSIA: Everybody's Red Business|magazine=Time}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|year=1951|title=CHINA: Cultural Aggression|magazine=Time}}</ref>) with such governments, such as [[Red China]], whereas blue is associated with [[conservatism]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Sean |url=https://archive.org/details/colordesignworkb0000ston/page/86 |title=Color Design Workbook: A Real World Guide to Using Color in Graphic Design |last2=Morioka |first2=Noreen |last3=Stone |first3=Terry Lee |date=2006 |publisher=[[Rockport Publishers]] |isbn=159253192X |location=Gloucester, Mass. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/colordesignworkb0000ston/page/86 86] |oclc=60393965}}</ref> As late as the 1990s, Democrats were often represented by red and Republicans by blue.<ref name=latmpexp16/> According to ''[[The Washington Post]]'', journalist [[Tim Russert]] invented these terms during his televised coverage of the [[2000 United States presidential election]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4459759|title=NBC News About Meet the Press|website=[[NBC News]]|date=March 5, 2004 |access-date=June 13, 2008}}</ref> The 2000 election was not the first during which the [[news media]] used colored maps to depict voter preferences in the various states, but it was the first time the current red-blue terminology was used. In previous elections, the color assignments or even the actual colors used were often different.

===Contemporary use===
The advent of [[color television]] in America during the late 1950s and early 1960s prompted television news reporters to rely on color-coded electoral maps, though sources conflict as to the conventions they used. One source claims that in the elections prior to 2000 every state that voted for Democratic candidates but one had been coded red. It further claims that from [[1976 United States presidential election|1976]] to [[2004 United States presidential election|2004]], in an attempt to avoid favoritism in color-coding, the broadcast networks standardized the convention of alternating every four years between blue and red the color used for the incumbent [[President of the United States|president]]'s party.<ref name="visthesa08" /><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Drum |first=Kevin |date=November 14, 2004 |title=Red States and Blue States .... Explained! |url=http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/archives/individual/2004_11/005157.php |magazine=[[The Washington Monthly]] |access-date=November 4, 2010}}</ref>

According to another source, in 1976, [[John Chancellor]], the anchorman for ''[[NBC Nightly News]]'', asked his network's engineers to construct a large illuminated map of the United States. The map was placed in the network's election-night news studio. If [[Jimmy Carter]], the Democratic candidate that year, won a state, it was lit in red whereas if [[Gerald Ford]], the incumbent Republican president, won a state, it was lit {{nowrap|in blue.<ref name=latmpexp16/>}} It was said that Roy Wetzel, then the newly minted general manager of NBC’s election unit, justified the color scheme of blue for Republicans and red for Democrats for a simple reason: "Great Britain. Without giving it a second thought, we said blue for conservatives, because that’s what the parliamentary system in London is, red for the more liberal party. And that settled it. We just did it. Forget all that communist red stuff. It didn’t occur to us. When I first heard it, I thought, ‘Oh, that’s really {{nowrap|silly.’”<ref name=smithsonian12/>}} The feature proved to be so popular that, [[1980 United States presidential election|four years later]], all three major television networks used colors to designate the states won by the presidential candidates, though not all using the same color scheme. NBC continued its color scheme (blue for Republicans) {{nowrap|until [[1996 United States presidential election|1996]].<ref name=latmpexp16/>}} NBC newsman [[David Brinkley]] referred to the 1980 election map outcome showing Republican [[Ronald Reagan]]'s 44-state landslide in blue as resembling a "suburban {{nowrap|swimming pool".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zeller |first=Tom |date=February 8, 2004 |title=Ideas & Trends; One State, Two State, Red State, Blue State |work=The New York Times |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A07E3DE163AF93BA35751C0A9629C8B63 |access-date=May 22, 2010}}</ref>}}

Since the [[1984 United States presidential election|1984 election]], [[CBS News|CBS]] has used the opposite scheme: blue for Democrats, red for Republicans. [[ABC News (United States)|ABC]] used yellow for Republicans and blue for Democrats in 1976, then red for Republicans and blue for Democrats in 1980, 1984, and 1988. In 1980, when [[John B. Anderson|John Anderson]] had a relatively well publicized campaign as an independent candidate, at least one network indicated provisionally that they would use yellow if he were to win a state. Similarly, at least one network would have used yellow to indicate a state won by [[Ross Perot]] in [[1992 United States presidential election|1992]] and [[1996 United States presidential election|1996]], though neither of them did claim any states in any of these years.

By 1996, color schemes were relatively mixed, as [[CNN]], CBS, ABC, and ''The New York Times'' referred to Democratic states with the color blue and Republican ones as red, while ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' and ''The Washington Post'' used the opposite scheme.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.princeton.edu/~petehill/time-election-map-1996.jpg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061122124004/http://www.princeton.edu/~petehill/time-election-map-1996.jpg |archive-date=November 22, 2006 |format=JPG |title=Time Election Map |date=1996 |language=en |website=[[Princeton University]] |access-date=20 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Goodman |first=Walter |date=November 6, 1996 |title=Those Special Election Bells, Whistles and, Yes, Some Numbers, Too |work=The New York Times |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9403E1D61038F935A35752C1A960958260 |access-date=May 22, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | last=Apple | first=R. W. Jr. |date=November 7, 1996 |title=A Divided Government Remains, and With It the Prospect of Further Combat |work=The New York Times |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B02E2D81E38F934A35752C1A960958260 |access-date=May 22, 2010}}</ref> NBC used the color blue for the incumbent party, which is why blue represented the Democrats in 2000.

In the days after the 2000 election, the outcome of which was unknown for some time after election day, major media outlets began conforming to the same color scheme because the electoral map was continually in view, and conformity made for easy and instant viewer comprehension. On election night that year, there was no coordinated effort to code Democratic states blue and Republican states red; the association gradually emerged. Partly as a result of this eventual and near-universal color-coding, the terms "red states" and "blue states" entered popular use in the weeks after the 2000 presidential election. After the results were final with the Republican [[George W. Bush]] winning, journalists stuck with the color scheme, as ''[[The Atlantic]]'''s December 2001 cover story by [[David Brooks (journalist)|David Brooks]] entitled, "One Nation, Slightly Divisible", illustrated.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brooks |first=David |date=December 2001 |title=One Nation, Slightly Divisible |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/2001/12/brooks.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100713080544/http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/2001/12/brooks.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 13, 2010 |access-date=November 2, 2010 |website=The Atlantic Monthly}}</ref>{{Original research inline|date=August 2024}}

Thus, red and blue became fixed in the media and in many people's minds, despite the fact that the Democratic and Republican parties had not officially chosen colors.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brownstein |first=Ron |date=September 3, 2001 |title=Learn the signs of your political colors |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/ALLPOLITICS/09/03/red.blue.states/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403145047/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/ALLPOLITICS/09/03/red.blue.states/index.html |archive-date=April 3, 2013 |access-date=November 3, 2010|publisher=CNN}}</ref> Some Republicans argue the GOP should retain its historic association with blue, since most center-right parties worldwide are associated with blue. On March 14, 2014, the [[California Republican Party]] officially rejected red and adopted blue as its color. Archie Tse, ''The New York Times'' graphics editor who made the choice when the ''Times'' published its first color presidential election map in 2000, provided a nonpolitical rationale for retaining the red–Republican link, explaining that "Both 'Republican' and 'red' start with the letter 'R.'"<ref>{{Cite news |date=February 8, 2004 |title=Ideas & Trends; One State, Two State, Red State, Blue StateΨ Page 2 – New York Times |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/08/weekinreview/ideas-trends-one-state-two-state-red-state-blue-state.html?pagewanted=2&src=pm |access-date=November 8, 2012}}</ref>

==Map interpretation==
There are several problems in creating and interpreting election maps. Popular vote data are necessarily aggregated at several levels, such as counties and states, which are then colored to show election results. Maps of this type are termed [[choropleth map]]s, which have several well-known problems that can result in interpretation bias. One problem occurs when [[areal unit]]s differ in size and significance, as is the case with election maps. These maps give extra visual weight to larger areal units, whether by county or state. This problem is compounded if the units are not equally significant. A large county or state in area may have fewer voters than a small one in area, for example. Some maps attempt to account for this by using [[cartogram]] methods, but the resulting distortion can make such maps difficult to read.<ref name="CromleyMcLafferty2011">{{cite book|first1=Ellen K.|last1=Cromley|first2=Sara L.|last2=McLafferty|title=GIS and Public Health, Second Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QhYbartcBn4C&pg=PA132|access-date=June 12, 2012|year=2011|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-60918-750-7|page=132}}</ref><ref name="ArayaBreindl2011">{{cite book|first1=Daniel|last1=Araya|first2=Yana|last2=Breindl|first3=Tessa J.|last3=Houghton|title=Nexus: New Intersections in Internet Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UHpUwLau3OIC&pg=PA72|access-date=June 12, 2012|year=2011|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-1-4331-0970-6|page=72}}</ref> Another problem relates to data classification. Election maps often use a two-class color scheme (red and blue), which results in a map that is easy to read but is very generalized. Some maps use more classes, such as shades of red and blue to indicate the degree of election victory. These maps provide a more detailed picture but themselves have various problems associated with classification of data. The cartographer must choose how many classes to use and how to divide the data into those classes. While there are various techniques available, the choice is essentially arbitrary. The look of a map can vary significantly depending on the classification choices. The choices of color and shading likewise affect the map's appearance. Further, all election maps are subject to the interpretation error known as the [[ecological fallacy]].<ref>{{cite book|last= Martin |first= David |title= Geographic Information Systems: Socioeconomic Applications |year= 1996 |publisher= Routledge |isbn= 978-0-415-12571-0 |page= 170|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e8Q6S-yZn_AC}}</ref>

Finally, there are problems associated with human perception.<ref name=senay>{{cite web |url=http://www.siggraph.org/education/materials/HyperVis/percept/visrules.htm |title= Rules and Principles of Scientific Data Visualization |last1= Senay |first1= Hikmet |last2= Ignatius |first2= Eve |publisher= Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, The George Washington University |access-date= November 21, 2010 |quote= Saturation may be affected by the size of a colored figure, with greater exponents for smaller areas. The same color placed in a smaller area appears "denser" and hence, more saturated.}}</ref> Large areas of color appear more saturated than small areas of the same color.<ref name=senay /> A juxtaposition of differing colors and shades can result in contrast misperceptions. For example, due to the [[contrast effect|simultaneous contrast]] effect, the [[Bezold effect]], and other factors, an area shaded light red surrounded by areas shaded dark red will appear even lighter. Differing shades of red and blue compound this effect.<ref name="Birkhäuser">{{cite book |first1=Natalia |last1= Andrienko |first2= Gennady |last2= Andrienko |title= Exploratory Analysis of Spatial and Temporal Data: A Systematic Approach |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=t5MGtFEl_ScC&pg=PA219 |access-date=November 21, 2010 |year= 2006 |publisher= Birkhäuser |isbn= 978-3-540-25994-7 |pages= 217–221}}</ref>

Cartographers have traditionally limited the number of classes so that it is always obvious which class a color shade represents. Some election maps, however, have violated this tradition by simply coloring each areal unit with a red-blue mixture linked to voting ratio data—resulting in an "unclassified choropleth map". These "purple maps" are useful for showing the highly mixed nature of voting, but are extremely difficult to interpret in detail. The lack of clear classes make these purple maps prone to the problems of color perception described above. However, there are pros and cons to both classified and unclassified choropleth maps. Each tend to show some patterns well while obscuring others.<ref name="Birkhäuser" /> All these facts should be taken into account when looking at election maps.

===Critiques===
The paradigm has been criticized on several fronts. Many argue that assigning partisanship to states is only really useful as it pertains to the [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]], as well as (more recently) the Senate, primarily a winner-take-all system of elections (with the exceptions of Nebraska and Maine).

The Democratic or Republican party of a particular state may have policies that depart—sometimes greatly—from those of the national party, sometimes causing that state to favor one party in state and local elections and the other in presidential elections. This is most evident in the [[Southern United States]], where the state Democratic Party organizations tend to be more conservative than the national party, especially on social issues.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}} Likewise, Republicans have elected many statewide officeholders in states that vote strongly Democratic in presidential elections, such as [[Massachusetts]], [[Illinois]], [[Maryland]], [[Vermont]], and [[New Jersey]], generally by running closer to the political center.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}

The elections in [[2004 United States presidential election in Arkansas|Arkansas]] as well as [[2004 United States presidential election in West Virginia|West Virginia]] in 2004 were won by Republican President [[George W. Bush]], but Democrats at the time held all four [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] seats and majorities of elected executive officeholders in those states, including the governorship of the latter. Similarly, [[2004 United States presidential election in Tennessee|Tennessee]] was won by Bush in both 2000 and 2004, but going into 2004, its governor was a Democrat and both chambers of the state legislature were controlled by Democrats as well. The converse can also be true, as in the case of [[2004 United States presidential election in Maine|Maine]], which had two Republican U.S. senators, but Democratic presidential candidate [[John Kerry]] won the state's electoral votes. Likewise, [[2004 United States presidential election in Vermont|Vermont]], [[2004 United States presidential election in New York|New York]], [[2004 United States presidential election in Massachusetts|Massachusetts]], [[2004 United States presidential election in Maryland|Maryland]], and [[2004 United States presidential election in Hawaii|Hawaii]] all voted for Democrat Kerry by wide margins, but all had Republican governors at the time.

In his address before the [[2004 Democratic National Convention]] in [[Boston]], [[Barack Obama]] spoke on the issue of blue states and red states, saying: "The pundits like to slice-and-dice our country into red states and blue states—red states for Republicans, and blue states for Democrats. But I've got news for them, too. We worship an awesome [[God]] in the blue states, and we don't like federal agents poking around our libraries in the red states. We coach [[Little League Baseball|Little League]] in the blue states and have gay friends in the red states. … We are one people, all of us pledging allegiance to the [[Flag of the United States|Stars and Stripes]], all of us defending the United States of America."<ref name="keynote">{{cite news |last=Obama |first=Barack |date=July 27, 2004 |title=Keynote Address at the 2004 Democratic National Convention |url=http://www.barackobama.com/2004/07/27/keynote_address_at_the_2004_de.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080403144623/http://www.barackobama.com/2004/07/27/keynote_address_at_the_2004_de.php |archive-date=April 3, 2008 |access-date=April 4, 2008 |work=BarackObama.com}}</ref>

In April 2008, Republican presidential nominee [[John McCain]] predicted that the [[2008 United States presidential election|presidential election that November]] would not follow the red-state-blue-state pattern, saying, "I'm not sure that the old red state, blue state scenario that prevailed for the last several elections works. I think most of these states that we have either red or blue are going to be up for grabs."<ref>{{cite interview|last=McCain|first=John|subject-link=John McCain|interviewer=[[Chris Wallace (journalist)|Chris Wallace]]|publisher=[[Fox News]]|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|date=April 6, 2008|work=[[Fox News Sunday]]|title=McCain Fox News interview}}</ref> Arguably, this eventually proved to be somewhat true, but not in McCain's favor as Obama won three "red" states that had not voted Democratic in many years, namely [[Virginia]], [[North Carolina]], and [[Indiana]] along with a part of deep red Nebraska, via the state's (much less conservative as a whole) [[Nebraska's 2nd congressional district|second congressional district]]. Obama also came close to winning [[Missouri]] and [[Montana]], losing both by a small margin. The only deviations from the preexisting red-blue paradigm were all in Obama's favor. In the three presidential elections since 2008, Indiana and North Carolina went back to supporting Republicans. Virginia has continued voting for the Democratic presidential nominees (as well as increasingly electing Democrats at the state level), leading to its being reclassified as a blue state in recent years. Nebraska's 2nd district flipped back into the Republican column in [[2012 United States presidential election|2012]] and [[2016 United States presidential election|2016]], but supported Democrat [[Joe Biden]] in [[2020 United States presidential election|2020]].

==Purple states==
{{Main|Swing state}}

[[File:2016 Presidential Election by County (Red-Blue-Purple View).svg|thumb|350px|[[2016 United States presidential election]] results by [[county (United States)|county]], on a [[color spectrum]] from [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] blue to [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] red]]
A purple state refers to a [[swing state]] where both Democratic and Republican candidates receive many votes without an overwhelming majority for either party. Purple states are also often referred to as "battleground" states.

The demographic and political applications of the terms have resulted in a temptation to presume this arbitrary classification is a definite and fundamental [[Culture of the United States|cultural]] division. Given the general nature and common perception of the two parties, "red state" implies a conservative region or a more conservative American, and "blue state" implies a more liberal region or a more liberal American. But the distinction between the two groups of states is less simplistic. The analysis that suggests political, cultural and demographic differences between the states is more accurate when applied to smaller geographical areas.

Traditionally, the practice of designating a U.S. state as red or blue is based on the [[First-past-the-post voting|first-past-the-post]] winner-take-all system employed for presidential elections by 48 of the 50 U.S. states and the [[District of Columbia]]. Electoral law in Maine and Nebraska makes it possible for those states to divide their electoral votes: winner-take-all both by congressional district and statewide.

Despite the prevalent winner-take-all practice, the minority party almost always gets a sizable vote, with the most strongly partisan states typically having 25% to 40% of the population vote for the losing party in a presidential election. Most states have strongly Democratic cities as well as strongly Republican rural areas.<ref name="patheos1">{{cite web|last=Rose|first=Phil Fox|title= We Are All Purple: The Destructive Lie of Red States and Blue States|url=http://www.patheos.com/blogs/philfoxrose/2012/11/we-are-all-purple-the-destructive-lie-of-red-states-and-blue-states/|work=Patheos|access-date=November 7, 2012|date=November 7, 2012}}</ref>

[[Robert Vanderbei]] at [[Princeton University]] made the first ''Purple America'' map after the [[2000 United States presidential election|2000 presidential election]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Election 2000 Results|url=https://vanderbei.princeton.edu/JAVA/election2000/|access-date=2021-02-08|website=vanderbei.princeton.edu}}</ref> It attempts to represent the margin of victory in each county by coloring each with a shade between true blue and true red. Due to the general absence of overwhelming victories, this technique results in mostly shades of purple. After the [[U.S. presidential election, 2004|2004 election]], Vanderbei and then others made similar maps summarizing the results. Quickly thereafter, the term ''Purple America'' entered the public lexicon as a way of stating that the United States is not as divided as the political pundits would have the people believe.

[[Cartogram]]s developed by Gastner, [[Cosma Shalizi|Shalizi]], and Newman at the [[University of Michigan]] provide another way to depict election results,<ref name="gastner2004">{{cite web |last=Gastner |first=Michael |author2=Shalizi, Cosma |author3=Newman, Mark |year=2004 |title=Maps and cartograms of the 2004 U.S. presidential election results |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~mejn/election/2004/ |access-date=November 3, 2010 |publisher=University of Michigan}}</ref> which change from a red-blue paradigm to one of shades of purple.<ref name="patheos1" />

Forty-five of the 50 states were consistent in voting for Donald Trump or his Democratic opponent in the 2016 and 2020 presidential elections. The exceptions were [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Arizona]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Michigan]] – all of which voted for Trump in 2016 and Biden in 2020. [[Wisconsin]], [[Pennsylvania]] and particularly [[Michigan]] voted in [[2008 United States presidential election|2008]] and [[2012 United States presidential election|2012]] for [[Barack Obama|Obama]] handily, as well as having supported the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] nominee in every presidential election since [[1988 United States presidential election|1988]], suggesting they are gradually becoming redder. Inversely, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Arizona]] had supported [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] presidential candidates for decades before [[2020 United States presidential election|2020]], with Georgia last voting blue in [[1992 United States presidential election|1992]] and Arizona in [[1996 United States presidential election|1996]]. This suggests that [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Arizona]] are gradually becoming bluer.

Some states did not switch parties in [[2016 United States presidential election|2016]] or [[2020 United States presidential election|2020]], yet are/were still relatively even and often considered swing states. These include [[North Carolina]], [[Florida]], [[Ohio]], [[Nevada]], [[Iowa]], and [[New Hampshire]]. Occasionally, swing state maps might include [[Minnesota]], [[Maine]], [[Virginia]] and [[Texas]], which generally vote for one party ([[Minnesota]], [[Maine]] and [[Virginia]] generally [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]; [[Texas]] generally [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]) but still often see close elections.

==Polarization==
{{Main|Political polarization in the United States}}

[[File:Cartogram of 2008-2020 US presidential elections.svg|thumb|350px|Hexagonal cartogram summarizing the results of the 2008, 2012, 2016, and 2020 presidential elections by state (scaled by 2020 elector count)
{{legend|#ff3b3b|Won by the Republicans in all four elections}}
{{legend|#fe9898|Won by the Republicans in three of the four elections}}
{{legend|#b042cb|Won by each party twice in the four elections}}
{{legend|#64cbfe|Won by the Democrats in three of the four elections}}
{{legend|#0277c9|Won by the Democrats in all four elections}}
]]
Feelings of cultural and political [[polarization (politics)|polarization]] between red and blue states, which have gained increased media attention since the 2004 election, have resulted in increased mutual feelings of alienation and enmity.<ref>{{cite news|last=Finkel|first=David|title=For a Conservative, Life Is Sweet in Sugar Land, Tex|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A41964-2004Apr25?language=printer|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810150702/https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A41964-2004Apr25/?language=printer|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 10, 2018|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=November 3, 2010|date=April 26, 2004}}</ref> The polarization has been present for only four close elections (2000, 2004, 2016, and 2020). One trend that has been true for several election cycles is that states that vote Republican tend to be more rural and more sparsely populated (thus having fewer electoral votes) than states that vote Democratic. Polarization is more evident on a county scale with the growing percentage of the U.S. electorate living in "landslide counties", counties where the popular vote margin between the Democratic and Republican candidate is 20 percentage points or greater.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Big Sort: Why the Clustering of Like-Minded America Is Tearing Us Apart|last=Bishop|first=Bill|author-link=Bill Bishop (author)|publisher=[[Mariner Books]]|isbn=978-0-54723-772-5|year=2009|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_o9h1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/30/electorally-competitive-counties-have-grown-scarcer-in-recent-decades/|last=DeSliver|first=Drew|title=Electorally competitive counties have grown scarcer in recent decades|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|date=June 30, 2016|access-date=December 28, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/11/10/us/politics/red-blue-divide-grew-stronger-in-2016.html|last1=Aisch|first1=Gregor|last2=Pearce|first2=Adam|last3=Yourish|first3=Karen|title=The Divide Between Red and Blue America Grew Even Deeper in 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=November 10, 2016|access-date=December 28, 2017}}</ref>

In [[1976 United States presidential election|1976]], only 27 percent of U.S. voters lived in landslide counties, which increased to 39 percent by [[1992 United States presidential election|1992]].<ref name="Haidt">{{cite web|url=https://reason.com/2012/04/10/born-this-way/|last=Haidt|first=Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan Haidt|title=Born This Way?|work=[[Reason (magazine)|Reason.com]]|date=May 2012|access-date=December 28, 2017}}</ref><ref name="Wasserman">{{cite web|url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/purple-america-has-all-but-disappeared/|last=Wasserman|first=David|title=Purple America Has All But Disappeared|work=[[FiveThirtyEight]]|date=March 8, 2017|access-date=December 28, 2017}}</ref> Nearly half of U.S. voters resided in counties that voted for [[George W. Bush]] or [[John Kerry]] by 20 percentage points or more in [[2004 United States presidential election|2004]].<ref>[http://www.aei.org/docLib/20080229_BillBishop.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624204202/http://www.aei.org/docLib/20080229_BillBishop.pdf|date=June 24, 2008}}</ref> In [[2008 United States presidential election|2008]], 48 percent of U.S. voters lived in such counties, which increased further to 50 percent in [[2012 United States presidential election|2012]] and to 61 percent in [[2016 United States presidential election|2016]].<ref name="Haidt"/><ref name="Wasserman"/> In [[2020 United States presidential election|2020]], 58 percent of U.S. voters lived in landslide counties.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bishop|first=Bill|author-link=Bill Bishop (author)|date=December 17, 2020|title=For Most Americans, the Local Presidential Vote Was a Landslide|website=[[Bill Bishop (author)|Daily Yonder]]|url=https://dailyyonder.com/for-most-americans-the-local-presidential-vote-was-a-landslide/2020/12/17/|access-date=August 3, 2021}}</ref> [[Cook Partisan Voting Index|At the same time]], the 2020 U.S. presidential election marked the ninth presidential election where the victorious [[Two party system#United States|major party]] nominee did not win a [[List of United States presidential elections by popular vote margin|popular vote majority by a double-digit margin]] over the losing major party nominee(s), continuing the longest sequence of such presidential elections in U.S. history that began in [[1988 United States presidential election|1988]] and in 2016 eclipsed the previous longest sequence from [[1876 United States presidential election|1876]] through [[1900 United States presidential election|1900]].<ref name="Chinni">{{cite news|last=Chinni|first=Dante|title=Are close presidential elections the new normal?|date=December 6, 2020|work=[[NBC News]]|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/meet-the-press/are-close-presidential-elections-new-normal-n1250147|access-date=December 21, 2020}}</ref><ref name="Williams 2012 pp. 1539–1570">{{cite journal|last=Williams|first=Norman R.|title=Why the National Popular Vote Compact is Unconstitutional|year=2012|journal=[[BYU Law Review]]|publisher=[[J. Reuben Clark Law School]]|volume=2012|issue=5|pages=1539–1570|url=https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2686&context=lawreview|access-date=October 14, 2020}}</ref>

===Red-state/blue-state secession===
Various editorials<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/140948/bluexit-blue-states-exit-trump-red-america|title=Why Blue States Should Exit Red America|magazine=New Republic|access-date=December 12, 2017|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/trump-voters--its-not-me-its-you/2016/11/21/92d7c884-b005-11e6-be1c-8cec35b1ad25_story.html|title=Trump voters — it's not me, it's you|last=Keillor|first=Garrison|date=November 21, 2016|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=December 12, 2017|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}</ref>{{Who|date=October 2024}} have proposed that states of the U.S. secede and then form federations only with states that have voted for the same political party. These editorials note the increasingly polarized political strife in the U.S. between Republican voters and Democratic voters. They propose partition of the U.S. as a way of allowing both groups to achieve their policy goals while reducing the chances of civil war.{{Cn|date=October 2024}}

A 2021 poll found that 52% of Trump voters and 41% of Biden voters support partitioning the United States into multiple countries based on political party lines.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newsweek.com/majority-trump-voters-want-split-nation-red-blue-halves-1634523|title=Majority of Trump Voters Want to Split the Nation Into 'Red' and 'Blue' Halves|work=Newsweek|date=September 30, 2021|access-date=March 6, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.yahoo.com/majority-trump-voters-believe-time-160443147.html|title=Majority of Trump voters believe it's 'time to split the country' in two, new poll finds|work=Yahoo! News|date=October 1, 2021|access-date=March 6, 2022|first1=Madison|last1=Hall|first2=Bryan|last2=Metzger}}</ref> A different poll that same year grouped the United States into five geographic regions, and found that 37% of Americans favored secession of their own region. 44% of Americans in the South favored secession, with Republican support at 66%; while Democratic support was 47% in the Pacific states.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Slisco |first1=Aila |title=47% of West Coast Dems, 66% of Southern Republicans want to secede from U.S. |url=https://www.newsweek.com/47-west-coast-dems-66-southern-republicans-want-secede-us-1609875 |work=Newsweek |date=14 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Shocking poll finds many Americans now want to secede from the United States |url=https://thehill.com/changing-america/enrichment/arts-culture/563221-shocking-poll-finds-many-americans-now-want-to/ |work=The Hill |date=15 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Still miles apart: Americans and the state of U.S. democracy half a year into the Biden presidency {{!}} Bright Line Watch |url=http://brightlinewatch.org/still-miles-apart-americans-and-the-state-of-u-s-democracy-half-a-year-into-the-biden-presidency/ |publisher=Bright Line Watch}}</ref>

==Demographics==
Although the [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]] determines the [[United States presidential election|presidential election]], a more precise measure of how the country actually voted may be better represented by either a county-by-county or a district-by-district map. By breaking the map down into smaller units (including many blue counties lying next to red counties), these maps tend to display many states with a purplish hue, thus demonstrating that an ostensibly blue or red state may, in fact, be closely divided. Note that election maps of all kinds are subject to [[#Critiques|errors of interpretation]].

===Urban versus rural===
These county-by-county and district-by-district maps reveal that the true nature of the divide is between [[urban area]]s and [[inner suburb]]s versus [[rural area|rural]] and [[exurb]]an areas. In the 2020 election, most voters in most rural counties voted for Republican [[Donald Trump]]. [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Nevada]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Wisconsin]], all states Biden won statewide, are good examples of this with some exceptions. Inversely, in solidly red states, most voters in most urban counties voted for Democrat [[Joe Biden]]; good examples for this would be [[New Orleans|Orleans Parish]], [[Louisiana]], and [[Davidson County, Tennessee|Davidson County]], [[Tennessee]] (the locations of major U.S. cities [[New Orleans]] and [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], respectively). Both provided Biden with double-digit margins of victory over Trump. An even more detailed precinct-by-precinct breakdown demonstrates that in many cases, large cities voted for Biden, and their suburbs were divided.

===2020 exit polls===
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+Sex:
!Sex:
!Men
!Women
|-
|Donald Trump:
|'''53'''
|42
|-
|Joe Biden:
|45
|'''57'''
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+Income
!Income:
!Under $30K
!30-50K
!50-100K
!100-200K
!200+K
|-
|Donald Trump:
|46
|44
|42
|'''57'''
|48
|-
|Joe Biden:
|'''54'''
|'''56'''
|'''56'''
|41
|48
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+Age
!Age:
!18-25
!25-30
!30-40
!40-50
!50-60
!60+
|-
|Donald Trump:
|31
|43
|46
|44
|'''52'''
|'''52'''
|-
|Joe Biden:
|'''65'''
|'''54'''
|'''51'''
|'''54'''
|47
|47
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+Marital Status:
!Marital Status:
!Married
!Unmarried
!Men, Married
!Men, Unmarried
!Women, Married
!Women, Unmarried
|-
|Donald Trump:
|'''53'''
|40
|'''55'''
|45
|42
|36
|-
|Joe Biden:
|45
|'''58'''
|43
|'''52'''
|'''57'''
|'''62'''
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+Race:
!Race:
!White
!Black
!Latino
!Asian
!Other
|-
|Donald Trump:
|'''58'''
|12
|33
|36
|41
|-
|Joe Biden
|41
|'''87'''
|'''65'''
|'''63'''
|'''55'''
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+Religion:
!Religion:
!Catholic
!Protestant/Other Christian
!Jewish
!None
!Other
|-
|Donald Trump:
|47
|'''60'''
|22
|31
|29
|-
|Joe Biden:
|'''52'''
|39
|'''76'''
|'''65'''
|'''68'''
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+Sexual Orientation:
!Sexual Orientation:
!LGBT
!Not LGBT
|-
|Donald Trump:
|27
|48
|-
|Joe Biden:
|'''64'''
|'''51'''
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+Area Type:
!Area Type:
!Urban
!Suburban
!Rural
|-
|Donald Trump:
|38
|48
|'''57'''
|-
|Joe Biden
|'''60'''
|'''50'''
|42
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+Race and Sex:
!Race and Sex:
!White men
!White women
!Black men
!Black women
!Latino men
!Latino women
!Other
|-
|Donald Trump:
|'''61'''
|'''55'''
|19
|9
|36
|30
|38
|-
|Joe Biden:
|38
|44
|'''79'''
|'''90'''
|'''59'''
|'''69'''
|'''58'''
|}

===Table of presidential elections by states since 1972===
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Year
! style="text-align:center; width:7.69%;"| [[1972 United States presidential election|1972]]
! style="text-align:center; width:7.69%;"| [[1976 United States presidential election|1976]]
! style="text-align:center; width:7.69%;"| [[1980 United States presidential election|1980]]
! style="text-align:center; width:7.69%;"| [[1984 United States presidential election|1984]]
! style="text-align:center; width:7.69%;"| [[1988 United States presidential election|1988]]
! style="text-align:center; width:7.69%;"| [[1992 United States presidential election|1992]]
! style="text-align:center; width:7.69%;"| [[1996 United States presidential election|1996]]
! style="text-align:center; width:7.69%;"| [[2000 United States presidential election|2000]]
! style="text-align:center; width:7.69%;"| [[2004 United States presidential election|2004]]
! style="text-align:center; width:7.69%;"| [[2008 United States presidential election|2008]]
! style="text-align:center; width:7.69%;"| [[2012 United States presidential election|2012]]
! style="text-align:center; width:7.69%;"| [[2016 United States presidential election|2016]]
! style="text-align:center; width:7.69%;"| [[2020 United States presidential election|2020]]
|-
! colspan="14"|
{{Colors|black|#34AAE0| [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] }}  
{{Colors|black|#FFB6B6| [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] }}  
 (lighter shading indicates win ≤5%)

 {{Colors|black|#FFDDF4|     }} Winner received plurality of the vote but did not receive an outright majority of the popular vote
 {{Colors|black|#FFDEAD|     }} Winner [[List of United States presidential elections in which the winner lost the popular vote|did not receive a plurality of the vote and lost the popular vote]]


|-
| {{flagicon image|Democratic Disc.svg|25px}} Democratic candidate
| [[George McGovern]]
| '''[[Jimmy Carter]]'''
| [[Jimmy Carter]]
| [[Walter Mondale]]
| [[Michael Dukakis]]
| style="background:#ffddf4;"| '''[[Bill Clinton]]'''
| style="background:#ffddf4;"| '''[[Bill Clinton]]'''
| [[Al Gore]]
| [[John Kerry]]
| '''[[Barack Obama]]'''
| '''[[Barack Obama]]'''
| [[Hillary Clinton]]
| '''[[Joe Biden]]'''
|-
| {{flagicon image|Republican Disc.svg|25px}} Republican candidate
| '''[[Richard Nixon]]'''
| [[Gerald Ford]]
| '''[[Ronald Reagan]]'''
| '''[[Ronald Reagan]]'''
| '''[[George H. W. Bush]]'''
| [[George H. W. Bush]]
| [[Bob Dole]]
| style="background:#ffdead;"| '''[[George W. Bush]]'''
| '''[[George W. Bush]]'''
| [[John McCain]]
| [[Mitt Romney]]
| style="background:#ffdead;"| '''[[Donald Trump]]'''
| [[Donald Trump]]
|-
| nowrap="nowrap" align="left"|{{flagicon|USA}} National [[List of United States presidential elections by popular vote margin|popular vote]]
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:lightblue;"| Carter
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:lightblue;"| Gore
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:lightblue;"| Obama
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:lightblue;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Alabama}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:pink;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Alaska}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Arizona}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:pink;"| Trump
| style="background:lightblue;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Arkansas}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:pink;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|California}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:pink;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Gore
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Colorado}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:pink;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Connecticut}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Gore
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Delaware}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:pink;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Gore
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flagicon|District of Columbia}} [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]]
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| McGovern
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Mondale
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Dukakis
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Gore
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Florida}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Obama
| style="background:lightblue;"| Obama
| style="background:pink;"| Trump
| style="background:pink;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}} [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:pink;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:lightblue;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Hawaii}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:lightblue;"| Carter
| style="background:lightblue;"| Carter
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Dukakis
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Gore
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Idaho}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Illinois}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:pink;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Gore
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Indiana}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Obama
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Iowa}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:pink;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Dukakis
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:lightblue;"| Gore
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Kansas}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Kentucky}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:pink;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Louisiana}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| rowspan=3 align="left"|{{flag|Maine}}
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| rowspan=3 style="background:pink;"| Ford
| rowspan=3 style="background:pink;"| Reagan
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| rowspan="2" style="background:#34AAE0;" | Clinton (at-large and [[Maine's 1st congressional district|ME-01]])
| rowspan=3 style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| bgcolor="#34aae0" rowspan="2" | Gore (at-large and [[Maine's 1st congressional district|ME-01]])
| rowspan=3 style="background:#34AAE0;"| Kerry
| rowspan=3 style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| rowspan=3 style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| bgcolor="lightblue"| Clinton {{nowrap|(at-large)}}
| bgcolor="#34aae0" rowspan="2" | Biden (at-large and [[Maine's 1st congressional district|ME-01]])
|-
| bgcolor="#34aae0" colspan="1" |Clinton ([[Maine's 1st congressional district|ME-01]])
|-
| colspan=1 bgcolor="lightblue"|Clinton ([[Maine's 2nd congressional district|ME-02]])
| colspan=1 bgcolor="lightblue"|Gore ([[Maine's 2nd congressional district|ME-02]])
| bgcolor="#ff8080" colspan="1" |Trump ([[Maine's 2nd congressional district|ME-02]])
| bgcolor="#ff8080" colspan="1" |Trump ([[Maine's 2nd congressional district|ME-02]])
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Maryland}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:lightblue;"| Carter
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Gore
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Massachusetts}}
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| McGovern
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:pink;"| Reagan
| style="background:pink;"| Reagan
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Dukakis
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Gore
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Michigan}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Gore
| style="background:lightblue;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:pink;"| Trump
| style="background:lightblue;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Minnesota}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:lightblue;"| Carter
| style="background:lightblue;"| Mondale
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Dukakis
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:lightblue;"| Gore
| style="background:lightblue;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Mississippi}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:lightblue;"| Carter
| style="background:pink;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Missouri}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:lightblue;"| Carter
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Montana}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:pink;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| rowspan=2 align="left"|{{flag|Nebraska}}
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF8080;"| Dole
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| bgcolor="#ff8080" colspan="1" | McCain (at-large, [[Nebraska's 1st congressional district|NE-01]], [[Nebraska's 3rd congressional district|NE-03]])
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| bgcolor="#ff8080" colspan="1" | Trump (at-large, [[Nebraska's 1st congressional district|NE-01]], [[Nebraska's 3rd congressional district|NE-03]])
| bgcolor="#ff8080" colspan="1" | Trump (at-large, [[Nebraska's 1st congressional district|NE-01]], [[Nebraska's 3rd congressional district|NE-03]])
|-
| colspan=1 bgcolor="lightblue"| Obama ([[Nebraska's 2nd congressional district|NE-02]])
| colspan=1 bgcolor="pink"| Trump ([[Nebraska's 2nd congressional district|NE-02]])
| colspan=1 style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden ([[Nebraska's 2nd congressional district|NE-02]])
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Nevada}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:pink;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:lightblue;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|New Hampshire}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|New Jersey}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:pink;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Gore
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|New Mexico}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:pink;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:lightblue;"| Gore
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|New York}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:lightblue;"| Carter
| style="background:pink;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:lightblue;"| Dukakis
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Gore
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|North Carolina}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:pink;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Obama
| style="background:pink;"| Romney
| style="background:pink;"| Trump
| style="background:pink;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|North Dakota}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Ohio}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:lightblue;"| Carter
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Obama
| style="background:lightblue;"| Obama
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Oklahoma}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:pink;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Oregon}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:pink;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:lightblue;"| Dukakis
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:lightblue;"| Gore
| style="background:lightblue;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Pennsylvania}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:lightblue;"| Carter
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:lightblue;"| Gore
| style="background:lightblue;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:pink;"| Trump
| style="background:lightblue;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Rhode Island}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:pink;"| Reagan
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Dukakis
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Gore
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|South Carolina}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:pink;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|South Dakota}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:pink;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Tennessee}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:pink;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Texas}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:lightblue;"| Carter
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Utah}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Vermont}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Gore
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Virginia}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:pink;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| Bush
| style="background:pink;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:lightblue;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flagicon|Washington (state)}} [[Washington (state)|Washington]]
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:pink;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:lightblue;"| Dukakis
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Gore
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|West Virginia}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Carter
| style="background:lightblue;"| Carter
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:lightblue;"| Dukakis
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Wisconsin}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:lightblue;"| Carter
| style="background:pink;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:lightblue;"| Dukakis
| style="background:lightblue;"| Clinton
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Clinton
| style="background:lightblue;"| Gore
| style="background:lightblue;"| Kerry
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:#34AAE0;"| Obama
| style="background:pink;"| Trump
| style="background:lightblue;"| Biden
|-
| align="left"|{{flag|Wyoming}}
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Nixon
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Ford
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Reagan
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Dole
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Bush
| style="background:#FF8080;"| McCain
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Romney
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
| style="background:#FF8080;"| Trump
|}
{{Note|1|1}}: Split their votes.

==Reaction==
===United States===
The "Democratic blue" and "Republican red" color scheme is now part of the lexicon of American journalism.

Neither party national committee has officially accepted these color designations, though informal use by each party is becoming common. Both parties have since adopted logos that use their respective colors (a blue "D" for Democrats<ref>"[http://theweek.com/article/index/207105/democrats-new-logo-change-you-can-sell Democrats' new logo: Change you can sell?]" ''The Week''. September 16, 2010. Retrieved 2014-11-14.</ref> and a red "GOP" for Republicans). [[United States presidential nominating convention|National conventions]] for both major parties increasingly feature the parties' respective colors, from the colors emphasized on convention podiums to the color conventioneers can be seen wearing on the delegate floor. The Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee also alluded the color scheme when it launched a national "Red to Blue Program" in 2006.<ref>[http://www.dccc.org/news/Red_to_Blue/index.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002041317/http://www.dccc.org/news/Red_to_Blue/index.html|date=October 2, 2006}}</ref>

The scheme has found acceptance and implementation from the U.S. federal government as the [[Federal Election Commission]] report for the [[2004 United States presidential election|2004 presidential election]] uses the red-Republican and blue-Democratic scheme for its electoral map.<ref>[http://www.fec.gov/pubrec/fe2004/presmaps.pdf Federal Elections 2004] from the [[Federal Election Commission]]</ref>
===International===
The choice of colors in this divide may appear counter-intuitive to non-American observers, as in most countries, red is associated with [[socialism|socialist]], [[communism|communist]], or [[social democracy|social democratic]] parties, while blue is associated with [[conservatism|conservative]] (especially [[liberal conservatism|liberal conservative]]) parties. For example, the major center-right conservative parties in the [[Politics of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], [[Politics of Canada|Canada]], [[Politics of Australia|Australia]], [[Politics of New Zealand|New Zealand]], [[Politics of Brazil|Brazil]], [[Politics of Italy|Italy]], [[Politics of Spain|Spain]], [[Politics of France|France]] and [[Politics of Bavaria|Bavaria]], all use blue or its shades (whether officially or unofficially) whereas the major socialist, communist, or social democratic parties in each country are associated with red (orange in Canada). If the U.S. followed such a pattern, blue would be used for the Republicans and red for the Democrats. However, the current U.S. scheme has become so ingrained in the American election system that foreign sources who cover U.S. elections, such as the [[BBC]], ''[[Der Spiegel]]'' and ''[[El Mundo (Spain)|El Mundo]]'' follow with the red-Republican, blue-Democratic scheme for U.S. elections.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/americas/04/vote_usa/map/html/default.stm|title=BBC News|work=bbc.co.uk|access-date=November 7, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.spiegel.de/flash/0,5532,7245,00.html|title=Amerika wählt – Spiegel Online – Nachrichten}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elmundo.es/especiales/2004/10/internacional/eeuu/resultados.html|website=elmundo.es |title=Elecciones EEUU 2004|access-date=September 9, 2016}}</ref>

==Usage elsewhere==
===Australia===
In Australia, the centre-right [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] uses the colour blue, while the centre-left [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]] uses the colour red. The formal alliance between the two main centre-right political parties in Australia, the Liberal Party and [[National Party of Australia|National Party]]), known as the [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]], also uses blue (although the National Party itself uses dark green). While the terminology used in the United States is sometimes used in Australia, the terms "Liberal state" (or "Coalition state") and "Labor state" are generally used instead.

As the Coalition is dominant in regional and rural areas, states where over 40% of the population live outside the state capital typically have higher numbers of Coalition supporters.

However, state politics and federal politics are separate and many states vote for different parties in state and federal elections. While [[Queensland]] and [[Western Australia]] have Labor governments, federally both states have almost always voted for the Coalition, although the latter has shifted to Labor more recently on both a state and federal level. The [[Northern Territory]], which also has a Labor government, has also historically voted primarily for the Coalition. [[Tasmania]] has also been an important state for both parties over the past 50 years because, of the five Tasmanian seats in the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], there have been times where one party has won all five of them. As of the [[2022 Australian federal election]], the Liberals have two Tasmanian seats ([[Division of Bass|Bass]] and [[Division of Braddon|Braddon]]), as does Labor ([[Division of Franklin|Franklin]] and [[Division of Lyons|Lyons]]), the remaining seat ([[Division of Clark|Clark]]) being represented by [[independent politicians in Australia|independent]] [[Andrew Wilkie]]. Queensland and Tasmania were considered the two states that delivered [[Scott Morrison]]'s unpredicted win at the [[2019 Australian federal election|2019 federal election]] and both states are the only two where less than 50% of the population resides in the capital city ([[Brisbane]] and [[Hobart]], respectively), which is important due to the Coalition's dominance in regional Australia.

Of the 29 federal elections held since [[1949 Australian federal election|1949]], Labor has won the federal two-party-preferred vote in Queensland just three times: in [[1961 Australian federal election|1961]], [[1990 Australian federal election|1990]] and [[2007 Australian federal election|2007]] (when Queenslander [[Kevin Rudd]] was leader of the Labor Party); and in Western Australia just six times: in [[1969 Australian federal election|1969]], [[1983 Australian federal election|1983]], [[1984 Australian federal election|1984]], [[1987 Australian federal election|1987]], [[2001 Australian federal election|2001]] (when Western Australian [[Kim Beazley]] was Labor leader) and 2022. Conversely, in the [[Australian Capital Territory]], which is dominated by national capital [[Canberra]], Labor has won the two-party-preferred vote in every election except the [[1975 Australian federal election|1975 election]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.aec.gov.au/elections/federal_elections/tpp-results.htm | title=House of Representatives - Two party preferred results 1949 - present }}</ref>

In Australia, the leader of the party that forms government (wins a majority of seats in the House of Representatives) becomes [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]], who does not always win the primary vote or even the two-party-preferred vote (although the later scenario is rare for federal elections, last occurring in [[1998 Australian federal election|1998]]).

==See also==
{{Clear}}
{{portal|Politics}}
* [[Blue wall (U.S. politics)]]
* [[Wave elections in the United States]]
* [[Jesusland map]]
* [[Political culture of the United States]]
* [[Political ideologies in the United States]]
* [[Cook Partisan Voting Index]]
* [[Swing state]]
* [[Southernization]]
* [[Southern strategy]]
* [[Commons:United States presidential election maps|United States presidential election maps]] on [[Wikimedia Commons]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Notes===
{{reflist|group=note}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |title= Living Blue in the Red States|last= Starkey|first=David |year=2007 |publisher= University of Nebraska Press|location= Lincoln, NE|isbn=978-0-8032-6008-5}}
* {{cite web |title=The Urban Archipelago: It's the Cities, Stupid|url=http://www.urbanarchipelago.com/|work=[[The Stranger (newspaper)|The Stranger]]|access-date=November 3, 2010}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Red State-Blue State Divide}}
* [http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/archives/individual/2004_11/005157.php Choosing colors based on incumbent vs. challenger victory from November, 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604084933/http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/archives/individual/2004_11/005157.php |date=June 4, 2016 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070616094433/http://www.utexas.edu/lbj/webcasts/docs/honkytonkgap.pdf The Honky Tonk Gap: Country Music, Red State Identity, and the Election of 2004]
* McPherson, Tara. [http://southernspaces.org/2004/re-imagining-red-states-new-directions-southern-studies "Re-imagining the Red States: New Directions for Southern Studies."] ''Southern Spaces'', December 14, 2004.

{{United States presidential elections}}
{{Regions of the United States}}
{{United States topics}}

[[Category:2000 beginnings]]
[[Category:2000 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:2000 neologisms]]
[[Category:American political neologisms]]
[[Category:Electoral geography of the United States]]
[[Category:United States presidential elections terminology]]
[[Category:Interstate conflicts in the United States]]
[[Category:Color codes]]
[[Category:History of the Republican Party (United States)]]
[[Category:History of the Democratic Party (United States)]]
[[Category:Regional rivalries]]

Tree of Jesse

2024-11-05T19:25:40Z

Brandmeister: +category

{{short description|Artistic depiction of the family tree of Jesus of Nazareth according to biblical accounts}}

[[File:Bnf Ms Français 245, fol. 84, Arbre de Jessé.jpg|thumb|right|Miniature, Jacques de Besançon, Paris, c.1485. Showing 43 generations. Below, the birth and childhood of Mary]]
[[File:An oak carving of the Tree of Jesse from St Andrews Castle, RSM.JPG|thumb|A 17th-century oak carving of the Tree of Jesse from [[St Andrews Castle]], [[Royal Scottish Museum]]]]
[[File:Geertgen tot Sint Jans, Circle of - Tree of Jesse - WGA16298.jpg#|thumb|(Painter related to) [[Geertgen tot Sint Jans]], c. 1500, oil on panel]]
The '''Tree of Jesse''' is a depiction in art of the ancestors of [[Jesus Christ]], shown in a branching tree which rises from [[Jesse (biblical figure)|Jesse]] of [[Bethlehem]], the father of [[King David]]. It is the original use of the [[family tree]] as a schematic representation of a [[genealogy]].

The Tree of Jesse originates in a passage in the biblical [[Book of Isaiah]] which describes metaphorically the descent of the [[Messiah]] and is accepted by Christians as referring to [[Jesus]]. The various figures depicted in the lineage of Jesus are drawn from those names listed in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] and the [[Gospel of Luke]].

The subject is often seen in [[Christian art]], particularly in that of the [[Medieval art|medieval]] period. The earliest example is an [[illuminated manuscript]] that dates from the 11th century. There are many examples in medieval [[psalter]]s, because of the relation to King David, son of Jesse, and writer of the [[Psalms]]. Other examples include [[stained glass]] windows, stone carvings around the portals of medieval cathedrals, and painting on walls and ceilings. The Tree of Jesse also appears in smaller art forms such as embroideries and ivories.

==Origins==
Depictions of the Jesse Tree are based on a passage from the [[Book of Isaiah]].
{{blockquote|"And there shall come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a Branch shall grow out of his roots" ([[King James Version]]).}}

From the Latin [[Vulgate]] Bible used in the Middle Ages:
{{blockquote|''et egredietur virga de radice Iesse et flos de radice eius ascendet'' ({{bibleref|Isaiah|11:1|VULGATE}}). }}

''Flos'', pl ''flores'' is Latin for flower. ''Virga'' is a "green twig", "rod" or "broom", as well as a convenient near-pun with ''Virgo'' or Virgin, which undoubtedly influenced the development of the image. Thus Jesus is the ''Virga Jesse'' or "stem of Jesse".
[[File:Victor (iconographer) Tree of Jesse.png|thumb|225 px|right|''[[Tree of Jesse (Victor)|Tree of Jesse]]'' by [[Victor (iconographer)|Victor]], 1674, it features David, Solomon and the [[Davidic Line]] with Abraham as its root]]
In the [[New Testament]] the lineage of Jesus is traced by two of the [[Gospel]] writers, [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]] in descending order, and [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] in ascending order. [[Gospel of Luke|Luke's Gospel's]] description in chapter 3 begins with Jesus himself and is traced all the way back, via [[Nathan (son of David)|Nathan]] to [[David]] and then on to "[[Adam (Bible)|Adam]], which was ''[the son]'' of God.". ({{bibleref|Luke|3:23-38|9}}) [[Matthew's Gospel]] opens with the words: "The book of the generation of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham." ({{bibleref|Matthew|1:1|9}}) With this beginning, Matthew shows the Abrahamic and royal descent, passing through [[David]], but then through [[Solomon]].

See [[Genealogy of Jesus]] for more explanation of the differences, but both lineages permit the interpretation that Jesus is the "stem of Jesse" by his descent from Jesse's son, [[David]].

==Use==
Pictorial representations of the ''Jesse Tree'' show a symbolic tree or vine with spreading branches to represent the genealogy in accordance with [[Isaiah]]'s prophecy. The 12th-century monk [[Hervé de Bourg-Dieu|Hervaeus]] expressed the medieval understanding of the image, based on the [[Vulgate]] text: "The patriarch Jesse belonged to the royal family, that is why the root of Jesse signifies the lineage of kings. As to the rod, it symbolises Mary as the flower symbolises Jesus Christ."<ref name="EM">[[Émile Mâle]], ''The Gothic Image, Religious Art in France of the Thirteenth Century'', p 165-8, English trans of 3rd edn, 1913, Collins, London (and many other editions)</ref> In the medieval period, when heredity was all-important, much greater emphasis than today was placed on the actual royal descent of Jesus, especially by royalty and the nobility, including those who had joined the clergy. Between them, these groups were responsible for much of the patronage of the arts.

During the Medieval era the symbol of the tree as an expression of lineage was adopted by the nobility and has passed into common usage initially in the form of the [[family tree]] and later as a mode of expressing any line of descent. The form is widely used as a table in such disciplines as [[biology]]. It is also used to show lines of responsibility in personnel structures such as government departments.<ref>[[Tree structure]], [[Root directory]]</ref>

==Modes of depiction==
[[File:Master of James IV of Scotland getty Ms ludwig IX 18 f65 1510-20 crop.jpg|thumb|A typical Jesse Tree of the Late Medieval period, detail of the Spinola Hours of Ludwig by the Master of James IV of Scotland, (1510-20)]]
[[File:Vratislav.jpg|thumb|The lower half of this page from the ''[[Vyšehrad Codex]]'' shows the earliest known depiction of a Tree of Jesse]]
[[File:12th-century painters - The Tree of Jesse - WGA15728.jpg|thumb|The Jesse Tree in the [[Lambeth Bible]], unknown English miniaturist (1140s). Many characteristics of later representations are fully developed.]]

The ''Jesse Tree'' has been depicted in almost every medium of Christian art. In particular, it is the subject of many [[stained glass]] windows and [[illuminated manuscript]]s. It is also found in wall [[painting]]s, architectural carvings, funerary monuments, floor tiles and [[embroidery]]. Generally only a few of the most well-known individuals, like Kings David and Solomon, are represented on Jesse Trees, rather than an attempt to display the entire lineage.

The first representations of the passage in Isaiah, from about 1000 AD in the West, show a "shoot" in the form of a straight stem or a flowering branch held in the hand most often by the Virgin, or by Jesus when held by Mary, by the prophet Isaiah or by an ancestor figure. The shoot as an attribute acted as a reminder of the prophecy, see also the tradition, apparently older, of the ''Golden Rose'' given by the Pope.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06629a.htm |title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Golden Rose |work=Newadvent.org |date=1909-09-01 |access-date=2013-07-21}}</ref> In the Byzantine world, the Tree figures only as a normal-looking tree in the background of some Nativity scenes, also a reminder to the viewer.<ref name="S">G Schiller, ''Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I'',1971 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, p15-22 & figs 17-42, {{ISBN|0-85331-270-2}}</ref> Indeed, the Tree was always far more common in Northern Europe, where it may have [[Tree of Jesse#The Vysehrad Codex and Lambeth Palace Bible|originated]], than in Italy.

There exist also other forms of representation of the [[Genealogy of Jesus]] which do not employ the ''Jesse Tree'', the most famous being that painted in the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling|Sistine Chapel]] by [[Michelangelo]].

'''The typical form of the image'''

The most typical form which the ''Jesse Tree'' takes is to show the figure of [[Jesse (biblical figure)|Jesse]], often larger than all the rest, reclining or sleeping (perhaps by analogy to Adam when his rib was taken) at the foot of the pictorial space. From his side or his navel springs the trunk of a tree or vine which ascends, branching to either side. On the branches, usually surrounded by formally scrolling tendrils of foliage, are figures representing the ancestors of Christ. The trunk generally ascends vertically to Mary and then Christ at the top.

The number of figures depicted varies greatly, depending on the amount of room available for the design. As a maximum, if the longer ancestry from Luke is used, there are 43 generations between Jesse and Jesus. The identity of the figures also varies, and may not be specified, but [[Solomon]] and [[David]] are usually included, and often all shown wear crowns. Most Jesse Trees include Mary immediately beneath the figure of Jesus (or, in the Gothic period, show a Virgin and Child), emphasising that she was the means by which the ''shoot of Jesse'' was born. See for example, Sermon 24 of [[St Leo the Great]]: "In which rod, no doubt the blessed Virgin Mary is predicted, who sprung from the stock of Jesse and David and fecundated by the Holy Ghost, brought forth a new flower of human flesh, becoming a virgin-mother".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/360324.htm |title=CHURCH FATHERS: Sermon 24 (Leo the Great) |work=Newadvent.org |access-date=2013-07-21}}</ref> [[Saint Joseph]] is rarely shown, although unlike Mary he is a link in the Gospel genealogies. It was believed in the Middle Ages that the [[Davidic line|House of David]] could only marry within itself, and that she was independently descended from Jesse. Sometimes Jesus and other figures are shown in the cups of flowers, as the fruit or blossom of the Tree.<ref name="EM"/>

The Jesse Tree was the only prophecy in the Old Testament to be so literally and frequently illustrated, and so came also to stand for the Prophets, and their foretelling of Christ, in general. Both the St-Denis and Chartres windows include columns of prophets, as do many depictions. Often they carry [[Banderole (pennant)|banderoles]] with a quotation from their writings, and they may point to Christ, as the foretold Messiah.<ref name="EM"/> The inclusion of kings and prophets was also an assertion of the inclusion and relevance in the biblical canon of books that some groups had rejected in the past.<ref>Dodwell, 214-215</ref>

While particularly popular in the [[Medieval era]], there were also many depictions of the ''Jesse Tree'' in [[Gothic Revival]] art of the 19th century. The 20th century has also produced a number of fine examples.

==Illuminated manuscripts==
===The Vysehrad Codex and Lambeth Palace Bible===

The earliest known representation of the ''Jesse Tree'' can be firmly dated to 1086 and is in the ''[[Vyšehrad Codex]]'', the Coronation Gospels of [[Vratislav II]], the first king of [[Bohemia]], which was previously a dukedom.<ref name=JAHW>{{cite web |author=Jean Anne Hayes Williams |title=The Earliest Dated Tree of Jesse File: Thematically reconsidered |url=http://www.fsu.edu/~arh/events/athanor/athxviii/AthanorXVIII_williams.pdf |publisher=Fsu.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070125034845/http://www.fsu.edu/~arh/events/athanor/athxviii/AthanorXVIII_williams.pdf |archive-date=2007-01-25 }}</ref>

In a paper analysing this image, J.A. Hayes Williams points out that the iconography employed is very different from that usually found in such images, which she argues relates to an assertion of the rightful kingship of the royal patron. The page showing the ''Jesse Tree'' is accompanied by a number of other [[Manuscript illumination|illuminated]] pages of which four depict the [[Ancestors of Christ]]. The ''Jesse Tree'' has not been used to support a number of figures, as is usual. Instead, the passage from Isaiah has been depicted in a very literal way. In the picture, the prophet [[Isaiah]] approaches [[Jesse (biblical figure)|Jesse]] from beneath whose feet is springing a tree, and wraps around him a banner with words upon it which translate literally as:- "A little rod from Jesse gives rise to a splendid flower", following the language of the Vulgate. Instead of the ancestors seen in later depictions, seven doves (with [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]]es) perch in the branches. These, in a motif from [[Byzantine art]], represent the [[Seven gifts of the Holy Spirit]] as described by the [[Apostle Paul]].<ref name= JAHW /><ref>[[Epistle to the Romans]], Chapter 12: verses 6-8.</ref>
Williams goes on to compare it with two other famous images, the ''Tree of Jesse'' window at [[Chartres Cathedral]] and the ''[[Lambeth Bible]]'' in England.<ref name= JAHW />

Williams says:-
{{blockquote|"While depictions of the ''Jesse Tree'' originated in Bohemia, the concept became widely popular throughout Europe and the British Isles. Within sixty years the composition had exploded and expanded, with rearranged original elements and new ones added."<ref name= JAHW />}}

However this claim of Bohemian origin may be somewhat overstated, as there is an incipient version in an Anglo-Norman manuscript of similar date to the Vysehrad Codex.<ref>[[Charles Reginald Dodwell|Dodwell, C.R.]]; ''The Pictorial arts of the West, 800-1200'', pp. 193–4, 1993, Yale UP, {{ISBN|0-300-06493-4}}</ref>

In the first decades of the 12th century, the early [[Cistercian]] illuminators of [[Cîteaux Abbey]] played an important part in the development of the image of the Tree of Jesse, which was used to counter renewed tendencies to deny the humanity of Mary, which culminated in [[Catharism]]. However, as Bernard of Clairvaux, strongly hostile to imagery, increased in influence in the order, their use of imagery ceased.<ref>Dodwell, pp. 211–215</ref> The ''Lambeth Bible'' is dated between 1140 and 1150. The ''Jesse Tree'' illustration comes at the start of Isaiah and differs greatly from the earlier one, having much more the form that is familiar from both manuscript and stained glass versions. In it, Jesse lies at the border of the page with the tree springing from his side. The branches of the tree are depicted as highly formalised circular tendrils which enclose six pairs or trios of figures. At the centre, tall and highly stylised in the same manner as 12th-century columnar statues, stands a full-length [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] from whose head spring tendrils which enclose a bust of her Son, [[Jesus]]. He is encircled by the seven doves, with outspread wings; this became the usual depiction of them. Four Prophets with scrolls occupy medallions in the corners.[[File:JesseTree.jpg|thumb|left|''Capuchin's Bible'', c. 1180, [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]], Paris]][[File:Shrewsbury St Mary © The Churches Conservation Trust.jpg|left|thumb|The world-famous medieval Jesse Window at [[St Mary's Church, Shrewsbury|St Mary's Shrewsbury]] |alt=]]

=== Other illuminated manuscripts ===
The Tree appears in several other Romanesque Bibles apart from the ''Lambeth Bible'', usually as a large [[historiated initial]] at the start of either Isaiah or Matthew. The [[Saint-Bénigne Bible]] is perhaps the earliest appearance, with just Jesse and the doves of the "Seven Gifts". The [[Capuchin's Bible]] (see picture) is a later example, c. 1180, in which a Jesse Tree forms the L of ''Liber generationis..'' at the start of the [[Gospel of Matthew]].<ref>Dijon, Public Library, Ms 12-15, and BnF, Paris Ms. lat 16746, f 7v, respectively. Both illustrated in [[Walter Cahn|Cahn, Walter]], Romanesque Bible Illumination, Cornell UP, 1982, {{ISBN|0-8014-1446-6}}</ref>

The Tree is also often found in [[Psalter]]s, especially English manuscripts, illustrating the B initial of ''[[Beatus Vir]]'', the beginning of [[Psalm 1]], which often occupies a whole page. Sometimes this is the only fully illuminated page, and if it is historiated (i.e. contains a pictured scene) the Tree is the usual subject. When not historiated, the initial had for about two hundred years been most often made up of, or filled with, spiraling plant tendrils, often with animals or men caught up in them, so the development to the tree was a relatively easy step. Indeed, although Jesse's son David was believed to be the author of the [[Psalm]]s, it has been suggested that the tradition of using a Jesse Tree here arose largely because it was an imposing design that worked well filling a large B shape.

An early example is the late 12th-century [[Huntingfield Psalter]], and an especially splendid one from the early 14th century is the [[Gorleston Psalter]] in the [[British Library]].<ref>Pierpont Morgan Library M.43, f. 33v (Huntingfield Psalter); British Library Add MS 49622, f. 8. Both illustrated in Otto Pächt, ''Book Illumination in the Middle Ages'' (trans fr German), 1986, Harvey Miller Publishers, London, {{ISBN|0-19-921060-8}}</ref> In these and most other examples Jesse lies at the bottom of the B, and the Virgin is no larger than other figures. In the recently re-discovered [[Macclesfield Psalter]] of about 1320 another very elaborate Tree<ref>{{cite web | title = The Fitzwilliam Museum: Photo Gallery | access-date = 2009-01-03 | url = http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/gallery/macclesfield/gallery/ }}</ref> grows beyond the B, sending branches round the sides and bottom of the text. In the Psalter and Hours of [[John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford|John, Duke of Bedford]] (British Library Add MS 42131), of about 1420–23, the Tree frames the bottom and both sides of the page, while the initial B at the top of the page contains the ''anointing of King David''.

Some continental manuscripts give the scene a whole page with no initial. "Various selections" of the elements appear, and prophets and sometimes even the [[Cumaean Sybil]] (Ingeburg Psalter c. 1210) stand in the corners or to the side. A [[Lectionary]] of before 1164 from Cologne unusually shows Jesse dead in a tomb or coffin, from which the tree grows.<ref name="S"/> Romanesque depictions usually show Jesse asleep on open ground or on a simple couch - all that can be told from the Bible about his circumstances is that he had sheep, which David herded. By the Gothic period small Trees are found in many types of manuscript, and Jesse is often more comfortably accommodated in a large bed.
{{clear}}
[[File:Detail of Jesse Tree from St Marys' Shrewsbury.jpg|thumb|The fourteenth-century 'Jesse window' at [[St Mary's Church, Shrewsbury|St Mary's Church Shrewsbury]]]]

==Stained glass==
Stained glass was a popular medium used in many eras to illuminate the sacred mysteries of the Old Covenant's relationship with the genealogy of Christ in the New Covenant.
[[File:Vitrail Chartres 210209 18 brighter.jpg|thumb|The upper section of the Jesse Tree window at [[Chartres Cathedral]] showing Jesus at the apex and Mary below him]]
[[File:England YorkMinster JesseTree c1170.JPG|thumb|The fragment of a Jesse Tree window from [[York Minster]], which is probably the oldest panel of stained glass in England (c. 1170)]]
[[File:Canterbury Cathedral 080 Jesse tree.JPG|thumb|Two panels, all that remain, of a Jesse Tree window of the late 12th or early 13th century, [[Canterbury Cathedral]]]]
[[File:Beauvais (60), église Saint-Étienne, baie n° 5 a.jpg|thumb|''Jesse Tree'' at Saint-Étienne church in Beauvais, France, by Engrand Le Prince, 1522–1524]]

===Medieval===

====Jesse Tree at Chartres Cathedral====
Among the famous stained glass windows of [[Chartres Cathedral]] in Northern France is the ''Jesse Tree'' window, of 1140–50, the far right of three windows above the ''Royal Portal'' and beneath the western [[rose window]]. It derives from the oldest known (and almost certainly the original) complex form of the ''Jesse Tree'', with the tree rising from a sleeping Jesse, a window placed in the [[Saint-Denis Basilica]] by [[Abbot Suger]] in about 1140, which is now heavily restored.<ref name="S"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://vrcoll.fa.pitt.edu/medart/menufrance/sdenis/windows/Sdenwind-Jesse.html |title=Medieval Art and Architecture |work=Vrcoll.fa.pitt.edu |access-date=2012-10-02}}</ref>

The Chartres window comprises eight square central panels, with seven rectangular ones on either side, separated, as is usual in 12th-century windows with no stone tracery, by heavy iron armatures. In the lowest central panel reclines the figure of Jesse, with the tree rising from his middle. In each of the seven sections it branches out into a regular pattern of scrolling branches, each bearing a bunch of leaves that take on the heraldic form of the [[Fleur de Lys]], very common in French stained glass. Central to each panel is a figure:- [[David]], [[Solomon]], two more crowned figures, [[Mary (mother of Jesus)]] and, surrounded by the doves bearing the gifts of the Spirit, a majestic figure of [[Christ]], larger than the rest. In each of the narrower panels, edged by richly patterned borders, are the figures of fourteen [[prophet]]s bearing scrolls.

Apart from the theological importance the design is one of the few subjects that works very well as a unified composition for one of the tall vertical spaces of the windows of Romanesque and Gothic churches; most other tall windows were divided into separate scenes. Saint-Denis and Chartres provided a model for many other such windows, notably the Jesse Tree windows of [[Canterbury Cathedral]], c. 1200, probably also made in France, and St. Kunibert, [[Cologne]] of 1220–35.
Section references:- Brown,<ref name= Brown>Sarah Brown, ''Stained Glass, an Illustrated History'', Bracken books, {{ISBN|1-85891-157-5}}</ref> Lee, Seddon and Stephens.<ref>[[Lawrence Lee]], George Seddon, Francis Stephens, ''Stained Glass'', Spring Books, {{ISBN|0-600-56281-6}}</ref>

====York Minster, England====
A small and much fragmented panel from a ''Jesse Tree'' window, at [[York Minster]] is thought to be the oldest surviving stained glass in England, dating from perhaps as early as 1150.<ref name= Brown />

====Canterbury Cathedral, England====
This window, dating from c. 1200, had an unfortunate history. Having survived the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], the depredations of the [[Puritans]] and the ravages of time, it was dismantled and removed, with many other original windows during the 19th and early 20th centuries, and replaced by a copy. Fortunately two surviving panels were later returned and are in place in the ''Corona Chapel''<ref>The Corona Chapel was built to hold the relic of the top of Becket's head, severed at the time of his assassination.{{Citation needed|date=November 2013}}</ref> at the eastern end of the building.

====Wells Cathedral====
[[Wells Cathedral]] has a rare example of an intact 14th-century Jesse Tree window which survived the iconoclasm of the 17th-century and the losses of World War II.<ref name=Wells>Wells Cathedral website, [http://www.wellscathedral.org.uk/history/historical-highlights/the-jesse-window/ Jesse Tree window] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810060121/http://www.wellscathedral.org.uk/history/historical-highlights/the-jesse-window/ |date=2011-08-10 }}, (retrieved 21-11-2013)</ref> The window is located high up in the eastern end of the choir. The colours of this window are red, yellow, green, white and brown, with very little blue. The window is wide for its height, having seven lights, and being topped by tracery. Consequently, the tendrils of the Tree spread out sideways and the central panel has only three figures: the reclining Jesse at the bottom; the Blessed Virgin holding the Christ Child in her arms and above, the crucified Christ. There are fourteen more figures in the window, identifiable in some cases by their attributes, such as David's harp and Solomon's model of the Temple of Jerusalem. As well as the tendrils, the figures are framed by typical 14th-century canopies and bases displaying the name of each person. The window is currently undergoing extensive conservation.<ref name= Wells/>

====St Mary's Church, Shrewsbury====

[[St Mary's Church, Shrewsbury|St Mary's Church]] in Shrewsbury, England contains an enormous 14th-century depiction of the Jesse Tree. By tradition, it was made for the [[Franciscan]] church in Shrewsbury, moved to [[St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury|St Chad's Church]] after the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], and then to St Mary's in 1792. Although it was much [[Victorian restoration|restored]] in 1858 by David and Charles Evans, much of the original glass remains and is dated between 1327 and 1353.

'''Other examples''' are at the [[Sainte-Chapelle]] in Paris (1247), the [[Cathédrale St-Julien du Mans|Cathedral of Le Mans]] (13th century) and [[Evreux Cathedral]] in Normandy (15th century).

===Renaissance and classical===

'''Dorchester Abbey, Dorchester, Oxfordshire'''

The north window in the sanctuary is unique as it combines tracery and sculpture with stained glass in a single theme. It shows the ascent of [[Christ]] from [[Jesse (biblical figure)|Jesse]]. The tree with five undulating branches carved in foliage rises from the sculptured recumbent form of Jesse. Much of the 14th-century glass is fragmentary, but still in its original tracery. The figures of Christ and the [[Virgin and Child]] with other figures are intact. The glass contains figures from a Tree of Jesse and additional figures are carved on stone mullions.

'''St. Leonard's Church, [[Leverington]], Cambridgeshire'''

A 15th-century restored Tree of Jesse window in the chapel of the east end of the church. Thirteen of the figures are original, seventeen are partly restored and thirty-one are modern. The kings are dressed in short doublets which are compared with similar figures in the manuscript of 1640 representing the victories of Edward IV which is in the British Library at Harley MS 7353.

'''Holy Well and St. Dyfnog's Church, [[Llanrhaeadr-yng-Nghinmeirch|Llanrhaeadr]], Denbighshire, Wales.'''

The Tree of Jesse window was made in 1533. The window depicts Jesse asleep in a walled garden, from him springs a many branched family tree, in which can be seen the ancestor kings of christ. The figures resemble 'court' playing cards, which took their form at about the time the window was made.<ref>Dr Charles Kightly, ''Enjoy Medieval Denbighshire'', pub. Denbighshire County Council.</ref>

'''Saint-Étienne church, [[Beauvais]], France'''

A magnificent Renaissance three-light window by Engrand Le Prince (1522–1524), with the royal ancestors richly dressed in fashionable garments, rising from large flower-pods. Jesse has a splendid four-poster bed. In the tracery, the central section has the form of a [[Sacred Heart]] and contains the Virgin and Christ Child rising from a lily and surrounded by radiant light.

'''Cathedral Notre-Dame, [[Moulins, Allier|Moulins]], Central France'''

Tree of Jesse window above Jesse can be seen a king on horseback from the 15th or 16th century.

===19th and early 20th century===
[[File:Paryż notre-dame witraż straight, crop.JPG|thumb|A 19th-century window from [[Notre-Dame de Paris]]]]
[[File:Hove jesse.jpg|thumb|Detail of Jesse from the Stained Glass window of All Saints Church, Hove, Sussex. England]]
'''St. Bartholomew's Church, Rogate, West Sussex.'''

The Jesse window of 1892 by Lavers & Westlake is a colourful design. All the figures are seated in the vine except for the Virgin Mary who is seated within a flowering virga, outside the vine. Above her head are seven doves representing the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. The figures in the window are; in the first light – [[Hezekiah]], [[Solomon]], [[Melchizedek]]. Middle light – Jesse, David, the Virgin and Christchild on her knee. Third light – [[Jehoshaphat]], [[Asa of Judah|Asa]], and [[Isaiah]]. The three light window is dedicated to the Honourable J J Carnagie born 8 July 1807 died 18 January 1892, placed in the church by Henry Allen Rolls (brother of the co-founder of [[Rolls-Royce Limited]]) in 1892.<ref>Malcolm Low, ''The Tree of Jesse Directory'', private publication.</ref>

'''Pusey House Chapel, Oxford, Oxfordshire.'''

In the east window there is a Tree of Jesse commemorating [[Edward Bouverie Pusey|Pusey]], who was one of the leaders of the 19th-century [[Oxford Movement]] in the Church of England. Pusey died in 1882 and [[Pusey House, Oxford|Pusey House]] was established as his memorial. The window is by Sir [[Ninian Comper]] and contains figures of [[Old Testament]] prophets, and fathers of the Church, representing some of the areas of his study, surrounding [[Christ in Majesty]] and the Virgin and Child. The figure of Pusey can be seen, kneeling at the base of the second light from the right.

'''St. Mary of the Assumption Church, Froyle, Hampshire'''

The Tree of Jesse 5 light east window is by Kempe/Burlison & Grylls 1896. Nineteen figures can be seen including Jesse, King David, King Solomon, the Blessed Virgin Mary and Child.<ref>''Church Guide'' for St Mary of the Assumption Church.</ref>

'''St. Matthew's Church, Newcastle, Northumberland.'''

Tree of Jesse window by [[Charles Eamer Kempe|Kempe]] 1899.<ref>The Kempe Society, ''Through the Looking Glass'', courtesy, Hon. Secretary Philip Collins MSIAD.</ref>

'''St. Peter's Church, Stonegate, Wadhurst, E.Sussex'''

The 5 light west window is a Tree of Jesse window made by James Powell & Sons, London in 1910. Depicting 21 characters including Jesse, King David, King Solomon, The Virgin Mary and Child.<ref>Malcolm Low, ''The Tree of Jesse Directory'', quoting The Rev'd Clive Redknap.</ref>

'''All Saints Church, Hove, East Sussex'''

The Tree of Jesse window at the west end of the south aisle is by Clement Bell, installed by the firm Clayton & Bell in 1924. The window embodies a profusion of rich deep colours, reds, blues, dark green, mauve and gold. It has four upright sections, surmounted by quatrefoil insets depicting the Mother & Child, flanked by [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]] and [[Jacob]]. Below, shown in kingly attire is the genealogical lineage of [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]] with some of his forebears from the [[Davidic line|house of David]], [[Salathiel]], [[Zorobabel]], [[Sadoc]], [[Matthan]], [[Ozias]], [[Jehoshaphat]], [[Ezekias]], [[Josias]], [[Roboam]], [[King David]], [[Solomon]] and [[Asa of Judah|Asa]]. Below these are the prophet [[Isaiah]] a recumbent Jesse, and in the bottom corner [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]] recording these details in the opening of his gospel.<ref>G. E. Payne, ''The guide to All Saint's Church, Hove''.</ref>

'''St. George's Church, Slough, Britwell, Berkshire.'''

A five light Tree of Jesse window is mentioned in the church inventory. A huge and spectacular window in {{convert|1|in|mm|adj=mid|-thick}} glass, set in concrete, and made by James Powell & Sons and John Baker in 1960, it was demolished in October 2004.

'''St. John the Baptist Church, Claines, Worcester'''

This church has a fine 19th-century mosaic paving depicting the Tree of Jesse. It was designed and executed by [[Aston Webb]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Geoff Sansome |url=http://www.clainesfriends.org.uk |title=St John Baptist Claines Church Worcester |publisher=Clainesfriends.org.uk |date=2012-08-24 |access-date=2012-10-02}}</ref>

===Modern===

'''St. James's Church, Portsmouth, Milton, Hampshire'''

The consecration of St. James Church took place in 1913, built on a north–south axis in Gothic form. The addition of the Tree of Jesse stained glass east window, inserted to mark the church's 21st anniversary (1954). The window by Sir [[Ninian Comper]] shows the descent of Jesus, through Mary, from King David, the youngest son of Jesse, the [[Bethlehem]]ite.

'''St. Andrew's Church, [[Swavesey]], Cambridgeshire'''

The east window in the Lady Chapel contains a 1967 Tree of Jesse by [[Francis Skeat]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Jesse Tree, Swavesey|date=4 January 2010 |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/therevsteve/4527700049/in/photostream/|publisher=flickr|access-date=25 December 2010}}</ref> In the letters to the incumbent and the churchwardens Skeat writes:<ref>{{cite web |last=Low |first=Malcolm |title=Swavesey, Cambridgeshire, St. Andrew's Church |url=http://homepage.ntlworld.com/m.low1/treeofjesse.pdf |work=Tree of Jesse |publisher=Malcolm Low TSSF |page=51 |date=January 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101025235541/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/m.low1/treeofjesse.pdf |archive-date=2010-10-25 }}</ref>

{{blockquote|"The window scheme of my design is intended to symbolise the descent of Our Lord from Abraham and the patriarchs as detailed in the opening chapter of St. Matthew's Gospel. It is not merely a Jesse Tree since it goes back before his time..........."}}

Jesse appears in the right hand light and is in a standing position facing left. The figures in the window are:- first light, [[Boaz]]; second light, [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]] and above her [[Jacob]]; middle light, [[Abraham]] and [[Isaac]]; above them, the Blessed Virgin Mary and Child; at the top, [[Asa of Judah|Asa]]; fourth light, David with Solomon above him; fifth light, Jesse.

The text at the bottom of the window reads:-

{{blockquote|Who for us men, and for our Salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary, and was made man.}}

'''Cathedral Notre-Dame, Clermont-Ferrand, France'''

''Tree of Jesse'' [[rose window]] 1992; with at the centre the Virgin seated, crowned, and on her lap the Christ-child with his arms extended. Eight glass medallions surrounding contain Jesse lying in the lower medallion, other figures including David and Solomon each holding scrolls, and in the top medallion the [[Holy Spirit]] represented by a Dove.

'''Saint Louis Abbey, St. Louis. United States'''

This newly built abbey has a Jesse Tree window, a fine arts project by students who made the window over a period of 4½ years. Twenty-one panels make up the 16' × 5' Jesse Tree window, based on the 12th-century Jesse Tree from [[Chartres Cathedral]]. Inspired by the design, the students have begun creating their own stained glass window depicting the lineage of St. Louis Priory School.

'''Llandaff Cathedral, Cardiff, Wales'''

The Tree of Jesse window by [[Geoffrey Webb (artist)|Geoffrey Webb]] is a feature of the Lady Chapel and marks the first stage in the restoration of the cathedral following damage in the Second World War.

'''[[Virga Jesse Basilica]], [[Hasselt]]'''

After World War II destruction of the building.

'''Collégiale de Romont (Fribourg), Switzerland'''

Series of stained glass windows by Franco-Argentinian painter Sergio de Castro on the subject The Prophets, featuring the Tree of Jesse, 1980.

==Painting==
[[File:Hildesheim-st.Michael-Holzdecke-Maria-Hildesia.jpg|thumb|The [[Virgin Mary]] from the ceiling of St Michael's, Hildesheim]]

The large flat wooden ceiling in the [[St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim|Church of St Michael, Hildesheim]] of c. 1200 has the space to include a complex iconographic scheme based around the tree, which encompasses [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]] and [[Eve]], the Prophets and the [[Four Evangelists]].{{small|(whole ceiling [[#References|illustrated below]])}} Panel paintings are rare, but a German example of c. 1470 ([[Darmstadt]]) shows a Tree on the outside of the wings of a [[triptych]].<ref name="S"/> A large Polish baroque oil by Michael Willmann (1678, Kościół Wniebowzięcia NMP, Krzeszów) shows a typically crowded Baroque apotheosis scene, with thin tendrils lacing round the figures, but not supporting them.

The nave ceiling of [[Ely Cathedral]] was painted with a scheme rather similar to Hildesheim by the gentleman artist [[Henry Styleman Le Strange]], who began in 1858. After his death (leaving no detailed drawings for the remainder) in 1862, it was completed by another amateur artist, [[Thomas Gambier Parry]] using his special [[Gambier Parry process]] with [[lavender]] oil.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cathedral.ely.anglican.org/pdf/THE_NAVE_CEILING.pdf |title=On the ceiling from Ely Cathedral|work=Cathedral.ely.anglican.org|access-date=2012-10-02}}</ref>

==Architectural stone-carving==
[[File:Worms Dom st peter tympanum 006.JPG|thumb|Relief of Tree of Jesse, [[Worms Cathedral|Cathedral St. Peter]], Worms, Germany]]

Relatively small-scale Jesse Trees feature in prominent positions in many medieval churches, most notably under a statue of St James on the central column of the famous main entrance (the ''Portico de la Gloria'' of 1168–88) of the [[Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela]]. Another masterpiece of Romanesque stone-carving, the cloister of the [[Monastery of Santo Domingo de Silos]], has a Tree on a flat panel carved in [[relief]]. Several 13th-century French cathedrals have Trees in the arches of doorways: [[Notre-Dame of Laon]], [[Amiens Cathedral]], and Chartres (central arch, North portal - as well as the window). However these mostly show the ancestors in [[archivolt]]s on both sides of an arch, and although they are connected by tendrils, the coherence of the image is rather lost. Another popular way of showing the ancestry of Christ was to have a row or gallery of statues of the [[Kings of Judah]] (part of the ancestral line from Jesse) on the facade, as at [[Notre Dame de Paris]], but these too go beyond the image of the Tree.<ref name="EM"/> In a shorthand version, a statue of the Virgin and Child on an entrance trumeau to [[Freiburg]] [[Minster (church)|Minster]] is supported by a Jesse sleeping on a chair (c. 1300).<ref name="S"/>

'''Church of St Cuthbert, Wells, Somerset.'''
[[Church of St Cuthbert, Wells|St Cuthbert's Church]] formerly held a sculpted Tree of Jesse forming the [[reredos]] in its south transept, its components arranged around the east window. The contract survives, and shows that it was made in 1470 by John Stowell. It was destroyed during the [[English Reformation|Reformation]] or [[Interregnum (England)|Interregnum]], but the outline of the figure of Jesse is still visible, and many fragments of sculpture also survive.<ref>{{cite book |first=Nikolaus |last=Pevsner |author-link=Nikolaus Pevsner |title=North Somerset and Bristol |series=[[Pevsner Architectural Guides|Buildings of England]] |place=Harmondsworth |publisher=Penguin |year=1958 |isbn=0-14-071013-2 |pages=324–5 }}</ref>

'''Christchurch Priory, Dorset.'''
[[Christchurch Priory]] contains a boldly carved [[reredos]] in [[Relief#High relief|high-relief]] of the 1350s in the form of the Tree of Jesse. The figures of Jesse, King David and another prophet all survive; and Christ is represented as part of a [[Nativity of Jesus in art|nativity scene]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=John |last=Goodall |author-link=John Goodall (author) |title=Parish church treasures: a wall of sculpture |journal=[[Country Life (magazine)|Country Life]] |volume=207 |issue=16 |date=17 April 2013 |page=66 }}</ref>

==Wood carving==
'''Priory Church of St Mary, Abergavenny, Wales.'''
The [[Priory Church of St Mary, Abergavenny]], formerly held a 15th-century composition, described by [[Thomas Churchyard]] in 1587 as "a most famous worke in maner of a genealogie of Kings, called the roote of Jesse".<ref>{{cite book |first=Thomas |last=Churchyard |author-link=Thomas Churchyard |title=The Worthines of Wales |place=London |year=1587 |page=[F4]r–v |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t3fx78365;view=1up;seq=57 }}</ref> By this date it had been destroyed during the [[English Reformation|Reformation]], but what survives is the larger than life-sized recumbent figure of Jesse himself, carved from a single piece of oak. It has been described by [[Andrew Graham-Dixon]] as "the most impressive wood carving to have escaped the bonfires of the Reformation in Wales";<ref>{{cite book |first=Andrew |last=Graham-Dixon |author-link=Andrew Graham-Dixon |title=A History of British Art |place=London |publisher=BBC |year=1996 |isbn=0-563-37044-0 |pages=24–9 }}</ref> and by Phillip Lindley as "without doubt one of the finest pieces of fifteenth-century wood sculpture remaining in England or Wales".<ref>{{cite book |first1=Richard |last1=Deacon |author-link1=Richard Deacon (sculptor) |first2=Phillip |last2=Lindley |title=Image and Idol: medieval sculpture |publisher=Tate |place=London |year=2001 |isbn=1-85437-400-1 |pages=50–51 }}</ref> It is unclear what form the rest of the tree originally took, but in 2016 a new stained-glass Jesse window designed by Helen Whittaker was installed in the church, incorporating the wooden Jesse at its foot.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://stmarysprioryabergavenny.wordpress.com/2016/06/16/the-jesse-window-explained/ |title=The Jesse Window explained |publisher=St Mary's Priory, Abergavenny |date=16 June 2016 |access-date=9 September 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://stainedglasswales.wordpress.com/2016/06/23/the-jesse-window-explained/ |first=Martin |last=Crampin |title=The Jesse Window explained |work=Stained glass from Welsh churches |date=23 June 2016 |access-date=9 September 2016 }}</ref>

'''Abbotsford House Chapel, Abbotsford, Nr Melrose, Borders, Scotland.'''
The [[Chapel]] of [[Abbotsford House]], built in 1855 by [[Sir Walter Scott]]'s granddaughter Charlotte, houses a [[Flanders|Flemish]] [[Gothic art|Gothic]] carved and painted wooden altar front of c. 1480, depicting the Tree of Jesse. It was purchased by her husband, James Hope-Scott.<ref>Major-General Sir Walter Maxwell-Scott Bart. C.B., D.S.O., ''Guide to Abotsford'', revised edition by Dr James Corson, Honorary Librarian of Abbotsford. Whiteholme Ltd, Dundee.</ref>

'''Church of Saint Francis, Porto, Portugal.'''
An 18th-century Tree of Jesse carved in wood in [[Baroque]] style, it is three-dimensional and has coloured and gilded figures perched among its branches. Thirteen figures with the black bearded figure of [[Jesse (biblical figure)|Jesse]] lying on the bottom. The tree culminates with a picture of the [[Madonna and Child]] and a [[dove]] above them. On either side of the tree are other figures who appear to be either singing or reading from an open book which they are holding.<ref>Malcolm Low, ''The Tree of Jesse Directory'', quoting Ms Diane Cox.</ref>

==Other pictural art==
[[File:Tree of Jesse Louvre OA10428.jpg|thumb|A comb from Bavaria, c. 1200]]
'''Ivory from Bavaria'''
The rectangular back of an ivory comb (right) from [[Bavaria]], from about 1200, is delicately carved with a ''Tree of Jesse'' scene, showing Jesse lying with the tree emerging from his navel. Two branches form a [[mandorla]] around the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] who raises one hand to support the infant Christ, while with her other, she holds a scroll. A prophet stands to either side.

'''San Zeno, Verona'''
A bronze west door from the Basilica of St Zeno in [[Verona]] has a Tree in relief of about 1138 on a single panel, with Jesse, Christ and four ancestors.

'''[[St Mark's Basilica]], Venice'''
A large mosaic Tree was put on the north wall of the north transept in the 1540s, by the Bianchini brothers as mosaicists, following a design by [[Francesco de' Rossi (Il Salviati)|Salviati]].

'''Monstrance from Augsburg'''
A late 17th-century [[monstrance]] from Augsburg incorporates a version of the traditional design, with Jesse asleep on the base, the tree as the stem, and Christ and twelve ancestors arranged around the holder for the host.<ref name="S"/>

'''Cathedral Notre-Dame, Antwerp, Belgium.'''
An embroidered [[cope]] depicting the Tree of Jesse.<ref>Malcolm Low, ''The Tree of Jesse Directory'', quoting Shelagh Addis.</ref>

'''Abbey Church, [[Buckfast Abbey]], Devon'''

The church was rebuilt on medieval foundations between 1905 and 1937. The marble floor of the Lady chapel depicts the Tree of Jesse made in the Abbey's own workshops in [[Byzantine]] style mosaic.

'''The [[Church of the Nativity]], Bethlehem, Palestinian Territories'''
A large [[bas-relief]] of the Tree of Jesse by religious sculptor [[Czesław Dźwigaj]] was incorporated into the [[Church of the Nativity#Compound|Church of St. Catherine]] within the [[Church of the Nativity]] in [[Bethlehem]] in 2009, as the gift of [[Pope Benedict XVI]] during his [[List of journeys of Pope Benedict XVI#Jordan, Israel, and the Palestinian Territories (May 8–15, 2009)|trip to the Holy Land]]. Measuring 3.25 metres wide by 4 metres high, its focus is an [[olive tree]] representing the Tree of Jesse, which displays [[Genealogy of Jesus|Christ's lineage]] from [[Abraham]] to [[St. Joseph]] and other biblical motifs. Situated in the passage used by pilgrims making their way to the Grotto of the Nativity, the bas-relief also incorporates symbolism from the [[Old Testament]]. The upper portion is dominated by a crowned figure of [[Christ the King]] posed with open arms blessing the Earth.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dziennikpolski24.pl/pl/aktualnosci/swiat/926656-plaskorzezba-w-darze.html |title = Płaskorzeźba w darze |publisher=Dziennik Polski |date=13 May 2009 |access-date=19 November 2013 |language = pl}}</ref>

==Poetry and music==
[[File:France Chartres JesseTree c1145 a.JPG|thumb|upright|The oldest complete Jesse Tree window is in Chartres Cathedral, 1145.]]
The symbolic device of the Tree of Jesse has featured in [[Christian hymn]]s since at least the [[8th century]], when [[Cosmas of Maiuma|Cosmas the Melodist]] wrote a hymn about the Virgin Mary flowering from the Root of Jesse, {{Lang|el|Ραβδος εκ της ριζης}} (translated in 1862 by [[John Mason Neale]] as "Rod of the Root of Jesse").<ref>{{cite CiteSeerX|title=Hymns of the Eastern Church|page=77|citeseerx=10.1.1.693.1215}}</ref><ref name="roth">{{cite book|last1=Roth|first1=Nancy|title=Praise, My Soul: Meditating on Hymns|date=2001|publisher=Church Publishing, Inc.|isbn=978-0-89869-374-4|page=11|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTJEAwAAQBAJ&q=Friedrich%20Layriz%20es%20ist%20ein%20ros%20entsprungen&pg=PA11|access-date=29 November 2017|language=en|chapter=Hymn 81: Lo How a Rose e'er blooming}}</ref>

'''Virga Jesse floruit''', an expression referring to the [[Virgin Mary]] and the birth of Christ,<ref>Nicholas J. Santoro. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXWRgP-0KBkC&pg=PA656 Mary In Our Life: Atlas of the Names and Titles of Mary, the Mother of Jesus, and Their Place In Marian Devotion]'' iUniverse, 2011. {{ISBN|1-4620-4022-5}} - {{ISBN|978-1-4620-4022-3}} p. 656</ref> put to music, e.g.,
* As a [[Gradual]]:<ref>[https://www.cpdl.org/wiki/index.php/Virga_Jesse_floruit Virga Jesse floruit] at CPDL</ref>
*:::(Alleluja, alleluja.)
*:::Virga Jesse floruit:
*:::Virgo Deum et hominem genuit:
*:::pacem Deus reddidit,
*:::in se reconcilians ima summis.
*:::Alleluja.
**[[William Byrd]], included in his [[List of compositions by William Byrd#Marian Masses|first book of ''Gradualia'']].<ref>[http://www3.cpdl.org/wiki/index.php/Alleluia._Ave_Maria_-_Virga_Jesse_floruit_(William_Byrd) Alleluia. Ave Maria - Virga Jesse floruit (William Byrd)] at CPDL</ref>
** ''[[Virga Jesse (Bruckner)|Virga Jesse]]'' by [[Anton Bruckner]]
*As part of a longer Christmas hymn, the text of which is given by [[Gottfried Vopelius|Vopelius]]<ref>[[Gottfried Vopelius]]. [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10592508?page=123 "Alia pia Cantio de Incarnatione Jesu Christi, à 4. Vocibus cum Basso continuo", pp. 77–83] in ''[[Neu Leipziger Gesangbuch]]''. Leipzig: Christoph Klinger. 1682.</ref> and [[Spitta's Johann Sebastian Bach|Spitta]]:<ref>[[Philipp Spitta]], translated by Clara Bell and J. A. Fuller Maitland. ''[[Spitta's Johann Sebastian Bach|Johann Sebastian Bach: His Work and Influence on the Music of Germany, 1685–1750, in three volumes]]''. [[Novello & Co]], 1899, [https://archive.org/stream/johannsebastia02spit#page/371/mode/1up Vol. 2, p. 371]</ref>
*:::Virga Jesse floruit
*:::Emanuel noster apparuit
*:::Induit carnem hominis
*:::Fit puer delectabilis.
*:::Alleluja
** used in a Christmas cantata by [[Johann Kuhnau]]
** included in [[Magnificat in E-flat major, BWV 243a]] by [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]
In addition, the Tree of Jesse is also referenced in the medieval series of lyrical poems known as the [[Cantigas de Santa Maria]], written during the reign of [[Alfonso X]] in the thirteenth century. Cantiga 20, "Virga de Jesse" makes use of the Tree of Jesse in the refrain of the song, further demonstrating its influence on medieval culture and thought:
::Virga de Jésse
::quen te soubésse
::loar como mereces
::e sen ouvésse per
::que dissésse quanto
::por nós padeces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cantigasdesantamaria.com/csm/20|title=Cantigas de Santa Maria for Singers|first=Andrew|last=Casson|website=Cantigas de Santa Maria for Singers|access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref>

The symbol of the Virgin Mary as a rose flowering from the Tree of Jesse forms the central image of the 15th-century German hymn, ''[[Es ist ein Ros entsprungen]]'', commonly sung to a melody by [[Michael Praetorius]]. Various translations exist of this popular hymn, including [[Theodore Baker]]'s "Lo, How a Rose E'er Blooming"(1894) and "A Spotless Rose" by [[Catherine Winkworth]]. Popular musical settings include works by [[Johannes Brahms]] and [[Herbert Howells]].<ref name="roth" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Owen|first1=Barbara|title=The Organ Music of Johannes Brahms|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=978-0-19-531107-5|page=104|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qn88DwAAQBAJ&q=brahms%20chorale%20prelude%20es%20ist%20ein%20ros&pg=PA104|access-date=25 November 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Coghlan|first1=Alexandra|title=Carols From King's|date=2016|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-1-4735-3051-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vvmpCwAAQBAJ&q=A%20Spotless%20Rose%20howells&pg=PA135|access-date=29 November 2017|language=en}}</ref>

==Modern use==
{{further|Chrismon tree}}
The [[Chrismon tree]] and the [[Advent calendar]] have been used by [[Christians]], who may use the term "Jesse Tree" to refer to these, although the tree does not usually show Jesse or the Ancestors of Christ, and so may have little or no relation to the traditional Tree of Jesse. This form is a poster or a real tree in the church or home, which over the course of [[Advent]] is decorated with symbols (Chrismons) to represent stories leading up to the [[Nativity of Christ|Christmas story]], for the benefit of children. The symbols are simple, for example a burning bush for [[Moses]] and a ram for [[Isaac]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crivoice.org/jesse.html|title=The Jesse Tree|work=crivoice.org|publisher=the Voice|access-date=19 February 2011}}</ref>

== Image gallery ==
<gallery>
File:FecampBibleFol419vInipitMatt.jpg|The beginning of the Gospel of Matthew from the Fécamp Bible shows the initial letter decorated with a Jesse Tree
File:Cod_St_Peter_perg_139_Scherenberg-Psalter_7v.jpg|Scherenberg Psalter, c. 1260. Mary and Child, David and Solomon above, Isaiah and [[Jeremiah]] below. Note the doves in the medallions.
File:Torun SS Johns painting Crucifixion on Tree of Jesse straight.jpg|Wall painting c. 1380–90 from [[Toruń]] in [[Poland]]. Unusually, a Crucifixion occupies the middle of the Tree, with Christ in Glory above.
File:Wurzel Jesse Wormser-Dom.jpg|The bottom of a large stone relief from [[Worms Cathedral]], end of the 15th century, previously in the demolished cloister.
File:Ahnenreihe Jesu im Limburger Dom.jpg|16th (?)-century painting from the [[Limburger Dom|Cathedral at Limburg]]
File:Rodowod_Chrystusa.jpg|Michael Willmann 1678, Polish, oil on canvas, "Family tree of Christ", Church Of The Assumption Of The Blessed Virgin Mary, [[Krzeszów, Lower Silesian Voivodeship|Krzeszów]].<ref>[http://www.microsofttranslator.com/bv.aspx?from=&to=en&a=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pinakoteka.zascianek.pl%2FWillmann%2FIndex.htm English translation of Polish source - church in Krzeszów] "one of the finest Baroque churches in Europe."</ref>
File:St quentin Basilica 005.JPG|[[Basilique Saint-Quentin]], France
File:The north transept rose window at St-Denis.png|Rose window from the [[Basilica of St Denis]], Paris, showing Jesse at the centre. This is not the earliest St Denis Jesse window, which is vertical like Chartres.
File:rootofjesse.jpg|Plaster cast of the "Root of Jesse", originally from [[Westminster Abbey]], Royal Architectural Museum, UK. Albumen print, c. 1874
File:Hasselt Virga Jessebasiliek 44.JPG|Tree of Jesse on stained glass windows of Virga Jesse Basilica, [[Hasselt]] (Belgium)
File:Sergio de Castro, vitrail de l'arbre de Jessé.jpg|Tree of Jesse on stained glass windows by [[Sergio de Castro (artist)|Sergio de Castro]] for the Collégiale de [[Romont, Fribourg|Romont]] ([[Switzerland]]), 1980.
File:Árbol de Jesé. Iglesia Santa María del Castillo, Olivenza.jpg|Holy church Maria of the Castle, [[Olivenza]] (Spain)
File:Master of James IV of Scotland getty Ms ludwig IX 18 f65 1510-20.jpg|The Jesse Tree from the Spinola Hours. [[Master of James IV of Scotland]] Flemish, Bruges and Ghent or Mechelen, 1510-1520
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Bible}}
* [[Genealogy of Jesus]]
* [[Medieval art]]
* ''[[Poor Man's Bible]]''
* [[Stained glass]]
* [[British and Irish stained glass (1811–1918)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |first=Tilde Giani |last=Gallino |title=L'albero di Jesse: l'immaginario collettivo medievale e la sessualità dissimulata |publisher=Bollati Boringhieri |place=Turin |year=1996 |isbn=88-339-0979-4 |language=it}}
*{{cite book |first=Susan L. |last=Green |title=Tree of Jesse Iconography in Northern Europe in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-8153-9377-1 }}
*{{cite journal |first=H. T. |last=Kirby |title=The "Jesse" tree motif in stained glass: a comparative study of some English examples |journal=Journal of the British Society of Master Glass-Painters |volume=13 |year=1959–63 |pages=313–20, 434–41 }}
*{{cite book |first=Étienne |last=Madranges |title=L'arbre de Jessé, de la racine à l'ésprit |publisher=Bibliothèque des Introuvables |place=Paris |year=2007 |isbn= 978-2-84575-294-8|language=fr}}: mainly photographs
*{{cite journal |first=Michael D. |last=Taylor |title=A historiated Tree of Jesse |journal=[[Dumbarton Oaks Papers]] |volume=34-35 |year=1980–81 |pages=125–76|doi=10.2307/1291450 |jstor=1291450 }}
*{{cite book |first=Arthur |last=Watson |title=The Early Iconography of the Tree of Jesse |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1934 }}

==External links==
{{commons|Tree of Jesse}}
{{commons category|Tree of Jesse}}
*[http://www.osv.com/osv4menav/churchseasons/celebrateadvent/jessetree/tabid/7145/Default.aspx The Jesse Tree]
*[https://udayton.edu/imri/mary/j/jesse-tree-ingeborg-psalter.php Jesse Tree: Ingeborg Psalter on "All About Mary"] The University of Dayton's Marian Library/International Marian Research Institute (IMRI) is the world's largest repository of books, artwork and artifacts devoted to Mary, the mother of Christ, and a pontifical center of research and scholarship with a vast presence in cyberspace.
*[http://mandragore.bnf.fr/jsp/switch.jsp?classement=1&niveauRech=3&idRech=492&idPere=638&division=Mix&desc=arbre.de.jess%E9&idDesc=1079 Bibliotheque nationale de France Mandragore database] 12 illuminated examples at a good size. Press "Images" at right.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070206134925/http://prodigi.bl.uk/illcat/search2.asp British Library manuscript image search] 10 examples found by putting "Jesse" in "Image description" box. Many famous ones not included, & most enlargements seem not to work
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20061013041351/http://www.english.cam.ac.uk/mi-sampler/ University of Cambridge] (search on "Tree of Jesse")
*[https://archive.today/20090202090441/http://search.getty.edu:18765/museum/query.html?col=museum&nh=5&pw=100%25&lk=1&qt=Jesse&Go.x=9&Go.y=5 4 examples from the Getty]
*[http://images.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/i/image/image-idx?sid=645ddf2d8512bd77151c63cf1358f7d4&q1=jesse&rgn1=chartres_all&op2=And&q2=&rgn2=chartres_all&type=boolean&view=thumbnail&c=chartres Chartres Cathedral; many good images of glass and portal]
* [http://vrcoll.fa.pitt.edu/medart/menucomparative/other/Jessetree.html Various medieval works, including the original Saint Denis window, with many photos showing which parts are restored (click "France S. Denis")]
*[https://www.academia.edu/7580268/The_Tree_of_Election_On_the_Symbolization_of_Spiritual_Progress_in_Joachim_of_Fiore The Tree of Election: On the Symbolization of Spiritual Progress in Joachim of Fiore] A text on medieval interpretations of the Jesse Tree by Matthias Riedl
*[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/m.low1 Tree of Jesse Directory]: approx 300 references to the Tree of Jesse listed.
*[https://www.dartmouthmuseum.org/the-jesse-room/ Tree of Jesse] plaster ceiling in [[Dartmouth Museum]], believed to be a unique example

{{Advent}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tree Of Jesse}}
[[Category:Christian symbols]]
[[Category:Iconography of illuminated manuscripts]]
[[Category:Medieval art]]
[[Category:Christian iconography]]
[[Category:Stained glass]]
[[Category:Trees in Christianity]]
[[Category:Book of Isaiah]]
[[Category:Family trees]]
[[Category:Genealogy of Jesus]]

Tenzing-Hillary Airport

2024-11-05T18:02:21Z

Brandmeister: /* top */ rm for now, shows 404 not found and isn't indexed by Google, it seems

{{short description|Airport in Lukla, Nepal}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Infobox airport
| name = Tenzing-Hillary Airport
| nativename = {{lang|ne|तेन्जिङ हिलारी विमानस्थल}}
| image = RK 0602 00825 LuklaFlugplatz.jpg
| caption =
| IATA = LUA
| ICAO = VNLK
| type = Public
| owner = [[Government of Nepal]]
| operator = [[Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal]]
| city-served = [[Lukla]], [[Nepal]]
| location =
| timezone = [[Nepal Standard Time|NST]]
| utc = [[UTC+05:45]]
| elevation-f = 9337
| elevation-m = 2846
| coordinates = {{coord|27|41|16|N|086|43|53|E|region:NP|display=inline,title}}
| website =
| pushpin_map = Nepal
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of airport in Nepal
| pushpin_label = Tenzing–Hillary Airport
| pushpin_label_position = left
|hub = {{plainlist|
* [[Air Dynasty]]
}}
| metric-rwy = y
| r1-number = 06/24
| r1-length-m = 527
| r1-length-f = 1729
| r1-surface = [[Asphalt concrete|Asphalt]]
| footnotes = Source:<ref name="CAAN"/><ref name="GCM">{{GCM|VNLK|Lukla, Nepal – Tenzing–Hillary Airport (VNLK / LUA)}}</ref>
}}
'''Tenzing-Hillary Airport''' ({{langx|ne|तेन्जिङ हिलारी विमानस्थल}}, {{airport codes|LUA|VNLK|p=n}}), also known as '''Lukla Airport''', is a [[domestic airport]] and [[altiport]] in the town of [[Lukla]],<ref name="GCM"/> in [[Khumbu Pasanglhamu]], [[Solukhumbu District]], [[Koshi Province]] of [[Nepal]]. It gained worldwide fame as it was rated the most dangerous airport in the world for more than 20 years by a program titled ''Most Extreme Airports'', broadcast on [[History (American TV network)|The History Channel]] in 2010.<ref name="Most Extreme Airports 2010">{{cite episode |title=Most Extreme Airports |series=History Specials |publisher=[[History (American TV network)|The History Channel]] |date=26 August 2010 |season=1 |number=104}}</ref>

The airport is popular because it is considered the starting point for treks towards [[Mount Everest Base Camp]]. There are daily flights between [[Ramechhap Airport|Ramechhap]] or [[Tribhuvan International Airport|Kathmandu]] and Lukla during daylight hours in good weather. Although the flying distances are short, rain often occurs in Lukla while the sun is shining in [[Manthali, Ramechhap|Ramechhap]] or [[Kathmandu]]. High winds, cloud cover, and changing visibility often mean flights can be delayed or the airport closed.<ref name="Most Extreme Airports 2010"/> The airport is contained within a chain-link fence and is patrolled by the [[Armed Police Force Nepal|Nepali armed police]] or [[Nepal Police|civil police]] around the clock for security.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

==History==
The airport was built in 1964 under the supervision of [[Sir Edmund Hillary]], who originally intended to build it on flat farmland. However, local farmers did not want to give up their land, so the airport was built in its current position. Hillary bought the land from local [[Sherpa people|Sherpas]] for [[United States dollar|US$]]2,650 and involved them in building the facilities.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ibišbegović|first1=Denis|last2=Vesić|first2=Zoran|last3=Dikić|first3=Nenad|title=Inspirisani trenutkom: put za Everest bazni kamp|date=2012|publisher=Nenad Dikić|location=Belgrade|pages=49–50|isbn=9788691549107|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mlp5AgAAQBAJ&q=edmund+hillary+2650&pg=PA49|access-date=30 October 2017}}</ref> It has been said that Hillary was unhappy with the runway's soil resistance, and that his solution was to buy local liquor for the Sherpas and ask them to perform a foot-stomping dance to flatten the land that served as the runway.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nepal quake tough test for 'world's most dangerous airport'|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/nepal-quake-tough-test-for-worlds-most-dangerous-airport/|work=The Himalayan Times|access-date=30 October 2017}}</ref> The runway was paved in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|title=This Is the World's Most Dangerous Airport|url=https://www.cntraveler.com/stories/2016-04-12/this-is-the-worlds-most-dangerous-airport|publisher=CN Traveler|access-date=30 October 2017|last=Drescher|first=Cynthia|date=12 April 2016}}</ref>

In January 2008, the airport was renamed in honour of Sherpa [[Tenzing Norgay]] and Sir Edmund Hillary, the first people confirmed to have reached the summit of [[Mount Everest]], and also to mark their efforts in the construction of this airport.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/01/15/asia/AS-GEN-Nepal-Hillary-Tribute.php |title=Nepal to name Everest airport after Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay |work=International Herald Tribune |date=15 January 2008 |access-date=27 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080212062042/http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/01/15/asia/AS-GEN-Nepal-Hillary-Tribute.php |archive-date=12 February 2008}}</ref>

== Facilities ==
[[File:Landing and taking off at the most dangerous airport in the world.webm|thumb|Landing and taking off at Tenzing–Hillary Airport.]]
[[File:LuklaAirport.jpg|thumb|A plane landing in Tenzing-Hillary Airport prior to paving of the runway.]]

The airport's paved [[Asphalt concrete|asphalt]] runway is accessible only to [[helicopter]]s and small, fixed-wing, [[STOL|short-takeoff-and-landing]] aircraft such as the [[De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter]], [[Dornier 228]], [[L-410 Turbolet]] and [[Pilatus PC-6]] Turbo Porter. The runway is {{convert|527|m|ft|abbr=on}} × {{convert|30|m|ft|abbr=on}} with an 11.7% [[Grade (slope)|gradient]].<ref name=CAAN>{{cite web|title=National Airports Plan – Current Situation and Diagnostic|url=http://www.caanepal.org.np/Notices/tiaip/National%20Airports%20Plan%20-%20Diagnosis.pdf|publisher=[[Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal]]|access-date=7 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402121225/http://www.caanepal.org.np/Notices/tiaip/National%20Airports%20Plan%20-%20Diagnosis.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The airport's elevation is {{convert|9334|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="CAAN"/> The airport is used for passenger flights and for transporting most of the building materials and cargo to Lukla and other towns and villages to the north of Lukla, as there is no road to this region.

In the early morning, the wind is usually from the northeast, changing to a southwest wind from mid to late morning due to the action of the sun on the mountains to the north of Lukla. The airport regularly closes from mid to late morning due to the strong southwest winds that create [[crosswind|crosswinds]] or [[Tail wind|tailwinds]]. Consequently, flights are usually scheduled for the early morning. A sudden loss of visibility preventing planes from landing under [[visual flight rules]] (VFR) will result in the immediate closure of the airport with no warning.

Keeping turnaround times to a minimum, planes will attempt to make as many flights as possible from either Ramechhap or Kathmandu to Lukla before the airport is closed. When Ramechhap airport is in use, shorter flight times from Ramechhap than from Kathmandu will allow more flights before the airport closes.

Although the airport is nominally open throughout the year, visibility problems close the airport 50% of the time during the monsoon season, with the consequent cancellation of 50% of flights. Due to the terrain and the low possibility of a safe go-around for a missed approach, there are no go-around procedures for this airport.<ref>{{cite web |title=National Airports Plan – Current Situation and Diagnostic, Draft |url=http://www.caanepal.gov.np/Notices/tiaip/National%20Airports%20Plan%20-%20Diagnosis.pdf |website=Civil Aviation Nepal |publisher=Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal, September 2012 |access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=More than luck in Lukla |url=https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/more-than-luck-in-lukla/ |work=Nepali Times|access-date=1 April 2019 |date=4 January 2019|last=Walters|first=Rikki}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=No go-around |url=http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/printedition/news/2017-07-22/no-go-around.html |work=The Katmandu Post|access-date=1 April 2019 |date=22 July 2017|first=Mukesh|last= Dangol}}</ref>

Tenzing–Hillary Airport is frequently referred to as ''the most dangerous airport in the world''.<ref name="Most Extreme Airports 2010"/> Arriving and departing aircraft must use a single [[runway]] (06 for landing and 24 for takeoff). There is a low prospect of a successful [[go-around]] on a [[short final]] approach due to the terrain. There is high terrain immediately beyond the northern end of the runway and a steeply angled drop at the southern end of the runway into the valley below.

Due to the difficulties of successfully landing at the airport, the [[Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal]] sets high standards, according to which only experienced pilots, who have completed at least 100 [[STOL|short-takeoff-and-landing (STOL)]] missions, have over one year of STOL experience in Nepal, and have completed ten flights into Lukla with a certified instructor pilot, are allowed to land at the airport.<ref>{{cite web|title=Flight Operations Requirements Aeroplane (Appendix 9)|url=http://flightsafetycaan.org.np/uploads/files/_1373041241.pdf|publisher=Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal|access-date=30 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Incident: Nepal Airlines DHC6 at Solukhumbu on Apr 19th 2010, hard landing|url=http://avherald.com/h?article=42a54080|work=The Aviation Herald|access-date=30 October 2017|last=Hradecky|first=Simon}}</ref>

In October 2018 plans to expand the terminal and runway were published.<ref name=Expansion>{{cite web |title=New Helipad to be constructed at Lukla airport |publisher=Aviation Nepal |date=28 October 2018 |url=https://www.aviationnepal.com/new-helipad-to-be-constructed-at-lukla-airport-2/ |access-date=1 April 2019|last=Shrestha|first=Biju}}</ref>
The construction of five new [[helipad]]s was planned to be completed by the end of July 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lukla Airport: New helipad to inaugurate by the end of July |url=https://www.aviationnepal.com/lukla-airport-new-helipad-to-inaugurate-by-the-end-of-july-photos/ |publisher=Aviation Nepal |access-date=29 June 2023 |date=6 June 2021}}</ref>

==Airlines and destinations==
From what airports there are flights into Lukla appears to depend on the season of the year. During high season Ramechhap has been used more recently; with flights from Kathmandu mostly during low season. Regardless as of October 2024 some flights were coming from KTM.

[[File:DO 228 Tara Air.jpg|thumb|[[Tara Air]] [[Dornier 228]] at Tenzing–Hillary Airport]]

{{Airport-dest-list
|[[Sita Air]] | [[Tribhuvan International Airport|Kathmandu]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Flight Schedule|url=http://sitaair.com.np/flight-schedule/|publisher=Sita Air|access-date=1 May 2018}}</ref> [[Ramechhap Airport|Manthali]]<ref name="Rame">{{cite web |title=Regular flight started from Ramechhap to Lukla |url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/regular-flight-started-from-ramechhap-to-lukla/?categoryId=81 |publisher=República |access-date=8 October 2022 |date=1 October 2022}}</ref>
|[[Summit Air (Nepal)|Summit Air]] | [[Tribhuvan International Airport|Kathmandu]], [[Ramechhap Airport|Manthali]]<ref name="Rame"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Flight Schedule|url=https://summitair.com.np/flightschedule|publisher=Summit Air|access-date=1 April 2019}}</ref>
|[[Tara Air]] | [[Tribhuvan International Airport|Kathmandu]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Flight Schedule |url=http://www.taraair.com/page/flight-schedule |publisher=Tara Air |access-date=1 October 2018}}</ref> [[Ramechhap Airport|Manthali]]<ref name="Rame"/> '''Charter:''' [[Phaplu Airport|Phaplu]]
}}

The helicopter operator [[Air Dynasty]] offers helicopter operations out of its hub at Lukla Airport.<ref>{{cite web|title=Air dynasty operating service from three bases around the country|url=https://www.aviationnepal.com/air-dynasty-operating-service-from-three-bases-around-the-country/|publisher=Aviation Nepal|access-date=1 November 2017}}</ref>

==Statistics==
===Passenger numbers===
{{Airport-Statistics|iata=LUA}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; width:200px;" align="center"
|+
|-
! style="width:75px"| !! {{nowrap|Passengers}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Civil Aviation Report 2009-2010 |url=https://www.caanepal.org.np/publication/CivilAviationLayoutReport_2010.pdf |publisher=Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal |access-date=1 June 2018 |archive-date=29 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929230914/https://www.caanepal.org.np/publication/CivilAviationLayoutReport_2010.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Civil Aviation Report 2011–2012 |url=https://www.caanepal.org.np/publication/CaanReport2011-2012.pdf |publisher=Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal |access-date=1 June 2018 |archive-date=1 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101110129/https://www.caanepal.org.np/publication/CaanReport2011-2012.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Civil Aviation Report 2017 |url=https://www.caanepal.org.np/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Final-Report-2017.pdf |publisher=Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal |access-date=1 June 2018 |archive-date=18 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618102551/https://www.caanepal.org.np/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Final-Report-2017.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Civil Aviation Report Annual 2018 |url=http://caanepal.gov.np/storage/app/uploads/public/5cf/8c9/3b5/5cf8c93b5937a929054884.pdf |publisher=Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal |access-date=1 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CAAN Report 2019–2020 |url=https://caanepal.gov.np/storage/app/uploads/public/5ff/2c3/8de/5ff2c38de0957043775720.pdf |publisher=Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal |access-date=1 January 2021}}</ref>
|-
!2003
| 70,959
|-
!2004
| {{increase}} 71,422
|-
!2005
| {{decrease}} 53,943
|-
!2006
| {{increase}} 61,992
|-
!2007
| {{increase}} 80,733
|-
!2008
| {{increase}} 92,172
|-
!2009
| {{decrease}} 88,881
|-
!2010
| {{increase}} 92,011
|-
!2011
| {{increase}} 93,292
|-
!2012
| {{increase}} 97,394
|-
!2013
| {{decrease}} 85,179
|-
!2014
| {{increase}} 87,490
|-
!2015
| {{decrease}} 81,174
|-
!2016
| {{increase}} 119,801
|-
!2017
| {{increase}} 146,879
|-
!2018
| {{decrease}} 124,929
|-
!2019
| {{increase}} 129,508
|-
|}

==Accidents and incidents==
[[File:Lukla - Tenzing-Hillary Airport - Memorial for 2008-10-08 disaster.jpg|thumb|Memorial for the Yeti Airlines Flight 103 crash on 8 October 2008]]
* On 15 October 1973, a [[Nepal Airlines|Royal Nepal Airlines]] [[De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter|DHC-6 Twin Otter 300]] (registration 9N-ABG) was damaged beyond repair on landing. The three crew and three passengers were unhurt.<ref name="Aviation Safety Network">[http://aviation-safety.net/database/dblist.php?sorteer=datekey_desc&kind=%&cat=%&page=1&field=Operatorkey&var=5478 Aviation Safety Network]. Retrieved 18 November 2006.</ref>
*On 9 June 1991, a Nepal Airlines [[De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter|DHC-6 Twin Otter 300]] (registration 9N-ABA) from Kathmandu crashed at the airport while attempting to land following an [[unstabilized approach]] in bad weather. The three crew and fourteen passengers escaped with injuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19910609-0|title=ASN Aircraft accident de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter 300 9N-ABA Lukla Airport (LUA)|access-date=23 June 2011}}</ref>
* On 26 September 1992, a Royal Air Nepal [[Harbin Y-12|Harbin Yunshuji Y-12-II]] (registered 9N-ACI) faltered during takeoff and was damaged beyond repair. All twelve passengers and two crew survived.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19920926-0 |title=ASN Aircraft accident Harbin Yunshuji Y-12-II 9N-ACI Lukla Airport (LUA) |publisher=Aviation-safety.net |date=26 September 1992 |access-date=9 February 2012}}</ref>
* On 25 May 2004, while on approach to the airport, a [[Yeti Airlines]] [[De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter|DHC-6 Twin Otter 300]] (registration 9N-AFD) from Kathmandu crashed into Lamjura Hill in heavy clouds. No passengers were on board; all three crew members were killed. The Nepalese accident investigation committee concluded that the captain provided inaccurate information about his position to the Area Control Centre.<ref>[http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20040525-0 Aviation Safety Network]. Retrieved 18 November 2006.</ref>
* On 1 October 2004, on landing at the airport, a [[Sita Air]] [[Dornier 228]] suffered a collapse of its nose gear and slid along the runway, blocking it once it had come to rest. The airport was closed for two days.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lukla airport still closed |url=http://archive.nepalitimes.com/news.php?id=2100#.X5611_j0lPM |work=Nepali Times|access-date=1 November 2020}}</ref>
*On 30 June 2005, a [[Gorkha Airlines]] [[Dornier 228]] skidded off the runway while attempting to land. The nine passengers and three crew suffered minor injuries. The aircraft was reportedly withdrawn from service and written off after the accident.<ref>{{cite web |title=Only minor injuries in Gorkha Airlines, Nepal crash |url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0CWU/is_2005_June_30/ai_n14710349 |publisher=Airline Industry Information |access-date=29 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002174905/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0CWU/is_2005_June_30/ai_n14710349 |archive-date=2 October 2009 |date=30 June 2005}}</ref><ref>[http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20050630-0&lang=en Aviation Safety Network]. Retrieved 18 November 2006.</ref>
*On 8 October 2008, [[Yeti Airlines Flight 103]], a [[De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter|DHC-6 Twin Otter 300]] (registration 9N-AFE) crashed on final approach and caught fire, killing eighteen passengers and crew. The aircraft's captain was the only survivor. Video of the incident showed inclement weather at the time of the incident.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tourists die in Nepal air crash |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7658258.stm |publisher=BBC |access-date=29 June 2023 |date=8 October 2008}}</ref>
*On 12 October 2010, a [[Sita Air]] [[Dornier 228]] (registration 9N-AHB) lost braking control and struck the wall-end of the runway during landing. All passengers and crew escaped injury; the aircraft's nose was damaged.<ref>Air Crash Observer {{cite web |url=http://www.aircrashobserver.com/e107/news.php?item.1967 |title=Air Crash Observer: News |access-date=2011-07-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707095358/http://www.aircrashobserver.com/e107/news.php?item.1967 |archive-date=7 July 2011 }}. Retrieved 15 December 2010</ref>
*On 26 September 2013, an Air Dynasty [[helicopter]] (registration 9N-AEX) crashed when the rear rotor touched the barbed wire of the compound wall at the airport. All three passengers and the captain survived.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nepalnews.com/archive/2013/sep/sep26/news04.php |title=Chopper crashes in Lukla, minor injuries |date=26 September 2013 |publisher=Nepalnews.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184410/http://www.nepalnews.com/archive/2013/sep/sep26/news04.php |archive-date=3 March 2016 }}</ref>
*On 27 May 2017, [[Summit Air Flight 409]], performing a freight flight on a [[Let L-410]] from Kathmandu to Lukla (Nepal) with three crew, was on final approach to Lukla's runway 06 at about 14:04L (08:19Z) with poor visibility when the aircraft lost altitude and touched a tree short of the runway before contacting ground about 3 metres/10 feet below the runway level. The aircraft slid down the slope before coming to a rest about 200 metres below the runway level. The captain was killed and the first officer, Shrijan Manandhar, died in hospital almost eight hours later. The third crew member received injuries and was evacuated to Kathmandu the following day after the weather had cleared.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://avherald.com/h?article=4a9877a9&opt=0 |work=The Aviation Herald|title=Accident: Summit L410 at Lukla on May 27th 2017, contacted trees and impacted ground before runway|date=27 May 2017|access-date=28 May 2017|last=Hradecky|first=Simon}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/lukla-air-crash-toll-reaches-2-as-co-pilot-dies-for-want-of-treatment/ |work=The Himalayan Times|date=28 May 2017 |title=Lukla air crash toll reaches 2 as co-pilot dies for want of treatment |access-date=30 May 2017|last1=Pokhrel |first1=Rajan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11865579 |work=The New Zealand Herald |title=Kiwi 'heroes' in dramatic Mt Everest rescue after cargo plane slams into mountain |date=29 May 2017 |access-date=18 June 2017|last=Kelly|first=Michael}}</ref>
*On 14 April 2019, at 9:10 am a [[Summit Air (Nepal)|Summit Air]] [[Let L-410 Turbolet]] aircraft, registration 9N-AMH, with no passengers on board veered right and departed the runway on take-off from Lukla Airport and struck a [[Manang Air]] Eurocopter AS 350B3e helicopter registration 9N-ALC on the helipad 30 to 50 metres from the runway, destroying both the plane and the helicopter. A second helicopter, Shree Airlines Eurocopter AS 350 registered 9N-ALK, sustained little or no damage. The three reported fatalities were the co-pilot of the plane, a police officer on airport security duty who died in the crash and a second police officer who was critically injured and airlifted to Kathmandu, where he died in hospital. Among the four reported injured include the pilot of the plane and a Manang Air helicopter pilot, who were injured and flown to a hospital in Kathmandu, where they were reported to be out of danger.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pokhrel |first1=Rajan |title=Three killed, four injured in Lukla crash |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/two-killed-5-hurt-in-summit-air-crash-in-lukla/ |access-date=14 April 2019 |issue=14 April 2019 |work=The Himalayan Times|date=14 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Prasain |first1=Sangam |title=At least three killed in Summit Air plane crash at Lukla airport|url=https://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2019-04-14/summit-air-plane-crashes-at-lukla-airport-2-reported-dead.html |access-date=14 April 2019 |issue=14 April 2019 |work=The Kathmandu Post|date=14 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Lukla plane–chopper collision kills 3 |url=https://www.nepalitimes.com/uncategorized/lukla-plane-chopper-collision-kills-3/ |access-date=14 April 2019 |issue=14 April 2019 |work=Nepali Times|date=14 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Developing story |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20190414-0 |website=Aviation Safety Network |publisher=Flight Safety Foundation |access-date=14 April 2019}}</ref>

==Gallery==
{{wide image|Panorama of Lukla Airport (Tenzing-Hillary).jpg|800px|A panoramic photograph of Lukla Airport and its surroundings.}}

{{gallery| align=center
|File:RK 0602 00811 LuklaAnflug.jpg|[[DHC-6|Twin Otter]] approaching the airport
|File:RK 0602 00813 TwinOtterLukla.jpg|Twin Otter on the apron
|File:RK 0603 03610 TwinOtterCockpit.jpg|Twin Otters on the airfield
|File:Lukla Airport, Runway, Helicopter, Nepal.jpg|H125 Écureuil on the airfield
|Lukla Airport, Nepal.jpg|Apron
}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Nepal|Aviation}}
* [[Altiport]]
* [[Syangboche Airport]]
* [[Phaplu Airport]]
* [[List of airports in Nepal]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commonscatinline|Lukla Airport}}
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqgZvb37NX0 Video of operations at the Lukla airport] from [[YouTube]]
*[https://whitehilladventure.com/important-message-regarding-lukla-flight/ Important message Regarding Flight to Lukla]
*{{ASN|LUA|LUA / VNLK}}
*[http://www.airliners.net/photo/Tara-Air/Pilatus-PC-6-B2-H4-Turbo/1909594/&sid=0dab62aa9521c6a6d7bd1e275feb155c Photo of aircraft departing Lukla] from [[Airliners.net]]
* [https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidnikel/2019/07/20/lukla-the-worlds-most-dangerous-airport/#7545cf564a1a "The World's Most Dangerous Airport"] from [[forbes.com]]
* [https://blog.nomadicadventures.co.za/2022/02/03/landing-at-lukla-airport/ Landing at Lukla Airport] Lukla airport article
{{Airports in Nepal}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tenzing-Hillary Airport}}
[[Category:Airports in Nepal]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Solukhumbu District| ]]
[[Category:Altiports]]
[[Category:1964 establishments in Nepal]]
[[Category:Edmund Hillary]]
[[Category:Tenzing Norgay]]
[[Category:Airports established in 1964]]

Classic Maya language

2024-11-04T20:20:05Z

Brandmeister: /* top */ wlinks

{{Short description|Oldest attested Mayan language family member}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Classic Maya
| region = [[Maya Lowlands]]
| era = 200–900
| familycolor = American
| fam1 = [[Mayan languages|Mayan]]
| fam2 = Western
| fam3 = [[Chʼolan languages|Cholan–Tzeltalan]]
| fam4 = Cholan
| fam5 = Ch'olti'
| iso3 = emy
| linglist = emy
| lingname = Epigraphic Mayan
| glotto = epig1241
| glottoname = Epigraphic Mayan
| image = Palenque glyphs-edit1.jpg
| imagecaption = Part of an inscription at [[Palenque]]
| script = [[Maya script| Lowland Maya Hieroglyphs]]
| nativename = ''*Chʼoltiʼ tziij''
}}

'''Classic Maya''' (or properly '''Classical Chʼoltiʼ''') is the oldest historically attested member of the [[Mayan languages|Mayan language family]]. It is the main language documented in the [[pre-Columbian]] inscriptions of the classical period of the [[Maya civilization]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Houston|first1=Stephen|last2=Robertson|first2=John|last3=Stuart|first3=David|date=2000|title=The Language of Classic Maya Inscriptions|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/300142|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=41|issue=3|pages=321–356|doi=10.1086/300142|jstor=10.1086/300142|pmid=10768879|s2cid=741601|issn=0011-3204}}</ref> It is also the common ancestor of the [[Chʼolan languages|Cholan branch]] of the Mayan language family. Contemporary descendants of classical Maya include [[Chʼol language|Chʼol]] and [[Ch’orti’ language|Chʼortiʼ]]. Speakers of these languages can understand many Classic Mayan words.

Classic Maya is quite a morphologically [[Agglutination|binding]] language, and most words in the language consist of multiple [[morphemes]] with relatively little irregularity. It shows some regional and temporal variations, which is completely normal considering the long period of use of the language. Even so, the texts make it clear that it is a single, uniform language. Classical Maya shows [[ergative alignment]] in its morphology, as well as syntactically in focus constructs. Although the descendant Cholan languages limit this pattern of ergative alignment to sentences in completive aspect, classical Mayan does not show evidence of [[split ergativity]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stuart|first1=David|last2=Law|first2=Danny|title=Classic Mayan: An overview of language in ancient hieroglyphic script|url=https://www.academia.edu/34169418|journal=In: Aissen, Judith, Nora C. England and Roberto Zavala Maldonado (Eds.) the Mayan Languages. Routledge Language Family Series. New York: Routledge.|date=2017 |page=128 |language=en}}</ref>

Its spoken form, the [[Chʼoltiʼ language|Chʼoltiʼ]], from the [[Manche Chʼol]] region, is known from a manuscript written between 1685 and 1695, first studied by [[Daniel Garrison Brinton]]. This language has become of particular interest for the study of [[Mayan glyphs]], since most of the glyphic texts are written in the classical variety of Chʼoltiʼ, known as Classical Maya by [[Epigraphy|epigraphers]],<ref>Houston, Robertson & Stuart (2000).</ref> which is believed to have been spoken as a prestigious language form throughout the [[Maya Region|Maya region]] during the [[classic period]].<ref>Kettunen & Helmke (2006) p. 12.</ref>

== History ==
During the [[Classic period|Classic Period]], the main branches of Proto-Mayan began to diversify into separate languages. The division between Proto-Yucatecan (in the north, the [[Yucatán Peninsula]]) and Proto-Cholan (in the south, the [[Chiapas]] highlands and the [[Petén Basin]]) had already occurred in the Classic, when most of the Mayan inscriptions existing were written. Both variants are attested in hieroglyphic inscriptions at Maya sites of the time, and both are commonly known as the "classical Mayan language".

Although a single prestigious language was by far the most frequently recorded in extant [[Maya script|hieroglyphic]] texts, evidence of at least three different varieties of Maya has been discovered within the hieroglyphic corpus: an Eastern Ch'olan variety found in texts written in the southern Maya area and the highlands, a western Ch'olan variety spread from the [[Usumacinta River|Usumacinta]] region from the mid-7th century onwards, and a Yucatecan variety found in texts from the Yucatan Peninsula.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mesoweb Resources|url=http://www.mesoweb.com/resources/handbook/index.html|access-date=2021-01-20|website=www.mesoweb.com}}</ref> The reason that only a few linguistic varieties are found in the glyphic texts is probably that they served as prestigious dialects throughout the Maya region; hieroglyphic texts would have been written in the language of the elite.

Stephen Houston, John Robertson, and David Stuart have suggested that the specific variety of Chʼolan found in most southern lowland glyphic texts was a language they called "classical Chʼoltiʼ," the ancestor language of the Chʼortiʼ languages and modern Chʼoltiʼ. They propose that it originated in the western and south-central basin of the [[Petén Basin|Petén]], and that it was used in inscriptions and perhaps also spoken by elites and priests. However, Mora-Marín has argued that the traits shared by the Classic Lowland Maya and Chʼoltian languages are retentions rather than innovations, and that the diversification of Chʼolan is indeed [[Post-Classic]]al. The language of the classical lowland inscriptions would then have been Proto-Cholan.

== Relationships ==
It is now thought that the codices and other Classic texts were written by scribes, usually members of the [[Maya priesthood]], in a literary form of the [[Chʼoltiʼ language]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Houston |first1=Stephen D. |author-link1=Stephen D. Houston | first2=John |last2=Robertson |author-link3=David Stuart (Mayanist) |first3=David |last3=Stuart |year=2000 |title=The Language of Classic Maya Inscriptions |journal=[[Current Anthropology]] |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=321–356 |issn=0011-3204 |doi=10.1086/300142 |pmid=10768879|s2cid=741601 }}</ref><ref name="Kettunen_Helmke_2005_12">Kettunen and Helmke (2005, p.12)</ref> It is possible that the Maya elite spoke this language as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' over the entire Maya-speaking area, but also that texts were written in other [[Mayan languages]] of the [[Petén Basin|Petén]] and [[Yucatán Peninsula|Yucatán]], especially [[Yucatec Maya language|Yucatec]]. There is also some evidence that the [[Maya script]] may have been occasionally used to write Mayan languages of the [[Guatemalan Highlands]].<ref name="Kettunen_Helmke_2005_12"/> However, if other languages were written, they may have been written by Chʼoltiʼ [[scribe]]s, and therefore have Chʼoltiʼ elements.

== Writing system ==
{{main|Maya script}}
Classic Maya is the principal language documented in the [[writing system]] used by the pre-Columbian Maya, and is particularly represented in inscriptions from the lowland regions in Mexico and the period c. 200—900. The writing system (generally known as the [[Maya script]]) has some similarities in function (but is not related) to other [[list of writing systems|logosyllabic writing systems]] such as the [[cuneiform]] originating in [[Sumer]], in which a combination of [[logogram|logographic]] and [[syllabary|syllabic]] signs ([[grapheme]]s) are used. The script's corpus of graphemes features a core of syllabic signs which reflect the [[phonology]] of the Classic Maya language spoken in the region and at that time, which were also combined or complemented by a larger number of logograms. Thus the expressions of Classic Maya could be written in a variety of ways, represented either as logograms, logograms with [[phonetic complement]]s, logograms plus syllables, or in a purely syllabic combination. For example, in one common pattern many verb and noun roots are given by logographs, while their grammatical [[affix]]es were written syllabically, much like the [[Japanese writing system]].

== Phonology ==
The classical Maya consonant system can be represented as follows:<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Law |first1=Danny |title=Classic Mayan: An overview of language in ancient hieroglyphic script |last2=Stuart |first2=David |publisher=Routledge: London and New York |year=2017 |location=In Judith Aissen, Nora C. England, and Roberto Zavala Maldonado, The Mayan Languages |pages=128–172}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.mesoweb.com/resources/vocabulary/Vocabulary-2009.01.pdf|title=The Updated Preliminary Classic Maya-English/English-Classic Maya Vocabulary of Hieroglyphic Readings}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonants
! colspan="2" |
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Plosive]]s
! voiceless
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t}}
|
| {{IPA link|k}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ʔ}} {{angbr|’}}
|-
! [[Ejective consonant|ejective]]
|
| {{IPA link|t’}}
|
| {{IPA link|k’}}
|-
![[Implosive consonant|implosive]]
|{{IPA link|ɓ}} {{angbr|b}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate]]s
! voiceless
|
| {{IPA link|t͡s}} {{angbr|tz}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} {{angbr|ch}}
|
|
|-
! ejective
|
| {{IPA link|t͡s’}} {{angbr|tz’}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ’}} {{angbr|ch’}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]]s
|
| {{IPA link|s}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}} {{angbr|x}}
| {{IPA link|x}} {{angbr|j}}
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]]s
|
| {{IPA link|l}}
| {{IPA link|j}} {{angbr|y}}
| {{IPA link|w}}
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Vowels
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|iː}}|| || {{IPA link|u}} {{IPA link|uː}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}} {{IPA link|eː}}|| || {{IPA link|o}} {{IPA link|oː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| || {{IPA link|a}} {{IPA link|aː}}||
|}

The Latin alphabet of the classical Maya transliteration is: ’, a, b, ch, ch’, e, h, i, k, k’ (ꜭ), l, m, n, o, p, p’, s, t, t’, tz, tz’ (ꜯ), u, w, x, y.

In Classic Maya, there are five vowels: a, e, i, o, u. Long vowels are written double: aa, ee, ii, oo, uu. Furthermore, no word begins with a vowel; these actually begin with a [[glottal stop]].<ref name=":0" /> Because of this, the initial [[Saltillo (linguistics)|letter ’]] is often omitted to facilitate transcription and alphabetic structuring.

The most widespread phonological process attested in Maya glyphs is the elimination of the underlying vowels in a trisyllabic word. When a sequence of the form CVCVCVC appears as a single word, the second vowel (the nucleus of the second syllable) is elided to form two CVC syllables. Examples: ''CHUM(mu)-la-ja'' 'he sits' is transcribed ''chumlaj''. ''AJAW-le-le'' 'lordship' is transliterated [[Ajaw|''ajawlel'']]. ''Tu-’u-B’AAH'' 'in itself' is transcribed ''tu’b’aah''. ''Sa-ku-WINIK-ki'' 'elder brother' is transliterated ''saku(n) winik''.

== Grammar ==
Like most other Mayan languages, Classic Maya is [[verb–subject–object]] and is an [[ergative–absolutive language]]. Being [[Polysynthetic language|polysynthetic]], it uses both prefixes and suffixes to show grammatical function. Nouns are not inflected for [[Grammatical case|case]] or [[Grammatical gender|gender]]. There is also an entire class of intransitives that convey the object's spatial position. In addition, the language employs [[Classifier (linguistics)|counter]] words when quantifying nouns and uses a [[vigesimal]] number system.
Verbs are not conjugated according to tense, but rather are semantically altered by a series of [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] particles.

=== Numerals ===
Linguists and epigraphers still debate the accurate reading of classical Maya numerals. Numbers greater than 20 are recorded in classical Mayan inscriptions, as part of the so-called "lunar series", for example, when describing the number of days that a "lunar month" specifically has (for example, "20 + 9"; "20 + 10") or the count or order of dynasties to be counted.<ref name=":0" />

List of numerals:
* {{lang|emy|mih}} (0)
* {{lang|emy|jun}} (1)
* {{lang|emy|cha’}} / {{lang|emy|ka’}} (2)
* {{lang|emy|ox}} / {{lang|emy|ux}} (3)
* {{lang|emy|chan}} / {{lang|emy|kan}} (4)
* {{lang|emy|ho’}} (5)
* {{lang|emy|wak}} (6)
* {{lang|emy|huk}} / {{lang|emy|wuk}} (7)
* {{lang|emy|waxak}} (8)
* {{lang|emy|balun}} / {{lang|emy|bolon}} (9)
* {{lang|emy|lajun}} (10)
* {{lang|emy|buluch}} / {{lang|emy|buluj}} (11)
* {{lang|emy|laj cha’}} / {{lang|emy|laj ka’}} (12)
* {{lang|emy|ox lajun}} / {{lang|emy|ux lajun}} (13)
* {{lang|emy|chan lajun}} / {{lang|emy|kan lajun}} (14)
* {{lang|emy|ho’ lajun}} (15)
* {{lang|emy|wak lajun}} (16)
* {{lang|emy|huk lajun}} / {{lang|emy|wuk lajun}} (17)
* {{lang|emy|waxak lajun}} (18)
* {{lang|emy|balun lajun}} / {{lang|emy|bolon lajun}} (19)
* {{lang|emy|winak}} / {{lang|emy|k'al}} (20).

=== Pronouns ===
====Dependent pronouns====
Ergative pronouns are morphemes prefixed to the word (noun, adjective, verb). Their function is to mark:
# the Subject of transitive constructions
# the possessor in possessive constructions
# the person in relational nouns (see below)

There are two allomorphs of ergative pronouns depending on whether the word to which they prefix begins with a consonant or a vowel

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Ergative series<ref name=":2">[https://canvas.harvard.edu/courses/2573/files/285067/download?verifier=PIUVjvVyH4aDStgyhmxAGHz3rG18jF54S0nobQp1&wrap=1 GRAMMAR OF HIEROGLYPHIC MAYA, Brussels, October 29–31 2013]</ref>
|-
! colspan="2" |
! before consonant
! before vowel
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st person
! singular
| ni-
| w-
|-
! plural
| ka-
| –
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd person
! singular
| a-
| aw-
|-
! plural
| –
| –
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
! singular
| u-
| y-
|-
! plural
| u-
| y-
|}

Absolutive pronouns are morphemes suffixed to the word (noun, adjective, verb). Their function is to mark:
# the Object of transitive verbs
# the Subject of intransitive and stative verbs

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolutive series<ref name=":2" />
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st person
! singular
| -eʔn
|-
! plural
| -oʔn
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd person
! singular
| -at
|-
! plural
| –
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
! singular
| -Ø
|-
! plural
| -oʔb’ > -ob’
|}

====Independent pronouns====
Independent pronouns are built with the particle ''haʔ'' plus a pronoun of the Absolutive Series. Thus haʔ-en, haʔ-at, haʔ-Ø, haʔ-oʔb’. The resultant forms, influenced by morphophonemic processes, are not predictable. Thus, haʔ-oʔb’ gives haʔoʔb’, but haʔ-at gives hat and haʔ-eʔn gives seemingly hiin.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Independent pronouns<ref name=":2" />
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st person
! singular
| hiin > hin
| hi-na > hi-ni
|-
! plural
| –
| –
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd person
! singular
| hat
| ha-ta
|-
! plural
| –
| –
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
! singular
| haaʔ > haʔ
| ha-i > ha-a
|-
! plural
| haʔoʔb’ >haʔob’
| ha-o-b’a > ha-o-b’o
|}

=== Verbs ===
Many verbal roots of classical Maya have been attested. Some of these are:<ref name=":0" />
* ''ak''' – give
* ''al'' – speak
* ''cha''' – do
* ''tz'ib'' – write, paint
* ''ch'ab''- / ''kob''' – create
* ''ch'am'' – receive
* ''hul'' – arrive
* ''pok'' – wash
* ''chum'' – sit
* ''jel'' – change
* ''il'' – see
* ''k'at'' – want
* ''och'' – enter, give of eat
* ''pitz'' – play ball
* ''way'' – sleep, transform
* ''k'ay'' – sing
* ''tal'' – come
* ''nak'' – conquer
* ''pas'' – open
* ''pay'' – guide
* ''tzutz'' – finish

=== Nouns ===
Unlike verbs and positionals, most nouns do not require [[morphological derivation]]. For these words, the morpheme used to derive non-possessed forms is the suffix -''Vl'', although the vowel for these can vary from word to word, and some words take a suffix -''is'' or -''aas''. Examples: ''u-ch’ahb’'' 'his penance' > ''ch’ahb’-il'' 'penance', ''y-ohl'' 'his heart from him' > ''ohl-is'' 'heart'. On the other hand, other nouns are generally not possessed and require derivation when possessed, usually with the abstract suffix -V (V) l. This is written with the syllabic sign -''li'', but it can have two allomorphs that are mostly phonologically conditioned, -''il'' for CVC roots and -''aal'' for non-CVC roots. The exceptions to this appear to be lexically determined. Example: ''lakam-tuun'' 'wake' > u ''lakam-tuun-il'' 'his wake'.

== Literature ==
Maya literature is among the oldest in the world, spanning two millennia from pre-Columbian antiquity to the present.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520271371/2000-years-of-mayan-literature|title=2000 Years of Mayan Literature|date=November 2011 |isbn=978-0-520-27137-1 |language=en |last1=Tedlock |first1=Dennis |publisher=Univ of California Press }}</ref> The Maya used to draw and write on some surfaces that were not intended to be a means of graphic expression. The most abundant preserved works of this type are found within rooms of buildings whose ceilings and walls are preserved. The only place where significant effort has been made to document writing on surfaces is [[Tikal]], [[Guatemala]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=TEDLOCK|first=DENNIS|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1pp1qq|title=2000 Years of Mayan Literature|date=2010|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23221-1|edition=1|jstor=10.1525/j.ctt1pp1qq}}</ref>

From the period of classical Mayan writing, which lasted from the 3rd century BC until the 13th century, the texts that have survived to the present day were painted or carved in stones, bones, resistant wood, ceramics, shells or stucco. It is possible that much more had also been written on paper, but what little has come to this day is illegible. In places dating from the [[Classic period|Classic Period]], remains of books have been found in tombs, which would have been placed in chests or next to the heads of their deceased owners. There are only four still readable books that have survived to the present time.<ref name=":1" />

== References ==
{{Portal|Language}}
{{Reflist}}
{{refbegin|indent=yes}}

*{{cite book |editor-last=Aulie |editor-first=H. Wilbur |editor2=Evelyn W. Aulie |orig-year=1978 |year=1998 |title=Diccionario Chʼol de Tumbalá, Chiapas, con variaciones dialectales de Tila y Sabanilla |trans-title=Chʼol Dictionary of Tumbalá, Chiapas with dialectal variations from Tila and Sabanilla |url=http://www.sil.org/mexico/maya/chol-tumbala/S121a-Diccionario-CTU.htm |others=Emily Stairs |series=Serie de vocabularios y diccionarios indígenas "Mariano Silva y Aceves", No. 121 |edition=electronic reproduction with March 2005 corrections, 2nd |location=Coyoacán, D.F. |publisher=[[Instituto Lingüístico de Verano (Mexico)|Instituto Lingüístico de Verano]] |isbn=968-31-0291-3 |oclc=42692322 }}
* {{cite web |author=Boot, Erik |year=2002 |title=A Preliminary Classic Maya-English/English-Classic Maya Vocabulary of Hieroglyphic Readings |work=Mesoweb Articles |publisher=Mesoweb |url=http://www.mesoweb.com/resources/vocabulary/Vocabulary.pdf |access-date=2007-07-06 }}
* {{cite book |author=Coe, Michael D. |author-link=Michael D. Coe |year=1992 |title=Breaking the Maya Code |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=London |isbn=0-500-05061-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/breakingmayacode00coem_0 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Hernández de León-Portilla, Ascención |year=2004 |title=Lenguas y escrituras mesoamericanas |url=http://arqueomex.com/S2N3nLENGUA70.html |journal=[[Arqueología Mexicana]] |volume=XII |issue=70 |pages=20–25 |issn=0188-8218 |access-date=2007-07-06 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515150042/http://www.arqueomex.com/S2N3nLENGUA70.html |archive-date=2008-05-15 }}
* {{cite book | author=Houston, Stephen D. |author-link=Stephen D. Houston |year=1989 |title=Reading the Past: Maya Glyphs |publisher=British Museum Publications |location=London |isbn=0-7141-8069-6}}
* {{cite book |author=Kettunen, Harri |author2=Christophe Helmke |year=2005 |title=Introduction to Maya Hieroglyphs |format=[[PDF]] |publisher=Wayeb and Leiden University |url=http://www.mesoweb.com/resources/handbook/index.html |access-date=2007-07-06 }}
* {{cite web |author=Montgomery, John |author2=Peter Mathews |author3=Christophe Helmke |year=2002–2007 |title=Dictionary of Maya Hieroglyphs |url=http://www.famsi.org/mayawriting/dictionary/montgomery/index.html |format=online version |work=Maya Hieroglyphic writing: Dictionaries |publisher=Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc (FAMSI) |access-date=2007-07-06 }}
* {{cite conference |author=Stuart, David |author-link=David Stuart (Mayanist) |date=December 1987 |title=Ten Phonetic Syllables |url=http://www.mesoweb.com/bearc/cmr/14.html |format=[[PDF]] |edition=online publication: October 2005 |book-title=Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing, 14 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Center for Maya Research |access-date=2007-07-06 |archive-date=2020-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030162741/http://www.mesoweb.com/bearc/cmr/14.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book | author=Thompson, J. Eric S. |author-link=J. Eric S. Thompson |year=1971 | title=Maya Hieroglyphic Writing; An Introduction |series=Civilization of the American Indian Series (No. 56) |edition=3rd |location=Norman | publisher=University of Oklahoma Press | isbn=0-8061-0447-3}}
{{refend}}

{{Maya}}
{{Mayan languages}}

[[Category:Mayan languages|Classic Maya]]
[[Category:Classical Mesoamerican languages|Maya]]
[[Category:Classical languages|Maya]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of North America]]
[[Category:Maya Classic Period|C]]

2024 Moldovan presidential election

2024-11-04T19:56:15Z

Brandmeister: /* top */ wlinks

{{Short description|none}}
{{Pp|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox election
| country = Moldova
| type = presidential
| ongoing = no
| previous_election = 2020 Moldovan presidential election
| previous_year = 2020
| election_date = 20 October 2024 (1st round) 3 November 2024 (2nd round)
| next_election = 2028 Moldovan presidential election
| next_year = 2028
| turnout = 51.74% (first round) 54.34% (second round)

| image1 = Maia Sandu, President of Moldova in 2024 (cropped).jpg
| candidate1 = '''[[Maia Sandu]]'''
| party1 = [[Party of Action and Solidarity|PAS]]{{efn|name=Sandu|The President of Moldova traditionally resigns from party membership after taking office. Although Sandu was officially an independent, her campaign was endorsed and funded by [[Party of Action and Solidarity]]. On the election ballot, Maia Sandu is designated as a PAS candidate.<ref name=ballot>{{Cite web |title=Modelul buletinelor de vot |url=https://a.cec.md/ro/modelul-buletinelor-de-vot-17015.html |access-date=2024-11-01 |website=a.cec.md |language=ro}}</ref>}}
| popular_vote1 = '''930,238'''
| percentage1 = '''55.35%'''

| image2 = Alexandr Stoianoglo - interview for Prosecutor's Office, nov 2019 (cropped).jpg
| colour2 = {{Party color|Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova}}
| candidate2 = {{nowrap|[[Alexandr Stoianoglo]]}}
| party2 = [[Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova|PSRM]]{{efn|Although Stoianoglo was officially an independent, his campaign was endorsed and funded by [[Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova]]. On the election ballot, Alexandr Stoianoglo is designated as a PSRM candidate.<ref name=ballot/>}}
| popular_vote2 = 750,370
| percentage2 = 44.65%

| title = President
| before_election = [[Maia Sandu]]
| before_party = Party of Action and Solidarity
| after_election = [[Maia Sandu]]
| after_party = Party of Action and Solidarity
| map = {{Switcher|[[File:2024 Moldovan presidential election map (1st round) shaded.svg|325px]]|First round results by electoral district|[[File:2024 Moldovan presidential election map (2nd round) shaded.svg|325px]]|Second round results by electoral district}}
}}
{{Politics of Moldova}}
Presidential elections were held in [[Moldova]] on 20 October 2024,<ref name="TVP2">{{Cite web |title=Moldova announces presidential elections, EU accession referendum for October |url=https://tvpworld.com/77035891/moldova-announces-presidential-elections-eu-accession-referendum-for-october |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=[[TVP World]]}}</ref> with a runoff held on 3 November.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Moldovans cast votes to choose president and decide on EU path as Russian interference claims spike |date=20 October 2024 |url=https://apnews.com/article/moldova-elections-referendum-eu-russia-sandu-9411ab04ffb3230a83a4f8751c4e2414 |access-date=2024-10-20 |publisher=Associated Press}}</ref> Incumbent president [[Maia Sandu]] who won the first round and former [[Office of the Prosecutor General of Moldova|Prosecutor General]] [[Alexandr Stoianoglo]] who was the runner-up contested the runoff, with Sandu winning a majority of votes and being re-elected for a second and final term.<ref name="lead">{{Cite web |title=Moldova's Sandu takes lead in election with 92% of vote counted |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/moldova-holds-presidential-runoff-election-amid-claims-russian-meddling-2024-11-03/ |website=Reuters}}</ref>

''[[The Guardian]]'' described the election as a choice between the West and Russia, with Sandu representing the [[Pro-Europeanism|pro-European]] side and Stoianoglo the Russian-friendly side.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web |title=Moldovans go to polls to decide whether future lies with Russia or the west |url=https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2024/oct/19/moldova-presidential-election-eu-referendum-future-russia-west |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=amp.theguardian.com}}</ref> [[Renato Usatîi]], who finished third in the first round refused to back a candidate in the runoff.<ref name="bbcrunoff2">{{Cite news |date=2024-11-03 |title=Moldova's pro-EU leader in tight run-off as Russia accused of meddling |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cq6lyzj9dddo |access-date=2024-11-03 |work=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref> ''Romanian Insider'' described Victoria Furtună and Vasile Tarlev, who came in fifth and sixth as backed by the pro-Russian oligarch [[Ilan Shor]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=iuliane |date=2024-10-21 |title=Tight outcome in Moldova's pro-EU public referendum and presidential elections |url=https://www.romania-insider.com/moldova-referendum-presidential-elections-october-2024 |access-date=2024-11-03 |website=Romania Insider |language=en}}</ref>

In addition on the same day, a narrow majority of Moldovans voted "yes" to [[2024 Moldovan European Union membership referendum|add EU membership to the country's constitution]]. This was seen as a victory for Sandu who campaigned for the "yes" side, although the result was closer than expected, a fact Sandu blamed on alleged [[2024 Moldovan presidential election#Security concerns|Russian-sponsored interference]] on the election, including vote buying organised by Russian-trained groups.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Early results show 50% of Moldovans vote "yes" at referendum on EU aspirations |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/early-results-show-50-moldovans-vote-yes-referendum-eu-aspirations-2024-10-21/ |website=Reuters}}</ref> [[OSCE]] described the conduct of the first round as "overwhelmingly positively" although they noted misuse of administrative resources and unbalanced media coverage in favor of the incumbent.<ref>{{cite web |title=Moldova, Presidential Election and Constitutional Referendum, 20 October 2024: Statement of Preliminary Findings and Conclusions |url=https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/moldova/578815 |access-date=28 October 2024 |website=www.osce.org |publisher=[[OSCE]] |language=en}}</ref> Analysts stated Sandu's runoff victory was seen as a major relief for the [[Recean Cabinet|current government]], which strongly backed her candidacy, and her push for closer Western ties on Moldova's path toward the European Union.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=20 October 2024 |title=Moldovans cast votes to choose president and decide on EU path as Russian interference claims spike |url=https://apnews.com/article/moldova-elections-referendum-eu-russia-sandu-9411ab04ffb3230a83a4f8751c4e2414 |access-date=2024-10-20 |publisher=Associated Press}}</ref>

==Electoral system==
===Date===
On 17 April 2024, Parliament speaker [[Igor Grosu]] announced the holding of the presidential election in conjunction with [[2024 Moldovan European Union membership referendum|the referendum]] on joining the [[European Union]] (EU) on 20 October.<ref name="TVP">{{Cite web |title=Moldova announces presidential elections, EU accession referendum for October |url=https://tvpworld.com/77035891/moldova-announces-presidential-elections-eu-accession-referendum-for-october |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=[[TVP World]]}}</ref> The decision was approved by the [[Parliament of Moldova]] on 16 May.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 May 2024 |title=Moldova to hold referendum on joining EU in October |url=https://kyivindependent.com/moldova-to-hold-referendum-on-joining-eu-in-october/ |website=[[The Kyiv Independent]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 May 2024 |title=Moldova To Hold Presidential Vote, EU Referendum In October |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/moldova-referendum-sandu-eu/32951121.html |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]}}</ref>

===Eligibility requirements===
The [[Constitution of Moldova]] (Article 78, Clause 2) defines four conditions that a presidential candidate must satisfy: Moldovan citizenship, at least 40 years of age, residence in Moldova for at least 10 years, and ability to speak the state language. Article 80 of the Constitution establishes a term limit: one individual cannot serve more than 2 terms in a row.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Moldova (Republic of) 1994 (rev. 2016) Constitution |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Moldova_2016 |access-date=2024-11-03 |website=constituteproject.org |language=en}}</ref>

===Procedure===
Candidates can be nominated by a [[political party]], an [[electoral alliance]], or run as independents. They have to collect at least 15,000 voter signatures in their support from at least half of Moldova's level 2 administrative territorial units with at least 600 signatures in each of them.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://old.cec.md/files/files/Legi/tabel_regulamente/Regulament%20privind%20modul%20de%20%C3%AEntocmire%2C%20prezentare%20si%20verificare%20a%20listelor%20de%20subscriptie.pdf |title= Regulations |date=3 July 2018 |website=old.cec.md |access-date=2020-11-02}}</ref> The election results can be considered valid only if the turnout is above or equal to 33.33%.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://diez.md/2024/10/18/tot-ce-trebuie-sa-stii-despre-alegerile-prezidentiale-din-20-octombrie-2024/|title=Tot ce trebuie să știi despre alegerile prezidențiale din 20 octombrie 2024|first=Nicoleta|last=Botnaru|work=#diez|date=18 October 2024|language=ro}}</ref> The candidate who receives an absolute majority of the votes is elected president. If no candidate receives a majority of the votes, a second round between the top 2 candidates is held two weeks after the first round. The candidate with the largest number of votes in the second round then becomes president.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.presedinte.md/rom/statutul-si-atributiile|title=Statutul și atribuțiile președintelui Republicii Moldova|website=www.presedinte.md}}</ref>

==Security concerns==
Moldovan authorities have accused Russian-trained groups of plotting to destabilise the election.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sauer |first=Pjotr |date=2024-10-20 |title=Moldova president condemns 'assault' on democracy by 'foreign forces' as EU vote hangs in balance |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/oct/21/moldova-election-maia-sandu |access-date=2024-10-23 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

In June 2024, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada issued a joint statement on Russian influence within the Moldovan election.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 June 2024 |title=US, Britain, Canada accuse Russia of plot to sway Moldova election |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us-britain-canada-accuse-russia-plot-influence-moldova-election-2024-06-13/ |access-date= |website=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Exposing Russia's subversive activity and electoral interference targeting Moldova: joint statement by the US, Canada, and the UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/joint-statement-by-the-governments-of-the-united-states-of-america-canada-and-the-united-kingdom-exposing-russias-subversive-activity-and-electoral |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Joint Statement Exposing Russia's Subversive Activity and Electoral Interference Targeting Moldova |url=https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-exposing-russias-subversive-activity-and-electoral-interference-targeting-moldova/ |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=United States Department of State |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=13 June 2024 |title=Joint Statement by the Governments of the United States of America, Canada, and the United Kingdom Exposing Russia's Subversive Activity and Electoral Interference Targeting Moldova |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/global-affairs/news/2024/06/joint-statement-by-the-governments-of-the-united-states-of-america-canada-and-the-united-kingdom-exposing-russias-subversive-activity-and-electoral.html |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=Government of Canada}}</ref> At the same time, the US also announced sanctions against the [[Governor of Gagauzia]] [[Evghenia Guțul]], who it alleged is an "active facilitator" of Russian-backed election influence.<ref>{{Cite news |title=US sanctions pro-Russia governor of Moldova's Gagauzia region |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us-sanctions-pro-russia-governor-moldovas-gagauzia-region-2024-06-12/ |work=Reuters}}</ref>

In September 2024, incidents of vandalism on the offices of the [[Supreme Court of Justice of Moldova]] and on the public broadcaster [[Teleradio-Moldova]] were attributed to the said groups.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kyivindependent.com/moldovan-broadcasters-headquarters-targeted-in-pre-election-vandalism-spree/ |title=Moldovan broadcaster's headquarters targeted in pre-election vandalism spree |website=The Kyiv Independent |date=29 September 2024}}</ref> In October 2024, authorities announced the discovery of a plot by exiled pro-Russian oligarch [[Ilan Shor]] involving $15 million in funds from Russia that were distributed to around 130,000 people in order to bribe voters into selecting anti-Western decisions, and spread disinformation against the European Union on social media, following raids on 26 locations nationwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kyivindependent.com/moldova-uncovers-15-million-russian-backed-plot-to-influence-upcoming-elections-with-bribes-and-disinformation/ |title=Moldova uncovers $15 million Russian-backed plot to influence upcoming elections with bribes and disinformation |website=The Kyiv Independent |date=4 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/10/03/moldova-uncovers-unprecedented-pro-russia-vote-rigging-a86567 |title=Moldova Uncovers 'Unprecedented' Pro-Russia Vote Rigging |website=[[The Moscow Times]] |date=3 October 2024}}</ref> Russia denied the accusations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/10/14/kremlin-denies-meddling-in-moldovas-elections-a86678 |title=Kremlin Denies Meddling in Moldova's Elections |website=The Moscow Times |date=13 October 2024}}</ref> Security checks were strengthened at [[Chișinău International Airport]] following an influx of passengers from Russia carrying large amounts of cash believed to be connected with the plot.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c23kdjxxx1jo |title=Russian cash-for-votes flows into Moldova as nation heads to polls |website=BBC |date=19 October 2024}}</ref>

Later that month, Moldova accused Russia of plotting to bus in voters to polling stations at the Moldovan Embassy in Moscow. In response, the EU imposed sanctions on five officials from the autonomous [[Gagauzia]] region and on one Russian-based entity involved in the influence operation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-14 |title=EU Sanctions Moldova's Regional Gagauz Leaders Ahead of Key Vote |url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/eu-sanctions-moldova-regional-gagauz-143106329.html |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=Yahoo News |language=en-US}}</ref> The United States accused Russia of spending "millions of dollars" to support its preferred parties and spreading disinformation online.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Moldova: President Maia Sandu accuses 'foreign forces' of voter fraud |url=https://news.sky.com/story/moldova-president-maia-sandu-accuses-foreign-forces-of-voter-fraud-13238054 |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=Sky News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-16 |title=Statement by the U.S. Embassy in Moldova {{!}} Oct. 16, 2024 |url=https://md.usembassy.gov/press-statement-oct16/ |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=U.S. Embassy in Moldova |language=en-US}}</ref> The Russian foreign ministry in turn accused Moldova of printing only 10,000 ballots for 500,000 eligible Moldovans living in Russia.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/10/16/moldova-says-russia-planning-to-illegally-bus-in-voters-to-moscow-polling-stations-a86716 |title=Moldova Says Russia Planning to Illegally Bus In Voters to Moscow Polling Stations |website=The Moscow Times |date=16 October 2024}}</ref>

On 17 October, Moldovan authorities announced the discovery of another plot in which 100 youths were trained in Moscow, Serbia and Bosnia by private military groups to foment civil unrest, including using nonlethal weapons to create "mass disorder" during the election and referendum, adding that four people had been arrested and that some of them received several thousand euros in payments.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/moldova-election-eu-referendum-russia-639974a2d3acd8d647e787ede0fcbe24 |title=EU candidate Moldova to hold two pivotal votes as officials denounce Russian 'hybrid attacks' |website=Associated Press |date=19 October 2024}}</ref>

Olga Roșca, a foreign policy adviser to Sandu, warned that "Russia is pouring millions in dirty money to hijack our democratic processes. This isn't just meddling, it's full-blown interference aimed at destabilising our future. And it is alarming."<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Moldovans go to polls to decide whether future lies with Russia or the west |url=https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2024/oct/19/moldova-presidential-election-eu-referendum-future-russia-west |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=amp.theguardian.com}}</ref>

The European Union deployed its Cyber Rapid Response Team led by Lithuania to Moldova in order to oversee cybersecurity concerns in the election and referendum following a request from the Moldovan Information Technology and Cyber Security Service.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.lrt.lt/en/news-in-english/19/2394398/lithuanian-led-cyber-response-team-deployed-in-moldova-during-election |title=Lithuanian-led cyber response team deployed in Moldova during election |website=LRT |date=23 October 2024}}</ref>

On 31 October, authorities raided a political party headquarters and accused 12 people of engaging in vote-buying. Forty government employees were also placed under investigation for selling their votes. On 1 November, Prime Minister [[Dorin Recean]] reported cases of "anonymous death threats via phone calls" being made on citizens nationwide, which he described as an attempt to scare voters.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-11-03 |title=Moldovans vote in tense presidential run-off amid Russian meddling claims |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/11/3/moldovans-vote-in-tense-presidential-run-off-amid-russian-meddling-claims |access-date=2024-11-03 |work=Al Jazeera |language=en-GB }}</ref> On day of the runoff vote, the CEC said that it had received reports of organised and illegal transportation of voters to Russia, Belarus, Azerbaijan and Turkey.<ref name="bbcrunoff">{{Cite news |date=2024-11-03 |title=Moldova's pro-EU leader in tight run-off as Russia accused of meddling |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cq6lyzj9dddo |access-date=2024-11-03 |work=BBC |language=en-GB }}</ref> Stanislav Secrieru, a national security adviser to Sandu, wrote on X: "We are seeing massive interference by Russia in our electoral process," which he warned had a "high potential to distort the outcome" of the vote.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-03 |title=Moldovans choose president in decisive runoff overshadowed by fraud and intimidation claims |url=https://apnews.com/article/moldova-presidential-election-russia-corruption-fraud-5886447779a4a818e9f30fdadcb8bbe5 |access-date=2024-11-03 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref> Secrieru added that bomb threats temporarily disrupted operations of overseas polling stations in the United Kingdom, particularly in [[Liverpool]] and [[Northampton]], as well as in [[Frankfurt]] and [[Kaiserslautern]] in Germany.<ref name="bbcresult">{{Cite news |date=2024-11-04 |title=Pro-EU leader claims Moldova victory despite alleged Russian meddling |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cz7w9dglzzlo |access-date=2024-11-04 |work=BBC |language=en-GB }}</ref>

==Election==
===First round===
[[File:20.10.2024 Participarea Președintelui Parlamentului, Igor Grosu, la alegerile prezidențiale și la referendumului constituțional privind integrarea în Uniunea Europeană - 54079722221.jpg|thumb|right|Voting in a polling station on 20 October]]
Approximately 2.8 million ballots were issued for the election and the EU membership referendum. For the first time in Moldova, ballots were featured not only in [[Romanian language|Romanian]] but also in as many as five minority languages. Thus, 2,092,641 ballots were in Romanian, 631,979 in [[Russian language|Russian]], 3,400 in [[Gagauz language|Gagauz]], 991 in [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], 870 in the [[Romani language]] and 115 in [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]. For voters in the pro-Russian separatist region of [[Transnistria]], 90,000 ballots were issued, of which 45,000 were in Romanian and the rest in Russian.<ref name="adv">{{cite news|url=https://adevarul.ro/stiri-externe/republica-moldova/premiera-la-prezidentiale-si-referendumul-din-2395915.html|title=Premieră la prezidențiale și referendumul din Republica Moldova: buletine de vot în șase limbi|first=Alina|last=Cotoros|newspaper=[[Adevărul]]|date=20 October 2024|language=ro}}</ref>

For the election and the referendum, 234 polling stations were opened abroad. The first vote in both was cast by Ludmila Vizdoagă, a woman who at the time had lived in [[South Korea]] for 19 years. She traveled from [[Seoul]] to [[Tokyo]] to vote in the polling station for [[Japan]], which was the first to be opened.<ref name="adv" /> A polling station was also set up in [[Varnița, Anenii Noi|Varnița]] to serve voters from [[Transnistria]].<ref name="time" />

Voting was held from 07:00 to 21:00.<ref name="time">{{cite news|url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20241020-moldovans-vote-in-presidential-election-referendum-on-joining-eu |title=Moldovans elect president, vote on EU path as claims of Russian meddling spike |work=France 24 |date=20 October 2024|language=en}}</ref> As of 15:00, the minimum turnout of 33.33% necessary for the validation of the election had been reached with a turnout of 35.57%.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://agora.md/2024/10/20/prezidentiale-prezenta-la-vot-a-depasit-pragul-de-validare|title=Prezidențiale: Prezența la vot a depășit pragul de validare|first=Capitolina|last=Turculeț|newspaper=Agora|date=20 October 2024|language=ro}}</ref>

===Second round===
1,988 polling stations were opened throughout Moldova, including 30 that were utilised for voters living in Transnistria who had to go to Moldovan-held territory.<ref name="bbcrunoff" /> Promo-LEX observers detected 109 incidents at polling stations or in their immediate vicinity. These included the presence of electoral advertising material near polling stations, electoral agitation, the unjustified presence of unauthorized persons, violations of the secrecy of the vote, obstruction of access to observers and unjustified interruption of the vote.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/international/alegeri-in-r-moldova-peste-100-de-incidente-identificate-promo-lex-zcazuri-de-transportare-organizata-a-alegatorilor.html|title=Alegeri în R. Moldova. Peste 100 de incidente, identificate. Promo-LEX: "Cazuri de transportare organizată a alegătorilor"|first=Lorena|last=Mihăilă|publisher=[[Pro TV]]|date=3 November 2024|language=ro}}</ref>

=== Campaign ===
In the presidential debate, Sandu accused Stoianoglo of being a "Trojan horse" candidate for outside interests wanting control of Moldova.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Sauer |first=Pjotr |date=2024-11-03 |title=Moldova votes for president in runoff election as Russia hovers |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/nov/03/moldova-votes-president-unoff-election-as-russia-hovers |access-date=2024-11-03 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0029-7712}}</ref> She declared she will continue her pro-European course, saying, "Joining the European Union is Moldova's [[Marshall Plan]]".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Polls close in Moldova's tense presidential runoff – DW – 11/03/2024 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/polls-close-in-moldovas-tense-presidential-runoff/a-70671232 |access-date=2024-11-03 |website=dw.com |language=en}}</ref>

Stoianoglo denied working on behalf of Russia. He claimed that he was in favour of joining the EU, but boycotted the EU membership referendum, calling it a "parody." He has also declined to criticize the Kremlin for its invasion of Ukraine and called for improved relations with Russia. He said; "the level of Russian interference in Moldova is highly exaggerated", adding that he would seek a "reset of relations" with Russia.<ref name=":0" />

==Candidates==
Between 21 and 31 August, the [[Central Electoral Commission of Moldova]] (CEC) received 23 applications for the registration of initiative groups in support of 19 candidates, of which 13 applications were accepted.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://epde.org/?news=promo-lex-released-the-second-report-of-the-observation-mission-for-the-election-on-20-october|title=Promo-LEX released the second report of the Observation Mission for the election on 20 October|publisher=European Platform for Democratic Elections|date=25 September 2024}}</ref> Two of these initiative groups failed to get their candidate registered into the election.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
!Name
!Born
!Campaign
! class="unsortable" |Experience
!colspan="2"|Party
!Status
|-
| data-sort-value="Sandu, Maia" |[[File:Maia Sandu, President of Moldova in 2024 (cropped).jpg|117x117px|border]] '''[[Maia Sandu]]'''
|{{dts|1972|5|24|format=dmy}} ({{age nts|1972|5|24}}) [[Risipeni]], [[Fălești District]]
|[[File:Maia Sandu 2024 presidential campaign.png|150px]] ([https://maiasandu.pentru.md/ website])
|'''[[President of Moldova]]''' (2020–present) '''[[Prime Minister of Moldova]]''' (2019) '''[[Ministry of Education and Research (Moldova)|Minister of Education]]''' (2012–2015)
| style=background:{{party color|Party of Action and Solidarity}}|
|[[Independent politician|Independent]]{{efn|name=Sandu}}
|{{yes|Registered}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Maia Sandu registered as a candidate for presidency|url=https://www.ipn.md/en/maia-sandu-registered-as-a-candidate-for-presidency-8013_1107227.html|publisher=IPN Press Agency|date=12 September 2024 }}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Alexandr Stoianoglo - interview for Prosecutor's Office, nov 2019.jpg|frameless|85x85px]] '''[[Alexandr Stoianoglo]]'''
|3 June 1967 ({{age nts|1967|6|3}})
[[Comrat]]
|[[File:Alexandr Stoianoglo 2024 presidential campaign.png|150px]]
|'''[[Office of the Prosecutor General of Moldova|Prosecutor General of Moldova]]''' (2019–2021)
'''[[President of the Moldovan Parliament|Vice President of the Parliament]]''' (2009–2010)
| style=background:{{party color|Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova}}|
|[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|{{yes|Registered}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=CEC registers first candidate for office of President
|url=https://www.ipn.md/en/cec-registers-first-candidate-for-office-of-president-8013_1106942.html|publisher=IPN Press Agency|date=2 September 2024 }}</ref>
|-
| data-sort-value="Usatîi, Renato" |[[File:Renato Usatîi - sep 2020 (cropped2).jpg|117x117px|border]] '''[[Renato Usatîi]]'''
|{{dts|1978|11|4|format=dmy}} ({{age nts|1978|11|4}}) [[Fălești]]
|[[File:Renato Usatîi 2024 presidential campaign.png|150px]] ([https://rup2024.md/ website])
|'''[[Mayor of Bălți]]''' (2015–2018, 2019–2021)
| style=background:{{party color|Our Party (Moldova)}}|
|[[Our Party (Moldova)|Our Party]]
|{{yes|Registered}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Renato Usatyi and Vasile Tarlev officially registered as presidential candidates|url=https://www.ipn.md/en/renato-usatyi-and-vasile-tarlev-officially-registered-as-presidential-candidates-8013_1107404.html|publisher=IPN Press Agency|date=18 September 2024 }}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Василий Тарлев (23-02-2004).jpg|frameless|121x121px]] '''[[Vasile Tarlev]]'''
|9 October 1963 ({{age nts|1963|10|9}})
[[Bașcalia]], [[Basarabeasca District]]
|[[File:Vasile Tarlev 2024 presidential campaign.svg|150px]] ([https://tarlev2024.md/ website])
|'''Prime Minister of Moldova''' (2001–2008)
| style=background:#FF7A03|
|[[Future of Moldova Party]] {{small|endorsed by the [[Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova|Party of Communists]]}}
|{{yes|Registered}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Renato Usatyi and Vasile Tarlev officially registered as presidential candidates|url=https://www.ipn.md/en/renato-usatyi-and-vasile-tarlev-officially-registered-as-presidential-candidates-8013_1107404.html|publisher=IPN Press Agency|date=18 September 2024}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Ирина Влах 03 (29-07-2021).jpg|frameless|127x127px]] '''[[Irina Vlah]]'''
|26 February 1974 ({{age nts|1974|2|26}})
Comrat
|[[File:Irina Vlah 2024 presidential campaign.svg|150px]] ([https://irinavlah.md/ website])
|'''[[Governor of Gagauzia]]''' (2015–2023)
| style=background:{{party color|Independent politician}}|
|Independent
|{{yes|Registered}}<ref name="auto4">{{Cite web|title=The CEC registered two candidates in the presidential elections and one participant in the referendum|url=https://a.cec.md/ro/cec-a-inregistrat-doi-candidati-la-alegerile-prezidentiale-si-2781_111332.html|publisher=Central Electoral Commission of Moldova|language=ro|date=21 September 2024}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Ion Chicu (2020-01-31).jpg|frameless|114x114px]] '''[[Ion Chicu]]'''
|28 February 1972 ({{age nts|1972|2|28}})
[[Pîrjolteni]], [[Călărași District]]
|[[File:Ion Chicu 2024 presidential campaign.png|150px]]
|'''Prime Minister of Moldova''' (2019–2020)
'''[[Ministry of Finance (Moldova)|Minister of Finance]]''' (2018–2019)
| style="background:{{party color|Party of Development and Consolidation of Moldova}}" |
|[[Party of Development and Consolidation of Moldova]]
|{{yes|Registered}}<ref name="auto4"/>
|-
|[[File:Andrei Năstase in November 2017.jpg|frameless|132x132px]] '''[[Andrei Năstase]]'''
|6 August 1975 ({{age nts|1975|8|6}})
[[Mîndrești]], [[Telenești District]]
|[[File:Andrei Năstase 2024 presidential campaign.png|150px]] ([https://andreinastase.md/ website])
|'''[[Government of Moldova|Deputy Prime Minister]]''', '''[[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Moldova)|Minister of Internal Affairs]]''' (2019)
| style=background:{{party color|Independent politician}}|
|Independent
|{{yes|Registered}}<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|title=The CEC registered two candidates in the presidential elections and three participants in the referendum|url=https://a.cec.md/ro/cec-a-inregistrat-doi-candidati-la-alegerile-prezidentiale-si-2781_111358.html|publisher=Central Electoral Commission of Moldova|language=ro|date=23 September 2024}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:03.09.2020 Declarații de presă ale deputaților Octavian Țîcu și Lilian Carp (50300434218) (cropped).jpg|frameless|112x112px]]
'''[[Octavian Țîcu]]'''
|21 August 1972 ({{age nts|1972|8|21}})
[[Costuleni, Ungheni|Costuleni]], [[Ungheni District]]
|[[File:Octavian Țîcu 2024 presidential campaign.png|150px]]
|'''Member of the Moldovan Parliament''' (2019–2021)
'''[[Government of Moldova|Minister of Youth and Sport]]''' (2013)
| style=background:{{color|00ADF1}}|
|{{ill|Together Bloc|ro}}
|{{yes|Registered}}<ref name="auto2"/>
|-
|'''Victoria Furtună'''
|24 February 1981 ({{age nts|1981|2|24}})
[[Hîncești]]
|[[File:Victoria Furtună 2024 presidential campaign.png|100px]] ([https://victoriafurtuna.md/ website])
|'''Anti-corruption prosecutor'''
| style=background:{{party color|Independent politician}}|
|Independent
|{{yes|Registered}}<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|title=CEC registered the last candidates nominated for the presidential elections of October 20, 2024|url=https://a.cec.md/ro/cec-a-inregistrat-ultimii-candidati-desemnati-la-alegerile-prezidentiale-2781_111380.html|publisher=Central Electoral Commission of Moldova|language=ro|date=24 September 2024}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Tudor Ulianovschi - 2020 - 10.jpg|frameless|128x128px]] '''[[Tudor Ulianovschi]]'''
|25 May 1983 ({{age nts|1983|5|25}})
[[Florești, Moldova|Florești]]
|[[File:Tudor Ulianovschi 2024 presidential campaign.png|150px]] ([https://tu.md/ website])
|'''[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Moldova)|Minister of Foreign Affairs and European Integration]]''' (2018–2019)
'''Ambassador to [[Switzerland]] and [[Liechtenstein]]; Permanent Representative to the [[United Nations Office at Geneva|United Nations]]''' (2016–2018)
| style=background:{{party color|Independent politician}}|
|Independent
|{{yes|Registered}}<ref name="auto1"/>
|-
| [[File:Natalia Morari - jun 2021.jpg|frameless|113x113px]] '''[[Natalia Morari]]'''
|12 January 1984 ({{age nts|1984|1|12}})
Hîncești
|[[File:Natalia Morari 2024 presidential campaign.svg|150px]] ([https://nataliamorari.md/ website])
|'''Journalist'''
'''Host of Morari.live'''
| style=background:{{party color|Independent politician}}|
|Independent
|{{yes|Registered}}<ref name="auto1"/>
|}

===Rejected candidates===
The following people had their registration as candidates for the election rejected by the Central Electoral Commission:

* [[Igor Munteanu]] ([[Coalition for Unity and Welfare]]{{efn|Munteanu, and the Coalition for Unity and Welfare, were a member of Together Bloc, and nominated and endorsed [[Octavian Țîcu]]; however, Munteanu and the party split from the block, claiming Țîcu was too conservative.<ref>{{cite web |title=COALITION FOR UNITY AND WELFARE (CUB) REFUSES TO SUPPORT OCTAVIAN ȚÎCU AS PRESIDENTIAL CANDIDATE |url=https://www.infotag.md/politics-en/318134/ |website=infotag.md |date=9 August 2024 |access-date=18 October 2024}}</ref>}}), [[Embassy of Moldova, Washington, D.C.|Ambassador to the United States, Canada and Mexico]] (2010–2015);<ref name="munteanu">{{cite news|url=https://www.zdg.md/stiri/candidatul-cub-igor-munteanu-nu-va-putea-candida-la-prezidentiale/|title=Candidatul CUB Igor Munteanu nu va putea candida la prezidențiale. Reacția: instrument de represalii politice contra candidaților incomozi|newspaper=[[Ziarul de Gardă]]|date=24 September 2024|language=ro}}</ref> he had previously gotten his initiative group registered,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.zdg.md/stiri/douazeci-au-vrut-13-au-reusit-cine-sunt-candidatii-la-functia-de-presedinte-care-au-convins-cec-sa-le-inscrie-grupurile-de-initiativa-care-ii-vor-sustine-in-cursa-electorala/|title=Douăzeci au vrut, 13 au reușit. Cine sunt candidații la funcția de președinte care au convins CEC să le înscrie grupurile de inițiativă care îi vor susține în cursa electorală|newspaper=Ziarul de Gardă|date=4 September 2024|language=ro}}</ref> but the CEC invalidated some of the signatures in his support submitted by his party and he fell short of the minimum number required for his registration as a candidate.<ref name="munteanu" />
* {{ill|Vasile Bolea|ro}} (independent), Member of the Moldovan Parliament (2014–present); the CEC rejected his registration as a candidate, arguing that he was backed by the bloc [[Victory (political bloc)|Victory]] and the party [[Revival Party (Moldova)|Revival]] despite having claimed to have disassociated himself from Revival to participate as an independent candidate. Revival is part of the bloc Victory, led by fugitive Moldovan oligarch [[Ilan Shor]]. The CEC did not allow Victory to participate in the election.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://newsmaker.md/ro/vasile-bolea-candidat-independent-la-alegerile-prezidentiale-respins-de-cec/|title=Vasile Bolea, candidat independent la alegerile prezidențiale, respins de CEC|first=Cristina|last=Stratulat|work=NewsMaker|date=29 August 2024|language=ro}}</ref>
* [[Valeriu Pleșca]] ([[European Social Democratic Party]]), [[Ministry of Defense (Moldova)|Minister of Defense]] (2004–2007)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://unimedia.info/ro/news/a703c5cb0d215850/ultima-ora-cec-a-respins-cererea-de-inregistrare-a-grupului-de-initiativa-al-psde-pentru-sustinerea-lui-valeriu-plesca-la-prezidentiale.html|title=Ultima oră! CEC a respins cererea de înregistrare a grupului de inițiativă al PSDE pentru susținerea lui Valeriu Pleșca la prezidențiale|website=[[Unimedia]]|date=24 August 2024|language=ro}}</ref>
* Valentin Borodachi (independent)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://unimedia.info/ro/news/b0e43510229768c7/inca-un-candidat-independent-rateaza-prezidentialele-un-fost-membru-pace-care-s-a-vrut-primar-de-briceni-nu-intra-in-cursa-pentru-presedintie.html|title=Încă un candidat independent ratează prezidențialele: Un fost membru PACE, care s-a vrut primar de Briceni, nu intră în cursa pentru Președinție|website=Unimedia|date=2 September 2024|language=ro}}</ref>
* Ludmila Corsun (independent)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://newsmaker.md/ro/pentru-ca-nu-cunoaste-limba-romana-grupul-de-initiativa-al-ludmilei-corsun-la-prezidentiale-a-fost-respins-de-cec/|title=Pentru că nu cunoaște limba română, grupul de inițiativă al Ludmilei Corsun la prezidențiale a fost respins de CEC|first=Cristina|last=Stratulat|work=NewsMaker|date=24 August 2024|language=ro}}</ref>
* Avelin Tabarcea (independent)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://radiochisinau.md/electorala-2024-cec-a-respins-solicitarile-de-inregistrare-a-doua-grupuri-de-initiativa---200676.html|title=Electorala 2024: CEC a respins solicitările de înregistrare a două grupuri de inițiativă|publisher=[[Radio Chișinău]]|date=2 September 2024|language=ro}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.zdg.md/stiri/cec-respinge-repetat-inregistrarea-grupului-de-initiativa-in-sustinerea-lui-avelin-tabarcea-asociat-cu-ilan-sor/|title=CEC respinge repetat înregistrarea grupului de inițiativă în susținerea lui Avelin Tabarcea, asociat cu Ilan Șor|newspaper=Ziarul de Gardă|date=14 September 2024|language=ro}}</ref>

Furthermore, [[Alexandru Arseni]], whose initiative group supporting his candidacy had been successfully registered, did not submit the necessary documents for his inscription on the ballot of the election,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.zdg.md/stiri/cec-a-stabilit-ordinea-de-inscriere-in-buletinul-de-vot-a-candidatilor-la-alegerile-prezidentiale/|title=CEC a stabilit ordinea de înscriere în buletinul de vot a candidaților la alegerile prezidențiale|newspaper=Ziarul de Gardă|date=25 September 2024|language=ro}}</ref> having previously failed to obtain the required number of signatures in his support within the required time frame.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://moldova.europalibera.org/a/33128792.html|title=Patru candidați la prezidențiale au fost înregistrați, iar alți opt stau la rând|first=Iurie|last=Rotari|publisher=Radio Europa Liberă Moldova|date=21 September 2024|language=ro}}</ref>

=== Declined ===
The following people were subjects of speculation about their potential candidacy within the previous months, but they rejected the speculation and announced they would not run as a candidate:

* [[Ion Ceban]], [[Mayor of Chișinău]] (2019–present)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ion Ceban spune că nu are ambiții prezidențiale și nu a decis încă dacă va candida sau nu la un nou mandat de primar al Chișinăului |url=https://agora.md/2024/05/27/ion-ceban-nu-vrea-la-carma-tarii-nu-sunt-interesat-sa-candidez-la-prezidentiale|access-date=2024-03-06 |website=Agora |language=ro}}</ref>
* [[Igor Dodon]], [[President of Moldova]] (2016–2020)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Igor Dodon pleacă din parlament pentru a lupta cu Maia Sandu la alegerile prezidențiale 2024, dacă va scăpa de dosarul Kuliok și Bahamas |url=https://conde.md/igor-dodon-pleaca-din-parlament-pentru-a-lupta-cu-maia-sandu-la-alegerile-prezidentiale-2024-daca-va-scapa-de-dosarul-kuliok-si-bahamas/ |website=CONDE.MD |access-date=2022-02-28 |language=ro |archive-date=2022-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221231018/https://conde.md/igor-dodon-pleaca-din-parlament-pentru-a-lupta-cu-maia-sandu-la-alegerile-prezidentiale-2024-daca-va-scapa-de-dosarul-kuliok-si-bahamas/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Consiliul Republican al PSRM a decis cu vot unanim, în ședința de astăzi, să sprijine candidatul poporului la funcția de președinte – Alexandr Stoianoglo |trans-title=The Republican Council of the PSRM at today's meeting unanimously decided to support the people's candidate for president Alexandru Stoianoglo |url=https://dodon.md/2024/consiliul-republican-al-psrm-a-decis-cu-vot-unanim-in-sedinta-de-astazi-sa-sprijine-candidatul-poporului-la-functia-de-presedinte-alexandr-stoianoglo-7579/ |website=dodon.md |access-date=23 August 2024 |language=ro |date=21 August 2024}}</ref>
* [[Vlad Filat]], [[Prime Minister of Moldova]] (2009–2013)<ref>{{Cite web |title=PLDM accuses government of precluding Filat from running for president|url=https://www.ipn.md/en/pldm-accuses-government-of-precluding-filat-from-running-for-president-7965_1106787.html|publisher=IPN Press Agency|date=26 August 2024}} </ref>
* [[Teodor Cârnaț]], Member of the Superior Council of Magistrates (2013–2017)

==Opinion polls==
[[File:Opinion polling for the 2024 Moldovan presidential election.svg|700px]]

=== Registered candidates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;line-height:14px;"
! rowspan="3" |Fieldwork date
! rowspan="3" |Polling firm/ Commissioner
! rowspan="3" |Sample size
![[File:Maia Sandu, President of Moldova in 2024 (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Alexandr Stoianoglo - interview for Prosecutor's Office, nov 2019 (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Renato Usatîi - sep 2020 (cropped2).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Василий Тарлев (23-02-2004).jpg|frameless|50px]]
! [[File:Ирина Влах 03 (29-07-2021).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Ion Chicu (2020-01-31).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Andrei Năstase in November 2017.jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:03.09.2020 Declarații de presă ale deputaților Octavian Țîcu și Lilian Carp (50300434218) (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
!
![[File:Tudor Ulianovschi - 2020 - 10.jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Natalia Morari - jun 2021.jpg|frameless|50px]]
! rowspan="3" |Undecided/ Abstention/ None/ Other
|-
! style="width:50px;" |[[Maia Sandu|Sandu]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Alexandr Stoianoglo|Stoianoglo]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Renato Usatîi|Usatîi]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Vasile Tarlev|Tarlev]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Irina Vlah|Vlah]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Ion Chicu|Chicu]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Andrei Năstase|Năstase]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Octavian Țîcu|Țîcu]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Victoria Furtună|Furtună]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Tudor Ulianovschi|Ulianovschi]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Natalia Morari|Morari]]
|-
![[Independent politician|{{small|{{color|#808080|Ind.}}}}]]/[[Party of Action and Solidarity|{{small|{{color|#E5CA00|PAS}}}}]]
![[Independent politician|{{small|{{color|#808080|Ind.}}}}]]/[[Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova}}|PSRM}}}}]]
![[Our Party (Moldova)|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|Our Party (Moldova)}}|PN}}}}]]
!{{small|{{color|#FF8C00|PVM}}}}
!{{small|{{color|#808080|Independent}}}}
![[Party of Development and Consolidation of Moldova|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|Party of Development and Consolidation of Moldova}}|PDCM}}}}]]
!{{small|{{color|#808080|Independent}}}}
!{{small|{{color|#00BFFF|BÎ}}}}
!{{small|{{color|#808080|Independent}}}}
!{{small|{{color|#808080|Independent}}}}
!{{small|{{color|#808080|Independent}}}}
|-
|11–16 Oct 2024
|WatchDog<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-17 |title=Sondaj Watchdog realizat prin telefon: Cine sunt favorițiii în cursa pentru prezidențiale. Scrutinul nu se va încheia din primul tur |url=https://unimedia.info/index.php/ro/news/c76382a120ebb843/sondaj-watchdog-realizat-prin-telefon-cine-sunt-favoritiii-in-cursa-pentru-prezidentiale-scrutinul-nu-se-va-incheia-din-primul-tur.html |access-date=2024-10-17 |website=Unimedia |language=ro}}</ref>
|1,034
| style="background:#ffe973" | 35.8%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 9.0%
|6.4%
|1.3%
|2.2%
|1.2%
|0.8%
|0.4%
|1.4%
|0.1%
|0.5%
|40.9%
|-
|19 Sep–10 Oct 2024
|iData–IPP<ref>{{Cite web |title=Și Barometrul Opiniei Publice o anunță câștigătoare pe Maia Sandu la alegerile prezidențiale: Cum vor vota cetățenii la referendumul pentru integrare europeană, care va avea loc duminică |url=https://www.ziarulnational.md/si-barometrul-opiniei-publice-o-anunta-castigatoare-pe-maia-sandu-la-alegerile-prezidentiale-cum-vor-vota-cetatenii-la-referendumul-pentru-integrare-europeana-care-va-avea-loc-duminica/ |website=Ziarul Național |date=2024-10-17 |access-date=2024-10-18 |language=ro}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=BOP: Câți alegători ar participa la referendumul de duminică și câți ar vota în favoarea aderării Moldovei la UE |url=https://tv8.md/2024/10/17/bop-cati-alegatori-ar-participa-la-referendumul-de-duminica-si-cati-ar-vota-in-favoarea-aderarii-moldovei-la-ue/267628 |date=2024-10-17 |access-date=2024-10-18 |language=ro}}</ref>
|1,100
| style="background:#ffe973" | 29.5%
|11.6%
| style="background:#5EBCFF" | 13.3%
|6.1%
|4.5%
|3.4%
|1.1%
|1.3%
|5.5%
|4.3%
|0.4%
|18.9%
|-
|13–22 Sep 2024
|ASPEN–APEC–WatchDog<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dacă duminica viitoare s-ar organiza alegeri prezidențiale, Maia Sandu ar lua cele mai multe voturi. Ce arată datele unui sondaj realizat de WatchDog – FOTO |url=https://protv.md/politic/daca-duminica-viitoare-s-ar-organiza-alegeri-preziden%C8%9Biale-maia-sandu-ar-lua-cele-mai-multe-voturi-ce-arata-datele-unui-sondaj-realizat-de-watch-dog-foto---2701231.html |access-date=2024-10-07 |publisher=ProTV Chișinău |language=ro}}</ref>
|1,021
| style="background:#ffe973" | 36.1%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 10.1%
|7.5%
|1.8%
|4.1%
|2.5%
|0.6%
|0.8%
|0.5%
|0.8%
|0.6%
|34.6%
|-
|13–18 Sep 2024
|iData<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=23 September 2024 |title=POLL: PRESIDENT MAIA SANDU LEADS AMONG PRESIDENTIAL CANDIDATES, 26.8% OF RESPONDENTS ARE READY TO VOTE FOR HER|url=https://www.infotag.md/politics-en/319057/ |access-date=23 September 2024}}</ref>
|1,021
| style="background:#ffe973" | 26.8%
|11.2%
| style="background:#5EBCFF" | 12.7%
|6.3%
|6.1%
|4.1%
|0.9%
|0.7%
|0.1%
|3.5%
|1.8%
|25.8%
|-
|30 Aug–2 Sep 2024
|Intellect Group<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 September 2024 |title=Un nou sondaj privind prezidențialele: Maia Sandu ar obține 24,5%... |url=https://tribuna.md/2024/09/06/un-nou-sondaj-privind-prezidentialele-maia-sandu-ar-obtine-245/ |access-date=7 September 2024}}</ref>
|596
| style="background:#ffe973" | 24.5%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 12.0%
|6.2%
|4.7%
|5.0%
|1.5%
|3.5%
|–
|–
|–
|2.0%
|40.6%
|-
|19–25 Aug 2024
|iData<ref>{{Cite web |title=Agora |url=https://agora.md/2024/09/03/prezidentiale-cu-cine-ar-urma-sa-concureze-maia-sandu-in-al-doilea-tur-sondaj |access-date=2024-09-07 |website=Agora}}</ref>
|1,004
| style="background:#ffe973" | 27.5%
|11.4%
|style="background:#5EBCFF" | 11.6%
|5.8%
|3.3%
|2.8%
|1.2%
|–
|–
|–
|–
|36.4%
|-
|20–23 Aug 2024
|CBS Research–WatchDog<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 August 2024 |title=Preferințele electorale în cazul alegerilor prezidențiale și parlamentare rezultatele unui sondaj de opinie/ |url=https://watchdog.md/polls/208281/preferintele-electorale-in-cazul-alegerilor-prezidentiale-si-parlamentare-rezultatele-unui-sondaj-de-opinie/}}</ref>
|1,011
| style="background:#ffe973" | 35.5%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 9.9%
|6.8%
|1.8%
|5.8%
|3.0%
|1.2%
|1.3%
|0.3%
|0.2%
|0.2%
|34.0%
|-
|8–21 Jul 2024
|IMAS<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-25 |title=Sondaj IMAS. Surprizele de la Prezidențiale: Trei candidați luptă crâncen pentru a intra în turul II cu Maia Sandu |url=https://unimedia.info/ro/news/7bbffc06566d7a4e/sondaj-imas-surprizele-de-la-prezidentiale-trei-candidati-lupta-crancen-pentru-a-intra-in-turul-ii-cu-maia-sandu.html |access-date=2024-07-25 |website=Unimedia |language=ro}}</ref>
|1,093
| style="background:#ffe973" | 33.7%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 11.5%
|10.8%
|1.2%
|8.9%
|6.0%
|1.4%
|0.9%
|–
|0.1%
|1.1%
|24.4%
|}

===Second round===
====Sandu vs. Stoianoglo====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;line-height:14px;"
! rowspan="3" |Fieldwork date
! rowspan="3" |Polling firm/ Commissioner
! rowspan="3" |Sample size
![[File:Maia Sandu, President of Moldova in 2024 (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Alexandr Stoianoglo - interview for Prosecutor's Office, nov 2019 (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
! rowspan="3" |None/ Undecided/ Abstention
|-
! style="width:50px;" |[[Maia Sandu|Sandu]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Alexandr Stoianoglo|Stoianoglo]]
|-
![[Independent politician|{{small|{{color|#808080|Ind.}}}}]]/[[Party of Action and Solidarity|{{small|{{color|#E5CA00|PAS}}}}]]
![[Independent politician|{{small|{{color|#808080|Ind.}}}}]]/[[Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova}}|PSRM}}}}]]
|-
|19 Sep–10 Oct 2024
|iData
|1,100
| style="background:#ffe973" | '''40.6%'''
|36.4%
|23%
|}

===Hypothetical polling===

{{hidden begin|titlestyle=background:#cff|title=Hypothetical polling for the 2024 Moldovan presidential election|contentstyle=border:solid 1px silver; padding:8px; background:white;}}

====Opinion polls before the start of the campaign====

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;line-height:14px;"
! rowspan="3" |Fieldwork date
! rowspan="3" |Polling firm/ Commissioner
! rowspan="3" |Sample size
![[File:Maia Sandu, President of Moldova in 2024 (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Igor Dodon in May 2019 (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Alexandr Stoianoglo - interview for Prosecutor's Office, nov 2019 (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
! [[File:Ion Ceban (May 2017).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Ilan Shor in 2016 (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Vladimir Voronin 2024.jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Ion Chicu (2020-01-31).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Marina Tauber in July 2019.jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Renato Usatîi - sep 2020 (cropped2).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Ирина Влах 03 (29-07-2021).jpg|frameless|50px]]
! rowspan="3" |Other
! rowspan="3" |None/ Undecided/ Abstention
|-
! style="width:50px;" |[[Maia Sandu|Sandu]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Igor Dodon|Dodon]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Alexandr Stoianoglo|Stoianoglo]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Ion Ceban|Ceban]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Ilan Shor|Shor]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Vladimir Voronin|Voronin]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Ion Chicu|Chicu]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Marina Tauber|Tauber]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Renato Usatîi|Usatîi]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Irina Vlah|Vlah]]
|-
![[Independent politician|{{small|{{color|#808080|Ind.}}}}]]/[[Party of Action and Solidarity|{{small|{{color|#E5CA00|PAS}}}}]]
![[Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova}}|PSRM}}}}]]
![[Independent politician|{{small|{{color|#808080|Ind.}}}}]]/[[Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova}}|PSRM}}}}]]
![[National Alternative Movement|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|National Alternative Movement}}|MAN}}}}]]
![[Șor Party|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|Șor Party}}|ȘOR}}}}]]
![[Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova}}|PCRM}}}}]]
![[Party of Development and Consolidation of Moldova|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|Party of Development and Consolidation of Moldova}}|PDCM}}}}]]
![[Șor Party|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|Șor Party}}|ȘOR}}}}]]
![[Our Party (Moldova)|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|Our Party (Moldova)}}|PN}}}}]]
!{{small|{{color|#808080|Independent}}}}
|-
|28 Jun–18 Jul 2024
|[https://ipre.md/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Sondaj-IPRE_CBS-AXA-30.07.2024_fin-1.pdf CBS-AXA-IPRE]
|1,119
| style="background:#ffe973" | 30.3%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 13.0%
|1.0%
|5.4%
|2.5%
|3.4%
|3.2%
|–
|6.5%
|5.6%
|6.3%
|23%
|-
|23 May–13 Jun 2024
|IRI<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 July 2024 |title=SONDAJ IRI: 34% AR VOTA CU MAIA SANDU LA ALEGERILE PREZIDENȚIALE; 18% – CU IGOR DODON |url=https://tribuna.md/2024/07/16/iri-34-ar-vota-cu-maia-sandu-la-alegerile-prezidentiale-18-cu-igor-dodon/}}</ref>
|1,225
| style="background:#ffe973" | 34%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 18%
|–
|4%
|4%
|–
|5%
|–
|5%
|4%
|3%
|24%
|-
|22–27 May 2024
|iData<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Sondaj: Pe cine ar vota moldovenii în cazul unor alegeri prezidențiale |url=https://stiri.md/article/politica/sondaj-pe-cine-ar-vota-moldovenii-in-cazul-unor-alegeri-prezidentiale-2 |access-date=2024-05-29 |website=stiri.md}}</ref>
|1,022
| style="background:#ffe973" | 30.4%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 14.3%
|–
|3.0%
|–
|2.5%
|6.1%
|–
|3.9%
|1.6%
|6.1%
|32.1%
|-
|2–19 May 2024
|IMAS<ref name=":1"/>
|1,088
| style="background:#ffe973" | 35.2%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 16.4%
|–
|5.9%
|–
|5.3%
|5.7%
|–
|4.7%
|4.1%
|7.8%
|14.9%
|-
| data-sort-value="2024-04-16" |6–13 Apr 2024
|CBS-AXA–WatchDog<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://watchdog.md/polls/208121/comunitatea-watchdog-md-si-cbs-research-au-prezentat-rezultatele-unui-sondaj-de-opinie-privind-perceptia-preferintelor-politice-si-impactul-dezinformarii//|title=Studiu-sociologic-1_compressed.pdf|publisher=Comunitatea Watchdog |accessdate=2024-04-16|lang=ro}}</ref>
|1,008
| style="background:#ffe973" | 35.1%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 15.8%
|–
|5.4%
|1.7%
|4.6%
|5.6%
|–
|3.9%
|4.5%
|5.3%
|18.0%
|-
| data-sort-value="2024-03-24" |18–24 Mar 2024
|iData<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipn.md/ro/maia-sandu-si-igor-dodon-ar-iesi-in-turul-7967_1103603.html|title=Maia Sandu și Igor Dodon ar ieși în turul doi la prezidențiale, Barometrul iData |date=28 March 2024 |publisher=IPN Press Agency|accessdate=2024-03-30|lang=ro}}</ref>
|1,131
| style="background:#ffe973" | 27.9%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 13.3%
|–
|4.4%
|–
|2.6%
|5.7%
|–
|3.0%
|4.3%
|6.5%
|32.3%
|-
|27 Jan–22 Feb 2024
|[[International Republican Institute|IRI]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iri.org/resources/national-survey-of-moldova-jan-feb-2024/|title=National Survey of Moldova | date=Jan–Feb 2024|publisher=[[International Republican Institute]] |accessdate=2024-03-30|lang=en}}</ref>
|1,247
| style="background:#ffe973" | 30%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 24%
|–
|6%
|4%
|–
|5%
|–
|4%
|4%
|1%
|22%
|-
|7–12 Feb 2024
|CBS Research<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Cine ar putea deveni viitorul președinte al Republicii Moldova – sondaj |url=https://noi.md/md/politica/cine-ar-putea-deveni-viitorul-presedinte-al-republicii-moldova-sondaj |access-date=2024-03-07 |website=noi.md |language=ro}}</ref>
|1,104
| style="background:#ffe973" | 29.8%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 14.8%
|–
|4.5%
|8.5%
|1.6%
|5.0%
|–
|4.4%
|4.8%
|4.1%
|22.4%
|-
| data-sort-value="2024-01-30" |26–30 Jan 2024
|iData<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://noi.md/md/politica/sondaj-cite-de-reale-sint-sansele-maiei-sandu-de-a-cistiga-un-nou-mandat-prezidentia|title=Sondaj: Cîte de reale sînt șansele Maiei Sandu de a cîștiga un nou mandat prezidenția |publisher=noi.md|accessdate=2024-02-11|lang=ro}}</ref>
|1,011
| style="background:#ffe973" | 24.1%
| colspan="10" | 29.7%
|46.2%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-12-16" |29 Nov–16 Dec 2023
|IMAS<ref name="imas-dec23">{{Cite web |title=barometrul socio-politic |url=https://imas.md/pic/archives/42/[imas]%20barometrul%20socio-politic_decembrie%202023.pdf?fbclid=IwAR14nTOcy1ndA2SCV1H8h_ZWbFZHBFtEVwfsLeTfOu2v2jYjpqkyPQ20CrY |access-date=2023-12-29 |language=ro}}</ref>
|954
| style="background:#ffe973" | 30.1%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 24.0%
|–
|8.1%
|–
|2.7%
|6.1%
|–
|4.1%
|5.6%
|6.0%
|13.3%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-09-24" |2–24 Sep 2023
|IMAS<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unimedia.info/ro/news/9528a31e416be8a0/sandu-si-dodon-favoriti-la-prezidentiale-printre-preferinte-apare-irina-vlah-iar-3-lideri-de-partide-se-inghesuie-pe-locul-3.html|title=Sandu și Dodon, favoriți la prezidențiale: Printre preferințe apare Irina Vlah, iar 3 lideri de partide se înghesuie pe locul 3|website=Unimedia|date=2023-09-28|accessdate=2023-10-06|language=ro}}</ref>
|822
| style="background:#ffe973" | 27.8%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 16.0%
|–
|6.0%
|–
|4.3%
|5.9%
|–
|6.0%
|4.9%
|4.7%
|24.4%
|-
|9–23 Aug 2023
|CBS-AXA–IPP<ref>{{Cite web |title=Barometrul Opiniei Publice, septembrie 2023 |url=https://ipp.md/2023-09/barometrul-opiniei-publice-septembrie-2023/ |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=ipp.md |language=ro}}</ref>
|1,215
| style="background:#ffe973" | 29.4%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 18.1%
|–
|5.6%
|3.2%
|1.5%
|4.1%
|–
|5.1%
|–
|3.0%
|30.1%
|-
|13–28 Jun 2023
|CBS-AXA–IPRE<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-11 |title=Sondaj IPRE: Sandu, urmată de Dodon și Ceban. Cum ar vota moldovenii, dacă duminica viitoare ar avea loc alegeri prezidențiale |url=https://unimedia.info/ro/news/62aea232f661cbbd/sondaj-ipre-sandu-urmata-de-dodon-si-ceban-cum-ar-vota-moldovenii-daca-duminica-viitoare-ar-avea-loc-alegeri-prezidentiale.html |access-date=2023-07-11 |website=Unimedia |language=ro}}</ref>
|1,120
| style="background:#ffe973" | 32.6%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 17.8%
|–
|5.3%
|3.3%
|4.3%
|2.9%
|3.0%
|4.3%
|–
|1.5%
|24.0%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-06-19" |10–19 Jun 2023
|CBS-AXA–WatchDog<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tv8.md/2023/27/06/infografic-sondaj-watch-dog-trei-partide-ar-ajunge-in-legislativ-in-cazul-unor-alegeri-parlamentare-preferintele-cetatenilor/233080|title=/INFOGRAFIC/ Sondaj WatchDog: Trei partide ar ajunge în Legislativ în cazul unor alegeri parlamentare. Preferințele cetățenilor |publisher=tv8.md|accessdate=2023-06-27|lang=ro}}</ref>
|1,121
| style="background:#ffe973" | 37.9%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 14.2%
|–
|6.2%
|2.5%
|4.7%
|5.0%
|3.5%
|4.7%
|–
|3.0%
|18.3%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-05-19" |2–19 May 2023
|IMAS<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-esential-26284230-maia-sandu-umar-umar-pro-rusul-igor-dodon-daca-duminica-alegeri-republica-moldova-dodon-castiga-turul-sondaj-imas.htm|title=Maia Sandu, umăr la umăr cu pro-rusul Igor Dodon, dacă duminică ar fi alegeri în Republica Moldova / Dodon ar câștiga turul II – sondaj IMAS|date=2023-05-23|accessdate=2023-06-20|lang=ro}}</ref>
|1,112
| style="background:#ffe973" | 28.5%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 23.9%
|–
|8.3%
|–
|3.7%
|7.2%
|2.7%
|3.8%
|–
|4.1%
|18.0%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-05-08" |27 Apr–8 May 2023
|iData<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://diez.md/2023/05/15/sondaj-in-cazul-unor-alegeri-parlamentare-in-moldova-trei-formatiuni-politice-ar-intra-in-parlament/|title=(sondaj) În cazul unor alegeri parlamentare în Moldova, trei formațiuni politice ar intra în Parlament |author=Petru Beșleaga |publisher=diez.md|accessdate=2023-04-16|lang=ro}}</ref>
|1,049
| style="background:#ffe973" | 30.4%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 18.3%
|–
|6.7%
|12.2%
|–
|5.9%
|–
|4.5%
|2.8%
|1.5%
|17.7%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-04-13" |4–13 Apr 2023
|CBS-AXA–WatchDog<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tvrmoldova.md/article/f201cf1ea28d384e/pas-ar-avea-cele-mai-multe-mandate-de-deputat-iar-maia-sandu-ar-castiga-detasat-primul-tur-daca-duminica-viitoare-ar-avea-loc-alegeri.html|title=SONDAJ. PAS ar avea cele mai multe mandate de deputat, iar Maia Sandu ar câștiga detașat primul tur, dacă duminica viitoare ar avea loc alegeri|publisher=tvrmoldova.md|accessdate=2023-04-20|lang=ro}}</ref>
|1,015
| style="background:#ffe973" | 38.3%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 18.4%
|–
|6.2%
|2.5%
|3.2%
|4.9%
|2.2%
|3.2%
|–
|1.9%
|19.2%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-03-26" |15–26 Mar 2023
|iData<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribuna.md/2023/04/03/prezidentiale-maia-sandu-ar-obtine-29-4-din-voturile-cetatenilor-igor-dodon-cu-17-6/|title=PREZIDENȚIALE: MAIA SANDU AR OBȚINE 29.4% DIN VOTURILE CETĂȚENILOR, IGOR DODON CU 17.6%|publisher=tribuna.md|accessdate=2023-04-11|language=ro}}</ref>
|1,065
| style="background:#ffe973" | 29.4%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 17.6%
|–
|7.2%
|9.2%
|0.9%
|5.4%
|–
|1.7%
|3.1%
|1.7%
|23.9%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-03-03" |24 Feb–3 Mar 2023
|CBS-AXA–WatchDog<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tv8.md/2023/09/03/sondaj-watch-dog-trei-partide-ar-accede-in-parlament-daca-duminica-viitoare-ar-avea-loc-alegeri/224318|title=Sondaj WatchDog: Trei partide ar accede în Parlament, dacă duminica viitoare ar avea loc alegeri|publisher=tv8.md|accessdate=2023-03-10|lang=ro}}</ref>
|1,000
| style="background:#ffe973" | 31.8%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 17.8%
|–
|4.7%
|2.0%
|3.5%
|3.3%
|1.8%
|2.0%
|2.1%
|2.1%
|28.8%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-02-23" |6–23 Feb 2023
|IMAS<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://psnews.ro/sondaj-daca-duminica-viitoare-ar-avea-loc-alegeri-in-parlamentul-r-moldova-ar-accede-trei-formatiuni-749930/|title=SONDAJ Dacă duminica viitoare ar avea loc alegeri, în Parlamentul R. Moldova ar accede trei formațiuni|date=2023-02-23|accessdate=2023-02-23|lang=ro}}</ref>
|1,100
| style="background:#ffe973" | 25.2%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 20.4%
|–
|8.2%
|–
|4.9%
|5.4%
|4.3%
|3.4%
|–
|3.8%
|24.6%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-01-26" |17–26 Jan 2023
|CBS-AXA–WatchDog<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cdn.g4media.ro/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/DOC-20230203-WA0003..pdf|title=Sondaj Socio-Politic Republica Moldova Ianuarie 2023|publisher=watchdog.md|accessdate=2023-02-09|lang=ro}}</ref>
|1,001
| style="background:#ffe973" | 28.2%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 17.6%
|–
|8.5%
|4.2%
|3.9%
|3.9%
|2.4%
|3.5%
|1.8%
|4.0%
|21.8%
|-
| data-sort-value="2022-10-11" |15–26 Dec 2022
|iData<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://voceabasarabiei.md/sondaj-maia-sandu-ar-acumula-cele-mai-multe-voturi-in-cazul-in-care-duminica-viitoare-ar-avea-loc-alegeri-prezidentiale/|title=SONDAJ: Maia Sandu ar acumula cele mai multe voturi, în cazul în care duminica viitoare ar avea loc alegeri prezidențiale|date=29 December 2022 |publisher=vocebasarabiei.md|accessdate=2023-01-01|language=ro}}</ref>
|1,006
| style="background:#ffe973" | 27.2%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 24.1%
|–
|10.0%
|13.4%
|0.6%
|5.0%
|0.2%
|0.5%
|0.1%
|3.0%
|16.0%
|-
|10–29 Nov 2022
|IMAS<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ar rămână Maia Sandu preșidentele Republicii Moldova dacă duminica viitoare ar avea loc alegerile prezidențiale. Ce arată datele unui sondaj – FOTO |url=https://protv.md/politic/ar-ramane-maia-sandu-presedintele-republicii-moldova-daca-duminica-viitoare-ar-avea-loc-alegerile-prezidentiale-ce-arata-datele-unui-sondaj-foto---2635075.html |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=www.protv.md |language=ro}}</ref>
|1,100
| style="background:#ffe973" | 26.9%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 19.6%
|–
|8.8%
|–
|4.0%
|7.1%
|2.8%
|2.2%
|–
|7.3%
|21.3%
|-
| data-sort-value="2022-10-11" |29 Oct–10 Nov 2022
|CBS Research/IPP<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://moldova.europalibera.org/a/bop-2022-sandu-continu%C4%83-s%C4%83-se-bucure-de-%C3%AEncrederea-moldovenilor-iar-%C3%AEn-parlament-ar-accede-trei-partide/32156941.html|title=BOP 2022: Sandu continuă să se bucure de încrederea moldovenilor, iar în Parlament ar accede trei partide|publisher=Radio Europa Liberă Moldova|accessdate=2023-01-01|language=ro}}</ref>
|1,134
| style="background:#ffe973" | 27.3%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 15.4%
|–
|7.1%
|9.1%
|4.3%
|–
|–
|2.9%
|–
|3.5%
|30.5%
|-
| data-sort-value="2022-10-11" |29 Sep–11 Oct 2022
|IDIS–CBS Research–IPRI<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twnews.it/md-news/dodon-nicio-sansa-sa-ajunga-din-nou-presedintele-r-moldova-primii-trei-favoriti-la-sefia-statului|title=Dodon, nicio șansă să ajungă din nou președintele R. Moldova: Primii TREI favoriți la șefia statului|publisher=twnews.it|accessdate=2022-10-29|language=ro}}</ref>
|1,066
| style="background:#ffe973" | 34.1%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 19.1%
|–
|7.1%
|6.3%
|5.2%
|2.5%
|–
|3.3%
|1.2%
|3.2%
|18.1%
|-
|6–18 Jul 2022
|IMAS<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-20 |title=GALERIE FOTO: Foto: publika.md – SONDAJ IMAS: Moldovenii vor alegeri parlamentare și prezidențiale anticipate. Pentru cine ar vota? |url=https://www.publika.md/sondaj-imas-moldovenii-vor-alegeri-parlamentare-si-prezidentiale-anticipate-pentru-cine-ar-vota_3127627.html |access-date=2022-07-20 |website=Publika.md |language=ro}}</ref>
|1,007
| style="background:#ffe973" | 24.4%
| style="background:#DB6E61" | 25.4%
|–
|9.2%
|–
|7.1%
|5.2%
|3.6%
|2.8%
|–
|{{circa}} 5.4%
|16.0%
|}

====Hypothetical second rounds====

===== Sandu vs. Ceban =====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;line-height:14px;"
! rowspan="3" |Fieldwork date
! rowspan="3" |Polling firm/ Commissioner
! rowspan="3" |Sample size
![[File:Maia Sandu, President of Moldova in 2024 (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Ion Ceban (May 2017).jpg|frameless|50px]]
! rowspan="3" |None/ Undecided/ Abstention
|-
! style="width:50px;" |[[Maia Sandu|Sandu]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Ion Ceban|Ceban]]
|-
![[Independent politician|{{small|{{color|#808080|Ind.}}}}]]/[[Party of Action and Solidarity|{{small|{{color|#E5CA00|PAS}}}}]]
![[National Alternative Movement|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|National Alternative Movement}}|MAN}}}}]]
|-
|6–13 Apr 2024
|CBS-AXA–WatchDog
|1,008
|style="background:#ffe973"| '''40.2%'''
|32.3%
|27.4%
|-
|7–12 Feb 2024
|CBS Research<ref name=":0" />
|1,104
|style="background:#ffe973"| '''39.5%'''
|35%
|25.8%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-12-16"|29 Nov–16 Dec 2023
|IMAS<ref name="imas-dec23" />
|954
|34%
|style="background:#{{HexShade|{{party color|National Alternative Movement}}|0.7}}| '''42%'''
|24%
|-
|}

=====Sandu vs. Chicu=====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;line-height:14px;"
! rowspan="3" |Fieldwork date
! rowspan="3" |Polling firm/ Commissioner
! rowspan="3" |Sample size
![[File:Maia Sandu, President of Moldova in 2024 (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Ion Chicu (2020-01-31).jpg|frameless|50px]]
! rowspan="3" |None/ Undecided/ Abstention
|-
! style="width:50px;" |[[Maia Sandu|Sandu]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Ion Chicu|Chicu]]
|-
![[Independent politician|{{small|{{color|#808080|Ind.}}}}]]/[[Party of Action and Solidarity|{{small|{{color|#E5CA00|PAS}}}}]]
![[Party of Development and Consolidation of Moldova|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|Party of Development and Consolidation of Moldova}}|PDCM}}}}]]
|-
|19 Sep–10 Oct 2024
|iData
|1,100
|style="background:#ffe973"| '''40.7%'''
|30.1%
|29.2%
|}

=====Sandu vs. Dodon=====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;line-height:14px;"
! rowspan="3" |Fieldwork date
! rowspan="3" |Polling firm/ Commissioner
! rowspan="3" |Sample size
![[File:Maia Sandu, President of Moldova in 2024 (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Igor Dodon in May 2019 (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
! rowspan="3" |None/ Undecided/ Abstention
|-
! style="width:50px;" |[[Maia Sandu|Sandu]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Igor Dodon|Dodon]]
|-
![[Independent politician|{{small|{{color|#808080|Ind.}}}}]]/[[Party of Action and Solidarity|{{small|{{color|#E5CA00|PAS}}}}]]
![[Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova}}|PSRM}}}}]]
|-
|2–19 May 2024
|IMAS<ref name=":1" />
|1,088
|41.3%
|style="background:#DB6E61"| '''43.5%'''
|15.3%
|-
|6–13 Apr 2024
|CBS-AXA–WatchDog
|1,008
|style="background:#ffe973"| '''42.2%'''
|34.9%
|22.9%
|-
|7–12 Feb 2024
|CBS Research<ref name=":0" />
|1,104
|style="background:#ffe973"| '''40.2%'''
|39.3%
|20.4%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-12-16"|29 Nov–16 Dec 2023
|IMAS<ref name="imas-dec23" />
|954
|35%
|style="background:#DB6E61"| '''46%'''
|19%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-05-19"|2–19 May 2023
|IMAS<ref name="auto"/>
|1,112
|38%
|style="background:#DB6E61"| '''45%'''
|17%
|-
|}

=====Sandu vs. Usatîi=====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;line-height:14px;"
! rowspan="3" |Fieldwork date
! rowspan="3" |Polling firm/ Commissioner
! rowspan="3" |Sample size
![[File:Maia Sandu, President of Moldova in 2024 (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Renato Usatîi - sep 2020 (cropped2).jpg|frameless|50px]]
! rowspan="3" |None/ Undecided/ Abstention
|-
! style="width:50px;" |[[Maia Sandu|Sandu]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Renato Usatîi|Usatîi]]
|-
![[Independent politician|{{small|{{color|#808080|Ind.}}}}]]/[[Party of Action and Solidarity|{{small|{{color|#E5CA00|PAS}}}}]]
![[Our Party (Moldova)|{{small|{{color|{{Party color|Our Party (Moldova)}}|PN}}}}]]
|-
|19 Sep–10 Oct 2024
|iData
|1,100
|style="background:#ffe973"| '''38.6%'''
|35.6%
|25.8%
|-
|13–18 Sep 2024
|iData<ref name=":2" />
|1,021
|style="background:#ffe973"| '''35.1%'''
|32.2%
|32.7%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-12-16"|29 Nov–16 Dec 2023
|IMAS<ref name="imas-dec23" />
|954
|style="background:#ffe973"| '''37%'''
|30%
|33%
|}

=====Sandu vs. Vlah=====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;line-height:14px;"
! rowspan="3" |Fieldwork date
! rowspan="3" |Polling firm/ Commissioner
! rowspan="3" |Sample size
![[File:Maia Sandu, President of Moldova in 2024 (cropped).jpg|frameless|50px]]
![[File:Ирина Влах 03 (29-07-2021).jpg|frameless|50px]]
! rowspan="3" |None/ Undecided/ Abstention
|-
! style="width:50px;" |[[Maia Sandu|Sandu]]
! style="width:50px;" |[[Irina Vlah|Vlah]]
|-
![[Independent politician|{{small|{{color|#808080|Ind.}}}}]]/[[Party of Action and Solidarity|{{small|{{color|#E5CA00|PAS}}}}]]
!{{small|{{color|#808080|Independent}}}}
|-
|19 Sep–10 Oct 2024
|iData
|1,100
|style="background:#ffe973"| '''40.2%'''
|33.2%
|26.6%
|-
|6–13 Apr 2024
|CBS-AXA–WatchDog
|1,008
|style="background:#ffe973"| '''43.2%'''
|28.3%
|28.5%
|-
|7–12 Feb 2024
|CBS Research<ref name=":0" />
|1,104
|style="background:#ffe973"| '''42.2%'''
|33%
|24.7%
|-
| data-sort-value="2023-12-16"|29 Nov–16 Dec 2023
|IMAS<ref name="imas-dec23" />
|954
|style="background:#ffe973"| '''38%'''
|35%
|27%
|-
|}

{{hidden end}}

==Endorsements==

===Party endorsements===

The table below lists the political parties and other political organizations that supported any of the candidates in the first and second rounds of the presidential election.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" | Party/''organization''
! Ideology
! colspan="2" | First round
! colspan="2" | Second round
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Party of Action and Solidarity}};" |
| [[Party of Action and Solidarity]]
| [[Liberalism]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Party of Action and Solidarity}};" |
| [[Maia Sandu]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Party of Action and Solidarity}};" |
| [[Maia Sandu]]
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova}};" |
| [[Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova]]
| [[Socialism]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova}};" |
| [[Alexandr Stoianoglo]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova}};" |
| [[Alexandr Stoianoglo]]
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Common Action Party – Civil Congress}};" |
| [[Common Action Party – Civil Congress]]
| [[Socialist democracy]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova}};" |
| [[Alexandr Stoianoglo]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=NEWTV |title=New TV – Congresul Civic, în frunte cu Tkaciuk, l-ar putea susține pe Stoianoglo la alegerile prezidențiale |url=https://newtv.md/toate-stirile/congresul-civic-in-frunte-cu-tkaciuk-il-sustine-pe-stoianoglo-la-alegerile-prezidentiale |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=newtv.md |language=ro}}</ref>
| style="background-color: {{party color|Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova}};" |
| [[Alexandr Stoianoglo]]
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Our Party (Moldova)}};" |
| [[Our Party (Moldova)|Our Party]]
| [[Social conservatism]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Our Party (Moldova)}};" |
| [[Renato Usatîi]]
| colspan="2" |No endorsement<ref name=":4" />
|-
| style="background-color: #5CE3E9;" |
| ''[[Platform Moldova]]''{{efn|Political organization, not a party, led by [[Irina Vlah]]}}
| [[Left-wing populism]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}};" |
| [[Irina Vlah]]
| style="background-color: #ce3a33;" |
| Against Sandu<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Ирина Влах – гражданам: "Спасите страну! Призываю вас принять активное участие в выборах 3 ноября" |url=https://noi.md/ru/politika/irina-vlah-grazhdanam-spasite-stranu-prizyvayu-vas-prinyati-aktivnoe-uchastie-v-vyborah-3-noyabrya |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=noi.md |language=ru}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: #FF7A03;" |
| [[Future of Moldova Party]]
| [[Left-wing nationalism]]
| style="background-color: #FF7A03;" |
| [[Vasile Tarlev]]
| style="background-color: #ce3a33;" |
| Against Sandu<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Vasile Tarlev își cheamă susținătorii să voteze împotriva Maiei Sandu: "Fiecare om cinstit are o singură alegere" |url=https://tv8.md/2024/10/26/vasile-tarlev-isi-cheama-sustinatorii-sa-voteze-impotriva-maiei-sandu-fiecare-om-cinstit-are-o-singura-alegere/268345 |access-date=2024-10-26 |website=tv8.md |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: {{Party color|Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova}};" |
| [[Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova]]
| [[Communism]]
| style="background-color: #FF7A03;" |
| [[Vasile Tarlev]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova}};" |
| [[Alexandr Stoianoglo]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-25 |title=PCRM îl susține pe Alexandr Stoianoglo în turul doi al prezidențialelor: "Cu Maia Sandu țara va pierde suveranitatea şi identitatea" |url=https://unimedia.info/ro/news/78e7e22438b72882/pcrm-il-sustine-pe-alexandr-stoianoglo-in-turul-doi-al-prezidentialelor-cu-maia-sandu-tara-va-pierde-suveranitatea-si-identitatea.html |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=UNIMEDIA |language=ro}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: {{Party color|Party of Development and Consolidation of Moldova}};" |
| [[Party of Development and Consolidation of Moldova|Party of Development and Consolidation]]
| [[Christian democracy]]
| style="background-color: {{Party color|Party of Development and Consolidation of Moldova}};" |
| [[Ion Chicu]]
| style="background-color: #ce3a33;" |
| Against Sandu<ref name=":6" />
|-
| style="background-color: {{Party color|Dignity and Truth Platform}};" |
| [[Dignity and Truth Platform]]{{efn|name=impreuna|Member party of the {{ill|Together Bloc|ro|Blocul „Împreună"}}}}
| [[Liberalism]]
| rowspan="3" style="background-color: #00ADF1;" |
| rowspan="3" | [[Octavian Țîcu]]
| rowspan="3" style="background-color: #FFE97F;" |
| rowspan="3" | Against Stoianoglo<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2024-10-30 |title=Țîcu și-a îndemnat susținătorii să voteze împotriva lui Stoianoglo. |url=https://stiri.md/article/social/ticu-si-a-indemnat-sustinatorii-sa-voteze-impotriva-lui-stoianoglo |access-date=2024-10-30 |website=stiri.md |language=ro-RO}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: #0060AF;" |
| {{ill|Party of Change|ro|Partidul Schimbării}}{{efn|name=impreuna}}
| [[Conservative liberalism]]
|-
| style="background-color: #48499B;" |
| [[League of Cities and Communes]]{{efn|name=impreuna}}
| [[Localism (politics)|Localism]]
|-
| style="background-color: {{Party color|Victory (political bloc)}};" |
|''[[Victory (political bloc)|Victory]]''{{efn|Political bloc, not a party, led by [[Ilan Shor]]}}
|[[Russophilia]]
| style="background-color: #ce3a33;" |
| Against Sandu<ref>{{Cite web |last=Достоевский |first=Генри |date=2024-10-19 |title=Молдавский оппозиционер Шор призвал выбрать «неСанду» президентом республики |url=https://rtvi.com/news/moldavskij-oppoziczioner-shor-prizval-vybrat-nesandu-prezidentom-respubliki/ |access-date=2024-11-01 |website=Главные новости в России и мире – RTVI |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-19 |title=Шор назвал своего кандидата |url=https://newsmd.md/blogs/28486-shor-nazval-svoego-kandidata.html |access-date=2024-11-01 |website=Новости в Молдове и мире. Независимый информационный портал |language=ru-RU}}</ref>{{Efn|Allegedly supported Victoria Furtună<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nistor |first=Mariuța |date=2024-10-12 |title=VIDEO/ Victoria Furtună, candidata (in)dependentă de rețeaua lui Șor |url=https://www.zdg.md/stiri/video-victoria-furtuna-candidata-independenta-de-reteaua-lui-sor/ |access-date=2024-10-31 |website=Ziarul de Gardă |language=ro-RO}}</ref>}}
| style="background-color: #ce3a33;" |
| Against Sandu<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-31 |title=/VIDEO/ Blocul lui Șor îl va susține pe Stoianoglo la prezidențiale? Răspunsurile lui Bolea și Tauber |url=https://tv8.md/2024/10/31/video-blocul-lui-sor-il-va-sustine-pe-stoianoglo-la-prezidentiale-raspunsurile-lui-bolea-si-tauber/268610 |access-date=2024-10-31 |website=tv8.md |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: {{Party color|Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (Moldova)}};" |
| [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (Moldova)|Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]]
| [[Social liberalism]]
| style="background-color: {{Party color|Other}};" |
| ''No candidate''
| style="background-color: #FFE97F;" |
| Against Stoianoglo<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2024-10-24 |title=Stoianoglo încearcă să ne întoarcă din drumul nostru European. Așteptarea unui "consens complet" este o capcană care ar amâna la nesfârșit reformele necesare și progresul. |url=https://alde.md/stoianoglo-incearca-sa-ne-intoarca-din-drumul-nostru-european-asteptarea-unui-consens-complet-este-o-capcana-care-ar-amana-la-nesfarsit-reformele-necesare-si-progresul/ |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=Alianța Liberalilor și Democraților pentru Europa |language=ro-RO}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: {{Party color|Liberal Democratic Party of Moldova}};" |
|[[Liberal Democratic Party of Moldova]]
|[[Liberal conservatism]]
| style="background-color: {{Party color|Other}};" |
| ''No candidate''
| style="background-color: #ce3a33;" |
| Against Sandu<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-25 |title=Filat: 40% – Maia Sandu și 60% – Alexandr Stoianoglo este scenariul pe țară în turul II al alegerilor. Diaspora va schimba puțin această diferență zdrobitoare |url=https://unimedia.info/ro/news/92c65cecb34698b2/filat-40-maia-sandu-si-60-alexandr-stoianoglo-este-scenariul-pe-tara-in-turul-ii-al-alegerilor-diaspora-va-schimba-putin-aceasta-diferenta-zdrobitoare.html |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=UNIMEDIA |language=ro}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Filat, despre turul II al alegerilor: Surprizele pentru PAS abia încep |url=https://stiri.md/article/politica/filat-despre-turul-ii-al-alegerilor-surprizele-pentru-pas-abia-incep |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=stiri.md}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Ecologist Green Party (Moldova)}}" |
| [[Ecologist Green Party (Moldova)|Ecologist Green Party]]
| [[Green politics]]
| style="background-color: {{Party color|Other}};" |
| ''No candidate''
| style="background-color: {{party color|Party of Action and Solidarity}};" |
| [[Maia Sandu]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Conferința de presă al Partidul Verde Ecologist din Moldova privitor la al doilea tur electoral |url=https://www.facebook.com/PartidulVerdeEcologist/posts/pfbid02tXskdQbqsQGK3WiYVN1uphEovgentsxCngrimgB7Vzz78PKZNxdEtLAcAdzGC9NAl |access-date=2024-10-29 |date=2024-10-29 |via=[[Facebook]]|lang=ro}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: {{Party color|Liberal Party (Moldova)}}" |
| [[Liberal Party (Moldova)|Liberal Party]]
| [[Conservative liberalism]]
| style="background-color: {{Party color|Other}};" |
| ''No candidate''
| style="background-color: {{party color|Party of Action and Solidarity}};" |
| [[Maia Sandu]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Astăzi a avut loc ședința Consiliului Republican al Partidului Liberal |url=https://www.facebook.com/liberalparty.md/videos/1070861488093959 |access-date=2024-10-27 |date=2024-10-27 |via=[[Facebook]]|lang=ro}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: #513286" |
| [[Coalition for Unity and Prosperity]]
| [[Liberalism]]
| style="background-color: {{Party color|Other}};" |
| ''No candidate''
| colspan="2" |Participate without endorsement<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gandrabur |first=Corneliu |date=2024-10-29 |title=CUB îndeamnă cetățenii la un vot rațional în turul II: "Viitorul președinte trebuie să fie garantul bunăstării și unității naționale" Telegraph – Agenție de presă |url=https://telegraph.md/cub-indeamna-cetatenii-la-un-vot-rational-in-turul-ii-viitorul-presedinte-trebuie-sa-fie-garantul-bunastarii-si-unitatii-nationale/ |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=Telegraph – Agenție de presă}}</ref>
|-
|}

===Second round candidate endorsements===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" | Candidate
! First round
! colspan="2" | Endorsement
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Our Party (Moldova)}};" |
| [[Renato Usatîi]]
| 13.79%
|colspan="2" |No endorsement<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Renato Usatîi, despre cei doi candidați la prezidențiale: "În grupul de susținători ai domnului Stoianoglo stau ticăloși cum sunt Filat, Platon, Caramalac și alții". Ce a zis despre Maia Sandu |url=https://www.zdg.md/stiri/renato-usatii-despre-candidatii-la-prezidentiale-in-grupul-de-sustinatori-a-domnului-stoianoglo-stau-ticalosi-cum-sunt-filat-platon-caramalac-si-altii/ |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=zdg.md |language=ro}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}};" |
| [[Irina Vlah]]
| 5.38%
| style="background-color: #ce3a33;" |
|Against Sandu<ref name=":5" />
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}};" |
| Victoria Furtună
| 4.45%
| style="background-color: {{party color|Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova}};" |
| [[Alexandr Stoianoglo]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-29 |title=Victoria Furtună îndeamnă votanții să-l susțină pe Stoianoglo |url=https://www.ipn.md/ro/victoria-furtuna-va-indemn-sa-l-votati-pe-stoianoglo-8013_1108542.html |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=IPN |language=ro}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: #FF7A03;" |
| [[Vasile Tarlev]]
| 3.19%
| style="background-color: #ce3a33;" |
|Against Sandu<ref name=":7" />
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Party of Development and Consolidation of Moldova}};" |
| [[Ion Chicu]]
| 2.06%
| style="background-color: #ce3a33;" |
| Against Sandu<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Ion Chicu își cheamă susținătorii să voteze împotriva Maiei Sandu: "Să fim cinstiți cu alegătorii noștri!" |url=https://tv8.md/2024/10/24/ion-chicu-isi-cheama-sustinatorii-sa-voteze-impotriva-maiei-sandu-sa-fim-cinstiti-cu-alegatorii-nostri/268148 |access-date=2024-10-24 |website=tv8.md |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: #00ADF1;" |
| [[Octavian Țîcu]]
| 0.93%
| style="background-color: #FFE97F;" |
| Against Stoianoglo<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2024-10-30 |title=Țîcu și-a îndemnat susținătorii să voteze împotriva lui Stoianoglo. |url=https://stiri.md/article/social/ticu-si-a-indemnat-sustinatorii-sa-voteze-impotriva-lui-stoianoglo |access-date=2024-10-30 |website=stiri.md |language=ro-RO}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}};" |
| [[Andrei Năstase]]
| 0.64%
| colspan="2" | No endorsement<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pe cine va susţine Andrei Năstase în al doilea tur al alegerilor |url=https://noi.md/md/politica/pe-cine-va-sustine-andrei-nastase-in-al-doilea-tur-al-alegerilor |access-date=2024-10-24 |website=noi.md |language=ru}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}};" |
| [[Natalia Morari]]
| 0.61%
| style="background-color: #ce3a33;" |
| Against Sandu<ref>[https://www.facebook.com/morari.live/videos/1096941742167634/?rdid=wJ5kc2Rt2QoCSE8P "Dragi concetățeni, În turul II votăm NU Maia Sandu!"] – Morari campaign Facebook page{{bsn|date=October 2024}}</ref>
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}};" |
| [[Tudor Ulianovschi]]
| 0.52%
| colspan="2" | No endorsement<ref>{{Cite web |title="Moldova are nevoie de o alternativă reală": Mesajul lui Ulianovschi, în contextul turului II al alegerilor prezidențiale |url=https://tv8.md/2024/10/28/moldova-are-nevoie-de-o-alternativa-reala-mesajul-lui-ulianovschi-in-contextul-turului-ii-al-alegerilor-prezidentiale/268433 |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=tv8.md |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|}

==Results==

=== First round ===
Incumbent president [[Maia Sandu]] and [[Alexandr Stoianoglo]] advanced to the runoff, with Sandu winning the first round with about 42.5 percent of votes.<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web |date=2024-10-20 |title=Moldovan president appears set to win 1st round of presidential race, but EU vote could be rejected |url=https://apnews.com/article/moldova-elections-referendum-eu-russia-sandu-9411ab04ffb3230a83a4f8751c4e2414 |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref> She did best in the central part of the country, winning 48.32% of the vote in [[Chișinău]], she underperformed her best result of 59.97% in [[Ialoveni District]]. Sandu's strongest result was abroad, with 70.71% of the vote. In contrast, she recorded her worst results in the autonomy of [[Gagauzia]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ciesielska |first1=Paulina |title=Gagauzia votes overwhelmingly against EU integration |url=https://www.msn.com/en-ie/news/world/gagauzia-votes-overwhelmingly-against-eu-integration/ar-AA1sF7xS |access-date=21 October 2024 |agency=msn.com |date=21 October 2024}}</ref> and the Bulgarian-majority<ref>{{cite web |last1=Socor |first1=Vladimir |title=Bessarabia's 'Ethnographic Harlequin' in a Regional Perspective |url=https://jamestown.org/program/bessarabias-ethnographic-harlequin-in-a-regional-perspective/ |website=jamestown.org |access-date=21 October 2024}}</ref> [[Taraclia District]], at 2.26% and 4.44% of the vote, respectively. Meanwhile, Stoianoglo, a native of Gagauzia<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ciobanu |first1=Cornel |title=DISINFORMATION: The government in Chisinau is undermining Gagauzia's autonomy |url=https://www.veridica.ro/en/fake-news-disinformation-propaganda/disinformation-the-government-in-chisinau-is-undermining-gagauzias-autonomy |access-date=21 October 2024 |agency=veridica.co |date=23 August 2021}}</ref> secured his best result there, with slightly less than 50% of the vote. In addition to Gagauzia, he also performed well in the north of the country,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Necsutu |first1=Madalin |title=Moldova Leader Slams 'Attack on Democracy' as Presidential Polls Go to Run-Off |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2024/10/21/moldova-leader-slams-attack-on-democracy-as-presidential-polls-go-to-run-off/ |access-date=21 October 2024 |agency=balkaninsight.com |date=21 October 2024}}</ref> as well as Taraclia.

=== Second round ===
Incumbent president [[Maia Sandu]] defeated [[Alexandr Stoianoglo]] with about 55% of votes, compared to 45% of votes.<ref name=":8" /> Stoianoglo led the counting within Moldova, particularly among rural areas and in the south of the country and Transnistria, winning 51.2%.<ref name="bbcresult3"/> He recorded back-to-back landslide results in Gagauzia and Taraclia, winning more than 90% of the vote in each.<ref name="cec_results"/> However, Sandu led votes in Chișinău and other cities, among the youth and the [[Moldovan diaspora]], where she won 82% of the vote.<ref name="apoverseas"/><ref name="bbcresult3">{{Cite news |date=2024-11-04 |title=Pro-EU leader claims Moldova victory despite alleged Russian meddling |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cz7w9dglzzlo |access-date=2024-11-04 |work=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-11-04 |title=Moldova's pro-EU president claims election win amid Russian meddling claims |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/11/3/moldovans-vote-in-tense-presidential-run-off-amid-russian-meddling-claims |access-date=2024-11-04 |work=Al Jazeera |language=en-GB}}</ref> She secured her best result in Ialoveni District, which was also her strongest performance in the first round. Stoianoglo won seven subdivisions he lost in the first round: he secured [[Fălești District]] first won by Usatîi, as well as [[Sîngerei District|Sîngerei]], [[Șoldănești District|Șoldănești]], [[Dubăsari District|Dubăsari]], [[Basarabeasca District|Basarabeasca]], [[Cahul District|Cahul]] districts and [[Sectorul Botanica|Botanica]] in Chișinău previously won by Sandu.<ref name="cec_results">{{cite web |title=Alegeri pentru funcția de Preşedinte al Republicii Moldova, Turul II |url=https://pv.cec.md/cec-presidential-results-tour2.html |website=Comisia Electorală Centrală a Republicii Moldova |access-date=4 November 2024}}</ref>

{{Election results
|caption=
|reporting =
|cand1=[[Maia Sandu]]|party1= Independent ([[Party of Action and Solidarity|PAS]])|votes1=656852|votes1_2=930238
|cand2=[[Alexandr Stoianoglo]]|party2=Independent ([[Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova|Party of Socialists]])|votes2=401215|votes2_2=750370
|cand3=[[Renato Usatîi]]|party3=[[Our Party (Moldova)|Our Party]]|votes3=213169
|cand4=[[Irina Vlah]]|party4=Independent|votes4=83193
|cand5=Victoria Furtună|party5=Independent|votes5=68778
|cand6=[[Vasile Tarlev]]|party6=[[Future of Moldova Party]] {{small|endorsed by the [[Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova|Party of Communists]]}}|color6=#FF7A03|votes6=49316
|cand7=[[Ion Chicu]]|party7=[[Party of Development and Consolidation of Moldova|Party of Development and Consolidation]]|votes7=31797
|cand8=[[Octavian Țîcu]]|party8={{ill|Together Bloc|ro|
Blocul „Împreună"}}|color8=#00ADF1|votes8=14326
|cand9=[[Andrei Năstase]]|party9=Independent|votes9=9946
|cand10=[[Natalia Morari]]|party10=Independent|votes10=9444
|cand11=[[Tudor Ulianovschi]]|party11=Independent|votes11=7995
|invalid=18464
|invalid2=19337
|electorate=3023506
|electorate2=3128349
|source=[https://a.cec.md/ro/rezultate-alegeri-17032.html Central Electoral Commission] (first round), [https://pv.cec.md/cec-presidential-results-tour2.html Central Electoral Commission] (second round)
}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="300">
File:2024-moldova-presidential-sandu.svg|Sandu's results by district, first round
File:2024-moldova-presidential-sandu-second.svg|Sandu's results by district, second round
File:2024-moldova-presidential-stoianoglo.svg|Stoianoglo's results by district, first round
</gallery>

==Aftermath==

=== First round ===
President Sandu attributed the result of the first round and the referendum to foreign interference and described it as an "unprecedented assault on democracy", adding that her government had evidence that 150,000 votes had been bought, with an objective of 300,000. The European Union also said that the two exercises had taken place "under unprecedented interference and intimidation by Russia and its proxies".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c1wnr5qdxe7o |title=Moldova says 'Yes' to pro-EU constitutional changes by tiny margin |website=BBC |date=21 October 2024}}</ref> The United States also noted Russian attempts to "undermine Moldova's election and its European integration".<ref>{{Cite web |last=McGrath |first=Stephen |url=https://apnews.com/article/moldova-elections-eu-referendum-russia-325cb2c13beb1d76565a6e2aadef971a |title=Moldova narrowly votes to secure path toward EU membership after accusing Russia of interference |website=Associated Press |date=21 October 2024 |access-date=21 October 2024}}</ref> The Kremlin, in response, had denounced the votes in Moldova as "unfree", casting doubt on what it said was a "hard-to-explain" increase in votes in favor of Sandu and the EU referendum, and challenged her to "present evidence" of meddling.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-21 |title=Moldova leader decries vote meddling after slim majority backs joining the E.U. |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/moldova-leader-decries-vote-meddling-slim-majority-backs-joining-eu-rcna176348 |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref>

==== Instances of vote buying ====
Four hundred Moldovan citizens were investigated for allegedly receiving money to choose the "no" option in the referendum and vote for a determined candidate in the presidential election. Those found guilty would have been fined 37,000 [[Moldovan lei]] (over 1,900 euros), but were given the option of not receiving punishment if they cooperated with the authorities.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/international/sute-de-alegatori-din-moldova-sunt-anchetati-pentru-cumpararea-voturilor-z15-milioane-de-dolari-catre-acesti-oameni.html|title=Sute de alegători din Moldova sunt anchetați pentru că și-ar fi vândut votul Moscovei. Riscă o amendă uriașă|publisher=Pro TV|date=23 October 2024|language=ro}}</ref>

The head of the [[Moldovan Police]], Viorel Cernăuțeanu, stated on 24 October that since September, a total of $39 million, including 15 million that month and 24 million in October, had been transferred to over 138,000 people in Moldova through the Russian bank [[Promsvyazbank]], which is banned in Moldova. He added that the number of people that had benefited from this system would be much greater as they would have received money not only for themselves but also for members of their family. This money transfer system was believed to have started in late spring, and was carried out through applications that people downloaded with instructions from interactive chatbots on [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]]. This allowed them to enter the system and benefit from transfers from the bank. Cernăuțeanu stated that Moldovan police had documented and stopped the activity of such bots in 97 Telegram groups.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://newsmaker.md/ro/transferuri-de-peste-39-mln-pentru-a-corupe-masiv-electoratul-igp-circa-138-mii-de-persoane-din-moldova-in-contact-cu-psb-bank/|title=Transferuri de până la $39 mln pentru a "corupe masiv electoratul". IGP: circa 138 mii de persoane din Moldova – în contact cu PSB Bank|first=Mihaela|last=Conovali|work=NewsMaker|date=24 October 2024|language=ro}}</ref>

==== International reactions ====
The [[OSCE]] election observation mission wrote that the voting process was received "overwhelmingly positively" by its observers. According to the report, "the election
administration worked professionally and demonstrated impartiality in their decision-making", while "fundamental freedoms were generally respected and contestants could campaign freely". Regarding media landscape, the report stated that "the majority of ODIHR EOM interlocutors informed that conditions for media work without interference have improved", however it also noted misuse of administrative resources by Sandu's campaign and concluded that media coverage did not provide fully equal opportunities, with several media organizations, most notably the public broadcaster [[Teleradio-Moldova]], favouring Sandu and the government. The Electoral Commission also did not resolve complaints in timely manner, and failed to properly address allegations of misuse of office by the incumbent. The report also acknowledged concerns over illicit foreign interference and disinformation campaigns.<ref>{{cite web |title=Moldova, Presidential Election and Constitutional Referendum, 20 October 2024: Statement of Preliminary Findings and Conclusions |url=https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/moldova/578815 |website=www.osce.org |publisher=[[OSCE]] |access-date=28 October 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Domestic reactions ====
In a statement on 24 October, Sandu stated that, despite the instances of vote buying, she had rejected suggestions of annulling and repeating the elections as "no one has the right to deny citizens a massive, honest and free expression of their will". She further stated that, without the buying of votes, "we would have had a clear victory for both the presidential elections and the referendum", and also urged the Moldovan judiciary to "wake up" and address the issue of electoral bribery.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/international/de-ce-nu-au-fost-anulate-alegerile-din-republica-moldova-in-ciuda-fraudelor-masive-explicatiile-oferite-de-maia-sandu.html|title=De ce nu au fost anulate alegerile din Republica Moldova, în ciuda fraudelor masive. Explicațiile oferite de Maia Sandu|first=Paul|last=Tecuceanu|publisher=Pro TV|date=25 October 2024|language=ro}}</ref> Former Moldovan Defence Minister [[Anatol Șalaru|Anatol Salaru]] said ahead of the run-off, that the result would decide whether Moldova would "continue the process of European integration or return to the Russia fold".<ref name="bbcrunoff3">{{Cite news |date=2024-11-03 |title=Moldova's pro-EU leader in tight run-off as Russia accused of meddling |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cq6lyzj9dddo |access-date=2024-11-03 |work=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== Second round ===
Sandu declared in her victory speech; "Moldova, you are victorious! Today, dear Moldovans, you have given a lesson in democracy, worthy of being written in history books. Today, you have saved Moldova". She went on to announce that the election had faced an unprecedented attack through alleged schemes including dirty money, vote-buying, and electoral interference "by hostile forces from outside the country" and criminal groups. She pledged to be a "president for all" and concluded: "You have shown that nothing can stand in the way of the people's power when they choose to speak through their vote". Her speech was delivered in Romanian and partly in Russian.<ref name=":8" /><ref name="eu"/>

Speaking before the final vote count, Stoianoglo told the media that "everyone's voice deserves respect" and that he hopes "from now on, we will put an end to the hatred and division imposed on us."<ref name=":8" /> The Party of Socialists alleged that voting was marred by irregularities and the reduction of polling stations available for Moldovans living in Russia. It also called Sandu an "illegitimate president".<ref name="eu"/> PRSM leader Igor Dodon also called Sandu "a president of the diaspora", citing her strong showing among overseas voters.<ref name="apoverseas">{{Cite web |date=2024-11-04 |title=Moldova’s diaspora tipped the scales in a pivotal election. Critics question the vote’s validity |url=https://apnews.com/article/moldova-election-president-russia-europe-diaspora-sandu-40b98d140fefd92a2bd06d5db8b5d82f |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=Associated Press |language=en}}</ref>

==== International reactions ====
[[Marcel Ciolacu]], [[Prime Minister of Romania]], congratulated Maia Sandu and said Moldovans chose to defend their democracy and continue their pro-[[European Union]] path. He declared that Moldovans "reconfirmed in front of the whole world not only their courage, but also their full confidence in their European future!" despite Russian attempts at vote-buying.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-04 |title=Primele rezultate ale alegerilor din Republica Moldova. Maia Sandu conduce cu șapte procente în fața lui Alexandr Stoianoglo |url=https://www.digi24.ro/stiri/externe/rezultate-alegeri-moldova-turul-2-2992523 |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=www.digi24.ro |language=ro}}</ref> EU foreign policy chief [[Josep Borrell]] and EU Commission President [[Ursula von der Leyen]] also congratulated Sandu, with Von der Leyen saying that "it takes a rare kind of strength to overcome the challenges you've faced in this election.<ref name="bbcresult"/> French President [[Emmanuel Macron]] also praised the result, saying that democracy had "triumphed over all interference and all maneuvers".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-04 |title=Moldova pro-EU leader Sandu wins re-election despite Russian meddling allegations |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20241104-moldova-sandu |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref> Congratulations were also sent by German chancellor [[Olaf Scholz]] and Ukrainian president [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]].<ref name="eu">{{Cite web |date=2024-11-04 |title=EU hails re-election of pro-EU Maia Sandu in tense Moldova vote |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20241104-eu-hails-re-election-of-pro-eu-maia-sandu-in-tense-moldova-vote |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Moldovan elections}}

[[Category:2024 elections in Europe|Moldova]]
[[Category:October 2024 events in Moldova|Presidential election]]
[[Category:November 2024 events in Moldova|Presidential election]]
[[Category:Presidential elections in Moldova]]

Maya ballgame

2024-11-03T21:17:22Z

Brandmeister: +category

{{Short description|Mesoamerican sport}}
{{biblio|date=July 2020}}

'''Maya ballgame''', which is a branch of the [[Mesoamerican ballgame]], is a sporting event that was played throughout the Mesoamerican era by the [[Maya civilization]], which was distributed throughout much of Central America. One of the common links of the Mayan culture of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and Belize is the game played with a rubber ball, about which we have learned from several sources.<ref name="Blumchen-2009">{{cite journal | title = The Maya Ball Game: Comparison of the Physical Load with Modern Ball Games | first = Gerhard | last = Blümchen | journal = Cardiology | publisher = S. Karger AG | location = Basel, Switzerland | date = July 2009 | volume = 113 | number = 4 | pages = 231–235 | doi = 10.1159/000203640| pmid = 19246899 }}</ref> The Maya ballgame was played with big stone courts. The ball court itself was a focal point of Maya cities and symbolized the city's wealth and power.

==History==
[[Image:Tikal central ballcourt.jpg|thumb|A ballcourt at [[Tikal]], in the [[Petén Basin]] region of the Maya lowlands]]

Maya Ballgame originated more than 3,000 years ago.<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/> The [[Popol Vuh]] describes the history of the [[K'iche' people]] and their rulers and mentions the important position of the Maya ballgame. Through this ball game, a conflict of the forces of darkness and light is described and enacted. By tradition, the twin brothers [[Maya Hero Twins|Hun Hunaphu and Xbalanque]] used their time on earth to play ball.<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/>

Through the noise of the game aroused the anger of [[Maya death gods#K'iche'|Vucub Came]], the master of the underworld. A fight ensued, which resulted in the formation of the game. After the game, one of the brothers was decapitated and his head was used as the game ball. From the decapitated trunk of the player, blood escaped in the form of snakes. This blood was taken as a [[symbol]] of [[fertility]]. This scene is depicted in reliefs on the walls of game courts, such as the most famous example in [[Chichen Itza]] in [[Mexico]].<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/>

==Public structure==
[[File:Juego de pelota.jpg|thumb|Classic [[Image:I, heavily serifed.png|10px]]-shaped ball court in [[Cihuatan]] site, [[El Salvador]]]]
In the highlands of [[Chiapas]] and of [[Guatemala]] alone, 300 courts have been found. Of these, 85% have been dated in the [[Mesoamerican chronology|post-classic period]].<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/> Only two early classic courts have been reported: [[Palenque]] and [[Copan]].<ref name="auto4">Scarborough</ref>

The playing [[arena]] was in the shape of an uppercase "I" with a long middle section and parallel ends. High platforms on either side of the court allowed for large numbers of spectators. Arenas were decorated with portable stone court markers known as ''hacha'', usually depicting animals or skulls.<ref name="Palmer">
{{cite web | url = https://library.umaine.edu/hudson/palmer/Maya/ballgame.asp | title = Ballgame | date = n.d. | work = MAYA: William P. Palmer III Collection | publisher = [[Collins Center for the Arts|Maine Center for the Arts]], University of Maine | access-date = July 26, 2020}}</ref><ref name=Earley>{{cite web | url = https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/313235 | title = Hacha in the Shape of Bound Hands, 4th–7th century, Veracruz | first = Caitlin C. | last = Earley | date = n.d. | work = The Met | publisher = The Metropolitan Museum of Art | access-date = July 26, 2020}}</ref> The ball court was surrounded by painted murals that depicted Mayan [[Maya mythology|mythology]], [[warriors]], [[Prisoner of war|captives]], [[Maya rulers|rulers]], and ceremonies.<ref name="Palmer"/>

The ballcourt in [[Cerros]] is contemporary and date to the [[Tulix ceramic phase]] (100BC-100AD).<ref name="auto4"/> Both are similar in date to the other major public structures. Both courts at Cerros are oriented N-S and orient to the N-S medial axis of a pyramid.<ref name="auto4"/> They are also oriented with the W axis of another pyramid, and its associated plaza, appears to intersect the medial axis of the site of the site at a point approximately equidistant from either court.<ref name="auto4"/>

== Religious aspects==
The Maya ballgame was more than just an athletic event; it was also a religious event of regeneration that the Maya saw as integral to their continued existence.<ref name=Earley /><ref name="Palmer"/> The Maya showed devotion to their gods by playing the game and by [[sacrifices]]. Scholars debate about who was subject to [[ritual killing]] at ball games and how frequently. Opinions range from "The ballgame provided an opportunity to show devoutness to the gods by sacrificing captured kings and high lords, or the losing opponents of the game"<ref name="Palmer"/> to "the players were most likely not sacrificed.... sometimes a captive might be executed at the game, but [these sacrifices] weren't an integral part of the game. That person would have been expedited [executed] anyway."<ref name=Geggel>{{cite web | url = https://www.livescience.com/65611-how-to-play-maya-ballgame.html | title = Did the Maya Really Sacrifice Their Ballgame Players? | first = Laura | last = Geggel | date = June 1, 2019 | work = Live Science | publisher = Future US, Inc. | access-date = July 26, 2020}}</ref>

[[Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil]]'s ritual sacrifice shows death by decapitation and disembowelment.<ref name="auto">Vilcox</ref> As trophy heads were popular in Mayan Culture, it follows that they were important in ballgame.<ref name="auto" /> Some death heads occurred as figurines; so sacred were the small sculptures that they were preserved and appear as offerings at non-elite burials in Late Classic domestic interments.<ref name="auto" /> Judging from sculptural portrayals, decapitation was most likely the standard method of sacrifice used at the ballcourts of [[El Tajin]], [[Aparicio]], [[Veracruz]], and Chichen Itza, [[Yucatan]].<ref name="auto"/> Severing of the head is also seen in the Popol Vuh. Some sources say the winning team's captain was decapitated, and at Chichen ìtza you can barely see that a squash and a couple of snakes representing Kukulkan popped out of the sacrificed captain's head. This was an honor and the captain would have to accept a drink or food item.<ref name="auto"/>

==Gameplay==
[[Image:Chichén Itzá Goal.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ballcourt goal, [[Chichén Itzá]] ]]

The rules seem to have changed over the centuries.

Certainly two teams played against each other. The number of players varied between 2 and 6 players per team. Sometimes, an additional person is seen in the illustrations, who is believed to be a referee. The game was played for 2 weeks.

A rubber ball was always used. Its size and weight varied over the centuries. Most historians assume a weight of {{convert|3|-|4|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} and a size of a [[Skittles (sport)|skittle ball]] (110–130 mm). The existence of a [[Natural rubber|caoutchouc tree]] was necessary to produce the ball. These trees were found in the tropical regions in the Maya territories.<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/>

The ball was put in motion by action of the right hip, the right elbow, and the right knee, and was not permitted to touch the ground. It could be passed between players in each team by propulsion by those body parts. The aim was to move the ball back to the opposite team, preferably through the ring. The goal of the opposition (what today might be termed ‘the defense’) was to force the offense to lose control and to allow the ball to touch the ground. The stone ring was an innovation of the late-classic and early post-classic periods, as seen in Chi.

The usual dress for players is known from iconographic and figural findings. These show leather protection mainly at the hips and the chest, but sometimes also at the knees and the arms, though very seldom at the feet. The clothing was used to protect against the impact of the ball. The protected parts of the body were used to strike the ball. Some players would wear [[Headgear|head dresses]] (like deer heads) for [[ritual]] reasons.<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/><ref name="Palmer"/>

===Physical aspects of the ballgame===
Despite variations in game-play over the centuries, it would appear that the physical exertion required was most similar to those of soccer or tennis.<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/> Most likely, the players of ballgame manifested [[heart rate]] and [[blood pressure]] responses consistent with physical loads of light/moderate intensity, in the range of 4.5–5.5 [[Metabolic equivalent|MET]]s. This supports the theory that cardiovascular demands of popular sports have remained relatively similar through several millennia.<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/>

== See also ==
* [[Mesoamerican ballgame]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maya ballgame}}
[[Category:Ancient sports]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Mesoamerican sports]]
[[Category:Indigenous sports and games of the Americas]]
[[Category:Human sacrifice]]
[[Category:15th-century BC establishments]]
[[Category:Maya society]]

Valeriana (city)

2024-11-03T20:53:55Z

Brandmeister: /* Description */

{{Short description|Ancient Maya city}}
{{Pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name = Valeriana
| coordinates ={{Wikidatacoord|Q130730158|type:landmark_region:MX-CAM|display=inline,title}}
| map_caption = Approximate location of the site
| cultures = [[Maya civilization]]
| epochs = Late Preclassic to Late Classic
| map_type = Mexico Campeche#Mexico
}}
{{Maya civilization}}

'''Valeriana''' was an ancient [[Maya civilization|Maya]] city in the [[Mexican state]] of [[Campeche]] near its border with the state of [[Quintana Roo]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Weisberger |first=Mindy |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/11/02/science/maya-city-discovered-valeriana-mexico/index.html |title=Lost Maya city discovered in Mexico |work=[[CNN]] |date=2 November 2024 |access-date=2 November 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.is/RXNRO |archive-date=2 November 2024 }}</ref> Its discovery was announced in October 2024, and the site was named after an adjacent lake.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Auld-Thomas |first1=Luke |last2=Canuto |first2=Marcello A.|last3=Morlet |first3=Adriana Velázquez |last4=Estrada-Belli |first4=Francisco |last5=Chatelain |first5=David |last6=Matadamas |first6=Diego |last7=Pigott |first7=Michelle |last8=Fernández Díaz |first8=Juan Carlos |date=29 October 2024 |title=Running out of empty space: environmental lidar and the crowded ancient landscape of Campeche, Mexico |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003598X24001480/type/journal_article|journal=Antiquity|language=en|volume=98|issue=401|pages=1340–1358 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2024.148|issn=0003-598X }}</ref>

==Description==
Valeriana's style and architecture matches that of the [[Chactún]]-[[Tamchen]] area to the southeast.<ref name=":0" /> The city contains multiple plazas, temple pyramids, a [[Maya ballgame]] court, and a dammed [[reservoir]], all indicative of a political [[Capital city|capital]].<ref name=":0" /> Researchers estimate that the site contains over 6,500 structures.<ref name=smithsonian>{{cite news |last=Anderson |first=Sonja |date=29 October 2024 |title='Found' Dataset Reveals Lost Maya City Full of Pyramids and Plazas, Hiding in Plain Sight Beneath a Mexican Forest |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/found-dataset-reveals-lost-maya-city-hiding-in-plain-sight-beneath-a-mexican-forest-180985354/ |work=[[Smithsonian Magazine]] |access-date=2 November 2024 }}</ref> The site covers around {{convert|50|sqmi|km2}}.<ref name=smithsonian/>

Particular architectural features known as an "[[E-Group]] assemblage" indicate the founding date as being earlier than 150 AD (in the Late Preclassic period), and the city probably flourished during the [[Maya_civilization#Classic_period_(c._250–900_AD)|Classic period]] of [[Maya civilization]] ({{Circa|250|900}} AD).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=smithsonian/> The density of building clusters in Valeriana is considered by the researchers to be second only to [[Calakmul]]. They estimate a population of between 30,000 and 50,000 at its peak from 750 to 850 AD.<ref name="bbc-20241028">{{Cite web |last=Rannard |first=Georgina |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crmznzkly3go |title=PhD student finds lost city in Mexico jungle by accident |work=[[BBC News]] |date=29 October 2024 |access-date=29 October 2024 |language=en-GB }}</ref>

==Discovery==
Researchers have known since the 1970s that the area around [[Xpujil]] was densely populated and engineered during the Classic period of Maya civilization, yet archaeological examinations of the area have been scarce.<ref name=":0"/>

The discovery of Valeriana was made by researchers from [[Northern Arizona University]], [[Tulane University]], the National Center for Airborne Laser Mapping at the [[University of Houston]] and the [[National Institute of Anthropology and History]] (INAH).<ref name="smithsonian" /><ref name="archaologymag">{{cite news |last=Radley |first=Dario |date=29 October 2024 |title=Lasers uncover lost Maya city in Mexico, revealing thousands of previously unknown structures |url=https://archaeologymag.com/2024/10/lasers-uncover-lost-maya-city-in-mexico/ |work=Archaeology News |access-date=2 November 2024 }}</ref> They used [[lidar]] data, due to lidar producing high resolution terrain data through forest cover,<ref name=":0"/> which have been utilized to discover other unknown Maya sites in the past. However, it being expensive, these researchers used preexisting lidar data from a 2013 forest monitoring project by the Mexican branch of [[The Nature Conservancy]].<ref name=smithsonian/><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Jones |first=Sam |date=29 October 2024 |title=Lost Maya city with temple pyramids and plazas discovered in Mexico |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/oct/29/lost-maya-city-valeriana-mexico-temple-pyramids-plazas |access-date=29 October 2024 |work=[[The Guardian]] |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 }}</ref> The researchers plan further fieldwork,<ref name=":1" /> describing the ruins as "hidden in plain sight" only 15 minutes from [[Mexican Federal Highway 186|Federal Highway 186]] near Xpujil and cultivated farmland.<ref name="bbc-20241028" /><ref name="archaologymag" />

The researchers named the city "Valeriana", after a nearby lake called Laguna la Valeriana.<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{cite web |title=Boletín No. 676: Dan a conocer Valeriana, un nuevo sitio arqueológico descubierto en la selva de Campeche |url=https://inah.gob.mx/images/boletines/2024/676/Boletin%20676.pdf |publisher=[[INAH]] |date=30 October 2024}}
{{Maya sites}}

[[Category:1st-century establishments in the Maya civilization]]
[[Category:2024 archaeological discoveries]]
[[Category:Maya sites in Campeche]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 1st century]]

Talk:Maya Ballgame

2024-11-03T20:52:39Z

Brandmeister: Brandmeister moved page Talk:Maya Ballgame to Talk:Maya ballgame: redundant capitalization

#REDIRECT [[Talk:Maya ballgame]]

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Talk:Maya ballgame

2024-11-03T20:52:39Z

Brandmeister: Brandmeister moved page Talk:Maya Ballgame to Talk:Maya ballgame: redundant capitalization

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{{WikiProject Sports}}
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==the Mayans had Rubber?==
It says that they used a RUBBER ball but rubber wasn't invented until 1839
--[[User:3.14159265358979323846264338327950abc|3.14159265358979323846264338327950abc]] ([[User talk:3.14159265358979323846264338327950abc|talk]]) 03:39, 19 May 2016 (UTC)
:Rubber wasn't "invented". It's the latex of the rubber tree plant. ''Vulcanized'' rubber came about in the 19th century, but rubber itself has been known and used for far longer than that. --[[User:DMAJohnson|DMAJohnson]] ([[User talk:DMAJohnson|talk]]) 17:47, 10 June 2016 (UTC)

== Odd sources ==

I don't mean to dispute those sources are valid, but listing only last name of the author does seem to require more... expertise on the subject than Wikipedia should assume. Titles of books and isbns anyone? --[[User:Sigmundur|Sigmundur]] ([[User talk:Sigmundur|talk]]) 07:16, 9 November 2017 (UTC)

: "some sources say" which sources, no reference — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/75.163.215.205|75.163.215.205]] ([[User talk:75.163.215.205#top|talk]]) 19:09, 13 February 2018 (UTC) 

Agree that entries in the References section are appalling. Added a "biblio" tag to the article. Anyone who has info on any of these citations, please expand! — [[User:Molly-in-md|Molly-in-md]] ([[User talk:Molly-in-md|talk]]) 16:14, 21 July 2020 (UTC)

I've done some citation work. However, "Scarborough" needs the attention of an expert: although the author is clearly Vernon L. Scarborough, the citation could be
* "Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America, vol. 3: The Settlement System in a Late Preclassic Maya Community" (David A. Freidel, ed.). Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas. – see references to this work, for example, in http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.117.6253&rep=rep1&type=pdf
* more directly, "The Mesoamerican Ballgame" book, 1991, edited by Vernon L. Scarborough and David R. Wilcox, The University of Arizona Press, https://books.google.com/books?id=KI5oWAQlKdoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=tulix&f=false
The book above also makes me wonder if "Vilcox" is actually "Wilcox".
— [[User:Molly-in-md|Molly-in-md]] ([[User talk:Molly-in-md|talk]]) 14:01, 26 July 2020 (UTC)

== Relation to basketball? ==

The Wikipedia article on basketball does not reference this game in its history section either & I'm wondering if the history section there is suffering from a Eurocentric bias... [[Special:Contributions/2001:8F8:1623:66CB:8DA2:A3DF:86A1:5C5B|2001:8F8:1623:66CB:8DA2:A3DF:86A1:5C5B]] ([[User talk:2001:8F8:1623:66CB:8DA2:A3DF:86A1:5C5B|talk]]) 06:41, 12 February 2021 (UTC)R.E.D.

Maya Ballgame

2024-11-03T20:52:39Z

Brandmeister: Brandmeister moved page Maya Ballgame to Maya ballgame: redundant capitalization

#REDIRECT [[Maya ballgame]]

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Maya ballgame

2024-11-03T20:52:39Z

Brandmeister: Brandmeister moved page Maya Ballgame to Maya ballgame: redundant capitalization

{{Short description|Mesoamerican sport}}
{{biblio|date=July 2020}}

'''Maya Ballgame''', which is a branch of the [[Mesoamerican Ballgame]], is a sporting event that was played throughout the Mesoamerican era by the [[Maya civilization]], which was distributed throughout much of Central America. One of the common links of the Mayan culture of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and Belize is the game played with a rubber ball, about which we have learned from several sources.<ref name="Blumchen-2009">{{cite journal | title = The Maya Ball Game: Comparison of the Physical Load with Modern Ball Games | first = Gerhard | last = Blümchen | journal = Cardiology | publisher = S. Karger AG | location = Basel, Switzerland | date = July 2009 | volume = 113 | number = 4 | pages = 231–235 | doi = 10.1159/000203640| pmid = 19246899 }}</ref> The Maya ballgame was played with big stone courts. The ball court itself was a focal point of Maya cities and symbolized the city's wealth and power.

==History==
[[Image:Tikal central ballcourt.jpg|thumb|A ballcourt at [[Tikal]], in the [[Petén Basin]] region of the Maya lowlands]]

Maya Ballgame originated more than 3,000 years ago.<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/> The [[Popol Vuh]] describes the history of the [[K'iche' people]] and their rulers and mentions the important position of the Maya ballgame. Through this ball game, a conflict of the forces of darkness and light is described and enacted. By tradition, the twin brothers [[Maya Hero Twins|Hun Hunaphu and Xbalanque]] used their time on earth to play ball.<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/>

Through the noise of the game aroused the anger of [[Maya death gods#K'iche'|Vucub Came]], the master of the underworld. A fight ensued, which resulted in the formation of the game. After the game, one of the brothers was decapitated and his head was used as the game ball. From the decapitated trunk of the player, blood escaped in the form of snakes. This blood was taken as a [[symbol]] of [[fertility]]. This scene is depicted in reliefs on the walls of game courts, such as the most famous example in [[Chichen Itza]] in [[Mexico]].<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/>

==Public structure==
[[File:Juego de pelota.jpg|thumb|Classic [[Image:I, heavily serifed.png|10px]]-shaped ball court in [[Cihuatan]] site, [[El Salvador]]]]
In the highlands of [[Chiapas]] and of [[Guatemala]] alone, 300 courts have been found. Of these, 85% have been dated in the [[Mesoamerican chronology|post-classic period]].<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/> Only two early classic courts have been reported: [[Palenque]] and [[Copan]].<ref name="auto4">Scarborough</ref>

The playing [[arena]] was in the shape of an uppercase "I" with a long middle section and parallel ends. High platforms on either side of the court allowed for large numbers of spectators. Arenas were decorated with portable stone court markers known as ''hacha'', usually depicting animals or skulls.<ref name="Palmer">
{{cite web | url = https://library.umaine.edu/hudson/palmer/Maya/ballgame.asp | title = Ballgame | date = n.d. | work = MAYA: William P. Palmer III Collection | publisher = [[Collins Center for the Arts|Maine Center for the Arts]], University of Maine | access-date = July 26, 2020}}</ref><ref name=Earley>{{cite web | url = https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/313235 | title = Hacha in the Shape of Bound Hands, 4th–7th century, Veracruz | first = Caitlin C. | last = Earley | date = n.d. | work = The Met | publisher = The Metropolitan Museum of Art | access-date = July 26, 2020}}</ref> The ball court was surrounded by painted murals that depicted Mayan [[Maya mythology|mythology]], [[warriors]], [[Prisoner of war|captives]], [[Maya rulers|rulers]], and ceremonies.<ref name="Palmer"/>

The ballcourt in [[Cerros]] is contemporary and date to the [[Tulix ceramic phase]] (100BC-100AD).<ref name="auto4"/> Both are similar in date to the other major public structures. Both courts at Cerros are oriented N-S and orient to the N-S medial axis of a pyramid.<ref name="auto4"/> They are also oriented with the W axis of another pyramid, and its associated plaza, appears to intersect the medial axis of the site of the site at a point approximately equidistant from either court.<ref name="auto4"/>

== Religious aspects==
The Maya ballgame was more than just an athletic event; it was also a religious event of regeneration that the Maya saw as integral to their continued existence.<ref name=Earley /><ref name="Palmer"/> The Maya showed devotion to their gods by playing the game and by [[sacrifices]]. Scholars debate about who was subject to [[ritual killing]] at ball games and how frequently. Opinions range from "The ballgame provided an opportunity to show devoutness to the gods by sacrificing captured kings and high lords, or the losing opponents of the game"<ref name="Palmer"/> to "the players were most likely not sacrificed.... sometimes a captive might be executed at the game, but [these sacrifices] weren't an integral part of the game. That person would have been expedited [executed] anyway."<ref name=Geggel>{{cite web | url = https://www.livescience.com/65611-how-to-play-maya-ballgame.html | title = Did the Maya Really Sacrifice Their Ballgame Players? | first = Laura | last = Geggel | date = June 1, 2019 | work = Live Science | publisher = Future US, Inc. | access-date = July 26, 2020}}</ref>

[[Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil]]'s ritual sacrifice shows death by decapitation and disembowelment.<ref name="auto">Vilcox</ref> As trophy heads were popular in Mayan Culture, it follows that they were important in ballgame.<ref name="auto" /> Some death heads occurred as figurines; so sacred were the small sculptures that they were preserved and appear as offerings at non-elite burials in Late Classic domestic interments.<ref name="auto" /> Judging from sculptural portrayals, decapitation was most likely the standard method of sacrifice used at the ballcourts of [[El Tajin]], [[Aparicio]], [[Veracruz]], and Chichen Itza, [[Yucatan]].<ref name="auto"/> Severing of the head is also seen in the Popol Vuh. Some sources say the winning team's captain was decapitated, and at Chichen ìtza you can barely see that a squash and a couple of snakes representing Kukulkan popped out of the sacrificed captain's head. This was an honor and the captain would have to accept a drink or food item.<ref name="auto"/>

==Gameplay==
[[Image:Chichén Itzá Goal.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ballcourt goal, [[Chichén Itzá]] ]]

The rules seem to have changed over the centuries.

Certainly two teams played against each other. The number of players varied between 2 and 6 players per team. Sometimes, an additional person is seen in the illustrations, who is believed to be a referee. The game was played for 2 weeks.

A rubber ball was always used. Its size and weight varied over the centuries. Most historians assume a weight of {{convert|3|-|4|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} and a size of a [[Skittles (sport)|skittle ball]] (110–130 mm). The existence of a [[Natural rubber|caoutchouc tree]] was necessary to produce the ball. These trees were found in the tropical regions in the Maya territories.<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/>

The ball was put in motion by action of the right hip, the right elbow, and the right knee, and was not permitted to touch the ground. It could be passed between players in each team by propulsion by those body parts. The aim was to move the ball back to the opposite team, preferably through the ring. The goal of the opposition (what today might be termed ‘the defense’) was to force the offense to lose control and to allow the ball to touch the ground. The stone ring was an innovation of the late-classic and early post-classic periods, as seen in Chi.

The usual dress for players is known from iconographic and figural findings. These show leather protection mainly at the hips and the chest, but sometimes also at the knees and the arms, though very seldom at the feet. The clothing was used to protect against the impact of the ball. The protected parts of the body were used to strike the ball. Some players would wear [[Headgear|head dresses]] (like deer heads) for [[ritual]] reasons.<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/><ref name="Palmer"/>

===Physical aspects of the ballgame===
Despite variations in game-play over the centuries, it would appear that the physical exertion required was most similar to those of soccer or tennis.<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/> Most likely, the players of ballgame manifested [[heart rate]] and [[blood pressure]] responses consistent with physical loads of light/moderate intensity, in the range of 4.5–5.5 [[Metabolic equivalent|MET]]s. This supports the theory that cardiovascular demands of popular sports have remained relatively similar through several millennia.<ref name="Blumchen-2009"/>

== See also ==
* [[Mesoamerican ballgame]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maya Ballgame}}
[[Category:Ancient sports]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Mesoamerican sports]]
[[Category:Indigenous sports and games of the Americas]]
[[Category:Human sacrifice]]
[[Category:15th-century BC establishments]]

Infinite monkey theorem

2024-11-03T17:56:51Z

Brandmeister: /* top */ tone

{{short description|Counterintuitive result in probability}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
[[File:Chimpanzee seated at typewriter.jpg|thumb|A chimpanzee seated at a typewriter.]]

The '''infinite monkey theorem''' states that a [[monkey]] hitting keys at [[randomness|random]] on a [[typewriter]] keyboard for an [[infinity|infinite]] amount of time will [[almost surely]] type any given text, including the complete works of [[William Shakespeare]]. In fact, the monkey would almost surely type every possible finite text an infinite number of times. The theorem can be generalized to state that any sequence of events that has a non-zero [[probability]] of happening will almost certainly occur an infinite number of times, given an infinite amount of [[time]] or a [[universe]] that is [[Shape of the universe#Global universe structure|infinite in size]].

In this context, "almost surely" is a mathematical term meaning the event happens with probability 1, and the "monkey" is not an actual monkey, but a [[metaphor]] for an [[Abstract and concrete|abstract]] device that produces an endless [[random sequence]] of letters and symbols. Variants of the theorem include multiple and even infinitely many typists, and the target text varies between an entire library and a single sentence.

One of the earliest instances of the use of the "monkey metaphor" is that of French mathematician [[Émile Borel]] in 1913,<ref name=":0" /> but the first instance may have been even earlier. [[Jorge Luis Borges]] traced the history of this idea from [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'' and [[Cicero]]'s ''[[De Natura Deorum]]'' (On the Nature of the Gods), through [[Blaise Pascal]] and [[Jonathan Swift]], up to modern statements with their iconic simians and typewriters.<ref>[https://gwern.net/doc/borges/1939-borges-thetotallibrary.pdf Jorge Luis Borges, "The Total Library", 1939]. Anthologized in Selected Non-fictions (1999). Edited by Eliot Weinberger. New York: Viking</ref> In the early 20th century, Borel and [[Arthur Eddington]] used the theorem to illustrate the timescales implicit in the foundations of [[statistical mechanics]].

==Solution==

===Direct proof===
There is a straightforward proof of this theorem. As an introduction, recall that if two events are [[statistically independent]], then the probability of both happening equals the product of the probabilities of each one happening independently. For example, if the chance of rain in [[Moscow]] on a particular day in the future is 0.4 and the chance of an [[earthquake]] in [[San Francisco]] on any particular day is 0.00003, then the chance of both happening on the same day is {{nowrap|1=0.4 × 0.00003 = 0.000012}}, [[Statistical assumption|assuming]] that they are indeed independent.

Consider the probability of typing the word ''banana'' on a typewriter with 50 keys. Suppose that the keys are pressed randomly and independently, meaning that each key has an equal chance of being pressed regardless of what keys had been pressed previously. The chance that the first letter typed is 'b' is 1/50, and the chance that the second letter typed is 'a' is also 1/50, and so on. Therefore, the probability of the first six letters spelling ''banana'' is:
:(1/50) × (1/50) × (1/50) × (1/50) × (1/50) × (1/50) = (1/50)6 = 1/15,625,000,000.
The result is less than one in 15 billion, but ''not'' zero.

From the above, the chance of ''not'' typing ''banana'' in a given block of 6 letters is 1 − (1/50)6. Because each block is typed independently, the chance ''X''''n'' of not typing ''banana'' in any of the first ''n'' blocks of 6 letters is:

:<math>X_n=\left(1-\frac{1}{50^6}\right)^n.</math>

As ''n'' grows, ''X''''n'' gets smaller. For ''n'' = 1 million, ''X''''n'' is roughly 0.9999, but for ''n'' = 10 billion ''X''''n'' is roughly 0.53 and for ''n'' = 100 billion it is roughly 0.0017. As ''n'' approaches infinity, the probability ''X''''n'' [[limit of a function|approaches]] zero; that is, by making ''n'' large enough, ''X''''n'' can be made as small as is desired,<ref name="Isaac1995">{{cite book |last=Isaac |first=Richard E. |title=The Pleasures of Probability |publisher=Springer |year=1995 |isbn=0-387-94415-X |location=New York |pages=48–50 |oclc=610945749 |postscript=– Isaac generalizes this argument immediately to variable text and alphabet size; the common main conclusion is on page 50.}}</ref> and the chance of typing ''banana'' approaches 100%.{{efn|This shows that the probability of typing "banana" in one of the predefined non-overlapping blocks of six letters tends to 1. In addition the word may appear across two blocks, so the estimate given is conservative.}} Thus, the probability of the word ''banana'' appearing at some point in an infinite sequence of keystrokes is equal to one.

The same argument applies if we replace one monkey typing ''n'' consecutive blocks of text with ''n'' monkeys each typing one block (simultaneously and independently). In this case, ''X''''n'' = (1 − (1/50)6)''n'' is the probability that none of the first ''n'' monkeys types ''banana'' correctly on their first try. Therefore, at least one of infinitely many monkeys will (''with probability equal to one'') produce a text as quickly as it would be produced by a perfectly accurate human typist copying it from the original.

====Infinite strings====
This can be stated more generally and compactly in terms of [[string (computer science)|strings]], which are sequences of characters chosen from some finite [[alphabet]]:
* Given an infinite string where each character is chosen [[Uniform distribution (discrete)|uniformly at random]], any given finite string almost surely occurs as a [[substring]] at some position.
* Given an infinite sequence of infinite strings, where each character of each string is chosen uniformly at random, any given finite string almost surely occurs as a prefix of one of these strings.

Both follow easily from the second [[Borel–Cantelli lemma]]. For the second theorem, let ''E''''k'' be the [[event (probability theory)|event]] that the ''k''th string begins with the given text. Because this has some fixed nonzero probability ''p'' of occurring, the ''E''''k'' are independent, and the below sum diverges,
:<math>\sum_{k=1}^\infty P(E_k) = \sum_{k=1}^\infty p = \infty,</math>
the probability that infinitely many of the ''E''''k'' occur is 1. The first theorem is shown similarly; one can divide the random string into nonoverlapping blocks matching the size of the desired text and make ''E''''k'' the event where the ''k''th block equals the desired string.{{efn|The first theorem is proven by a similar if more indirect route in Gut (2005).<ref>{{cite book |last=Gut |first=Allan |title=Probability: A Graduate Course |year=2005 |publisher=Springer |isbn=0-387-22833-0 |pages=97–100}}</ref>}}

===Probabilities===
However, for physically meaningful numbers of monkeys typing for physically meaningful lengths of time the results are reversed. If there were as many monkeys as there are atoms in the observable universe typing extremely fast for trillions of times the life of the universe, the probability of the monkeys replicating even a ''single page'' of Shakespeare is unfathomably small.

Ignoring punctuation, spacing, and capitalization, a monkey typing letters uniformly at random has a chance of one in 26 of correctly typing the first letter of ''[[Hamlet]].'' It has a chance of one in 676 (26 × 26) of typing the first two letters. Because the probability shrinks [[exponential growth|exponentially]], at 20 letters it already has only a chance of one in 2620 = 19,928,148,895,209,409,152,340,197,376{{efn|Nearly 20 octillion}} (almost 2 × 1028). In the case of the entire text of ''Hamlet'', the probabilities are so vanishingly small as to be inconceivable. The text of ''Hamlet'' contains approximately 130,000 letters.{{efn|Using the Hamlet text {{cite web |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext99/1ws2611.txt |title=from gutenberg.org}}, there are 132680 alphabetical letters and 199749 characters overall}} Thus, there is a probability of one in 3.4 × 10183,946 to get the text right at the first trial. The average number of letters that needs to be typed until the text appears is also 3.4 × 10183,946,{{efn|For any required string of 130,000 letters from the set 'a'-'z', the average number of letters that needs to be typed until the string appears is (rounded) 3.4 × 10183,946, except in the case that all letters of the required string are equal, in which case the value is about 4% more, 3.6 × 10183,946. In that case failure to have the correct string starting from a particular position reduces with about 4% the probability of a correct string starting from the next position (i.e., for overlapping positions the events of having the correct string are not independent; in this case there is a positive correlation between the two successes, so the chance of success after a failure is smaller than the chance of success in general). The figure 3.4 × 10183,946 is derived from ''n'' {{=}} 26130000 by taking the logarithm of both sides: log10(''n'') {{=}} 1300000×log10(26) {{=}} 183946.5352, therefore ''n'' {{=}} 100.5352 × 10183946 {{=}} 3.429 × 10183946.}} or including punctuation, 4.4 × 10360,783.{{efn|26 letters ×2 for capitalisation, 12 for punctuation characters {{=}} 64, 199749×log10(64) {{=}} 4.4 × 10360,783 (this is generous as it assumes capital letters are separate keys, as opposed to a key combination, which makes the problem vastly harder).}}

Even if every proton in the observable universe (which is [[Eddington number|estimated]] at roughly 1080) were a monkey with a typewriter, typing from the [[Big Bang]] until the [[end of the universe]] (when protons [[Proton decay|might no longer exist]]), they would still need a far greater amount of time – more than three hundred and sixty thousand ''orders of magnitude'' longer – to have even a 1 in 10500 chance of success. To put it another way, for a one in a trillion chance of success, there would need to be 10360,641 observable universes made of protonic monkeys.{{efn|There are ≈1080 protons in the observable universe. Assume the monkeys write for 1038 years (1020 years is when [[Future of an expanding universe#Stellar remnants escape galaxies or fall into black holes|all stellar remnants will have either been ejected from their galaxies or fallen into black holes]], 1038 years is when all but 0.1% of [[Future of an expanding universe#All nucleons decay|protons have decayed]]). Assuming the monkeys type non-stop at a ridiculous 400 [[words per minute]] (the world record is 216 [[words per minute|WPM]] for a single minute), that is about 2,000 characters per minute (Shakespeare's average word length is a bit under 5 letters). There are about half a million minutes in a year, this means each monkey types half a billion characters per year. This gives a total of 10{{sup|80}}×10{{sup|38}}×10{{sup|9}} {{=}} 10{{sup|127}} letters typed – which is still zero in comparison to 10{{sup|360,783}}. For a one in a trillion chance, multiply the letters typed by a trillion: 10127×1015 {{=}} 10145. 10360,783/10145 {{=}} 10360,641.}} As [[Charles Kittel|Kittel]] and [[Herbert Kroemer|Kroemer]] put it in their textbook on [[thermodynamics]], the field whose statistical foundations motivated the first known expositions of typing monkeys,<ref name="KK">{{cite book |last1=Kittel |first1=Charles |title=Thermal Physics |last2=Kroemer |first2=Herbert |publisher=W.H. Freeman Company |year=1980 |isbn=0-7167-1088-9 |edition=2nd |location=San Francisco |page=53 |oclc=5171399 |author1-link=Charles Kittel |author2-link=Herbert Kroemer}}</ref> "The probability of ''Hamlet'' is therefore zero in any operational sense of an event ...", and the statement that the monkeys must eventually succeed "gives a misleading conclusion about very, very large numbers."

In fact, there is less than a one in a trillion chance of success that such a universe made of monkeys could type any particular document a mere 79 characters long.{{efn|As explained at {{cite web |url=http://www.nutters.org/docs/more-monkeys |title=More monkeys |access-date=2013-12-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418004018/https://www.nutters.org/docs/more-monkeys |archive-date=2015-04-18 |df=dmy-all}} The problem can be approximated further: 10145/log10(64) {{=}} 78.9 characters.}}

===Almost surely===
{{Main|Almost surely}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2024}}

The probability that an infinite randomly generated string of text will contain a particular finite substring is 1. However, this does not mean the substring's absence is "impossible", despite the absence having a prior probability of 0. For example, the immortal monkey ''could'' randomly type G as its first letter, G as its second, and G as every single letter, thereafter, producing an infinite string of Gs; at no point must the monkey be "compelled" to type anything else. (To assume otherwise implies the [[gambler's fallacy]].) However long a randomly generated finite string is, there is a small but nonzero chance that it will turn out to consist of the same character repeated throughout; this chance approaches zero as the string's length approaches infinity. There is nothing special about such a monotonous sequence except that it is easy to describe; the same fact applies to any nameable specific sequence, such as "RGRGRG" repeated forever, or "a-b-aa-bb-aaa-bbb-...", or "Three, Six, Nine, Twelve…".

If the hypothetical monkey has a typewriter with 90 equally likely keys that include numerals and punctuation, then the first typed keys might be "3.14" (the first three [[digits of pi]]) with a probability of (1/90)4, which is 1/65,610,000. Equally probable is any other string of four characters allowed by the typewriter, such as "GGGG", "mATh", or "q%8e". The probability that 100 randomly typed keys will consist of the first 99 digits of pi (including the separator key), or any other ''particular'' sequence of that length, is much lower: (1/90)100. If the monkey's allotted length of text is infinite, the chance of typing only the digit of pi is 0, which is just as ''possible'' (mathematically probable) as typing nothing but Gs (also probability 0).

The same applies to the event of typing a particular version of ''Hamlet'' followed by endless copies of itself; or ''Hamlet'' immediately followed by all the digits of pi; these specific strings are [[infinite set|equally infinite]] in length, they are not prohibited by the terms of the thought problem, and they each have a prior probability of 0. In fact, ''any'' particular infinite sequence the immortal monkey types will have ''had'' a prior probability of 0, even though the monkey must type something.

This is an extension of the principle that a finite string of random text has a lower and lower probability of ''being'' a particular string the longer it is (though all specific strings are equally unlikely). This probability approaches 0 as the string approaches infinity. Thus, the probability of the monkey typing an endlessly long string, such as all of the digits of pi in order, on a 90-key keyboard is (1/90)∞ which equals (1/∞) which is essentially 0. At the same time, the probability that the sequence ''contains'' a particular subsequence (such as the word MONKEY, or the 12th through 999th digits of pi, or a version of the King James Bible) increases as the total string increases. This probability approaches 1 as the total string approaches infinity, and thus the original theorem is correct.

===Correspondence between strings and numbers===
In a simplification of the thought experiment, the monkey could have a typewriter with just two keys: 1 and 0. The infinitely long string thusly produced would correspond to the [[Binary numeral system|binary]] digits of a particular [[real number]] between 0 and 1. A countably infinite set of possible strings end in infinite repetitions, which means the corresponding real number is [[rational number|rational]]. Examples include the strings corresponding to one-third (010101...), five-sixths (11010101...) and five-eighths (1010000...). Only a subset of such real number strings (albeit a countably infinite subset) contains the entirety of ''Hamlet'' (assuming that the text is subjected to a numerical encoding, such as [[ASCII]]).

Meanwhile, there is an ''[[uncountably]]'' infinite set of strings which do not end in such repetition; these correspond to the [[irrational numbers]]. These can be sorted into two uncountably infinite subsets: those which contain ''Hamlet'' and those which do not. However, the "largest" subset of all the real numbers is those which not only contain ''Hamlet'', but which contain every other possible string of any length, and with equal distribution of such strings. These irrational numbers are called [[normal number|normal]]. Because almost all numbers are normal, almost all possible strings contain all possible finite substrings. Hence, the probability of the monkey typing a normal number is 1. The same principles apply regardless of the number of keys from which the monkey can choose; a 90-key keyboard can be seen as a generator of numbers written in base 90.

==History==

===Statistical mechanics===
In one of the forms in which probabilists now know this theorem, with its "dactylographic" [i.e., typewriting] monkeys ({{langx|fr|singes dactylographes}}; the French word ''singe'' covers both the monkeys and the apes), appeared in [[Émile Borel]]'s 1913 article "''Mécanique Statique et Irréversibilité''" (''Static mechanics and irreversibility''),<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Borel |first=Émile |date=1913 |title=La mécanique statique et l'irréversibilité |url=https://hal.science/jpa-00241832 |journal=Journal de Physique Théorique et Appliquée |language=fr |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=189–196 |doi=10.1051/jphystap:019130030018900 |issn=0368-3893 |quote=Concevons qu'on ait dressé un million de singes à frapper au hasard sur les touches d'une machine à écrire et que […] ces singes dactylographes travaillent avec ardeur dix heures par jour avec un million de machines à écrire de types variés. […] Au bout d'un an, [leurs] volumes se trouveraient renfermer la copie exacte des livres de toute nature et de toutes langues conservés dans les plus riches bibliothèques du monde.}}</ref> and in his book "Le Hasard" in 1914.<ref name="Borel1914">{{cite book |author=Borel |first=Émile |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kmm4vgEACAAJ&q=frapper |title=La hasard |publisher=Félix Alcan |year=1914 |location=Paris |page=164 |language=fr-FR }} [https://archive.org/details/lehasard00boreuoft/page/164 Alt URL]</ref> His "monkeys" are not actual monkeys; rather, they are a metaphor for an imaginary way to produce a large, random sequence of letters. Borel said that if a million monkeys typed ten hours a day, it was extremely unlikely that their output would exactly equal all the books of the richest libraries of the world; and yet, in comparison, it was even more unlikely that the laws of statistical mechanics would ever be violated, even briefly.

The physicist [[Arthur Eddington]] drew on Borel's image further in ''The Nature of the Physical World'' (1928), writing:

{{blockquote|If I let my fingers wander idly over the keys of a typewriter it might happen that my screed made an intelligible sentence. If an army of monkeys were strumming on typewriters they might write all the books in the British Museum. The chance of their doing so is decidedly more favourable than the chance of the molecules returning to one half of the vessel.<ref name="Arthur1928">{{cite book | author=Arthur Eddington | title=The Nature of the Physical World: The Gifford Lectures | url=https://archive.org/details/natureofphysical00eddi | publisher=Macmillan | location=New York | year=1928 | page=[https://archive.org/details/natureofphysical00eddi/page/72 72] | isbn=0-8414-3885-4}}</ref><ref name='Arthur1927'>{{cite web | url = http://www.giffordlectures.org/Browse.asp?PubID=TPNOPW&Volume=0&Issue=0&ArticleID=6 | title = Chapter IV: The Running-Down of the Universe | access-date = 2012-01-22 | last = Eddington | first = Arthur | work = The Nature of the Physical World 1926–1927: The [[Gifford Lectures]] | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090308150708/http://www.giffordlectures.org/Browse.asp?PubID=TPNOPW&Volume=0&Issue=0&ArticleID=6 | archive-date = 2009-03-08 }}</ref>}}

These images invite the reader to consider the incredible improbability of a large but finite number of monkeys working for a large but finite amount of time producing a significant work and compare this with the even greater improbability of certain physical events. Any physical process that is even less likely than such monkeys' success is effectively impossible, and it may safely be said that such a process will never happen.<ref name="KK" /> It is clear from the context that Eddington is not suggesting that the probability of this happening is worthy of serious consideration. On the contrary, it was a rhetorical illustration of the fact that below certain levels of probability, the term ''improbable'' is functionally equivalent to ''impossible''.

===Origins and "The Total Library"===
In a 1939 essay entitled "The Total Library", Argentine writer [[Jorge Luis Borges]] traced the infinite-monkey concept back to [[Aristotle]]'s ''Metaphysics.'' Explaining the views of [[Leucippus]], who held that the world arose through the random combination of atoms, Aristotle notes that the atoms themselves are homogeneous and their possible arrangements only differ in shape, position and ordering. In ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'', the Greek philosopher compares this to the way that a tragedy and a comedy consist of the same "atoms", ''i.e.'', alphabetic characters.<ref>Aristotle, ''Περὶ γενέσεως καὶ φθορᾶς'' (''On Generation and Corruption''), 315b14.</ref> Three centuries later, [[Cicero]]'s ''De natura deorum'' (''On the Nature of the Gods'') argued against the [[Epicureanism#Physics|Epicurean atomist]] worldview:

{{Blockquote|Is it possible for any man to behold these things, and yet imagine that certain solid and individual bodies move by their natural force and gravitation, and that a world so beautifully adorned was made by their fortuitous concourse? He who believes this may as well believe that if a great quantity of the one-and-twenty letters, composed either of gold or any other matter, were thrown upon the ground, they would fall into such order as legibly to form the [[Annales (Ennius)|''Annals'' of Ennius]]. I doubt whether fortune could make a single verse of them.<ref>Marcus Tullius Cicero, ''De natura deorum'', 2.37. Translation from ''Cicero's Tusculan Disputations; Also, Treatises On The Nature Of The Gods, And On The Commonwealth'', C. D. Yonge, principal translator, New York, Harper & Brothers Publishers, Franklin Square. (1877). [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14988 Downloadable text].</ref>}}

Borges follows the history of this argument through [[Blaise Pascal]] and [[Jonathan Swift]],<ref>The English translation of "The Total Library" lists the title of Swift's essay as "Trivial Essay on the Faculties of the Soul". The appropriate reference is, instead: Swift, Jonathan, Temple Scott et al. "A Tritical Essay upon the Faculties of the Mind." The Prose Works of Jonathan Swift, Volume 1. London: G. Bell, 1897, pp. 291-296. [https://archive.org/details/proseworksjonat01berngoog  Internet Archive]</ref> then observes that in his own time, the vocabulary had changed. By 1939, the idiom was "that a half-dozen monkeys provided with typewriters would, in a few eternities, produce all the books in the British Museum." (To which Borges adds, "Strictly speaking, one immortal monkey would suffice.") Borges then imagines the contents of the Total Library which this enterprise would produce if carried to its fullest extreme:

{{Blockquote|Everything would be in its blind volumes. Everything: the detailed history of the future, [[Aeschylus]]' [[The Suppliants (Aeschylus)|''The Egyptians'']], the exact number of times that the waters of [[the Ganges]] have reflected the flight of a falcon, [[Quintus Valerius Soranus|the secret and true name of Rome]], the encyclopedia [[Novalis]] would have constructed, my dreams and half-dreams at dawn on August 14, 1934, the proof of [[Pierre Fermat]]'s [[Fermat's Last Theorem|theorem]], the unwritten chapters of ''[[Edwin Drood]]'', those same chapters translated into the language spoken by the [[Garamantes]], the paradoxes [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]] invented concerning Time but didn't publish, [[Urizen]]'s books of iron, the premature epiphanies of [[Stephen Dedalus]], which would be meaningless before a cycle of a thousand years, the Gnostic [[Gospel of Basilides]], the song [[siren (mythology)|the sirens]] sang, the complete catalog of the Library, the proof of the inaccuracy of that catalog. Everything: but for every sensible line or accurate fact there would be millions of meaningless cacophonies, verbal farragoes, and babblings. Everything: but all the generations of mankind could pass before the dizzying shelves – shelves that obliterate the day and on which chaos lies – ever reward them with a tolerable page.<ref>{{cite magazine |author-link=Jorge Luis Borges |last=Borges |first=Jorge Luis |title=La biblioteca total |trans-title=The Total Library |magazine=Sur |issue=59 |date=August 1939}} republished in {{cite book |translator-link=Eliot Weinberger |translator-first=Eliot |translator-last=Weinberger |title=Selected Non-Fictions |publisher=Penguin |year=1999 |isbn=0-670-84947-2}}</ref>}}

Borges' total library concept was the main theme of his widely read 1941 short story "[[The Library of Babel]]", which describes an unimaginably vast library consisting of interlocking hexagonal chambers, together containing every possible volume that could be composed from the letters of the alphabet and some punctuation characters.

==Actual monkeys==
In 2002,<ref name=vivariaNotesShakespeare/> lecturers and students from the [[University of Plymouth]] MediaLab Arts course used a £2,000 grant from the [[Arts Council England|Arts Council]] to study the literary output of real monkeys. They left a computer keyboard in the enclosure of six [[Celebes crested macaque]]s in [[Paignton Zoo]] in Devon, England from May 1 to June 22, with a radio link to broadcast the results on a website.<ref name="BBC News">{{cite news |title=No words to describe monkeys' play |date=2003-05-09 |website=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/3013959.stm |access-date=2009-07-25}}</ref>

Not only did the monkeys produce nothing but five total pages<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vivaria.net/experiments/notes/publication/NOTES_EN.pdf |title=Notes Towards the Complete Works of Shakespeare|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318143423/http://www.vivaria.net/experiments/notes/publication/NOTES_EN.pdf|archive-date=2009-03-18}}</ref> largely consisting of the letter "S",<ref name=vivariaNotesShakespeare/> the lead male began striking the keyboard with a stone, and other monkeys followed by urinating and defecating on the machine.<ref>{{Cite web |last=K. |first=Alfred |date=April 2013 |title=Finite Monkeys Don't Type: A story about the interpretations of probability |url=http://alfre.dk/finite-monkeys-dont-type/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331124433/http://alfre.dk/finite-monkeys-dont-type/ |archive-date=2022-03-31 |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=Alfred K}}</ref> Mike Phillips, director of the university's Institute of Digital Arts and Technology (i-DAT), said that the artist-funded project was primarily [[performance art]], and they had learned "an awful lot" from it. He concluded that monkeys "are not random generators. They're more complex than that. ... They were quite interested in the screen, and they saw that when they typed a letter, something happened. There was a level of intention there."<ref name="BBC News"/><ref name="Associated2003">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,58790,00.html |title=Monkeys don't write Shakespeare |magazine=Wired News |date=2003-05-09 |access-date=2007-03-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040201230858/http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0%2C1284%2C58790%2C00.html |archive-date=2004-02-01 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Applications and criticisms==

===Evolution===
[[Image:Thomas Henry Huxley - Project Gutenberg eText 16935.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Thomas Huxley]] is sometimes misattributed with proposing a variant of the theory in his debates with [[Samuel Wilberforce]].]]
In his 1931 book ''The Mysterious Universe'', Eddington's rival [[James Hopwood Jeans|James Jeans]] attributed the monkey parable to a "Huxley", presumably meaning [[Thomas Henry Huxley]]. This attribution is incorrect.<ref name="Padmanabhan2005">{{cite journal |first=Thanu |last=Padmanabhan |title=The dark side of astronomy |journal=Nature |volume=435 |pages=20–21 |year=2005 |doi=10.1038/435020a |issue=7038|bibcode=2005Natur.435...20P |doi-access=free }} {{cite book |author=Platt, Suzy |title=Respectfully quoted: a dictionary of quotations |year=1993 |publisher=Barnes & Noble |isbn=0-88029-768-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/respectfullyquot00suzy/page/388 388–389] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/respectfullyquot00suzy/page/388 }}</ref> Today, it is sometimes further reported that Huxley applied the example in a [[1860 Oxford evolution debate|now-legendary debate]] over [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' with the Anglican Bishop of Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, held at a meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] at Oxford on 30 June 1860. This story suffers not only from a lack of evidence, but the fact that in 1860 the typewriter was [[Typewriter#History|not yet commercially available]].<ref name="Rescher2006">{{Cite book |last=Rescher |first=Nicholas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_NSBWYdDDAoC |title=Studies in the Philosophy of Science: A Counterfactual Perspective on Quantum Entanglement |date=2006 |publisher=Ontos Verlag |isbn=978-3-11-032646-8 |pages=103 |language=en}}</ref>

Despite the original mix-up, monkey-and-typewriter arguments are now common in arguments over evolution. As an example of [[Christian apologetics]] Doug Powell argued that even if a monkey accidentally types the letters of ''Hamlet'', it has failed to produce ''Hamlet'' because it lacked the intention to communicate. His parallel implication is that natural laws could not produce the information content in [[DNA]].<ref name="Powell2006">{{cite book |last=Powell |first=Doug |title=Holman Quicksource Guide to Christian Apologetics |year=2006 |publisher=Broadman & Holman | isbn = 0-8054-9460-X |pages=60, 63}}</ref> A more common argument is represented by Reverend [[John F. MacArthur]], who claimed that the genetic mutations necessary to produce a tapeworm from an amoeba are as unlikely as a monkey typing Hamlet's soliloquy, and hence the odds against the evolution of all life are impossible to overcome.<ref name="MacArthur2003">{{cite book |first=John |last=MacArthur |title=Think Biblically!: Recovering a Christian Worldview |year=2003 |publisher=Crossway Books |isbn=1-58134-412-0 |pages=78–79}}</ref>

[[Evolutionary biology|Evolutionary biologist]] [[Richard Dawkins]] employs the typing monkey concept in his book ''[[The Blind Watchmaker]]'' to demonstrate the ability of [[natural selection]] to produce biological [[complexity]] out of random [[mutation]]s. In a simulation experiment Dawkins has his [[weasel program]] produce the Hamlet phrase ''METHINKS IT IS LIKE A WEASEL'', starting from a randomly typed parent, by "breeding" subsequent generations and always choosing the closest match from progeny that are copies of the parent with random mutations. The chance of the target phrase appearing in a single step is extremely small, yet Dawkins showed that it could be produced rapidly (in about 40 generations) using cumulative selection of phrases. The random choices furnish raw material, while cumulative selection imparts information. As Dawkins acknowledges, however, the weasel program is an imperfect analogy for evolution, as "offspring" phrases were selected "according to the criterion of resemblance to a ''distant ideal'' target." In contrast, Dawkins affirms, evolution has no long-term plans and does not progress toward some distant goal (such as humans). The weasel program is instead meant to illustrate the difference between [[non-random]] cumulative selection, and [[random]] single-step selection.<ref name="Dawkins1996">{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |year=1996 |title=The Blind Watchmaker |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co. |isbn=0-393-31570-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/blindwatchmaker0000dawk/page/46 46–50] |url=https://archive.org/details/blindwatchmaker0000dawk/page/46 }}</ref> In terms of the typing monkey analogy, this means that ''Romeo and Juliet'' could be produced relatively quickly if placed under the constraints of a nonrandom, Darwinian-type selection because the [[fitness function]] will tend to preserve in place any letters that happen to match the target text, improving each successive generation of typing monkeys.

A different avenue for exploring the analogy between evolution and an unconstrained monkey lies in the problem that the monkey types only one letter at a time, independently of the other letters. Hugh Petrie argues that a more sophisticated setup is required, in his case not for biological evolution but the evolution of ideas:

{{blockquote|In order to get the proper analogy, we would have to equip the monkey with a more complex typewriter. It would have to include whole Elizabethan sentences and thoughts. It would have to include Elizabethan beliefs about human action patterns and the causes, Elizabethan morality and science, and linguistic patterns for expressing these. It would probably even have to include an account of the sorts of experiences which shaped Shakespeare's belief structure as a particular example of an Elizabethan. Then, perhaps, we might allow the monkey to play with such a typewriter and produce variants, but the impossibility of obtaining a Shakespearean play is no longer obvious. What is varied really does encapsulate a great deal of already-achieved knowledge.<ref name="Blachowicz1998">As quoted in {{cite book |first=James |last=Blachowicz |title=Of Two Minds: Nature of Inquiry |year=1998 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=0-7914-3641-1 |page=109}}</ref>}}

[[James W. Valentine]], while admitting that the classic monkey's task is impossible, finds that there is a worthwhile analogy between written English and the [[metazoa]]n genome in this other sense: both have "combinatorial, hierarchical structures" that greatly constrain the immense number of combinations at the alphabet level.<ref name="Valentine2004">{{cite book |first=James |last=Valentine |title=On the Origin of Phyla |year=2004 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-84548-6 |pages=77–80}}</ref>

=== Zipf's law ===
[[Zipf's law]] states that the frequency of words is a power law function of its frequency rank:<math display="block">\text{word frequency} \propto \frac{1}{(\text{word rank} + b)^a}</math>where <math>a, b</math> are real numbers. Assuming that a monkey is typing randomly, with fixed and nonzero probability of hitting each letter key or white space, then the text produced by the monkey follows Zipf's law.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Conrad |first1=B. |last2=Mitzenmacher |first2=M. |date=July 2004 |title=Power laws for monkeys typing randomly: the case of unequal probabilities |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1306541 |journal=IEEE Transactions on Information Theory |volume=50 |issue=7 |pages=1403–1414 |doi=10.1109/TIT.2004.830752 |s2cid=8913575 |issn=1557-9654}}</ref>

===Literary theory===
[[R. G. Collingwood]] argued in 1938 that art cannot be produced by accident, and wrote as a sarcastic aside to his critics,

{{blockquote|... some ... have denied this proposition, pointing out that if a monkey played with a typewriter ... he would produce ... the complete text of Shakespeare. Any reader who has nothing to do can amuse himself by calculating how long it would take for the probability to be worth betting on. But the interest of the suggestion lies in the revelation of the mental state of a person who can identify the 'works' of Shakespeare with the series of letters printed on the pages of a book ...<ref name="Sclafani1975">p. 126 of ''The Principles of Art'', as summarized and quoted by {{cite journal |first=Richard J. |last=Sclafani |title=The logical primitiveness of the concept of a work of art |journal=British Journal of Aesthetics |year=1975 |volume=15 |issue=1 |doi=10.1093/bjaesthetics/15.1.14 |page=14}}</ref>}}

[[Nelson Goodman]] took the contrary position, illustrating his point along with Catherine Elgin by the example of Borges' "[[Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote]]",

{{blockquote|What Menard wrote is simply another inscription of the text. Any of us can do the same, as can printing presses and photocopiers. Indeed, we are told, if infinitely many monkeys ... one would eventually produce a replica of the text. That replica, we maintain, would be as much an instance of the work, ''Don Quixote'', as Cervantes' manuscript, Menard's manuscript, and each copy of the book that ever has been or will be printed.<ref name="John2004">{{cite book |editor1=John, Eileen |editor2=Dominic Lopes |title=The Philosophy of Literature: Contemporary and Classic Readings: An Anthology |year=2004 |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=1-4051-1208-5 |page=96}}</ref>}}

In another writing, Goodman elaborates, "That the monkey may be supposed to have produced his copy randomly makes no difference. It is the same text, and it is open to all the same interpretations. ..." [[Gérard Genette]] dismisses Goodman's argument as [[begging the question]].<ref name="Genette1997">{{cite book |first=Gérard |last= Genette |title=The Work of Art: Immanence and Transcendence |url=https://archive.org/details/workofart00gene |url-access=registration |year=1997 |publisher=Cornell UP |isbn=0-8014-8272-0}}</ref>

For [[Jorge J. E. Gracia]], the question of the identity of texts leads to a different question, that of author. If a monkey is capable of typing ''Hamlet'', despite having no intention of meaning and therefore disqualifying itself as an author, then it appears that texts do not require authors. Possible solutions include saying that whoever finds the text and identifies it as ''Hamlet'' is the author; or that Shakespeare is the author, the monkey his agent, and the finder merely a user of the text. These solutions have their own difficulties, in that the text appears to have a meaning separate from the other agents: What if the monkey operates before Shakespeare is born, or if Shakespeare is never born, or if no one ever finds the monkey's typescript?<ref name="Gracia1996">{{cite book |last=Gracia |first=Jorge |title=Texts: Ontological Status, Identity, Author, Audience |year=1996 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=0-7914-2901-6 |pages=1–2, 122–125}}</ref>

===Random document generation===
The theorem concerns a [[thought experiment]] which cannot be fully carried out in practice, since it is predicted to require prohibitive amounts of time and resources. Nonetheless, it has inspired efforts in finite random text generation.

One computer program run by Dan Oliver of Scottsdale, Arizona, according to an article in ''[[The New Yorker]]'', came up with a result on 4 August 2004: After the group had worked for 42,162,500,000 billion billion monkey-years, one of the "monkeys" typed, "<samp>VALENTINE. Cease toIdor:eFLP0FRjWK78aXzVOwm)-‘;8.t</samp>" The first 19 letters of this sequence can be found in "The Two Gentlemen of Verona". Other teams have reproduced 18 characters from "Timon of Athens", 17 from "Troilus and Cressida", and 16 from "Richard II".<ref name="ja">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/04/09/070409crbo_books_acocella?currentPage=all |last=Acocella |first=Joan |title=The typing life: How writers used to write |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=9 April 2007}} – a review of {{cite book |title=The Iron Whim: A fragmented history of typewriting |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2007 |first=Darren |last=Wershler-Henry}}</ref>

A website entitled ''The Monkey Shakespeare Simulator'', launched on 1 July 2003, contained a [[Java applet]] that simulated a large population of monkeys typing randomly, with the stated intention of seeing how long it takes the virtual monkeys to produce a complete Shakespearean play from beginning to end. For example, it produced this partial line from ''[[Henry IV, Part 2]]'', reporting that it took "2,737,850 million billion billion billion monkey-years" to reach 24 matching characters:
:<samp>RUMOUR. Open your ears; 9r"5j5&?OWTY Z0d</samp>

Due to processing power limitations, the program used a probabilistic model (by using a [[random number generator]] or RNG) instead of actually generating random text and comparing it to Shakespeare. When the simulator "detected a match" (that is, the RNG generated a certain value or a value within a certain range), the simulator simulated the match by generating matched text.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://io9.gizmodo.com/5809583/the-story-of-the-monkey-shakespeare-simulator-project |title=The story of the Monkey Shakespeare Simulator Project |last1=Inglis-Arkell |first1=Esther |date=June 9, 2011 |website=io9 |publisher=gizmodo |access-date=24 February 2016}}</ref>

===Testing of random-number generators===
{{main|Diehard tests}}
Questions about the statistics describing how often an ideal monkey is [[expected value|expected]] to type certain strings translate into [[Randomness tests|practical tests for random-number generators]]; these range from the simple to the "quite sophisticated". Computer-science professors [[George Marsaglia]] and [[Arif Zaman]] report that they used to call one such category of tests "overlapping m-[[tuple]] tests" in lectures, since they concern overlapping m-tuples of successive elements in a random sequence. But they found that calling them "monkey tests" helped to motivate the idea with students. They published a report on the class of tests and their results for various RNGs in 1993.<ref name="Marsaglia1993">
{{Cite journal |last1=Marsaglia |first1=George |last2=Zaman |first2=Arif |year=1993 |title=Monkey tests for random number generators |journal=Computers & Mathematics with Applications |publisher=Elsevier, Oxford |volume=26 |issue=9 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1016/0898-1221(93)90001-C |issn=0898-1221 |doi-access=free}}
</ref>

==In popular culture==
{{Main|Infinite monkey theorem in popular culture}}
The infinite monkey theorem and its associated imagery is considered a popular and proverbial illustration of the mathematics of probability, widely known to the general public because of its transmission through popular culture rather than through formal education.{{efn|Examples of the theorem being referred to as proverbial include: {{cite journal |title=Why creativity is not like the proverbial typing monkey |first1=Jonathan W. |last1=Schooler |first2=Sonya |last2=Dougal |journal=Psychological Inquiry |volume=10 |issue=4 |year=1999}}; and {{cite book |title=The Case of the Midwife Toad |author-link=Arthur Koestler |first=Arthur |last=Koestler |place=New York |year=1972 |page=30 |quote=Neo-Darwinism does indeed carry the nineteenth-century brand of materialism to its extreme limits{{spaced endash}}to the proverbial monkey at the typewriter, hitting by pure chance on the proper keys to produce a Shakespeare sonnet.}} The latter is sourced from {{cite web |url=https://www.angelfire.com/in/hypnosonic/Parable_of_the_Monkeys.html |title=Parable of the Monkeys}}, a collection of historical references to the theorem in various formats.}} This is helped by the innate humor stemming from the image of literal monkeys rattling away on a set of typewriters, and is a popular visual gag.

A quotation attributed<ref>{{Citation |title=Robert Wilensky 1951–American academic |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191826719.001.0001/q-oro-ed4-00011578 |work=Oxford Essential Quotations |year=2016 |editor=Susan Ratcliffe |publisher=Oxford University Press |quotation=in Mail on Sunday 16 February 1997 ‘Quotes of the Week’}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Lewis |first=Bob |date=1997-06-02 |title=It's time for some zoning laws in today's version of the Old West: the Web |volume=19 |page=84 |work=InfoWorld |publisher=InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. |issue=22 |department=Enterprise Computing, IS Survival Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-DsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA84 |issn=0199-6649 |postscript=. May also be in "Bob Lewis's IS Survival Guide", published March 19, 1999, ISBN 978-0672314377}}</ref> to a 1996 speech by Robert Wilensky stated, "We've heard that a million monkeys at a million keyboards could produce the complete works of Shakespeare; now, thanks to the Internet, we know that is not true."

The enduring, widespread popularity of the theorem was noted in the introduction to a 2001 paper, "Monkeys, Typewriters and Networks: The Internet in the Light of the Theory of Accidental Excellence".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://skylla.wz-berlin.de/pdf/2002/ii02-101.pdf |title=Monkeys, Typewriters and Networks |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513012236/http://skylla.wz-berlin.de/pdf/2002/ii02-101.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-13 |first1=Ute |last1=Hoffmann |first2=Jeanette |last2=Hofmann |publisher=Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung gGmbH (WZB) |year=2001}}</ref> In 2002, an article in ''[[The Washington Post]]'' said, "Plenty of people have had fun with the famous notion that an infinite number of monkeys with an infinite number of typewriters and an infinite amount of time could eventually write the works of Shakespeare".<ref>{{cite news |first=Ken |last=Ringle |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A28521-2002Oct27?language=printer |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021115230959/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A28521-2002Oct27?language=printer |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 November 2002 |title=Hello? This is Bob |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=28 October 2002 |page=C01}}</ref> In 2003, the previously mentioned [[Arts Council England|Arts Council]]−funded experiment involving real monkeys and a computer keyboard received widespread press coverage.<ref name=vivariaNotesShakespeare>{{cite web |url=http://www.vivaria.net/experiments/notes/documentation/press/ |title=Notes towards the complete works of Shakespeare |year=2002 |website=vivaria.net |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716153346/http://www.vivaria.net/experiments/notes/documentation/press/ |archive-date=2007-07-16 }} – some press clippings.</ref> In 2007, the theorem was listed by ''[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]'' magazine in a list of eight classic [[thought experiment]]s.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Greta |last=Lorge |url=https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/magazine/15-06/st_best |title=The best thought experiments: Schrödinger's cat, Borel's monkeys |magazine=Wired |volume=15 |issue=6 |date=May 2007}}</ref>

American playwright [[David Ives]]' short [[one-act play]] ''[[Words, Words, Words]]'', from the collection ''[[All in the Timing]]'', pokes fun of the concept of the infinite monkey theorem.

In 2015 Balanced Software released Monkey Typewriter on the Microsoft Store.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-11-16 |title=Monkey Typewriter |url=https://apps.microsoft.com/store/detail/monkey-typewriter/9NBLGGH69FC8 |access-date=2022-02-14 |website=Microsoft Store Apps |publisher=Balanced Software |language=en-us |id=9NBLGGH69FC8}}</ref> The software generates random text using the Infinite Monkey theorem string formula. The software queries the generated text for user inputted phrases. However the software should not be considered true to life representation of the theory. This is a more of a practical presentation of the theory rather than scientific model on how to randomly generate text.

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Boltzmann brain}}
* {{annotated link|Borel–Cantelli lemma#Converse result|Second Borel–Cantelli lemma}}
* {{annotated link|Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel}}, another thought experiment involving infinity
* {{annotated link|Law of truly large numbers}}
* {{annotated link|Murphy's law}}
* {{annotated link|Normal number}}
* {{annotated link|Stochastic parrot}}
* {{annotated link|Texas sharpshooter fallacy}}
* {{annotated link|The Engine}}
* {{annotated link|The Hidden Reality|''The Hidden Reality: Parallel Universes and the Deep Laws of the Cosmos''}}
* {{annotated link|The Infinite Monkey Cage|''The Infinite Monkey Cage''}}
* {{annotated link|The Library of Babel}}

==Notes==
{{notelist|1}}

==References==
{{reflist|25em}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |url=http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/55871.html |title=Ask Dr. Math |id=article 55871 |date=August 1998 |first=Adam |last=Bridge |website=mathforum.org}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.angelfire.com/in/hypnosonic/Parable_of_the_Monkeys.html |title=The Parable of the Monkeys |website=angelfire}} – a bibliography with quotations
* {{cite web |url=http://azureworld.blogspot.com/2007/04/planck-monkeys.html |title=Planck Monkeys|date=12 April 2007}} – on populating the cosmos with monkey particles
* {{cite web |url=http://www.pixelmonkeys.org/ |title=PixelMonkeys.org}} – Matt Kane's application of the ''Infinite Monkey Theorem'' on pixels to create images.
* {{cite web |url=http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2795 |title=RFC 2795|year=2000 |doi=10.17487/RFC2795 |last1=Christey |first1=S. }} – [[April Fools' Day Request for Comments|April Fools' Day RFC]] on the implementation of the ''Infinite Monkey Theorem''.
* "A numerical evaluation of the Finite Monkeys Theorem." [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2773186324001014 Open access]
{{Areas of mathematics}}
{{Portal bar|Mathematics|North America}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Infinite Monkey Theorem}}
[[Category:Articles containing proofs]]
[[Category:Metaphors referring to monkeys]]
[[Category:Infinity]]
[[Category:Literary theory]]
[[Category:Probability theorems]]
[[Category:Statistical randomness]]
[[Category:Random text generation]]
[[Category:Thought experiments]]

Cold drop

2024-11-01T12:04:24Z

Brandmeister: +2 categories

{{Short description|Regional meteorological term}}
{{merge|cut-off low|date=October 2024}}
[[File:Regle_Henry.jpg|thumb|250px|A stationary cold low, in which a cold drop is found.]]

A '''cold drop'''{{efn|{{Langx|eu|tanta hotz}}; {{Langx|ca|gota freda}}; {{Langx|fr|goutte froide}}; [[Galician language|Galician]] and {{langx|es|gota fría}}}} is a term used in Spain and France that has commonly come to refer to any high impact rainfall events occurring in the autumn along the Spanish Mediterranean coast or across France.<ref name="Martin">{{cite journal |last1=Martín León |first1=Francisco |title=LAS GOTAS FRÍAS / DANAS IDEAS Y CONCEPTOS BÁSICOS |journal=Servicio de Técnicas de Análisis y Predicción, INM |url=https://www.aemet.es/documentos/es/conocermas/recursos_en_linea/publicaciones_y_estudios/estudios/dana_ext.pdf|date=2003 |lang=Spanish |accessdate=13 September 2019}}</ref> In Europe, cold drops belong to the characteristics of the [[Mediterranean climate]].<ref name="gotavsceven">{{cite news |title=Los episodios de lluvias intensas otoñales en Francia: el cévenol |url=https://www.tiempo.com/ram/281572/los-episodios-de-lluvias-intensas-del-mediterraneo-gota-fria-vs-cevenol/ |accessdate=13 September 2019 |work=Tiempo.com |date=14 October 2016 |language=es-ES}}</ref><ref>[https://www.meteorologiaenred.com/en/gota-fria.html Cold drop] meteorologiaenred.com</ref> It is also termed a [[cut-off low]].

In the Spanish Mediterranean, these events are typically caused by upper-level low [[pressure system]]s strangled from the [[Zonal and meridional flow|zonal (eastward) circulation]] displaying stationary or retrograde (westward) circulation. '''DANA''' is the Spanish initialism for '''D'''''epresión '''A'''islada en '''N'''iveles '''A'''ltos''.<ref> [https://www.nationalgeographic.es/medio-ambiente/2021/09/que-es-una-dana-y-por-que-es-cada-vez-mas-frecuente-en-espana National Geographic Spanish edition article about DANA)]</ref>

==Occurrence==
===Spain===
If a sudden cut off in the jet stream takes place (particularly on the [[Atlantic Ocean]]), a pocket of cold air detaches from the main [[jet stream]], penetrating to the south over the [[Pyrenees]] into the warm air in [[Spain]], causing its most dramatic effects in the Southeast of Spain, particularly along the Spanish [[Mediterranean]] coast, especially in the [[Valencian Community]]. The torrential rain caused by a cold drop can result in devastation caused by torrents and [[flash floods]].

This phenomenon is associated with extremely violent downpours and storms, but not always accompanied by significant rainfall. For this, high atmospheric instability in the lower air layers needs to combine with a significant amount of moisture.<ref>[https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/12/7/835 Cut-Off Lows and Extreme Precipitation in Eastern Spain: Current and Future Climate] by Rosana Nieto Ferreira from Department of Geography, Planning and Environment, [[East Carolina University]]. 28 June 2021. Retrieved 6 April 2022.</ref>

==== Disasters ====
The [[1957 Valencia flood|great Valencia flood]] on 14 October 1957 was the result of a three-day-long cold drop and caused the deaths of at least 81 people.

The [[1962 Vallés floods|Vallès floods]] on 25 September 1962 in the [[province of Barcelona]] were caused by a cold drop (gota fría),<ref>{{Cite web |last=20minutos |date=2024-10-30 |title=De la riada del Vallés a la tragedia del 'camping' de Biescas: las peores inundaciones y DANA de la historia de España |url=https://www.20minutos.es/noticia/5649324/0/las-peores-danas-inundaciones-historia-espana/ |access-date=2024-11-01 |website=www.20minutos.es - Últimas Noticias |language=es |quote=La riada del Vallés, ocurrida el 25 de septiembre de 1962, fue provocada por una gota fría que causó lluvias torrenciales muy intensas}}</ref> producing heavy rain, overflowing the [[Llobregat]] and [[Besòs (river)|Besòs]] rivers. The official death toll was 617.

On the nights of 29 and 30 October 2024, [[October_2024_Spain_floods|a DANA]] caused considerable loss of life and extensive damage, especially in the [[Valencian Community]]<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/oct/29/four-missing-after-torrential-rain-brings-flash-flooding-to-spain Guardian UK: Dead bodies found after torrential rain brings flash flooding to Spain]</ref> and the provinces of [[Province of Albacete|Albacete]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/vida/20241030/10063617/desolacion-letur-confirma-seis-desaparecidos-son-pueblo.html |title=Dos muertos y cinco desaparecidos en Letur y Mira, dos pequeños pueblos manchegos |date=30 October 2024 |access-date=30 October 2024 |language=es}}</ref> [[Province of Almería|Almería]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://elpais.com/espana/2024-10-29/las-fuertes-lluvias-provocan-importantes-danos-en-el-ejido-y-mas-de-200-incidencias-en-el-resto-de-andalucia.html |title=Granizos como pelotas de golf en El Ejido: “Parecía el fin del mundo” |first=Nacho |last=Sánchez |date=29 October 2024 |access-date=30 October 2024 |newspaper=[[El País]] |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.canalsur.es/noticias/andalucia/almeria/una-fuerte-tormenta-de-granizo-destroza-coches-y-arrasa-invernaderos-en-el-ejido/2093259.html |title=Una fuerte tormenta de granizo destroza coches y arrasa invernaderos en El Ejido |date=29 October 2024 |access-date=30 October 2024 |work=[[Canal Sur]] |language=es}}</ref> and [[Province of Málaga|Málaga]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.diariosur.es/malaga/lluvias-torrenciales-inundaciones-malaga-imagenes-20241029121638-ga.html |title=Las lluvias torrenciales sobre Málaga, en imágenes |date=29 October 2024 |access-date=30 October 2024 |newspaper=[[Diario Sur]] |language=es}}</ref>

===Other areas===
Cut-off lows are apparent near the [[Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta]] in the [[Caribbean region of Colombia|Colombian Caribbean]], with peaks surpassing 5 km in altitude in close proximity to a warm sea. They can also occur elsewhere in the southern hemisphere, such as in [[South Africa]], [[Namibia]], [[South America]] and southern [[Australia]]. In the northern hemisphere, besides [[Southern Europe]] and [[France]], they can occur in [[China]] and [[Siberia]], [[North Pacific]], [[Northeastern United States]] and the northeast Atlantic.

== See also ==
* [[Cold-core low]]
* [[Cold pool]]
* [[Polar vortex]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Cyclones}}
[[Category:Flood]]
[[Category:Types of cyclone]]
[[Category:Atmospheric dynamics]]
[[Category:Meteorological phenomena]]
[[Category:Cold]]
[[Category:Weather events]]
[[Category:Climate of Spain]]
[[Category:Climate of France]]

2024 World Series

2024-11-01T11:59:36Z

Brandmeister: /* top */ wlinks

{{Short description|Major League Baseball's championship series}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox baseball championship series
| country = World
| year = 2024
| image = 2024_World_Series_logo.svg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| champion = [[2024 Los Angeles Dodgers season|Los Angeles Dodgers]] (4)
| champion_manager = [[Dave Roberts (baseball manager)|Dave Roberts]]
| champion_games = {{winpct|98|64|record=y}}, GA: 5
| runnerup = [[2024 New York Yankees season|New York Yankees]] (1)
| runnerup_manager = [[Aaron Boone]]
| runnerup_games = {{winpct|94|68|record=y}}, GA: 3
| date = October 25–30
| venue = [[Dodger Stadium]] (Los Angeles) [[Yankee Stadium]] (New York)
| MVP = [[Freddie Freeman]] (Los Angeles)
| umpires = [[Mark Carlson (umpire)|Mark Carlson]] (crew chief), [[Doug Eddings]], [[Chad Fairchild]], [[Andy Fletcher (umpire)|Andy Fletcher]], [[Mark Ripperger]], [[Todd Tichenor]], [[Carlos Torres (umpire)|Carlos Torres]]
| HOFers =
| ALCS = [[2024 New York Yankees season|New York Yankees]] over [[2024 Cleveland Guardians season|Cleveland Guardians]] (4–1)
| NLCS = [[2024 Los Angeles Dodgers season|Los Angeles Dodgers]] over [[2024 New York Mets season|New York Mets]] (4–2)
| television = [[MLB on Fox|Fox]] (United States – English) [[Fox Deportes]] (United States – Spanish) [[Univision]] (United States – Spanish) (Game 1) [[MLB International]] (International)
| announcers = [[Joe Davis (sportscaster)|Joe Davis]], [[John Smoltz]], [[Ken Rosenthal]], and [[Tom Verducci]] (Fox) [[Adrian Garcia Marquez|Adrián García Márquez]], [[Edgar Gonzalez (infielder)|Edgar González]], Carlos Álvarez, and Jaime Motta (Fox Deportes) Antonio de Valdés, Enrique Burak, [[Nelson Cruz]], Daniel Nohra, and Luis Alberto Martínez (Univision) [[Dave Flemming]] and [[Ryan Spilborghs]] (MLB International – English)
| radio_network = [[Major League Baseball on ESPN Radio|ESPN]] (United States – English) [[TUDN Radio|TUDN]] (United States – Spanish) [[KLAC]] (LAD – English) [[KTNQ]] (LAD – Spanish) [[WFAN (AM)|WFAN]] (NYY – English) [[WADO]] (NYY – Spanish)
| radio_announcers = [[Jon Sciambi]], [[Jessica Mendoza]], [[Eduardo Pérez]], and [[Buster Olney]] (ESPN) Alberto Ferreiro and [[Luis Quiñones (baseball)|Luis Quiñones]] (TUDN) [[Stephen Nelson (sportscaster)|Stephen Nelson]] and [[Rick Monday]] (KLAC) [[Pepe Yñiguez]] and [[José Mota (baseball)|José Mota]] (KTNQ) [[John Sterling (sportscaster)|John Sterling]] and [[Suzyn Waldman]] (WFAN) [[Rickie Ricardo]] and Francisco Rivera (WADO)
| alt2 =
|image2=2024 World Series Program.png
}}
The '''2024 World Series''' was the [[World Series|championship series]] of [[Major League Baseball]]'s (MLB) [[2024 Major League Baseball season|2024 season]]. The 120th edition of the World Series, it was a [[best-of-seven playoff]] between the [[National League (baseball)|National League]] (NL) [[2024 National League Championship Series|champion]] [[2024 Los Angeles Dodgers season|Los Angeles Dodgers]] and the [[American League]] (AL) [[2024 American League Championship Series|champion]] [[2024 New York Yankees season|New York Yankees]]. The series began on October{{nbsp}}25 and ended on October{{nbsp}}30 with the Dodgers winning in five games.<ref>{{cite web|last=Foster|first=Jason|title=Postseason schedule announced; flexible start date for World Series|url=https://www.mlb.com/news/2024-mlb-playoff-and-world-series-schedule|website=MLB.com|date=August 1, 2024|access-date=August 24, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Snyder|first=Matt|title=MLB releases 2024 playoffs schedule: Dates for every postseason series, plus why the World Series could move|url=https://www.cbssports.com/mlb/news/mlb-releases-2024-playoffs-schedule-dates-for-every-postseason-series-plus-why-the-world-series-could-move/|work=CBS Sports|date=August 1, 2024|access-date=August 24, 2024}}</ref> [[Freddie Freeman]] of Los Angeles was named [[World Series Most Valuable Player]] for the first time in his career, tying a World Series record with 12 [[runs batted in]] (RBIs) while hitting [[home run]]s in the first four games of the series, including the first walk-off [[grand slam (baseball)|grand slam]] in a World Series in Game 1.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 31, 2024 |title=Freddie Freeman named World Series MVP: Dodgers star slugged four home runs in five games on way to title |url=https://www.cbssports.com/mlb/news/freddie-freeman-named-world-series-mvp-dodgers-star-slugged-four-home-runs-in-five-games-on-way-to-title/ |access-date=October 31, 2024 |website=CBSSports.com |language=en|author-last1=Axisa|author-first1=Mike}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Dodgers take advantage of 3 Yanks miscues to rally in Game 5 |url=https://www.mlb.com/news/freddie-freeman-world-series-rbi-record |access-date=October 31, 2024 |website=MLB.com |language=en|author-last1=Cassavell|author-first1=AJ}}</ref>

The Dodgers and Yankees entered the [[2024 Major League Baseball postseason|2024 MLB postseason]] as the top [[Seeding (sports)|seeds]] in their leagues. It was the 12th time in the [[Dodgers–Yankees rivalry]] that the teams have met in the World Series, after facing each other at least once in each decade from the 1940s through the 1980s; the Yankees won six of the first seven matchups when the Dodgers were crosstown rivals [[Brooklyn Dodgers|based in Brooklyn]], with the teams splitting the four series after the Dodgers relocated. The Dodgers had [[home-field advantage]] in the series due to their better regular season [[win-loss record]]. The Dodgers last won a title in the [[2020 World Series]].

==Background==
{{see also|2024 Major League Baseball postseason}}
This series marked the twelfth World Series meeting between the [[Dodgers–Yankees rivalry|Dodgers and Yankees]] and the first since [[1981 World Series|1981]].<ref name="FirstMeeting">{{cite news |last=Mendoza |first=Jordan |title=Yankees-Dodgers World Series history: MLB blue-bloods set for record 12th matchup |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/2024/10/20/yankees-vs-dodgers-world-series-last-machups-history/75768010007/ |access-date=October 20, 2024 |work=USA Today |date=October 20, 2024}}</ref> It was also the eleventh meeting between teams from [[Sports in New York City|New York City]] and [[Sports in Los Angeles|Los Angeles]] for a [[Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada|major professional sports]] championship. This previously happened in four World Series ({{wsy|1963}}, {{wsy|1977}}, {{wsy|1978}}, [[1981 World Series|1981]]), three [[NBA Finals]] ({{nbafy|1970}}, {{nbafy|1972}}, {{nbafy|1973}}), and three [[Stanley Cup Finals]] ({{scfy|2003}}, {{scfy|2012}}, {{scfy|2014}}).<ref>{{YouTube|id=K4T_HmNoZNU|title=Rangers @ Kings 06/04/14 | Game 1 Stanley Cup Finals 2014}}</ref>

Additionally, this World Series was contested between two players favored to win [[most valuable player]] (MVP) awards in their respective leagues: [[Aaron Judge]] of the Yankees and [[Shohei Ohtani]] of the Dodgers.<ref>{{cite web|title=2024 MLB MVP race, odds: Aaron Judge, Shohei Ohtani will likely win AL, NL MVPs |url=https://www.foxsports.com/stories/mlb/2024-mlb-mvp-odds |work=[[FOX Sports]] |date=October 20, 2024 |access-date=October 20, 2024}}</ref> Assuming that both players are so awarded, this will be the first World Series since [[2012 World Series|2012]] (when [[Buster Posey]] of the [[San Francisco Giants]] faced [[Miguel Cabrera]] of the [[Detroit Tigers]]) to feature the two league MVPs from that season. Judge won the [[Major League Baseball Most Valuable Player Award|American League (AL) MVP Award]] in 2022, while Ohtani won two AL MVP awards unanimously with the [[Los Angeles Angels]] in 2021 and 2023. During the 2024 regular season, Judge hit 58 home runs while Ohtani hit 54 during his [[40–40 club#50–50 season|50–50 season]], meaning that this is the first time in Major League Baseball history that two batters who hit 50 home runs in the same regular season are playing against each other in the World Series.<ref>{{cite tweet|user=OptaSTATS |author=OptaSTATS |number=1848203707986448815 |title=For the first time in MLB history, two 50-HR hitters from the regular season will play against each other in the World Series. |date=October 20, 2024 |access-date=October 20, 2024}}</ref> Because of the renewal of the rivalry between the two storied franchises, and the World Series debuts of both Ohtani and Judge, many regarded the matchup as a "dream" World Series in the lead-up to the event.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nightengale|first=Bob |date=October 21, 2024 |title='What the people wanted': Dream World Series of Yankees vs. Dodgers is here|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/columnist/bob-nightengale/2024/10/21/dodgers-yankees-world-series-shohei-ohtani-aaron-judge/75773389007/|access-date=October 21, 2024|work=[[USA Today]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Pleskoff|first=Bernie|date=October 20, 2024 |title=Fox Sports Gets Dream Match With Yankees V Dodgers In World Series|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/berniepleskoff/2024/10/20/fox-sports-gets-dream-match-with-yankees-v-dodgers-in-world-series/|access-date=October 21, 2024 |website=[[Forbes]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Bloom|first=Barry|date=October 21, 2024 |title=MLB Gets Dream Matchup: Dodgers-Yanks in World Series|url=https://sports.yahoo.com/mlb-gets-dream-matchup-dodgers-123000396.html|access-date=October 21, 2024 |work=[[Yahoo! Sports]]}}</ref>

This was the first World Series to feature the teams with the best record in each league since the [[2020 World Series]]. Additionally, this was just the fifth time in the Wild Card era (1995–present) where both teams with the best record in each league faced each other in the World Series.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dodgers vs. Rays a rare matchup of MLB's best regular-season teams|url=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/sports/mlb/tigers/2020/10/19/dodgers-vs-rays-rare-matchup-mlbs-best-regular-season-teams/5983832002/|first1=Ronald|last1=Blum|agency=Associated Press|work=[[The Detroit News]]|date=October 19, 2020}}</ref>

The Dodgers won a three-game series against the Yankees in June in New York, winning the first two games before dropping the finale, though [[Juan Soto]] did not appear in that series.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Anderson |first1=R.J. |title=Dodgers vs. Yankees World Series: Five things to know about 2024 Fall Classic between storied franchises |url=https://www.cbssports.com/mlb/news/dodgers-vs-yankees-world-series-five-things-to-know-about-2024-fall-classic-between-storied-franchises/ |website=CBSSports.com |access-date=October 21, 2024 |date=October 21, 2024}}</ref>

===Los Angeles Dodgers===
{{see also|2024 Los Angeles Dodgers season}}
[[File:Dodgers at Nationals (53677192000) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|205px|right|[[Shohei Ohtani]] became the first player to hit 50 home runs and steal 50 bases in a single season.]]
After back-to-back upset losses to [[Major League Baseball rivalries#National League West|division rivals]] in the postseason in [[2022 Los Angeles Dodgers season|2022]] and [[2023 Los Angeles Dodgers season|2023]], the Dodgers looked to reshape their roster. In the off-season, they signed superstar two-way player [[Shohei Ohtani]] to a record $700{{nbsp}}million, 10 year contract.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wexler |first1=Sarah |title=$700M stunner: Ohtani to Dodgers on biggest deal in sports history |url=https://www.mlb.com/dodgers/news/shohei-ohtani-contract-with-dodgers |website=MLB.com |access-date=September 26, 2024}}</ref> Other big additions were signing outfielder [[Teoscar Hernández]] and pitcher [[Yoshinobu Yamamoto]] (from Japan through the [[posting system]]) and trading for starting pitcher [[Tyler Glasnow]]. During the regular season, the Dodgers were not quite as dominant as previous years due to various pitching injuries, a two-month hand injury to [[Mookie Betts]], and three-month abdominal injury to [[Max Muncy]], failing to win 100 games for the first time in a full season since [[2018 Los Angeles Dodgers season|2018]]. The acquisition of Ohtani proved to be a success during his first year with the team, despite him recovering from an elbow surgery as a pitcher. As a designated hitter all season, he became the first player in MLB history to break the [[40–40 club#50–50 season|50 home runs, 50 stolen bases]] barrier in a single season. He also surpassed [[Shawn Green]]'s Dodgers single-season home run record with 54 home runs. At the [[2024 Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Game]], the Dodgers sent six players—Ohtani, Betts, Hernández, Glasnow, [[Freddie Freeman]], and [[Will Smith (catcher)|Will Smith]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Osborne |first1=Cary |title=The Dodgers are sending a six-pack to the 2024 All-Star Game |url=https://dodgers.mlblogs.com/the-dodgers-are-sending-a-six-pack-to-the-2024-all-star-game-da3f6b63bcf1 |website=Medium |access-date=October 21, 2024 |date=July 7, 2024}}</ref> At the trade deadline, the Dodgers added starting pitcher [[Jack Flaherty]], set-up reliever [[Michael Kopech]], and utility player [[Tommy Edman]];<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/sports/dodgers-make-bold-moves-at-mlb-trade-deadline/3473606/|title=Dodgers make bold moves at MLB Trade Deadline acquire SP Jack Flaherty, CF Kevin Kiermaier, and INF Amed Rosario|first=Michael|last=Duarte|date=July 30, 2024|publisher=NBC Los Angeles}}</ref> Edman won the NLCS MVP Award after recording 11 [[runs batted in]] (RBIs) in the series.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mlb.com/news/tommy-edman-homers-in-nlcs-game-6|title=From in-season pickup to NLCS MVP, Edman on 'crazy trajectory' with LA|website=MLB.com}}</ref>

The Dodgers qualified for the postseason as the [[National League West]] division winner and the league's first seed. They qualified for the postseason for the 12th consecutive season, dating back to [[2013 Los Angeles Dodgers season|2013]], the third-longest streak in MLB history.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jacobson |first=Cole |title=Astros extend impressive playoff streak |url=https://www.mlb.com/news/most-consecutive-playoff-seasons-in-mlb-history |access-date=October 21, 2024 |work=MLB.com |date=September 30, 2024}}</ref> In the [[2024 National League Division Series|National League Division Series]], they defeated their [[Dodgers–Padres rivalry|division rival]] [[2024 San Diego Padres season|San Diego Padres]] in five games. In the [[2024 National League Championship Series|National League Championship Series]], they defeated the [[2024 New York Mets season|New York Mets]] in six games to win their 25th pennant in franchise history and return to the World Series for the first time since their championship season in [[2020 World Series|2020]], and the fourth time in eight years ([[2017 World Series|2017]]–[[2018 World Series|2018]], 2020, and 2024).<ref>{{cite web |last=Toribio |first=Juan |date=October 20, 2024 |title=Dodgers win NLCS, set up marquee World Series matchup vs. Yankees |url=https://www.mlb.com/news/dodgers-win-nlcs-2024 |access-date=October 20, 2024 |website=[[MLB.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nadkarni |first=Rohan |date=October 20, 2024 |title=Los Angeles Dodgers advance to World Series for fourth time in seven years |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/sports/mlb/dodgers-advance-world-series-rcna176177 |access-date=October 20, 2024 |work=[[NBC News]]}}</ref> The Dodgers were just the second team in MLB history to face the two New York baseball teams in a single postseason, following the [[1999 Atlanta Braves season|1999 Braves]]. The Dodgers were looking to win their eighth World Series championship title.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/newyork/news/2024-world-series-yankees-dodgers-full-schedule/|title=Full schedule for Yankees-Dodgers 2024 MLB World Series|work=CBS|date=October 21, 2024}}</ref>

This World Series marked the debut of [[Shohei Ohtani]], [[Yoshinobu Yamamoto]] (in his MLB debut), Hernández (in his first year with the Dodgers), and Edman. [[Freddie Freeman]] and catcher [[Will Smith (catcher)|Will Smith]] returned to the World Series for the second time in their careers. [[Max Muncy]] and [[Mookie Betts]] returned to the World Series for the third time in their careers. Freeman, Smith, and Muncy were seeking their second World Series championships, with the former having won with the [[2021 Atlanta Braves season|Braves]] in 2021 and the latter two having won with the Dodgers in 2020, while Betts was seeking his third World Series championship and the second with the Dodgers, having won with the [[2018 Boston Red Sox season|Red Sox]] in 2018 and with the Dodgers in 2020. [[Dave Roberts (baseball manager)|Dave Roberts]], in his ninth year as a manager for the Dodgers, was seeking his second World Series championship as a manager, and third overall.<ref name=espnpreview>{{Cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/_/id/41925184/2024-world-series-preview-predictions-dodgers-yankees-intel-odds-more|title=2024 World Series preview: Yankees or Dodgers? Who will be MVP? Predictions, inside intel and odds|date=October 25, 2024|website=ESPN.com}}</ref>

The Dodgers also announced plans to use the World Series games at Dodger Stadium to pay tribute to former pitcher [[Fernando Valenzuela]], who died shortly before the 2024 World Series and who was vital to the team's [[1981 Los Angeles Dodgers season|1981 championship season]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/sports/fernando-valenzuelas-remarkable-rookie-season-with-the-dodgers-in-1981-will-live-on-forever/3542160/|title=Fernando Valenzuela's remarkable rookie season with the Dodgers in 1981 will live on forever|first=Michael|last=Duarte|publisher=NBC Los Angeles|date=October 23, 2024|accessdate=October 23, 2024}}</ref><ref name=dodgerstribute>{{cite news|url=https://www.mlb.com/news/fernando-valenzuela-dies|title=Valenzuela, Mexican pitching phenom who inspired Fernandomania, dies at 63|first=Jesse|last=Sanchez|work=MLB.com|date=October 22, 2024|accessdate=October 23, 2024}}</ref>

===New York Yankees===
{{see also|2024 New York Yankees season}}
[[File:Aaron Judge at Camden Yards 4-4-19(46816281264) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|205px|left|[[Aaron Judge]] led MLB in home runs for the second time in his career.]]
After missing the postseason in [[2023 New York Yankees season|2023]], the [[2024 New York Yankees season|New York Yankees]] traded for star outfielder [[Juan Soto]] to help bolster their lineup.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 7, 2023 |title=Yankees get OF Soto in 7-player deal with Padres |url=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/_/id/39060328/sources-yankees-acquire-juan-soto-7-player-trade-padres |access-date=October 20, 2024 |website=ESPN.com}}</ref> Soto and [[Aaron Judge]] led the Yankees, who led the American League in runs and led MLB in home runs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MLB Team Stat Leaders, 2024 |url=https://www.espn.com/mlb/stats/_/view/team/season/2024/seasontype/2 |access-date=October 20, 2024 |website=ESPN}}</ref> Joining Soto and Judge as [[2024 Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Stars]] were relief pitcher [[Clay Holmes]]. The Yankees' closer role initially belonged to Holmes, but after recording an MLB-leading 11 [[blown save]]s, he lost the position. [[Luke Weaver]] took over the role in September and retained it throughout their postseason run. After not appearing in a game until June{{nbsp}}19 due a spring training injury, reigning AL [[Cy Young Award|Cy Young award]] winner [[Gerrit Cole]] headed a deep rotation of starters including [[Carlos Rodón]], rookie [[Luis Gil (baseball)|Luis Gil]], [[Nestor Cortes]], [[Marcus Stroman]], and [[Clarke Schmidt]]. At the trade deadline, the team added [[Jazz Chisholm Jr.]] and [[Mark Leiter Jr.]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 4, 2024 |title=Yankees going with closer by committee after Clay Holmes' latest blown save |url=https://apnews.com/article/yankees-closer-clay-holmes-882ecc1b05407f63729f73cf751655c5 |access-date=September 19, 2024 |work=AP News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Matheson |first=Keegan |title='Way cooler in person': Weaver seals Yanks' World Series trip |url=https://www.mlb.com/news/luke-weaver-seals-yankees-trip-to-2024-world-series |access-date=October 20, 2024 |work=MLB.com |date=October 19, 2024}}</ref>

The [[New York Yankees]] qualified for the postseason as the [[American League East]] division winner and the league's first seed. In the [[2024 American League Division Series|American League Division Series]], they defeated the [[2024 Kansas City Royals season|Kansas City Royals]] in four games. In the [[2024 American League Championship Series|American League Championship Series]], they defeated the [[2024 Cleveland Guardians season|Cleveland Guardians]] in five games to win their 41st pennant in franchise history and return to the World Series for the first time since their championship season in [[2009 World Series|2009]], putting an end to their 15-year World Series [[List of Major League Baseball franchise postseason droughts#World Series appearance droughts|appearance drought]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Hoch |first=Bryan |date=October 19, 2024 |title=Yanks oust Guardians to win 1st AL pennant since '09 |url=https://www.mlb.com/yankees/news/yankees-win-alcs-2024 |access-date=October 19, 2024 |website=[[MLB.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cohen |first=Rebecca |date=October 19, 2024 |title=Yankees advance to first World Series since 2009 after defeating the Guardians in Game 5 |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/sports/mlb/yankees-advance-world-series-rcna176221 |access-date=October 19, 2024 |work=[[NBC News]]}}</ref>

[[Giancarlo Stanton]] won the [[League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award|ALCS MVP]] award with four home runs and seven RBIs. This World Series marked the debut of [[Aaron Judge]], [[Giancarlo Stanton]], and [[Gleyber Torres]], while [[Gerrit Cole]], [[Juan Soto]], and [[Anthony Rizzo]] returned to the World Series for the second time in their careers. Rizzo and Soto were seeking second career World Series championship, having won with the [[2016 Chicago Cubs season|Chicago Cubs]] and [[2019 Washington Nationals season|Washington Nationals]], respectively, while Cole was seeking his first championship after the [[2019 Houston Astros season|Houston Astros]] lost in [[2019 World Series|2019]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nj.com/yankees/2024/10/yankees-heads-in-right-place-after-1st-pennant-in-15-years.html|title=While partying hard, Yankees send powerful message after 1st pennant in 15 years|first=Randy|last=Miller|date=October 20, 2024|website=nj}}</ref> [[Aaron Boone]], in his seventh season as a manager for the Yankees, was seeking his first World Series win as a manager.<ref>{{cite news |last=Axsia |first=Mike |title=Aaron Boone has the imperfect Yankees one win away from their first pennant since 2009 |url=https://www.cbssports.com/mlb/news/aaron-boone-has-the-imperfect-yankees-one-win-away-from-their-first-pennant-since-2009/ |access-date=October 21, 2024 |work=CBS Sports |date=October 19, 2024}}</ref> The Yankees were looking to win their league-leading 28th World Series championship title.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/10/20/sport/yankees-clinch-world-series-berth-spt-intl/index.html|title=Soto, Stanton power New York Yankees past Cleveland Guardians to clinch first World Series berth since 2009|first=Homero|last=De La Fuente|date=October 20, 2024|work=CNN|access-date=October 20, 2024}}</ref>

==Summary==
{{MLB Playoff Summary
| summary =
| winner = Los Angeles
| score = 4–1
| date1 = October 25
| score1 = New York Yankees – 3, '''Los Angeles Dodgers''' – 6 {{small|(10)}}
| loc1 = [[Dodger Stadium]]
| time1 = 3:27
| att1 = 52,394
| ref1 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Yankees 3, Dodgers 6 Final Score|url=https://www.mlb.com/gameday/yankees-vs-dodgers/2024/10/25/775300/final/box|website=MLB.com|date=October 25, 2024|access-date=October 25, 2024}}</ref>
| date2 = October 26
| score2 = New York Yankees – 2, '''Los Angeles Dodgers''' – 4
| loc2 = Dodger Stadium
| time2 = 2:53
| att2 = 52,725
| ref2 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Yankees 2, Dodgers 4 Final Score|url=https://www.mlb.com/gameday/yankees-vs-dodgers/2024/10/26/775294/final/box|website=MLB.com|date=October 26, 2024|access-date=October 26, 2024}}</ref>
| date3 = October 28
| score3 = '''Los Angeles Dodgers''' – 4, New York Yankees – 2
| loc3 = [[Yankee Stadium]]
| time3 = 3:25
| att3 = 49,368
| ref3 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Dodgers 4, Yankees 2 Final Score|url=https://www.mlb.com/gameday/dodgers-vs-yankees/2024/10/28/775298/preview|website=MLB.com|date=October 28, 2024|access-date=October 28, 2024}}</ref>
| date4 = October 29
| score4 = Los Angeles Dodgers – 4, '''New York Yankees''' – 11
| loc4 = Yankee Stadium
| time4 = 3:16
| att4 = 49,354
| ref4 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Dodgers 4, Yankees 11 Final Score|url=https://www.mlb.com/gameday/dodgers-vs-yankees/2024/10/29/775297/final/box|website=MLB.com|date=October 29, 2024|access-date=October 29, 2024}}</ref>
| date5 = October 30
| score5 = '''Los Angeles Dodgers''' – 7, New York Yankees – 6
| loc5 = Yankee Stadium
| time5 = 3:42
| att5 = 49,263
| ref5 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Dodgers 7, Yankees 6 Final Score|url=https://www.mlb.com/gameday/dodgers-vs-yankees/2024/10/30/775296/final/box|website=MLB.com|date=October 30, 2024|access-date=October 30, 2024}}</ref>
}}

==Game summaries==

===Game 1===
[[File:Freddie Freeman on April 23, 2024 (3).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Freddie Freeman]] hit a [[walk-off grand slam]] in Game{{nbsp}}1, the first in World Series history.<ref name="Freeman_Walk-Off_10/25/2024">{{cite web | title=Freddie Freeman Hits A Walk-Off Grand Slam To Win Game 1 Of The World Series For The Dodgers! | website=YouTube | publisher=[[Major League Baseball|MLB]] (official channel) | date=October 25, 2024 | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jrDacPNWBGA&ab_channel=MLB | access-date=October 26, 2024}}</ref>]]
{{linescore|
|Date = October 25, 2024
|Time = 5:11{{nbsp}}pm ([[Pacific Time Zone|PDT]])
|Location = [[Dodger Stadium]] in Los Angeles, California
|Other = {{convert|76|F|C}}, Clear
|Road=New York|RoadAbr=NYY
|R1=0|R2=0|R3=0|R4=0|R5=0|R6=2|R7=0|R8=0|R9=0|R10=1|RR=3|RH=10|RE=1
|Home='''Los Angeles'''|HomeAbr=LAD
|H1=0|H2=0|H3=0|H4=0|H5=1|H6=0|H7=0|H8=1|H9=0|H10=4|HR=6|HH=7|HE=1
|WP=[[Blake Treinen]] (1–0) |LP=[[Jake Cousins]] (0–1) |SV=
|HomeHR=[[Freddie Freeman]] (1) |RoadHR=[[Giancarlo Stanton]] (1)
|Attendance=52,394
|BoxURL = https://www.mlb.com/gameday/yankees-vs-dodgers/2024/10/25/775300/final/box
}}
Game 1 featured starting pitchers [[Jack Flaherty]] for the Dodgers and [[Gerrit Cole]] for the Yankees. Country singer [[Brad Paisley]] performed "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mlb.com/press-release/press-release-ceremonial-off-field-activities-for-games-one-and-two-of-the-2024-world-series-presented-by-capital-one|title=Ceremonial & Off-field Activities for Games One and Two of the 2024 World Series Presented by Capital One|website=MLB.com}}</ref> In tribute to [[Fernando Valenzuela]], [[Orel Hershiser]] and [[Steve Yeager]] placed a ball on the blue {{abbr|No.|Number}}{{nbsp}}34 painted on the [[pitcher's mound]] instead of throwing out a [[ceremonial first pitch]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foxsports.com/articles/mlb/fernando-valenzuelas-presence-looms-large-over-dodger-stadium-before-world-series-opener|title=Fernando Valenzuela's presence looms large over Dodger Stadium before World Series opener|website=FOX Sports}}</ref>

The two starters, Flaherty and Cole, kept the game scoreless through the first four innings. After [[Enrique Hernández (baseball)|Enrique Hernández]] hit a [[triple (baseball)|triple]] in the bottom of the fifth inning, he scored the game's first [[run (baseball)|run]] via a [[sacrifice fly]] by [[Will Smith (catcher)|Will Smith]]. In the top of the sixth, [[Giancarlo Stanton]] hit a two-run [[home run]] after a [[Juan Soto]] walk, giving the Yankees a 2–1 lead and knocking Flaherty out of the game. Cole was removed from the game after giving up a leadoff single to [[Teoscar Hernández]] in the seventh. In the bottom of the eighth, [[Shohei Ohtani]] hit a ball off the top of the outfield wall and reached second base, but Juan Soto's throw got away from second baseman [[Gleyber Torres]], and Ohtani advanced to third base. The next batter, [[Mookie Betts]], hit a sacrifice fly to score Ohtani and tie the game.<ref name=wapogame1>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2024/10/25/world-series-game-1-score-live-dodgers-yankees/|title=World Series Game 1 highlights: Freddie Freeman's grand slam walks it off for Dodgers|newspaper=Washington Post|date=October 25, 2024|accessdate=October 25, 2024}}</ref>

In the top of the ninth, [[Michael Kopech]] was sent in by Roberts to close out the ninth inning. He got the first two batters he faced to ground out but then gave up a hit to Torres that was caught at the wall by a fan. Instead of a home run, he was awarded second base on a fan interference call, and the game remained tied at 2–2. After a review, the call was upheld. After intentionally walking [[Juan Soto]], Kopech was removed from the game and replaced by [[Blake Treinen]], who got [[Aaron Judge]] to pop out, ending the inning. Yankees closer [[Luke Weaver]] pitched a perfect inning in the bottom of the ninth, sending the game into extra innings. In the top of the tenth, Treinen gave up a one-out single to [[Jazz Chisholm Jr.]] who then stole second base. [[Anthony Rizzo]] was intentionally walked, and Chisholm Jr. stole third. The next batter, [[Anthony Volpe]], hit an RBI force-out that was bobbled by [[Tommy Edman]], allowing Chisholm Jr. to score the go-ahead run, giving the Yankees a 3–2 lead.<ref name=wapogame1/>

With the Yankees leading by a run, reliever [[Jake Cousins]] was sent in to pitch the last three outs. He got Smith to fly out, then walked [[Gavin Lux]]. Edman then singled to put runners on first and second with one out. Cousins was then removed from the game and replaced with [[Nestor Cortés Jr.]], who hadn't pitched since September 18. Cortés Jr. first faced Ohtani, who hit a ball into foul territory that was caught by a leaping [[Alex Verdugo]], who toppled into the front row of the stands. Because Verdugo went out of play with the ball, the runners were awarded one base, advancing them to second and third. With the Dodgers down to their final out, the Yankees [[intentional walk|intentionally walked]] Betts, thus loading the bases and bringing [[Freddie Freeman]] to the plate. On the first pitch, Freeman hit a [[Walk-off home run|walk-off]] [[Grand slam (baseball)|grand slam]], winning Game 1 for Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite web|last=Castrovince|first=Anthony|title='As good as it gets': Freeman wins G1 with 1st walk-off slam in WS history|url=https://www.mlb.com/news/dodgers-win-world-series-game-1-2024|website=[[MLB.com]]|date=October 25, 2024|access-date=October 25, 2024}}</ref>

Freeman's homer was the first walk-off grand slam in World Series history as well as the third Series walk-off homer of any kind for a team that was trailing, following [[Joe Carter]]'s [[Joe Carter's 1993 World Series home run|World Series-winning home run]] for the [[Toronto Blue Jays]] in {{wsy|1993}} and [[Kirk Gibson]]'s [[Kirk Gibson's 1988 World Series home run|Game 1-winning home run]] for the Dodgers in {{wsy|1988}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.si.com/fannation/mlb/fastball/history/freddie-freemans-walk-off-grand-slam-for-dodgers-joined-toronto-blue-jays-legend-joe-carter-in-baseball-history|title=Freddie Freeman's Walk-Off Grand Slam Joined Toronto Blue Jays Legend in Baseball History|last=Farkas|first=Brady|website=Fastball on SI|date=October 26, 2024|access-date=October 26, 2024}}</ref> In particular, Freeman's home run was widely compared to Gibson's off the Athletics' [[Dennis Eckersley]], as both players were playing through injuries at the time and the Dodgers were down by a run and down to their last out in Game 1 of the World Series.<ref>{{cite news |first=Bill |last=Plaschke |author-link=Bill Plaschke |url=https://www.latimes.com/sports/dodgers/story/2024-10-25/freddie-freeman-dodgers-yankees-world-series-kirk-gibson | title=Plaschke: In a year that's been so improbable, Freddie Freeman becomes Kirk Gibson | work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=October 25, 2024}}</ref> [[Major League Baseball on Fox|Fox]] broadcaster [[Joe Davis (sportscaster)|Joe Davis]]' call of "...she is gone!" echoed that of legendary Dodgers and then-[[National Broadcasting Company|NBC]] broadcaster [[Vin Scully]] for the Gibson homer, and Davis also added, "Gibby, meet Freddie!" Both Gibson's and Freeman's home runs were to right field at Dodger Stadium in almost the same spot and both came at 8:37 PM Pacific Time.<ref>{{cite AV media |title=Freddie Freeman and Kirk Gibson hit HUGE walk-off home runs for the Dodgers in the World Series! |type=Television broadcast |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=liBkt-DuvSk |access-date=October 29, 2024 |date=October 26, 2024 |publisher=[[Major League Baseball]] |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Battifarano |first=Andrew |date=October 26, 2024 |title=Joe Davis honors Vin Scully with call on Freddie Freeman grand slam |url=https://nypost.com/2024/10/26/sports/joe-davis-honors-vin-scully-with-call-on-freddie-freeman-grand-slam/ |access-date=October 26, 2024 |website=[[New York Post]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Turner |first=Austin |title=Freeman's World Series walk-off has wild similarities to another iconic Dodgers moment |url=https://ktla.com/sports/dodgers/freemans-world-series-walk-off-has-wild-similarities-to-another-iconic-dodgers-moment/ |publisher=[[KTLA]] |access-date=October 29, 2024 |date=October 27, 2024}}</ref>

===Game 2===
[[File:Dodgers at Nationals (53676737736).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Yoshinobu Yamamoto]] gave up only one hit through six innings in his World Series debut.]]
{{linescore|
|Date = October 26, 2024
|Time = 5:15{{nbsp}}pm ([[Pacific Time Zone|PDT]])
|Location = [[Dodger Stadium]] in Los Angeles, California
|Other = {{convert|77|F|C}}, Partly Cloudy
|Road=New York|RoadAbr=NYY
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|WP=[[Yoshinobu Yamamoto]] (1–0) |LP=[[Carlos Rodón]] (0–1) |SV=[[Alex Vesia]] (1)
|HomeHR=[[Tommy Edman]] (1), [[Teoscar Hernández]] (1), [[Freddie Freeman]] (2) |RoadHR=[[Juan Soto]] (1)
|Attendance=52,725
|BoxURL = https://www.mlb.com/gameday/yankees-vs-dodgers/2024/10/26/775294/final/box
}}
American rapper and Los Angeles native [[Ice Cube]] performed "[[Bow Down]]" and "[[It Was a Good Day]]" before Game 2.<ref name=icejoe>{{cite press release|url=https://www.mlb.com/press-release/press-release-special-pregame-performances-from-ice-cube-and-fat-joe-set-for-la-ny-during-2024-world-series|title=Special pregame performances from Ice Cube and Fat Joe Set for LA & NY during 2024 World Series|work=MLB.com|date=October 25, 2024|accessdate=October 25, 2024}}</ref> Pearle Peterson, a 19-year-old, sang the national anthem, accompanied by organist [[Dieter Ruehle]]. Game 2 featured starting pitchers [[Yoshinobu Yamamoto]] for the Dodgers and [[Carlos Rodón]] for the Yankees.<ref>{{cite web|last=Chavez |first=Andres |title=Yankees could make a big starting rotation change in Game 2 of the World Series |url=https://empiresportsmedia.com/new-york-yankees/yankees-could-make-a-big-starting-rotation-change-in-game-2-of-the-world-series/ |work=Empire Sports Media |date=October 23, 2024 |access-date=October 24, 2024}}</ref> [[Matt Kemp]] and [[Andre Ethier]] threw out the ceremonial first pitch.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dodgersway.com/ceremonial-first-pitch-details-kemp-ethier-national-anthem-singer-dodgers-world-series-game-2-01jb4nk855f7|title=First pitch details, National Anthem singer for Dodgers' World Series Game 2|first=Adam|last=Weinrib|date=October 26, 2024|website=Dodgers Way}}</ref>

In the bottom of the second inning, [[Tommy Edman]] hit a solo [[home run]] off Rodón as the Dodgers took a 1–0 lead. [[Juan Soto]] hit a solo home run off Yamamoto in the top of the third inning to tie the game. In the bottom of the inning, [[Mookie Betts]] hit a [[single (baseball)|single]] followed by a [[Teoscar Hernández]] two-run home run and a solo home run by [[Freddie Freeman]] to give the Dodgers a 4–1 lead. Yamamoto allowed only one hit in {{fraction|6|1|3}} innings in his start. In the bottom of the seventh inning with two outs, [[Shohei Ohtani]] had a [[dislocated shoulder|left shoulder subluxation]] when he slid in his steal attempt at second base, as he was [[caught stealing]] to end the seventh inning; he lay at second base in pain until his trainer tended him to leave the field.<ref>{{cite web|last=Toribio |first=Juan |title=Shohei Ohtani injures left shoulder in World Series Game 2 |url=https://www.mlb.com/news/shohei-ohtani-injures-left-shoulder-in-world-series-game-2 |website=[[MLB.com]] |date=October 26, 2024 |access-date=October 27, 2024}}</ref> With the Dodgers leading by three runs, [[Blake Treinen]] was sent in to close out the game in the top of the ninth. He gave up a leadoff single to Soto, who advanced to second on a wild pitch. After [[Aaron Judge]] struck out, [[Giancarlo Stanton]] hit a ground ball that bounced off the third base bag and into the outfield, scoring Soto. The Yankees then loaded the bases with an [[Anthony Rizzo]] hit-by-pitch and [[Jazz Chisholm Jr.]] single, but Volpe struck out for the second out. After the Volpe at-bat, Treinen was replaced with [[Alex Vesia]], who got pinch-hitter [[Jose Trevino (baseball)|Jose Trevino]] to fly out on the first pitch, ending the game and giving Los Angeles a 2–0 series lead.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mlb.com/news/dodgers-win-world-series-game-2-2024|title=Ohtani's injury makes for bittersweet Game 2 triumph, 2–0 WS lead|work=mlb.com|first=Anthony|last=Castrovince|date=October 26, 2024|accessdate=October 26, 2024}}</ref>

===Game 3===
[[File:Walker_Buehler_pitching_in_bullpen_for_the_Los_Angeles_Dodgers_in_2019_(Cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Walker Buehler]] pitched five scoreless innings in Game 3.<ref name=game3/>]]
{{linescore|
|Date = October 28, 2024
|Time = 8:17{{nbsp}}pm ([[Eastern Time Zone|EDT]])
|Location = [[Yankee Stadium]] in [[The Bronx]], New York
|Other = {{convert|52|F|C}}, Clear
|Road='''Los Angeles'''|RoadAbr=LAD
|R1=2|R2=0|R3=1|R4=0|R5=0|R6=1|R7=0|R8=0|R9=0|RR=4|RH=5|RE=0
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|H1=0|H2=0|H3=0|H4=0|H5=0|H6=0|H7=0|H8=0|H9=2|HR=2|HH=5|HE=1
|HSP= |RSP=
|WP=[[Walker Buehler]] (1–0) |LP=[[Clarke Schmidt]] (0–1) |SV=
|HomeHR=[[Alex Verdugo]] (1) |RoadHR=[[Freddie Freeman]] (3)
|Attendance=49,368
|BoxURL = https://www.mlb.com/gameday/dodgers-vs-yankees/2024/10/28/775298/final/box
}}

[[Fat Joe]] performed "[[New York (Ja Rule song)|New York]]" and "[[All the Way Up]]" prior to Game 3.<ref name=icejoe/> New York native [[Leslie Odom Jr.]] sang the national anthem and [[Derek Jeter]] threw the ceremonial first pitch.<ref name=games3and4>{{cite press release|url=https://www.mlb.com/press-release/press-release-ceremonial-off-field-activities-for-games-three-and-four-of-the-2024-world-series-presented-by-capital-one|title=Ceremonial & off-field activities for Games Three and Four of the 2024 World Series presented by Capital One|work=MLB.com|date=October 28, 2024|accessdate=October 28, 2024}}</ref> [[Clarke Schmidt]] was the starting pitcher for the Yankees<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.espn.com.au/mlb/story/_/id/41988151/new-york-yankees-start-rodon-schmidt|title=Yankees will start Rodon, Schmidt in Games 2, 3|date=October 25, 2024|website=ESPN.com}}</ref> and [[Walker Buehler]] for the Dodgers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/_/id/42018368/dodgers-name-walker-buehler-starter-world-series-game-3|title=Dodgers tab Buehler as G3 starter in New York|date=October 26, 2024|website=ESPN.com}}</ref>

In the top of the first inning, [[Freddie Freeman]] hit a two-run home run, tying a record by homering in his fifth straight World Series game going back to the [[2021 World Series]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbssports.com/mlb/news/freddie-freeman-continues-world-series-home-run-streak-with-fifth-straight-game-third-with-dodgers-in-2024/|title=Freddie Freeman continues World Series home run streak with fifth straight game, third with Dodgers in 2024|date=October 29, 2024|website=CBSSports.com}}</ref> In the top of the third inning, [[Tommy Edman]] led off with a walk, advanced on a groundout and then scored on a single by [[Mookie Betts]]. In the fourth inning, the Yankees nearly scored when [[Giancarlo Stanton]] doubled and tried to score on [[Anthony Volpe]]'s single, but Stanton was thrown out at the plate by Teoscar Hernandez. The Dodgers added another run in the sixth inning when [[Gavin Lux]] was hit by a pitch, stole second base, and scored on a single by [[Enrique Hernández (baseball)|Enrique Hernández]]. [[Alex Verdugo]] hit a two-out, two-run home run in the bottom of the ninth after an [[Anthony Rizzo]] single for the Yankees to cut the lead in half but the next batter, [[Gleyber Torres]], grounded out to end the game as the Dodgers took a 3–0 series lead with a 4–2 win. Buehler pitched five scoreless innings in the game for the Dodgers.<ref name=game3>{{cite web|url=https://www.mlb.com/news/dodgers-win-world-series-game-3-2024|title=In blockbuster WS showdown, Dodgers on cusp of Hollywood ending|work=mlb.com|first=Anthony|last=Castrovince|date=October 28, 2024|accessdate=October 28, 2024}}</ref>

===Game 4===
[[File:Anthony Volpe - 52074997486.jpg|thumb|[[Anthony Volpe]] hit a grand slam and stole two bases in Game 4, the first time in World Series history the feat was accomplished.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mlb.com/news/anthony-volpe-hits-grand-slam-in-world-series-game-4|title=Volpe's historic game 'a dream come true' for the lifelong Yankee fan|website=MLB.com}}</ref>]]
{{linescore|
|Date = October 29, 2024
|Time = 8:08{{nbsp}}pm ([[Eastern Time Zone|EDT]])
|Location = [[Yankee Stadium]] in [[The Bronx]], New York
|Other = {{convert|61|F|C}}, Cloudy
|Road=Los Angeles|RoadAbr=LAD
|R1=2|R2=0|R3=0|R4=0|R5=2|R6=0|R7=0|R8=0|R9=0|RR=4|RH=6|RE=1
|Home='''New York'''|HomeAbr=NYY
|H1=0|H2=1|H3=4|H4=0|H5=0|H6=1|H7=0|H8=5|H9=X|HR=11|HH=9|HE=0
|WP=[[Clay Holmes]] (1–0) |LP=[[Daniel Hudson]] (0–1) |SV=
|HomeHR=[[Anthony Volpe]] (1), [[Austin Wells]] (1), [[Gleyber Torres]] (1) |RoadHR=[[Freddie Freeman]] (4), [[Will Smith (catcher)|Will Smith]] (1)
|Attendance=49,354
|BoxURL = https://www.mlb.com/gameday/dodgers-vs-yankees/2024/10/29/775297/final/box
}}
R&B singer and New York native [[Ashanti (singer)|Ashanti]] performed the national anthem before Game 4 and [[Paul O'Neill (baseball)|Paul O'Neill]] threw the ceremonial first pitch to [[A. J. Burnett]].<ref name=games3and4/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thespun.com/mlb/yankees-legend-had-horrendous-first-pitch-for-game-4-of-world-series|title=Yankees Legend Had Horrendous First Pitch For Game 4 Of World Series|first=Chris|last=Rosvoglou|date=October 30, 2024|website=The Spun}}</ref> [[Luis Gil (baseball)|Luis Gil]] was the starting pitcher in Game 4 for the Yankees.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nydailynews.com/2024/10/26/luis-gil-will-start-game-4-of-world-series-for-yankees/|title=Luis Gil will start Game 4 of World Series for Yankees|first=Gary|last=Phillips|website=[[New York Daily News]] |date=October 26, 2024}}</ref> The Dodgers employed a bullpen game with [[Ben Casparius]] as the [[Opener (baseball)|opener]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Doolittle |first=Bradford |date=October 29, 2024 |title=Dodgers eye World Series sweep with, yes, a bullpen game |url=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/_/id/42064433/2024-world-series-los-angeles-dodgers-bullpen-game-4 |access-date=October 29, 2024 |website=ESPN.com |language=en}}</ref>

In the top of the first inning, [[Freddie Freeman]] hit a two-run home run, breaking the record he had tied in the previous game with the sixth consecutive World Series game he had homered in.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mlb.com/dodgers/news/freddie-freeman-homers-in-6th-straight-world-series-game|title=Red-hot Freeman sets record with HR in SIXTH straight World Series game|work=mlb.com|date=October 29, 2024|accessdate=October 29, 2024}}</ref> The Yankees scored a run in the bottom of the second inning after [[Anthony Volpe]] drew a walk, [[Austin Wells]] hit a [[double (baseball)|double]], and [[Alex Verdugo]] hit an RBI groundout. In the bottom of the third inning, Volpe hit a [[Grand slam (baseball)|grand slam]] to give the Yankees a 5–2 lead. [[Will Smith (catcher)|Will Smith]] hit a home run for the Dodgers in the fifth inning to cut the lead to two runs. Later that inning, [[Tommy Edman]] scored when Freeman beat out a [[fielder's choice]] to first base after the Dodgers won a [[Instant replay in Major League Baseball|review challenge]] on what had originally been called an inning-ending [[double play]]. Wells hit a solo home run for the Yankees in the sixth inning to increase the lead to two. The Yankees scored five more runs in the bottom of the eighth inning on an RBI fielder's choice by Verdugo, a three-run home run by [[Gleyber Torres]], and an RBI single by [[Aaron Judge]], extending the lead to 11–4. [[Tim Mayza]] closed out Game 4<ref name=game4>{{cite web|url=https://www.mlb.com/news/yankees-win-world-series-game-4-2024|title=Early slam sets tone as Yankees awaken to stave off elimination|work=mlb.com|first=Anthony|last=Castrovince|date=October 29, 2024|accessdate=October 29, 2024}}</ref> to make the Yankees the first team since the [[1970 Cincinnati Reds|Cincinnati Reds]] in {{wsy|1970}} to force a fifth game and avoid being swept after having lost the first three games in a World Series.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/5883757/2024/10/29/dodgers-yankees-world-series-anthony-volpe-grand-slam/|title=Anthony Volpe's grand slam lifts Yankees in Game 4, staves off Dodgers World Series sweep|last=McCulluogh|first=Andy|newspaper=The New York Times|date=October 29, 2024|access-date=October 29, 2024}}</ref>

===Game 5===
[[File:MG 3651 Blake Treinen.jpg|thumb|upright|Game 5's winning pitcher [[Blake Treinen]] (pictured with the [[Washington Nationals]]) pitched {{fraction|2|1|3}} innings of relief, the most innings he's pitched in a game since 2018.<ref>{{cite web |title=Blake Treinen on winning the World Series {{!}} 10/30/2024 |url=https://www.mlb.com/video/blake-treinen-on-winning-the-world-series |website=MLB.com |access-date=31 October 2024}}</ref>]]
{{linescore|
|Date = October 30, 2024
|Time = 8:08{{nbsp}}pm ([[Eastern Time Zone|EDT]])
|Location = [[Yankee Stadium]] in [[The Bronx]], New York
|Other = {{convert|67|F|C}}, Partly Cloudy
|Road='''Los Angeles'''|RoadAbr=LAD
|R1=0|R2=0|R3=0|R4=0|R5=5|R6=0|R7=0|R8=2|R9=0|RR=7|RH=7|RE=0
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|WP=[[Blake Treinen]] (1–0) |LP=[[Tommy Kahnle]] (0–1) |SV=[[Walker Buehler]] (1)
|HomeHR=[[Aaron Judge]] (1), [[Jazz Chisholm Jr.]] (1), [[Giancarlo Stanton]] (2) |RoadHR=
|Attendance=49,263
|BoxURL = https://www.mlb.com/gameday/dodgers-vs-yankees/2024/10/30/775296/final/box
}}
R&B singer [[Babyface (musician)|Babyface]] sang the national anthem before Game 5 and [[Hideki Matsui]] threw the ceremonial first pitch to [[Jose Trevino (baseball)|Jose Trevino]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/sports/who-is-performing-the-national-anthem-for-world-series-game-5-yankee-stadium/5937916/|title=Who is performing the national anthem for World Series Game 5 at Yankee Stadium?|first=NBC New York|last=Staff|date=October 30, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mlb.com/video/hideki-matsui-to-throw-out-first-pitch-for-ws-game-5|title=Hideki Matsui to throw out first pitch for WS Game 5 | 10/30/2024|website=MLB.com}}</ref> The game featured a pitching rematch of Game 1 between [[Gerrit Cole]] for the Yankees and [[Jack Flaherty]] for the Dodgers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/_/id/42083101/2024-world-series-game-5-yankees-dodgers-gerrit-cole-hopes|title=Backs to the wall in World Series Game 5? Yankees signed Gerrit Cole for moments just like this|date=October 30, 2024|website=ESPN.com}}</ref>

In the bottom of the first inning, [[Juan Soto]] drew a walk, followed by a two-run home run by [[Aaron Judge]] and a solo home run by [[Jazz Chisholm Jr.]] for the Yankees to take the lead at 3–0. In the bottom of the second, [[Anthony Volpe]] hit a double and scored on an RBI single by [[Alex Verdugo]], extending the Yankees' lead to 4–0, and the Dodgers removed Flaherty from the game. [[Giancarlo Stanton]] led off the third inning with a first-pitch solo home run off [[Ryan Brasier]], extending the Yankees' lead to 5–0.<ref name=game5recap/>

The Dodgers took advantage of Yankees defensive miscues in the top of the fifth. After a leadoff single by [[Enrique Hernández (baseball)|Kiké Hernandez]], Judge committed his first error of the season after dropping a routine fly ball off the bat of [[Tommy Edman]], putting runners on first and second. Then Anthony Volpe committed a throwing error trying to throw out Hernandez at third on Will Smith's ground ball, which loaded the bases. Though Cole struck out [[Gavin Lux]] and [[Shohei Ohtani]], a ground ball from [[Mookie Betts]] resulted in an RBI infield single when Cole did not cover first base, reducing the Dodgers' deficit to 5–1 and loading the bases once again. [[Freddie Freeman]] then hit a two-run single, followed by a two-run double from [[Teoscar Hernández]], tying the game at 5–5, with all five runs [[Earned run|unearned]]. In the bottom of the fifth, [[Alex Vesia]] escaped a two-out bases-loaded jam without surrendering a run to keep the game tied at 5–5. In the bottom of the sixth, Stanton hit a sacrifice fly to score Soto as the Yankees retook the lead 6–5. In the top of the eighth, Yankee reliever [[Tommy Kahnle]], who had yet to allow a run in eight postseason games coming into the night, loaded the bases. Hernandez once again led off with a single, Edman followed with a broken-bat infield single, and Will Smith followed with a four-pitch walk. [[Luke Weaver]], pitching in his third straight game, relieved Kahnle and allowed a [[Gavin Lux]] sacrifice fly to score [[Enrique Hernández (baseball)|Enrique Hernández]] to tie the game at 6–6 and moved Edman to third. After a catcher's interference with [[Shohei Ohtani]] batting that once again loaded the bases, Betts hit a sacrifice fly to score Edman as the Dodgers took the lead at 7–6. [[Blake Treinen]] pitched {{fraction|2|1|3}} innings of relief and Game 3 starter [[Walker Buehler]], on one day rest, pitched a perfect ninth inning to close the series, striking out [[Alex Verdugo]] for the final out.<ref>{{cite news |last1=McCullough |first1=Andy |title=Dodgers Beat Yankees to Win second World Series of franchise's new 'golden era' |url=https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/5886987/2024/10/30/dodgers-win-world-series-yankees/ |access-date=October 31, 2024 |work=The Atlantic |date=October 30, 2024}}</ref>

With the win, the Dodgers won their eighth World Series championship in franchise history,<ref name=game5recap>{{cite web|url=https://www.mlb.com/news/dodgers-win-world-series-2024|title=Dodgers upend Yanks with a historic comeback for 8th World Series title|work=mlb.com|first=Anthony|last=Castrovince|date=October 30, 2024|accessdate=October 30, 2024}}</ref> tying their [[Dodgers–Giants rivalry|longtime rivals]] the [[San Francisco Giants]] for the second-most among National League clubs and the fifth-most overall. The Dodgers also joined their [[2020 Los Angeles Dodgers season|2020 team]], the [[2018 Boston Red Sox season|2018 Red Sox]], the [[2016 Chicago Cubs season|2016 Cubs]], the [[2013 Boston Red Sox season|2013 Red Sox]], the [[2009 New York Yankees season|2009 Yankees]], the [[2007 Boston Red Sox season|2007 Red Sox]], and the [[1998 New York Yankees season|1998 Yankees]] as teams to win a World Series after having the best regular-season record in MLB in the [[Major League Baseball Wild Card|wild card]] era.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Baer |first1=Jack |title=Dodgers vs. Yankees: Los Angeles wins 8th World Series title after New York's complete self-destruction |url=https://sports.yahoo.com/live/dodgers-vs-yankees-los-angeles-wins-8th-world-series-title-after-new-yorks-complete-self-destruction-230015789.html |website=Yahoo Sports |access-date=31 October 2024 |date=31 October 2024}}</ref> The Dodgers also set the record for most runs to come from behind from in a clinching game.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/losangeles/news/dodgers-overcome-five-run-deficit-to-win-world-series-over-new-york-yankees-in-five-games/|title=Dodgers' historic World Series comeback against the Yankees brings title back to Los Angeles – CBS Los Angeles|first1=Dean|last1=Fioresi|first2=Matthew|last2=Rodriguez|date=October 30, 2024|website=www.cbsnews.com}}</ref> The [[World Series MVP Award]] went to Freeman, the first player to homer in the first four games of a World Series and whose 12 RBIs tied the World Series record set in {{wsy|1960}} by [[Bobby Richardson]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Mike |title=World Series: Freddie Freeman ties record with 12 RBIs for Dodgers vs Yankees |url=https://apnews.com/article/world-series-freddie-freeman-dodgers-yankees-69c512cf5db1053d10f39e9012068293 |website=apnews.com |access-date=October 31, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/_/id/42104135/los-angeles-dodgers-freddie-freeman-named-world-series-mvp|title=Dodgers' Freddie Freeman (4 HRs, 12 RBIs) named World Series MVP|first=Bradford|last= Doolittle|work=ESPN}}</ref> Freeman became the 12th player to win regular season [[Major League Baseball Most Valuable Player Award|MVP]] and World Series MVP in a career.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Langs |first1=Sarah |title=players to win MVP & WS MVP in career: Freddie Freeman Johnny Bench Roberto Clemente Rollie Fingers Bob Gibson Reggie Jackson Sandy Koufax Brooks Robinson Frank Robinson Pete Rose Mike Schmidt Willie Stargell |url=https://x.com/SlangsOnSports/status/1851847633637142770?ref_src=twsrc%5Egoogle%7Ctwcamp%5Eserp%7Ctwgr%5Etweet |website=X |access-date=31 October 2024}}</ref>

==Broadcasting==
===Television===
For the 25th consecutive year, the World Series was televised in the United States by [[MLB on Fox|Fox]]. [[Play-by-play]] announcer [[Joe Davis (sportscaster)|Joe Davis]] (who was the Dodgers' lead television announcer on [[Spectrum SportsNet LA]] during the regular season) called the games, along with Baseball Hall of Famer [[John Smoltz]] as [[color analyst]] and [[Ken Rosenthal]] and [[Tom Verducci]] as [[field reporter]]s. [[Kevin Burkhardt]] hosted the pregame and postgame shows, joined by analysts [[Derek Jeter]], [[Alex Rodriguez]], and [[David Ortiz]]. [[Fox Deportes]] aired the Spanish-language telecasts, with play-by-play announcer [[Adrian Garcia Marquez]], analyst [[Edgar Gonzalez (infielder)|Edgar Gonzalez]], and reporters Carlos Alvarez and Jaime Motta.<ref>{{cite web|title=FOX Sports Sets Postseason Lineup Led by Hall of Famers, World Champions and Lauded Broadcasters|url=https://www.foxsports.com/presspass/blog/2023/10/26/fox-sports-steps-up-to-the-plate-for-2023-world-series-presented-by-capital-one/|publisher=Fox Sports Press Pass|date=October 4, 2024|access-date=October 13, 2024}}</ref>

[[MLB International]] provided television coverage outside of the United States, using feeds remotely produced by [[MLB Network]]. [[Dave Flemming]] (play-by-play) and [[Ryan Spilborghs]] (color commentator) were the English-language commentators. [[Univision]] aired Game 1 in Spanish for its first World Series telecast, after its sister network [[UniMás]] carried both the [[2024 American League Division Series|ALDS]] and [[2024 American League Championship Series|ALCS]] in their entirety.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://awfulannouncing.com/schedules/2024-world-series-broadcast-schedule-announcing-primer.html|title=Your 2024 World Series broadcast schedule and announcing primer|first=Andrew|last=Bucholtz|date=October 25, 2024}}</ref>

====Ratings====
{{further|World Series television ratings}}
Viewership numbers don't include [[Fox Deportes]]. Through the first two games, Japan averaged about 15 million viewers per game, exceeding the United States.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Hisako|last1=Ueno|first2=John|last2=Yoon|title=The World Series Was Big in Japan. The TV Ratings Prove It.|date=October 31, 2024|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/10/31/world/asia/japan-dodgers-ohtani-world-series.html|access-date=October 31, 2024}}</ref> Interest was driven by Ohtani, who won his first World Series in his first MLB playoff appearance after six seasons with the [[Los Angeles Angels]] without reaching the postseason.<ref>{{cite news|first=Akiko|last=Okamoto|title='Sho-time' as Japan celebrates Ohtani's World Series triumph|date=November 1, 2024|publisher=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/sports/baseball/sho-time-japan-celebrates-ohtanis-world-series-triumph-2024-10-31/|access-date=November 1, 2024}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! scope="col"| Game
! scope="col"| [[Nielsen Media Research#Nielsen TV ratings|Ratings]] (households)
! scope="col"| U.S. audience (in millions)
! scope="col" class=unsortable|Ref
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;"|1
| 6.62 || 14.163 || <ref>{{cite news|last=Pucci|first=Douglas|title=Friday Ratings: MLB World Series on Fox Begins on 7-Year High with Yankees-Dodgers Game 1 Classic|url=https://programminginsider.com/friday-ratings-mlb-world-series-on-fox-begins-on-7-year-high-with-game-1-classic/|work=Programming Insider|date=October 26, 2024|access-date=October 28, 2024}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;"|2
| 6.16 || 13.713 || <ref>{{cite news|last=Pucci|first=Douglas|title=Saturday Ratings: Yankees-Dodgers Continues 7-Year High Trend for MLB World Series on Fox After Two Games |url=https://programminginsider.com/saturday-ratings-yankees-dodgers-continues-7-year-high-trend-for-mlb-world-series-on-fox-after-two-games/|work=Programming Insider|date=October 27, 2024|access-date=October 29, 2024}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;"|3
| 6.58 || 13.208 || <ref>{{cite news|last=Pucci|first=Douglas|title=Monday Ratings: MLB World Series Game 3 and NFL Monday Night Football Nearly Even in Total Viewers|url=https://programminginsider.com/monday-ratings-mlb-world-series-game-3-and-nfl-monday-night-football-nearly-even-in-total-viewers/|work=Programming Insider|date=October 29, 2024|access-date=October 29, 2024}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;"|4
| 8.18 || 16.275 || <ref>{{cite news|last=Pucci|first=Douglas|title=Tuesday Ratings: MLB World Series Ascends in Game 4 for Fox|url=https://programminginsider.com/tuesday-ratings-mlb-world-series-ascends-in-game-4-for-fox/|work=Programming Insider|date=October 30, 2024|access-date=October 30, 2024}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;"|5
| 9.02 || 18.152 || <ref>{{Cite web|last=Pucci|first=Douglas|title=Wednesday Ratings: MLB World Series Concludes on Seven-Year High on Fox Platforms|url=https://programminginsider.com/wednesday-ratings-mlb-world-series-concludes-on-seven-year-high-on-fox-platforms/|work=Programming Insider|date=October 31, 2024|access-date=October 31, 2024}}</ref>
|}

===Radio===
For the 27th consecutive year, [[Major League Baseball on ESPN Radio|ESPN Radio]] aired the series in the United States. [[Jon Sciambi]] did play-by-play, while [[Jessica Mendoza]] (who was part of the Dodgers' television crew on [[Spectrum SportsNet LA]] during the regular season) and [[Eduardo Pérez]] provided color commentary and [[Buster Olney]] reported from the field.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mlb.com/press-release/press-release-broadcast-schedule-announced-for-the-entire-2024-league-championship-series|title=Broadcast Schedule Announced For The Entire 2024 League Championship Series Presented By loanDepot|website=MLB.com}}</ref> [[TUDN Radio]] broadcast the series in Spanish.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://corporate.televisaunivision.com/press/2024/08/15/televisaunivision-and-major-league-baseball-announce-new-multi-year-partnership/|title=TelevisaUnivision and Major League Baseball Announce New Multi-Year Partnership|date=August 15, 2024}}</ref>

The flagship radio stations for both teams also produced local broadcasts of each game. In Los Angeles, [[KLAC]] and [[KTNQ]] broadcast in English and Spanish respectively, while in New York, [[WFAN (AM)|WFAN]] (in English) and [[WADO]] (in Spanish) aired the games. The series marked the last broadcasts for longtime Yankees radio play-by-play announcer [[John Sterling (sportscaster)|John Sterling]] of WFAN, as he had announced his retirement in April 2024.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-10-25|title=Your 2024 World Series broadcast schedule and announcing primer|url=https://awfulannouncing.com/schedules/2024-world-series-broadcast-schedule-announcing-primer.html|work=Awful Announcing}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoch |first1=Bryan |title=John Sterling to return to Yanks radio booth for postseason |url=https://www.mlb.com/news/john-sterling-to-broadcast-yankees-postseason-on-radio |website=mlb.com |publisher=MLB Advanced Media, LP. |access-date=5 September 2024}}</ref>

==Sponsorship==
The 2024 World Series was sponsored by [[Capital One]], as part of a multi-year agreement. This sponsorship included logo branding in-stadium and official digital properties on the field and commercial inventory during Fox's telecasts of the games.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/28/mlb-reaches-125-million-sponsorship-deal-with-capital-one.html|title=MLB reaches a $125 million sponsorship deal with Capital One|first=Jabari|last=Young|website=[[CNBC|CNBC.com]]|date=March 28, 2022|access-date=October 20, 2024}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[2024 Japan Series]]
*[[2024 Korean Series]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.mlb.com/postseason Major League Baseball postseason schedule]

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2024 Spanish floods

2024-10-31T08:52:39Z

Brandmeister: /* top */ wlink

{{Short description|Natural disaster}}
<noinclude>{{Requested move notice|1=2024 Spain floods|2=Talk:October 2024 Spain floods#Requested move 30 October 2024}}
</noinclude>{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{current disaster|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox flood
| image location = ECDM_20241030_Spain_floods.pdf
| image name = Map
| name = October 2024 Spain floods
| duration = 29 October 2024 – ongoing
| total fatalities = 95+
| missing = "dozens"
| areas affected = Spain (especially the [[Valencian Community]], [[Castilla–La Mancha]], and [[Andalusia]])
| cause = [[Cold drop]]
| damages = "substantial"
}}
On 29 October 2024, [[torrential rain]] caused by an isolated [[low-pressure area]] at high levels brought over a month's worth of [[precipitation]] to several areas in southeastern Spain, including the [[Valencian Community]], [[Castilla–La Mancha]], and [[Andalusia]]. The resulting floodwaters caused the deaths of at least 95 people<ref name=ep>{{cite news |url=https://elpais.com/espana/2024-10-29/la-dana-en-espana-en-directo-ultimas-noticias-del-temporal-y-las-inundaciones.html |title=Al menos 95 muertos y decenas de desaparecidos en la peor gota fría del siglo en España |date=30 October 2024 |access-date=30 October 2024 |newspaper=[[El País]] |language=es}}</ref> and substantial property damage.<ref name=":3" />

== Background ==
{{See also|1957 Valencia flood}}
A large number{{quantify|date=October 2024}} of floods have been recorded in Valencia, from AD 1321 up to recent times, with the [[1957 Valencia flood]] caused by a three-day [[cold drop]], resulting in significant overflowing of the [[Turia (river)|Túria river]] and resulting in at least 81 fatalities. In response to the disaster, the [[Cortes Españolas]] approved a plan to reroute the Turia to the south of Valencia, three kilometres from its original course.<ref name="ABC">{{cite news |date=13 August 2007 |title=Hasta aquí llegó la riada |trans-title=This is where the flood came |url=http://www.abc.es/hemeroteca/historico-13-08-2007/abc/Valencia/hasta-aqui-llego-la-riada_164364057827.html |publisher=ABC}}</ref>

== Flooding ==
Starting on 29 October 2024, a "gota fría ([[cold drop]])" brought drastic flash flooding to southern and south-eastern Spain, primarily in the Valencia region. [[Chiva, Spain|Chiva]] saw nearly {{convert|500|mm|in}} of rainfall,<ref>{{Cite web |title=La peor gota fría en décadas devasta Valencia con al menos 70 víctimas mortales, decenas de desaparecidos y pueblos anegados |url=https://elpais.com/espana/comunidad-valenciana/2024-10-30/la-peor-gota-fria-del-siglo-devasta-valencia-con-victimas-mortales-desaparecidos-y-pueblos-anegados.html|date=30 October 2024 |access-date=30 October 2024 |website=Artículo 14 |language=es}}</ref> while [[Utiel]] and [[Turís]] each recorded totals of {{cvt|200|mm|in}}, with other southeastern municipalities receiving {{cvt|100|mm|in}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 October 2024 |title=At least 51 dead in Spain after heavy rain causes flooding |url=https://www.euronews.com/2024/10/30/several-missing-in-spain-after-heavy-rain-causes-flooding |access-date=30 October 2024 |website=euronews |language=en}}</ref> In Andalusia, the storm caused landslides<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.elespanol.com/malaga/malaga-ciudad/20241029/estragos-temporal-malaga-causa-fuerte-tormenta-desprendimientos-inundaciones-capital/897160601_0.html |title=Los estragos del temporal en Málaga a causa de la fuerte tormenta: desprendimientos e inundaciones en la capital |first=Andrea |last=Jiménez Troyano |date=29 October 2024 |access-date=30 October 2024 |newspaper=[[El Español]] |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.diariosur.es/malaga/lluvias-torrenciales-inundaciones-malaga-imagenes-20241029121638-ga.html |title=Las lluvias torrenciales sobre Málaga, en imágenes |date=29 October 2024 |access-date=30 October 2024 |newspaper=[[Diario Sur]] |language=es}}</ref> and damage to buildings, roads, bridges and agricultural land.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://elpais.com/espana/2024-10-29/las-fuertes-lluvias-provocan-importantes-danos-en-el-ejido-y-mas-de-200-incidencias-en-el-resto-de-andalucia.html |title=Granizos como pelotas de golf en El Ejido: "Parecía el fin del mundo" |first=Nacho |last=Sánchez |date=29 October 2024 |access-date=30 October 2024 |newspaper=[[El País]] |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.canalsur.es/noticias/andalucia/almeria/una-fuerte-tormenta-de-granizo-destroza-coches-y-arrasa-invernaderos-en-el-ejido/2093259.html |title=Una fuerte tormenta de granizo destroza coches y arrasa invernaderos en El Ejido |date=29 October 2024 |access-date=30 October 2024 |work=[[Canal Sur]] |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.diariodealmeria.es/provincia/centenar-incidencias-temporal-lluvia-granizo_0_2002676669.html |title=Más de un centenar de incidencias por el temporal de lluvia y granizo en Almería |author=Europa Press |author-link=Europa Press (news agency) |date=29 October 2024 |access-date=30 October 2024 |newspaper=[[Diario de Almería]] |language=es}}</ref> Several people had to be rescued by the [[Civil Guard (Spain)|Civil Guard]].<ref name="ABC1">{{cite news |date=30 October 2024 |title=Última hora de la DANA en Andalucía, en directo: inundaciones y carreteras cortadas por lluvias en Sevilla, Huelva, Málaga y Cádiz hoy |trans-title=Latest news from the DANA in Andalusia, live: floods and roads cut off by rain in Seville, Huelva, Malaga and Cadiz today |url=https://www.abc.es/espana/andalucia/ultima-hora-alerta-lluvias-tormentas-dana-andalucia-20241030084921-dis.html |language=Spanish |work=[[ABC (newspaper)|ABC]] |access-date=30 October 2024}}</ref> Meteorologists issued predictions for further storms to hit the regions on 31 October 2024.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wilson |first=Joseph |date=30 October 2024 |title=Spanish authorities report at least 51 dead from devastating flash floods |url=https://www.news10.com/news/international/ap-spanish-authorities-report-multiple-victims-from-flash-flooding/ |access-date=30 October 2024 |work=News10 ABC}}</ref>

The {{Ill|South Plan|es|Plan Sur}}, the new riverbed for the [[Turia (river)|Turia]] built after it [[1957 Valencia flood|catastrophically flooded in 1957]] prevented flooding in [[Valencia]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Torres |first=Andoni |date=30 October 2024 |title=Así está el nuevo cauce del Turia a su paso por Valencia: una imagen nunca vista |trans-title=This is how the new Turia's riverbed in Valencia is: a never-seen-before image |url=https://www.lasprovincias.es/comunitat/nuevo-cauce-turia-paso-valencia-imagen-nunca-20241030023414-nt.html |access-date=30 October 2024 |work=Las Provincias |language=es}}</ref> but it caused populations to its south to flood. Floods ended up affecting all population centers in [[Horta Sud]], as well as most in [[Camp de Túria]] and in [[Requena-Utiel]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lorao |first=David |date=30 October 2024 |title=Se confirma la tragedia: al menos 62 muertos por la DANA en Valencia |trans-title=Tragedy is confirmed: at least 62 dead because of the cold drop in Valencia |url=https://www.articulo14.es/espana-por-la-igualdad/comunidad-valenciana/se-confirma-la-tragedia-al-menos-13-muertos-por-la-dana-en-valencia-20241030.html |access-date=30 October 2024 |work=Artículo14 |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Olmos |first=Isabel |date=30 October 2024 |title=Riada en València: La alarma sonó demasiado tarde |trans-title=River overflow in Valencia: the alarm sounded too late |url=https://www.levante-emv.com/opinion/2024/10/30/alarma-sono-tarde-valencia-riada-temporal-muertos-tragedia-lluvia-dana-110875320.html |access-date=30 October 2024 |work=Levante |language=es}}</ref>

The resulting floodwaters caused the deaths of at least 95 people,<ref name=ep/> including 92 in the [[province of Valencia]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.lasexta.com/noticias/sociedad/estragos-dana-espana-directo-mediterraneo-grave-alerta-inundaciones-riadas-fuertes-vientos_202410296721186ad058410001c88171.html |title=Se elevan a 92 las víctimas mortales por la DANA en Valencia |first1=Joanna |last1=Ivars |first2=Quique |last2=Hernández |date=30 October 2024 |access-date=30 October 2024 |work=[[La Sexta]] Noticias |language=es}}</ref> two more in [[Castile-La Mancha]]<ref name="SKYNEWS">{{Cite news|title=Flash floods in Spain leave at least 72 people dead|url=https://news.sky.com/story/flash-floods-in-spain-leave-13-people-dead-as-british-couple-describe-mayhem-13244275|publisher=[[Sky News]]|date=30 October 2024|access-date=30 October 2024}}</ref> and one in [[Andalusia]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Primer fallecido en Andalucía como consecuencia de las inundaciones |url=https://www.ideal.es/andalucia/primer-fallecido-andalucia-consecuencia-inundaciones-20241030181350-nt.html |access-date=30 October 2024 |work=Ideal |date=30 October 2024 |language=Spanish}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.g24.gal/-/o-goberno-eleva-a-70-os-falecidos-pola-dina-e-decreta-tres-d%C3%ADas-de-loito-oficial |title=A DINA deixa xa 92 mortos só en Valencia; o Goberno decreta tres días de loito oficial |date=30 October 2024 |access-date=30 October 2024 |work=G24 |language=gl}}</ref> Dozens of others were also missing.<ref>{{cite news|title=La peor gota fría del siglo deja al menos 62 muertos y decenas de desaparecidos en la provincia de Valencia|url=https://www.abc.es/espana/comunidad-valenciana/hallan-muertos-cuatro-ninos-consecuencia-dana-provincia-20241030082025-nt.html|language=es|date=30 October 2024|access-date=30 October 2024|publisher=ABC}}</ref> The flooding also caused significant damage to buildings and infrastructure, sweeping away roads and cars while also derailing a [[high-speed train]] carrying nearly 300 people, resulting in no injuries.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Flash floods in Spain leave at least 51 people dead |url=https://news.sky.com/story/amp/flash-floods-in-spain-leave-13-people-dead-as-british-couple-describe-mayhem-13244275 |access-date=30 October 2024 |website=Sky News |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Region of Murcia]] was also affected by the flooding, although to a lesser degree than other regions.<ref>{{cite news |title=Una DANA con más sustos que daños en la Región de Murcia |url=https://www.laverdad.es/murcia/dana-sustos-danos-20241030003819-nt.html |access-date=30 October 2024 |work=La Verdad |date=30 October 2024 |language=Spanish}}</ref> Flooding also reached the provinces of [[Province of Teruel|Teruel]] and [[Province of Zaragoza|Zaragoza]] in [[Aragon]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Poveda |first1=Ismael |title=La DANA irrumpe en Aragón y provoca inundaciones en varias localidades de Teruel y Zaragoza |url=https://www.elmundo.es/aragon/2024/10/30/67221613e85eced91d8b457a.html |access-date=30 October 2024 |work=El Mundo |date=30 October 2024}}</ref>

Several videos taken of flash flooding showed civilians holding onto trees to resist the flood's rapid flow, with 30 people in [[Letur]] being trapped by floodwaters.<ref name=":0" />

High-Speed train services from Valencia to [[Madrid]], [[Metrovalencia]] services and most [[Cercanías Valencia|commuter train services in Valencia]] were suspended and remained suspended in the wake of the disaster. Moreover, parts of the [[Autovía A-3|Autovía A-3/E-901]] and [[Autovía A-7|Autovía A-7/E-15]], both major highways in the region, were blocked as a result of the floods and subsequent crashes,<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last1=Gonález |first1=L |last2=Quílez |first2=S |last3=Gómez |first3=L |last4=Fedriani |first4=I |date=29 October 2024 |title=Inundaciones por la DANA, en directo |trans-title=Live: floods caused by the cold drop |url=https://www.rtve.es/noticias/20241029/graves-inundaciones-por-dana-directo/16308850.shtml |access-date=30 October 2024 |work=Radio-televisión española |language=es}}</ref> as well as various other roads, which were impossible to transit.<ref>{{Cite tweet| name = Dir. Gral. Tráfico| user = DGTes| date = 30 October 2024| title = 📢⚠️ Actualizamos la información por DANA:⚫️ Valencia, cortadas: A-3, Chiva y Mislata. ➡️A-7, en La Alcudia, y Sagunto. ➡️V-30, Mislata. ➡️V-31 y CV-36, Horno de Alcedo y Silla. ➡️CV-35,Titaguas. ➡️N-3, Villar de Olmos y Utiel. ➡️CV-33, Torrent. ➡️CV-50, Alzira.| number = 1851642298146189642}}</ref>

== Response ==

=== Government ===
The [[Government of Spain|Spanish government]] established a crisis committee to coordinate the national response to the disaster, with [[Prime Minister of Spain]] [[Pedro Sánchez]] publicly noting his monitoring of damage reports and missing persons updates. The [[Military Emergencies Unit]] was deployed to Valencia to aid rescue efforts. Emergency responders needed to use helicopters to lift trapped residents in [[Álora]], [[Andalusia]] from a nearby swollen river.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=30 October 2024 |title=Dozens killed as heavy rains, flash floods slam Spain |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20241030-several-bodies-found-as-heavy-rains-flash-floods-slam-spain |access-date=30 October 2024 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref> Over 1,000 Spanish troops were deployed to the worst impacted areas.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=30 October 2024 |title=More than 50 dead after torrential rain brings flash flooding to Spain |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/spain-valencia-floods-flash-malaga-deaths-latest-b2638081.html |access-date=30 October 2024 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref> [[Felipe VI of Spain|King Felipe VI]] expressed his "desolation and concern at the tragedy" and "together with the Queen, we wish to convey our condolences to all the families affected who have lost loved ones and who still do not know what has happened to their relatives" and held a video conference with the Military Emergency Unit.<ref>[https://www.abc.es/espana/casa-rey-muestra-desolada-efectos-dana-pesame-20241030112218-nt.html El Rey Felipe VI: «Lo principal es expresar el pésame y la tristeza por tantas pérdidas de vidas humanas»] {{in lang|es}}</ref><ref>[https://www.abc.es/sociedad/rey-reune-videconferencia-ume-zonas-afectadas-dana-20241030195707-vi.html El rey se reúne por videconferencia con la UME en las zonas afectadas por la dana] {{in lang|es}}</ref>

Valencian [[President of the Valencian Government|regional president]] [[Carlos Mazón]] reported that a number of residents were unaccounted for due to living in isolated areas rendered inaccessible to emergency rescuers due to flood damage. Mayor of [[Utiel]] Ricardo Gabaldon reported that water levels in the city rose to three meters, leaving several residents trapped in their homes and several others unaccounted for. He described 29 October as "the worst day of my life".<ref name=":2" />

Three days of mourning were declared nationwide.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Romero |first=Patricia |date=30 October 2024 |title=El Gobierno decreta luto oficial y declarará la zona como «altamente afectada por fenómeno natural» |trans-title=The government declares official mourning period and will declare the zone as "highly affected by a natural phenomena" |url=https://www.abc.es/espana/gobierno-decreta-luto-oficial-declarara-zona-altamente-20241030151836-nt.html?ref=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.es%2Fespana%2Fgobierno-decreta-luto-oficial-declarara-zona-altamente-20241030151836-nt.html |access-date=30 October 2024 |work=ABC |language=es}}</ref>

=== Transportation ===
Twelve flights were diverted away from [[Valencia Airport]] due to heavy rainfall and winds, while ten more arrivals and departures at the airport were cancelled.{{Cn|date=October 2024}} At [[Málaga Airport]], numerous flights were cancelled or rerouted on 29 October,<ref name="ABC2">{{cite news |date=29 October 2024 |title=Atascos y retrasos en los vuelos por las intensas lluvias y la tormenta de rayos en Málaga |trans-title=Traffic jams and flight delays due to heavy rain and lightning in Malaga |url=https://www.abc.es/espana/andalucia/malaga/atascos-retrasos-vuelos-paso-dana-malaga-20241029092435-nts.html |language=Spanish |work=[[ABC (newspaper)|ABC]] |location= |access-date=30 October 2024}}</ref> until normal services resumed on 30 October.<ref name="ABC1" />

Spanish rail operator [[Administrador de Infraestructuras Ferroviarias]] announced the suspension of all Valencia rail services for as long as it took for the situation to normalize.<ref name=":1" />

=== Other ===
[[Valencia City Hall]] suspended all sports events and school classes for 30 October.{{Cn|date=October 2024}} The [[Circuit Ricardo Tormo]] [[race track]] in [[Cheste]], [[Valencian Community]] was used as a relief centre, but some of its access roads were destroyed by the flooding.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cobb |first=Haydn |date=30 October 2024 |title=MotoGP "committed" on Valencia GP but focus on flooding support effort |url=https://www.motorsport.com/motogp/news/motogp-committed-on-valencia-gp-but-focus-on-flooding-support-effort/10668388/ |access-date=31 October 2024 |website=Motorsport.com}}</ref> Football games in the [[2024–25 Copa del Rey|Copa del Rey]] involving teams from the Valencia region were postponed to the following week.<ref>{{cite news |date=30 October 2024 |title=Aplazados el Parla Escuela – Valencia, el Pontevedra – Levante y el Ejea – Hércules de Copa |trans-title=The cup games of Parla Escuela – Valencia, Pontevedra – Levante and Ejea – Hércules have been postponed |url=https://www.marca.com/futbol/copa-rey/2024/10/30/aplazado-pontevedra-levante-copa.html |access-date=30 October 2024 |work=[[Marca (newspaper)|Marca]] |location= |language=Spanish}}</ref>

The Seville book fair was suspended on 29 and 30 October.<ref name="ABC1" />

== See also ==
* [[2024 European floods]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{2024 floods}}
{{Deadliest meteorological events in 2024}}

[[Category:2024 disasters in Spain]]
[[Category:2024 floods in Europe]]
[[Category:2024 in Andalusia]]
[[Category:2024 in Castilla–La Mancha]]
[[Category:2024 in the Valencian Community]]
[[Category:October 2024 events in Spain|Floods]]
[[Category:Floods in Spain]]
[[Category:Weather events in Spain]]
[[Category:Province of Valencia]]

Tomb of Philippe Pot

2024-10-30T09:10:27Z

Brandmeister: +category

{{Short description|15th century Burgundian nobleman's tomb}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{Infobox artefact
|name = Tomb of Philippe Pot
|image = File:Tomba di Philippe Pot.JPG
| image_size = 300px
| image_caption =
| alt =
| material = [[Limestone]], [[polychrome|paint]], [[lead]], gold
| size = {{ubl|Height: {{cvt|181|cm}} Width: {{cvt|260|cm}} Depth: {{cvt|167|cm}}}} Each pleurant {{circa}} {{cvt|135|cm}} to {{cvt|145|cm}} high<ref name="oldl">"[https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010093252 Tomb of Philippe Pot, Grand Seneschal of Burgundy]". Louvre. Retrieved 17 March 2023</ref><ref name="j51">Jugie (2010), p. 51</ref>
| created = {{circa|1480}}
| period = [[Northern Renaissance]]
| location = [[Louvre|Musée du Louvre]], Paris
| id = RF 795<ref name="oldl" />
}}

The '''tomb of Philippe Pot''' is a life-sized [[Funerary art|funerary monument]], now on display in the [[Louvre]], Paris. It was commissioned by the military leader and diplomat [[Philippe Pot]] for his burial at the chapel of Saint-Jean-Baptiste in [[Cîteaux Abbey]], [[Dijon]], France in 1493. His [[effigy]] shows him recumbent on a slab, his hands raised in prayer, and wearing armour and a heraldic [[tunic]]. The eight mourners ({{lang|fr|[[pleurants]]}}) are dressed in black hoods, and act as [[pallbearer]]s carrying him towards his grave. Pot commissioned the tomb when he was around 52 years old, 13 years before his death. The detailed inscriptions written on the sides of the slab emphasise his achievements and social standing.

Pot was a godson of [[Philip the Good]] and became a knight of the [[Order of the Golden Fleece|Golden Fleece]]. He served under two of the last [[House of Valois-Burgundy|Valois]] [[Dukes of Burgundy]], Philip the Good and [[Charles the Bold]]. After the latter's defeat by [[René II, Duke of Lorraine]], at the [[Battle of Nancy]] in 1477, Pot switched allegiance to the French king, [[Louis XI]], who appointed him [[Seneschal|grand seneschal]] of Burgundy. After the king's death in 1483, Pot served under Louis' son [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]].

The individual figures are made of [[limestone]], decorated with paint, gold, and [[lead]]. It is recorded as having been completed in 1480 but there is no mention of its designers or craftsmen. Art historians generally cite [[Antoine Le Moiturier]] as the most likely designer of the pleurants, based on circumstantial evidence including similarities to other of his known works.<ref name="s41">Jugie (2019), p. 41</ref> The monument was stolen during the [[French Revolution]], and after changing hands several times was placed in a private garden in Dijon in the 19th century. Since 1899 it has been in the collection of the [[Louvre|Musée du Louvre]], where it is on permanent display. The tomb underwent a major restoration between 2016 and 2018.

==Life and death of Philippe Pot==
[[File:Donor panel of Philippe Pot of Notre-Dame de Dijon.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Unattributed [[donor portrait]] believed to be of Philippe Pot, [[Church of Notre-Dame of Dijon]]]]

[[Philippe Pot]] was born in 1428 at the [[Château de la Rochepot]], outside [[Dijon]] in today's France. The region was then part of the [[Duchy of Burgundy]] and his father, Jacques, was an adviser and senior official to [[Duke of Burgundy|Duke]] [[Philip the Good]].<ref name="j18" /><ref name="p&p289">Panofsky; Panofsky (1968), p. 289</ref> Pot was raised and educated at the Burgundian court. He was a scholar and bibliophile,<ref name="j18" /> and served during the politically fraught years of the last two [[House of Valois-Burgundy|Valois]] dukes of Burgundy, Philip the Good ({{reign|1419|1467}}) and [[Charles the Bold]] ({{reign|1467|1477}}). During this period, he rose to become a [[List of knights of the Golden Fleece|knight of the Golden Fleece]] and {{lang|fr|[[seigneur]]}}, or lord, of [[La Rochepot]] (his ancestral home) and [[Thorey-sur-Ouche]] in Burgundy.<ref name="j18">Jugie (2019), p. 18</ref> He was instrumental in arranging both Charles' [[Engagement#Betrothal|betrothal]] to [[Catherine of Valois, Countess of Charolais|Catherine of France]], and second marriage, to [[Isabella of Bourbon]].<ref name="k17">Kiening (1994), p. 17</ref>

Soon after Charles' defeat and death in January 1477 at the [[Battle of Nancy]], Burgundy came under French control, and Pot seemingly changed allegiance to [[Louis XI]], king of France ({{reign|1461|1483}}). Suspicious of his association with Louis, Charles and Isabella's daughter [[Mary of Burgundy]] expelled him from [[Burgundian Netherlands|her realm]] and the court at [[Lille]] in June 1477. In disgrace, he fled to the then French city of [[Tournai]], and was removed from the [[Order of the Golden Fleece]] in 1481.<ref name="j18" />

He travelled in August 1477 on behalf of Louis to [[Lens, Pas-de-Calais|Lens]] in northern France to negotiate a truce with Mary and her husband and co-ruler, [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian of Austria]]. The truce was signed on 8 September, and Louis eventually appointed him as [[Seneschal|grand seneschal]] of Burgundy. Following the king's death in 1483, Pot served under Louis' son [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] ({{reign|1483|1498}}).<ref name="j18" /><ref name="ELV">"[https://edicioneselviso.com/en/inicio/163-le-tombeau-de-philippe-pot.html Le Tombeau de Philippe Pot]". Ediciones El Viso. Retrieved 27 December 2022</ref> Pot died in Dijon on 20 September 1493 aged around 65, having already made detailed plans for his burial place, [[Funerary art|funeral monument]] and [[epitaph]].<ref name="vxxiii">Vaughan; Paravicini (1973), p. xxiii</ref><ref name="s20">Jugie (2019), p. 20</ref>

==Commission==
Plans for Pot's tomb first appear in the historical records on 28 August 1480, when Pot paid the abbot of [[Cîteaux Abbey]], Jean de Cirey, one thousand [[Livre tournois|livres]] for a burial place in the abbey's [[chapel]] of Saint-Jean-Baptiste. Although the dates of its construction are unknown, it is generally assumed to have been between 1480 and 1483 given that the inscriptions mention events after the January 1477 death of Charles the Bold, and mention Louis XI as king.<ref name="s20" /> Pot's motto "{{lang|fr|Tant L. vaut, était}}" (So much was he worth) was painted in several locations within the chapel.<ref name="s20" /><ref>Sadler (2015), p. xi</ref> The floor of the Jean-Baptiste chapel is lined with rows of medieval burial plots, although few are marked. It was placed at the corner of the south arm of the chapel's [[transept]]. He was buried underneath his monument, located to the left of the altar.<ref name="s20" />

[[File:Tomb of Philip the Bold, 08H5637 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Tomb of Philip the Bold]], built between 1381 and 1410]]
Pot's monument was one of the last of the Burgundian-style tombs, whose characteristics include the deceased having naturalised faces, open eyes and angels above their heads.<ref name="j51" /> The portrayal of the mourners ({{lang|fr|[[pleurants]]}}) is their defining motif. The style began with the [[tomb of Philip the Bold]] (d. 1404), built by the sculptors [[Jean de Marville]] (d. 1389) and [[Claus Sluter]] (d. 1405/6) from 1381, for the [[Champmol|Chartreuse de Champmol]], outside Dijon.<ref name="n2623">Nash (2008), pp. 262–263</ref><ref name="sc14">Scholten (2007), p. 14</ref> Described by the art historian [[Frits Scholten]] as "one of the most magnificent tombs of the Late Middle Ages",<ref name="sc14" /> its innovation was in transforming the mourners from the earlier static and unemotional figures to, according to the art historian John Moffitt, individualised weepers that "stumble forward in mutual anguish while praying in perpetuity for the late Duke's soul".<ref name="m1">Moffitt (2005), pp. 75–76</ref> This treatment was often copied and developed over the following century.<ref name = "Sadler22">Sadler (2015), p. 22</ref><ref>Hourihane (2012), p. 357</ref> By the time of Pot's commission the figures had become much larger – Sluter's have an average height of {{cvt|40|cm}} – and were free-standing rather than attached to the monument.<ref name="m1" /><ref>Panofsky (1964), p. 62</ref>

Pot commissioned his tomb some 13 years before he died, with his date of death left blank during construction; the current one was probably added in the 19th century.<ref name="s20" /> The tomb's extensive inscriptions indicate he wished to leave a record of his importance and prosperity, and to explain his change in allegiance to Louis XI. He probably first employed a painter to agree an overall design and then hired stonemasons, sculptors and craftsmen to construct the tomb.<ref name="m121">Marcoux (2003), p. 121</ref>

==Description==
===Effigy===
[[File:Effigie du chevalier Philippe Pot (détails)..jpg|upright=1.3|thumb|Detail of Pot's effigy]]
The monument is made of limestone.<ref name="oldl" /> Pot's effigy is carved in the round so it can be seen from all sides.<ref name="m10">Marcoux (2003), p. 10</ref> His skin is painted in [[vermilion]] and [[lead white]].<ref name="s47">Jugie (2019), p. 47</ref> His body rests on a slab, and his head is nested within a stone cushion. He is dressed in a [[tunic]], silver armour decorated with a [[Gilding|gilded]] breastplate, and a [[knight]]'s helmet.<ref name="j52">Jugie (2010), p. 52</ref> Pot's eyes are open and his hands are clasped in prayer. A sword lies to his side and his feet rest on a brown animal of uncertain species;<ref name="s14" /> as a result of unsympathetic restoration before the era of photography of the animal and feet, art historians disagree whether the animal is a lion or a dog, and there are conflicting interpretations as to its iconography.<ref name="j52" /> Most see it as a dog – a traditional symbol of [[fidelity]] in Burgundian tomb art.<ref name="m4">Mikolic (2017), p. 4</ref><ref name="m11">Marcoux (2003), p. 11</ref>

The [[coat of arms|coats of arms]] on his shield and on those of the mourners are painted in a variety of colours including gold, white, red, blue and black.<ref name="s47" /> They represent the insignia of his ancestral families of Pot, Courtiamble, Anguissola, Blaisy, Guénant, Nesles and Montagu. The effigy does not contain the [[angel]]s often found in contemporary northern European tombs, guiding the deceased to the afterlife.<ref name="j52" />

===Pleurants===
[[File:Détail du tombeau de Philippe Pot (17863220888).jpg|left|upright=1.2|thumb|Mourners on the left-hand side]]

The eight mourners carrying Pot's slab were carved from limestone that was then [[polychrome]]d in four shades of black paint (ranging from [[Charcoal (color)|charcoal]] to pure black) for their robes and hoods.<ref name="oldl" /><ref>Chabeuf (1891), pp. 116–124</ref><ref name="s48">Jugie (2019), p. 48</ref> Their rigid forms and austere poses give the impression of the slow movement of a funeral procession.<ref name="s14" /> They range in height from {{convert|134|to(-)|144|cm|abbr=on}},<ref name="s11">Jugie (2019), p. 11</ref> slightly less than life-sized, allowing the recumbent figure to align with the viewer's line of sight.<ref name="s14">Jugie (2019), p. 14</ref> The full weight of the stone slab is supported by a narrow point on a shoulder of each figure, a feat described by the French art historian Sophie Jugie as "masterful{{nbsp}}... in its technical audacity".<ref name="ELV" />

The mourners wear full-length black cloaks and shoulder-length hoods that mostly cover their faces.<ref name="s14" /> The hoods identify them as [[laity]] participating in a ceremonial [[Rite (Christianity)|burial rite]] often held in the region from the 13th to the 16th century.<ref name="s36" /> Although mourners with black hoods were not common in contemporary sculpture or painting, they can be found on works such as the mid-15th-century "[[Office of the Dead]]" [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]] from [[Jean Fouquet]]'s illuminated manuscript the "[[Hours of Étienne Chevalier]]".<ref name="s37">Jugie (2019), pp. 36–37</ref> Each bears a painted and gilded heraldic shield that refers to specific members of Pot's lineage, indicating the monument is of the "kinship tomb" type.<ref>McGee Morganstern (2000), p. 8</ref> The four shields on the left represent the heraldries of Guillaume III Pot (d. c. 1390) and Raguenonde Guénant, the Cortiambles family, the Anguissola family, and the de Blaisy family. Those on the left represent the de Montagus and de Nesles, and two unidentified families.<ref>Jugie (2019), pp. 12–13</ref>

Although their faces are mostly covered and thus do not have individualised features, the mourners have different poses, heraldic shields and folded drapes.<ref name="s14" /><ref name="m125">Marcoux (2003), p.125</ref> The clothing contains deep, angular folds, and seems influenced by the works of the mid-15th-century [[Early Netherlandish painting|Early Netherlandish painters]] such as [[Rogier van der Weyden]] (d. 1464). Other potential influences include the [[relief]] of four monks with covered heads on a short side of the tomb of Pierre de Bauffremont (d. 1472), commissioned in 1453 for his planned burial in Dijon,<ref name="m122">Marcoux (2003), p. 122</ref> and a near-contemporary tomb in [[Semur-en-Auxois]] that was likely known to Philippe.<ref>Marcoux (2003), pp. 126–127</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="170px">
File:Dijon (Côte-d'Or) - Musée des Beaux-Arts - Tombeaux des ducs de Bourgogne (cénotaphe de Jean-sans-Peur et Marguerite de Bavière) - Pleurants (14922500276).jpg|Mourners in a niche, tomb of [[John the Fearless]], attributed to the Spanish sculptor [[Jean de la Huerta]], c. 1406
File:Les funérailles d Étienne Chevalier (cropped) (cropped).jpg|''[[Office of the Dead]]'' from the [[Hours of Étienne Chevalier]], [[Jean Fouquet]], c. 1452–1460
File:Semur-en-Auxois-Mise-au-tombeau-de-la-chapelle-Saint-Lazare-collégiale-dpt-Cote-d'Or-DSC 0318 (cropped).jpg|''Entombment'', attributed to [[Antoine Le Moiturier]], 1490. Notre-Dame Collegiate Church of [[Semur-en-Auxois]].<ref name="s39">Jugie (2019), p. 39</ref>
</gallery>

===Inscriptions===
The extensive carved inscriptions on the edges of the slab are in [[Blackletter|Gothic script]].<ref name="s16">Jugie (2019), p. 16</ref> They are written in three rows, each beginning on the right side of the head of the effigy and ending behind his head on the opposite side. The text outlines his career with Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, as well as his reasons for switching sides to serve under Louis XI and Charles VIII following the Burgundian's 1477 defeat at Nancy.<ref name="s16" /> Most of the text was written before Pot's death. His year of death is erroneously recorded as {{lang|fr|l'an mil ccccxci[v]}} ("in the year 149[4]").<ref>Jugie (2019), pp. 16–17</ref><ref name="m30">Marcoux (2003), p. 30</ref>
[[File:Face gisant Philippe Pot (cropped) (cropped) (cropped) (cropped).JPG|thumb|center|upright=3.0|Inscriptions on a side of the slab]]

==Attribution==
Art historians have not identified the artists or craftsmen responsible for designing and building the tomb. [[Antoine Le Moiturier]] (d. 1495) is often suggested as likely to have designed the pleurants, given the similarity of the solid and rigid rendering of their clothing to the [[Mourners of Dijon]] which are often attributed to him.<ref name="MoF">{{Base Joconde|M5037011289|Tomb of Philip Pot, Grand Seneschal of Burgundy}}. Retrieved 24 February 2023</ref><ref>Hourihane (2012), p. 40</ref> Guillaume Chandelier, a painter active in Dijon at the time, has been suggested as involved, although with little supporting evidence.<ref>Hofstatter (1968), pp. 137, 256</ref><ref name="j51">Jugie (2010), p. 51</ref>

Art historians generally distinguish between the conventional design of the effigy, the expressive form of the mourners, and the inventive placing of the slab on narrow points above each of their shoulders.<ref name="m121" /><ref name="s42">Jugie (2019), p. 42</ref> While it is possible that a single artist, who was both a painter and sculptor, oversaw the tomb's completion, the variation in the quality of sculpture indicates several hands. The art historian Robert Marcoux notes variabilities in skill, and believes that parts of the sculpture are so sparsely detailed that they were likely completed by workshop members.<ref name="m124/5">Marcoux (2003), pp. 124, 125</ref>

==Provenance==
The tomb passed through several owners and locations over the centuries, and its complex history was only fully pieced together in the mid-20th century.<ref name="p&p289"/> It was first mentioned as completed in 1649 by [[Pierre Palliot]], a bookseller and printer in Dijon, when he described the coats of arms and the inscriptions. The [[antiquarian]] and collector [[François Roger de Gaignières]] (d. 1715) made drawings of the tomb between 1699 and 1700, which are lost and known only from copies by the artist [[Louis Boudan]] ([[Floruit|fl.]] 1687–1709); these are uninformative as they contain inaccuracies.<ref>Jugie (2019), pp. 20, 22–23</ref> The tomb was [[nationalised]] during the early years of the [[French Revolution]] when the state took ownership of all church property.<ref name="p&p289"/>

[[File:Charles-Edouard de Beaumont In the Sun (1875).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Charles Édouard de Beaumont, ''Au Solei'', 1875. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York.<ref name="p287">Panofsky; Panofsky (1968), pp. 287–289</ref>]]
Sometime between 1791 and 1793 [[François Devosge]], an artist and director of the Dijon School of Drawing, was employed to relocate it to the [[Benedictine]] abbey in [[Saint-Bénigne]]. It was next mentioned in September 1808 when it was acquired for fifty-three [[Livre tournois|livres]] by Count Richard de Vesvrotte, following a legal case against the French state. He placed it under trees in the garden of his {{lang|fr|[[hôtel particulier]]}} (townhouse), the [[c:File:Hôtel de Ruffey.jpg|Hôtel de Ruffey]] at 33 rue Berbisey in Dijon.<ref name="s25">Jugie (2019), p. 25</ref><ref name="ss158" />

Richard's son Pierre sold the townhouse in 1850 and relocated the tomb to the Château de Vesvrotte in [[Beire-le-Châtel]], [[Côte-d'Or]],<ref name="p292">Panofsky; Panofsky (1968), p. 292</ref> where it was again placed in an outdoor garden. It was photographed for the first time in a series of [[Photolithography|photolithographs]] commissioned by Pierre's son Alphonse Richard de Vesvrotte. They were published in 1863, and inspired the artist, antiquarian and collector [[Édouard de Beaumont|Charles Édouard de Beaumont]]'s 1875 painting ''Au soleil'' (or ''At the Tomb of Philippe Pot''), which shows a couple lying at the foot of the tomb in a meadow surrounded by trees.<ref name="ss158" /><ref name="p&p288">Panofsky; Panofsky (1968), p. 288</ref><ref name="s26">Jugie (2019), p. 26</ref>

The Vesvrotte family attempted to sell the tomb after Richard's death in 1873. The French state sought to block the sale, claiming it was by now public property, a claim eventually rejected in 1886 by a Dijon court who gave full ownership to Pierre's son, Armand de Vesvrotte.<ref name="p295">Panofsky; Panofsky (1968), p. 295</ref><ref name="s26" /> It was nationalised by the French state that August on the grounds that it was an "[[Monument historique|object of national historical importance]]".<ref name="oldl" /> It was acquired for the [[Louvre]] in 1889 by the intermediator Charles Mannheim.<ref name="p&p289"/><ref name="ss158" />
{{Clear}}

==Condition and restorations==
The tomb was cleaned and restored several times in the 19th century, as evidenced by comparison to earlier reproductions, such as an engraving that shows Pot's fingers as being badly damaged.<ref name="ss158">Sterling & Salinger (1966), p. 158</ref> Early drawings show his feet and the animal in very poor condition until c. 1816. Some of the letters and words on the inscription were restored before 1880 by the archivist Jean-Baptiste Peincedé.<ref name="oldl" /> The tomb underwent a major restoration between 2018 and 2019 in a project led by Sophie Jugie, who was then director of the Department of Sculptures at the Louvre.<ref name="ELV" /> It had been in poor condition, covered by accumulated layers of brown dirt around the heraldry, and had layers of gloss and [[polyvinyl]] alcohol from earlier cleanings. The restoration was preceded by an in-depth technical analysis conducted between 2016 and 2017 by the [[Centre for Research and Restoration of Museums of France]]. Surface layers of [[bleach]], [[Paint sheen|gloss]] and brown fouling of the [[blazon]]s were taken off, the unpainted stone was cleaned, and additions from earlier restorations were removed.<ref name="l18">"[https://presse.louvre.fr/10279-2/ Début de la restauration du tombeau de Philippe Pot]" (in French). Louvre, 15 May 2018. Retrieved 14 April 2019</ref>

==Imitations and replicas==
The monument had a significant influence on later funerary tombs. It transformed the conventional size and placement of pleurants, which previously had mostly been relatively small figures standing in [[Niche (architecture)|niches]]. The motif of eight mourners carrying an effigy's slab can be seen on the tombs of Louis de Savoisy (d. 1515) and Jacques de Mâlain (d. 1527).<ref name="s36">Jugie (2019), p. 36</ref><ref>Sadler (2015), p. 23</ref> The tomb was photographed several times in the mid-19th century before it was acquired by the Louvre.<ref name="s25" /> It was portrayed in 2010 by the American sculptor [[Matthew Day Jackson]] in a wood and plastic installation showing astronauts carrying a glass box containing a human skeleton.<ref>"[https://www.peterblumgallery.com/exhibitions/matthew-day-jackson2/press-release Matthew Day Jackson]". Peter Blum Gallery, 2010. Retrieved 27 December 2022</ref><ref>Spears, Dorothy. "[https://www.huffpost.com/entry/matthew-day-jackson-artis_b_761002 Matthew Day Jackson: Artist as Stuntman]". ''[[HuffPost]]'', 18 October 2010. Retrieved 27 December 2022</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}

* Chabeuf, Henri. ''Jean de La Huerta, Antoine Le Moiturier et le tombeau de Jean sans Peur, Dijon''. Paris: Darantière, 1891. Republished: West Columbia, TX: Wentworth Press, 2018. {{ISBN|978-0-3414-5950-7}}.
* Hofstatter, Hans. ''Art of the Middle Ages''. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1968.
* [[Colum Hourihane|Hourihane, Colum]]. ''The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture'', Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-0-1953-9536-5}}.
* Jugie, Sophie. ''Le Tombeau de Philippe Pot''. Paris: Ediciones El Viso, 2019. {{isbn|978-8-4948-2447-0}}.
* Jugie, Sophie. ''The Mourners: Tomb Sculpture from the Court of Burgundy''. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010. {{isbn|978-0-3001-5517-4}}.
* Kiening, Christian. "Rhétorique de la perte. L'exemple de la mort d'Isabelle de Bourbon (1465)". ''Médiévales'', no. 27, 1994. {{JSTOR|43026850}}.
* Marcoux, Robert. ''Le tombeau de Philippe Pot: analyse et interprétation''. Montréal: Université de Montréal, 2003
* McGee Morganstern, Ann. "Gothic Tombs of Kinship in France, the Low Countries, and England". University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000. {{isbn|978-0-2710-1859-1}}.
* Mikolic, Amanda. "[https://www.clevelandart.org/sites/default/files/documents/exhibition-gallery-guide/Rjks_booklet_revised_8-25-17.pdf Fashionable Mourners: Bronze Statuettes from the Rijksmuseum]" (exhibition catalogue). Cleveland, OH: Cleveland Museum of Art, 2017
* Moffitt, John. "Sluter's 'Pleurants' and Timanthes' 'Tristitia Velata': Evolution of, and Sources for a Humanist Topos of Mourning". ''Artibus et Historiae'', volume 26, no. 51, 2005. {{JSTOR|1483776}}.
* [[Susie Nash|Nash, Susie]]. ''Northern Renaissance Art''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. {{isbn|978-0-1928-4269-5}}.
* [[Erwin Panofsky|Panofsky, Erwin]]; Panofsky, Gerda. "The Tomb in Arcady at the Fin-de-Siècle". ''Wallraf-Richartz-Jahrbuch'', vol. 30, 1968. {{JSTOR|24655959}}.
* Panofsky, Erwin. ''Tomb Sculpture''. London: Harry Abrams, 1964. {{isbn|978-0-8109-3870-0}}.
* Sadler, Donna. ''Stone, Flesh, Spirit: The Entombment of Christ in Late Medieval Burgundy''. Boston: Brill Academic, 2015. {{isbn|978-9-0042-9314-4}}.
* [[Frits Scholten|Scholten, Frits]]. "Isabella's Weepers: Ten Statues from a Burgundian Tomb". Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum, 2007. {{isbn|978-9-07145-0822}}.
* [[Charles Sterling|Sterling, Charles]]; [[Margaretta Salinger|Salinger, Margaretta]]. ''French Paintings: A Catalogue of the Collection of The Metropolitan Museum of Art''. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1966
* Vaughan, Richard; Paravicini, Werner. ''Charles the Bold: The Last Valois Duke of Burgundy''. London: Barnes & Noble, 1973. {{isbn|978-0-0649-7171-3}}.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010093252 Louvre catalog entry]
* [http://www.mfa.org/collections/object/tomb-of-philippe-pot-in-dijon-266144 19th century photograph], unattributed, [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:15th-century sculptures]]
[[Category:Monuments historiques of France]]
[[Category:Tomb Sculptures from the Court of Burgundy]]
[[Category:Sculptures in the Louvre]]

Gluten

2024-10-29T09:17:12Z

Brandmeister: brief copyedit

{{Short description|Group of cereal grain proteins}}
[[File:Gluten Sources.png|right|thumb|upright=1.30|Examples of sources of gluten (clockwise from top): wheat as flour, spelt, barley, and rye as rolled flakes]]

'''Gluten''' is a [[structural protein]] naturally found in certain [[Cereal|cereal grains]].<ref>Hervé This, « Who discovered the gluten and who discovered its production by lixiviation? », Notes Académiques de l'Académie d'Agriculture de France/Academic Notes from the French Academy of Agriculture, vol. 3, no 3, 2002, p. 1–11 {{cite journal |vauthors=Shewry PR, Halford NG, Belton PS, Tatham AS |title=The structure and properties of gluten: an elastic protein from wheat grain |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=357 |issue=1418 |pages=133–42 |date=February 2002 |pmid=11911770 |pmc=1692935 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2001.1024 }}</ref> The term ''gluten'' usually refers to the elastic network of a wheat grain's proteins, [[gliadin]] and [[glutenin]] primarily, that forms readily with the addition of water and often [[kneading]] in the case of bread dough.<ref name="t022">{{cite book | last=McGee | first=Harold | title=On Food and Cooking | publisher=Simon and Schuster | date=2007-03-20 | isbn=978-1-4165-5637-4 | page=521}}</ref> The types of grains that contain gluten include all species of [[wheat]] ([[common wheat]], [[durum]], [[spelt]], [[Khorasan wheat|khorasan]], [[emmer]] and [[Einkorn wheat|einkorn]]), and [[barley]], [[rye]], and some cultivars of [[oat]]; moreover, cross hybrids of any of these cereal grains also contain gluten, e.g. [[triticale]].<ref name="FDAlabeling2007">{{cite web |author=Food and Drug Administration|date=January 2007 |title=Food Labeling; Gluten-Free Labeling of Foods |website=Food and Drug Administration|url-status=dead|url=https://www.fda.gov/OHRMS/DOCKETS/98fr/05n-0279-npr0001.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070126011901/https://www.fda.gov/OHRMS/DOCKETS/98fr/05n-0279-npr0001.pdf|archive-date=2007-01-26}}</ref><ref name=Biesiekierski2017>{{cite journal |author=Biesiekierski JR |title=What is gluten? |journal=J Gastroenterol Hepatol | year= 2017 | volume= 32 |issue=Suppl 1 | pages= 78–81 |pmid=28244676 |doi=10.1111/jgh.13703 | type=Review |quote=Similar proteins to the gliadin found in wheat exist as secalin in rye, hordein in barley, and avenins in oats, and are collectively referred to as 'gluten'. The gluten found in all of these grains has been identified as the component capable of triggering the immune-mediated disorder, celiac disease.|doi-access=free }}</ref> Gluten makes up 75–85% of the total protein in [[Common wheat|bread wheat]].<ref name="shewry1" />

Glutens, especially [[Triticeae glutens]], have unique [[viscoelasticity|viscoelastic]] and [[Adhesion|adhesive]] properties, which give [[dough]] its elasticity, helping it [[Proofing (baking technique)|rise]] and keep its shape and often leaving the final product with a chewy texture.<ref name=shewry1/><ref name=LamacchiaCamarca2014>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lamacchia C, Camarca A, Picascia S, Di Luccia A, Gianfrani C| title = Cereal-based gluten-free food: how to reconcile nutritional and technological properties of wheat proteins with safety for celiac disease patients | journal = Nutrients | volume = 6| issue = 2| pages = 575–90| date = Jan 29, 2014| pmid = 24481131|pmc= 3942718| doi = 10.3390/nu6020575 |type= Review | quote= the distinctive feature that makes wheat unique is, precisely, the visco-elasticity of gluten. When the grain is milled and mixed with water, storage proteins form a dough, capable of retaining gas bubbles. These properties make wheat suitable for the preparation of a great diversity of food products | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name=DayAugustin2006>{{cite journal|vauthors= Day L, Augustin MA, Batey IL, Wrigley, CW|title= Wheat-gluten uses and industry needs|journal= Trends in Food Science & Technology|volume= 17|issue= 2|pages= 82–90|date= February 2006 |doi= 10.1016/j.tifs.2005.10.003 |type=Review|quote=Given the unique properties of wheat gluten, it is not surprising that it has been the subject of intense attention by the food industry. (...) Gluten does have economic benefits over and above the more expensive milk- or soy-protein products (Table 1), and its functional properties, which other products cannot duplicate, give it a unique place among the various protein products. (...) Unlike whey and soy proteins, gluten or wheat proteins are not high in biological value and have not been widely researched for nutritional advantages.}}</ref> These properties, and its relatively low cost, make gluten valuable to both [[Food industry|food]] and non-food industries.<ref name=DayAugustin2006 />

Wheat gluten is composed of mainly two types of proteins: the [[glutenin]]s<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LPbxCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA210|title=A Genetic Approach to Plant Biochemistry|editor1-last=Blonstein|editor1-first=A. D.|editor2-last=King|editor2-first=P. J.|date=2012-12-06|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-7091-6989-6 |pages=210 |chapter=Endosperm Proteins|last=Payne|first=P. I.}}</ref> and the [[gliadin]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhao|first=Hefei|date=February 2020|title=Comparison of wheat, soybean, rice, and pea protein properties for effective applications in food products|journal=Journal of Food Biochemistry|volume=(44)4|issue=4 |pages=e13157|doi=10.1111/jfbc.13157|pmid=32020651 |s2cid=211034183 |doi-access=free}}</ref> which in turn can be divided into high molecular and low molecular glutenins and α/β, γ and Ω gliadins. Its homologous seed storage proteins, in barley, are referred to as [[hordein]]s, in rye, [[secalin]]s, and in oats, [[avenin]]s.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-100529-3.00004-9 |chapter=Chemical components and nutrition |title=Kent's Technology of Cereals |year=2018 |last1=Rosentrater |first1=Kurt A. |last2=Evers |first2=A.D. |pages=267–368 |isbn=978-0-08-100529-3 }}</ref> These protein classes are collectively referred to as "gluten".<ref name=Biesiekierski2017 /> The storage proteins in other grains, such as [[maize]] ([[zeins]]) and [[rice]] ([[rice protein]]), are sometimes called gluten, but they do not cause harmful effects in people with [[celiac disease]].<ref name=FDAlabeling2007 />

[[File:Pain sans gluten à la farine de châtaigne et charcuterie corse.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.30|Bread produced from wheat grains contains gluten.]]

Gluten can trigger adverse, [[inflammation|inflammatory]], [[immune response|immunological]], and [[autoimmunity|autoimmune]] reactions in some people. The spectrum of [[Gluten-related disorders|gluten related disorders]] includes celiac disease in 1–2% of the general population, [[non-celiac gluten sensitivity]] in 0.5–13% of the general population, as well as [[dermatitis herpetiformis]], [[gluten ataxia]] and other neurological disorders.<ref name=LundinWijmenga2015 /><ref name=MolinaInfanteSantolaria /><ref name=LudvigssonLeffler2013 /><ref name=ZisHadjivassiliou2019 /> These disorders are treated by a [[gluten-free diet]].<ref name=ZisHadjivassiliou2019 />

==Uses==
[[File:Wheat field.jpg|thumb|[[Wheat]], a prime source of gluten]]

===Bread products===
Gluten forms when glutenin molecules cross-link via [[disulfide bond]]s to form a submicroscopic network attached to gliadin, which contributes [[viscosity]] (thickness) and extensibility to the mix.<ref name="shewry1">{{cite journal|pmc=1692935|year=2002|last1=Shewry|first1=P. R.|title=The structure and properties of gluten: An elastic protein from wheat grain|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=357|issue=1418|pages=133–142|last2=Halford|first2=N. G.|last3=Belton|first3=P. S.|last4=Tatham|first4=A. S.|doi=10.1098/rstb.2001.1024|pmid=11911770}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Woychick|first1=JH|url=http://www.friedli.com/research/PhD/gluten/chap2.html|title=The Gluten Proteins and Deamidated Soluble Wheat Protein|access-date=8 September 2009|display-authors=etal|archive-date=12 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090812231402/http://www.friedli.com/research/PhD/gluten/chap2.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> If this dough is [[Leavening agent|leavened]] with [[yeast]], [[fermentation (food)|fermentation]] produces [[carbon dioxide]] bubbles, which, trapped by the gluten network, cause the dough to rise. [[Baking]] [[denaturation (biochemistry)|coagulates]] the gluten, which, along with starch, stabilizes the shape of the final product. Gluten content has been implicated as a factor in the [[staling]] of bread, possibly because it binds water through hydration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sahlström |first1=S. |last2=Bråthen |first2=E. |title=Effects of enzyme preparations for baking, mixing time and resting time on bread quality and bread staling |journal=Food Chemistry |date=January 1997 |volume=58 |issue=1–2 |pages=75–80 |doi=10.1016/S0308-8146(96)00216-6 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Magnus |first1=E.M. |last2=Bråthen |first2=E. |last3=Sahlström |first3=S. |last4=Færgestad |first4=E.Mosleth |last5=Ellekjær |first5=M.R. |title=Effects of Wheat Variety and Processing Conditions in Experimental Bread Baking Studied by Univariate and Multivariate Analyses |journal=Journal of Cereal Science |date=May 1997 |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=289–301 |doi=10.1006/jcrs.1996.0094 }}</ref>

[[File:Pain au levain dit à l'ancienne 02.jpg|thumb|left|Cross-section of a baguette showing a strong gluten network]]
The formation of gluten affects the texture of the baked goods.<ref name=shewry1/> Gluten's attainable elasticity is proportional to its content of glutenins with low molecular weights, as this portion contains the preponderance of the [[sulfur]] atoms responsible for the cross-linking in the gluten network.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Edwards |first1=N. M. |last2=Mulvaney |first2=S. J. |last3=Scanlon |first3=M. G. |last4=Dexter |first4=J. E. |title=Role of Gluten and Its Components in Determining Durum Semolina Dough Viscoelastic Properties |journal=Cereal Chemistry |date=November 2003 |volume=80 |issue=6 |pages=755–763 |doi=10.1094/CCHEM.2003.80.6.755 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tosi |first1=Paola |last2=Masci |first2=Stefania |last3=Giovangrossi |first3=Angela |last4=D’Ovidio |first4=Renato |last5=Bekes |first5=Frank |last6=Larroque |first6=Oscar |last7=Napier |first7=Johnathan |last8=Shewry |first8=Peter |title=Modification of the Low Molecular Weight (LMW) Glutenin Composition of Transgenic Durum Wheat: Effects on Glutenin Polymer Size and Gluten Functionality |journal=Molecular Breeding |date=September 2005 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=113–126 |doi=10.1007/s11032-005-5912-1 |s2cid=24914227 }}</ref>
Using flour with higher gluten content leads to chewier doughs such as those found in [[pizza]] and [[bagel]]s, while using flour with less gluten content yields tender baked goods such as [[pastry]] products.<ref name="Baking Technology, Bread">{{cite web
| url = http://www.bakersassist.nl/processing5-2.htm
| title = Baking Technology, Bread
| publisher = Bakersassist
| access-date = 2007-08-14
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070823120653/http://www.bakersassist.nl/processing5-2.htm
| archive-date = 2007-08-23
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

Generally, [[bread]] flours are high in gluten (hard wheat); pastry flours have a lower gluten content. [[Kneading]] promotes the formation of gluten strands and cross-links, creating baked products that are chewier (as opposed to more brittle or crumbly). The "chewiness" increases as the dough is kneaded for longer times. An increased moisture content in the dough enhances gluten development,<ref name="Baking Technology, Bread"/> and very wet doughs left to rise for a long time require no kneading (see [[no-knead bread]]). [[Shortening]] inhibits formation of cross-links and is used, along with diminished water and less kneading, when a tender and flaky product, such as a [[pie crust]], is desired.

The strength and elasticity of gluten in flour is measured in the baking industry using a [[farinograph]]. This gives the baker a measurement of quality for different varieties of flours when developing recipes for various baked goods.<ref name=shewry1/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ndsu.edu/ndsu/simsek/wheat/farinograph.html |title=Farinograph |date=22 September 2014 |website=Wheat Quality and Carbohydrate Research |publisher=North Dakota State University |access-date=8 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223044437/http://www.ndsu.edu/ndsu/simsek/wheat/farinograph.html |archive-date=23 December 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oliver |first1=JR |last2=Allen |first2=HM |date=January 1992 |title=The prediction of bread baking performance using the farinograph and extensograph |journal=Journal of Cereal Science |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=79–89 |doi=10.1016/S0733-5210(09)80058-1 }}</ref>

====Added gluten====
In industrial production, a [[slurry]] of wheat flour is kneaded vigorously by machinery until the gluten agglomerates into a mass.<ref name="sakhare">{{cite journal|pmc=4252461|year=2013|last1=Sakhare|first1=S. D.|title=Effect of flour particle size on microstructural, rheological and physico-sensory characteristics of bread and south Indian parotta|journal=Journal of Food Science and Technology|volume=51|issue=12|pages=4108–13|last2=Inamdar|first2=A. A.|last3=Soumya|first3=C|last4=Indrani|first4=D|last5=Rao|first5=G. V.|doi=10.1007/s13197-013-0939-5|pmid=25477689}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=September 2018}} This mass is collected by [[centrifugation]], then transported through several stages integrated in a continuous process. About 65% of the water in the wet gluten is removed by means of a [[screw press]]; the remainder is sprayed through an [[atomizer nozzle]] into a [[drying]] chamber, where it remains at an elevated temperature for a short time to allow the water to evaporate without denaturing the gluten.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} The process yields a flour-like powder with a 7% moisture content, which is [[Air cooling|air cooled]] and [[Pneumatics|pneumatically]] transported to a receiving vessel. In the final step, the processed gluten is [[Sieve|sifted]] and [[Mill (grinding)|milled]] to produce a uniform product.<ref name=sakhare/>

This flour-like powder, when added to ordinary [[flour]] dough, may help improve the dough's ability to increase in volume. The resulting mixture also increases the bread's structural stability and chewiness.<ref>{{cite book|author1= Amendola, J.|author2= Rees, N.|author3= Lundberg, D. E.|year=2002|title=Understanding Baking}}</ref> Gluten-added dough must be worked vigorously to induce it to rise to its full capacity; an automatic [[bread machine]] or [[food processor]] may be required for high-gluten kneading.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Eckhardt, L.W.|author2=Butts, D.C.|year=1997|title=Rustic European Breads from your Bread Machine}}</ref> Generally, higher gluten levels are associated with higher overall protein content.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/11/03/grain|title=Against the Grain|date=3 November 2014|magazine=The New Yorker|access-date=8 December 2014}}</ref>

===Imitation meats===

{{Further|topic=the use of gluten in cooking|Seitan}}
[[File:Wheat gluten (vegetarian mock duck) 2007.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of vegetarian "mock duck" made of wheat gluten in a brine with seasonings.|Gluten is often used in imitation meats (such as this mock duck) to provide supplemental protein in vegetarian diets]]

Gluten, especially [[wheat gluten (food)|wheat gluten]] (seitan), is often the basis for [[Meat analogue|imitation meats]] resembling [[beef]], [[Chicken (food)|chicken]], [[Duck (food)|duck]] (see [[mock duck]]), [[Fish (food)|fish]] and [[pork]]. When cooked in [[broth]], gluten absorbs some of the surrounding liquid (including the flavor) and becomes firm to the bite.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bates |first1=Dorothy R. |last2=Wingate |first2=Colby |title=Cooking with Gluten and Seitan |date=1993 |publisher=Book Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-913990-95-7 |page=128 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://vegannomnoms.net/2011/03/how-to-make-seitan-an-illustrated-guide.html |title=How to Make Seitan: An Illustrated Guide |last=Abramowski |first=Nicole |date=11 March 2011 |website=Vegan Nom Noms |access-date=8 December 2014}}</ref> This use of gluten is a popular means of adding supplemental protein to many [[vegetarian]] diets. In home or restaurant cooking, wheat gluten is prepared from [[flour]] by kneading the flour under water, agglomerating the gluten into an elastic network known as a [[dough]], and then washing out the [[starch]].<ref name=shewry1/>

===Other consumer products===

Gluten is often present in [[beer]] and [[soy sauce]], and can be used as a [[food additive|stabilizing agent]] in more unexpected food products, such as [[ice cream]] and [[ketchup]]. Foods of this kind may therefore present problems for a small number of consumers because the hidden gluten constitutes a hazard for people with [[celiac disease]] and gluten sensitivities. The protein content of some [[pet food]]s may also be enhanced by adding gluten.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Pet Foods | access-date = 14 August 2007
| publisher = International Wheat Gluten Association
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071007175039/http://www.iwga.net/04_pet.htm 
| archive-date = 2007-10-07| url = http://www.iwga.net/04_pet.htm }}</ref>

Gluten is also used in [[cosmetics]], hair products and other [[Dermatology|dermatological]] preparations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Humbert |first1=Philippe |last2=Pelletier |first2=Fabien |last3=Dreno |first3=Brigitte |last4=Puzenat |first4=Eve |last5=Aubin |first5=François |title=Gluten intolerance and skin diseases |journal=European Journal of Dermatology |date=1 January 2006 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=4–11 |pmid=16436335 |url=https://www.jle.com/en/revues/ejd/e-docs/gluten_intolerance_and_skin_diseases_267550/article.phtml }}</ref>

==Disorders==
{{Main article|Gluten-related disorders|Gluten-sensitive enteropathy-associated conditions|Gluten-sensitive idiopathic neuropathies}}

"Gluten-related disorders" is the umbrella term for all diseases triggered by gluten, which include [[celiac disease]] (CD), [[non-celiac gluten sensitivity]] (NCGS), [[wheat allergy]], <ref>Costantino A, Aversano GM, Lasagni G, Smania V, Doneda L, Vecchi M, Roncoroni L, Pastorello EA, Elli L. Diagnostic management of patients reporting symptoms after wheat ingestion. Front Nutr. 2022 Oct 6;9:1007007. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.1007007. PMID: 36276818; PMCID: PMC9582535.</ref> [[gluten ataxia]] and [[dermatitis herpetiformis]] (DH).<ref name=LudvigssonLeffler2013>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ludvigsson JF, Leffler DA, Bai JC, Biagi F, Fasano A, Green PH, Hadjivassiliou M, Kaukinen K, Kelly CP, Leonard JN, Lundin KE, Murray JA, Sanders DS, Walker MM, Zingone F, Ciacci C |title=The Oslo definitions for coeliac disease and related terms |journal=Gut |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=43–52 | date=January 2013 |pmid=22345659 |pmc=3440559 |doi=10.1136/gutjnl-2011-301346|type=Review}}</ref>

===Pathophysiological research===

The gluten [[peptide]]s are responsible for triggering gluten-related disorders.<ref name=LammersHerrera2018 /> In people who have celiac disease, the peptides trigger an immune response that causes injury of the intestines, ranging from [[inflammation]] to partial or total destruction of the [[intestinal villus|intestinal villi]].<ref name=DicksonStreutker2006>{{cite journal| vauthors=Dickson BC, Streutker CJ, Chetty R| title=Coeliac disease: an update for pathologists | journal=J Clin Pathol | year= 2006 | volume= 59 | issue= 10 | pages= 1008–16 | pmid=17021129 | doi=10.1136/jcp.2005.035345 | pmc=1861744 | type=Review }}</ref><ref name=StovenMurray2013 /> To study mechanisms of this damage, laboratory experiments are done ''in vitro'' and ''in vivo''.<ref name=KupferJabri2012>{{cite journal| vauthors=Kupfer SS, Jabri B| title=Pathophysiology of celiac disease | journal=Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am | year= 2012 | volume= 22 | issue= 4 | pages= 639–60 | pmid=23083984 | doi=10.1016/j.giec.2012.07.003 | pmc=3872820 |type=Review }}</ref><ref name=StovenMurray2013>{{cite journal| vauthors=Stoven S, Murray JA, Marietta EV| title=Latest in vitro and in vivo models of celiac disease | journal=Expert Opin Drug Discov | year= 2013 | volume= 8 | issue= 4 | pages= 445–57 | pmid=23293929 | doi=10.1517/17460441.2013.761203 | pmc=3605231 |type=Review }}</ref> Among the gluten peptides, [[gliadin]] has been studied extensively.<ref name=LammersHerrera2018 />

====''In vitro'' and ''in vivo'' studies====
In the context of celiac disease, [[Gliadin|gliadin peptides]] are classified in [[basic research|basic]] and [[clinical research]] as [[Immunogenicity|immunogenic]], depending on their [[mechanism of action]]:<ref name=LammersHerrera2018>{{cite journal| vauthors=Lammers KM, Herrera MG, Dodero VI| title=Translational Chemistry Meets Gluten-Related Disorders | journal=ChemistryOpen | year= 2018 | volume= 7 | issue= 3 | pages= 217–232 | pmid=29531885 | doi=10.1002/open.201700197 | pmc=5838388 | type=Review }}</ref><ref name=SilanoVincentini2009>{{cite journal| vauthors=Silano M, Vincentini O, De Vincenzi M| title=Toxic, immunostimulatory and antagonist gluten peptides in celiac disease | journal=Curr Med Chem | year= 2009 | volume= 16 | issue= 12 | pages= 1489–98 | pmid=19355902 | type=Review | doi=10.2174/092986709787909613 }}</ref>

* The peptides are those capable of directly affecting cells and intestinal preparations ''in vitro'', producing cellular damage ''in vivo'' and eliciting the innate immune response.<ref name=LammersHerrera2018 /><ref name=SilanoVincentini2009 /> ''In vitro'', the peptides promote cell [[apoptosis]] (a form of [[programmed cell death]]) and inhibit the synthesis of [[nucleic acid]]s (DNA and RNA) and proteins, reducing the viability of cells.<ref name=ElliRoncoroni2015 /> Experiments ''in vivo'' with normal mice showed that they cause an increase in cell death and the production of [[interferon type I]] (an inflammatory mediator).<ref name=LammersHerrera2018 /> ''In vitro'', gluten alters cellular [[morphology (biology)|morphology]] and [[motility]], [[cytoskeleton]] organization, [[redox|oxidative balance]], and [[tight junction]]s.<ref name=Fasano2011>{{cite journal | author = Fasano A | date = Jan 2011 | title = Zonulin and its regulation of intestinal barrier function: the biological door to inflammation, autoimmunity, and cancer | journal = Physiol. Rev. | volume = 91 | issue = 1| pages = 151–75 | doi = 10.1152/physrev.00003.2008 | pmid = 21248165 | type = Review| citeseerx = 10.1.1.653.3967 | quote= There are at least 50 toxic epitopes in gluten peptides exerting cytotoxic, immunomodulatory, and gut-permeating activities. }}</ref><ref name=ElliRoncoroni2015>{{cite journal| vauthors=Elli L, Roncoroni L, Bardella MT| title=Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: Time for sifting the grain | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2015 | volume= 21 | issue= 27 | pages= 8221–6 | pmid=26217073 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v21.i27.8221 | pmc=4507091 | type=Review | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=LeonardSapone2017 />
* The immunogenic peptides are those able to activate [[T cell]]s ''in vitro''.<ref name=LammersHerrera2018 />

At least 50 [[epitope]]s of gluten may produce cytotoxic, immunomodulatory, and [[intestinal permeability|gut-permeating]] activities.<ref name=Fasano2011 />

The effect of oat peptides (avenins) in celiac people depends on the oat [[cultivar]] consumed because of prolamin genes, protein amino acid sequences, and the immunotoxicity of prolamins which vary among oat varieties.<ref name=PenaginiDilillo>{{cite journal | vauthors = Penagini F, Dilillo D, Meneghin F, Mameli C, Fabiano V, Zuccotti GV| title = Gluten-free diet in children: an approach to a nutritionally adequate and balanced diet | journal = Nutrients | volume = 5| issue = 11| pages = 4553–65| date = Nov 18, 2013| pmid = 24253052|pmc= 3847748| doi = 10.3390/nu5114553| type=Review| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name=DeSouzaDeschenes2016>{{cite journal| vauthors=de Souza MC, Deschênes ME, Laurencelle S, Godet P, Roy CC, Djilali-Saiah I| title=Pure Oats as Part of the Canadian Gluten-Free Diet in Celiac Disease: The Need to Revisit the Issue | journal=Can J Gastroenterol Hepatol | year= 2016 | volume= 2016 | pages= 1–8 | pmid=27446824 | doi=10.1155/2016/1576360 | pmc=4904650 | type= Review | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=CominoMoreno2015>{{cite journal | vauthors = Comino I, Moreno Mde L, Sousa C | title = Role of oats in celiac disease | journal = World J Gastroenterol | volume = 21 | issue = 41 | pages = 11825–31 | date = Nov 7, 2015 | pmid = 26557006 |pmc= 4631980 | doi = 10.3748/wjg.v21.i41.11825 |quote= It is necessary to consider that oats include many varieties, containing various amino acid sequences and showing different immunoreactivities associated with toxic prolamins. As a result, several studies have shown that the immunogenicity of oats varies depending on the cultivar consumed. Thus, it is essential to thoroughly study the variety of oats used in a food ingredient before including it in a gluten-free diet. | doi-access = free }}</ref> In addition, oat products may be cross-contaminated with the other gluten-containing [[cereal]]s.<ref name="DeSouzaDeschenes2016"/>

===Incidence===
{{As of|2017}}, gluten-related disorders were increasing in frequency in different geographic areas.<ref name=LeonardSapone2017>{{cite journal| vauthors=Leonard MM, Sapone A, Catassi C, Fasano A| title=Celiac Disease and Nonceliac Gluten Sensitivity: A Review | journal=JAMA | year= 2017 | volume= 318 | issue= 7 | pages= 647–656 | pmid=28810029 | doi=10.1001/jama.2017.9730 | s2cid=205094729 | url=https://directory.doabooks.org/handle/20.500.12854/129651 | type=Review | quote=Previous studies have shown that gliadin can cause an immediate and transient increase in gut permeability. This permeating effect is secondary to the binding of specific undigestible gliadin fragments to the CXCR3 chemokine receptor with subsequent release of zonulin, a modulator of intercellular tight junctions. This process takes place in all individuals who ingest gluten. For the majority, these events do not lead to abnormal consequences. However, these same events can lead to an inflammatory process in genetically predisposed individuals when the immunologic surveillance system mistakenly recognizes gluten as a pathogen. }}</ref><ref name=TovoliMasi>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tovoli F, Masi C, Guidetti E, Negrini G, Paterini P, Bolondi L| title = Clinical and diagnostic aspects of gluten related disorders| journal = World J Clin Cases| volume = 3| issue = 3| pages = 275–84| date = Mar 16, 2015| pmid = 25789300|pmc= 4360499| doi = 10.12998/wjcc.v3.i3.275|type=Review| doi-access = free}}</ref><ref name=LionettiGatti2015>{{cite journal|vauthors=Lionetti E, Gatti S, Pulvirenti A, Catassi C|title=Celiac disease from a global perspective |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=365–79 |date=Jun 2015|pmid=26060103|doi=10.1016/j.bpg.2015.05.004|type=Review}}</ref><ref name=SaponeBai2012>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sapone A, Bai JC, Ciacci C, Dolinsek J, Green PH, Hadjivassiliou M, Kaukinen K, Rostami K, Sanders DS, Schumann M, Ullrich R, Villalta D, Volta U, Catassi C, Fasano A |title=Spectrum of gluten-related disorders: consensus on new nomenclature and classification |journal=BMC Medicine |volume=10 |pages=13 |year=2012 |pmid=22313950 |pmc=3292448 |doi=10.1186/1741-7015-10-13 |type=Review |doi-access=free }} {{open access}}</ref> Some suggested explanations for this increase include the following: the growing westernization of diets,<ref name=TovoliMasi /> the increasing use of wheat-based foods included in the [[Mediterranean diet]],<ref name=VoltaCaioQuestionsQuotation>{{cite journal|vauthors=Volta U, Caio G, Tovoli F, De Giorgio R|title=Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: questions still to be answered despite increasing awareness|journal=Cellular and Molecular Immunology|volume=10|issue=5|year=2013|pages=383–392 |doi=10.1038/cmi.2013.28|pmid=23934026|type=Review|pmc=4003198}}</ref><ref name=GuandaliniPolanco>{{cite journal|vauthors=Guandalini S, Polanco I|title=Nonceliac gluten sensitivity or wheat intolerance syndrome?|journal=J Pediatr|volume=166|issue=4|pages=805–11|date=Apr 2015|pmid=25662287|doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2014.12.039|type=Review|quote=The increase in world-wide consumption of a Mediterranean diet, which includes a wide range of wheat-based foods, has possibly contributed to an alarming rise in the incidence of wheat (gluten?)-related disorders.1, 2 }}</ref> the progressive replacement of rice by wheat in many countries in Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa,<ref name=TovoliMasi /> the higher content of gluten in bread and bakery products due to the reduction of dough fermentation time,<ref name="VoltaCaioQuestions">{{cite journal |vauthors=Volta U, Caio G, Tovoli F, De Giorgio R |date=September 2013 |title=Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: questions still to be answered despite increasing awareness |journal=Cellular & Molecular Immunology |type=Review |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=383–92 |doi=10.1038/cmi.2013.28 |pmc=4003198 |pmid=23934026 |quote=mechanization of farming and the growing industrial use of pesticides have favored the development of new types of wheat with a higher amount of toxic gluten peptides that cause the development of gluten-related disorders}}</ref><ref name="GobbettiGiuseppe2007">{{cite journal|vauthors=Gobbetti M, Giuseppe Rizzello C, Di Cagno R, De Angelis M |title=Sourdough lactobacilli and celiac disease |journal=Food Microbiol |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=187–96 |date=Apr 2007 |pmid=17008163 |doi= 10.1016/j.fm.2006.07.014|type=Review}}</ref> and the development in recent years of new types of wheat with a higher amount of [[cytotoxicity|cytotoxic]] gluten [[peptide]]s,<ref name="VoltaCaioQuestions" /><ref name="Belderok">{{cite journal |author=Belderok B |date=2000 |title=Developments in bread-making processes |journal=Plant Foods Hum Nutr |type=Review |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=1–86 |doi=10.1023/A:1008199314267 |pmid=10823487 |s2cid=46259398}}</ref> However, a 2020 study that grew and analyzed 60 wheat cultivars from between 1891 and 2010 found no changes in albumin/globulin and gluten contents over time. "Overall, the harvest year had a more significant effect on protein composition than the cultivar. At the protein level, we found no evidence to support an increased [[immunostimulant|immunostimulatory]] potential of modern winter wheat."<ref name="Scherf">{{cite journal |last1=Pronin |first1=Darina |last2=Borner |first2=Andreas |last3=Weber |first3=Hans |last4=Scherf |first4=Ann |title=Wheat (''Triticum aestivum'' L.) Breeding from 1891 to 2010 Contributed to Increasing Yield and Glutenin Contents but Decreasing Protein and Gliadin Contents |journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]]|date=10 July 2020 |volume=68 |issue=46 |pages=13247–13256 |doi=10.1021/acs.jafc.0c02815|pmid=32648759 |s2cid=220469138 }}</ref>

===Celiac disease===
{{Main article|Coeliac disease}}
[[File:Inflammed mucous layer of the intestinal villi depicting Celiac disease.jpg|thumb|Medical animation still showing flattened intestinal villi.]]
[[Celiac disease]] (CD) is a chronic, multiple-organ [[autoimmune disorder]] primarily affecting the [[small intestine]] caused by the ingestion of wheat, barley, rye, oats, and derivatives, that appears in [[genetic predisposition|genetically predisposed]] people of all ages.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Caio|first1=Giacomo|last2=Volta|first2=Umberto|last3=Sapone|first3=Anna|last4=Leffler|first4=Daniel A.|last5=De Giorgio|first5=Roberto|last6=Catassi|first6=Carlo|last7=Fasano|first7=Alessio|date=2019-07-23|title=Celiac disease: a comprehensive current review|journal=BMC Medicine|volume=17|issue=1|pages=142|doi=10.1186/s12916-019-1380-z |pmid=31331324|pmc=6647104 |doi-access=free }}</ref> CD is not only a gastrointestinal disease, because it may involve several organs and cause an extensive variety of non-gastrointestinal symptoms, and most importantly, it may be apparently asymptomatic.<ref name=Biesiekierski2017 /><ref name=WGO2016>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldgastroenterology.org/guidelines/global-guidelines/celiac-disease/celiac-disease-english|title=Celiac disease|date=July 2016|publisher=[[World Gastroenterology Organisation]] Global Guidelines|access-date=23 April 2017}}</ref> Many asymptomatic people become accustomed to living with a chronic bad health status as if it were normal, but they are able to recognize that they actually had symptoms related to celiac disease after starting a gluten-free diet and improvement occurs.<ref name=WGO2016 /><ref name=LudvigssonCard /><ref name=LionettiGatti2015 /> Added difficulties for diagnosis are the fact that serological markers ([[Anti-transglutaminase antibodies#Anti-tissue transglutaminase|anti-tissue transglutaminase]] [TG2]) are not always present<ref name=NEJM2012>{{cite journal|last1=Fasano|first1=A|last2=Catassi|first2=C|title=Clinical practice. Celiac disease.|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|date=December 2012|volume=367|issue=25|pages=2419–26|pmid=23252527|doi=10.1056/NEJMcp1113994}}</ref> and many people may have minor mucosal lesions, without atrophy of the [[intestinal villi]].<ref name=BoldRostami>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bold J, Rostami K| title = Gluten tolerance; potential challenges in treatment strategies | journal = Gastroenterol Hepatol Bed Bench | volume = 4| issue = 2| pages = 53–7| date = 2011 | pmid = 24834157|pmc= 4017406}}</ref>

CD affects approximately 1–2% of the general population,<ref name=LundinWijmenga2015>{{cite journal|vauthors=Lundin KE, Wijmenga C|title=Coeliac disease and autoimmune disease-genetic overlap and screening|journal=Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol|volume=12|issue=9|pages=507–15|date =Sep 2015|pmid=26303674|doi=10.1038/nrgastro.2015.136|s2cid=24533103}}</ref> but most cases remain unrecognized, undiagnosed and untreated, and at risk for serious long-term health complications.<ref name=LundinWijmenga2015 /><ref name=LionettiGatti2015 /><ref name=Fasano2005Pediatric>{{cite journal | author = Fasano A| title = Clinical presentation of celiac disease in the pediatric population | journal = Gastroenterology | volume = 128| issue = 4 Suppl 1| pages = S68–73| date = Apr 2005| pmid = 15825129 | doi = 10.1053/j.gastro.2005.02.015}}</ref><ref name=ElliBranchi>{{cite journal | vauthors = Elli L, Branchi F, Tomba C, Villalta D, Norsa L, Ferretti F, Roncoroni L, Bardella MT| title = Diagnosis of gluten related disorders: Celiac disease, wheat allergy and non-celiac gluten sensitivity | journal = World J Gastroenterol | volume = 21 | issue = 23 | pages = 7110–9 | date = Jun 2015 | pmid = 26109797 |pmc= 4476872 | doi = 10.3748/wjg.v21.i23.7110 | doi-access = free }}</ref> People may suffer severe disease symptoms and be subjected to extensive investigations for many years, before a proper diagnosis is achieved.<ref name=LudvigssonCard>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ludvigsson JF, Card T, Ciclitira PJ, Swift GL, Nasr I, Sanders DS, Ciacci C| title = Support for patients with celiac disease: A literature review | journal = United European Gastroenterol J | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 146–59 | date = Apr 2015 | pmid = 25922674 | pmc = 4406900 |doi = 10.1177/2050640614562599}}</ref> Untreated CD may cause [[malabsorption]], reduced quality of life, [[iron deficiency]], [[osteoporosis]], an increased risk of intestinal [[lymphoma]]s, and greater mortality.<ref name=LebwoholLudvigsson>{{cite journal | vauthors =Lebwohl B, Ludvigsson JF, Green PH | title = Celiac disease and non-celiac gluten sensitivity | journal = BMJ | volume = 351 | pages = h4347| date = Oct 2015 | pmid = 26438584|pmc= 4596973 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.h4347|type= Review }}</ref> CD is associated with some other autoimmune diseases, such as [[diabetes mellitus type 1]], [[thyroiditis]],<ref name=LundinWijmenga>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lundin KE, Wijmenga C| title = Coeliac disease and autoimmune disease-genetic overlap and screening| journal = Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol| volume = 12| issue = 9| pages = 507–15| date = Sep 2015 | pmid = 26303674 | doi = 10.1038/nrgastro.2015.136| s2cid = 24533103}}</ref> [[ataxia|gluten ataxia]], [[psoriasis]], [[vitiligo]], [[autoimmune hepatitis]], [[dermatitis herpetiformis]], [[primary sclerosing cholangitis]], and more.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=LundinWijmenga />

CD with "classic symptoms", which include gastrointestinal manifestations such as chronic diarrhea and abdominal distention, malabsorption, loss of appetite, and impaired growth, is currently the least common presentation form of the disease and affects predominantly small children generally younger than two years of age.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=LudvigssonCard /><ref name=Fasano2005Pediatric />

CD with "non-classic symptoms" is the most common clinical type<ref name=LudvigssonCard /> and occurs in older children (over two years old),<ref name=LudvigssonCard /> adolescents, and adults.<ref name=LudvigssonCard /> It is characterized by milder or even absent gastrointestinal symptoms and a wide spectrum of non-intestinal manifestations that can involve any organ of the body, and very frequently may be completely asymptomatic<ref name=Fasano2005Pediatric /> both in children (at least in 43% of the cases<ref name=VriezingaSchweizer>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vriezinga SL, Schweizer JJ, Koning F, Mearin ML |title=Coeliac disease and gluten-related disorders in childhood |journal=Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology |volume= 12 |issue= 9 |pages= 527–36 |date= Sep 2015 |pmid=26100369 |doi=10.1038/nrgastro.2015.98 |s2cid=2023530 |type=Review}}</ref>) and adults.<ref name=Fasano2005Pediatric />

Asymptomatic CD (ACD) is present in the majority of affected patients and is characterized by the absence of classical gluten-intolerance signs, such as diarrhea, bloating, and abdominal pain. Nevertheless, these individuals very often develop diseases that can be related with gluten intake. Gluten can be degraded into several morphine-like substances, named [[gluten exorphin]]s. These compounds have proven opioid effects and could mask the deleterious effects of gluten protein on gastrointestinal lining and function.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pruimboom |first1=Leo |last2=de Punder |first2=Karin |title=The opioid effects of gluten exorphins: asymptomatic celiac disease |journal=Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition |date=24 November 2015 |volume=33 |page=24 |doi=10.1186/s41043-015-0032-y |pmid=26825414 |pmc=5025969 | type=Review |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Non-celiac gluten sensitivity===
{{Main article|Non-celiac gluten sensitivity}}

Non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) is described as a condition of multiple symptoms that improves when switching to a [[gluten-free diet]], after celiac disease and wheat allergy are excluded.<ref name=NijeboerBontkes>{{cite journal|last1=Mooney|first1=P|last2=Aziz|first2=I|last3=Sanders|first3=D|title=Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: clinical relevance and recommendations for future research|journal=Neurogastroenterology & Motility|date=2013|volume=25|issue=11|pages=864–871|doi=10.1111/nmo.12216|pmid=23937528|s2cid=9277897}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nijeboer|
first1=P|last2=Bontkes|first2=H|last3=Mulder|first3=C|last4=Bouma|first4=G|title=Non-celiac gluten sensitivity. Is it in the gluten or the grain?|journal=Journal of Gastrointestinal and Liver Disorders|date=2013|volume=22|issue=4|pages=435–40|pmid=24369326}}</ref> Recognized since 2010,<ref name=CatassiBai /><ref name=FasanoSapone2015>{{cite journal |last1=Fasano |first1=Alessio |last2=Sapone |first2=Anna |last3=Zevallos |first3=Victor |last4=Schuppan |first4=Detlef |title=Nonceliac Gluten Sensitivity |journal=Gastroenterology |date=May 2015 |volume=148 |issue=6 |pages=1195–1204 |doi=10.1053/j.gastro.2014.12.049 |pmid=25583468 |doi-access=free }}</ref> it is included among [[gluten-related disorders]].<ref name=CatassiBai /> Its [[pathogenesis]] is not yet well understood, but the activation of the innate immune system, the direct negative effects of gluten and probably other wheat components, are implicated.<ref name=FasanoSapone2015 /><ref name=ElliRoncoroni2015/>

NCGS is the most common syndrome of [[gluten intolerance]],<ref name=CatassiBai /><ref name=CzajaBulsa>{{cite journal | author = Czaja-Bulsa G | title = Non coeliac gluten sensitivity - A new disease with gluten intolerance | journal = Clin Nutr | volume = 34| issue = 2| pages = 189–94| date = Apr 2015| pmid = 25245857 | doi = 10.1016/j.clnu.2014.08.012| doi-access = free}}</ref> with a prevalence estimated to be 6-10%.<ref name=MolinaInfanteSantolaria>{{cite journal | vauthors = Molina-Infante J, Santolaria S, Montoro M, Esteve M, Fernández-Bañares F| title = [Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: a critical review of current evidence] [Article in Spanish] | journal = Gastroenterol Hepatol | volume = 37| issue = 6 | pages = 362–71 | date = 2014 | pmid = 24667093 | doi = 10.1016/j.gastrohep.2014.01.005}}</ref> NCGS is becoming a more common diagnosis, but its true prevalence is difficult to determine because many people self-diagnose and start a gluten-free diet, without having previously tested for celiac disease or having the dietary prescription from a physician.<ref name="Igbinedion2017">{{cite journal|vauthors=Igbinedion SO, Ansari J, Vasikaran A, Gavins FN, Jordan P, Boktor M, Alexander JS |title=Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: All wheat attack is not celiac |journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology |volume=23 |issue=20 |pages=7201–10 |date=Oct 2017 |pmid=29142467 |pmc=5677194 |doi=10.3748/wjg.v23.i40.7201 | type=Review |doi-access=free }}</ref> People with NCGS and gastrointestinal symptoms remain habitually in a "no man's land", without being recognized by the specialists and lacking the adequate medical care and treatment.<ref name=VerduArmstrong2009>{{cite journal| vauthors=Verdu EF, Armstrong D, Murray JA| title=Between celiac disease and irritable bowel syndrome: the "no man's land" of gluten sensitivity | journal=Am J Gastroenterol | year= 2009 | volume= 104 | issue= 6 | pages= 1587–94 | pmid=19455131 | doi=10.1038/ajg.2009.188 | pmc=3480312 | type= Review }}</ref> Most of these people have a long history of health complaints and unsuccessful consultations with numerous physicians, trying to get a diagnosis of celiac disease, but they are only labeled as [[irritable bowel syndrome]].<ref name=VerduArmstrong2009 /><ref name="mansueto-etal-2014" /> A consistent although undefined number of people eliminate gluten because they identify it as responsible for their symptoms and these improve with the [[gluten-free diet]], so they self-diagnose as NCGS.<ref name=VerduArmstrong2009 /><ref name="mansueto-etal-2014">{{cite journal|last1=Mansueto|first1=Pasquale|last2=Seidita|first2=Aurelio|last3=D'Alcamo|first3=Alberto|last4=Carroccio|first4=Antonio|title=Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity: Literature Review|journal=Journal of the American College of Nutrition|volume=33|issue=1|year=2014|pages=39–54 |doi=10.1080/07315724.2014.869996|pmid=24533607|type=Review|hdl=10447/90208 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=22521576 }}</ref>

People with NCGS may develop gastrointestinal symptoms, which resemble those of [[irritable bowel syndrome]] or [[wheat allergy]],<ref name=CatassiBai>{{cite journal | vauthors = Catassi C, Bai JC, Bonaz B, Bouma G, Calabrò A, Carroccio A, Castillejo G, Ciacci C, Cristofori F, Dolinsek J, Francavilla R, Elli L, Green P, Holtmeier W, Koehler P, Koletzko S, Meinhold C, Sanders D, Schumann M, Schuppan D, Ullrich R, Vécsei A, Volta U, Zevallos V, Sapone A, Fasano A| title = Non-Celiac Gluten sensitivity: the new frontier of gluten related disorders | journal = Nutrients | volume = 5| issue = 10| pages = 3839–53| date = Sep 2013 | pmid =24077239 |pmc= 3820047| doi = 10.3390/nu5103839| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name=ElliRoncoroni2015 /> or a wide variety of non-gastrointestinal symptoms, such as [[headache]], chronic [[fatigue (medical)|fatigue]], [[fibromyalgia]], [[atopy|atopic diseases]], [[allergy|allergies]], [[neurological disorder|neurological diseases]], or [[mental disorder|psychiatric disorders]], among others.<ref name=LebwoholLudvigsson /><ref name=FasanoSapone2015 /><ref name=VoltaCaio2015>{{cite journal | vauthors = Volta U, Caio G, De Giorgio R, Henriksen C, Skodje G, Lundin KE| title = Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: a work-in-progress entity in the spectrum of wheat-related disorders | journal = Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol | volume = 29| issue = 3| pages = 477–91| date = Jun 2015| pmid = 26060112 | doi = 10.1016/j.bpg.2015.04.006}}</ref> The results of a 2017 study suggest that NCGS may be a chronic disorder, as is the case with celiac disease.<ref name=VoltaDeGiorgio2019 />

Besides gluten, additional components present in wheat, rye, barley, oats, and their derivatives, including other proteins called amylase-trypsin inhibitors (ATIs) and short-chain [[carbohydrates]] known as [[FODMAP]]s, may cause NCGS symptoms.<ref name=FasanoSapone2015 /> As of 2019, reviews conclude that although FODMAPs present in wheat and related grains may play a role in non-celiac gluten sensitivity, they only explain certain gastrointestinal symptoms, such as [[bloating]], but not the [[non-celiac gluten sensitivity#Extraintestinal|extra-digestive symptoms]] that people with non-celiac gluten sensitivity may develop, such as [[neurological disorder]]s, [[fibromyalgia]], psychological disturbances, and [[dermatitis]].<ref name=Verbeke2018>{{cite journal |last1=Verbeke |first1=K |title=Nonceliac Gluten Sensitivity: What Is the Culprit? |journal=Gastroenterology |date=February 2018 |volume=154 |issue=3 |pages=471–473 |doi=10.1053/j.gastro.2018.01.013 |pmid=29337156| quote=Although intolerance to fructans and other FODMAPs may contribute to NCGS, they may only explain gastrointestinal symptoms and not the extraintestinal symptoms observed in NCGS patients, such as neurologic dysfunction, psychological disturbances, fibromyalgia, and skin rash.15 Therefore, it is unlikely that they are the sole cause of NCGS.|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=VoltaDeGiorgio2019>{{cite journal| vauthors=Volta U, De Giorgio R, Caio G, Uhde M, Manfredini R, Alaedini A| title=Nonceliac Wheat Sensitivity: An Immune-Mediated Condition with Systemic Manifestations | journal=Gastroenterol Clin North Am | date= March 2019 | volume= 48 | issue= 1 | pages= 165–182 | pmid=30711208 | doi=10.1016/j.gtc.2018.09.012 | pmc=6364564 | type=Review |quote=Furthermore, a role for the FODMAP (eg, fructans) component of wheat as the sole trigger for symptoms is somewhat doubtful, because many patients with NCWS report resolution of symptoms after the withdrawal of wheat and related cereals, while continuing to ingest vegetables and fruits with high FODMAP content in their diets.59 On the whole, it is conceivable that more than one culprit may be involved in symptoms of NCWS (as they are currently defined), including gluten, other wheat proteins, and FODMAPs.60–62 }}</ref><ref name="FasanoSapone2015" /> ATIs may cause toll-like receptor 4 ([[TLR4]])-mediated intestinal [[inflammation]] in humans.<ref name="BaroneTroncone2014">{{cite journal|last1=Barone|first1=Maria|last2=Troncone|first2=Riccardo|last3=Auricchio|first3=Salvatore|title=Gliadin Peptides as Triggers of the Proliferative and Stress/Innate Immune Response of the Celiac Small Intestinal Mucosa|journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences|volume=15|issue=11|year=2014|pages=20518–20537 |doi=10.3390/ijms151120518|pmid=25387079|type=Review|pmc=4264181|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="junker-etal-2012">{{cite journal|last1=Junker|first1=Y.|last2=Zeissig|first2=S.|last3=Kim|first3=S.-J.|last4=Barisani|first4=D.|last5=Wieser|first5=H.|last6=Leffler|first6=D. A.|last7=Zevallos|first7=V.|last8=Libermann|first8=T. A.|last9=Dillon|first9=S.|last10=Freitag|first10=T. L.|last11=Kelly|first11=C. P.|last12=Schuppan|first12=D.|author-link12=Detlef Schuppan|title=Wheat amylase trypsin inhibitors drive intestinal inflammation via activation of toll-like receptor 4|journal=Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=209|issue=13|year=2012|pages=2395–2408 |doi=10.1084/jem.20102660|pmid=23209313|pmc=3526354}}</ref>

===Wheat allergy===
{{Main article|Wheat allergy}}

People can also experience adverse effects of wheat as result of a [[wheat allergy]]. <ref>Costantino A, Aversano GM, Lasagni G, Smania V, Doneda L, Vecchi M, Roncoroni L, Pastorello EA, Elli L. Diagnostic management of patients reporting symptoms after wheat ingestion. Front Nutr. 2022 Oct 6;9:1007007. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.1007007. PMID: 36276818; PMCID: PMC9582535.</ref>
As with most allergies, a wheat allergy causes the immune system to respond abnormally to a component of wheat that it treats as a threatening foreign body. This immune response is often time-limited and does not cause lasting harm to body tissues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cureceliacdisease.org/archives/faq/what-is-the-difference-between-gluten-intolerance-gluten-sensitivity-and-wheat-allergy|publisher=The University of Chicago Celiac Disease Center|title=What's the difference between celiac disease, gluten intolerance, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy?|date=2015|access-date=4 January 2015}}</ref> Wheat allergy and celiac disease are different disorders. <ref>Costantino A, Aversano GM, Lasagni G, Smania V, Doneda L, Vecchi M, Roncoroni L, Pastorello EA, Elli L. Diagnostic management of patients reporting symptoms after wheat ingestion. Front Nutr. 2022 Oct 6;9:1007007. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.1007007. PMID: 36276818; PMCID: PMC9582535.</ref> <ref name=ElliBranchi/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/allergyfactsheettwo.pdf |title=Food intolerance and coeliac disease |publisher=Food Standards Agency |date=September 2006 |access-date=8 September 2009 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015113504/http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/allergyfactsheettwo.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Gastrointestinal symptoms of wheat allergy are similar to those of celiac disease and non-celiac gluten sensitivity, but there is a different interval between exposure to wheat and onset of symptoms. An allergic reaction to wheat has a fast onset (from minutes to hours) after the consumption of food containing wheat and could include [[anaphylaxis]].<ref name=NEJM2012 />

===Gluten ataxia===
[[File:Gluten ataxia eng.ogg|thumb|A male with gluten ataxia: previous situation and evolution after three months of gluten-free diet]]

[[Ataxia#Gluten ataxia|Gluten ataxia]] is an autoimmune disease triggered by the ingestion of gluten.<ref name="sapone-etal-2010-b">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sapone A, Bai JC, Ciacci C, Dolinsek J, Green PH, Hadjivassiliou M, Kaukinen K, Rostami K, Sanders DS, Schumann M, Ullrich R, Villalta D, Volta U, Catassi C, Fasano A | title = Spectrum of gluten-related disorders: consensus on new nomenclature and classification | journal = BMC Medicine | volume = 10 | pages = 13 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22313950 | pmc = 3292448 | doi = 10.1186/1741-7015-10-13 | type = Review | doi-access = free }}</ref> With gluten ataxia, damage takes place in the [[cerebellum]], the balance center of the brain that controls coordination and complex movements like walking, speaking and swallowing, with loss of [[Purkinje cell]]s. People with gluten ataxia usually present [[gait abnormality]] or incoordination and tremor of the upper limbs. Gaze-evoked [[nystagmus]] and other ocular signs of cerebellar dysfunction are common. [[Myoclonus]], palatal tremor, and [[opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome|opsoclonus-myoclonus]] may also appear.<ref name="HadjivassiliouSanders2015" />

Early diagnosis and treatment with a [[gluten-free diet]] can improve ataxia and prevent its progression. The effectiveness of the treatment depends on the elapsed time from the onset of the ataxia until diagnosis, because the death of [[Purkinje cells|neurons in the cerebellum]] as a result of gluten exposure is irreversible.<ref name="HadjivassiliouSanders2015" /><ref name="MitomaAdhikari2016">{{cite journal| vauthors=Mitoma H, Adhikari K, Aeschlimann D, Chattopadhyay P, Hadjivassiliou M, Hampe CS, et al | title=Consensus Paper: Neuroimmune Mechanisms of Cerebellar Ataxias | journal=Cerebellum | year= 2016 | volume= 15 | issue= 2 | pages= 213–32 | pmid=25823827 | doi=10.1007/s12311-015-0664-x | pmc=4591117 | type=Review }}</ref>

Gluten ataxia accounts for 40% of ataxias of unknown origin and 15% of all ataxias.<ref name="HadjivassiliouSanders2015">{{cite journal| vauthors=Hadjivassiliou M, Sanders DD, Aeschlimann DP| title=Gluten-related disorders: gluten ataxia | journal=Dig Dis | year= 2015 | volume= 33 | issue= 2 | pages= 264–8 | pmid=25925933 | doi=10.1159/000369509 | s2cid=207673823 | type=Review }}</ref><ref name="pmid12566288">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hadjivassiliou M, Grünewald R, Sharrack B, Sanders D, Lobo A, Williamson C, Woodroofe N, Wood N, Davies-Jones A | title = Gluten ataxia in perspective: epidemiology, genetic susceptibility and clinical characteristics | journal = Brain | volume = 126 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 685–91 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12566288 | doi = 10.1093/brain/awg050 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Less than 10% of people with gluten ataxia present any gastrointestinal symptom, yet about 40% have intestinal damage.<ref name="HadjivassiliouSanders2015" />

===Other neurological disorders===
In addition to gluten ataxia, gluten sensitivity can cause a wide spectrum of neurological disorders, which develop with or without the presence of digestive symptoms or intestinal damage.<ref name=ZisHadjivassiliou2019>{{cite journal| vauthors=Zis P, Hadjivassiliou M| title=Treatment of Neurological Manifestations of Gluten Sensitivity and Coeliac Disease | journal=Curr Treat Options Neurol | date= 26 February 2019 | volume= 21 | issue= 3 | pages= 10 | pmid=30806821 | doi=10.1007/s11940-019-0552-7 | type=Review | doi-access=free }}</ref> These include [[peripheral neuropathy]], [[epilepsy]], [[headache]], [[encephalopathy]], vascular [[dementia]], and various
[[movement disorder]]s ([[restless legs syndrome]], [[chorea]], [[parkinsonism]], [[Tourette syndrome]], [[tremor|palatal tremor]], [[myoclonus]], [[dystonia]], [[opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome]], [[paroxysmal attack|paroxysms]], [[dyskinesia]], myorhythmia, [[myokymia]]).<ref name=ZisHadjivassiliou2019 /><ref name=VinagreAragonGrunewald2018>{{cite journal| vauthors=Vinagre-Aragón A, Zis P, Grunewald RA, Hadjivassiliou M| title=Movement Disorders Related to Gluten Sensitivity: A Systematic Review | journal=Nutrients | year= 2018 | volume= 10 | issue= 8 | pages= 1034| pmid=30096784 | doi=10.3390/nu10081034 | pmc=6115931 | type=Review | doi-access=free }}</ref>

The diagnosis of underlying gluten sensitivity is complicated and delayed when there are no digestive symptoms. People who do experience gastrointestinal problems are more likely to receive a correct diagnosis and treatment. A [[gluten-free diet|strict gluten-free diet]] is the first-line treatment, which should be started as soon as possible. It is effective in most of these disorders. When dementia has progressed to an advanced degree, the diet has no beneficial effect. Cortical myoclonus appears to be treatment-resistant on both gluten-free diet and immunosuppression.<ref name=ZisHadjivassiliou2019 />

==Labeling==
People with gluten-related disorders have to remove gluten from their diet strictly, so they need clear labeling rules.<ref name=Diaz-AmigoPopping2012>{{cite journal| vauthors=Diaz-Amigo C, Popping B| title=Gluten and gluten-free: issues and considerations of labeling regulations, detection methods, and assay validation | journal=J AOAC Int | year= 2012 | volume= 95 | issue= 2 | pages= 337–48 | pmid=22649917 | type=Review | doi=10.5740/jaoacint.SGE_Diaz-Amigo | doi-access=free }}</ref> The term "gluten-free" is generally used to indicate a supposed harmless level of gluten rather than a complete absence.<ref name=Akobeng2008>{{cite journal |vauthors=Akobeng AK, Thomas AG | s2cid = 20539463 | title = Systematic review: tolerable amount of gluten for people with coeliac disease | journal = Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. | volume = 27 | issue = 11 | pages = 1044–52 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18315587 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2008.03669.x | doi-access = free }}</ref> The exact level at which gluten is harmless is uncertain and controversial. A 2008 [[systematic review]] tentatively concluded that consumption of less than 10 mg of gluten per day is unlikely to cause intestinal damage in people with celiac disease, although it noted that few reliable studies had been done.<ref name=Akobeng2008/> Regulation of the label "gluten-free" varies.<ref name=Diaz-AmigoPopping2012 />

===International standards===

The ''[[Codex Alimentarius]]'' [[international standard]]s for [[food labeling]] has a standard relating to the labeling of products as "[[gluten-free]]". It only applies to foods that would normally contain gluten.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.codexalimentarius.org/download/standards/291/cxs_118e.pdf|publisher=[[Codex Alimentarius]]|title=Codex Standard For "Gluten-Free Foods" CODEX STAN 118-1981|date=February 22, 2006}}</ref>

===Brazil===

By law in Brazil, all food products must display labels clearly indicating whether or not they contain gluten.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://e-legis.anvisa.gov.br/leisref/public/showAct.php?id=32
|date=July 2014
|title=General labeling for Packaged Foods (free translation)
|publisher=[[Anvisa]]
|access-date=2014-07-22
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206032116/http://e-legis.anvisa.gov.br/leisref/public/showAct.php?id=32
|archive-date=2007-12-06
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>

===Canada===

Labels for all food products sold in Canada must clearly identify the presence of gluten if it is present at a level greater than 20 parts per million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/allerg/cel-coe/gluten-position-eng.php|title=Health Canada's Position on Gluten-Free Claims|date=29 June 2012|publisher=Health Canada|access-date=28 January 2015}}</ref>

===European Union and United Kingdom===

In the European Union, all prepackaged foods and non-prepacked foods from a restaurant, take-out food wrapped just before sale, or unpackaged food served in institutions must be identified if gluten-free.<ref name="fsa2016">{{cite web
|url= https://www.food.gov.uk/business-industry/allergy-guide/labelling-of-gluten-free-foods
|date=31 October 2016
| title=Labelling of 'gluten free' foods
| publisher=[[Food Standards Agency]] |format=PDF}}</ref> "Gluten-free" is defined as 20 parts per million of gluten or less and "very low gluten" is 100 parts per million of gluten or less; only foods with cereal ingredients processed to remove gluten can claim "very low gluten" on labels.<ref name=fsa2016/> It is not allowed to label food as "gluten-free" when all similar food is naturally gluten-free, such as in the case of milk.<ref>{{cite book |type=Guidance Note 24 |title='Gluten-free' and 'Very Low Gluten' Declarations |isbn=978-1-904465-71-3 |date=2017 |url=https://www.fsai.ie/publications_GN24_glutenfree/ |publisher=Food Safety Authority of Ireland |access-date=20 February 2023 |archive-date=16 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716170706/https://www.fsai.ie/publications_GN24_glutenfree/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

All foods containing gluten as an ingredient must be labelled accordingly as gluten is defined as one of the 14 recognised EU allergens.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.food.gov.uk/science/allergy-intolerance/label/labelling-changes|title=EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation (EU FIC) |date=March 2016|publisher=[[Food Standards Agency]]|format=link}}</ref>

===United States===

In the United States, gluten is not listed on labels unless added as a standalone ingredient. Wheat or other allergens are listed after the ingredient line. The [[US Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) has historically classified gluten as "[[generally recognized as safe]]" (GRAS). In August 2013, the FDA issued a final ruling, effective August 2014, that defined the term "gluten-free" for voluntary use in the labeling of foods as meaning that the amount of gluten contained in the food is below 20 parts per million.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/Allergens/ucm362880.htm|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|title=Questions and Answers: Gluten-Free Food Labeling Final Rule|date=5 August 2014|access-date=4 January 2015}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Food|Nutrition}}


* {{Annotated link |Gliadin}}
* {{Annotated link |Gluten-free diet}}
* {{Annotated link |Gluten exorphin}}
{{-}}

==References==

{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==

* {{Cite web
|last1 = Curtis |first1 = B.C. |last2 = Rajaram |first2 = S. |last3 = Macpherson |first3 = H.G.
|title = Bread Wheat, Improvement and production — FAO Plant Production and Protection Series No. #30. |url = http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/Y4011E/y4011e05.htm |access-date = 2007-08-21
}}
* {{Cite web |last = Pfluger |first = Laura |title = Marker Assisted Selection in Wheat, ''Quality traits. Gluten Strength'', Coordinated Agricultural Project (funded by USDACREES) |url = http://maswheat.ucdavis.edu/protocols/gluten/index.htm |access-date = 2007-09-29 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130121180539/http://maswheat.ucdavis.edu/protocols/gluten/index.htm |archive-date = 2013-01-21 |url-status = dead }}

{{Barley}}
{{Wheat}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Gluten| ]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[Category:Seed storage proteins]]

China and weapons of mass destruction

2024-10-28T16:58:10Z

Brandmeister: /* top */ nuclear triad

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use American English|date=December 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2020}}

{{Infobox nukes
|country_name = People's Republic of China
|image_location = [[File:People's Republic of China.png|230px|Controlled territory of PRC]]
|program_start =
|first_test = October 16, 1964
|first_fusion = December 28, 1966
|last_test = July 29, 1996
|largest_yield = 4 Mt
*Atmospheric – '''4 Mt''' (November 17, 1976)
*Underground – '''660~1,000 kt''' (May 21, 1992)
|total_tests =
|current_stockpile = 500 (estimated)<ref name=":9" />
|current_usable_stockpile = 438 (estimated)<ref name=":9" />
|current_usable_stockpile_megatonnage =

|maximum_range = 15,000 km<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.idsa.in/idsacomments/DF-41ChinasanswertotheUSBMDefforts_ArjunSubramaniam_121112 | title=DF-41: China's answer to the US BMD efforts | Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses | access-date=2013-03-26 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729211851/http://www.idsa.in/idsacomments/DF-41ChinasanswertotheUSBMDefforts_ArjunSubramaniam_121112 | archive-date=2013-07-29 | url-status=live }}</ref>
|NPT_party = '''Yes''' (1992, one of five recognized powers)
}}

{{Weapons of mass destruction}}

The [[People's Republic of China]] has developed and possesses weapons of mass destruction, including chemical and nuclear weapons. The first of [[List of nuclear weapons tests of China|China's nuclear weapons tests]] took place in 1964, and its [[Test No. 6|first hydrogen bomb test]] occurred in 1966 at [[Lop Nur]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Zhang |first=Hui |date=2024-04-11 |title=The short march to China's hydrogen bomb |url=https://thebulletin.org/2024/04/the-short-march-to-chinas-hydrogen-bomb/ |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]] |language=en-US |archive-date=April 11, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240411142418/https://thebulletin.org/2024/04/the-short-march-to-chinas-hydrogen-bomb/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Tests continued until 1996, when the country signed the [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]] (CTBT), but did not [[Ratification|ratify]] it.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Borger |first=Julian |author-link=Julian Borger |date=2020-04-16 |title=China may have conducted low-level nuclear test, US claims |language=en-GB |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/16/china-may-have-conducted-low-level-nuclear-test-us-report-claims |access-date=2023-05-29 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=May 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529174223/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/16/china-may-have-conducted-low-level-nuclear-test-us-report-claims |url-status=live }}</ref> China acceded to the [[Biological Weapons Convention]] (BWC) in 1984<ref>{{cite web |title=China: Accession to Biological Weapons Convention |url=http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/a/bwc/china/acc/washington |access-date=2013-03-03 |publisher=[[United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs]] |archive-date=August 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809230528/http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/a/bwc/china/acc/washington |url-status=live }}</ref> and ratified the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] (CWC) in 1997.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Evolution of the Status of Participation in the Convention |url=https://www.opcw.org/evolution-status-participation-convention |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529185625/https://www.opcw.org/evolution-status-participation-convention |archive-date=May 29, 2023 |access-date=2023-05-29 |website=[[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] |language=en}}</ref> Since 2020, China has been wielding a [[nuclear triad]],<ref>{{cite web | url =https://chinapower.csis.org/china-nuclear-weapons/|title=How is China Modernizing its Nuclear Forces?|publisher=[[Center for Strategic and International Studies]]| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref> alongside [[List of nuclear triads|four other countries]].

The number of nuclear warheads in China's arsenal is a state secret.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Kristensen |first1=Hans M. |author-link=Hans M. Kristensen |last2=Korda |first2=Matt |last3=Johns |first3=Eliana |last4=Knight |first4=Mackenzie |date=2024-01-02 |title=Chinese nuclear weapons, 2024 |journal=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]] |language=en |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=49–72 |doi=10.1080/00963402.2023.2295206 |issn=0096-3402 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2024BuAtS..80a..49K }}</ref> There are varying estimates of the size of China's arsenal. The ''[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]]'' and [[Federation of American Scientists]] estimated in 2024 that China has a stockpile of approximately 438 nuclear warheads,<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=March 31, 2023 |title=Status of World Nuclear Forces |url=https://fas.org/initiative/status-world-nuclear-forces/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529182756/https://fas.org/initiative/status-world-nuclear-forces/ |archive-date=May 29, 2023 |access-date=2023-05-29 |website=[[Federation of American Scientists]] |language=en-US}}</ref> while the [[United States Department of Defense]] put the estimate at more than 500 operational nuclear warheads,<ref name=":8">{{Cite news |last=Feng |first=Emily |date=October 19, 2023 |title=New Pentagon report claims China now has over 500 operational nuclear warheads |work=[[NPR]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/10/19/1207156597/new-pentagon-report-claims-china-now-has-over-500-operational-nuclear-warheads |access-date=October 19, 2023 |archive-date=October 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020031121/https://www.npr.org/2023/10/19/1207156597/new-pentagon-report-claims-china-now-has-over-500-operational-nuclear-warheads |url-status=live }}</ref> making it the [[List of countries with nuclear weapons#Estimated worldwide nuclear stockpiles|third-largest]] in the world.

In 1964, China adopted a policy of [[No first use|no-first-use]] (NFU),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 11, 2024 |title=Nuclear Disarmament China |url=https://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/china-nuclear-disarmament/ |access-date=October 12, 2024 |website=[[Nuclear Threat Initiative]]}}</ref><ref name=":9" /> although some of its nuclear forces are reported to have moved toward a [[launch on warning]] (LOW) posture in the 2020s.<ref name="International Security 2023">{{Cite journal |last=Hiim |first=Henrik Stålhane |last2=Fravel |first2=M. Taylor |author-link2=Taylor Fravel |last3=Trøan |first3=Magnus Langset |date=2023-01-04 |title=The Dynamics of an Entangled Security Dilemma: China's Changing Nuclear Posture |journal=[[International Security (journal)|International Security]] |language=en |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=147–187 |doi=10.1162/isec_a_00457 |issn=0162-2889 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":11" />

==Nuclear weapons==

===History===

[[File:Zhou Enlai announced the success of China's atomic bomb test.jpg|thumb|[[Zhou Enlai]] announces the success of China's atomic bomb test in 1964.]]
[[File:1966-10 1966年庆祝中国发射导弹核武器试验.jpg|thumb|360px|right|A celebration of Chinese nuclear missile tests in [[Tiananmen Square]] in [[Beijing]] in 1966.]]

[[Mao Zedong]] reportedly referred to nuclear weapons as a [[paper tiger]] which, although they would not determine the outcome of a war, could still be used by great powers to scare and coerce.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Meyskens |first=Covell F. |url= |title=Mao's Third Front: The Militarization of Cold War China |date=2020 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-108-78478-8 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |oclc=1145096137}}</ref>{{Rp|page=44}} He favored China's development of nuclear weapons because "In today's world, if we don't want to be bullied by others, we should have atomic weapons by all means."<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|pages=44–45}}

United States President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]'s threats during the [[First Taiwan Strait Crisis]] to use nuclear weapons against military targets in [[Fujian]] province prompted Mao to begin China's nuclear program.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |last=Crean |first=Jeffrey |title=The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History |date=2024 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-350-23394-2 |edition= |series=New Approaches to International History series |location=London, UK}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=89–90}} While Mao did not expect to be able to match the large American nuclear arsenal, he believed that even a few bombs would increase China's diplomatic credibility. As a result of the [[Anti-Party Group]] incident in the Soviet Union, [[Khrushchev]]'s position within the [[Eastern Bloc]] became insecure for a time, thus necessitating the support of [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) and Mao. The CCP subsequently traded its support for Khrushchev for Soviet technology of nuclear weapons. The Agreement on New Technology for National Defence was later signed in October, which promised Soviet support for Chinese development of nuclear weapons.<ref name="mfv2">{{cite book |last1=MacFarquhar |first1=Roderick |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofcultura0000macf |title=The Origins of the Cultural Revolution- 2. The Great Leap Forward, 1958-1960 |date=1983 |pages=11–12 |publisher=New York, Published for the Royal Institute of International Affairs, the East Asian Institute of Columbia University, and the Research Institute on Communist Affairs of Columbia University by Columbia University Press |author-link=Roderick MacFarquhar}}</ref>

Construction of [[uranium enrichment|uranium-enrichment]] plants in [[Baotou]] and [[Lanzhou]] began in 1958, and a plutonium facility in [[Jiuquan]] and the [[Lop Nur]] nuclear test site by 1960. The Soviet Union provided assistance in the early Chinese program by sending advisers to help in the facilities devoted to fissile material production{{r|jstor2626706}} and, in October 1957, agreed to provide a prototype [[boosted fission weapon]], missiles, and related technology.<ref name=":10" /> The Chinese, who preferred to import technology and components to developing them within China, exported uranium to the Soviet Union, and the Soviets sent two [[R-2 (missile)|R-2]] missiles in 1958.{{r|jersild}}

That year, however, Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] told Mao that he planned to discuss [[arms control]] with the United States and Britain. China was already opposed to Khrushchev's post-[[Josef Stalin|Stalin]] policy of [[peaceful coexistence]]. Although Soviet officials assured China that it was under the Soviet [[nuclear umbrella]], the disagreements widened the emerging [[Sino-Soviet split]]. In June 1959, the two nations formally ended their agreement on military and technology cooperation,<ref name="jersild">{{cite web | url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/sharing-the-bomb-among-friends-the-dilemmas-sino-soviet-strategic-cooperation | title=Sharing the Bomb among Friends: The Dilemmas of Sino-Soviet Strategic Cooperation | publisher=Cold War International History Project, Wilson Center | access-date=28 October 2013 | author=Jersild, Austin | date=2013-10-08 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029212149/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/sharing-the-bomb-among-friends-the-dilemmas-sino-soviet-strategic-cooperation | archive-date=29 October 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref> and in July 1960, all Soviet assistance with the Chinese nuclear program was abruptly terminated and all Soviet technicians were withdrawn from the program.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=John W. |title=China Builds the Bomb |last2=Xue |first2=Litai |date=1988-08-01 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-1-5036-2147-3 |pages=53, 61, 12 |doi=10.1515/9781503621473}}</ref> As the Soviets backed out, Chinese officials realized that they had to develop hydrogen bomb technology without any Soviet assistance and would need to begin the work immediately, without waiting for successful results from a fission bomb.<ref name=":10" />

According to [[Arms Control and Disarmament Agency]] director [[William Chapman Foster|William Foster]], the American government, under [[Kennedy administration|Kennedy]] and [[Lyndon B. Johnson Administration|Johnson]] administration, was concerned about the program and studied ways to sabotage or attack it, perhaps with the aid of [[Taiwan]] or the Soviet Union, but Khrushchev was not interested. China conducted its first nuclear test, code-named [[596 (nuclear test)|596]], on 16 October 1964.<ref name="jstor2626706">{{cite journal |last1=Burr |first1=W. |last2=Richelson |first2=J. T. |year=2000–2001 |title=Whether to "Strangle the Baby in the Cradle": The United States and the Chinese Nuclear Program, 1960–64 |journal=[[International Security]] |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=54–99 |doi=10.1162/016228800560525 |jstor=2626706 |s2cid=57560352}}</ref>{{r|jersild}} Its first [[thermonuclear weapon]] test occurred on December 28, 1966.<ref name=":10" /> Its last nuclear test was on July 29, 1996.<ref>{{cite web |title=CTBTO World Map |url=https://www.ctbto.org/map/#mode=nuclear |website=www.ctbto.org |access-date=31 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201065733/https://www.ctbto.org/map/#mode=nuclear |archive-date=1 February 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2023, satellite [[open-source intelligence]] showed evidence of drilling shafts in Lop Nur where nuclear weapons testing could resume.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Broad |first1=William J. |last2=Buckley |first2=Chris |last3=Corum |first3=Jonathan |date=2023-12-20 |title=China Quietly Rebuilds Secretive Base for Nuclear Tests |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/12/20/science/china-nuclear-tests-lop-nur.html |access-date=2023-12-21 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=December 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221040055/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/12/20/science/china-nuclear-tests-lop-nur.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:ChinaABomb 2.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of the testing site 4 days after China's first atomic bomb test]]

===Size===
{{As of|2023}}, several non-official sources estimate that China has over 400 nuclear warheads.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":3" /> In 2023, the [[United States Department of Defense]] estimated China possesses more than 500 operational nuclear warheads.<ref name=":8" />

[[Image:Chinese nuclear bomb - A2923.jpg|thumb|right|A mock-up of China's first nuclear bomb.]]

The same year, [[United States Strategic Command]] indicated that China has equipped more nuclear warheads on its ICBMs than the United States (550 according to the [[New START]] treaty).<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |date=December 7, 2022 |title=Chinese nukes real number |url=https://www.defensenews.com/congress/2022/12/07/china-may-have-surpassed-us-in-number-of-nuclear-warheads-on-icbms/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719130054/https://www.defensenews.com/congress/2022/12/07/china-may-have-surpassed-us-in-number-of-nuclear-warheads-on-icbms/ |archive-date=July 19, 2023 |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=[[Defense News]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2024, the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] reported that China has approximately 300 missile silos and is estimated to reach at least 1000 operational warheads by 2030.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Capaccio |first=Anthony |date=October 23, 2024 |title=China Speeds Nuclear-Weapons Buildout, US Defense Agency Says |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-10-23/china-speeds-nuclear-weapons-buildout-us-defense-agency-says |access-date=October 23, 2024 |work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref>

===Nuclear use policy===
China's policy has traditionally been one of [[no first use]] while maintaining a secure [[Second strike|second-strike]] capability.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Logan |first1=David C |last2=Saunders |first2=Philip C. |date=July 26, 2023 |title=Discerning the Drivers of China's Nuclear Force Development: Models, Indicators, and Data |url=https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Media/News/News-Article-View/Article/3471053/discerning-the-drivers-of-chinas-nuclear-force-development-models-indicators-an/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930001818/https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Media/News/News-Article-View/Article/3471053/discerning-the-drivers-of-chinas-nuclear-force-development-models-indicators-an/ |archive-date=September 30, 2023 |access-date=2023-09-16 |website=[[National Defense University Press]] |language=en-US}}</ref> Following its first test in 1964, China stated that it would "never at any time or under any circumstances be the first to use nuclear weapons."<ref>{{Cite report |title=China’s No First Use of Nuclear Weapons |last=Zhenqiang |first=Pan |date=2016 |publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] |pages=51–78 |jstor=resrep26903.7 |jstor-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhao |first=Tong |date=2022-09-02 |title=China and the international debate on no first use of nuclear weapons |journal=Asian Security |language=en |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=205–213 |doi=10.1080/14799855.2021.2015654 |issn=1479-9855}}</ref> In peacetime, it has traditionally stored nuclear warheads separately from their launching systems.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.rusi.org/downloads/assets/2014_OP_A_Disturbance_in_the_Force.pdf |title=A Disturbance in the Force |author=Hugh Chalmers |date=January 2014 |publisher=[[Royal United Services Institute]] |page=4 |access-date=4 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204054944/http://www.rusi.org/downloads/assets/2014_OP_A_Disturbance_in_the_Force.pdf |archive-date=4 February 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> In the 2020s, some of its strategic forces are reported to have moved toward a [[launch on warning]] (LOW) posture.<ref name="International Security 2023" /><ref name=":11" />

In 2024, the [[United States Department of State]] described China's no-first-use policy as "ambiguous".<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Torode |first1=Greg |last2=Doyle |first2=Gerry |last3=Chen |first3=Laurie |date=June 21, 2024 |title=U.S. and China hold first informal nuclear talks in 5 years, eyeing Taiwan |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us-china-hold-first-informal-nuclear-talks-5-years-eyeing-taiwan-2024-06-21/ |access-date=June 21, 2024 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> American defense analysts have contended that China is shifting away from a strict no-first-use strategy and toward a launch on warning (LOW) posture, which would allow it to retaliate upon the detection of incoming warheads without waiting for them to strike Chinese targets first.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news |date=September 27, 2024 |title=A missile test by China marks its growing nuclear ambitions |url=https://www.economist.com/china/2024/09/27/a-missile-test-by-china-marks-its-growing-nuclear-ambitions |url-access=subscription |access-date=2024-09-27 |work=[[The Economist]] |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=September 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240927182939/https://www.economist.com/china/2024/09/27/a-missile-test-by-china-marks-its-growing-nuclear-ambitions |url-status=live }}</ref> These concerns increased after China began to expand its nuclear arsenal in the 2020s. The move was seen as a response to progress made in U.S. missile defense systems (such as the [[Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System]] and [[Terminal High Altitude Area Defense]]) and long-range precision strike abilities (such as [[Conventional Prompt Strike]]), which decreases the survivability of a Chinese second strike, as well as the possibility that American strategy may require nukes to compensate for the numerical disadvantage of its conventional forces overseas. There is debate among Chinese strategists regarding the merits and drawbacks of a LOW posture similar to that of Russia and the United States, and as of 2023 the bulk of China's strategic forces had not moved to a LOW posture.<ref name="International Security 2023" />

===Nuclear proliferation===
[[File:World nuclear weapons.png|thumb|right|260px|Large stockpile with global range (dark blue), smaller stockpile with global range (medium blue), smaller stockpile with limited range (light blue).]]
Historically, China has been implicated in the development of the Pakistani nuclear program before China ratified the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]] in 1992. In the early 1980s, China is believed to have given Pakistan a "package" including uranium enrichment technology, high-enriched uranium, and the design for a compact nuclear weapon.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kroenig |first=Matthew |title=Exporting the Bomb: Technology Transfer and the Spread of Nuclear Weapons |date=2010 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8014-4857-7 |edition=1 |jstor=10.7591/j.ctt7v7z8 |author-link=Matthew Kroenig}}</ref> China also received stolen technology that [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]] brought back to Pakistan and Pakistan set up a centrifuge plant in China as revealed in his letters which state "(1)You know we had cooperation with China for 15 years. We put up a centrifuge plant at [[Hanzhong]] (250km south-west of [[Xi'an]]). We sent 135 C-130 plane loads of machines, inverters, valves, flow meters, pressure gauges. Our teams stayed there for weeks to help and their teams stayed here for weeks at a time. Late minister Liu We, V. M. [vice minister] Li Chew, Vice Minister Jiang Shengjie used to visit us. (2)The Chinese gave us drawings of the nuclear weapon, gave us 50 kg enriched uranium, gave us 10 tons of UF6 (natural) and 5 tons of UF6 (3%). Chinese helped PAEC [Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, the rival organization to the Khan Research Laboratories] in setting up UF6 plant, production reactor for plutonium and reprocessing plant."<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/09/15/letter-written-by-aq-kahn-to-his-wife/#ixzz1Yz3pXRmj|title = A Letter Written by A.Q. Khan to His Wife|website = [[Fox News]]|date = 2015-03-27|access-date = 2017-03-14|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150806045125/http://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/09/15/letter-written-by-aq-kahn-to-his-wife/#ixzz1Yz3pXRmj|archive-date = 2015-08-06|url-status = live}}</ref>

===Nuclear non-proliferation===
Before the 1980s, China viewed arms control and nuclear non-proliferation regimes as mechanisms through which Western powers (particularly the U.S.) sought to restrain China.<ref name=":5" />{{Rp|pages=266–267}} The Chinese government believed that the Treaty “[served] the interests of some States” and only favored the countries that already had nuclear weapons.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Wu |first=Haotan |date=March 2017 |title=China's Non-proliferation Policy and the Implementation of WMD Regimes in the Middle East |journal=Asian Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=65–82 |doi=10.1080/25765949.2017.12023326 |s2cid=158461812 |issn=2576-5949|doi-access=free }}</ref> Additionally, the Chinese government thought this Treaty was discriminatory since many countries were attempting to restrict and deprive nuclear weapons of a country that had only just tested them successfully, rather than countries like the U.S. or U.S.S.R., which have at least 100 times more nuclear weapons.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/china/nuclear/|title=Chinese Nuclear Weapons | Development of Nuclear Program in China | NTI|access-date=May 17, 2021|archive-date=February 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220203733/https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/china/nuclear/|url-status=live}}</ref> Therefore, China chose not to join the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]] (NPT) at that time.

Beginning in the 1980s, China's policy and attitude toward nuclear weapons and the NPT had changed under the administration of [[Deng Xiaoping]].<ref name=":0" /> Though China continued developing more advanced nuclear technology and weapons, by the 1980s, the country had indicated that it intended on accepting the terms of the NPT.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhu |first=Mingquan |date=March 1997 |title=The evolution of China's nuclear nonproliferation policy |journal=[[The Nonproliferation Review]] |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=40–48 |doi=10.1080/10736709708436664 |issn=1073-6700}}</ref> China acceded to the treaty in 1992.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UNTC |url=https://treaties.un.org/pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=08000002801d56c5 |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=treaties.un.org}}</ref>

China was active in the [[six-party talks]] in an effort to end North Korea's nuclear program in the early 2000s.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Zhao |first=Suisheng |title=The Dragon Roars Back: Transformational Leaders and Dynamics of Chinese Foreign Policy |date=2023 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8 |pages= |doi=10.1515/9781503634152 |oclc=1331741429 |author-link=Suisheng Zhao}}</ref>{{Rp|page=71}} The six-party talks ultimately failed,<ref name=":5" />{{Rp|page=75}} and in 2006, China voted in favor of sanctioning North Korea for its nuclear program.<ref name=":5" />{{Rp|page=237}}

The field of nuclear security has become a well-established area of successful [[China–United States relations|U.S.-China cooperation]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Moore |first=Scott |title=China's Next Act: How Sustainability and Technology are Reshaping China's Rise and the World's Future |date=2022 |isbn=978-0-19-760401-4 |location=New York, NY |pages=210 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197603994.001.0001 |oclc=1316703008}}</ref> In 2009, [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP general secretary]] [[Hu Jintao]] called for a bolstered arms control agenda at the United Nations General Assembly, joining United States President [[Barack Obama]]'s earlier calls for a nuclear-free world.<ref name=":5" />{{Rp|page=237}} Precipitated by a [[2010 Nuclear Security Summit]] convened by the Obama administration, China and the U.S. launched a number of initiatives to secure potentially dangerous, Chinese-supplied, nuclear material in countries such as Ghana or Nigeria.<ref name=":12" /> Through these initiatives, China and the U.S. have converted Chinese-origin Miniature Neutron Source Reactors (MNSRs) from using highly enriched uranium to using low-enriched uranium fuel (which is not directly usable in weapons, thereby making reactors more proliferation resistant).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-26 |title=The Little Known Success Story of U.S.-China Nuclear Security Cooperation |url=https://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/little-known-success-story-us-china-nuclear-security-cooperation/ |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220726130140/https://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/little-known-success-story-us-china-nuclear-security-cooperation/ |archive-date=26 July 2022 |access-date=2022-07-26}}</ref>

China, along with all other nuclear weapon states and all members of [[NATO]] with the exception of the Netherlands, decided not to sign the UN [[treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons]], a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of [[nuclear weapons]].<ref>{{cite news |date=7 July 2017 |title=122 countries adopt 'historic' UN treaty to ban nuclear weapons |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/un-treaty-ban-nuclear-weapons-1.4192761 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814183525/https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/un-treaty-ban-nuclear-weapons-1.4192761 |archive-date=14 August 2019 |access-date=9 August 2019 |work=[[CBC News]]}}</ref>

China refused to join talks in 2020 between the U.S. and Russia on extending their bilateral [[New START]] nuclear arms reduction treaty, as the [[Trump administration]] requested. China's position is that as its nuclear warhead arsenal is a small fraction of the U.S. and Russia arsenals, their inclusion in an arms reduction treaty is unnecessary, and that it will join such talks when both U.S. and Russia has reduced their arsenal to near China's level.<ref name="foreignpolicy-20200429">{{cite news |last1=Gramer |first1=Robbie |last2=Detsch |first2=Jack |date=29 April 2020 |title=Trump Fixates on China as Nuclear Arms Pact Nears Expiration |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/04/29/trump-china-new-start-nuclear-arms-pact-expiration/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017084724/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/04/29/trump-china-new-start-nuclear-arms-pact-expiration/ |archive-date=October 17, 2020 |access-date=15 October 2020 |newspaper=[[Foreign Policy]]}}</ref><ref name="brookings-20200701">{{cite web |last=Pifer |first=Steven |date=1 July 2020 |title=Unattainable conditions for New START extension? |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/07/01/unattainable-conditions-for-new-start-extension/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008082922/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/07/01/unattainable-conditions-for-new-start-extension/ |archive-date=October 8, 2020 |access-date=15 October 2020 |website=[[Brookings Institution]]}}</ref>

The United States has a classified strategy called Nuclear Employment Guidance, updated by president [[Joe Biden]] in March 2024, reported to refocus U.S. nuclear deterrence strategy more toward China.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Biden Approved Secret Nuclear Strategy Refocusing on Chinese Threat |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/08/20/us/politics/biden-nuclear-china-russia.html |last1=Sanger |first1=David E. |access-date=August 23, 2024 |archive-date=August 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240823151952/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/08/20/us/politics/biden-nuclear-china-russia.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Delivery systems estimates===

==== Miniaturization ====
China has made significant improvements in its [[miniaturization]] techniques since the 1980s. There have been accusations, notably by the [[Cox report|Cox Commission]], that this was done primarily by covertly acquiring the U.S.'s [[W88]] [[nuclear warhead]] design as well as [[guided missile|guided]] [[ballistic missile]] technology.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Broad |first=William J. |date=1999-09-07 |title=Spies vs. Sweat: The Debate Over China's Nuclear Advance |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/09/07/us/spies-vs-sweat-the-debate-over-china-s-nuclear-advance.html |access-date=2024-02-15 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=September 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918031630/http://www.nytimes.com/1999/09/07/us/spies-vs-sweat-the-debate-over-china-s-nuclear-advance.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Intelligence Community Damage Assessment on Chinese Espionage |url=http://www.fas.org/sgp/news/dci042199.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330195324/http://www.fas.org/sgp/news/dci042199.html |archive-date=2017-03-30 |access-date=2019-10-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Gerth |first=Jeff |author-link=Jeff Gerth |date=2003-03-06 |title=2 Companies Pay Penalties For Improving China Rockets |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/06/world/2-companies-pay-penalties-for-improving-china-rockets.html |url-status=live |access-date=2023-05-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002172240/https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/06/world/2-companies-pay-penalties-for-improving-china-rockets.html |archive-date=October 2, 2009 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Arms Control Association: Arms Control Today: Why China Won't Build U.S. Warheads |url=http://www.armscontrol.org/act/1999_04-05/rgam99.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051105021618/http://www.armscontrol.org/act/1999_04-05/rgam99.asp |archive-date=2005-11-05 |access-date=2020-05-23}}</ref>

===Land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles===
{{main|People's Liberation Army Rocket Force|DF-4|DF-5|DF-31|DF-41}}

{{nuclear weapons}}
The Dongfeng 5A is a single-warhead, [[Multistage rocket|three-stage]], [[liquid fuels|liquid-fueled]] missile with a [[range (aircraft)|range]] of 13,000+ km. In 2000, [[General (United States)|General]] [[Eugene Habiger]] of the [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]], then-commander of the [[United States Strategic Command|U.S. Strategic Command]], testified before Congress that China has 18 [[Missile silo|silo]]-based DF-5s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=Jeffrey |date=2005-05-01 |title=The ambiguous arsenal |journal=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]] |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=52–59 |doi=10.2968/061003013 |issn=0096-3402 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Since the early 21st century, the Second Artillery Corps have also deployed up to 10 Solid-fueled mobile [[DF-31]] ICBMs, with a range of 7,200+ km and possibly up to 3 [[MIRV]]s.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} China has also developed the [[DF-31A]], an intercontinental ballistic missile with a range of 11,200+ km with possibly 3–6 [[multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle]] (MIRV) capability.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

China stores many of its missiles in huge tunnel complexes; US Representative [[Mike Turner|Michael Turner]]<ref>{{cite web |date=October 17, 2011 |title=U.S. Lawmaker Warns of China's Nuclear Strategy |url=http://chinadigitaltimes.net/2011/10/u-s-lawmaker-warns-of-chinas-nuclear-strategy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101012555/http://chinadigitaltimes.net/2011/10/u-s-lawmaker-warns-of-chinas-nuclear-strategy/ |archive-date=2016-01-01 |access-date=2011-10-18 |website=[[China Digital Times]]}}</ref> referring to 2009 Chinese media reports said "This network of tunnels could be in excess of 5,000 kilometers (3,110 miles), and is used to transport nuclear weapons and forces."<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 14, 2011 |title=US worries over China's underground nuclear network |url=https://www.spacewar.com/reports/US_worries_over_Chinas_underground_nuclear_network_999.html |access-date=2023-05-29 |website=www.spacewar.com |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |archive-date=May 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529190643/https://www.spacewar.com/reports/US_worries_over_Chinas_underground_nuclear_network_999.html |url-status=live }}</ref> A [[People's Liberation Army]] newspaper calls this tunnel system an [[underground Great Wall of China]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hsiao |first=Russell |date=December 16, 2009 |title=China's "Underground Great Wall" and Nuclear Deterrence |language=en-US |work=[[Jamestown Foundation]] |url=https://jamestown.org/program/chinas-underground-great-wall-and-nuclear-deterrence/ |access-date=2023-05-29 |archive-date=May 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529190645/https://jamestown.org/program/chinas-underground-great-wall-and-nuclear-deterrence/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Medium-range ballistic missiles===
Approximately 55% of China's missiles are in the medium-range category, targeted at regional [[theater (warfare)|theater]] targets.<ref name="faschinabook2006">{{Cite report |url=https://fas.org/publication/chinese-nuclear-forces-u-s-nuclear-war-planning/ |title=Chinese Nuclear Forces and U.S. Nuclear War Planning |last1=Kristensen |first1=Hans M. |last2=Norris |first2=Robert S. |date=2006 |publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]] |jstor=resrep18927 |last3=McKinzie |first3=Matthew G. |author-link=Hans M. Kristensen |jstor-access=free |access-date=October 1, 2023 |archive-date=October 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010115405/https://fas.org/publication/chinese-nuclear-forces-u-s-nuclear-war-planning/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|61}}

====DF-3A/CSS-2====
{{main|DF-3A}}

====DF-21/CSS-5====
{{main|DF-21}}

===Tactical cruise missiles===
The [[CJ-10 cruise missile|CJ-10]] long-range cruise missile made its first public appearance in 2009 during a military parade on the [[60th Anniversary of the People's Republic of China]] as a part of the [[Second Artillery Corps]]' long-range conventional missile forces; the CJ-10 represents the next generation in rocket weapons technology in the People's Liberation Army (PLA). A similar naval cruise missile, the [[C-602|YJ-62]], was also revealed during the parade; the YJ-62 serves as the [[People's Liberation Army Navy|PLA Navy's]] latest development into naval rocketry.

===Long-range ballistic missiles===
The Chinese categorize long-range ballistic missiles as ones with a range between 3000 and 8000 km.<ref name="faschinabook2006" />{{rp|103}}

China "keeps most of its warheads at a central storage facility in the Qinling mountain range, though some are kept at smaller regional storage facilities."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kristensen |first1=Hans |author-link=Hans Kristensen |last2=Korda |first2=Matt |year=2020 |title=Chinese nuclear forces, 2020 |journal=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]] |volume=76 |issue=6 |pages=443–457 |bibcode=2020BuAtS..76f.443K |doi=10.1080/00963402.2020.1846432 |s2cid=228097051 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

====DF-4/CSS-3====
{{main|DF-4}}

The Dong Feng 4 or DF-4 (also known as the CSS-3) is a long-range two-stage Chinese intermediate-range ballistic missile with liquid fuel (nitric acid/UDMH). It was thought to be deployed in limited numbers in underground silos beginning in 1980.<ref name="faschinabook2006" />{{rp|67}} The DF-4 has a takeoff thrust of 1,224.00 kN, a takeoff weight of 82,000 kg, a diameter of 2.25 m, a length of 28.05 m, and a fin span of 2.74 m. It is equipped with a 2,190 kg nuclear warhead with 3,300 kt explosive yield, and its range is 5,500 km.<ref name="faschinabook2006" />{{rp|68}} The missile uses inertial guidance, resulting in a relatively poor CEP of 1,500 meters.{{citation needed|date=August 2007}}

===Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs)===

====DF-5A/CSS-4 Mod 2====
{{main|DF-5}}

The Dongfeng 5 or DF-5 is a 3-stage Chinese ICBM. It has a length 32.6 m and a diameter of 3.35 m. It weighs 183 tonnes and has an estimated range of 12,000–15,000 kilometers.<ref name="faschinabook2006" />{{rp|71–72}} The DF-5 had its first flight in 1971 and was in operational service 10 years later. One of the downsides of the missile was that it took between 30 and 60 minutes to fuel.{{citation needed|date=August 2007}}

====DF-31/CSS-10====
{{main|DF-31}}

The Dong Feng 31 (or CSS-10) is a medium-range, three stage, solid propellant intercontinental ballistic missile developed by the People's Republic of China. It is a land-based variant of the submarine-launched JL-2.

====DF-41/CSS-X-10====
{{main|DF-41}}

The DF-41 (or CSS-X-10) is an intercontinental ballistic missile believed to be operational. It is designed to carry multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRV), delivering multiple nuclear warheads.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

===Nuclear cruise missiles===
The US DoD estimated in 2006 that the PRC was developing ground- and air-launched cruise missiles that could easily be converted to carry nuclear warheads once developed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Military Power of the People's Republic of China, 2006 |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA449718 |access-date=2024-05-22 |website=[[US Department of Defense]] |pages=26, 27 |language=en |archive-date=March 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302212510/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA449718 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====DH-10====
{{main|DH-10}}

The DongHai 10 (DH-10) is a cruise missile developed in the People's Republic of China. According to ''[[Jane's Defence Weekly]]'', the DH-10 is a second-generation land-attack cruise missile (LACM), with over 4,000 km range, integrated inertial navigation system, GPS, terrain contour mapping system, and digital scene-matching terminal-homing system. The missile is estimated to have a circular error probable (CEP) of 10 meters.

====CJ-10====
{{main|CJ-10}}

The ChangJian-10 (Long Sword 10) is a cruise missile developed by China, based on the [[Hongniao missile]] family. It has a range of 2,200 km. Although not confirmed, it is suspected that the CJ-10 could carry nuclear warheads. An air-launched variant (named CJ-20) has also been developed.<ref name="janes.com">{{cite journal |date=12 January 2000 |title=China's new cruise missile programme 'racing ahead' |url=http://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-Defence-Weekly-2000/China-s-new-cruise-missile-programme-racing-ahead.html |url-status=dead |journal=[[Jane's Defence Weekly]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604083602/http://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-Defence-Weekly-2000/China-s-new-cruise-missile-programme-racing-ahead.html |archive-date=4 June 2009}}</ref>

====HongNiao missile family====
{{main|Hongniao missile}}

There are three missiles in this family: the HN-1, HN-2, and HN-3. Reportedly based on the [[Raduga Kh-55#Variants|Kh-SD/65]] missiles, the Hongniao (or Red Bird) missiles are some of the first nuclear-capable cruise missiles in China. The HN-1 has a range of 600 km, the HN-2 has a range of 1,800 km, and the HN-3 has a range of 3,000 km.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://missilethreat.csis.org/missile/hong-niao/ |title=HN-2 |publisher=CSIS Missile Threat |access-date=2010-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104055901/http://missilethreat.csis.org/missile/hong-niao/ |archive-date=2016-11-04 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====ChangFeng missile family====
{{main|Changfeng missile}}

There are 2 missiles in the Chang Feng (or Long Wind) family: CF-1 and CF-2. These are the first domestically developed long-range cruise missiles for China. The CF-1 has a range of 400 km while the CF-2 has a range of 800 km. Both variants can carry a 10 kt nuclear warhead.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

===Sea-based weapons===
{{main|People's Liberation Army Navy|JL-1|JL-2}}

The submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) stockpile of the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) is thought to be relatively new. China launched its first second-generation [[nuclear submarine]] in April 1981. The navy currently has a 1 Type 092 [[Type 092 submarine|''Xia'' class]] SSBN at roughly 8000 tons [[displacement (fluid)|displacement]]. A second Type 092 was reportedly lost in an accident in 1985. The Type 092 is equipped with 12 [[JL-1]] SLBMs with a range of 2150–2500 km. The JL-1 is a modified [[DF-21]] missile. It is suspected that the Type 092 is being converted into a cruise missile submarine.

The Chinese navy has developed [[Type 094 submarine|Type 094]] ballistic missile submarine, open source satellite imagery has shown that at least 2 of these have been completed. This submarine will be capable of carrying 12 of the longer ranged, more modern [[JL-2]]s with a range of approximately 14000 km.{{citation needed|date=August 2007}}

China is also developing the [[Type 096 submarine]], claimed to be able to carry up to 24 [[JL-3]] ballistic missiles each. Some Chinese sources state that the submarine is already undergoing trials.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nti.org/d_newswire/issues/2008/3/3/05A7F8B5-44E0-45F9-960D-42C6A6B54878.html |title=Global Security Newswire |publisher=NTI |access-date=2010-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830071754/http://www.nti.org/d_newswire/issues/2008/3/3/05a7f8b5-44e0-45f9-960d-42c6a6b54878.html |archive-date=2008-08-30 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Nuclear bomber force===
{{main|People's Liberation Army Air Force}}

China's bomber force consists mostly of Chinese-made versions of Soviet aircraft. The [[People's Liberation Army Air Force]] has 120 [[Xian H-6|H-6]]s (a variant of the [[Tupolev Tu-16]]). These [[bomber]]s are outfitted to carry nuclear as well as conventional weapons. While the H-6 fleet is aging, it is not as old as the American [[B-52 Stratofortress]].<ref name="faschinabook2006" />{{rp|93–98}} The Chinese have also produced the [[Xian JH-7]] ''Flying Leopard'' fighter-bomber with a range and payload exceeding the [[General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark|F-111]] (currently about 80 are in service) capable of delivering a nuclear strike. China has also bought the advanced [[Sukhoi Su-30]] from Russia; currently, about 100 [[Su-30]]s (MKK and MK2 variants) have been purchased by China. The Su-30 is capable of carrying [[tactical nuclear weapon]]s.<ref name="faschinabook2006" />{{rp|102}}

China is alleged to be testing new [[H-8 bomber|H-8]] and [[Xian H-20]] strategic bombers which are either described as an upgraded H-6 or an aircraft in the same class as the US [[Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit|B-2]], able to carry nuclear weapons.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

=== Fractional orbital bombardment system ===
In 2021, following tests by the [[China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology]], [[United States Secretary of the Air Force]] [[Frank Kendall III]] stated that China was developing and testing a [[Fractional Orbital Bombardment System|fractional orbital bombardment system]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Axe |first=David |date=October 16, 2021 |title=Report: China Has Tested A Nuke That Can Dodge American Radars |work=[[Forbes]] |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidaxe/2021/10/16/report-china-has-tested-a-nuke-that-can-dodge-american-radars/ |access-date=October 17, 2021 |archive-date=October 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017000427/https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidaxe/2021/10/16/report-china-has-tested-a-nuke-that-can-dodge-american-radars/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Watt |first1=Louise |last2=Parekh |first2=Marcus |date=2021-10-17 |title='We have no idea how they did this': Secret hypersonic launch shows China streaking ahead in arms race |language=en-GB |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2021/10/17/china-secretly-tests-first-hypersonic-missile-move-catches-us/ |access-date=2021-10-17 |issn=0307-1235 |archive-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322140049/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2021/10/17/china-secretly-tests-first-hypersonic-missile-move-catches-us/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Missile ranges==
<gallery>
Image:Maximum Ranges for China’s Conventional SRBM Force.png|Maximum Ranges for China's Conventional [[SRBM]] Force (2006). Note: China currently is capable of deploying ballistic missile forces to support a variety of regional contingencies.
Image:PLA ballistic missiles range.jpg|[[Medium-range ballistic missile|Medium]] and [[Intercontinental ballistic missile|Intercontinental]] Range Ballistic Missiles (2007). Note: China currently is capable of targeting its nuclear forces throughout the region and most of the world, including the continental United States. Newer systems, such as the [[DF-31]], [[DF-31A]], and [[JL-2]], will give China a more survivable nuclear force.
Image:Surface-to-Air Missile Coverage over the Taiwan Strait.png|Surface-to-Air Missile Coverage over the Taiwan Strait (2006). Note: This map depicts notional coverage provided by China's [[SA-10]], [[S-300 missile system#S-300PMU-1.2F2 .28SA-20.29|SA-20]] SAM systems, as well as the soon-to-be acquired [[S-300 missile system|S-300PMU]]2. Actual coverage would be non-contiguous and dependent upon precise deployment sites.
</gallery>

==Biological weapons==
{{main|Chinese biological weapons program}}
{{See also|Ethnic bioweapon}}

China is currently a signatory of the [[Biological Weapons Convention]] and Chinese officials have stated that China has never engaged in biological activities with offensive military applications. However, China was reported to have had an active biological weapons program in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Langford |first=R. Everett |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontowe0000lang_m9j9 |title=Introduction to Weapons of Mass Destruction: Radiological, Chemical, and Biological |date=2004-02-19 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-0-471-46560-7 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Kenneth Alibek|Kanatjan Alibekov]], former director of one of the [[Biopreparat|Soviet germ-warfare programs]], said that China suffered a serious accident at one of its biological weapons plants in the late 1980s. Alibekov asserted that Soviet reconnaissance satellites identified a biological weapons laboratory and plant near a site for testing nuclear warheads. The Soviets suspected that two separate epidemics of [[hemorrhagic fever]] that swept the region in the late 1980s were caused by an accident in a lab where Chinese scientists were weaponizing viral diseases.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Broad |first1=William J. |author-link=William Broad |last2=Miller |first2=Judith |author-link2=Judith Miller |date=1999-04-05 |title=Soviet Defector Says China Had Accident at a Germ Plant |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/05/world/soviet-defector-says-china-had-accident-at-a-germ-plant.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826070308/https://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/05/world/soviet-defector-says-china-had-accident-at-a-germ-plant.html |archive-date=August 26, 2022 |access-date=2023-05-29 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

US Secretary of State [[Madeleine Albright]] expressed her concerns over possible Chinese biological weapon transfers to [[Iran]] and other nations in a letter to [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Bob Bennett (politician)|Bob Bennett]] (R-Utah) in January 1997.<ref>Leonard Spector, [http://www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=129 Chinese Assistance to Iran's Weapons of Mass Destruction and Missile Programs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611064838/http://www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=129|date=2009-06-11}}, [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]], September 12, 1996</ref> Albright stated that she had received reports regarding transfers of dual-use items from Chinese entities to the Iranian government which concerned her and that the United States had to encourage China to adopt comprehensive export controls to prevent assistance to Iran's alleged biological weapons program. The United States acted upon the allegations on January 16, 2002, when it imposed [[sanctions (law)|sanctions]] on three Chinese firms accused of supplying Iran with materials used in the manufacture of chemical and biological weapons. In response to this, China issued [[export control]] protocols on [[Dual-use technology|dual use]] biological technology in late 2002.<ref>[[Nuclear Threat Initiative]], [http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/China/Biological/index.html Country Profile: China] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827144021/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/China/Biological/index.html|date=2011-08-27}}</ref>

A biological program in China was described in a 2015 detailed study by the [[Ministry of Defence (India)|Indian Ministry of Defence]] funded [[Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defense Studies and Analyses]]. It pointed to 42 facilities, some in the same compound, that had the capacity, possibly latently, of research, development, production or testing of biological weapons.<ref name="Shoham">{{cite journal |last=Shoham |first=Dany |year=2015 |title=China's Biological Warfare Programme |url=https://idsa.in/system/files/jds/jds_9_2_2015_DanyShoham.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Defence Studies |publisher=Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses |publication-place=New Delhi |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=132, 139 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210162222/https://idsa.in/system/files/jds/jds_9_2_2015_DanyShoham.pdf |archive-date=February 10, 2021 |access-date=4 July 2021}}</ref>

According to [[Nuclear Threat Initiative]], no evidence of the program's existence has been officially released.<ref>{{cite web |title=China - Countries - NTI |url=https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/china/biological/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827144021/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/China/Biological/index.html |archive-date=August 27, 2011 |access-date=30 June 2021 |website=www.nti.org |publisher=Nuclear Threat Initiative}}</ref>

==Chemical weapons==
The People's Republic of China signed the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) on January 13, 1993, and ratified it on April 25, 1997.<ref name=":6" />

China was found to have supplied [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Albania]] with a stockpile of chemical weapons in the 1970s during the [[Cold War]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Warrick |first=Jo |date=2005-01-10 |title=Albania's Chemical Cache Raises Fears About Others |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2005/01/10/albanias-chemical-cache-raises-fears-about-others/96d72926-8c08-42ff-915c-895dda5a29ad/ |access-date=2023-05-29 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Library resources box}}
*[[Two Bombs, One Satellite]]
*[[863 Program]]
*[[Project 596]]
*[[List of nuclear weapons tests of China]]
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]
*[[People's Liberation Army]]
*[[Taiwan and weapons of mass destruction]]
*[[Underground Great Wall of China]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Chinese Missiles}}
{{People's Liberation Army}}
{{Portal bar|China|Nuclear technology}}

[[Category:Weapons of mass destruction by country]]
[[Category:Military of the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Nuclear program of the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:1964 in military history]]

Russia and weapons of mass destruction

2024-10-28T16:52:53Z

Brandmeister: /* top */ nuclear triad

{{Short description|none}}
{{see also|Soviet atomic bomb project}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox nukes
|country_name=[[Russia|Russian Federation]] {{nobold|{{small|(originally the [[Soviet Union]])}}}}
|image_location=Russian Federation (orthographic projection) - All Territorial Disputes.svg
|program_start=1942<ref name="nuclearweaponarchives">{{cite web|last1=Sublette|first1=Carey|title=The Soviet Nuclear Weapons Program|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/Sovwpnprog.html|website=nuclearweaponarchive.org|publisher=nuclearweaponarchives|access-date=20 April 2017|language=en|date=12 December 1997}}</ref>
|last_test=October 24, 1990
|largest_yield={{convert|50|MtonTNT|PJ|abbr=on|lk=on}} ([[Tsar Bomba]])
|total_tests='''715''' detonations
|first_test=August 29, 1949
|first_fusion=November 22, 1955
|peak_stockpile='''46,000''' warheads (1975) '''45,000''' warheads (1990)
|current_stockpile='''5,580'''<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://thebulletin.org/premium/2024-03/russian-nuclear-weapons-2024/|title=Russian nuclear weapons, 2024}}</ref> (2024)
|current_usable_stockpile='''1,710'''<ref name="auto"/> (2024)
|maximum_range='''18,000 km'''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.armyrecognition.com/army-2019_news_russia_online_show_daily_media_partner/army_2019_russian_army_discloses_rs-28_sarmat_icbm_characteristics.html|title=Army 2019: Russian army discloses RS-28 Sarmat ICBM characteristics|date=2 July 2019|website=Army Recognition}}</ref>
|NPT_party=Yes (1968, one of five recognized powers)
}}
{{Weapons of mass destruction}}

The [[Russia|Russian Federation]] is known to possess or have possessed three types of [[weapons of mass destruction]]: [[nuclear weapon]]s, [[Biological warfare|biological weapons]], and [[Chemical warfare|chemical weapons]]. It is one of the five [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear-weapon states]] recognized under the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]] and one of [[List of nuclear triads|the four countries]] wielding a [[nuclear triad]].

Russia possesses a total of 5,580 nuclear warheads as of 2024,<ref name="auto"/> the largest confirmed stockpile of nuclear warheads in the world. Russia's deployed missiles (those actually ready to be launched) number about 1,710, also the largest confirmed [[strategic nuclear weapon|strategically deployed]] arsenal in the world as of 2024.<ref name=FAS>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/initiative/status-world-nuclear-forces/ |title=Status of World Nuclear Forces – Federation Of American Scientists |publisher=Fas.org}}</ref><ref name=armscontrol>{{cite web|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat |title=Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance|publisher=armscontrol.org}}</ref> The remaining weapons are either in reserve stockpiles, or have been retired and are slated for dismantling. Russia's predecessor state, the [[Soviet Union]], reached a peak stockpile of about 45,000 nuclear warheads in 1986.<ref name="NorrisKristensenGlobal">{{Cite journal|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2968/062004017|doi = 10.2968/062004017|title = Global nuclear stockpiles, 1945-2006|year = 2006|last1 = Kristensen|first1 = Hans M.|last2 = Norris|first2 = Robert S.|journal = Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|volume = 62|issue = 4|pages = 64–66|bibcode = 2006BuAtS..62d..64N| s2cid=145147992 }}</ref> The number of weapons Russia may possess is currently controlled by the bilateral [[New START]] treaty with the United States.

The Soviet Union ratified the [[Geneva Protocol]]—prohibiting the use of biological and chemical weapons in interstate conflicts—on April 5, 1928, with reservations that were later dropped on January 18, 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Disarmament Treaties Database: 1925 Geneva Protocol|url=http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/1925|access-date=2021-02-07|website=[[United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs]]}}</ref> Russia is also party to the 1972 [[Biological Weapons Convention]] and the 1993 [[Chemical Weapons Convention]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Disarmament Treaties Database: Biological Weapons Convention|url=http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/bwc|access-date=2021-02-16|website=[[United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Disarmament Treaties Database: Chemical Weapons Convention|url=http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/cwc|access-date=2021-02-07|website=[[United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs]]}}</ref> The [[Soviet biological weapons program]] violated the Biological Weapons Convention and was the world's largest, longest, and most sophisticated program of its kind.<ref name=":0">Leitenberg, M., Zilinskas, R., & Kuhn, J. (2012). "Conclusion". In ''The Soviet Biological Weapons Program'' (pp. 698–712). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Harvard University Press. Retrieved February 7, 2021, from {{JSTOR|j.ctt2jbscf.30}}</ref> At its peak, the program employed up to 65,000 people.<ref name=":0" />

Despite being a signatory to the Chemical Weapons Convention, Russia has continued to hold, and occasionally use{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}, chemical weapons. In 1997, Russia declared an arsenal of 39,967 tons of [[chemical weapon]]s, which it worked in part to decrease.<ref name="NTIchem" /><ref name="CSP16">{{cite web|url=http://www.opcw.org/index.php?eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=15203|title=Opening Statement by the Director-General to the Conference of the States Parties at its Sixteenth Session|date=28 November 2011|access-date=1 May 2012|publisher=[[OPCW]]}}</ref> Its stock of weapons was officially declared destroyed in 2017. The [[poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal]] in 2018 and the [[poisoning of Alexei Navalny]] in 2020, both carried out by Russia, revealed that the country maintained an illicit chemical weapons program.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syria, Russia, and the Global Chemical Weapons Crisis |publisher=Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-09/features/syria-russia-global-chemical-weapons-crisis |access-date=2022-03-01}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=July 2024}} Russian forces also used{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}, and admitted to using{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}, chemical weapons during the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|invasion of Ukraine]].

==Nuclear weapons==

===History===

====Soviet era====
{{main|Soviet atomic bomb project}}

====Post-Soviet era====
At the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991, Soviet nuclear weapons were deployed in four of the new republics: Russia, [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]] and [[Kazakhstan]]. In May 1992, these four states signed the [[Lisbon Protocol]], agreeing to join the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]], with Russia the [[successor state]] to the Soviet Union as a nuclear state, and the other three states joining as non-nuclear states.

Ukraine agreed to give up its weapons to Russia, in exchange for guarantees of Ukrainian territory from Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, known as the [[Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances]]. China and France also made statements in support of the memorandum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/the-budapest-memorandum-and-crimea/1862439.html|title=The Budapest Memorandum and Crimea|work=VOA|date=March 2, 2014 |access-date=October 24, 2014}}</ref>

=== Arms reduction ===
{{Main|Megatons to Megawatts Program}}

The threat of [[nuclear warfare]] was a persistent and terrifying threat during the [[Cold War]]. At its height, the Soviet Union and United States each mustered tens of thousands of warheads, under the doctrine of [[mutual assured destruction]]. By the 1980s, both the United States and Soviet Union sought to reduce the number of weapons the other was fielding. This led to the opening of arms reduction talks in 1982.<ref name="START I">{{Cite web |title=START I |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/treaties-between-united-states-america-and-union-soviet-socialist-republics-strategic-offensive-reductions-start-i-start-ii/ |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=The Nuclear Threat Initiative |language=en}}</ref>

This culminated in the signing of the [[START I]] treaty in 1991: the first nuclear arms reduction treaty between the two global powers. This first treaty limited the number of deployed warheads in each nation to 6,000, nearly halving the prior 10,000 to 12,000 being fielded in 1991.<ref name="START I"/> The considerable success of START I, combined with the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991, led to the [[START II]] treaty. Russia never ratified the treaty, and it did not go into effect. An attempted [[START III]] was attempted but could not get past negotiations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=START II |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/treaty-between-united-states-america-and-union-soviet-socialist-republics-strategic-offensive-reductions-start-ii/ |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=The Nuclear Threat Initiative |language=en}}</ref>

Instead, the [[Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty]] was passed in 2002, capping warheads at 2,200.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SORT |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/strategic-offensive-reductions-treaty-sort/ |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=The Nuclear Threat Initiative |language=en}}</ref> The current limitations stem from the [[New START]] treaty, ratified in 2010. It limits each side to 1,550 weapons. Nuclear bombers only count as one weapon each, even though they may carry up to 20, so the actual limit on the countries is slightly higher. The treaty is in force through to 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New START at a Glance {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/NewSTART |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=www.armscontrol.org}}</ref>

After U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] withdrew from the 1972 [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]], Russia responded by building-up their [[#Nuclear weapons|nuclear capabilities]], in such a way as to counterbalance U.S. capabilities.<ref>{{cite news |last=Majumdar |first=Dave |date=1 March 2018 |title=Russia's Nuclear Weapons Buildup Is Aimed at Beating U.S. Missile Defenses |work=The National Interest |location=USA |url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/russias-nuclear-weapons-buildup-aimed-beating-us-missile-24716 |access-date=26 October 2018}}</ref> Russia decided not to sign the UN [[treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons]], which was adopted on July 7, 2017, by 122 States.<ref>{{cite news |date=7 July 2017 |title=122 countries adopt 'historic' UN treaty to ban nuclear weapons |work=CBC News |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/un-treaty-ban-nuclear-weapons-1.4192761}}</ref> Most analysts agree that Russia's nuclear strategy under Putin eventually brought it into violation of the 1987 [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty]] (although this is not confirmed).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-07 |title=Russia may have violated the INF Treaty. Here's how the United States appears to have done the same. |url=https://thebulletin.org/2019/02/russia-may-have-violated-the-inf-treaty-heres-how-the-united-states-appears-to-have-done-the-same/ |website=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |language=en-US}}</ref>

According to Russian officials, the American decision to deploy [[United States national missile defense|the missile defense system]] in Europe was a violation of the treaty.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kramer |first1=Andrew E. |title=Russia Calls New U.S. Missile Defense System a 'Direct Threat' |newspaper=The New York Times |date=May 12, 2016 |agency=NYT |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/13/world/europe/russia-nato-us-romania-missile-defense.html}}</ref> U.S. President [[Donald Trump]] announced on October 20, 2018, that the U.S. would no longer consider itself bound by the treaty's provisions, raising nuclear tensions between the two powers.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hurlbert |first=Heather |date=26 October 2018 |title=Russia Violated an Arms Treaty. Trump Ditched It, Making the Nuclear Threat Even Worse. |work=New York Magazine |location=USA |url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/russias-nuclear-weapons-buildup-aimed-beating-us-missile-24716 |access-date=26 October 2018}}</ref>

On November 2, 2023, Putin signed a law that withdraws Russia's ratification of the [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/putin-revokes-russias-ratification-nuclear-test-ban-treaty-2023-11-02/|title=Putin withdraws Russia's ratification of global nuclear test ban treaty|author=Andrew Osborn|website=[[Reuters]] |date=November 2, 2023}}</ref>

===Nuclear arsenal of Russia===
The exact number of nuclear warheads is a [[Classified information|state secret]] and is therefore a matter of guesswork. {{As of|2024}}, the [[Federation of American Scientists]] estimates that Russia possesses 5,580 nuclear weapons, while the United States has 5,428; Russia and the U.S. each have about 1,600 active deployed strategic nuclear warheads. Russia's stockpile is growing in size, while the United States' is shrinking.<ref name=FAS /> Russia has six nuclear missile fields in [[Kozelsk]], [[Tatishchevo (air base)|Tatishchevo]], [[Uzhur]], [[Dombarovsky Air Base|Dombarovsky]], [[Kartaly|Kartalay]], and [[Aleysk]]; nuclear missile submarines patrolling from three naval bases at [[Zapadnaya Litsa (naval base)|Nerpich'ya]], [[Gadzhiyevo|Yagel'Naya]], and [[Vilyuchinsk|Rybachiy]]; and nuclear bombers at [[Ukrainka (air base)|Ukrainka]] and [[Engels-2 (air base)|Engels]] air bases.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cirincione |first1=Joseph |title=Nuclear Nightmares: Securing the World Before It Is Too Late |date=October 22, 2013 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-16404-7 |page=53 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbwJAgAAQBAJ |access-date=March 15, 2022}}</ref> As of 2024, Russia operates 12 nuclear-powered, nuclear-armed ballistic missile submarines, comprising five [[Delta-class submarine|Delta-class]] and seven [[Borei-class]] vessels.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thebulletin.org/premium/2024-03/russian-nuclear-weapons-2024/#post-heading |title=Russian Nuclear Weapons, 2024|publisher=The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists}}.</ref>

The [[RS-28 Sarmat]]<ref name=RS28>[http://www.rg.ru/2015/02/02/raketa-site-anons.html Новую тяжелую ракету "Сармат" будут делать в Красноярске] ''[[Rossiyskaya Gazeta]]'', 2 Feb 2015.</ref> (Russian: РС-28 Сармат; [[NATO reporting name]]: SATAN 2), is a Russian [[Liquid-propellant rocket|liquid-fueled]], [[Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle|MIRV]]-equipped, [[Heavy ICBM|super-heavy]] [[Thermonuclear weapon|thermonuclear]] armed [[intercontinental ballistic missile]] in development by the [[Makeyev Rocket Design Bureau]]<ref name="RS28" /> since 2009,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://militaryrussia.ru/blog/topic-435.html|title=MilitaryRussia.Ru — отечественная военная техника (после 1945г.) | Статьи|website=militaryrussia.ru}}</ref> intended to replace the previous [[R-36 (missile)|R-36 missile]]. Its large payload would allow for up to 10 heavy [[warhead]]s or 15 lighter ones,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gady |first1=Franz-Stefan |title=Russia to Test-Launch 16 Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles in 2016 |url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/01/russia-to-test-launch-16-intercontinental-ballistic-missiles-in-2016/ |work=[[The Diplomat]] |date=January 12, 2016}}</ref> or a combination of warheads and massive amounts of [[countermeasure]]s designed to defeat [[missile defense|anti-missile systems]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/ss-30.htm|title=SS-30 ?? / R-X-? Sarmat New Heavy ICBM|publisher=globalsecurity.org|access-date=17 January 2015|archive-date=February 5, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205165020/https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/ss-30.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-missiles-idUSBRE9BG0SH20131217|title=Russia plans new ICBM to replace Cold War 'Satan' missile|publisher=Reuters|date=17 Dec 2013|access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref> It was heralded by the Russian military as a response to the U.S. [[Prompt Global Strike]].<ref name=invuln>{{cite web|url=http://newsru.com/arch/russia/31may2014/sarmat.html|title=Минобороны рассказало о тяжелой баллистической ракете - неуязвимом для ПРО ответе США|date=May 31, 2014}}</ref>

In 2015, information emerged that Russia may be developing a new [[nuclear torpedo]], the [[Status-6 Ocean Multipurpose System]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/status-6.htm|title=Status-6 Ocean Multipurpose System|author=John Pike}}</ref><ref name="FTA">Why A Russian Super-Radioactive Atomic Torpedo Isn't The News You Think It Is [http://foxtrotalpha.jalopnik.com/why-a-russian-super-radioactive-atomic-torpedo-isn-t-th-1742131846]</ref><ref name=BBC>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34797252|title=Russia reveals nuclear torpedo plan|work=BBC News|date=November 12, 2015}}</ref> codenamed "Kanyon" by Pentagon officials.<ref name=Diplomat>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/11/revealed-russias-top-secret-nuclear-torpedo/|title=Revealed: Russia's Top Secret Nuclear Torpedo|first=Franz-Stefan|last=Gady|date=November 2015|website=The Diplomat}}</ref><ref name=USNI20151204/> This weapon is designed to create a [[tsunami wave]] up to 500m tall that will radioactively contaminate a wide area on an enemy coasts with [[cobalt-60]], and to be immune to anti-missile defense systems such as [[laser weapon]]s and [[railgun]]s that might disable an [[ICBM]].<ref name=FTA/><ref name=BBC/><ref name=USNI20151204/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.valuewalk.com/2015/12/purpose-of-russia-status-6-torpedo/|title=What Is The Purpose Of Russia's Deadly Status-6 Torpedo|date=December 8, 2015}}</ref><ref name="Pifer20151118">{{cite web|url=http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/order-from-chaos/posts/2015/11/18-russias-perhaps-not-real-super-torpedo-pifer |title=Russia's perhaps-not-real super torpedo |last=Pifer |first=Steven |website=[[Brookings Institution]] |date=November 18, 2015 |access-date=July 5, 2019}}</ref> Two potential carrier submarines, the Project 09852 ''[[Russian submarine Belgorod (K-329)|Belgorod]]'', and the Project 09851 ''[[Khabarovsk-class submarine|Khabarovsk]]'', are new boats laid down in 2012 and 2014 respectively.<ref name=Diplomat/><ref name="USNI20151204">Russian Mystery Submarine Likely Deployment Vehicle for New Nuclear Torpedo. USNI News. [https://news.usni.org/2015/12/04/russian-mystery-submarine-likely-deployment-vehicle-for-new-nuclear-torpedo]</ref><ref name="Oliphant">Oliphant R. Secret Russian radioactive doomsday torpedo leaked on television. Telegraph. 13 Nov 2015 [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/11991729/Secret-Russian-radioactive-doomsday-torpedo-leaked-on-television.html]</ref>

Status 6 appears to be a deterrent weapon of last resort.<ref name=Pifer20151118/><ref name=Oliphant/> It appears to be a torpedo-shaped robotic mini-submarine, that can travel at speeds of {{convert|185|km/h|knot|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Pifer20151118/><ref name=Oliphant/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-tweet-us-nuclear-weapons-vs-russia-2016-12|title=Trump questions the US's nuclear arsenal: Here's how the US's nukes compare to Russia's|first=Alex|last=Lockie|website=[[Business Insider]] |date=December 24, 2016|access-date=December 26, 2016|archive-date=September 4, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904205656/https://www.businessinsider.com.au/trump-tweet-us-nuclear-weapons-vs-russia-2016-12|url-status=live}}</ref> More recent information suggests a top speed of {{convert|100|km/h|knot|abbr=on}}, with a range of {{convert|10000|km|abbr=on}} and a depth maximum of {{convert|1000|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/military/weapons/a24216/pentagon-confirm-russia-submarine-nuke/|title=Pentagon Confirms Russia's Thermonuclear Submarine Bomb Is Real|date=December 8, 2016}}</ref> This underwater drone is cloaked by stealth technology to elude acoustic tracking devices.<ref name=FTA/><ref name=Oliphant/>

During an annual [[Presidential Address to the Federal Assembly|state-of-the-nation address]] given on March 1, 2018, President [[Vladimir Putin]] publicly claimed that Russia was now in possession of several new classes of nuclear weapons, including some with capabilities previously speculated to exist. Putin discussed several new or upgraded weapons, including a [[Boost-glide|hypersonic glide vehicle]] known as the [[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard]], capable of performing sharp maneuvers while traveling at 20 times the speed of sound making it "absolutely invulnerable for any missile defense system."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/putin-boasts-russian-nuclear-weapons-53433951 |title=Putin boasts of new Russian nuclear weapons - ABC News |website=ABC News |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301144604/http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/putin-boasts-russian-nuclear-weapons-53433951 |archive-date=1 March 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Putin discussed the existence of a nuclear powered underwater torpedo and a nuclear powered [[cruise missile]] ([[9M730 Burevestnik]]), both with effectively unlimited range. He discussed that Russia had tested a new class of traditional [[Intercontinental ballistic missile|ICBM]] called the [[RS-28 Sarmat]], which expanded upon the range and carrying capability of the Soviet-era Satan ICBM. Animations of these weapons were shown in front of the live and televised audience. Putin suggested that an online poll be conducted to give them official public names.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-43239331|title=Russia has 'invincible' nuclear weapons|work=BBC News|date=March 1, 2018}}</ref>

===Nuclear weapons in Russian military doctrine===
{{Main|Military doctrine of Russia}}
According to a [[Military doctrine of Russia|Russian military doctrine]] stated in 2010, nuclear weapons could be used by Russia "in response to the use of nuclear and other types of weapons of mass destruction against it or its allies, and also in case of aggression against Russia with the use of conventional weapons when the very existence of the state is threatened".<ref name="rus_mil_doc">[http://www.kremlin.ru/ref_notes/461 Russian military doctrine] (in Russian)</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Gessen |first1=Masha |title=Putin Lied About His Nuclear Doctrine and Promised Russians That They Would Go to Heaven |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/putin-lied-about-his-nuclear-doctrine-and-promised-russians-that-they-would-go-to-heaven |magazine=The New Yorker |date=19 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Read the fine print: Russia's nuclear weapon use policy |url=https://thebulletin.org/2022/03/read-the-fine-print-russias-nuclear-weapon-use-policy/ |work=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]] |date=10 March 2022}}</ref> Most military analysts believe that, in this case, Russia would pursue an 'escalate to de-escalate' strategy, initiating limited nuclear exchange to bring adversaries to the [[Negotiation|negotiating]] table. Russia will also threaten nuclear conflict to discourage initial escalation of any major [[Conventional warfare|conventional conflict]].<ref>{{cite news | last=Blank | first=Stephen | date=25 February 2018 | title=Getting Russia's nuclear strategy mostly right | url=https://thehill.com/opinion/international/375340-getting-russias-nuclear-strategy-mostly-right | work=The Hill | location=USA | access-date=26 October 2018 }}</ref>

===Nuclear proliferation===
{{Main|Russia-China relations|Russia-India relations|Russia-North Korea relations|Russia-Iran relations}}
[[File:World nuclear weapons.png|thumb|right|270px|Nations with large nuclear stockpiles with global range (dark blue)]]
After the [[Korean War]], the [[Soviet Union]] transferred nuclear technology and weapons to the [[People's Republic of China]] as an adversary of the United States and [[NATO]]. According to [[Ion Mihai Pacepa]], "Khrushchev's nuclear-proliferation process started with Communist China in April 1955, when the new ruler in the Kremlin consented to supply Beijing a sample atomic bomb and to help with its mass production. Subsequently, the Soviet Union built all the essentials of China's new [[China and weapons of mass destruction#Nuclear weapons|military nuclear industry]]."<ref name="bomb">[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=YmU3NjM4ZTg3NjViMTUyNWJmYWYzMDE4ZmRhOTQxZmI= Tyrants and the Bomb] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606154259/http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=YmU3NjM4ZTg3NjViMTUyNWJmYWYzMDE4ZmRhOTQxZmI= |date=June 6, 2009 }} - by [[Ion Mihai Pacepa]], ''[[National Review]]'', October 17, 2006</ref>

Russia is one of the five "Nuclear Weapons States" (NWS) under the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]] (NPT), which Russia ratified (as the [[Soviet Union]]) in 1968.

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, a number of Soviet-era nuclear warheads remained on the territories of Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. Under the terms of the [[Lisbon Protocol]] to the NPT, and following the 1995 Trilateral Agreement between Russia, Belarus, and the US, these were transferred to Russia, leaving Russia as the sole inheritor of the Soviet nuclear arsenal. It is estimated that the Soviet Union had approximately 45,000 nuclear weapons stockpiled at the time of its collapse, according to [[Viktor Mikhaylov (academic)|Viktor Mikhaylov]], head of the [[Federal Agency on Atomic Energy (Russia)]].<ref name="Management and Disposition of Excess Weapons Plutonium">{{cite book |author1=Committee on International Security and Arms Control |title=Management and Disposition of Excess Weapons Plutonium |date=January 15, 1994 |publisher=National Academies Press |location=41 |isbn=978-0-309-05042-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IYEOUEgYhloC |access-date=14 December 2023 |language=En |format=Paperback |quote=... Victor Mikhailov, head of the Russian Ministry of Atomic Energy (MINATOM), reportedly indicated that the Russian ... Soviet Atom Arsenal Was Larger Than West Estimated," The New York Times, September 26, 1993. Mikhailov's figures are ...}}</ref>

The collapse of the Soviet Union allowed for a warming of relations with NATO. Fears of a [[nuclear holocaust]] lessened. In September 1997, the former secretary of the Russian Security Council [[Alexander Lebed]] claimed 100 "suitcase sized" nuclear weapons were unaccounted for. He said he was attempting to inventory the weapons when he was fired by President Boris Yeltsin in October 1996.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.armscontrol.org/act/1997_09/lebedsept|title=Russian Officials Deny Claims Of Missing Nuclear Weapons|access-date=October 24, 2014}}</ref> Indeed, several US politicians have expressed worries and promised legislation addressing the threat.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/1010/nuclear_dangers.html?breadcrumb=%2F|title=Nuclear Dangers: Fear Increases of Terrorists Getting Hands on 'Loose' Warheads as Security Slips|date=October 19, 1997|access-date=October 24, 2014|archive-date=December 30, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230234553/http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/1010/nuclear_dangers.html?breadcrumb=%2F|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Obama and Medvedev sign Prague Treaty 2010.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Dmitry Medvedev]] with [[Barack Obama]] after signing the [[New START]] treaty in Prague, 2010]]
There were allegations that Russia contributed to the [[North Korean nuclear program]], selling it the equipment for the safe storage and transportation of [[nuclear material]]s.<ref name="Korea">[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/northkorea/1523468/Russia-secretly-offered-North-Korea-nuclear-technology.html Russia secretly offered North Korea nuclear technology] - by a Special Correspondent in Pyongyang and Michael Hirst, ''Telegraph'', September 7, 2006.</ref> Nevertheless, Russia has condemned North Korean nuclear tests since then.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-05/28/content_11446860.htm|title=Russia expresses serious concern over DPRK nuke issue|access-date=October 24, 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095937/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-05/28/content_11446860.htm|archive-date=March 4, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The Russian Federation has also wider commercial interests in selling the nuclear technology to India and [[Iran]], reaching understanding memorandums in training their technicians in their respected nuclear programs. Russia is allegedly making efforts to build its influential hold in Africa for earning several billions of pounds by selling nuclear technology to developing African countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kyivpost.com/russia/guardian-russia-pushing-unsuitable-nuclear-power-in-africa.html|title=Guardian: Russia pushing 'unsuitable' nuclear power in Africa|date=August 28, 2019 |access-date=28 August 2019|publisher=Kyiv Post}}</ref>

Russia has reportedly trained its navy to target European sites with nuclear-capable missiles in a potential conflict with NATO, according to leaked documents. The plans reveal a strategy for strikes across Western Europe, emphasizing Russia's reliance on nuclear weapons due to its conventional military limitations.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Seddon |first1=Max |last2=Chris |first2=Cook |date=2024-08-12 |title=Russian navy trained to target sites inside Europe with nuclear-capable missiles |language=en |work=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/237e1e55-401d-4eeb-875b-03fe68f81575 |access-date=2024-08-20}}</ref>

===Nuclear sabotage allegations===
The highest-ranking [[Glavnoye Razvedyvatel'noye Upravleniye|GRU]] defector [[Stanislav Lunev]] described alleged Soviet plans for using [[tactical nuclear weapons]] for [[sabotage]] against the United States in the event of war. He described Soviet-made [[suitcase nukes]] identified as RA-115s (or RA-115-01s for submersible weapons) which weigh {{convert|50|-|60|lb|kg}}. These portable bombs can last for many years if wired to an electric source. "In case there is a loss of power, there is a battery backup. If the battery runs low, the weapon has a transmitter that sends a coded message – either by satellite or directly to a [[GRU (Russian Federation)|GRU]] post at a [[List of diplomatic missions in Russia|Russian embassy or consulate]]."<ref name="Lunev">[[Stanislav Lunev]]. ''Through the Eyes of the Enemy: The Autobiography of Stanislav Lunev'', Regnery, 1998. {{ISBN|0-89526-390-4}}.</ref>

Lunev was personally looking for hiding places for weapons caches in the [[Shenandoah Valley]] area.<ref name="Lunev"/> He said that "it is surprisingly easy to smuggle nuclear weapons into the US" either across the [[Mexico–United States border|Mexican border]] or using a small transport missile that can slip though undetected when launched from a Russian airplane.<ref name="Lunev"/> Searches of the areas identified by Lunev – who admits he never planted any weapons in the US – have been conducted, "but law-enforcement officials have never found such weapons caches, with or without portable nuclear weapons" in the US.<ref>Steve Goldstein and Chris Mondics, "Some Weldon-backed allegations unconfirmed; Among them: A plot to crash planes into a reactor, and missing suitcase-size Soviet atomic weapons". ''Philadelphia Inquirer'' (15 March 2006) A7.</ref>

In a 2004 interview, colonel general of [[Strategic Missile Forces|RVSN]] [[Viktor Yesin]] said that Soviet small-scale nuclear bombs have only been operated by the Army. All such devices have been stored in a weapons depot within Russia, and only left it for checks at the plant which produced them.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Novikova |first1=Inna |title=Куда исчезли 'ядерные чемоданчики'? |url=https://military.pravda.ru/46851-sadm/ |work=[[Pravda]] |date=March 29, 2004 |language=ru}}</ref>

===2020 Russian nuclear deterrence state policy===

On June 2, 2020, President Putin signed an [[Decree of the President of Russia|Executive Order]] formally titled "Fundamentals of Russia’s Nuclear Deterrence State Policy", in an unprecedented public release of an official document on Russia's nuclear policy.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/06/whats-in-russias-new-nuclear-deterrence-basic-principles/ | title=What's in Russia's New Nuclear Deterrence 'Basic Principles'? }}</ref> The six-page document identified the range of threats that Russia seeks to deter with its nuclear forces, clarified Russia's general approach to nuclear deterrence, and articulated conditions under which Russia might use of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://warontherocks.com/2020/06/revelations-about-russias-nuclear-deterrence-policy/ | title=Revelations about Russia's Nuclear Deterrence Policy | date=June 19, 2020 }}</ref> The policy endorses the use of nuclear weapons in response to a non-nuclear strike due to the improved capabilities of U.S. conventional weapons.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://apnews.com/article/vladimir-putin-moscow-international-news-nuclear-weapons-politics-4f1772d79852e63ad9338ac557e009f1 | title=Putin signs Russia's nuclear deterrent policy | website=[[Associated Press]] | date=April 21, 2021 }}</ref>

===Radiological weapons===
The [[Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko|assassination of Alexander Litvinenko]] by Russian state agents with radioactive polonium was described as the beginning of an era of [[nuclear terrorism]] using [[radiological weapons]].<ref>"Ushering in the era of nuclear terrorism", by Patterson, Andrew J. MD, PhD, ''Critical Care Medicine'', v. 35, p. 953-954, 2007.</ref><ref>"Beyond the Dirty Bomb: Re-thinking Radiological Terror", by James M. Acton; M. Brooke Rogers; Peter D. Zimmerman, {{doi|10.1080/00396330701564760}}, ''Survival'', Volume 49, Issue 3 September 2007, pp. 151 – 168</ref><ref name="Bellona">[https://bellona.org/news/nuclear-issues/radioactive-waste-and-spent-nuclear-fuel/2006-12-radiological-terrorism-soft-killers Radiological Terrorism: 'Soft Killers'] by Morten Bremer Mærli, [[Bellona Foundation]]</ref>

===Russian invasion of Ukraine===
{{see also|Nuclear risk during the Russian invasion of Ukraine}}
[[File:Vladimir Putin (2022-09-20) 2.jpg|thumb|[[Vladimir Putin]] in September 2022]]
During the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] that began in 2022, Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] placed [[Strategic Rocket Forces]]'s [[nuclear deterrence]] units on high alert, a move heavily condemned internationally.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.9news.com.au/world/russia-ukraine-update-peace-talks-kremlin-arrive-belarus-president-zelenskyy-refuses-location/6686c934-0364-45ea-90dc-2233fe745b16|title = West slams Putin 'dangerous rhetoric' after Russian leader puts nuclear forces on alert| date=February 28, 2022 }}</ref> Putin warned that "whoever tries to hinder us in [[Ukraine]] would see consequences, you have never seen in your history".<ref>{{cite news |title=Putin implies nuclear attack if West interferes in Ukraine. Why it's not just an empty threat |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/putin-ukraine-nato-nuclear-weapons-1.6362890 |publisher=CBC News |date=25 February 2022}}</ref> According to the US Director of National Intelligence, [[Avril Haines]], Putin could potentially turn to nuclear weapons if he perceived an "existential threat" to the Russian state or regime;<ref>{{cite news |title=Putin prepping 'prolonged conflict' beyond Donbas, could escalate nuclear threats: Top US intel official |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/putin-prepping-prolonged-conflict-donbas-escalate-nuclear-threats/story?id=84626300 |work=ABC News |date=10 May 2022}}</ref> there has been speculation that he could regard defeat in Ukraine as an existential threat to his regime.<ref>{{cite news |title=Putin could use nuclear weapon if he felt war being lost – US intelligence chief |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/10/putin-nuclear-weapons-us-intelligence-avril-haines |work=The Guardian |date=10 May 2022}}</ref>

According to a peer-reviewed study published in the journal ''[[Nature Food]]'' in August 2022,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Global food insecurity and famine from reduced crop, marine fishery and livestock production due to climate disruption from nuclear war soot injection |journal=[[Nature Food]] |date=15 August 2022 |doi=10.1038/s43016-022-00573-0 |last1=Xia |first1=Lili |last2=Robock |first2=Alan |last3=Scherrer |first3=Kim |last4=Harrison |first4=Cheryl S. |last5=Bodirsky |first5=Benjamin Leon |last6=Weindl |first6=Isabelle |last7=Jägermeyr |first7=Jonas |last8=Bardeen |first8=Charles G. |last9=Toon |first9=Owen B. |last10=Heneghan |first10=Ryan |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=586–596 |pmid=37118594 |s2cid=251601831 |doi-access=free |hdl=11250/3039288 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> a full-scale nuclear war between the [[United States]] and [[Russia]], which together hold more than 90% of the world's nuclear weapons, would kill 360 million people directly and more than 5 billion indirectly by starvation during a [[nuclear winter]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Diaz-Maurin |first1=François |title=Nowhere to hide: How a nuclear war would kill you — and almost everyone else |url=https://thebulletin.org/2022/10/nowhere-to-hide-how-a-nuclear-war-would-kill-you-and-almost-everyone-else/ |work=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]] |date=20 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=World Nuclear war between the U.S. and Russia would kill more than 5 billion people – just from starvation, study finds |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/nuclear-war-5-billion-people-starvation-deaths-study/ |work=CBS News |date=16 August 2022}}</ref>

In September 2022, Putin announced the [[2022 Russian mobilization|mobilization of Russian forces]], and threatened nuclear retaliation against the west if Russia's territorial integrity was threatened.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/21/putin-announces-partial-mobilisation-in-russia-in-escalation-of-ukraine-war | title=Putin announces partial mobilisation and threatens nuclear retaliation in escalation of Ukraine war | website=[[TheGuardian.com]] | date=September 21, 2022 }}</ref>

On February 21, 2023, Putin suspended Russia's participation in the [[New START]] [[Nuclear disarmament|nuclear arms reduction]] treaty with the United States,<ref>{{cite news |title=Putin pulls back from last remaining nuclear arms control pact with the US |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/02/21/europe/putin-russia-new-start-nuclear-pact-intl/index.html |work=CNN |date=21 February 2023}}</ref> saying that Russia would not allow the US and NATO to inspect its nuclear facilities.<ref>{{cite news |title=Putin defends Ukraine invasion, warns West in address |language=en |publisher=[[NHK World]] |url=https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/20230221_43/ |date=21 February 2023}}</ref> On March 25, 2023, Putin announced that Russia would be stationing tactical nuclear operations in Belarus.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 March 2023 |title=Putin Says Russia to Place Tactical Nuclear Arms in Belarus |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-03-25/putin-says-russia-will-station-tactical-nuclear-arms-in-belarus?srnd=fixed-income#xj4y7vzkg |access-date=25 March 2023}}</ref> On June 14, 2023, Belarusian President [[Aleksander Lukashenko]] stated that Belarus had started to take delivery of nuclear weapons in a TV interview with [[Television in Russia|Russian state channel]], [[Russia-1]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 June 2023 |title=Belarus starts taking delivery of Russian nuclear weapons |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/belarus-has-started-taking-delivery-russian-tactical-nuclear-weapons-president-2023-06-14/ |access-date=28 June 2023}}</ref>

==Biological weapons==
{{Main|Soviet biological weapons program}}

The Soviet Union covertly operated the world's largest, longest, and most sophisticated biological weapons programs.<ref name=":0"/> The program began in the 1920s and lasted until at least September 1992 but has possibly been continued by Russia after that.<ref name=":0" /> Thereby, the Soviet Union violated its obligations under the [[Biological Weapons Convention]], which it had signed on April 10, 1972, and ratified on March 26, 1975.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Status of the Biological Weapons Convention|url=http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/bwc|access-date=2021-02-07|website=[[United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs]]}}</ref>

In the early 1970s, the Soviet Union significantly enlarged its offensive biological weapons programs.<ref>Leitenberg, M., Zilinskas, R., & Kuhn, J. (2012). Beginnings of the “Modern” Soviet BW program, 1970–1977. In ''The Soviet Biological Weapons Program'' (pp. 51-78). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Harvard University Press. Retrieved February 7, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2jbscf.7</ref> After 1975, the program of biological weapons was run primarily by the "civilian" [[Biopreparat]] agency, although it also included numerous facilities run by the [[Ministry of Defense (Soviet Union)|Soviet Ministry of Defense]], [[Ministry of Agriculture and Food (Soviet Union)|Ministry of Agriculture]], [[Ministry of the Chemical Industry (Soviet Union)|Ministry of Chemical Industry]], [[Ministry of Health (Soviet Union)|Ministry of Health]], and [[Soviet Academy of Sciences]].<ref name="Alibek">Alibek, K. and S. Handelman. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World– Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it. Delta (2000) {{ISBN|0-385-33496-6}}</ref>

According to [[Ken Alibek]], who was deputy-director of [[Biopreparat]], the Soviet biological weapons agency, and who defected to the United States in 1992, weapons were developed in labs in isolated areas of the Soviet Union including mobilization facilities at [[Omutninsk]], [[Penza]] and [[Pokrov, Vladimir Oblast|Pokrov]] and research facilities at [[Moscow]], [[Stirzhi]] and [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir]]. These weapons were tested at several facilities most often at "Rebirth Island" ([[Vozrozhdeniya]]) in the [[Aral Sea]] by firing the weapons into the air above monkeys tied to posts, the monkeys would then be monitored to determine the effects. According to Alibek, although Soviet offensive program was officially ended in 1992, Russia may be still involved in the activities prohibited by BWC.<ref name="Alibek"/>

In 1993, the story about the [[Sverdlovsk anthrax leak]] was published in Russia. The incident occurred when [[spore]]s of [[anthrax]] were accidentally released from a military facility in the city of Sverdlovsk (formerly, and now again, [[Yekaterinburg]]) {{convert|1500|km|abbr=on}} east of Moscow on April 2, 1979. The ensuing outbreak of the disease resulted in 94 people becoming infected, 64 of whom died over a period of six weeks.<ref name="Alibek"/>

As of 2021, the [[United States Department of State]] "assesses that the Russian Federation (Russia) maintains an offensive [biological weapons] program and is in violation of its obligation under Articles I and II of the BWC. The issue of compliance by Russia with the BWC has been of concern for many years".<ref>{{Cite web|title=2021 Adherence to and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments|url=https://www.state.gov/2021-adherence-to-and-compliance-with-arms-control-nonproliferation-and-disarmament-agreements-and-commitments/|access-date=2021-10-30|website=United States Department of State|language=en}}</ref>

==Chemical weapons==

Russia signed the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] on January 13, 1993, and ratified it on November 5, 1997. Russia declared an arsenal of 39,967 tons of [[Chemical warfare|chemical weapons]] in 1997 consisting of:
*[[blister agent]]s: [[Lewisite]], [[mustard gas|mustard]], Lewisite-mustard-mix (HL)
*[[nerve agent]]s: [[Sarin]], [[Soman]], [[VX (nerve agent)|VX]]

[[Ratification]] was followed by three years of inaction on chemical weapons destruction because of the [[August 1998 Russian financial crisis]].

Russia met its treaty obligations by destroying 1% of its chemical agents by the Chemical Weapons Convention's 2002 deadline,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.opcw.org/html/global/ra_frameset.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040406043031/http://www.opcw.org/html/global/ra_frameset.html|title=Recent Updates|archive-date=April 6, 2004}}</ref> but requested technical and financial assistance and extensions on the deadlines of 2004 and 2007 due to the environmental challenges of chemical disposal. This extension procedure spelled out in the treaty has been utilized by other countries, including the [[United States and weapons of mass destruction#Chemical weapons disposal|United States]]. The extended deadline for complete destruction (April 2012) was not met.<ref name=sixty>[http://www.opcw.org/nc/news/article/global-campaign-to-destroy-chemical-weapons-passes-60-percent-mark/ "Global Campaign to Destroy Chemical Weapons Passes 60 Percent Mark"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100711085547/http://www.opcw.org/nc/news/article/global-campaign-to-destroy-chemical-weapons-passes-60-percent-mark/ |date=July 11, 2010 }}. ''[[OPCW]]''. July 8, 2010. Retrieved August 19, 2010.</ref> As of October 2011, Russia had destroyed 57% of its stockpile. Russia also destroyed all of its declared Category 2 (10,616 MTs) and Category 3 chemicals.<ref name=CSP16 />

Russia has stored its chemical weapons (or the required chemicals) which it declared within the CWC at 8 locations: in [[Gorny, Krasnopartizansky District, Saratov Oblast|Gorny]] ([[Saratov Oblast]]) (2.9% of the declared stockpile by mass) and [[Kambarka]] ([[Udmurtia|Udmurt Republic]]) (15.9%) stockpiles already have been destroyed. In [[Shchuchye, Shchuchansky District, Kurgan Oblast|Shchuchye]] ([[Kurgan Oblast]]) (13.6%), [[Maradykovsky]] ([[Kirov Oblast]]) (17.4%) and [[Leonidovka]] ([[Penza Oblast]]) (17.2%) destruction takes place, while installations are under construction in [[Pochep, Bryansk Oblast|Pochep]] ([[Bryansk Oblast]]) (18.8%) and [[Kizner]] ([[Udmurtia|Udmurt Republic]]) (14.2%).<ref name=NTIchem>{{cite web|url=http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/russia/chemical/index.html/|title=Russia profile|publisher=NTI.org|year=2009|access-date=2010-09-17|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605083958/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Russia/Chemical/index.html|archive-date=June 5, 2011|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

The last Russian chemical disposal facility in [[Kizner (settlement)|Kizner]], [[Udmurtia]], was opened in December 2013.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2013/12/new-chemical-weapons-destruction-facility-opens-kizner-russian-federation|title=New Chemical Weapons Destruction Facility Opens at Kizner in the Russian Federation|website=OPCW}}</ref>

On September 27, 2017, OPCW announced that Russia had destroyed its entire declared chemical weapons stockpile,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rbc.ru/society/27/09/2017/59cb9f2b9a79472490943b5b|title=Путин поучаствовал в уничтожении последнего в России килограмма химоружия|website=РБК|date=September 27, 2017 |access-date=2018-01-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2017/09/opcw-director-general-commends-major-milestone-russia-completes|title=OPCW Director-General Commends Major Milestone as Russia Completes Destruction of Chemical Weapons Stockpile under OPCW Verification|website=OPCW}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.opcw.org/fileadmin/OPCW/CSP/C-22/national_statements/UK_Statement.pdf|title=UK Delegation to the OPCW}}</ref> even though they continued using [[Novichok agent]]s. Ukraine claims Russia used chemical weapons in Mariupol.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/12/did-russia-really-use-chemical-weapons-mariupol-ukraine-expert-remain-sceptical | title=Did Russia really use chemical weapons in Ukraine? Experts are sceptical | website=[[TheGuardian.com]] | date=April 12, 2022 }}</ref>

===Novichok agents===
{{Main|Novichok agent}}

A range of Novichok agents were developed and tested in the 1970s and 1980s, but the intended Novichok weapons production site at the Pavlodar Chemical Plant in [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet Kazakhstan]] was still under construction when it was decided to demolish the chemical weapons building in 1987 in view of the forthcoming [[Chemical Weapons Convention]].<ref name=nti-201504>{{cite web |url=http://www.nti.org/learn/countries/kazakhstan/chemical/ |title=Kazakhstan – Chemical |publisher=Nuclear Threat Initiative |date=April 2015 |access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref><ref name=bozheyeva-2000>{{cite report |url=https://www.nonproliferation.org/wp-content/uploads/npr/72bozh.pdf |title=The Pavlodar Chemical Weapons Plant in Kazakhstan: History and Legacy |last=Bozheyeva |first=Gulbarshyn |publisher=The Nonproliferation Review |date=Summer 2000 |access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref>

In March 2018, former [[GRU (Russian Federation)|GRU]] agent [[Sergei Skripal]] and his daughter [[Poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal|were poisoned]] in [[Salisbury]], United Kingdom by a chemical agent later confirmed to be Novichok.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-43741140|title=Inspectors back UK in spy poisoning row|work=BBC News|date=April 12, 2018}}</ref> The incident raised new controversy over Russia's potential production and use of chemical weapons, with the [[United Kingdom]] accusing the Russian government or rogue Russian agents of orchestrating the attack, a claim Russia repeatedly denied.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/the-curious-case-of-yulia-skripals-recorded-phone-call/a-43287554|title=The curious case of Yulia Skripal's recorded phone call|date=April 6, 2018|website=Deutsche Welle}}</ref>

In August 2020, Russian opposition figure and anti-corruption activist [[Alexei Navalny]] [[Poisoning of Alexei Navalny|was poisoned]] in [[Tomsk]], Russia by a chemical agent later confirmed to be Novichok.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-politics-navalny-chemicalweapo-idUSKBN26R2GQ|title=Chemical weapons body confirms nerve agent Novichok in Navalny's blood|date=October 6, 2020|website=reuters.com|access-date=December 22, 2020}}</ref> A joint investigation by [[Bellingcat]], [[CNN]], [[Der Spiegel]], and [[The Insider (website)|The Insider]] with contributions from [[El País]] implicates Russia's [[Federal Security Service]] (FSB) in the near-fatal nerve-agent poisoning,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bellingcat.com/news/uk-and-europe/2020/12/14/fsb-team-of-chemical-weapon-experts-implicated-in-alexey-navalny-novichok-poisoning/|title=FSB Team of Chemical Weapon Experts Implicated in Alexey Navalny Novichok Poisoning|date=December 14, 2020|website=bellingcat.com|access-date=December 22, 2020}}</ref> a fact denied by Russia. Navalny later called what appears to be one of the FSB agents responsible for the cleanup operation who indicates they were tasked to clean Navalny's underpants of Novichok.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/12/21/europe/russia-navalny-poisoning-underpants-ward/index.html|title=Russian opposition leader Alexey Navalny dupes spy into revealing how he was poisoned|date=December 21, 2020|publisher=[[CNN.com]]|access-date=December 22, 2020}}</ref>

Another Russia chemical weapon is [[Kolokol-1]], an [[aerosol]]ized [[opioid]] incapacitating agent though to be [[carfentanil]].<ref name="Schwenk2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schwenk M | title = Chemical warfare agents. Classes and targets | journal = Toxicol Lett | volume = 293 | issue = | pages = 253–263 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 29197625 | doi = 10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.11.040 | url = }}</ref>

=== Use during the invasion of Ukraine===
In the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]], Russian forces reportedly used chemical weapons 465 times between February 24, 2022, and December 2023, usually as [[tear gas]] grenades.<ref name="Hambling 2023 z855">{{cite web | last=Hambling | first=David | title=What We Know About Russian Chemical Weapon Attacks | website=Forbes | date=29 December 2023 | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2023/12/29/what-we-know-about-russian-chemical-weapon-attacks/ | access-date=23 March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kondrat |first=Anastasiia |date=2023-12-27 |title=Russia has launched 465 chemical attacks since the start of the full-scale invasion |url=https://svidomi.in.ua/en/page/russia-has-launched-465-chemical-attacks-since-the-start-of-the-full-scale-invasion |access-date=2023-12-27 |website=Svidomi |language=en}}</ref> The use of tear gas is banned by international [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] and considered a chemical weapon if applied by military forces during warfare.<ref name="Field 2024 s609">{{cite web | last=Field | first=Matt | title=Russia appears to be using chemical weapons in Ukraine. And admitting it. | website=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists | date=15 March 2024 | url=https://thebulletin.org/2024/03/russia-appears-to-be-using-chemical-weapons-in-ukraine-and-admitting-it/ | access-date=23 March 2024}}</ref> The United States accused Russia of also using [[Chloropicrin]] as a chemical weapon in Ukraine.<ref>{{cite web | last=Murphy | first=Matt | title=Russia using chemical choking agents in Ukraine, US says | website=BBC | date=2 May 2024 | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-68941220 | access-date=14 May 2024}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]
* [[Defense industry of Russia]]
* [[Father of All Bombs]]
* [[List of Russian weaponry makers]]
* [[Military doctrine of Russia]]
* [[New physical principles weapons]]
* [[Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction]]
* [[Soviet biological weapons program]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* Kostenko, Y., & D’Anieri, P. (2021). ''Ukraine’s Nuclear Disarmament: A History'' (S. Krasynska, L. Wolanskyj, & O. Jennings, Trans.). Cambridge: Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute.

==External links==
*Video archive of the [https://archive.today/20130104191058/http://sonicbomb.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=110 Soviet Union's Nuclear Testing] at [http://www.sonicbomb.com sonicbomb.com]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040311171221/http://www.opcw.org/synthesis/html/s6/p4prt.html Abolishing Weapons of Mass Destruction: Addressing Cold War and Other Wartime Legacies in the Twenty-First Century] by [[Mikhail S. Gorbachev]]
*[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2022.2038907?needAccess=true Russian nuclear weapons in 2022], by [[Federation of American Scientists]]
*[http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Russia/index.html Nuclear Threat Initiative on Russia] by [[National Journal]]
*[https://fas.org/nuke/guide/summary.htm Nuclear stockpile estimate] fas.org
*[https://fas.org/nuke/guide/russia/cbw/jptac008_l94001.htm Chemical Weapons in Russia: History, Ecology, Politics] by Lev Fedorov, Moscow, Center of Ecological Policy of Russia, 27 July 1994
*[https://fas.org/nuke/guide/russia/lanl-history.pdf History of the Russian Nuclear Weapons Program] fas.org
*[http://bos.sagepub.com/content/68/1/94.full.pdf+html Nuclear pursuits, 2012]

{{Soviet Atomic Bomb Project}}
{{Soviet nuclear weapons}}
{{Russian and Soviet missiles}}
{{Armed Forces of the Russian Federation}}
{{Russian invasion of Ukraine}}

[[Category:Nuclear weapons programme of Russia| ]]
[[Category:Weapons of Russia]]
[[Category:Weapons of mass destruction by country]]
[[Category:Nuclear weapons program of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Soviet chemical weapons program]]
[[Category:Soviet biological weapons program]]

Nuclear weapons of the United States

2024-10-28T16:49:54Z

Brandmeister: +

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Infobox nukes
| country_name = [[United States]]
| image_location = United States (orthographic projection).svg
| program_start = 21 October 1939
| first_test = 16 July 1945
| first_fusion = 1 November 1952
| last_test = 23 September 1992<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/23-september-1992-last-us-nuclear-test/ |title=23 September 1992 – Last U.S. Nuclear Test |department=Testing Times |website = [[Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization]] |access-date=11 November 2017 }}</ref>
| largest_yield = 15 [[TNT equivalent|Mt]] (63 [[Joule|PJ]]) ([[Castle Bravo|1 March 1954]])
| total_tests = 1,054 detonations
| peak_stockpile = 31,255
warheads (1967)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defense.gov/npr/docs/10-05-03_Fact_Sheet_US_Nuclear_Transparency__FINAL_w_Date.pdf |title=Increasing Transparency in the U.S. Nuclear Weapons Stockpile |website=[[Nuclear Posture Review]] |type=Fact Sheet |publisher=[[United States Department of Defense]] |date=3 May 2010 }}</ref>
| current_stockpile = 3,708 (2024)<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Notebook: United States nuclear weapons, 2024 |url=https://thebulletin.org/premium/2024-05/united-states-nuclear-weapons-2024/ |date= 7 May 2024 |website=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists}}</ref>
| current_usable_stockpile_megatonnage =
| maximum_range = [[ICBM]]: {{Convert|15000|km|0|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} [[SLBM]]: {{Convert|12000|km|0|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}
| NPT_party = Yes (1968)
}}
{{nuclear weapons}}

The [[United States]] was the first country to manufacture [[nuclear weapon]]s and is the only country to have used them in [[combat]], with the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] in [[World War II]] against [[Empire of Japan|Japan]]. Before and during the [[Cold War]], it conducted 1,054 [[Nuclear weapons testing|nuclear tests]], and tested many [[nuclear triad|long-range]] [[nuclear weapons delivery]] systems.{{#tag:ref|According to Carey Sublette's Nuclear Weapon Archive, the United States "tested (by official count) 1054 nuclear tests" between 1945 and 1992.<ref name="nucleararchive">{{cite web |url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/index.html |title=Gallery of U.S. Nuclear Tests |website=The Nuclear Weapon Archive |date=6 August 2001}}</ref>|group="Note"}}

Between 1940 and 1996, the [[U.S. federal government]] spent at least [[US$]]{{Format price|{{Inflation|US|5821000000000|1996|r=3}}}} in present-day terms{{Inflation-fn|US}} on nuclear weapons, including platforms development (aircraft, rockets and facilities), command and control, maintenance, [[waste]] management and administrative costs.<ref name="brook">{{cite web |website=[[Brookings Institution]] |title=Estimated Minimum Incurred Costs of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Programs, 1940–1996 |url=http://www.brookings.edu/about/projects/archive/nucweapons/figure1 |access-date=18 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220043/http://www.brookings.edu/about/projects/archive/nucweapons/figure1 |archive-date=4 October 2013 }}</ref> It is estimated that the United States produced more than 70,000 nuclear warheads since 1945, more than all other nuclear weapon states combined.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.nrdc.org/nuclear/files/nuc_01049601a_160.pdf |title=The Arsenals of the Nuclear Weapons Powers: An Overview |last1=Paine |first1=Christopher E. |last2=Cochran |first2=Thomas B. |last3=Norris |first3=Robert S. |website=[[Natural Resources Defense Council]] |date=4 January 1996 |access-date=22 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230734/http://docs.nrdc.org/nuclear/files/nuc_01049601a_160.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Until November 1962, the vast majority of U.S. [[nuclear test]]s were above ground. After the acceptance of the [[Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty]], all testing was relegated underground, in order to prevent the dispersion of [[nuclear fallout]].<ref name="An Aging Army">{{cite journal|last1=Gross|first1=Daniel A.|title=An Aging Army|journal=Distillations|date=2016|volume=2|issue=1|pages=26–36|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/an-aging-army|access-date=28 March 2022}}</ref>

By 1998, at least US$759 million had been paid to the [[Marshall Islands|Marshall Islanders]] in compensation for their exposure to U.S. nuclear testing.<ref name="Brookings"/><ref name="usdoj">{{cite web |title=Radiation Exposure Compensation System Claims to Date Summary of Claims Received by 08/15/2013 All Claims |url=http://www.usdoj.gov/civil/omp/omi/Tre_SysClaimsToDateSum.pdf |website=[[United States Department of Justice]] |date=16 August 2013}} – updated regularly</ref> By March 2021 over US$2.5 billion in compensation had been paid to U.S. citizens exposed to nuclear hazards as a result of the U.S. nuclear weapons program.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Montoya Bryan|first=Susan|date=2021-04-20|title=People downwind of atomic blasts renew push for US payout|url=https://apnews.com/article/people-near-atomic-tests-seek-us-payout-89290c43c3af08600f34c8914528b029|access-date=2021-08-17|website=AP NEWS|language=en}}</ref>

In 2019, the U.S. and [[Russia]] possessed a comparable number of nuclear warheads; together, these two nations possess more than 90% of the world's nuclear weapons stockpile.<ref>{{cite news |first=Kelsey |last=Reichmann |title=Here's how many nuclear warheads exist, and which countries own them |url=https://www.defensenews.com/global/2019/06/16/heres-how-many-nuclear-warheads-exist-and-which-countries-own-them/ |work=[[Defense News]] |access-date=16 April 2021 |date=16 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Global Nuclear Arsenal Declines, But Future Cuts Uncertain Amid U.S.-Russia Tensions |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/nuclear-weapons-russia-start-inf-warheads/30003088.html |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=17 June 2019}}</ref> In 2024, it was estimated that the United States held 1,770 deployed warheads, 1,938 in reserve, and 1,336 retired and awaiting dismantlement, in total 5,044 nuclear warheads.<ref name="bulletin 2024">{{cite web |title=United States nuclear weapons, 2024 |url=https://thebulletin.org/premium/2024-05/united-states-nuclear-weapons-2024/ |website=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists}}</ref> The projected costs for maintaining U.S. nuclear forces are $60 billion per year during the 2021–2030 period.<ref>{{cite web |title=Projected Costs of U.S. Nuclear Forces, 2021 to 2030 |url=https://www.cbo.gov/publication/57130 |publisher=Congressional Budget Office |language=en |date=24 May 2021}}</ref>

==Development history==

===Manhattan Project===
{{Main|Manhattan Project}}
[[File:Trinity Detonation T&B.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity test]] of the [[Manhattan Project]] was the first detonation of a [[nuclear weapon]].]]
The United States first began developing nuclear weapons during [[World War II]] under the order of [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt]] in 1939, motivated by the fear that they were engaged in a race with [[Nazi Germany]] to develop [[German nuclear energy project|such a weapon]]. After a slow start under the direction of the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|National Bureau of Standards]], at the urging of British scientists and American administrators, the program was put under the [[Office of Scientific Research and Development]], and in 1942 it was officially transferred under the auspices of the [[United States Army]] and became known as the [[Manhattan Project]], an American, British and Canadian joint venture. Under the direction of [[General (United States)|General]] [[Leslie Groves]], over thirty different sites were constructed for the research, production, and testing of components related to bomb-making. These included the [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]] at [[Los Alamos, New Mexico]], under the direction of physicist [[Robert Oppenheimer]], the [[Hanford Site|Hanford]] [[plutonium]] production facility in [[Washington (state)|Washington]], and the [[Y-12 National Security Complex]] in [[Tennessee]].

By investing heavily in breeding plutonium in early [[nuclear reactor]]s and in the electromagnetic and gaseous diffusion enrichment processes for the production of [[uranium-235]], the United States was able to develop three usable weapons by mid-1945. The [[Trinity test]] was a plutonium [[Nuclear weapon design|implosion-design]] weapon tested on 16 July 1945, with around a 20 [[kiloton]] yield.<ref>{{Cite magazine|date=2015-07-16|title=The Light of Trinity, the World's First Nuclear Bomb|url=https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/the-first-light-of-the-trinity-atomic-test|access-date=2021-08-17|magazine=The New Yorker|language=en-US}}</ref>

Faced with a planned [[Operation Olympic|invasion of the Japanese home islands]] scheduled to begin on 1 November 1945 and with [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] not surrendering, President [[Harry S. Truman]] ordered the atomic raids on Japan. On 6 August 1945, the U.S. detonated a uranium-[[Nuclear weapons design|gun design]] bomb, [[Little Boy]], over the Japanese city of [[Hiroshima]] with an energy of about 15 kilotons of TNT, killing approximately 70,000 people, among them 20,000 Japanese [[combatant]]s and 20,000 Korean [[Forced labour|slave laborers]], and destroying nearly 50,000 buildings (including the [[Second General Army (Japan)|2nd General Army]] and [[5th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|Fifth Division]] [[headquarters]]). Three days later, on 9 August, the U.S. attacked [[Nagasaki]] using a plutonium implosion-design bomb, [[Fat Man]], with the explosion equivalent to about 20 kilotons of TNT, destroying 60% of the city and killing approximately 35,000 people, among them 23,200–28,200 Japanese munitions workers, 2,000 Korean slave laborers, and 150 Japanese combatants.<ref>{{cite book |title=Nuke-Rebuke: Writers & Artists Against Nuclear Energy & Weapons (The Contemporary anthology series) |pages=22–29 |date=1 May 1984 |publisher=The Spirit That Moves Us Press}}</ref>

On 1 January 1947, the [[Atomic Energy Act of 1946]] (known as the McMahon Act) took effect, and the Manhattan Project was officially turned over to the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission]] (AEC).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hewlett |first1=Richard G. |author-link=Richard G. Hewlett |last2=Anderson |first2=Oscar E. |title=The New World, 1939–1946 |location=University Park |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |year=1962
|url=https://www.governmentattic.org/5docs/TheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf |access-date=26 March 2013 |isbn=978-0-520-07186-5 |oclc=637004643 |page=641}}</ref>

On 15 August 1947, the Manhattan Project was abolished.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Vincent |title=Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb |publisher=United States Army Center of Military History |location=Washington, D.C. |year=1985 |oclc=10913875 |page=600}}</ref>

===During the Cold War===
[[File:Massale vredesdemonstratie in Bonn tegen de modernisering van kernwapens in West, Bestanddeelnr 253-8611.jpg|thumb|Protest in Bonn against the deployment of [[Pershing II]] missiles in West Germany, 1981]]
The American atomic stockpile was small and grew slowly in the immediate aftermath of World War II, and the size of that stockpile was a closely guarded secret.<ref>Young and Schilling, ''Super Bomb'', pp. 156–157.</ref> However, there were forces that pushed the United States towards greatly increasing the size of the stockpile. Some of these were international in origin and focused on the increasing tensions of the [[Cold War]], including the [[loss of China]], the Soviet Union [[RDS-1|becoming an atomic power]], and the onset of the [[Korean War]].<ref>Schwartz, "Introduction", in ''Atomic Audit'', pp. 12–13.</ref> And some of the forces were domestic – both the [[Truman administration]] and the [[Eisenhower administration]] wanted to rein in military spending and avoid budget deficits and inflation.<ref>Schwartz, "Introduction", in ''Atomic Audit'', pp. 13–14.</ref> It was the perception that nuclear weapons gave more "[[bang for the buck]]" and thus were the most cost-efficient way to respond to the security threat the [[Soviet Union]] represented.<ref>Schwartz, "Introduction", in ''Atomic Audit'', pp. 18–21.</ref>

As a result, beginning in 1950 the AEC embarked on a massive expansion of its production facilities, an effort that would eventually be one of the largest U.S. government construction projects ever to take place outside of wartime.<ref>Young and Schilling, ''Super Bomb'', pp. 69–70.</ref> And this production would soon include the far more powerful [[hydrogen bomb]], which the United States had decided to move forward with after an intense debate during 1949–50.<ref>Young and Schilling, ''Super Bomb'', pp. 1–2.</ref> as well as much smaller tactical atomic weapons for battlefield use.<ref>Schwartz, "Introduction", in ''Atomic Audit'', p. 13.</ref>

By 1990, the United States had produced more than 70,000 nuclear warheads, in over 65 different varieties, ranging in yield from around .01 kilotons (such as the man-portable [[Davy Crockett (nuclear device)|Davy Crockett shell]]) to the 25 megaton [[B41 nuclear bomb|B41 bomb]].<ref name="Brookings">{{cite web |website=[[Brookings Institution]] |title=50 Facts About U.S. Nuclear Weapons |url=https://www.brookings.edu/50-facts-about-u-s-nuclear-weapons/ |year=1998 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313163740/http://www.brookings.edu/about/projects/archive/nucweapons/50 |archive-date=13 March 2016 }}</ref> Between 1940 and 1996, the U.S. spent at least ${{Format price|{{Inflation|US|5821000000000|1996|r=3}}}} in present-day terms{{Inflation-fn|US}} on nuclear weapons development. Over half was spent on building delivery mechanisms for the weapon. ${{Format price|{{Inflation|US|365000000000|1996|r=3}}}} in present-day terms was spent on [[Radioactive waste|nuclear waste]] management and environmental remediation.<ref name="brook" />

[[Richland, Washington]] was the first city established to support plutonium production at the nearby [[Hanford nuclear site]], to power the American nuclear weapons arsenals. It produced [[plutonium]] for use in [[cold war]] [[atomic bombs]].<ref name=katebr>{{cite web |url=http://hnn.us/article/153096 |title=Kate Brown: Nuclear "Plutopias" the Largest Welfare Program in American History |author=Robert Lindley |year=2013|work=History News Network }}</ref>

Throughout the Cold War, the U.S. and USSR threatened with all-out nuclear attack in case of war, regardless of whether it was a conventional or a nuclear clash.<ref>Stone, Oliver and Kuznick, Peter, "The Untold History of the United States," (Gallery Books, 2012), pages 280–281</ref> U.S. nuclear doctrine called for [[mutually assured destruction]] (MAD), which entailed a massive nuclear attack against strategic targets and major populations centers of the Soviet Union and its allies. The term "mutual assured destruction" was coined in 1962 by American strategist Donald Brennan.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Whole earth security : a geopolitics of peace|last=Daniel.|first=Deudney|date=1983|publisher=Worldwatch Institute|isbn=978-0916468545|location=Washington, D.C., USA|pages=80|oclc=9833320}}</ref> MAD was implemented by deploying nuclear weapons simultaneously on three different types of weapons platforms.<ref name="NW">{{cite magazine |author=John Barry |url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/226494 |title=Do We Still Need a Nuclear 'Triad'? |magazine=[[Newsweek]] |date=12 December 2009 |access-date=8 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/USNuclearDeterrence.html |title=Nuclear Stockpile |publisher=US Department of Defense |author=Office for the Deputy Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Nuclear Matters |access-date=8 October 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100510015329/http://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/USNuclearDeterrence.html |archive-date=10 May 2010 }}</ref><ref name="Time">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,959948,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307080808/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,959948,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 March 2008 |title=Toning Up the Nuclear Triad |magazine=Time |date=23 September 1985 |access-date=8 October 2010}}</ref>

===Post–Cold War===
After the 1989 end of the [[Cold War]] and the 1991 [[History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991)#Yeltsin and the dissolution of the USSR|dissolution]] of the [[Soviet Union]], the U.S. nuclear program was heavily curtailed; halting its program of nuclear testing, ceasing its production of new nuclear weapons, and reducing its stockpile by half by the mid-1990s under President [[Bill Clinton]]. Many former nuclear facilities were closed, and their sites became targets of extensive environmental remediation. Efforts were redirected from weapons production to [[stockpile stewardship]]; attempting to predict the behavior of aging weapons without using full-scale nuclear testing. Increased funding was directed to anti-[[nuclear proliferation]] programs, such as helping the states of the former Soviet Union to eliminate their former nuclear sites and to assist Russia in their efforts to inventory and secure their inherited nuclear stockpile. By February 2006, over $1.2 billion had been paid under the [[Radiation Exposure Compensation Act]] of 1990 to U.S. citizens exposed to nuclear hazards as a result of the U.S. nuclear weapons program, and by 1998 at least $759 million had been paid to the Marshall Islanders in compensation for their exposure to U.S. nuclear testing. Over $15 million was paid to the [[Politics of Japan|Japanese government]] following the exposure of its citizens and food supply to [[nuclear fallout]] from the 1954 [[Bravo test|"Bravo" test]].<ref name="Brookings"/><ref name="usdoj" /> In 1998, the country spent an estimated $35.1 billion on its nuclear weapons and weapons-related programs.<ref name="Brookings"/>
[[File:World nuclear weapons.png|thumb|right|250px|Large stockpile with global range (dark blue)]]
In the 2013 book ''[[Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters]]'' (Oxford), [[Kate Brown (professor)|Kate Brown]] explores the health of affected citizens in the United States, and the "slow-motion disasters" that still threaten the environments where the plants are located. According to Brown, the plants at Hanford, over a period of four decades, released millions of curies of radioactive isotopes into the surrounding environment.<ref name=katebr/> Brown says that most of this [[radioactive contamination]] over the years at Hanford were part of normal operations, but unforeseen accidents did occur and plant management kept this secret, as the pollution continued unabated. Even today, as pollution threats to health and the environment persist, the government keeps knowledge about the associated risks from the public.<ref name=katebr/>

During the presidency of [[George W. Bush]], and especially after the 11 September [[Terrorism|terrorist]] [[September 11, 2001 attacks|attacks]] of 2001, rumors circulated in major news sources that the U.S. was considering designing new nuclear weapons ([[Nuclear bunker buster|"bunker-busting nukes"]]) and resuming nuclear testing for reasons of stockpile stewardship. Republicans argued that small nuclear weapons appear more likely to be used than large nuclear weapons, and thus small nuclear weapons pose a more credible threat that has more of a deterrent effect against hostile behavior. Democrats counterargued that allowing the weapons could trigger an arms race.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Bush move will spark arms race, say Democrats|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/bush-move-will-spark-arms-race-say-democrats-1.478292|access-date=2021-08-17|newspaper=The Irish Times|language=en}}</ref> In 2003, the Senate Armed Services Committee voted to repeal the 1993 [[John Spratt|Spratt]]-[[Elizabeth Furse|Furse]] ban on the development of small nuclear weapons. This change was part of the 2004 fiscal year defense authorization. The Bush administration wanted the repeal so that they could develop weapons to address the threat from North Korea. "Low-yield weapons" (those with one-third the force of the bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima in 1945) were permitted to be developed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/10/world/senate-panel-votes-to-lift-ban-on-small-nuclear-arms.html|title=Senate Panel Votes to Lift Ban on Small Nuclear Arms|last=Dao|first=James C.|date=2003-05-10|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-10-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The Bush administration was unsuccessful in its goal to develop a guided low-yield nuclear weapon, however, in 2010 President [[Barack Obama]] began funding and development for what would become the B61-12, a smart guided low-yield nuclear bomb developed off of the B61 “dumb bomb”.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Broad |first=William J. |date=2022-03-21 |title=The Smaller Bombs That Could Turn Ukraine Into a Nuclear War Zone |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/21/science/russia-nuclear-ukraine.html |access-date=2022-12-22 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Statements by the U.S. government in 2004 indicated that they planned to decrease the arsenal to around 5,500 total warheads by 2012.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Robert S. |last1=Norris |first2=Hans M. |last2=Kristensen |author-link2=Hans M. Kristensen |date=September–October 2007 |title=The U.S. stockpile, today and tomorrow |url=http://bos.sagepub.com/content/63/5/60.full.pdf#page=2|journal=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]] |department=Nuclear Notebook |volume=63 |issue=5 |pages=60–63 |doi=10.2968/063005013}}</ref> Much of that reduction was already accomplished by January 2008.<ref name="USforces2008">{{cite journal |first1=Robert S. |last1=Norris |first2=Hans M. |last2=Kristensen |author-link2=Hans M. Kristensen |date=March–April 2008 |title=U.S. nuclear forces, 2008 |url=http://bos.sagepub.com/content/64/1/50.full.pdf#page=2|journal=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]] |department=Nuclear Notebook |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=50–53, 58 |doi=10.2968/064001012|bibcode=2008BuAtS..64a..50N |s2cid=150943840 }}</ref>

According to the Pentagon's June 2019 [[Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Nuclear weapons: experts alarmed by new Pentagon 'war-fighting' doctrine |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/19/nuclear-weapons-pentagon-us-military-doctrine |work=The Guardian |date=19 June 2019}}</ref> "Integration of nuclear weapons employment with conventional and special operations forces is essential to the success of any mission or operation."<ref>{{cite news |title=The Pentagon Revealed Its Nuclear War Strategy and It's Terrifying |url=https://www.vice.com/en_ca/article/mb84db/the-pentagon-revealed-its-nuclear-war-strategy-and-its-terrifying |work=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] |date=21 June 2019}}</ref>

In 2024 it was estimated that the United States possessed 1,770 deployed nuclear warheads, 1,938 in reserve, and 1,336 retired and awaiting dismantlement (a total of 5,044). 1,370 strategic warheads were deployed on [[Ballistic missile|ballistic missiles]], 300 at [[strategic bomber]] bases in the United States, and 100 [[Tactical nuclear weapon|tactical bombs]] at air bases in Europe.<ref name="bulletin 2024" />

==Nuclear weapons testing==
{{Main|Nuclear weapons testing}}
{{See also|List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States}}
[[File:Exercise Desert Rock I (Buster-Jangle Dog) 002.jpg|right|thumb|The U.S. conducted hundreds of [[Nuclear testing|nuclear tests]] at the [[Nevada Test Site]].]]
[[File:Anti-nuclear protest at the NTS 3.jpg|thumb|Members of [[Nevada Desert Experience]] hold a prayer vigil during the Easter period of 1982 at the entrance to the Nevada Test Site.]]
[[File:Crossroads baker explosion.jpg|right|thumb|Shot "Baker" of [[Operation Crossroads]] (1946) was the first underwater nuclear explosion.]]

Between 16 July 1945 and 23 September 1992, the United States maintained a program of vigorous [[nuclear testing]], with the exception of a moratorium between November 1958 and September 1961. By official count, a total of 1,054 nuclear tests and two nuclear attacks were conducted, with over 100 of them taking place at sites in the [[Pacific Ocean]], over 900 of them at the [[Nevada Test Site]], and ten on miscellaneous sites in the United States ([[Alaska]], [[Colorado]], [[Mississippi]], and [[New Mexico]]).<ref name="nucleararchive" /> Until November 1962, the vast majority of the U.S. tests were atmospheric (that is, above-ground); after the acceptance of the Partial Test Ban Treaty all testing was relegated underground, in order to prevent the dispersion of [[nuclear fallout]].<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Oberhaus|first=Daniel|date=16 July 2020|title=Nuclear Tests Have Changed, but They Never Really Stopped|language=en-US|magazine=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/story/nuclear-tests-have-changed-but-they-never-really-stopped/|access-date=2021-08-17|issn=}}</ref> In 1992 a new testing moratorium was initiated, which has been maintained through 2024.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kimball |first1=Daryl |title=Nuclear Testing and Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) Timeline |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/nuclear-testing-and-comprehensive-test-ban-treaty-ctbt-timeline |website=Arms Control Association |publisher=Arms Control Association |access-date=18 October 2024}}</ref>

The U.S. program of atmospheric nuclear testing exposed a number of the population to the hazards of fallout. Estimating exact numbers, and the exact consequences, of people exposed has been medically very difficult, with the exception of the high exposures of Marshall Islanders and Japanese fishers in the case of the [[Castle Bravo]] incident in 1954. A number of groups of U.S. citizens—especially farmers and inhabitants of cities downwind of the Nevada Test Site and U.S. military workers at various tests—have sued for compensation and recognition of their exposure, many successfully. The passage of the [[Radiation Exposure Compensation Act|Radiation Exposure Compensation]] Act of 1990 allowed for a systematic filing of compensation claims in relation to testing as well as those employed at nuclear weapons facilities. By June 2009 over $1.4 billion total has been given in compensation, with over $660 million going to "[[downwinders]]".<ref name="usdoj" />

A few notable U.S. nuclear tests include:
* [[Trinity test]] on 16 July 1945, was the world's first test of a nuclear weapon (yield of around 20 kt).
* [[Operation Crossroads]] series in July 1946, was the first postwar test series and one of the largest military operations in U.S. history.
* [[Operation Greenhouse]] shots of May 1951 included the first [[boosted fission weapon]] test ("Item") and a scientific test that proved the feasibility of thermonuclear weapons ("George").
* [[Ivy Mike]] shot of 1 November 1952, was the first full test of a [[Teller-Ulam design]] "staged" hydrogen bomb, with a yield of 10 megatons. It was not a deployable weapon, however—with its full [[cryogenic]] equipment it weighed some 82 tons.
* [[Castle Bravo]] shot of 1 March 1954, was the first test of a deployable (solid fuel) thermonuclear weapon, and also (accidentally) the largest weapon ever tested by the United States (15 megatons). It was also the single largest U.S. radiological accident in connection with nuclear testing. The unanticipated yield, and a change in the weather, resulted in nuclear fallout spreading eastward onto the inhabited [[Rongelap Atoll|Rongelap]] and [[Rongerik Atoll|Rongerik]] atolls, which were soon evacuated. Many of the Marshall Islanders have since suffered from [[Congenital disorder|birth defects]] and have received some compensation from the federal government. A Japanese fishing boat, ''[[Daigo Fukuryū Maru]]'', also came into contact with the fallout, which caused many of the crew to grow ill; one eventually died.
* Shot Argus I of [[Operation Argus]], on 27 August 1958, was the first detonation of a nuclear weapon in [[outer space]] when a 1.7-kiloton warhead was detonated at an altitude of {{convert|200|km}} during a series of [[high altitude nuclear explosion]]s.
* Shot Frigate Bird of [[Operation Dominic I and II|Operation Dominic I]] on 6 May 1962, was the only U.S. test of an operational [[submarine-launched ballistic missile]] (SLBM) with a live nuclear warhead (yield of 600 kilotons), at [[Kiritimati|Christmas Island]]. In general, missile systems were tested without live warheads and warheads were tested separately for safety concerns. In the early 1960s, however, there mounted technical questions about how the systems would behave under combat conditions (when they were "mated", in military parlance), and this test was meant to dispel these concerns. However, the warhead had to be somewhat modified before its use, and the missile was a [[Submarine-launched ballistic missile|SLBM]] (and not an [[Intercontinental ballistic missile|ICBM]]), so by itself it did not satisfy all concerns.<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald A. |last=MacKenzie |author-link=Donald Angus MacKenzie |year=1993 |title=Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance |url=https://archive.org/details/inventingaccurac00dona |url-access=registration |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-63147-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/inventingaccurac00dona/page/343 343]–344}}</ref>
* Shot [[Sedan (nuclear test)|Sedan]] of [[Operation Storax]] on 6 July 1962 (yield of 104 kilotons), was an attempt to show the feasibility of using nuclear weapons for "civilian" and "peaceful" purposes as part of [[Operation Plowshare]]. In this instance, a {{convert|1280|ft|adj=on}} diameter {{convert|320|ft|adj=on}} deep [[Subsidence crater|crater]] was created at the Nevada Test Site.

A summary table of each of the American operational series may be found at [[United States' nuclear test series]].

==Delivery systems==
{{Main|Nuclear weapons delivery}}{{More citations needed section|date=January 2023}}[[File:Fat man.jpg|right|thumb|Early weapons models, such as the "[[Fat Man]]" bomb, were extremely large and difficult to use.]]
[[File:Missile display at F.E. Warren AFB 120407-F-JW079-036.jpg|thumb|From left are the Peacekeeper, the Minuteman III and the Minuteman I]]
The original Little Boy and Fat Man weapons, developed by the United States during the [[Manhattan Project]], were relatively large (Fat Man had a diameter of {{convert|5|ft}}) and heavy (around 5 tons each) and required specially modified bomber planes<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Magazine |first1=Smithsonian |last2=Kindy |first2=David |title=Why the Aircraft That Dropped the First Atomic Bomb Will Always Inspire Debate |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/why-aircraft-dropped-first-atomic-bomb-will-always-inspire-debate-180975421/ |access-date=2022-06-13 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref> to be adapted for their bombing missions against Japan. Each modified bomber could only carry one such weapon and only within a limited range. After these initial weapons were developed, a considerable amount of money and research was conducted towards the goal of standardizing nuclear warheads so that they did not require highly specialized experts to assemble them before use, as in the case with the [[Idiosyncrasy|idiosyncratic]] wartime devices, and miniaturization of the warheads for use in more variable delivery systems.

Through the aid of brainpower acquired through [[Operation Paperclip]] at the tail end of the European theater of [[World War II]], the United States was able to embark on an ambitious program in [[rocket]]ry. One of the first products of this was the development of rockets capable of holding nuclear warheads. The [[MGR-1 Honest John]] was the first such weapon, developed in 1953 as a surface-to-surface missile with a {{convert|15|mi|adj=on}} maximum range. Because of their limited range, their potential use was heavily constrained (they could not, for example, threaten [[Moscow]] with an immediate strike).

[[File:MGR-1 Honest John rocket.jpg|right|thumb|The [[MGR-1 Honest John]] was the first nuclear-armed [[rocket]] developed by the U.S.]]
[[File:Convair B-36 Peacemaker.jpg|right|thumb|The B-36 Peacemaker in flight]]

Development of long-range bombers, such as the [[B-29 Superfortress]] during World War II, was continued during the [[Cold War]] period. In 1946, the [[Convair B-36 Peacemaker]] became the first purpose-built nuclear bomber; it served with the USAF until 1959. The [[Boeing B-52 Stratofortress]] was able by the mid-1950s to carry a wide arsenal of nuclear bombs, each with different capabilities and potential use situations. Starting in 1946, the U.S. based its initial deterrence force on the [[Strategic Air Command]], which, by the late 1950s, maintained a number of nuclear-armed bombers in the sky at all times, prepared to receive orders to attack the USSR whenever needed. This system was, however, tremendously expensive, both in terms of natural and human resources, and raised the possibility of an accidental nuclear war.

During the 1950s and 1960s, elaborate computerized early warning systems such as [[Defense Support Program]] were developed to detect incoming Soviet attacks and to coordinate response strategies. During this same period, [[intercontinental ballistic missile]] (ICBM) systems were developed that could deliver a nuclear payload across vast distances, allowing the U.S. to house nuclear forces capable of hitting the Soviet Union in the [[Midwestern United States|American Midwest]]. Shorter-range weapons, including small tactical weapons, were fielded in Europe as well, including [[nuclear artillery]] and man-portable [[Special Atomic Demolition Munition]]. The development of submarine-launched ballistic missile systems allowed for hidden [[nuclear submarines]] to covertly launch missiles at distant targets as well, making it virtually impossible for the Soviet Union to successfully launch a [[Pre-emptive nuclear strike|first strike]] attack against the United States without receiving a deadly response.

Improvements in warhead miniaturization in the 1970s and 1980s allowed for the development of MIRVs—missiles which could carry multiple warheads, each of which could be separately targeted. The question of whether these missiles should be based on constantly rotating train tracks (to avoid being easily targeted by opposing Soviet missiles) or based in heavily fortified silos (to possibly withstand a Soviet attack) was a major political controversy in the 1980s (eventually the silo deployment method was chosen). [[Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle|MIRVed]] systems enabled the U.S. to render Soviet missile defenses economically unfeasible, as each offensive missile would require between three and ten defensive missiles to counter.

Additional developments in weapons delivery included [[cruise missile]] systems, which allowed a plane to fire a long-distance, low-flying nuclear-armed missile towards a target from a relatively comfortable distance.

[[File:Nuclear weapon size chart.jpg|center|Comparing the size of U.S. nuclear weapons over time.]]

The current delivery systems of the U.S. make virtually any part of the Earth's surface within the reach of its nuclear arsenal. Though its land-based missile systems have a maximum range of {{convert|10000|km}} (less than worldwide), its submarine-based forces extend its reach from a coastline {{convert|12000|km}} inland. Additionally, [[Aerial refueling|in-flight refueling]] of long-range bombers and the use of [[aircraft carrier]]s extends the possible range virtually indefinitely.

==Command and control==
[[Command and control]] procedures in case of [[nuclear war]] were given by the [[Single Integrated Operational Plan]] (SIOP) until 2003, when this was superseded by Operations Plan 8044.

Since [[World War II]], the President of the United States has had sole authority to launch U.S. nuclear weapons, whether as a [[Pre-emptive nuclear strike|first strike]] or [[second strike|nuclear retaliation]]. This arrangement was seen as necessary during the [[Cold War]] to present a credible [[nuclear deterrent]]; if an attack was detected, the United States would have only minutes to launch a counterstrike before its nuclear capability was severely damaged, or national leaders killed. If the President has been killed, command authority follows the [[United States presidential line of succession|presidential line of succession]]. Changes to this policy have been proposed, but currently the only way to countermand such an order before the strike was launched would be for the Vice President and the majority of the Cabinet to relieve the President under Section 4 of the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2017/10/03/555266383/why-president-trump-has-exclusive-authority-to-order-a-nuclear-strike|title=Why President Trump Has Exclusive Authority To Order A Nuclear Strike|website=NPR.org}}</ref><ref name=Rosenbaum>{{cite journal|author1=Ron Rosenbaum|title=An Unsung Hero of the Nuclear Age – Maj. Harold Hering and the forbidden question that cost him his career|journal=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|date=28 February 2011|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/life/the_spectator/2011/02/an_unsung_hero_of_the_nuclear_age.single.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014232809/http://www.slate.com/articles/life/the_spectator/2011/02/an_unsung_hero_of_the_nuclear_age.single.html|archive-date=14 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

Regardless of whether the United States is actually under attack by a nuclear-capable adversary, the President alone has the authority to order nuclear strikes. The President and the [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] form the [[National Command Authority (United States)|National Command Authority]], but the Secretary of Defense has no authority to refuse or disobey such an order.<ref>{{cite web |first=William J. |last=Broad |title=Debate Over Trump's Fitness Raises Issue of Checks on Nuclear Power |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/05/science/donald-trump-nuclear-codes.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=August 4, 2016 |access-date=November 9, 2020}}</ref> The President's decision must be transmitted to the [[National Military Command Center]], which will then issue the coded orders to nuclear-capable forces.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Merrill |first1=Dave |last2=Syeed |first2=Nafeesa |last3=Harris |first3=Brittany |title=To Launch a Nuclear Strike, President Trump Would Take These Steps |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/politics/graphics/2016-nuclear-weapon-launch/ |access-date=November 9, 2020 |work=Bloomberg |date=September 7, 2016}}</ref>

The President can give a nuclear launch order using their [[nuclear briefcase]] (nicknamed the [[nuclear football]]), or can use [[command center]]s such as the [[White House Situation Room]]. The command would be carried out by a Nuclear and Missile Operations Officer (a member of a [[missile combat crew]], also called a "missileer") at a [[missile launch control center]]. A [[two-man rule]] applies to the launch of missiles, meaning that two officers must turn keys simultaneously (far enough apart that this cannot be done by one person).{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}

When [[Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan|President Reagan was shot]] in 1981, there was confusion about where the "nuclear football" was, and who was in charge.<ref>{{citation|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1251601.stm|title=Nuclear button chaos behind Reagan|publisher=BBC|date=30 March 2001}}</ref>

In 1975, a launch crew member, [[Harold Hering]], was dismissed from the Air Force for asking how he could know whether the order to launch his missiles came from a sane president.<ref name=Rosenbaum /> In response to this situation, [[Ron Rosenbaum]] wrote that no command and control system is foolproof, and that the sanity of senior nuclear decision makers would always be a weak point in any conceivable command and control protocol.<ref name=Rosenbaum/>

Starting with [[President Eisenhower]], authority to launch a full-scale nuclear attack has been delegated to theater commanders and other specific commanders if they believe it is warranted by circumstances, and are out of communication with the president or the president had been incapacitated.<ref name="Stone 2012 pages 286-87">Stone, Oliver and Kuznick, Peter "The Untold History of the United States" (Gallery Books, 2012), pages 286–87</ref> For example, during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]], on 24 October 1962, General Thomas Power, commander of the [[Strategic Air Command]] (SAC), took the country to [[DEFCON 2]], the very precipice of full-scale nuclear war, launching the SAC bombers of the US with nuclear weapons ready to strike.<ref>Stone, Oliver and Kuznick, Peter "The Untold History of the United States" (Gallery Books, 2012), page 309</ref> Moreover, some of these commanders subdelegated to lower commanders the authority to launch nuclear weapons under similar circumstance. In fact, the nuclear weapons were not placed under locks (i.e., [[permissive action link]]s) until decades later, and so pilots or individual submarine commanders had the power to launch nuclear weapons entirely on their own, without higher authority.<ref name="Stone 2012 pages 286-87"/>

==Accidents==
{{Main|Nuclear and radiation accidents|List of military nuclear accidents}}
[[File:Bravo fallout2.png|right|thumb|The [[Castle Bravo]] [[Nuclear fallout|fallout]] plume spread dangerous levels of radioactive material over an area over {{convert|100|mi|km}} long, including inhabited islands, in the largest single U.S. nuclear accident.]]

The United States nuclear program since its inception has experienced accidents of varying forms, ranging from single-casualty research experiments (such as that of [[Louis Slotin]] during the [[Manhattan Project]]), to the [[nuclear fallout]] dispersion of the Castle Bravo shot in 1954, to accidents such as crashes of aircraft carrying nuclear weapons, the dropping of nuclear weapons from aircraft, losses of nuclear submarines, and explosions of nuclear-armed missiles ([[Broken Arrow (nuclear)|broken arrows]]). How close any of these accidents came to being major nuclear disasters is a matter of technical and scholarly debate and interpretation.

Weapons accidentally dropped by the United States include incidents off the coast of [[British Columbia]] (1950) (see [[1950 British Columbia B-36 crash]]), near [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]] (1957); [[Savannah, Georgia]] (1958) (see [[Tybee Bomb]]); [[Goldsboro, North Carolina]] (1961) (see [[1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash]]); off the coast of [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] (1965); in the sea near [[Palomares, Almería|Palomares]], Spain (1966, see [[1966 Palomares B-52 crash]]); and near [[Thule Air Base]], [[Greenland]] (1968) (see [[1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash]]). In some of these cases (such as the 1966 Palomares case), the explosive system of the fission weapon discharged, but did not trigger a [[nuclear chain reaction]] (safety features prevent this from easily happening), but did disperse hazardous nuclear materials across wide areas, necessitating expensive cleanup endeavors. Several US nuclear weapons, partial weapons, or weapons components are thought<ref name="Brookings"/> to be lost and unrecovered, primarily in aircraft accidents. The [[1980 Damascus Titan missile explosion]] in [[Damascus, Arkansas]], threw a warhead from its silo but did not release any radiation.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Pincus|first=Walter|date=29 October 1980|title=At the Titan Site, the Blasts Came at 3 a.m. . . .|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1980/10/29/at-the-titan-site-the-blasts-came-at-3-am/681b9b0c-5516-4423-9573-c2fec1426023/|access-date=17 August 2021|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref>

The nuclear testing program resulted in a number of cases of fallout dispersion onto populated areas. The most significant of these was the [[Castle Bravo]] test, which spread radioactive ash over an area of over {{convert|100|sqmi}}, including a number of populated islands.<ref name="PBSBravo">{{citation |mode=cs1 |section-url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/peopleevents/pandeAMEX51.html |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/peopleevents/pandeAMEX51.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000819120112/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/peopleevents/pandeAMEX51.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 August 2000 |series=[[American Experience]] |section=People and Events: The "Bravo" Test |title=Race for the Superbomb |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]] |year=1999}}</ref> The populations of the islands were evacuated but not before suffering radiation burns.<ref name="PBSBravo"/> They would later suffer [[Effects of nuclear explosions on human health|long-term effects]], such as [[birth defect]]s and increased cancer risk. There are ongoing concerns around deterioration of the nuclear waste site on [[Runit Island]] and a potential [[radioactive contamination|radioactive spill]].<ref>{{cite news |title=How the U.S. betrayed the Marshall Islands, kindling the next nuclear disaster |url=https://www.latimes.com/projects/marshall-islands-nuclear-testing-sea-level-rise/ |last=Rust |first=Susanne |work=Los Angeles Times |date=November 10, 2019}}</ref> There were also instances during the nuclear testing program in which soldiers were exposed to overly high levels of radiation, which grew into a major scandal in the 1970s and 1980s, as many soldiers later suffered from what were claimed to be diseases caused by their exposures.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rampton|first=James|date=2021-06-23|title=The 'Atomic Marines' of America's botched Bikini Atoll nuclear test demand justice|url=https://inews.co.uk/news/long-reads/the-atomic-marines-of-americas-botched-bikini-atoll-nuclear-test-demand-justice-1066321|access-date=2021-08-17|website=inews.co.uk|language=en}}</ref>

Many of the former nuclear facilities produced significant environmental damages during their years of activity, and since the 1990s have been [[Superfund]] sites of cleanup and environmental remediation. [[Hanford Site|Hanford]] is currently the most [[Radioactive contamination|contaminated]] nuclear site in the United States<ref>{{cite news |title=Welcome to 'the Most Toxic Place in America' |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/welcome-most-toxic-place-america-n689141 |work=NBC News |date=November 29, 2016}}</ref> and is the focus of the nation's largest [[Environmental remediation|environmental cleanup]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Nation's most ambitious project to clean up nuclear weapons waste has stalled at Hanford |url=https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-hanford-nuclear-cleanup-20190604-story.html |work=Los Angeles Times |date=June 4, 2019}}</ref> Radioactive materials are known to be leaking from Hanford into the environment.<ref>{{cite news |title=Inside America's most toxic nuclear waste dump, where 56 million gallons of buried radioactive sludge are leaking into the earth |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/hanford-nuclear-site-photos-toxic-waste-2019-9 |work=Business Insider |date=September 23, 2019}}</ref> The [[Radiation Exposure Compensation Act]] of 1990 allows for U.S. citizens exposed to radiation or other health risks through the U.S. nuclear program to file for compensation and damages.

==Deliberate attacks on weapons facilities==
{{Main|Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack}}
In 1972, three hijackers [[Southern Airways Flight 49|took control]] of a domestic passenger flight along the east coast of the U.S. and threatened to crash the plane into a U.S. [[nuclear weapons]] plant in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The plane got as close as 8,000 feet above the site before the hijackers' demands were met.<ref>[http://www.nti.org/d_newswire/issues/thisweek/2003_6_13_terr.html Threat Assessment: U.S. Nuclear Plants Near Airports May Be at Risk of Airplane Attack] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101110110238/http://www.nti.org/d_newswire/issues/thisweek/2003_6_13_terr.html |date=10 November 2010 }}, ''Global Security Newswire'', 11 June 2003.</ref><ref>Newtan, Samuel Upton (2007). ''Nuclear War 1 and Other Major Nuclear Disasters of the 20th Century'', AuthorHouse, p. 146.</ref>

Various acts of [[civil disobedience]] since 1980 by the peace group [[Plowshares]] have shown how nuclear weapons facilities can be penetrated, and the group's actions represent extraordinary breaches of security at [[nuclear weapons]] plants in the United States. The [[National Nuclear Security Administration]] has acknowledged the seriousness of the 2012 Plowshares action. [[Non-proliferation]] policy experts have questioned "the use of private contractors to provide security at facilities that manufacture and store the government's most dangerous military material".<ref name=bas12>{{cite web |url=http://thebulletin.org/web-edition/columnists/kennette-benedict/civil-disobedience |title=Civil disobedience |author=Kennette Benedict |date=9 August 2012 |work=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists }}</ref> [[Nuclear weapon]]s materials on the [[black market]] are a global concern,<ref name=wash>Jay Davis. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/03/24/AR2008032402291_pf.html After A Nuclear 9/11] ''The Washington Post'', 25 March 2008.</ref><ref>Brian Michael Jenkins. [https://www.rand.org/commentary/2008/09/11/CNN.html A Nuclear 9/11?] ''CNN.com'', 11 September 2008.</ref> and there is concern about the possible detonation of a small, crude nuclear weapon by a [[terrorist group|militant group]] in a major city, with significant loss of life and property.<ref name=kittrie>[[Orde Kittrie]]. [http://students.law.umich.edu/mjil/article-pdfs/v28n2-kittrie.pdf Averting Catastrophe: Why the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty is Losing its Deterrence Capacity and How to Restore It] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100607150719/http://students.law.umich.edu/mjil/article-pdfs/v28n2-kittrie.pdf |date=7 June 2010 }} 22 May 2007, p. 338.</ref><ref name=nyt>Nicholas D. Kristof. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0DE0D7143EF933A25750C0A9629C8B63 A Nuclear 9/11] ''The New York Times'', 10 March 2004.</ref>

[[Stuxnet]] is a [[computer worm]] discovered in June 2010 that is believed to have been created by the United States and Israel to attack [[Iran]]'s nuclear fuel enrichment facilities.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2013/03/stuxnet-act-of-force/|title=Legal Experts: Stuxnet Attack on Iran Was Illegal 'Act of Force'|magazine=Wired | date=25 March 2013}}</ref>

==Development agencies==
[[File:US Atomic Energy Commission logo.jpg|thumb|right|The [[United States Atomic Energy Commission]] (1946–1974) managed the U.S. nuclear program after the [[Manhattan Project]].]]
The initial U.S. nuclear program was run by the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|National Bureau of Standards]] starting in 1939 under the edict of [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]]. Its primary purpose was to delegate research and dispense funds. In 1940 the [[National Defense Research Committee]] (NDRC) was established, coordinating work under the Committee on Uranium among its other wartime efforts. In June 1941, the [[Office of Scientific Research and Development]] (OSRD) was established, with the NDRC as one of its subordinate agencies, which enlarged and renamed the Uranium Committee as the [[S-1 Uranium Committee|Section on Uranium]]. In 1941, NDRC research was placed under direct control of [[Vannevar Bush]] as the OSRD S-1 Section, which attempted to increase the pace of weapons research. In June 1942, the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers|U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] took over the project to develop atomic weapons, while the OSRD retained responsibility for scientific research.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/s/smythoverview.htm |title=Henry DeWolf Smyth Papers Collection Overview 1885–1987 |website=[[American Philosophical Society]] |access-date=21 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511094050/http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/s/smythoverview.htm |archive-date=11 May 2008}}</ref>

This was the beginning of the [[Manhattan Project]], run as the Manhattan Engineering District (MED), an agency under military control that was in charge of developing the first atomic weapons. After [[World War II]], the MED maintained control over the U.S. arsenal and production facilities and coordinated the [[Operation Crossroads]] tests. In 1946 after a long and protracted debate, the [[Atomic Energy Act of 1946]] was passed, creating the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]] (AEC) as a civilian agency that would be in charge of the production of nuclear weapons and research facilities, funded through Congress, with oversight provided by the [[United States Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy|Joint Committee on Atomic Energy]]. The AEC was given vast powers of control over secrecy, research, and money, and could seize lands with suspected uranium deposits. Along with its duties towards the production and regulation of nuclear weapons, it was also in charge of stimulating development and regulating civilian nuclear power. The full transference of activities was finalized in January 1947.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ch.doe.gov/html/site_info/atomic_energy.htm |title=The Atomic Energy Commissions (AEC), 1947 |website=[[Office of Science]] – Chicago Office |publisher=[[United States Department of Energy]] |access-date=21 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090514232044/http://www.ch.doe.gov/html/site_info/atomic_energy.htm |archive-date=14 May 2009 }}</ref>

In 1975, following the "energy crisis" of the early 1970s and public and congressional discontent with the AEC (in part because of the impossibility to be both a producer and a regulator), it was disassembled into component parts as the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), which assumed most of the AEC's former production, coordination, and research roles, and the [[Nuclear Regulatory Commission]], which assumed its civilian regulation activities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ch.doe.gov/html/site_info/energy_research.htm |title=The Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) |website=[[Office of Science]] – Chicago Office |publisher=[[United States Department of Energy]] |access-date=21 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090514232021/http://www.ch.doe.gov/html/site_info/energy_research.htm |archive-date=14 May 2009 }}</ref>

ERDA was short-lived, however, and in 1977 the U.S. nuclear weapons activities were reorganized under the [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ch.doe.gov/html/site_info/department_energy.htm |title=The Department of Energy (DOE) |website=[[Office of Science]] – Chicago Office |publisher=[[United States Department of Energy]] |access-date=21 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090514232035/http://www.ch.doe.gov/html/site_info/department_energy.htm |archive-date=14 May 2009 }}</ref> which maintains such responsibilities through the semi-autonomous [[National Nuclear Security Administration]]. Some functions were taken over or shared by the [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Department of Homeland Security]] in 2002. The already-built weapons themselves are in the control of the [[United States Strategic Command|Strategic Command]], which is part of the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]].

In general, these agencies served to coordinate research and build sites. They generally operated their sites through contractors, however, both private and public (for example, [[Union Carbide]], a private company, ran [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] for many decades; the [[University of California]], a public educational institution, has run the Los Alamos and [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory|Lawrence Livermore]] laboratories since their inception, and will jointly manage Los Alamos with the private company [[Bechtel]] as of its next contract). Funding was received both through these agencies directly, but also from additional outside agencies, such as the Department of Defense. Each branch of the military also maintained its own nuclear-related research agencies (generally related to delivery systems).

==Weapons production complex==
This table is not comprehensive, as numerous facilities throughout the United States have contributed to its nuclear weapons program. It includes the major sites related to the U.S. weapons program (past and present), their basic site functions, and their current status of activity. Not listed are the many bases and facilities at which nuclear weapons have been deployed. In addition to deploying weapons on its own soil, during the [[Cold War]], the United States also stationed nuclear weapons in 27 foreign countries and territories, including [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] (which was [[United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands|US-controlled until 1971]]), Japan (during the occupation immediately following World War II), [[Greenland]], Germany, [[Taiwan]], and [[French Morocco]] then [[Morocco|independent Morocco]].<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=[[Natural Resources Defense Council]] |website=National Security Archive |date=20 October 1999 |title=United States Secretly Deployed Nuclear Bombs in 27 Countries and Territories During Cold War |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/19991020/index.html |access-date=6 August 2006}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="background:white;"
|- style="background:#efefef;"
! Site name
! Location
! Function
! Status
|-
||[[Los Alamos National Laboratory]]
||[[Los Alamos, New Mexico]]
||Research, Design, Pit Production
||Active
|-
||[[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]]
||[[Livermore, California]]
||Research and design
||Active
|-
||[[Sandia National Laboratories]]
||Livermore, California; [[Albuquerque, New Mexico]]
||Research and design
||Active
|-
||[[Hanford Site]]
||[[Richland, Washington]]
||Material production ([[plutonium]])
||Not active, in [[environmental remediation|remediation]]
|-
||[[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]
||[[Oak Ridge, Tennessee]]
||Material production ([[uranium-235]], fusion fuel), research
||Active to some extent
|-
||[[Y-12 National Security Complex]]
||Oak Ridge, Tennessee
||Component fabrication, [[stockpile stewardship]], [[uranium]] storage
||Active
|-
||[[Nevada Test Site]]
||Near [[Las Vegas, Nevada]]
||[[Nuclear testing]] and [[nuclear waste]] disposal
||Active; no tests since 1992, now engaged in waste disposal
|-
||[[Waste Isolation Pilot Plant]]
||East of [[Carlsbad, New Mexico]]
||Radioactive waste from nuclear weapons production
||Active
|-
||[[Pacific Proving Grounds]]
||[[Marshall Islands]]
||Nuclear testing
||Not active, last test in 1962
|-
||[[Rocky Flats Plant]]
||Near [[Denver, Colorado]]
||Components fabrication
||Not active, in remediation
|-
||[[Pantex]]
||[[Amarillo, Texas]]
||Weapons assembly, disassembly, pit storage
||Active, esp. disassembly
|-
||[[Fernald Feed Materials Production Center|Fernald Site]]
||Near [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]
||Material fabrication (uranium-238)
||Not active, in remediation
|-
||[[Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant|Paducah Plant]]
||[[Paducah, Kentucky]]
||Material production (uranium-235)
||Active (commercial use)
|-
||[[Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant|Portsmouth Plant]]
||Near [[Portsmouth, Ohio|Portsmouth]], [[Ohio]]
||Material fabrication (uranium-235)
||Active, (centrifuge), but not for weapons production
|-
||[[Kansas City Plant]]
||[[Kansas City, Missouri]]
||Component production
||Active
|-
||[[Mound Laboratories|Mound Plant]]
||[[Miamisburg, Ohio]]
||Research, component production, [[tritium]] purification
||Not active, in remediation
|-
||[[Pinellas Plant]]
||[[Largo, Florida]]
||Manufacture of electrical components
||Active, but not for weapons production
|-
||[[Savannah River Site]]
||Near [[Aiken, South Carolina]]
||Material production (plutonium, tritium)
||Active (limited operation), in remediation
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US nuclear sites map.svg|550px|Map of major nuclear sites in the [[Continental United States|contiguous U.S.]] Grayed-out sites are not currently active.]]
|}

==Proliferation==
{{Main|Nuclear proliferation}}
[[File:Fallout shelter.jpg|thumb|A sign pointing to an old fallout shelter in [[New York City]].]]
[[File:Atoms for Peace stamp.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Atoms for Peace]] program distributed nuclear technology, materials, and know-how to many less technologically advanced countries.]]

Early on in the development of its nuclear weapons, the United States relied in part on information-sharing with both the United Kingdom and Canada, as codified in the [[Quebec Agreement]] of 1943. These three parties agreed not to share nuclear weapons information with other countries without the consent of the others, an early attempt at [[Nuclear proliferation|nonproliferation]]. After the development of the first nuclear weapons during [[World War II]], though, there was much debate within the political circles and public sphere of the United States about whether or not the country should attempt to maintain a [[monopoly]] on [[nuclear technology]], or whether it should undertake a program of information sharing with other nations (especially its former ally and likely competitor, the [[Soviet Union]]), or submit control of its weapons to some sort of international organization (such as the [[United Nations]]) who would use them to attempt to maintain [[world peace]]. Though fear of a [[nuclear arms race]] spurred many politicians and scientists to advocate some degree of international control or sharing of nuclear weapons and information, many politicians and members of the military believed that it was better in the short term to maintain high standards of nuclear [[secrecy]] and to forestall a Soviet bomb as long as possible (and they did not believe the USSR would actually submit to international controls in good faith).

Since this path was chosen, the United States was, in its early days, essentially an advocate for the prevention of [[nuclear proliferation]], though primarily for the reason of self-preservation. A few years after the USSR detonated its first weapon in 1949, though, the U.S. under President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] sought to encourage a program of sharing nuclear information related to civilian [[nuclear power]] and [[nuclear physics]] in general. The [[Atoms for Peace]] program, begun in 1953, was also in part political: the U.S. was better poised to commit various scarce resources, such as [[enriched uranium]], towards this peaceful effort, and to request a similar contribution from the Soviet Union, who had far fewer resources along these lines; thus the program had a strategic justification as well, as was later revealed by internal memos. This overall goal of promoting civilian use of nuclear energy in other countries, while also preventing weapons dissemination, has been labeled by many critics as contradictory and having led to lax standards for a number of decades which allowed a number of other nations, such as China and India, to profit from [[dual-use technology]] (purchased from nations other than the U.S.).

The [[Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction|Cooperative Threat Reduction]] program of the [[Defense Threat Reduction Agency]] was established after the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 to aid former Soviet bloc countries in the inventory and destruction of their sites for developing nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, and their methods of delivering them (ICBM silos, long-range bombers, etc.). Over $4.4 billion has been spent on this endeavor to prevent purposeful or accidental proliferation of weapons from the former Soviet arsenal.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Larsen, Jeffrey Arthur|author2=Smith, Dr. James M.|title=Historical Dictionary of Arms Control and Disarmament|date=2005|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=9780810850606|page=[https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000lars/page/65 65]|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000lars|url-access=registration}}</ref>

After India and Pakistan tested nuclear weapons in 1998, President [[Bill Clinton]] imposed [[economic sanctions]] on the countries. In 1999, however, the sanctions against India were lifted; those against Pakistan were kept in place as a result of the military government that had taken over. Shortly after the September 11 attacks in 2001, President [[George W. Bush]] lifted the sanctions against Pakistan as well, in order to get the Pakistani government's help as a conduit for US and NATO forces for [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|operations in Afghanistan]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=30 October 2001|title=U.S. lifts final sanctions on Pakistan|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/US/10/29/gen.us.pak.sanctions/index.html|access-date=2021-08-17|website=CNN.com}}</ref>

The U.S. government has been vocal against the proliferation of such weapons in the countries of [[Iran]] and [[North Korea]]. The [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 U.S.-led invasion of Iraq]] was carried out under the pretext of disarming Iraq from possessing [[Iraq and weapons of mass destruction|weapons of mass destruction]]; however, no such weapons were discovered.<ref name=cia>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/reports/general-reports-1/iraq_wmd_2004/Comp_Report_Key_Findings.pdf |title= Iraq Survey Group Final Report: Regime Strategic Intent – Key Findings|access-date= 2017-04-07|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170324220357/https://www.cia.gov/library/reports/general-reports-1/iraq_wmd_2004/Comp_Report_Key_Findings.pdf|archive-date= 2017-03-24|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/03/22/iraq-war-wmds-an-intelligence-failure-or-white-house-spin/|title=The Iraq War and WMDs: An intelligence failure or White House spin?|date=2019|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref>

In September 2018, then South Korean president [[Moon Jae-in]] travelled to [[Pyongyang, North Korea]] to attend the [[September 2018 inter-Korean summit]] along with North Korean supreme leader, [[Kim Jong Un]]. A [[September 2018 inter-Korean summit|joint declaration]] consisting of conditions on nuclear non-proliferation was signed. The [[DPRK]] agreed to dismantle its [[Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center|nuclear complex]] in the presence of international experts if the U.S. takes correlative action.<ref name="abc.net.au">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-09-19/north-korea-agrees-to-dismanlte-nuclear-test-site/10282040|title=South Korea says North agrees to dismantle nuclear site — if US takes reciprocal action|date=19 September 2018|website=abc.net.au}}</ref>

==Nuclear disarmament in international law==
The United States is one of the five nuclear weapons states with a declared nuclear arsenal under the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]] (NPT), of which it was an original drafter and signatory on 1 July 1968 (ratified 5 March 1970). All signatories of the NPT agreed to refrain from aiding in nuclear weapons proliferation to other states.

Further under Article VI of the NPT, all signatories, including the US, agreed to negotiate in good faith to stop the nuclear arms race and to negotiate for complete elimination of nuclear weapons. "Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/Others/infcirc140.pdf |title=Information Circulars |work=iaea.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807060917/http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/Others/infcirc140.pdf |archive-date=7 August 2007 }}</ref> The [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), the preeminent judicial tribunal of international law, in its [[International Court of Justice advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons|advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons]], issued 8 July 1996, unanimously interprets the text of Article VI as implying that:

<blockquote>There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control.<ref name="ICJ">{{cite web|url=http://www.lcnp.org/wcourt/opinion.htm |title=Legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons |date=8 July 1996 |author=The [[International Court of Justice|ICJ]] |access-date=6 July 2011}}</ref> </blockquote>

The [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) in 2005 proposed a comprehensive ban on fissile material that would greatly limit the production of weapons of mass destruction. 147 countries voted for this proposal, but the United States voted against.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}{{dubious|could not find any such IAEA proposal|date=November 2023}} The US government has also resisted the [[Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons]], a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of nuclear weapons, supported by more than 120 nations.<ref name=UNTextAndVote>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/disarmament/ptnw/index.html|title=United Nations Conference to Negotiate a Legally Binding Instrument to Prohibit Nuclear Weapons, Leading Towards their Total Elimination, 27 April to 22 May 2015 |website=www.un.org|language=EN|access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref>

==International relations and nuclear weapons==
[[File:Reagan and Gorbachev signing.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet General Secretary [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Gorbachev]] and U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] signing the [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty|INF Treaty]] in 1987]]
In 1958, the United States Air Force had considered a plan to drop nuclear bombs on China during a confrontation over [[Taiwan]] but it was overruled, previously secret documents showed after they were declassified due to the [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] in April 2008. The plan included an initial plan to drop 10–15 kiloton bombs on airfields in Amoy (now called [[Xiamen]]) in the event of a Chinese blockade against Taiwan's Offshore Islands.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/nukevault/ebb249/index.htm | title=Air Force Histories Released through Archive Lawsuit Show Cautious Presidents Overruling Air Force Plans for Early Use of Nuclear Weapons |location=Washington, D.C.|date=30 April 2008 |access-date=15 March 2016 | publisher=[[National Security Archive]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=30 April 2008 |url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jujIhYgbkZqmcHmmcXzVQiivkwVA |title=US Air Force planned nuclear strike on China over Taiwan: report |work=[[Agence France-Presse]] |access-date=21 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621075459/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jujIhYgbkZqmcHmmcXzVQiivkwVA |archive-date=21 June 2008 }}</ref>

==Occupational illness==
The Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program (EEOICP) began on 31 July 2001. The program provides compensation and health benefits to Department of Energy nuclear weapons workers (employees, former employees, contractors and subcontractors) as well as compensation to certain survivors if the worker is already deceased.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dol.gov/owcp/energy/index.htm |title=Division of Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation (DEEOIC) |website=[[United States Department of Labor]]}}</ref> By 14 August 2010, the program had already identified 45,799 civilians who lost their health (including 18,942 who developed cancer) due to exposure to radiation and toxic substances while producing nuclear weapons for the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dol.gov/owcp/energy/regs/compliance/weeklystats.htm |title=Office of Workers' Compensation Programs (OWCP) EEOICP Program Statistics |website=[[United States Department of Labor]]}} – Updated weekly</ref>

==Current status==
{{further|Nuclear triad#United States}}
[[File:US nuclear warheads 1945-2002 graph.png|right|thumb|U.S. nuclear warhead stockpile, 1945–2002.]]
[[File:US and USSR nuclear stockpiles.svg|right|thumb|A graph showing the amount of nuclear weapons stockpiled by either country during the nuclear race.]]
[[File:Active LGM-30 Minuteman Sites.png|thumb|U.S. ground-based nuclear weapons (all [[LGM-30 Minuteman]] missiles) are deployed in three areas, spanning five states. These locations were chosen to be far away from the coasts, to maximize warning of an incoming attack from submarines; far away from populated areas, since the silos would likely be targeted in a nuclear war; and relatively close to the [[Soviet Union]] via the polar route.<ref>[https://www.fastcompany.com/90732588/5-states-nuclear-sponge-missile-silos These 5 states were designed to act as America’s ‘nuclear sponge’]</ref><ref>[https://www.nps.gov/articles/minuteman-missiles-on-the-great-plains.htm Minuteman Missiles on the Great Plains]</ref><ref>[https://www.nps.gov/articles/mimiarmsrace-09.htm Minuteman Missile Deployment and Site Selection]</ref>]]
The United States is one of the five recognized nuclear powers by the signatories of the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]] (NPT) and one of the [[List of nuclear triads|four countries wielding a nuclear triad]]. As of 2017, the US has an estimated 4,018 nuclear weapons in either deployment or storage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fas.org/issues/nuclear-weapons/status-world-nuclear-forces/|title=Status of World Nuclear Forces}}</ref> This figure compares to a peak of 31,225 total warheads in 1967 and 22,217 in 1989 and does not include "several thousand" warheads that have been retired and scheduled for dismantlement. The [[Pantex Plant]] near [[Amarillo, Texas]], is the only location in the United States where weapons from the aging nuclear arsenal can be refurbished or dismantled.<ref name="An Aging Army"/>

In 2009 and 2010, the [[Obama administration]] declared policies that would invalidate the Bush-era policy for use of nuclear weapons and its motions to develop new ones. First, in a prominent [[Barack Obama speech in Prague, 2009|2009 speech]], U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] outlined a goal of "a world without nuclear weapons".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/obama-sets-goal-of-world-without-nuclear-weapons-1661727.html |agency=Associated Press |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090405104959/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/obama-sets-goal-of-world-without-nuclear-weapons-1661727.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 April 2009 |title=Obama sets goal of world without nuclear weapons |work=The Independent |date=3 April 2009|access-date=21 June 2009 |location=London}}</ref> To that goal, U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] and Russian President [[Dmitry Medvedev]] signed a [[new START]] treaty on 8 April 2010, to reduce the number of active nuclear weapons from 2,200 to 1,550.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=106292556|title=U.S., Russia Agree To Pursue Nuclear Reduction|website=NPR.org|date=6 July 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Obama, Medvedev sign treaty to reduce nuclear weapons |author=Michael D. Shear |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/04/08/AR2010040801677.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=8 April 2010 |access-date=9 April 2010}}</ref> That same week Obama also revised U.S. policy on the use of nuclear weapons in a [[Nuclear Posture Review]] required of all presidents, declaring for the first time that the U.S. would not use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear, ''NPT''-compliant states. The policy also renounces development of any new nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite news |title=Obama Limits When U.S. Would Use Nuclear Arms |author=David E. Sanger |author2=Peter Baker |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/06/world/06arms.html |newspaper=New York Times |date=5 April 2010 |access-date=8 April 2010}}</ref> However, within the same Nuclear Posture Review of April 2010, there was a stated need to develop new “low yield” nuclear weapons. This resulted in the development of the B61 Mod 12.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Broad |first=William J. |date=2022-03-21 |title=The Smaller Bombs That Could Turn Ukraine Into a Nuclear War Zone |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/21/science/russia-nuclear-ukraine.html |access-date=2022-12-21 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Despite President Obama's goal of a nuclear-free world and reversal of former President Bush's nuclear policies, his presidency cut fewer warheads from the stockpile than any previous post-Cold War presidency.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Obama Administration Announces Unilateral Nuclear Weapon Cuts |url=https://fas.org/blogs/security/2017/01/obama-cuts/ |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=Federation Of American Scientists |language=en-US}}</ref>

Following a renewal of tension after the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]] started in 2014, the Obama administration announced plans to continue to [[renovation of the nuclear weapon arsenal of the United States|renovate the US nuclear weapons facilities and platforms]] with a budgeted spend of about a trillion dollars over 30 years.<ref name=NYT>{{citation |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/22/us/us-ramping-up-major-renewal-in-nuclear-arms.html?_r=0 |title=U.S. Ramping Up Major Renewal in Nuclear Arms |author1=William Broad |author2=David Sanger |date= 21 September 2014 |newspaper=New York Times}}</ref> Under these new plans, the US government would fund research and development of new nuclear cruise missiles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thompson |first=Loren |title=Obama Backs Biggest Nuclear Arms Buildup Since Cold War |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/lorenthompson/2015/12/15/obama-backs-biggest-nuclear-arms-buildup-since-cold-war/ |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mehta |first=Aaron |date=2016-07-21 |title=Senators Urge Obama To Cancel Nuclear Cruise Missile |url=https://www.defensenews.com/congress/2016/07/21/senators-urge-obama-to-cancel-nuclear-cruise-missile/ |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=Defense News |language=en}}</ref> The [[Trump administration|Trump]] and [[Biden administration]]s continued with these plans.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/USNuclearModernization|title=U.S. Nuclear Modernization Programs|publisher=Arms Control Association|year=2022|access-date=28 March 2022}}</ref>

As of 2021, American nuclear forces on land consist of 400 [[Minuteman III]] [[ICBMs]] spread among 450 [[Missile launch facility|operational launchers]], staffed by [[Air Force Global Strike Command]]. [[Ballistic missile submarine|Those in the seas]] consist of 14 nuclear-capable [[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class Trident submarines]], nine in the [[Pacific]] and five in the [[Atlantic]]. Nuclear capabilities in the air are provided by 60 nuclear-capable [[heavy bombers]], 20 [[Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit|B-2 bombers]] and 40 [[Boeing B-52 Stratofortress|B-52s]].<ref name=CRS1>{{cite report |author=Woolf |first=Amy F. |date=July 13, 2021 |title=U.S. Strategic Nuclear Forces: Background, Developments, and Issues |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/RL33640.pdf |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] |access-date=July 23, 2021}}</ref>

The [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] has modernized its Minuteman III missiles to last through 2030, and a [[Ground Based Strategic Deterrent]] (GBSD) is set to begin replacing them in 2029.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Department of the Air Force awards contract for new ICBM system that enhances, strengthens US triad |url=https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/2340139/department-of-the-air-force-awards-contract-for-new-icbm-system-that-enhances-s/ |work=Secretary of the Air Force Public Affairs |agency=[[United States Air Force]] |date=September 8, 2020 |access-date=July 23, 2021}}</ref> The [[United States Navy|Navy]] has undertaken efforts to extend the operational lives of its missiles in warheads past 2020; it is also producing new [[Columbia-class submarine|''Columbia''-class submarines]] to replace the ''Ohio'' fleet beginning 2031.<ref>{{cite news |last=Larter |first=David B. |date=November 5, 2020 |title=US Navy inks $9.4B contract for two Columbia-class nuclear missile submarines |url=https://www.defensenews.com/naval/2020/11/05/navy-inks-contract-for-two-columbia-class-nuclear-missile-submarines/ |work=[[Defense News]] |access-date=July 23, 2021}}</ref> The Air Force is also retiring the [[AGM-86 ALCM|nuclear cruise missiles of its B-52s]], leaving only half nuclear-capable. It intends to procure a new [[Strategic bomber|long-range bomber]], the [[Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider|B-21]], and [[Long Range Stand Off Weapon|a new long-range standoff (LRSO) cruise missile]] in the 2020s.<ref name=CRS1/><ref>{{cite news |last=Insinna |first=Valerie |date=July 6, 2021 |title=Raytheon wins $2B contract for new nuclear cruise missile |url=https://www.defensenews.com/air/2021/07/06/raytheon-wins-2b-for-new-nuclear-cruise-missile/ |work=[[Defense News]] |access-date=July 23, 2021}}</ref>

==Nuclear disarmament movement==
[[File:Orepa-2011-y12-rally-tn3.jpg|right|thumb|April 2011 OREPA rally at the [[Y-12 National Security Complex|Y-12 nuclear weapons plant]] entrance]]

{{See also|Nuclear disarmament|Anti-nuclear movement in the United States}}
In the early 1980s, the revival of the [[nuclear arms race]] triggered large [[Demonstration (people)|protests]] about [[nuclear weapons]].<ref name=thebulletin>Lawrence S. Wittner. {{cite web|url=http://www.thebulletin.org/web-edition/op-eds/disarmament-movement-lessons-yesteryear|title=Disarmament movement lessons from yesteryear|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117043945/http://thebulletin.org/disarmament-movement-lessons-yesteryear|archive-date=17 January 2016|date=27 July 2009}} ''Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists'', 27 July 2009.</ref> On 12 June 1982, one million people demonstrated in New York City's [[Central Park]] against nuclear weapons and for an end to the [[cold war]] [[arms race]]. It was the largest anti-nuclear [[Demonstration (people)|protest]] and the largest political demonstration in American history.<ref name="The Spirit of 12 June">Jonathan Schell. [http://www.thenation.com/article/spirit-june-12 The Spirit of June 12] ''The Nation'', 2 July 2007.</ref><ref name="icanw.org">{{Cite web|url=http://www.icanw.org/1982|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516080117/http://www.icanw.org/1982|url-status=dead|title=1982 – a million people march in New York City|archivedate=16 May 2008}}</ref> International Day of Nuclear Disarmament protests were held on 20 June 1983 at 50 sites across the United States.<ref name="8YSmiFins9sC">{{cite book|author=Harvey Klehr|title=Far Left of Center: The American Radical Left Today|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8YSmiFins9sC&pg=PA150|year=1988|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-2343-2|page=150}}</ref><ref name="nl.newsbank.com">[http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=MH&s_site=miami&p_multi=MH&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB35CC6CE191FBE&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM 1,400 Anti-nuclear protesters arrested] ''Miami Herald'', 21 June 1983.</ref> There were many [[Nevada Desert Experience]] protests and peace camps at the [[Nevada Test Site]] during the 1980s and 1990s.<ref name="query.nytimes.com">Robert Lindsey. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE5DE113EF935A35751C0A961948260 438 Protesters are Arrested at Nevada Nuclear Test Site] ''New York Times'', 6 February 1987.</ref><ref name="New York Times 1992">[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE0D7153AF933A15757C0A964958260 493 Arrested at Nevada Nuclear Test Site] ''New York Times'', 20 April 1992.</ref>

There have also been protests by anti-nuclear groups at the [[Y-12 National Security Complex#Current status|Y-12 Nuclear Weapons Plant]],<ref name=y-12>[http://www.stopthebombs.org/news/join-us-at-the-april-2010-action-event-to-stop-the-bombs Stop the Bombs! April 2010 Action Event at Y-12 Nuclear Weapons Complex],</ref> the [[Idaho National Laboratory]],<ref name=yellow>Keep Yellowstone Nuclear Free (2003). [http://www.yellowstonenuclearfree.com/about_us/ Keep Yellowstone Nuclear Free] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091122092038/http://www.yellowstonenuclearfree.com/about_us/ |date=22 November 2009 }}</ref> Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository proposal,<ref name=yucca>Sierra Club. (undated). [http://www.sierraclub.org/nuclearwaste/yucca_factsheet.asp Deadly Nuclear Waste Transport]</ref> the [[Hanford Site]], the [[Nevada Test Site]],<ref name=nev>[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE7DD153DF933A2575BC0A96F948260 22 Arrested in Nuclear Protest] ''New York Times'', 10 August 1989.</ref> Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory,<ref name=law>[http://www.mindfully.org/Nucs/2003/Livermore-Lab-Protest11aug03.htm Hundreds Protest at Livermore Lab] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117040235/http://www.mindfully.org/Nucs/2003/Livermore-Lab-Protest11aug03.htm |date=17 January 2013 }} ''The TriValley Herald'', 11 August 2003.</ref> and transportation of nuclear waste from the Los Alamos National Laboratory.<ref name=LANL>Concerned Citizens for Nuclear Safety (undated). [http://www.nuclearactive.org/CCNS/ccnsindex.html About CCNS]</ref>

On 1 May 2005, 40,000 anti-nuclear/anti-war protesters marched past the United Nations in New York, 60 years after the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]].<ref name="indymedia2005">Lance Murdoch. [http://indymedia.us/en/2005/05/6861.shtml Pictures: New York MayDay anti-nuke/war march] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728132228/http://indymedia.us/en/2005/05/6861.shtml |date=28 July 2011 }}, [[IndyMedia]], 2 May 2005.</ref><ref name="foxnews2005">[https://www.foxnews.com/story/anti-nuke-protests-in-new-york "Anti-Nuke Protests in New York"], Fox News, 2 May 2005.</ref> This was the largest anti-nuclear rally in the U.S. for several decades.<ref name=thebulletin/> In May 2010, some 25,000 people, including members of peace organizations and 1945 atomic bomb survivors, marched from downtown New York to the United Nations headquarters, calling for the elimination of nuclear weapons.<ref name=jpnews>[http://www.ananuclear.org/Issues/GlobalNuclearEnergyPartnership/Library/tabid/56/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/314/Default.aspx A-bomb survivors join 25,000-strong anti-nuclear march through New York] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512133429/http://www.ananuclear.org/Issues/GlobalNuclearEnergyPartnership/Library/tabid/56/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/314/Default.aspx |date=12 May 2013 }} ''Mainichi Daily News'', 4 May 2010.</ref>

Some scientists and engineers have opposed nuclear weapons, including [[Paul M. Doty]], [[Hermann Joseph Muller]], [[Linus Pauling]], [[Eugene Rabinowitch]], [[M. V. Ramana]] and [[Frank N. von Hippel]]. In recent years, many elder statesmen have also advocated nuclear disarmament. [[Sam Nunn]], [[William J. Perry|William Perry]], [[Henry Kissinger]], and [[George Shultz]]—have called upon governments to embrace the vision of a world free of nuclear weapons, and in various op-ed columns have proposed an ambitious program of urgent steps to that end. The four have created the Nuclear Security Project to advance this agenda. Organizations such as [[Global Zero (campaign)|Global Zero]], an international non-partisan group of 300 world leaders dedicated to achieving nuclear disarmament, have also been established.

== United States nuclear weapons arsenal ==


'''New START Treaty Aggregate Numbers of Strategic Offensive Arms, 14 June 2023'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/new-start-treaty-aggregate-numbers-of-strategic-offensive-arms/|title=New START Treaty Aggregate Numbers of Strategic Offensive Arms|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! Data category
! United States of America
|-
| Deployed: ICBMs, SLBMs, and heavy bombers
| 665
|-
| Nuclear warheads on deployed: ICBMs, SLBMs, and those counted for heavy bombers
| 1,389
|-
| Deployed and non-deployed: Launchers of: ICBMs, SLBMs Heavy bombers
| 800
|-
! Total || 2,854
|}

Notes:
* Each heavy bomber is counted as one warhead (The [[New START]] Treaty)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/avc/newstart/index.htm|title=New START|website=2009-2017.state.gov}}</ref>
* The nuclear weapon delivery ability has been removed from [[Rockwell B-1 Lancer|B-1]] [[heavy bomber]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pawlyk |first1=Oriana |title=START Lanced the B-1's Nukes, But the Bomber Will Still Get New Bombs |url=http://www.military.com/daily-news/2017/07/12/start-lanced-the-b-1s-nukes-but-bomber-will-still-get-new-bombs.html |website=Military.com |publisher=Military Advantage |access-date=25 September 2017|quote=[The B-1] complies with the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty negotiations, which specifies the once-nuclear bomber remains disarmed of nukes. ... it will never be a nuclear-capable bomber again}}</ref>

'''Nuclear Notebook from the [[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]], 3 May 2024'''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kristensen |first1=Hans M. |last2=Korda |first2=Matt |last3=Johns |first3=Eliana |last4=Knight |first4=Mackenzie |title=United States nuclear weapons, 2024 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00963402.2024.2339170 |website=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |pages=182–208 |doi=10.1080/00963402.2024.2339170 |date=3 May 2024}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! Category
! Quantity
|-
| Deployed
| 1,770
|-
| Reserve
| 1,938
|-
| '''Subtotal'''
| '''3,708 (stockpile)'''
|-
| Retired
| 1,336
|-
! Grand total || 5,044 (inventory)
|}

Notes: While the New START counting rules attribute a warhead to each deployed bomber, American bombers normally do not carry nuclear weapons. Their number therefore is not added to the warhead count. The Nuclear Notebook also counts as deployed all weapons that can be quickly loaded onto an aircraft, as well as nonstrategic nuclear weapons at European air bases.

==See also==
* [[Anti-nuclear movement in the United States]]
* [[Global Security Institute]]
* ''[[Hibakusha]]''
* [[History of nuclear weapons]]
* [[International Day against Nuclear Tests]]
* [[International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons]]
* [[List of nuclear weapons tests]]
* [[National Security Strategy (United States)]]
* [[Nuclear terrorism]]
* [[Nuclear-free zone]]
* [[U.S. nuclear weapons in Japan]]
* [[United States Strategic Command]]
* '''''{{portal-inline|Nuclear technology}}'''''

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=Note}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Notes 2 ==
{{notelist}}

'''Sources'''
* Biello, David. "A Need for New Warheads?" Scientific American, November 2007
* Hacker, Barton C. ''Elements of Controversy: The Atomic Energy Commission and Radiation Safety in Nuclear Weapons Testing, 1947–1974.'' Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994. {{ISBN|978-0-520-08323-3}}
* Hansen, Chuck. ''U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History.'' Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1988. {{ISBN|978-0-517-56740-1}}
* Schwartz, Stephen I. ''Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons.'' Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160313163740/http://www.brookings.edu/about/projects/archive/nucweapons/50 50 Facts About U.S. Nuclear Weapons | Brookings Institution] {{ISBN|978-0-8157-7773-1}}
* Weart, Spencer R. ''Nuclear Fear: A History of Images.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985. {{ISBN|978-0-674-62835-9}}
* Woolf, Amy F. [https://fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/RL33640.pdf U.S. ''Strategic Nuclear Forces: Background, Developments, and Issues.''] Washington, D.C.: [[Congressional Research Service]], 8 August 2017.
* Young, Ken and Schilling, Warner R. ''Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb'' (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2019). {{ISBN|978-1-5017-4516-4}}

== Further reading ==
* [http://www.jfklibrary.org/Events-and-Awards/Forums.aspx?f=2009 "Presidency in the Nuclear Age"], conference and forum at the [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum|JFK Library]], Boston, 12 October 2009. Four panels: "The Race to Build the Bomb and the Decision to Use It", "Cuban Missile Crisis and the First Nuclear Test Ban Treaty", "The Cold War and the Nuclear Arms Race", and "Nuclear Weapons, Terrorism, and the Presidency".

==External links==
[[File:Nuclear symbol.svg|right|55px]]
{{wikinews|US to reduce nuclear weapons arsenal}}
* Video archive of [http://sonicbomb.com US Nuclear Testing] at [http://www.sonicbomb.com sonicbomb.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111115025921/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/USA/index.html Nuclear Threat Initiative: United States]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234733/http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/nudb/dafig9.asp NDRC's data on the US Nuclear Stockpile, 1945–2002]
* [http://www.lasg.org/sites/siteoverview.htm Snapshot of the U.S. Nuclear Weapons Complex, April 2004] by the [[Los Alamos Study Group]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6414197.stm New nuclear warhead design for US]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160805025731/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=warfare%2FU.S.%20Nuclear%20Weapons%20Programs Annotated bibliography of U. S. nuclear weapons programs from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues]
* [https://www.labrats.international/usavideos US Test footage and veteran testimony]

{{Manhattan Project}}
{{United States nuclear devices}}
{{US military navbox}}
{{U.S. anti-nuclear}}

[[Category:Nuclear weapons of the United States| ]]
[[Category:Nuclear weapons program of the United States| ]]
[[Category:Cold War history of the United States]]
[[Category:United States Atomic Energy Commission]]
[[Category:United States Department of Energy]]

List of nuclear weapons

2024-10-28T15:22:48Z

Brandmeister: /* top */ nuclear triad

{{Short description|World's atomic warhead designs, 1945–present}}
[[File:B-83 nuclear weapon.jpg|thumb|The components of a [[B83 nuclear bomb]] used by the United States]]
This is a '''list of [[nuclear weapon]]s''' listed according to country of origin, and then by type within the states. The United States, Russia, China and India are known to [[List of nuclear triads|possess a nuclear triad]], being capable to [[Nuclear weapons delivery|deliver]] nuclear weapons by land, sea and air.
{{nuclear weapons}}

==United States==

{{Main|United States and weapons of mass destruction}}
American nuclear weapons of all types – bombs, warheads, shells, and others – are numbered in the same sequence starting with the [[Little Boy|Mark 1]] and ({{As of|2006|alt=as of March 2006}}) ending with the [[W91]] (which was cancelled prior to introduction into service). All designs which were formally intended to be weapons at some point received a number designation. Pure test units which were experiments (and not intended to be weapons) are not numbered in this sequence.

Early weapons were very large and could only be used as free fall bombs. These were known by "Mark" designators, like the Mark 4 which was a development of the Fat Man weapon. As weapons became more sophisticated they also became much smaller and lighter, allowing them to be used in many roles. At this time the weapons began to receive designations based on their role; bombs were given the prefix "B", while the same warhead used in other roles, like missiles, would normally be prefixed "W". For instance, the [[W53|W-53 warhead]] was also used as the basis for the [[B53 nuclear bomb]]. Such examples share the same sequence number.

In other cases, when the modifications are more significant, variants are assigned their own number. An example is the [[B61 nuclear bomb]], which was the parent design for the [[W80 (nuclear warhead)|W80]], [[W81]], and [[W84]]. There are also examples of out-of-sequence numbering and other prefixes used in special occasions.

This list includes weapons which were developed to the point of being assigned a model number (and in many cases, prototypes were test fired), but which were then cancelled prior to introduction into military service. Those models are listed as cancelled, along with the year or date of cancellation of their program.

* Bombs – designated with Mark ("Mk") numbers until 1968, and with "B" numbers after that. "Test Experimental" bombs designated with "TX".
** Mark 1 – "[[Little Boy]]" gun-type uranium weapon (used against Hiroshima). (13–18 kilotons, 1945–1950)
** Mark 2 – "[[Mark 2 nuclear bomb|Thin Man]]" plutonium gun design—cancelled in 1944
*** Implosion Mark 2 – Another Manhattan Project plutonium implosion weapon, a hollow [[plutonium pit|pit]] [[Implosion-type nuclear weapon|implosion design]], was also sometimes referred to as Mark 2. Also cancelled 1944.
** Mark 3 – "[[Fat Man]]" plutonium implosion weapon (used against Nagasaki), effectively the same as the "Gadget" device used in the [[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity nuclear test]] with minor design differences. (21 kilotons, 1945–1950)
** [[Mark 4 nuclear bomb|Mark 4]] – Post-war "Fat Man" redesign. Bomb designed with weapon characteristics as the foremost criteria. (1949–1953)
** [[Mark 5 nuclear bomb|Mark 5]] – Significantly smaller high efficiency nuclear bomb. (1–120 kilotons, 1952–1963)
** [[Mark 6 nuclear bomb|Mark 6]] – Improved version of Mk-4. (8–160 kilotons, 1951–1962)
** [[Mark 7 nuclear bomb|Mark 7]] – Multi-purpose tactical bomb. (8–61 kilotons, 1952–1967)
** [[Mark 8 nuclear bomb|Mark 8]] – Gun-assembly, [[highly enriched uranium|HEU]] weapon designed for penetrating hardened targets. (25–30 kilotons, 1951–1957)

** [[Mark 10 nuclear bomb|Mark 10]] – Improved version of Mk-8 (12–15 kilotons, cancelled May 1952).
** [[Mark 11 nuclear bomb|Mark 11]] – Re-designed Mk-8. Gun-type (8–30 kilotons).
** [[Mark 12 nuclear bomb|Mark 12]] – Light-weight bomb to be carried by [[fighter aircraft]] (12–14 kilotons).
** [[Mark 13 nuclear bomb|Mark 13]] – Improved version of Mk-6 (cancelled August 1954).
** TX/[[Mark 14 nuclear bomb|Mark 14]] – First deployable solid-fuel [[thermonuclear bomb]] ([[Castle Union]] device). Only five produced. (5 Megatons)
** [[Mark 15 nuclear bomb|Mark 15]] – First "lightweight" thermonuclear weapon. (1.7–3.8 Megatons, 1955–1965)
** TX/[[Mark 16 nuclear bomb|Mark 16]] – First weaponized thermonuclear weapon ([[Ivy Mike]] device). Only [[cryogenic]] weapon ever deployed. Only five produced. (6–8 Megatons)
** [[Mark 17 nuclear bomb|Mark 17]] – High-yield thermonuclear. Heaviest U.S. weapon, second highest yield of any U.S. weapon. Very similar to Mk-24. (10–15 Megatons)
** [[Mark 18 nuclear bomb|Mark 18]] – Very high yield fission weapon ([[Ivy King]] device).
** [[Mark 20 nuclear bomb|Mark 20]] – Improved Mark 13 (cancelled 1954)
** [[Mark 21 nuclear bomb|Mark 21]] – Re-designed variant of [[Castle Bravo]] test
** [[Mark 22 nuclear bomb|Mark 22]] – Failed thermonuclear design ([[Castle Koon]] device, cancelled April 1954).
** [[Mark 24 nuclear bomb|Mark 24]] – High-yield thermonuclear, very similar to Mk-17 but had a different secondary.
** [[Mark 26 nuclear bomb|Mark 26]] – Similar design to Mk 21 (cancelled 1956).
** [[Mark 27 nuclear bomb|Mark 27]] – Navy nuclear bomb (1958–1965)
** [[Mk 101 Lulu]] (1958–1971)
** [[Mk 105 Hotpoint]] (1958–1965)
** [[B28 nuclear bomb]] (Mark 28) (1958–1991)
** [[Mark 36 nuclear bomb|Mark 36]] – Strategic nuclear bomb (1956–1961) 6–19 Megatons
** [[B39 nuclear bomb]] (Mark 39) (1957–1966)
** [[B41 nuclear bomb]] (Mark 41) (1960–1976); highest yield US nuclear weapon (25 Megatons).
** [[B43 nuclear bomb]] (Mark 43) (1961–1991)
** [[B46 nuclear bomb]] or (Mark 46); experimental, design evolved into [[B53 nuclear bomb]] and [[W53|W-53 warhead]] (cancelled 1958)
** [[Mark 90 nuclear bomb]] (1952-1960)
** [[B53 nuclear bomb]] (1962–1997; dismantled 2010–2011)
** [[B57 nuclear bomb]] (1963–1993)
** [[B61 nuclear bomb]] (1966–present)
** [[B77 nuclear bomb]] (cancelled 1977)
** [[B83 nuclear bomb]] (1983–present)
** [[B90 nuclear bomb]] (cancelled 1991)
** Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator design program (2001–2005, cancelled)
*[[Nuclear artillery]] shells
** 16-inch (406 mm)
*** [[W23 (nuclear artillery shell)|W23]] (1956–1962) gun-type
** 11-inch (280 mm)
*** [[W9 (nuclear warhead)|W9]] (1952–1957) gun-type
*** [[W19 (nuclear artillery shell)|W19]] (1953–1956) gun-type, W9 derivative
** 8-inch (203 mm)
*** [[W33 (nuclear weapon)|W33]] (1956–1980s) gun-type
*** [[W75 (nuclear warhead)|W75]] (cancelled 1973)
*** [[W79 Artillery-Fired Atomic Projectile|W79]] (1981–1992)
** There were/are also nuclear warheads for the Army's 175 mm (6.9-inch) and 155 mm (6.1-inch) artillery.
*** [[W48]] (1963–1992)
*** [[W74 (nuclear warhead)|W74]] (cancelled 1973)
*** [[W82]] (cancelled 1983 (W-82-0 [[neutron bomb|Enhanced Radiation]]) and 1990 (W-82-1 fission only))
*Atomic Demolition Munitions
** [[Mark 7 nuclear bomb|W7]]/ADM-B (c. 1954–1967)
** [[T-4 Atomic Demolition Munition|T4 ADM]] (1957–1963) Gun-type
** [[W30 (nuclear warhead)|W30]]/[[Tactical Atomic Demolition Munition]] (1961–1966)
** [[W31]]/ADM (1960–1965)
** [[W45 (nuclear warhead)|W45]]/[[Medium Atomic Demolition Munition]] (1964–1984)
** [[W54]]/[[Special Atomic Demolition Munition]] (1965–1989)
* Missile and Rocket [[warhead]]s
** [[Mark 4 nuclear bomb|W4]] for [[SM-62 Snark]] [[cruise missile]] (cancelled 1951)
** [[W5 (nuclear warhead)|W5]] for [[MGM-1 Matador]] cruise missile (1954–1963)
** [[Mark 7 nuclear bomb|W7]] for [[MGR-1 Honest John]] [[Rocket artillery|artillery rocket]] (1954–1960), [[MGM-5 Corporal]] [[Tactical ballistic missile|TBM]] (1955–1964), [[Nike Hercules]] [[Surface-to-air missile|SAM]], and [[BOAR]] air-to-surface rocket (ASR) (1958–1960s)
** [[Mark 8 nuclear bomb#Variants|W8]] for [[SSM-N-8 Regulus]] cruise missile, Gun-type (cancelled 1955)
** [[W12 nuclear warhead|W12]] for [[RIM-8 Talos]] SAM (cancelled 1955)
** [[Mark 13 nuclear bomb|W13]] for [[SM-62 Snark]] cruise missile and [[PGM-11 Redstone]] [[Short-range ballistic missile|SRBM]] (cancelled 1954)
** [[W15 warhead|W15]] for [[SM-62 Snark]] cruise missile (cancelled 1957)
** [[W21 (nuclear weapon)|W21]] for [[SM-64 Navaho]] cruise missile (cancelled 1957)
** [[W25 (nuclear warhead)|W25]] for MB-1 "Ding Dong", later [[AIR-2 Genie]] [[Air-to-air rocket|AAR]] (1957–1984)
** [[W27 warhead|W27]] for [[SSM-N-8 Regulus]] and [[SSM-N-9 Regulus II]] cruise missile (1958–1965)
** [[W28 (nuclear warhead)|W28]] for [[Hound Dog (missile)|AGM-28 Hound Dog]] and [[MGM-13 Mace]] cruise missiles (1958–1976)
** {{anchor|W29}}W29 for [[SM-64 Navaho]] cruise missile, [[PGM-11 Redstone]] SRBM, and [[SM-62 Snark]] cruise missile (cancelled 1955)
** [[W30 (nuclear warhead)|W30]] for [[RIM-8 Talos]] SAM (1959–1979)
** [[W31]] for [[MGR-1 Honest John]] artillery rocket (1961–1985), [[Nike Hercules]] SAM (1960s–1988)
** [[W34 (nuclear bomb)|W34]] for [[Mk 101 Lulu]] [[Nuclear depth charge|depth charge]], [[Mark 45 torpedo|Mark 45 ASTOR]] [[Nuclear torpedo|torpedo]], [[Mk 105 Hotpoint]] bomb (1958–1976)
** [[XW-35|W35]] for [[SM-65 Atlas]] [[Intercontinental ballistic missile|ICBM]], [[HGM-25A Titan I]] ICBM, [[PGM-17 Thor]] [[Intermediate-range ballistic missile|IRBM]], and [[PGM-19 Jupiter]] [[Medium-range ballistic missile|MRBM]] (cancelled 1958)
** [[XW-37|W37]] (cancelled 1956)
** [[W38 (nuclear warhead)|W38]] for [[SM-65 Atlas]] ICBM and [[HGM-25A Titan I]] ICBM (1961–1965)
** [[W39 (nuclear warhead)|W39]] for [[PGM-11 Redstone]] SRBM (1958–1964)
** [[W40 (nuclear warhead)|W40]] for [[MGM-18 Lacrosse]] TBM, [[CIM-10 Bomarc]] SAM (1959–1972)
** [[W41 (nuclear warhead)|W41]] for [[SM-64 Navaho]] cruise missile (cancelled 1957)
** [[W42 (nuclear warhead)|W42]] for [[MIM-23 Hawk]] SAM, [[AIM-47 Falcon]] [[Air-to-air missile|AAM]], [[AAM-N-10 Eagle]] AAM (cancelled 1961)
** [[W44 (nuclear warhead)|W44]] for [[RUR-5 ASROC]] [[Surface-to-surface missile|SSM]] (1961–1989) [[File:Nuclear depth charge explodes near USS Agerholm (DD-826) on 11 May 1962.jpg|thumb|right|200px|1962 test of an [[ASROC]] antisubmarine rocket armed with the W44]]
** [[W45 (nuclear warhead)|W45]] for [[MGR-3 Little John]] artillery rocket, [[RIM-2 Terrier]] SAM, and [[AGM-12 Bullpup]] [[Air-to-surface missile|ASM]] (1961–1969 (some 1988))
** [[XW-46]] for [[PGM-11 Redstone]] SRBM and [[SM-62 Snark]] cruise missile (cancelled 1958)
** [[W47]] for [[UGM-27 Polaris]] A-1 and A-2 [[Submarine-launched ballistic missile|SLBM]]s (1960–1974)
** [[W49]] for [[PGM-19 Jupiter]] MRBM (1959–1963) and [[PGM-17 Thor]] IRBM (1959–1963)
** [[W50 (nuclear warhead)|W50]] for [[MGM-31 Pershing]] SRBM, and [[Hopi (missile)|Hopi]] ASR (1960–1990)
** [[XW-51]] for various (program converted to [[W54]] in 1959)
** [[W52 (nuclear warhead)|W52]] for [[MGM-29 Sergeant]] TBM (1962–1977)
** [[W53]] for [[LGM-25C Titan II]] ICBM (1962–1987)
** [[W54]] for [[Davy Crockett (nuclear device)|Davy Crockett]] recoilless rifle, [[AIM-26 Falcon]] [[Air-to-air missile|AAM]], and [[AIM-4 Falcon]] AAM (1961–1972)
** [[W55 (nuclear warhead)|W55]] for [[UUM-44 SUBROC]] SSM (1965–1989)
** [[W56]] for [[LGM-30 Minuteman]] I and II ICBMs (1963–1993)
** [[W58]] for [[UGM-27 Polaris]] A-3 SLBM (1964–1982)
** [[W59]] for [[LGM-30 Minuteman]] I ICBM and [[GAM-87 Skybolt]] [[Air-launched ballistic missile|ALBM]] (1962–1969)
** [[W60 (nuclear warhead)|W60]] for [[RIM-50 Typhon]] SAM (cancelled 1963)
** [[B61 nuclear bomb#W61 Earth Penetrator Warhead|W61]] for [[MGM-134 Midgetman]] (cancelled 1992)
** [[W62]] for [[LGM-30 Minuteman]] III ICBM, (1970–2010)
** [[W63 (nuclear warhead)|W63]] for [[MGM-52 Lance]] TBM (warhead cancelled 1966)
** [[W64 (nuclear warhead)|W64]] for [[MGM-52 Lance]] TBM (warhead cancelled 1964)
** [[W65 (nuclear warhead)|W65]] for [[Sprint (missile)|Sprint]] [[Anti-ballistic missile|ABM]] (cancelled 1968)
** [[W66 (nuclear warhead)|W66]] for [[Sprint (missile)|Sprint]] ABM (available 1970–1975)
** [[W67 (nuclear warhead)|W67]] for [[UGM-73 Poseidon]] SLBM and [[LGM-30 Minuteman]] III ICBM (cancelled 1967)
** [[W68]] for [[UGM-73 Poseidon]] SLBM (1970–1991)
** [[W69]] for [[AGM-69 SRAM]] ASM (1972–1990)
** [[W70]] for [[MGM-52 Lance]] TBM (deployed 1973–1992)
** [[W71]] for [[LIM-49A Spartan]] ABM (deployed 1974–1975; dismantled 1992)
** [[W72 (nuclear warhead)|W72]] for [[AGM-62 Walleye]] [[glide bomb]] (1970–1979)
** [[W73 (nuclear warhead)|W73]] for [[AGM-53 Condor]] ASM (cancelled 1970)
** [[W76]] for [[UGM-96 Trident I]] and [[UGM-133 Trident II]] SLBMs (1978–present)
** [[W78]] for [[LGM-30 Minuteman]] III ICBM (1979–present)
** [[W80 (nuclear warhead)|W80]] for [[AGM-86 ALCM|AGM-86]], [[AGM-129 ACM|AGM-129]], [[Tomahawk (missile family)|BGM-109 Tomahawk]], and [[AGM-181 LRSO]] cruise missiles (1981–present)
** [[W81]] for [[RIM-67 Standard]] ER SAM, based on B61 (cancelled 1986)
** [[W84]] for [[BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile|BGM-109G Gryphon]] cruise missile (1983–1991)
** [[W85 (nuclear warhead)|W85]] for [[Pershing II]] MRBM and Pershing 1b SRBM (1983–1991)
** [[W86]] for [[Pershing II]] MRBM Earth penetrating warhead option (cancelled 1980)
** [[W87]] for [[LGM-118 Peacekeeper]] ICBM (1986–2005), [[LGM-30 Minuteman]] III ICBM (2007–present), and [[LGM-35 Sentinel]] ICBM (future)
*** [[W87#Variants|W87-1]] for [[MGM-134 Midgetman]] ICBM (cancelled 1992)
** [[W88]] for [[UGM-133 Trident II]] SLBM (1988–present)
** [[W89]] for [[AGM-131 SRAM II]] ASM and [[UUM-125 Sea Lance]] SSM (cancelled 1991)
** [[W91]] for [[AGM-131 SRAM II#SRAM-T|SRAM-T]] ASM (cancelled 1991)
** [[Reliable Replacement Warhead]] (RRW1) design program (2004–2008, cancelled)
** [[W93]] for [[UGM-133 Trident II]] SLBM (proposed)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.defensenews.com/smr/nuclear-arsenal/2020/02/24/inside-americas-newly-revealed-nuclear-ballistic-missile-warhead-of-the-future/ |title=Inside America's newly revealed nuclear ballistic missile warhead of the future |date=24 February 2020 |access-date=2020-10-18}}</ref>

See also [[Enduring Stockpile]].

===Common nuclear primaries===

Several American weapons designs share common components. These include publicly identified models listed below.
{|class="wikitable" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
|+ Common nuclear fission primaries
|-
! Model
! Used in these weapons
|-
| [[RACER IV]] primary
| TX/[[Mark 14 nuclear bomb|Mark 14]], TX/[[Mark 16 nuclear bomb|Mark 16]], [[Mark 17 nuclear bomb|Mark 17]]
|-
| [[Python primary]]
| [[B28 nuclear bomb|B28]] [[W28 (nuclear warhead)|W28]] [[W40 (nuclear warhead)|W40]] [[W49]]
|-
| [[Boa primary]]
| [[W30 (nuclear warhead)|W30]] [[W52 (nuclear warhead)|W52]]
|-
| [[Robin primary]]
| [[W38 (nuclear warhead)|W38]] [[W45 (nuclear warhead)|W45]] [[W47]]
|-
| [[Tsetse primary]]
| [[B43 nuclear bomb|B43]] [[W44 (nuclear warhead)|W44]] [[W50 (nuclear warhead)|W50]] [[B57 nuclear bomb|B57]] [[W59]]
|-
| [[Kinglet primary]]
| [[W55 (nuclear warhead)|W55]] [[W58]]
|-
| [[B61 Family]]
| [[B61 nuclear bomb|B61]] [[W69]] [[W73 (nuclear warhead)|W73]] [[W80 (nuclear warhead)|W80]] [[W81]] [[W84]] [[W85 (nuclear warhead)|W85]] [[W86]]
|}

==Soviet Union/Russia==
{{Main|Russia and weapons of mass destruction}}
At the peak of its arsenal in 1988, Russia possessed around 45,000 nuclear weapons in its stockpile, roughly 13,000 more than the United States arsenal, the second largest in the world, which peaked in 1966.<ref name="NorrisKristensenGlobal">Robert S. Norris and Hans M. Kristensen, "[http://thebulletin.metapress.com/content/c4120650912x74k7/fulltext.pdf Global nuclear stockpiles, 1945–2006]," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 62, no. 4 (July/August 2006), 64–66.</ref>
*Tests
*Torpedoes
**53-58 torpedo with 10 kilotons [[RDS-9]] warhead
**65-73 torpedo with 20 kilotons
**[[VA-111 Shkval]] with 150 kilotons
*Bombs
**[[RDS-1]], 22 kiloton bomb. Tested 29 August 1949 as "First Light" (Joe 1). Total of 5 stockpiled
**[[RDS-2]], 38 kiloton bomb. Tested 24 September 1951 as "Second Light." The RDS-2 was an entirely Russian design, delayed by development of the RDS-1
**[[RDS-3]], 42 kiloton bomb. First Soviet bomb tested in an airdrop on 18 October 1951. First 'mass-produced" Soviet bomb
**[[RDS-3I]], 62 kiloton bomb. Tested 24 October 1954. The RDS-31 was an improved RDS-3 with external [[neutron generator]]
**[[RDS-4]], "Tatyana" 42 kiloton bomb. The RDS-4 was smaller and lighter than previous Soviet Bombs.
**[[RDS-5]]
**[[RDS-6]], also known as RDS-6S, or "sloika" or "layer cake" gaining about 20% of its yield from fusion. RDS-6 was tested on 12 August 1953. Yield 400 kilotons
**[[RDS-7]], a backup for the RDS-6, the RDS-7 was a 500 kiloton all fission bomb comparable to the US Mk-18, development dropped after success of the RDS-6S
**[[RDS-27]], 250 kiloton bomb, a 'boosted' fission bomb tested 6 November 1955.
**[[RDS-37]], 3 megaton bomb, the first Soviet two-stage hydrogen bomb, tested 22 November 1955
**[http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/TsarBomba.html RDS-220] [[Tsar Bomba]] an extremely large three stage bomb, initially designed as a 100-megaton-bomb, but was scaled down to 50 megatons for testing.
*[[Intercontinental Ballistic Missile]]s

**[[RDS-9]], 40 kiloton warhead<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atomicforum.org/russia/russiaweapons.html |title=de beste bron van informatie over Nuclear weapons. Deze website is te koop! |publisher=atomicforum.org |access-date=2012-08-14}}</ref> for R-5M MRBM (SS-3)
**[[RDS-37]], 3 [[TNT equivalent|megaton]] warhead<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/russia/icbm/r-7.htm |title=R-7 - SS-6 SAPWOOD Russian / Soviet Nuclear Forces |publisher=Fas.org |access-date=2012-08-14}}</ref> for [[R-7 Semyorka|R-7 Semyorka / SS-6 Sapwood]] ICBM
**[[RDS-46]], 5 [[TNT equivalent|megaton]] warhead<ref name="autogenerated1"/> for [[R-7A Semyorka|R-7A Semyorka / SS-6 Sapwood]] ICBM
**[[8F17]], 3 megaton<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/russia/icbm/r-16.htm |title=R-16 / SS-7 SADDLER – Russian / Soviet Nuclear Forces |publisher=Fas.org |access-date=2012-08-14}}</ref> warhead for [[R-16 (missile)|R-16 / SS-7 Saddler]] ICBM
**[[8F115]] and [[8F116]], 5-6 megaton<ref name="autogenerated2"/> warhead for [[R-16 (missile)|R-16 / SS-7 Saddler]] ICBM
**Unknown model warheads for [[R-9 Desna|R-9 / SS-8 Sasin]] ICBM
**[[15F42]] 1.2 megaton warhead for [[UR-100|UR-100 / SS-11 Mod 3 Sego]] ICBM

**Unknown model 750 [[kiloton]] to 1.0 [[TNT equivalent|megaton]] warhead for [[RT-2|RT-2 / SS-13 Mod 1 Savage]] ICBM
**[[15F1r]] 750 kiloton to 1.65 [[TNT equivalent|megaton]] warhead for [[RT-2|RT-2 / SS-13 Mod 2 Savage]] ICBM
**Unknown model 466 kiloton warhead for [[RT-2|RT-2 / SS-13 Mod 3 Savage]] ICBM
**Unknown model 500 kiloton warhead for [[RT-20P|RT-20 / SS-15 Scrooge]] ICBM
**Unknown model 1.5 megaton warhead for [[RT-20P|RT-20 / SS-15 Scrooge]] ICBM
**Unknown model 650 kiloton to 1.5 megaton warheads for [[RT-21 Temp 2S|RT-21 Temp 2S / SS-16 Sinner]] ICBM
**Unknown model 300–750 kiloton warheads for [[MR-UR-100 Sotka|MR-UR-100 Sotka / SS-17 Spanker Mod 1]] ICBM
**Unknown model 4–6 megaton warhead for [[MR-UR-100 Sotka|MR-UR-100 Sotka / SS-17 Spanker Mod 2]] ICBM
**8F675 (Mod2) 20 megaton warhead for [[R-36 (missile)|R-36M2 / SS-18 Satan]] ICBM
**8F021 2 or 5 megaton warheads for [[R-36 (missile)|R-36MP / SS-18 Satan]] ICBM (3 MIRV warheads)
**unknown 550 kiloton warheads for [[R-36 (missile)|R-36M2 / SS-18 Satan]] ICBM (10 MIRV warheads)
**Unknown model 750 kiloton warheads for [[R-36 (missile)|R-36M2 / SS-18 Satan]] ICBM (10 MIRV warheads)
**Unknown model 550 kiloton warheads for [[UR-100N|UR-100N / SS-19 Mod 1 Stiletto]] ICBM (6 MIRV warheads)
**Unknown model 2.5–5 megaton warhead for [[UR-100N|UR-100N / SS-19 Mod 2 Stiletto]] ICBM
**Unknown model 550 kiloton warheads for [[RT-23 Molodets|RT-23 Molodets / SS-24 Scalpel]] ICBM (10 MIRV warheads)
**Unknown model 550 kiloton warhead for [[RT-2PM Topol|RT-2PM Topol / SS-25 Sickle]] ICBM
**Unknown model 550 kiloton warhead for [[RT-2PM2 Topol-M|RT-2UTTH Topol M / SS-27 Sickle B]] ICBM


*Various [[tactical nuclear weapons]] including "[[suitcase bomb]]s" (RA-115 or RA-115-01 as examples)

==United Kingdom==

{{Main|Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom}}
* [[Blue Steel missile|Blue Steel]]
* [[Yellow Sun (nuclear weapon)|Yellow Sun]] productionised air-delivered thermonuclear bomb casing.
* Warheads
** [[Blue Danube (nuclear weapon)|Blue Danube]] Fission weapon.
** [[Red Snow]] for Yellow Sun Mk.2.
** [[Green Grass (nuclear warhead)|Green Grass]] For Yellow Sun Mk.1.
** [[Red Beard (nuclear weapon)|Red Beard]], tactical nuclear weapon.
** [[WE.177]] (also used as a nuclear depth charge).
** [[Blue Cat (nuclear weapon)|Blue Cat]] – nuclear warhead a.k.a. Tony – UK version of US W44, a.k.a. ''Tsetse''.
** [[Blue Fox (nuclear weapon)|Blue Fox]] – kiloton range nuclear weapon, later renamed Indigo Hammer – not to be confused with the later Blue Fox radar.
** [[Blue Peacock]] ten-kiloton nuclear land mine, a.k.a. the "chicken-powered nuclear bomb", originally 'Blue Bunny' It used the Blue Danube physics package.
** [[Blue Rosette]] – short-case nuclear weapon bomb casing for reconnaissance bomber to spec R156T, including the Avro 730, Handley Page HP.100, English Electric P10, Vickers SP4 and various others.
** [[Blue Slug]] – nuclear ship-to-ship missile using Sea Slug launcher.
** [[Blue Water (missile)|Blue Water]] – nuclear armed surface to surface missile.
** [[Green Bamboo]] – nuclear weapon.
** [[Green Cheese (missile)|Green Cheese]] – nuclear anti-ship missile.
** [[Green Flash (missile)|Green Flash]] – Green Cheese's replacement.
** [[Green Granite]] – nuclear weapons – Green Granite (small) & Green Granite (large).
** [[Green Grass (nuclear warhead)|Green Grass]] – nuclear weapon
** [[Indigo Hammer]] – nuclear weapon
** [[Orange Herald]] – fusion-boosted fission weapon. It is believed that the fusion boost didn't work, which would make it the most powerful fission bomb ever tested at 720 kt.
** [[Violet Club]] – nuclear weapon

==France==
{{Main|France and weapons of mass destruction|Force de Frappe}}
France is said to have an arsenal of 350 nuclear weapons stockpiled as of 2002.

*Bombs
**[[AN-11 bomb|AN 11]]
**[[AN-22 bomb|AN 22]]
**[[AN-52 bomb|AN 52]] ([[MR 50 CTC]])
*Warheads (and missiles)
**[[MR 31]] ([[S2 (missile)|S2]])
**[[MR 41]] ([[M1 (missile)|M1]] and [[M2 (missile)|M2]])
**[[MR 50|MR 50 CTC]] ([[AN 51 CTC]] and [[AN 52 CTC]])
**[[AN 51|AN 51 CTC]] ([[Pluton (missile)|Pluton]])
**[[AN 52|AN 52 CTC]] ([[AN-52 bomb|AN 52]])
**[[TN 60]] ([[M20 (missile)|M20]])
**[[TN 61]] ([[M20 (missile)|M20]] and [[S3 (missile)|S3]])
**[[TN 70]] [[MIRV]] ([[M4 (missile)|M4]])
**[[TN 71]] [[MIRV]] ([[M4 (missile)|M4]])
**[[TN 75]] [[MIRV]] ([[M45 (missile)|M45]] and [[M51 (missile)|M51]])
**TN 76 [[MIRV]] ([[M5 (missile)|M5]])
**[[TN 80]] ([[Air-Sol Moyenne Portée|ASMP]])
**[[TN 81]] ([[Air-Sol Moyenne Portée|ASMP]])
**[[TN 90]] ([[Hadès (missile)|Hadès]])
**[[Tête nucléaire aéroportée|TNA]] ([[Air-Sol Moyenne Portée|ASMP-A]])
**[[Tête nucléaire océanique|TNO]] [[MIRV]] ([[M51 (missile)|M51]])

==China==
{{Main|China and weapons of mass destruction}}
China is believed to possess around 250 nuclear weapons, but has released very little information about the contents of its arsenal.
*Tests:
**[[596 (nuclear test)]]
**[[Test No. 6]]
*Ballistic Missiles:
**[[Dongfeng (missile)#Dongfeng 1 (SS-2)|DF-1]]
**[[DF-2]]
**[[DF-3A]]
**[[DF-4]]
**[[DF-5]]
**[[DF-11]]
**[[DF-15]]
**[[DF-17]]
**[[DF-21]]
**[[DF-31]]
**[[DF-31B]]
**[[DF-41]]
**[[JL-1]]
**[[JL-2]]
**[[B-611]]
**[[B-611#P-12|P-12]]
*Cruise Missiles
**[[DH-10]]
**[[CJ-10]]
**[[Hongniao missile#HN-1|HN1]]
**[[Hongniao missile#HN-2|HN2]]
**[[Hongniao missile#HN-3|HN3]]
**[[Changfeng (missile)#Chang Feng 2|CF-2]]
**[[Changfeng (missile)#Chang Feng 1|CF-1]]
**[[SS-N-2]]

==India==
{{Main|India and weapons of mass destruction}}
Although India's nuclear programme and its details are highly classified, international figures suggest that India possesses about 172 nuclear weapons as per 2024 estimate. In 1999, India was estimated to have 800 kg of separated reactor-grade plutonium, with a total amount of 8,300 kg of civilian plutonium, enough for approximately 1,000 nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kristensen |first1=Hans M. |last2=Norris |first2=Robert S. |title=Indian nuclear forces, 2017 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |date=5 July 2017 |volume=73 |issue=4 |page=205 |doi=10.1080/00963402.2017.1337998|bibcode=2017BuAtS..73d.205K |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=India's Nuclear Weapons Program|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaArsenal.html|website=nuclearweaponarchive.org|access-date=26 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=India's and Pakistan's Fissile Material and Nuclear Weapons Inventories, end of 1999|url=http://www.isis-online.org/publications/southasia/stocks1000.html|publisher=Institute for Science and International Security|access-date=26 June 2012}}</ref>

==Israel==

{{Main|Israel and weapons of mass destruction}}
Israel is widely believed to possess a substantial arsenal of nuclear weapons and missiles, estimated at 75–130 and 100–200<ref>Normark, Magnus, Anders Lindblad, Anders Norqvist, Björn Sandström and Louise Waldenström. "Israel and WMD: Incentives and Capabilities." Swedish Defence Research Agency FOI-R--1734--SE December 2005 <{{cite web |url=http://www.foi.se/FOI/templates/Page____4657.aspx |title=Israel and WMD: Incentives and Capabilities - Swedish Defence Research Agency |access-date=2007-10-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070707104517/http://www.foi.se/FOI/templates/Page____4657.aspx |archive-date=2007-07-07 }}></ref> warheads, but refuses officially to confirm or deny whether it has a nuclear weapon program, leaving the details of any such weapons unclear. [[Mordechai Vanunu]], a former nuclear technician for Israel, confirmed the existence of a nuclear weapons program in 1986.

Unconfirmed rumors have hinted at tactical nuclear artillery shells, light fission bombs and missile warheads, and perhaps thermonuclear missile warheads.<ref>''The Samson option; Israel's nuclear arsenal and American foreign policy'', Hersh, Seymour M., New York, Random House, 1991, {{ISBN|0-394-57006-5}}</ref>

The [[BBC News Online]] website published an article<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/7420573.stm |title=Middle East | Israel 'has 150 nuclear weapons' |work=BBC News |date=2008-05-26 |access-date=2012-08-14}}</ref> on 28 May 2008, which quotes former U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]] as stating that Israel has at least 150 nuclear weapons. The article continues to state that this is the second confirmation of Israel's nuclear capability by a U.S. spokesman following comments from U.S. Defense Secretary [[Robert Gates]] at a Senate hearing and had apparently been confirmed a short time later by Israeli Prime Minister [[Ehud Olmert]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/7420573.stm "Israel 'has 150 nuclear weapons'", ''BBC News Online''] May 28, 2008</ref>

==Pakistan==
{{Main|Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction}}
As of June 2019, [[Pakistan]] is believed to possess about 160 [[nuclear weapons]]. The specifications of its weapon production are not disclosed to the public. The main series for nuclear transportation is Hatf (lit. ''Target'').<ref name="armscontrol.org">{{cite web|title=Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat|website=Arms Control Association|publisher=ACA|access-date=23 April 2019}}</ref><ref name=Stockpile2>{{cite web|title=Global nuclear weapons|url=https://sipri.org/yearbook/2019/06/|website=sipri|access-date=13 June 2019}}</ref>

==North Korea==

{{Main|North Korea and weapons of mass destruction}}
North Korea claims to possess nuclear weapons, however, the specifications of its systems are not public. It is estimated to have 6–18 low yield nuclear weapons (August 2012 estimate).<ref name="NK2015">{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/northkorea/9487574/North-Korea-could-have-fuel-for-48-nuclear-weapons-by-2015.html|title=North Korea could have fuel for 48 nuclear weapons by 2015|publisher=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=20 August 2012|access-date=8 November 2012}}</ref> On 9 October 2006, [[2006 North Korean nuclear test|North Korea achieved its first nuclear detonation]].

On 25 May 2009, North Korea conducted a second test of nuclear weapons at the same location as the original test. The test weapon was of the same magnitude as the atomic bombs dropped on Japan in the 2nd World War. At the same time of the test, North Korea tested two short range ballistic missiles. The country tested a 7 kt nuclear weapon on 2 February 2013. On 3 September 2017, North Korea conducted an underground thermonuclear test which had an estimated yield of 100kt to 250kt, according to various sources.

On March 24, 2023, North Korea unveiled the Hwasal-31 {{ill|화살-31|ko}} tactical nuclear bomb with at least 10 warheads shown, each measuring an estimated 40 to 50 centimeters in diameter and 1 meter in length as reported by the South Korean media. [[KN-23]] and [[KN-25]] ballistic missiles are capable of carrying it.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://world.kbs.co.kr/service/news_view.htm?lang=e&Seq_Code=176743 | title=North Korea Unveils Tactical Nuclear Warheads for First Time }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.sbs.co.kr/news/endPage.do?news_id=N1007131385 | title=[영상] '화산-31' 전술핵탄두 전격 공개한 북한…7차 핵실험 임박했나? | date=March 28, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.yna.co.kr/view/MYH20230328011200641 | title=북한, 전술핵탄두 전격 공개…김정은 "무기급 핵물질 확대" | date=March 28, 2023 }}</ref>

==South Africa==
{{Main|South Africa and weapons of mass destruction}}
South Africa built six or seven gun-type weapons. All constructed weapons were verified by [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] and other international observers to have been dismantled, along with the complete weapons program, and their highly enriched uranium was reprocessed back into low enriched form unsuitable for weapons.

==See also==
*[[Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents]]
*[[Nuclear weapon yield]]
*[[Nuclear weapon]]
*[[Nuclear bunker buster]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* Holloway, David, ''Stalin and the Bomb,'' New Haven & London, [[Yale University Press]], 1994, {{ISBN|0-300-06056-4}}.
* Zaloga, Steven J., ''The Kremlin's Nuclear Sword'' Washington, D.C., Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002, {{ISBN|1-58834-007-4}}.
*Hansen, Chuck. ''U.S. Nuclear Weapons''. Arlington, Texas, Areofax, Inc., 1988. {{ISBN|0-517-56740-7}}.
*Gibson, James N. ''Nuclear Weapons of the United States,'' Altglen, PA, Schiffer Publishing, 1996, {{ISBN|978-0-7643-0063-9}}.
* Cochran, Thomas, Arkin, William, Hoenig, Milton "Nuclear Weapons Databook, Volume I, U.S. Nuclear Forces and Capabilities," Cambridge, Massachusetts, Ballinger Pub. Co., 1984, {{ISBN|0-88410-173-8}}.
* Hansen, Chuck, "[http://www.uscoldwar.com/ Swords of Armageddon]" (CD-ROM & download available). PDF. 2,600 pages, Sunnyvale, California, Chucklea Publications, 1995, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-9791915-0-3}} (2nd Ed.)

==External links==
*{{webarchive |url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20010927182410/http://cns.miis.edu/research/safrica/chron.htm |title=CNS Resources on South Africa's Nuclear Weapons Program |date=2001-09-27}} – indicates that "most international experts conclude that South Africa has completed its nuclear disarmament. South Africa is the first and to date only country to build nuclear weapons and then entirely dismantle its nuclear weapons program."

{{Nuclear technology}}
{{United States nuclear devices}}
{{Strategic nuclear weapon systems of the United Kingdom}}
{{French nuclear missiles}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nuclear Weapons}}
[[Category:Nuclear weapons|*]]
[[Category:Lists of weapons]]
[[Category:Nuclear terrorism| ]]
[[Category:Nuclear technology-related lists|Weapons]]

Talk:List of nuclear triads

2024-10-26T15:53:02Z

Brandmeister: ←Created page with '{{WikiProject Military history|list=yes |US=yes |Russian=yes |Chinese=yes |Indian=yes |Weaponry-task-force=yes }}'

{{WikiProject Military history|list=yes
|US=yes
|Russian=yes
|Chinese=yes
|Indian=yes
|Weaponry-task-force=yes
}}

List of nuclear triads

2024-10-26T15:35:14Z

Brandmeister: +

{{Nuclear weapons}}
The following list of [[nuclear triad]]s, deployed in 2024, includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). Where available, the names and number of nuclear [[warheads]] are given. The list excludes [[Tactical nuclear weapon|non-strategic (tactical) nuclear weapons]] and the [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]].

The United States and Russia, previously Soviet Union, have been wielding their nuclear triads since the 1960s. India completed its nuclear triad in 2018<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/indias-second-nuclear-powered-submarine-ins-arighaat-commissioned/article68581283.ece|title=INS Arighaat, India’s second nuclear ballistic missile submarine, commissioned into service |work=[[The Hindu]]| author=Dinakar Peri| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref> and China in 2020.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://chinapower.csis.org/china-nuclear-weapons/|title=How is China Modernizing its Nuclear Forces?|publisher=[[Center for Strategic and International Studies]]| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|[[ICBM]]
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=[[Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment|Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense]]| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|[[SLBM]]
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
| 1920<ref name="rbk">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/25/11/2023/655f958a9a7947b548382147|title=Каким ядерным оружием обладают западные страны|publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=25 November 2023| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Of them 1511 W76-1, 384 W88 and 25 W76-2.<ref name="rbk"/>}}
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|[[ALCM]]
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|[[Unguided bomb]]
|{{n/a}}
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|Ground silo / [[transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]{{efn|Expected to be replaced by [[RS-28 Sarmat]].}}
|ICBM
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarines]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine|Delta-III]] and [[Delta-class submarine#Delta IV (Project 667BDRM Delfin) 7 boats|Delta IV-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|ALCM
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|~20<ref name="BAS">{{cite journal | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1533162?needAccess=true&page=3|author=Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda|title=Indian nuclear forces, 2018|journal=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]]| volume=74|issue=6|date=2018| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|{{n/a}}
|Transporter erector launcher/ rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|{{n/a}}
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|~24<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
| ~4<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Sukanya-class patrol vessel|''Sukanya''-class patrol vessels]]
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|12<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|Classified 20-[[kiloton|kt]] bomb
|Unguided bomb
|~16<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|-
|?
|Unguided and [[laser guided bomb]]s
|~32<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[SEPECAT Jaguar]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-5|DF-5A]]
|ICBM
|6<ref name="thebulletin">{{cite web | url =https://thebulletin.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/rbul_a_2295206_t0001_withnotes.pdf|title=Chinese nuclear weapons, 2024|author= Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda, Eliana Johns, Mackenzie Knight|work=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]]| date=15 January 2024| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[DF-5|DF-5B]]
|ICBM
|60<ref name="thebulletin"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21A/E]]
|[[MRBM]]
|?
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|108<ref name="thebulletin"/>
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-31]]
|ICBM
|?
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-31A]]
|ICBM
|24<ref name="thebulletin"/>
|
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|64<ref name="thebulletin"/>
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-41]]
|ICBM
|84<ref name="thebulletin"/>
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher, rail mobile
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|0 (for the JL-2), 72 (for the JL-3)<ref name="thebulletin"/>
|[[Type 094 submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[DF-21]]{{efn|Reportedly, China also possesses [[CJ-10K]] and [[CJ-20]] nuclear-capable [[ALCM]]s, as well as nuclear-capable [[YJ-21]] [[ALBM]] delivered by [[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6K]] bomber.<ref>{{cite journal | url =https://nipp.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Analysis-Schneider-4.3.pdf|title=China's nuclear delivery vehicles|author=Mark B. Schneider|journal=Journal of Policy & Strategy|volume=4|issue=3|publisher=National Institute for Public Policy| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>}}
| ALBM
|10<ref name="thebulletin"/>
|[[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6N]]
|-
|?
|Unguided bomb
|10<ref name="thebulletin"/>
|[[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6K]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

[[Category:Lists of weapons|nuclear triads]] [[Category:Nuclear technology-related lists|nuclear triads]] [[Category:Nuclear weapons]]

List of nuclear triads

2024-10-26T15:07:58Z

Brandmeister: more

{{Nuclear weapons}}
The following list of currently deployed [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). Where available, the names and number of nuclear [[warheads]] are given. The list excludes [[Tactical nuclear weapon|non-strategic (tactical) nuclear weapons]] and the [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]].

The United States and Russia, previously Soviet Union, have been wielding their nuclear triads since the 1960s. India completed its nuclear triad in 2018<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/indias-second-nuclear-powered-submarine-ins-arighaat-commissioned/article68581283.ece|title=INS Arighaat, India’s second nuclear ballistic missile submarine, commissioned into service |work=[[The Hindu]]| author=Dinakar Peri| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref> and China in 2020.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://chinapower.csis.org/china-nuclear-weapons/|title=How is China Modernizing its Nuclear Forces?|publisher=[[Center for Strategic and International Studies]]| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|[[ICBM]]
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=[[Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment|Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense]]| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|[[SLBM]]
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
| 1920<ref name="rbk">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/25/11/2023/655f958a9a7947b548382147|title=Каким ядерным оружием обладают западные страны|publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=25 November 2023| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Of them 1511 W76-1, 384 W88 and 25 W76-2.<ref name="rbk"/>}}
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|[[ALCM]]
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|[[Unguided bomb]]
|{{n/a}}
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|Ground silo / [[transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]{{efn|Expected to be replaced by [[RS-28 Sarmat]].}}
|ICBM
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarines]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine|Delta-III]] and [[Delta-class submarine#Delta IV (Project 667BDRM Delfin) 7 boats|Delta IV-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|ALCM
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|~20<ref name="BAS">{{cite journal | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1533162?needAccess=true&page=3|author=Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda|title=Indian nuclear forces, 2018|journal=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]]| volume=74|issue=6|date=2018| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|{{n/a}}
|Transporter erector launcher/ rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|{{n/a}}
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|~24<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
| ~4<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Sukanya-class patrol vessel|''Sukanya''-class patrol vessels]]
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|12<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|Classified 20-[[kiloton|kt]] bomb
|Unguided bomb
|~16<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|-
|?
|Unguided and [[laser guided bomb]]s
|~32<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[SEPECAT Jaguar]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-5|DF-5A]]
|ICBM
|6<ref name="thebulletin">{{cite web | url =https://thebulletin.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/rbul_a_2295206_t0001_withnotes.pdf|title=Chinese nuclear weapons, 2024|author= Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda, Eliana Johns, Mackenzie Knight|work=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]]| date=15 January 2024| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>
|
|-
|[[DF-5|DF-5B]]
|ICBM
|60<ref name="thebulletin"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21A/E]]
|[[MRBM]]
|?
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|108<ref name="thebulletin"/>
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-31]]
|ICBM
|?
|
|-
|[[DF-31A]]
|ICBM
|24<ref name="thebulletin"/>
|
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|64<ref name="thebulletin"/>
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-41]]
|ICBM
|84<ref name="thebulletin"/>
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher, rail mobile
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|72 (for the JL-3)<ref name="thebulletin"/>
|[[Type 094 submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
| [[DF-21]]{{efn|Reportedly, China also possesses [[CJ-10K]] and [[CJ-20]] nuclear-capable [[ALCM]]s, as well as nuclear-capable [[YJ-21]] [[ALBM]] delivered by [[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6K]] bomber.<ref>{{cite journal | url =https://nipp.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Analysis-Schneider-4.3.pdf|title=China's nuclear delivery vehicles|author=Mark B. Schneider|journal=Journal of Policy & Strategy|volume=4|issue=3|publisher=National Institute for Public Policy| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>}}
| MRBM
|[[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6N]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

[[Category:Lists of weapons|nuclear triads]] [[Category:Nuclear technology-related lists|nuclear triads]] [[Category:Nuclear weapons]]

List of nuclear triads

2024-10-26T13:07:41Z

Brandmeister:

{{Nuclear weapons}}
The following list of currently deployed [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). Where available, the names and number of nuclear [[warheads]] are given. The list excludes [[Tactical nuclear weapon|non-strategic (tactical) nuclear weapons]] and the [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]].

The United States and Russia, previously Soviet Union, have been wielding their nuclear triads since the 1960s. India completed its nuclear triad in 2018<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/indias-second-nuclear-powered-submarine-ins-arighaat-commissioned/article68581283.ece|title=INS Arighaat, India’s second nuclear ballistic missile submarine, commissioned into service |work=[[The Hindu]]| author=Dinakar Peri| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref> and China in 2020.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://chinapower.csis.org/china-nuclear-weapons/|title=How is China Modernizing its Nuclear Forces?|publisher=[[Center for Strategic and International Studies]]| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|[[ICBM]]
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=[[Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment|Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense]]| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|[[SLBM]]
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
| 1920<ref name="rbk">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/25/11/2023/655f958a9a7947b548382147|title=Каким ядерным оружием обладают западные страны|publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=25 November 2023| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Of them 1511 W76-1, 384 W88 and 25 W76-2.<ref name="rbk"/>}}
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|[[ALCM]]
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|[[Unguided bomb]]
|{{n/a}}
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|Ground silo / [[transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]{{efn|Expected to be replaced by [[RS-28 Sarmat]].}}
|ICBM
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarines]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|ALCM
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|~20<ref name="BAS">{{cite journal | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1533162?needAccess=true&page=3|author=Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda|title=Indian nuclear forces, 2018|journal=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]]| volume=74|issue=6|date=2018| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|{{n/a}}
|Transporter erector launcher/ rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|{{n/a}}
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|~24<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
| ~4<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Sukanya-class patrol vessel|''Sukanya''-class patrol vessels]]
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|12<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|Classified 20-[[kiloton|kt]] bomb
|Unguided bomb
|~16<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|-
|?
|Unguided and [[laser guided bomb]]s
|~32<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[SEPECAT Jaguar]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-5]]
|ICBM
|Ground silo
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-16]]
|MRBM
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-41]]
|ICBM
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher, rail mobile
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|3–10 (for the JL-3)<ref>{{cite web | url =https://nipp.org/information_series/mark-b-schneider-the-chinese-nuclear-threat-no-599-september-26-2024/#_edn51|title=The Chinese Nuclear Threat|author=Mark B. Schneider|publisher=National Institute for Public Policy| date=2024| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>
|[[Type 094 submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
| [[DF-21]]{{efn|Reportedly, China also possesses [[CJ-10K]] and [[CJ-20]] nuclear-capable [[ALCM]]s, as well as nuclear-capable [[YJ-21]] [[ALBM]] delivered by [[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6K]] bomber.<ref>{{cite journal | url =https://nipp.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Analysis-Schneider-4.3.pdf|title=China's nuclear delivery vehicles|author=Mark B. Schneider|journal=Journal of Policy & Strategy|volume=4|issue=3|publisher=National Institute for Public Policy| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>}}
| MRBM
|[[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6N]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

[[Category:Lists of weapons|nuclear triads]] [[Category:Nuclear technology-related lists|nuclear triads]] [[Category:Nuclear weapons]]

List of nuclear triads

2024-10-26T12:34:53Z

Brandmeister:

{{Nuclear weapons}}
The following list of currently deployed [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). Where available, the names and number of nuclear [[warheads]] are given. The list excludes [[Tactical nuclear weapon|non-strategic (tactical) nuclear weapons]] and the [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]].

The United States and Russia, previously Soviet Union, have been wielding their nuclear triads since the 1960s. India completed its nuclear triad in 2018<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/indias-second-nuclear-powered-submarine-ins-arighaat-commissioned/article68581283.ece|title=INS Arighaat, India’s second nuclear ballistic missile submarine, commissioned into service |publisher=[[The Hindu]]| author=Dinakar Peri| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref> and China in 2020.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://chinapower.csis.org/china-nuclear-weapons/|title=How is China Modernizing its Nuclear Forces?|publisher=[[Center for Strategic and International Studies]]| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|[[ICBM]]
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|[[SLBM]]
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
| 1920<ref name="rbk">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/25/11/2023/655f958a9a7947b548382147|title=Каким ядерным оружием обладают западные страны|publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=25 November 2023| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Of them 1511 W76-1, 384 W88 and 25 W76-2.<ref name="rbk"/>}}
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|[[ALCM]]
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|[[Unguided bomb]]
|{{n/a}}
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|Ground silo / [[transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]{{efn|Expected to be replaced by [[RS-28 Sarmat]].}}
|ICBM
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarines]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|ALCM
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-5]]
|ICBM
|Ground silo
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-16]]
|MRBM
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-41]]
|ICBM
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher, rail mobile
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|3–10 (for the JL-3)<ref>{{cite web | url =https://nipp.org/information_series/mark-b-schneider-the-chinese-nuclear-threat-no-599-september-26-2024/#_edn51|title=The Chinese Nuclear Threat|author=Mark B. Schneider|publisher=National Institute for Public Policy| date=2024| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>
|[[Type 094 submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
| [[DF-21]]{{efn|Reportedly, China also possesses [[CJ-10K]] and [[CJ-20]] nuclear-capable [[ALCM]]s, as well as nuclear-capable [[YJ-21]] [[ALBM]] delivered by [[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6K]].<ref>{{cite journal | url =https://nipp.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Analysis-Schneider-4.3.pdf|title=China's nuclear delivery vehicles|author=Mark B. Schneider|journal=Journal of Policy & Strategy|volume=4|issue=3|publisher=National Institute for Public Policy| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>}}
| MRBM
|[[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6N]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|~20<ref name="BAS">{{cite journal | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1533162?needAccess=true&page=3|author=Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda|title=Indian nuclear forces, 2018|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists| volume=74|issue=6|date=2018| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|{{n/a}}
|Transporter erector launcher/ rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|{{n/a}}
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|~24<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
| ~4<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Sukanya-class patrol vessel|''Sukanya''-class patrol vessels]]
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|12<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|Classified 20-[[kiloton|kt]] bomb
|Unguided bomb
|~16<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|-
|?
|Unguided and [[laser guided bomb]]s
|~32<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[SEPECAT Jaguar]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

[[Category:Lists of weapons|nuclear triads]] [[Category:Nuclear technology-related lists|nuclear triads]] [[Category:Nuclear weapons]]

List of states with nuclear weapons

2024-10-26T12:32:46Z

Brandmeister: /* Recognized nuclear-weapon states */ wlink

{{Short description|none}}
{{pp|small=yes}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}

[[File:Nuclear weapons states 2023.svg|thumb|500x500px|Map of [[nuclear weapon|nuclear-armed]] states of the world

{{legend|#5B92E5|[[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|NPT]]-designated nuclear weapon states ([[China and weapons of mass destruction|China]], [[France and weapons of mass destruction|France]], [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|Russia]], [[Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], [[Nuclear weapons of the United States|United States]])}}
{{legend|#ff0000|Other states with nuclear weapons ([[India and weapons of mass destruction|India]], [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction|North Korea]], [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]])}}
{{legend|#d4aa00|Other states presumed to have nuclear weapons ([[Nuclear weapons and Israel|Israel]])}}
{{legend|#1034A6|[[NATO]] or [[Collective Security Treaty Organization|CSTO]] member [[nuclear sharing|nuclear weapons sharing]] states ([[Belgium]], [[Germany and weapons of mass destruction|Germany]], [[Italian nuclear weapons program|Italy]], [[Netherlands and weapons of mass destruction|Netherlands]], [[Turkey]], [[Belarus]])}}
{{legend|#007C59|States formerly possessing nuclear weapons ([[Kazakhstan and weapons of mass destruction|Kazakhstan]], [[South Africa and weapons of mass destruction|South Africa]], [[Ukraine and weapons of mass destruction|Ukraine]])}}]]

{{Nuclear weapons}}

Eight [[sovereign state]]s have publicly announced successful detonation of [[nuclear weapon]]s.<ref name="nuclearweapons1">{{cite web|date=January 2020|title=World Nuclear Forces, SIPRI yearbook 2020 |url=https://www.sipri.org/yearbook/2020/10|access-date=18 June 2020|website=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute}}</ref> [[United Nations Security Council#Permanent members|Five]] are considered to be '''nuclear-weapon states''' ('''NWS''') under the terms of the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]] (NPT). In order of acquisition of nuclear weapons, these are the [[Nuclear weapons of the United States|United States]], [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|Russia]] (the successor of the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|former]] [[Soviet atomic bomb project|Soviet Union]]), the [[Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], [[France and weapons of mass destruction|France]], and [[China and weapons of mass destruction|China]]. Of these, the three NATO members, the United Kingdom, the United States, and France, are sometimes termed the P3.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Murdock|first1=Clark A.|last2=Miller|first2=Franklin|last3=Mackby|first3=Jenifer|title=Trilateral Nuclear Dialogues Role of P3 Nuclear Weapons Consensus Statement|url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/trilateral-nuclear-dialogues-role-p3-nuclear-weapons-consensus-statement|website=Center for Strategic and International Studies|date=13 May 2010|access-date=13 May 2010}}</ref>

Other states that possess nuclear weapons are [[India and weapons of mass destruction|India]], [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]], and [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction|North Korea]]. Since the NPT entered into force in 1970, these three states were not parties to the Treaty and have conducted overt [[nuclear testing|nuclear tests]]. North Korea had been a party to the NPT but withdrew in 2003.

[[Israel]] is also generally understood to [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|have nuclear weapons]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Hersh|first=Seymour|title=The Samson Option|publisher=Random House|chapter=Authors Note|date=27 October 1991|isbn=978-0394570068|author-link=Seymour Hersh}}''"This is a book about how Israel became a nuclear power in secret."'' (First sentence, Authors' Note/Introduction, [[The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy]], Hersh)</ref><ref name="aca">{{cite web|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat|title=Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance|publisher=Arms Control Association|date=July 2019|access-date=5 August 2020|quote=India, Israel, and Pakistan never signed the NPT and possess nuclear arsenals.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/israels-nuclear-arsenal-may-be-different-than-everyone-thinks-2014-11|quote=The country possesses some of the most powerful weaponry on earth, along with delivery systems that give it the ability to strike far beyond its borders.|date=10 November 2014|last=Rosen|first=Armin|website=Business Insider|title=Israel's Nuclear Arsenal Might Be Smaller And More Strategic Than Everyone Thinks|access-date=16 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161206114813/http://www.businessinsider.com/israels-nuclear-arsenal-may-be-different-than-everyone-thinks-2014-11|archive-date=6 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nti.org/learn/countries/israel/|publisher=Nuclear Threat Initiative|quote=While experts generally agree that Israel possesses nuclear weapons, no such current open source consensus exists on the status of Israel's offensive chemical or biological weapons programs.|title=Israel|date=May 2015|access-date=16 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116025240/http://www.nti.org/learn/countries/israel/|archive-date=16 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Stover |first=Dawn |date=16 September 2016 |title=Does Israel really have 200 nuclear weapons, or was Colin Powell exaggerating? |url=http://thebulletin.org/does-israel-really-have-200-nuclear-weapons-or-was-colin-powell-exaggerating9896 |url-status=live |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118031932/http://thebulletin.org/does-israel-really-have-200-nuclear-weapons-or-was-colin-powell-exaggerating9896 |archive-date=18 January 2017 |access-date=16 January 2017 |quote=The boys in Tehran know Israel has 200, all targeted on Tehran, and we have thousands.}} citing primary source private email from Colin Powell to Jeffrey Leeds [https://www.scribd.com/document/324033115/00002715-002?secret_password=f5tkfdHSGvz6LNei71K0] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216050202/https://www.scribd.com/document/324033115/00002715-002?secret_password=f5tkfdHSGvz6LNei71K0|date=16 February 2017}}</ref> but does not acknowledge it, maintaining a [[policy of deliberate ambiguity]].<ref name="guardian121206">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/israel/Story/0,,1970616,00.html|title=Calls for Olmert to resign after nuclear gaffe Israel and the Middle East|newspaper=The Guardian|date=12 December 2006|access-date=15 May 2009|location=London|first=Luke|last=Harding}}</ref> Israel is estimated to possess somewhere between 75 and 400 nuclear warheads.<ref name="sipri.org">[http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/nuclear-forces Nuclear Forces] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150107025723/http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/nuclear-forces|date=7 January 2015}}, [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]], sipri.org</ref><ref>There are a wide range of estimates as to the size of the Israeli nuclear arsenal. For a compiled list of estimates, see [[Avner Cohen]], The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's bargain with the Bomb (Columbia University Press, 2010), Table 1, page xxvii and page 82.</ref> One possible motivation for ''nuclear ambiguity'' is [[Deterrence theory|deterrence]] with minimum political friction.<ref name="NTIIsrael" /><ref name="CohenIsrael">{{cite book| author=Avner Cohen| title=The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's bargain with the Bomb| publisher=Columbia University Press| year=2010}}</ref>

States that formerly possessed nuclear weapons are [[South Africa and weapons of mass destruction|South Africa]] (developed nuclear weapons but then disassembled its arsenal before joining the NPT)<ref>Arms Control and Global Security, Paul R. Viotti – 2010, p 312</ref> and the former Soviet republics of [[Belarus]], [[Kazakhstan and weapons of mass destruction|Kazakhstan]], and [[Ukraine and weapons of mass destruction|Ukraine]], whose weapons were transferred to Russia.

According to the [[Federation of American Scientists]] there are approximately 3,880 active nuclear warheads and 12,119 total nuclear warheads in the world as of 2024.<ref name="Status of World Nuclear Forces">{{Cite web|title=Status of World Nuclear Forces|url=https://fas.org/initiative/status-world-nuclear-forces/|access-date=2024-04-05|website=Federation of American Scientists|language=en-US}}</ref> The [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] (SIPRI) estimated in 2023 that the total number of nuclear warheads acquired by nuclear states reached 12,512. Approximately 9,576 are kept with military stockpiles. About 3,844 warheads are deployed with missiles. 2,000 warheads, which are primarily from Russia and the United States, are maintained for high operational alerts.<ref name=":5">Kristensen, Hans M; Korda, Matt. (2023). "[https://www.sipri.org/yearbook/2023/07 World Nuclear Forces 2023]". In ''[https://www.sipri.org/yearbook/2023 SIPRI Yearbook 2023: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security].''Oxford University Press.</ref>

== Statistics and force configuration ==
{{Weapons of mass destruction}}
[[File:WNF Map 2023.png|thumb|319x319px|Global nuclear stockpiles, January 2023]]
The following is a list of [[Sovereign state|states]] that have acknowledged the possession of [[nuclear weapon]]s or are presumed to possess them, the approximate number of [[warhead]]s under their control, and the year they tested their first weapon and their force configuration. This list is informally known in global politics as the "Nuclear Club".<ref>"Nuclear club", ''Oxford English Dictionary'': "nuclear club n. the nations that possess nuclear weapons." The term's first cited usage is from 1957.</ref><ref>Jane Onyanga-Omara, [https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2016/01/06/nine-nations-possess-nuclear-weapns/78350588/ "The Nuclear Club: Who are the 9 members?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904111359/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2016/01/06/nine-nations-possess-nuclear-weapns/78350588/|date=4 September 2017}}, ''USA TODAY'', 6 January 2016</ref> With the exception of Russia and the United States (which have subjected their nuclear forces to independent verification under various treaties) these figures are estimates, in some cases quite unreliable estimates. In particular, under the [[Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty]] thousands of Russian and US nuclear warheads are inactive in stockpiles awaiting processing. The fissile material contained in the warheads can then be recycled for use in [[Nuclear reactor technology|nuclear reactors]].

From a high of 70,300 active weapons in 1986, {{as of|2024|lc=on||df=US}} there are approximately 3,880 active nuclear warheads and 12,119 total nuclear warheads in the world.<ref name="Status of World Nuclear Forces"/> Many of the decommissioned weapons were simply stored or partially dismantled, not destroyed.<ref>Webster, Paul (July/August 2003). "[https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2009/sep/06/nuclear-weapons-world-us-north-korea-russia-iran Nuclear weapons: how many are there in 2009 and who has them?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108004154/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2009/sep/06/nuclear-weapons-world-us-north-korea-russia-iran|date=2017-01-08}}" ''The Guardian'', 6 September 2009.</ref>

It is also noteworthy that since the dawn of the [[Atomic Age]], the [[Nuclear weapons delivery|delivery methods]] of most states with nuclear weapons have evolved—with some achieving a [[nuclear triad]], while others have consolidated away from land and air deterrents to submarine-based forces.

{{table alignment}}{{sort under}}
{| class="wikitable sortable sort-under col2right col3right col12right "
|+Overview of nuclear states and their capacities
! rowspan=2| Country
! colspan=2| {{longitem|Warheads{{efn|Estimates from the [[Federation of American Scientists]]. The latest update was in January 2023. "Deployed" indicates the total of deployed strategic and non-strategic warheads. Because the number of non-strategic warheads is unknown for many countries, this number should be taken as a minimum. When a range of weapons is given (e.g., 0–10), it generally indicates that the estimate is being made on the amount of fissile material that has likely been produced, and the amount of fissile material needed per warhead depends on estimates of a country's proficiency at nuclear weapon design.}}}}
! colspan=2| First test
! rowspan=2| {{longitem| [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|NPT]] status<ref>{{cite web|title=Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|url=https://treaties.unoda.org/t/npt/participants|access-date=29 August 2023}}</ref>}}
! rowspan=2| {{longitem| [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty|CTBT]] status<ref>{{cite web|title=Status of Signature and Ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|url=http://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/status-of-signature-and-ratification/|access-date=13 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925211213/http://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/status-of-signature-and-ratification|archive-date=25 September 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
! colspan="4"|Delivery method
! rowspan="2"| {{longitem|Tests<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nuclear Testing Tally|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/nucleartesttally|website=www.armscontrol.org|publisher=[[Arms Control Association]]|access-date=14 June 2023|date=August 2022}}</ref>}}
|-
! Total<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|date=2024-06-17|title=Role of nuclear weapons grows as geopolitical relations deteriorate—new SIPRI Yearbook out now {{!}} SIPRI|url=https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2024/role-nuclear-weapons-grows-geopolitical-relations-deteriorate-new-sipri-yearbook-out-now|access-date=2024-06-18|website=www.sipri.org|language=en}}</ref>
! Deployed<ref name=":4" />
! Date
! Site
![[Submarine-launched ballistic missile|Sea]]
![[Strategic bomber|Air]]
![[Intercontinental ballistic missile|Land]]
!Notes
|-
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the United States.svg}} [[Nuclear weapons of the United States|United States]]<ref name=":123">{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|date= 2023|title=Status Of World Nuclear Forces|url=https://fas.org/initiative/status-world-nuclear-forces/|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=79|issue=1|pages=28–52|bibcode=2023BuAtS..79a..28K|doi=10.1080/00963402.2022.2156686|issn=0096-3402|s2cid=255826288|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| 5,044
| 1,770
| 16 July 1945 (''[[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity]]'')
| [[Alamogordo, New Mexico]]
| style='background:#E6F2FF;'| Party
| style='background:#FFFBE6;'|Signatory
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
| [[Nuclear weapons of the United States#Delivery systems|US triad]]<ref name="IISS 2012, pp. 54–55">[[#IISS2012|IISS 2012]], pp. 54–55</ref>
| 1,030
|-
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|Russian Federation]]{{efn|As a part of the [[Soviet Union]]. The Russian Federation has not tested a nuclear weapon since 1991.}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|last3=Reynolds|first3=Eliana|date=2023-05-04|title=Russian nuclear weapons, 2023 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=79|issue=3|pages=174–199|doi=10.1080/00963402.2023.2202542|bibcode=2023BuAtS..79c.174K|s2cid=258559002|issn=0096-3402|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| 5,580
| 1,710
| 29 August 1949 (''[[RDS-1]]'')
| [[Semey|Semipalatinsk]], [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic|Kazakh SSR]]||style='background:#E6F2FF;'| Party
| style='background:#FFFBE6;'|Signatory (ratified, but later revoked ratification)<ref>{{Cite news|date=2023-11-02|title=Putin revokes Russia's ratification of nuclear test ban treaty|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/putin-revokes-russias-ratification-nuclear-test-ban-treaty-2023-11-02/|access-date=2023-11-02|work=Reuters|language=en}}</ref>
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
| [[Nuclear triad#Russia|Russian triad]]<ref name="IISS 2012, pp. 54–55"/>
|715
|-
| {{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of the United Kingdom.svg}} [[Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]}}<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=April 2020|title=FAS World Nuclear Forces|url=https://fas.org/issues/nuclear-weapons/status-world-nuclear-forces/|access-date=18 June 2020|website=Federation of American Scientists}}</ref><ref name="aca" />
| 225
| 120
| 3 October 1952 (''[[Operation Hurricane|Hurricane]]'')
| [[Montebello Islands|Monte Bello Islands]], [[Australia]]||style='background:#E6F2FF;'| Party
| style='background:#E6F2FF;'|Ratifier
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_oppose_vote.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_oppose_vote.svg|19x19px]]
| [[Trident (UK nuclear programme)|Trident submarines]]<ref>[[#IISS2012|IISS 2012]], p. 169</ref>{{efn|See also [[UK Trident programme]]. From the 1960s until the 1990s, the United Kingdom's [[Royal Air Force]] maintained the independent capability to deliver nuclear weapons via its [[V bomber]] fleet.}}
| 45
|-
| {{flagicon image|Flag of France.svg}} [[France and weapons of mass destruction|France]]<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|last3=Johns|first3=Eliana|date=2023-07-04|title=French nuclear weapons, 2023 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=79|issue=4|pages=272–281|doi=10.1080/00963402.2023.2223088|bibcode=2023BuAtS..79d.272K|s2cid=259938405|issn=0096-3402|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| 290
| 280
| 13 February 1960 (''[[Gerboise Bleue (nuclear test)|Gerboise Bleue]]'')
| [[Reggane]], [[French Algeria]]||style='background:#E6F2FF;'| Party
| style='background:#E6F2FF;'|Ratifier
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_oppose_vote.svg|19x19px]]
| [[Triomphant-class submarine|''Triomphant'' submarines]], [[Nuclear triad#Modern capabilities|air capability]]<ref>[[#IISS2012|IISS 2012]], p. 111</ref>{{efn|See also [[Force de dissuasion]]. France formerly possessed a nuclear triad until 1996, when its land-based arsenal was retired.}}
| 210
|-
| {{flagicon image|Flag of China.svg}} [[China and weapons of mass destruction|China]]<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name="aca" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|last3=Reynolds|first3=Eliana|date=2023-03-04|title=Chinese nuclear weapons, 2023 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=79|issue=2|pages=108–133|doi=10.1080/00963402.2023.2178713|bibcode=2023BuAtS..79b.108K|s2cid=257498038|issn=0096-3402|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| 500
| 24
| 16 October 1964 (''[[Project 596|596]]'')
| [[Lop Nur]], [[Xinjiang]]||style='background:#E6F2FF;'| Party
| style='background:#FFFBE6;'|Signatory
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
| [[Nuclear triad#China|Chinese triad]]<ref>''The Long Shadow: Nuclear Weapons and Security in 21st Century Asia'' by Muthiah Alagappa (NUS Press, 2009), page 169: "China has developed strategic nuclear forces made up of land-based missiles, submarine-launched missiles, and bombers. Within this triad, China has also developed weapons of different ranges, capabilities, and survivability."</ref><ref>[[#IISS2012|IISS 2012]], pp. 223–224</ref>
| 45
|-
| {{flagicon image|Flag of India.svg}} [[India and weapons of mass destruction|India]]<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name="aca" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|date=2022-07-04|title=Indian nuclear weapons, 2022 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=78|issue=4|pages=224–236|doi=10.1080/00963402.2022.2087385|bibcode=2022BuAtS..78d.224K|s2cid=250475371|issn=0096-3402|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| 172
| 0
| 18 May 1974 (''[[Smiling Buddha]]'')
| [[Pokhran]], [[Rajasthan]]|| style="background:#FFE6E6;"| Non-party
| style="background:#FFE6E6;"|Non-signatory
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
| [[Nuclear triad#India|Indian triad]]<ref>[[#IISS2012|IISS 2012]], p. 243</ref><ref name="Now, India has a nuclear triad">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Now-India-has-a-nuclear-triad/article16074127.ece|title=Now, India has a nuclear triad|newspaper=The Hindu|date=18 October 2016|access-date=24 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221185205/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Now-India-has-a-nuclear-triad/article16074127.ece|archive-date=21 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Peri|first1=Dinakar|title=India's Nuclear Triad Finally Coming of Age|url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/06/indias-nuclear-triad-finally-coming-of-age/|access-date=10 March 2015|agency=The Diplomat|date=12 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409012807/https://thediplomat.com/2014/06/indias-nuclear-triad-finally-coming-of-age/|archive-date=9 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/Politics/lvVxsu1L5GPLvD7Z5j3baJ/Nuclear-triad-weapons-ready-for-deployment-DRDO.html|title=Nuclear triad weapons ready for deployment: DRDO|date=7 July 2014|access-date=10 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402104712/http://www.livemint.com/Politics/lvVxsu1L5GPLvD7Z5j3baJ/Nuclear-triad-weapons-ready-for-deployment-DRDO.html|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 6
|-
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Pakistan.svg}} [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]]<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /><ref name="aca" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|date=2021-09-03|title=Pakistani nuclear weapons, 2021 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=77|issue=5|pages=265–278|doi=10.1080/00963402.2021.1964258|bibcode=2021BuAtS..77e.265K|s2cid=237434295|issn=0096-3402|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Status of World Nuclear Forces|url=https://fas.org/initiative/status-world-nuclear-forces/|access-date=2023-09-16|website=Federation of American Scientists|language=en-US}}</ref>
| 170<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tellis |first=Ashley |date=2022 |title=Striking Asymmetries: Nuclear Transitions in Southern Asia |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/files/202207-Tellis_Striking_Asymmetries-final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503151619/https://carnegieendowment.org/files/202207-Tellis_Striking_Asymmetries-final.pdf |archive-date=2023-05-03 |access-date=2024-06-18 |publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] |page=168 |quote=On such premises, Pakistan’s nuclear arsenal in 2020 would consist of between 243 and 283 nuclear devices.}}</ref>
| 0|| 28 May 1998 (''[[Chagai-I|Chagai-1]]'')
| [[Ras Koh Hills]], [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]]|| style="background:#FFE6E6;" | Non-party
| style="background:#FFE6E6;" |Non-signatory
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
| [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction#Delivery systems|Pakistani triad]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mizokami|first=Kyle|date=2021-11-26|title=How Pakistan Developed Its Own Nuclear Triad|url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/reboot/how-pakistan-developed-its-own-nuclear-triad-196943|access-date=2023-07-08|website=The National Interest|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Babur (Hatf 7)|url=https://missilethreat.csis.org/missile/hatf-7/|access-date=2023-07-08|website=Missile Threat|language=en-US}}</ref>
| 2
|-
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Israel.svg}} [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|Israel]]<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /><ref name="aca"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|date=2022-01-02|title=Israeli nuclear weapons, 2021 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=78|issue=1|pages=38–50|doi=10.1080/00963402.2021.2014239|bibcode=2022BuAtS..78a..38K|s2cid=246010705|issn=0096-3402|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| 90
|0|| [[Nuclear weapons and Israel#Nuclear testing|1960–1979]]<ref>Farr, Warner D (September 1999), The Third Temple's holy of holies: Israel's nuclear weapons, The Counterproliferation Papers, Future Warfare Series 2, USAF Counterproliferation Center, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, retrieved 2 July 2006.</ref>{{efn|Data include the suspected [[Vela incident]] of 22 September 1979.<ref>*{{cite book|last=Hersh|first=Seymour|title=The Samson option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy|isbn=978-0-394-57006-8|publisher=Random House|year=1991}}, page 271</ref>}}||''Unknown''||style='background:#FFE6E6;'| Non-party
| style='background:#FFFBE6;'| Signatory
|[[File:Pictogram-voting_question.svg|18x18px]]
|[[File:Pictogram-voting_question.svg|18x18px]]
|[[File:Pictogram-voting_question.svg|18x18px]]
| [[Nuclear triad#Suspected triad powers|Suspected Israeli triad]]<ref>''An Atlas of Middle Eastern Affairs'' By Ewan W. Anderson, Liam D. Anderson, (Routledge 2013), page 233: "In terms of delivery systems, there is strong evidence that Israel now possesses all three elements of the nuclear triad."</ref><ref>[[#IISS2012|IISS 2012]], p. 328</ref>
| ''Unknown''
|-
| {{flagicon image|Flag of North Korea.svg}} [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction|North Korea]]<ref name="nuclearweapons1" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name="aca" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|date=2022-09-03|title=North Korean nuclear weapons, 2022 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00963402.2022.2109341|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=78|issue=5|pages=273–294|doi=10.1080/00963402.2022.2109341|bibcode=2022BuAtS..78e.273K|s2cid=252132124|issn=0096-3402}}</ref>
| 50
|0|| [[2006 North Korean nuclear test|9 October 2006]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/13/AR2006101300576.html|date=13 October 2006|title=U.S.: Test Points to N. Korea Nuke Blast|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=3 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227130708/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/13/AR2006101300576.html|archive-date=27 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
| [[Kilju County|Kilju]], [[North Hamgyong Province|North Hamgyong]]
| style="background:#FFEEE6;"| Announced withdrawal<ref>{{citation|title=Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons: Declarations, statements, reservations and notes|url=https://treaties.unoda.org/t/npt/declarations/PRK_moscow_ACC}}</ref>
| style="background:#FFE6E6;"|Non-signatory
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_oppose_vote.svg|19x19px]]
|[[File:Symbol_confirmed.svg|19x19px]]
| [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction#Operational delivery systems|North Korean delivery systems]]<ref>[https://missilethreat.csis.org/country/dprk/ CSIS 2022]</ref>
| 6
|}
{{Pie chart|value1=45.4|value2=42.7|value3=4.1|value4=2.4|value5=1.8|value6=1.4|value7=1.3|value8=0.7|value9=0.2|label1=Russia|label2=United States|label3=China|label4=France|label5=United Kingdom|label6=India|label7=Pakistan|label8=Israel|label9=North Korea|caption=Percentage of global nuclear warheads by country|color1=Red|color2=Green|color3=Yellow|color4=Purple|color5=Orange|color6=Brown|color7=Magenta|color8=Blue|color9=Azure}}

== Recognized nuclear-weapon states ==
{{See also|List of nuclear triads|History of nuclear weapons}}
These five states are known to have detonated a nuclear explosive before 1 January 1967 and are thus nuclear weapons states under the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]]. They also happen to be the [[UN Security Council]]'s (UNSC) [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent members]] with [[Veto power in the UN Security Council|veto power]] on UNSC resolutions.

=== United States ===
{{Main|Nuclear weapons of the United States|United States and weapons of mass destruction}}{{See also|Manhattan Project}}[[File:Trinity Test Fireball 16ms.jpg|right|thumb|An early stage in the "[[Trinity test|Trinity]]" fireball, the first man-made [[nuclear explosion]], 1945]]
The United States developed the first nuclear weapons during [[World War II]] in cooperation with the United Kingdom and Canada as part of the [[Manhattan Project]], out of the apprehension that [[Nazi Germany]] would develop them first. It tested the first nuclear weapon on 16 July 1945 ("[[Trinity site|Trinity]]") at 5:30 am, and remains the only country to have used nuclear weapons in war, having [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|bombed]] the Japanese cities of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] in the closing stages of World War II. The project expenditure through 1 October 1945 was reportedly $1.845–$2{{nbs}}billion, in nominal terms,<ref>{{cite book| last = Nichols| first = Kenneth D.| author-link = Kenneth Nichols| title = The Road to Trinity| year = 1987| publisher = William Morrow and Company| location = New York| isbn = 0-688-06910-X| oclc = 15223648|pages=34–35}}</ref><ref name="ej19450807">{{cite news|date=7 August 1945|title=Atomic Bomb Seen as Cheap at Price|page=1|newspaper=Edmonton Journal|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=yuVkAAAAIBAJ&pg=5621%2C2841878|access-date=1 January 2012}}</ref> roughly 0.8 percent of the US GDP in 1945 and equivalent to about ${{Inflation|US|1.9225|1945|r=1|disp=out}}{{nbs}}billion today.{{Inflation-fn|US}}

The United States was the first nation to develop the [[hydrogen bomb]], testing an experimental prototype in 1952 ("[[Ivy Mike]]") and a deployable weapon in 1954 ("[[Castle Bravo]]"). Throughout the [[Cold War]] it continued to modernize and enlarge its nuclear arsenal, but from 1992 on has been involved primarily in a program of [[stockpile stewardship]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Chuck|last=Hansen|title=U.S. nuclear weapons: The secret history|location=Arlington, TX|publisher=Aerofax|year=1988|isbn=978-0-517-56740-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Chuck|last=Hansen|title=The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. nuclear weapons development since 1945|location=Sunnyvale, CA|publisher=Chukelea Publications|year=1995|url=http://www.uscoldwar.com/|access-date=20 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230020259/http://www.uscoldwar.com/|archive-date=30 December 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., ''Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940'' (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998).</ref><ref name="Gross">{{cite magazine|last1=Gross|first1=Daniel A.|title=An Aging Army|magazine=Distillations|date=2016|volume=2|issue=1|pages=26–36|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/an-aging-army|access-date=22 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320230842/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/an-aging-army|archive-date=20 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The US nuclear arsenal contained 31,175 warheads at its Cold War height (in 1966).<ref>{{cite web|title=Fact Sheet: Increasing Transparency in the U.S. Nuclear Weapons Stockpile|url=http://www.defense.gov/npr/docs/10-05-03_Fact_Sheet_US_Nuclear_Transparency__FINAL_w_Date.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150811174503/http://www.defense.gov/npr/docs/10-05-03_Fact_Sheet_US_Nuclear_Transparency__FINAL_w_Date.pdf|archive-date=11 August 2015|publisher=U.S. Department of Defense|access-date=31 August 2013|date=3 May 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> During the Cold War, the United States built more nuclear weapons than all other nations at approximately 70,000 warheads.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nrdc.org/policy-library|title=Policy Library|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822130722/https://www.nrdc.org/policy-library|archive-date=22 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NorrisKristensenGlobal">Robert S. Norris and Hans M. Kristensen, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20081119090924/http://thebulletin.metapress.com/content/c4120650912x74k7/fulltext.pdf Global nuclear stockpiles, 1945–2006]," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 62, no. 4 (July/August 2006), 64–66...</ref>

=== Russia (successor to the Soviet Union) ===
{{Main|Russia and weapons of mass destruction|Strategic Rocket Forces}}
{{See also|Soviet atomic bomb project}}
[[File:US and USSR nuclear stockpiles.svg|thumb|US and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945–2014]]
The Soviet Union tested its first nuclear weapon ("[[RDS-1]]") in 1949. This crash project was developed partially with information obtained via the [[atomic spies]] at the United States' Manhattan Project during and after World War II. The Soviet Union was the second nation to have developed and tested a nuclear weapon. It tested its first megaton-range hydrogen bomb ("[[RDS-37]]") in 1955. The Soviet Union also tested the most powerful explosive ever detonated by humans, ("[[Tsar Bomba]]"), with a theoretical yield of 100 megatons, reduced to 50 when detonated. After its dissolution in 1991, the Soviet weapons entered officially into the possession of its [[Succession of states#Soviet Union|successor state]], the Russian Federation.<ref>{{cite book|first=David|last=Holloway|title=Stalin and the bomb: The Soviet Union and atomic energy, 1939–1956|location=New Haven, CT|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-300-06056-0}}</ref> The Soviet nuclear arsenal contained some 45,000 [[Nuclear weapon|warheads]] at its peak (in 1986), more than any other nation had possessed at any point in history; the Soviet Union built about 55,000 nuclear warheads since 1949.<ref name="NorrisKristensenGlobal" />

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction}}
{{See also|Tube Alloys|British contribution to the Manhattan Project|High Explosive Research|British hydrogen bomb programme}}
[[File:Trident II missile image.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Trident missile]] launched from a [[Royal Navy]] {{sclass|Vanguard|submarine|0}} [[ballistic missile submarine]]]]
The United Kingdom tested its first nuclear weapon ("[[Operation Hurricane|Hurricane]]") in 1952. The UK had provided considerable impetus and initial research for the early conception of the atomic bomb, aided by Austrian, German and Polish physicists working at British universities who had either fled or decided not to return to Nazi Germany or Nazi-controlled territories. The UK collaborated closely with the United States and Canada during the Manhattan Project, but had to develop its own method for manufacturing and detonating a bomb as US secrecy grew after 1945. The United Kingdom was the third country in the world, after the United States and the Soviet Union, to develop and test a nuclear weapon. Its programme was motivated to have an independent deterrent against the Soviet Union, while also maintaining its status as a [[great power]]. It tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1957 ([[Operation Grapple]]), making it the third country to do so after the United States and Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book|first=Margaret|last=Gowing|title=Independence and deterrence: Britain and atomic energy, 1945–1952 |location=London|publisher=Macmillan|year=1974|isbn=978-0-333-15781-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Lorna|last=Arnold|title=Britain and the H-bomb|location=Basingstoke|publisher=Palgrave|year=2001|isbn=978-0-312-23518-5}}</ref>

The [[British Armed Forces]] maintained a fleet of [[V bomber]] [[strategic bombers]] and [[ballistic missile submarine|ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs)]] equipped with nuclear weapons during the Cold War. The [[Royal Navy]] currently maintains a fleet of four {{sclass|Vanguard|submarine|0}} ballistic missile submarines equipped with [[Trident missile|Trident II missiles]]. In 2016, the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|UK House of Commons]] voted to renew the British nuclear weapons system with the {{sclass|Dreadnought|submarine|1}}, without setting a date for the commencement of service of a replacement to the current system.

=== France ===
{{Main|France and weapons of mass destruction|Force de dissuasion}}
[[File:USS Enterprise FS Charles de Gaulle.jpg|thumb|American nuclear-powered carrier [[USS Enterprise (CVN-65)|USS ''Enterprise'']] (left) and French nuclear-powered [[aircraft carrier]] ''[[Charles de Gaulle (R 91)|Charles de Gaulle]]'' (right), each of which carries nuclear-capable [[warplanes]]]]
France tested its first nuclear weapon in 1960 ("[[Gerboise Bleue]]"), based mostly on its own research. It was motivated by the [[Suez Crisis]] diplomatic tension in relation to both the Soviet Union and its allies, the United States and United Kingdom. It was also relevant to retain great power status, alongside the United Kingdom, during the post-colonial Cold War (see: [[Force de frappe]]). France tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1968 ("[[Canopus (nuclear test)|Opération Canopus]]"). After the Cold War, France has disarmed 175 warheads with the reduction and modernization of its arsenal that has now evolved to a dual system based on [[submarine-launched ballistic missiles]] (SLBMs) and medium-range air-to-surface missiles ([[Rafale]] fighter-bombers). However, new nuclear weapons are in development and reformed nuclear squadrons were trained during [[French forces in Afghanistan|Enduring Freedom operations in Afghanistan]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2013}}

France acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1992.<ref name="NPTsignatories">[http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/npt?OpenView Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217025852/http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/npt?OpenView|date=17 December 2014}}, United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs.</ref> In January 2006, President [[Jacques Chirac]] stated a terrorist act or the use of [[weapons of mass destruction]] against France would result in a nuclear counterattack.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4627862.stm France 'would use nuclear arms'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061219022622/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4627862.stm|date=19 December 2006}} (BBC, January 2006)</ref> In February 2015, President [[François Hollande]] stressed the need for a nuclear deterrent in "a dangerous world". He also detailed the French deterrent as "fewer than 300" nuclear warheads, three sets of 16 submarine-launched ballistic missiles and 54 medium-range air-to-surface missiles and urged other states to show similar transparency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Nuclear_deterrent_important_in_dangerous_world_says_Hollande_999.html|title=Nuclear deterrent important in 'dangerous world', says Hollande|work=spacedaily.com|access-date=20 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194041/http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Nuclear_deterrent_important_in_dangerous_world_says_Hollande_999.html|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== China ===
{{Main|China and weapons of mass destruction|People's Liberation Army Rocket Force}}
[[File:1965-01 1964年首次原子弹爆炸2.jpg|thumb|Mushroom cloud from China's first nuclear test, [[Project 596]]]]
China tested its first nuclear weapon device ("[[596 (nuclear test)|596]]") in 1964 at the [[Lop Nur]] test site. The weapon was developed as a deterrent against both the United States and the Soviet Union. Two years later, China had a fission bomb capable of being put onto a [[nuclear missile]]. It tested its first hydrogen bomb ("[[Chinese nuclear test No. 6|Test No. 6]]") in 1967, 32 months after testing its first nuclear weapon (the shortest fission-to-fusion development known in history).<ref>John Wilson Lewis and Xue Litai, ''China Builds the Bomb'' (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1988). {{ISBN|0-8047-1452-5}}</ref> China is the only NPT nuclear-weapon state to give an unqualified negative [[security assurance]] with its "[[no first use]]" policy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuclearthreatinitiative.org/db/china/nfuorg.htm|title=No-First-Use (NFU)|work=Nuclear Threat Initiative|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125101108/http://nuclearthreatinitiative.org/db/china/nfuorg.htm|archive-date=25 January 2010}}</ref><ref name="S/1995/265">{{cite report|url=https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/Disarm%20S1995265.pdf|title=Statement on security assurances issued on 5 April 1995 by the People's Republic of China |publisher=United Nations|date=6 April 1995|id=S/1995/265|access-date=20 September 2012}}</ref> China acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1992.<ref name="NPTsignatories" /> As of 2016, China fielded SLBMs onboard its [[JL-2]] submarines.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|date=4 July 2019|title=Chinese nuclear forces, 2019|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|language=en|volume=75|issue=4|pages=171–178|doi=10.1080/00963402.2019.1628511|bibcode=2019BuAtS..75d.171K|issn=0096-3402|doi-access=free}}</ref> As of February 2024, China had an estimated total inventory of approximately 500 warheads.<ref>[https://fas.org/publication/chinese-nuclear-forces-2024-a-significant-expansion/ Chinese Nuclear Forces, 2024: A “Significant Expansion”], Federation of American Scientists, January 16, 2024.</ref>

According to [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute|Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)]], China is in the middle of a significant modernization and expansion of its nuclear arsenal. Its nuclear stockpile is expected to continue growing over the coming decade and some projections suggest that it will deploy at least as many intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) as either Russia or the US in that period. However, China's overall nuclear warhead stockpile is still expected to remain smaller than that of either of those states.<ref name=":5" /> The Yearbook published by SIPRI in 2023 revealed that China's nuclear warheads stockpile increased by 17% in 2022, reaching 410 warheads.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Chinese Nuclear Arsenal Grows by Seventeen Percent in 2022, SIPRI Reports |url=https://www.gcatglance.com/2023/06/chinese-nuclear-arsenal-grows-by-17-percent-in-2022.html|access-date=2023-06-21}}</ref>

[[United States Department of Defense|US Department of Defense]] officials estimate that the Chinese had more than 500 operational nuclear warheads as of May 2023, and it was on track to posess 1,000 nuclear weapons by the year 2030.<ref>[https://media.defense.gov/2023/Oct/19/2003323409/-1/-1/1/2023-MILITARY-AND-SECURITY-DEVELOPMENTS-INVOLVING-THE-PEOPLES-REPUBLIC-OF-CHINA.PDF Military and Security Developments Involving the People's Republic of China: 2023 Annual Report to Congress], U.S. Department of Defense.</ref>

== States declaring possession of nuclear weapons ==

=== India ===
{{Main|India and weapons of mass destruction}}
[[File:Agni-V during its first test flight.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Agni-V]] during its first test flight on 19 April 2012]]
India is not a party to the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]]. Indian officials rejected the NPT in the 1960s on the grounds that it created a world of nuclear "haves" and "have-nots", arguing that it unnecessarily restricted "peaceful activity" (including "peaceful nuclear explosives"), and that India would not accede to international control of their nuclear facilities unless all other countries engaged in [[unilateral disarmament]] of their own nuclear weapons. The Indian position has also asserted that the NPT is in many ways a neo-colonial regime designed to deny security to post-colonial powers.<ref>George Perkovich, ''India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 120–121, and 7.</ref>

The country tested what is called a "[[Peaceful nuclear explosions|peaceful nuclear explosive]]" in 1974 (which became known as "[[Smiling Buddha]]"). The test was the first test developed after the creation of the NPT, and created new questions about how civilian nuclear technology could be diverted secretly to weapons purposes ([[Dual-use technology#Nuclear|dual-use technology]]). India's secret development caused great concern and anger particularly from nations that had supplied [[CIRUS|its nuclear reactors]] for peaceful and power generating needs, such as Canada.<ref>{{cite web|title = 18 MAY 1974 – SMILING BUDDAH |url = https://www.ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/18-may-1974-smiling-buddah|website=CTBTO|access-date=24 January 2018}}</ref> After its 1974 test, India maintained that its nuclear capability was primarily "peaceful", but between 1988 and 1990 it apparently weaponized two dozen nuclear weapons for delivery by air.<ref>George Perkovich, ''India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 293–297.</ref> In 1998 India tested weaponized nuclear warheads ("[[Operation Shakti]]"), including a [[Thermonuclear weapon|thermonuclear device]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaShakti.html|title=India's Nuclear Weapons Program: Operation Shakti|year=1998|access-date=10 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003235010/http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaShakti.html|archive-date=3 October 2006|url-status=live}}</ref> India adopted a "[[no first use]]" policy in 1998.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-08-29|title=No first use nuclear policy: Explained|work=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no-first-use-nuclear-policy-explained/articleshow/70844818.cms|access-date=2023-04-19|issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

In July 2005, US President [[George W. Bush]] and Indian Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] announced a civil nuclear cooperation initiative<ref>{{cite web|url = https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2005/07/20050718-6.html|title = Joint Statement Between President George W. Bush and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh|access-date=15 May 2009|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091227004630/http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2005/07/20050718-6.html|archive-date=27 December 2009|via = [[NARA|National Archives]]|work = [[whitehouse.gov]]|url-status=live}}</ref> that included plans to conclude an [[Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement]]. This initiative came to fruition through a series of steps that included India's announced plan to separate its civil and military nuclear programs in March 2006,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianembassy.org/newsite/press_release/2006/Mar/sepplan.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060903091254/http://www.indianembassy.org/newsite/press_release/2006/Mar/sepplan.pdf|title=Implementation of the India-United States Joint Statement of July 18, 2005: India's Separation Plan|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 September 2006|date=3 September 2006}}</ref> the passage of the [[India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement]] by the [[US Congress]] in December 2006, the conclusion of a US–India nuclear cooperation agreement in July 2007,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2007/89552.htm|title=U.S.- India Civil Nuclear Cooperation Initiative – Bilateral Agreement on Peaceful Nuclear Cooperation|date=27 July 2007|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117140302/https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2007/89552.htm|archive-date=17 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> approval by the [[IAEA]] of an India-specific safeguards agreement,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/News/2008/board010808.html|title=IAEA Board Approves India-Safeguards Agreement|website=Iaea.org|date=31 July 2008|access-date=15 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505234507/http://iaea.org/NewsCenter/News/2008/board010808.html|archive-date=5 May 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> agreement by the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]] to a waiver of export restrictions for India,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/Final_NSG_Statement_India_20080906.pdf|title=Statement on Civil Nuclear Cooperation with India|access-date=18 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081019090645/https://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/Final_NSG_Statement_India_20080906.pdf|archive-date=19 October 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> approval by the US Congress<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/secretary/rm/2008/10/110554.htm|title=Congressional Approval of the U.S.-India Agreement for Cooperation Concerning Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy (123 Agreement)|date=2 October 2008|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117032516/https://2001-2009.state.gov/secretary/rm/2008/10/110554.htm|archive-date=17 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> and culminating in the signature of US–India agreement for civil nuclear cooperation<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/secretary/rm/2008/10/110916.htm|title=Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and Indian Minister of External Affairs Pranab Mukherjee At the Signing of the U.S.-India Civilian Nuclear Cooperation Agreement|date=10 October 2008|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117032418/https://2001-2009.state.gov/secretary/rm/2008/10/110916.htm|archive-date=17 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> in October 2008. The [[US State Department]] said it made it "very clear that we will not recognize India as a nuclear-weapon state".<ref>[http://www.armscontrol.org/interviews/20060518_Joseph Interview With Undersecretary of State for Arms Control and International Security Robert Joseph] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023081854/http://www.armscontrol.org/interviews/20060518_Joseph|date=23 October 2008}}, ''Arms Control Today'', May 2006.</ref> The United States is bound by the [[Hyde Act]] with India and may cease all cooperation with India if India detonates a nuclear explosive device. The US had further said it is not its intention to assist India in the design, construction or operation of sensitive nuclear technologies through the transfer of dual-use items.<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/story/356926.html Was India misled by America on nuclear deal?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910011419/http://www.indianexpress.com/story/356926.html|date=10 September 2008}}, ''Indian Express''.</ref> In establishing an exemption for India, the Nuclear Suppliers Group reserved the right to consult on any future issues which might trouble it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.armscontrol.org/system/files/20080906_Final_NSG_Statement.pdf|title=ACA: Final NSG Statement|access-date=18 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101120200023/http://www.armscontrol.org/system/files/20080906_Final_NSG_Statement.pdf|archive-date=20 November 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> As of June 2024, India was estimated to have a stockpile of 172 warheads.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=India and Pakistan|url=https://armscontrolcenter.org/countries/india-and-pakistan/|access-date=2023-09-16|website=Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":3" />

=== Pakistan ===
{{Main|Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction}}
[[File:Chagaiatomictests.jpg|thumb|241x241px|Debris erupts from a mountain during an underground nuclear weapon detonation carried out as part of Pakistan's [[Chagai-I|Chaghai-I]] series of tests.]]
Pakistan is also not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Pakistan covertly developed nuclear weapons over decades, beginning in the late 1970s. Pakistan first delved into nuclear power after the establishment of its first nuclear power plant near [[Karachi]] with equipment and materials supplied mainly by western nations in the early 1970s. Pakistani Prime Minister [[Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] promised in 1971 that if India could build nuclear weapons then Pakistan would too, according to him: "We will develop Nuclear stockpiles, even if we have to eat grass."<ref>{{cite web| last =Sublettle| first =Carey| title =Historical Background: Zulfikar Ali Bhutto| work =Nuclear weapons archives| publisher =Federation of American Scientists (FAS)| date =15 October 1965| url =http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Pakistan/PakOrigin.html| access-date =19 August 2018| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20131216222126/http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Pakistan/PakOrigin.html| archive-date =16 December 2013| url-status=live}}</ref>

It is believed that Pakistan has possessed nuclear weapons since the mid-1980s.<ref>[http://www.nti.org/country-profiles/pakistan/ NTI Pakistan Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416084022/http://www.nti.org/country-profiles/pakistan/|date=16 April 2012}}, retrieved 22 April 2012.</ref> The United States continued to certify that Pakistan did not possess such weapons until 1990, when sanctions were imposed under the [[Larry Pressler#Pakistan and the Pressler Amendment|Pressler Amendment]], requiring a cutoff of US economic and military assistance to Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iie.com/research/topics/sanctions/pakistan.cfm|title=Case Studies in Sanctions and Terrorism: Pakistan|publisher=Iie.com|access-date=15 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512121259/http://www.iie.com/research/topics/sanctions/pakistan.cfm|archive-date=12 May 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1998, Pakistan conducted its first [[Chagai-I|six nuclear tests]] at the [[Ras Koh Hills]] in response to the five tests conducted by India a few weeks before.

In 2004, the Pakistani metallurgist [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]], a key figure in Pakistan's nuclear weapons program, confessed to heading an international [[black market]] ring involved in selling nuclear weapons technology. In particular, Khan had been selling [[gas centrifuge]] technology to North Korea, Iran, and Libya. Khan denied complicity by the Pakistani government or Army, but this has been called into question by journalists and IAEA officials, and was later contradicted by statements from Khan himself.<ref>See [[A.Q. Khan#Investigation, dismissal, confession, pardon and aftermath|A.Q. Khan: Investigation, dismissal, confession, pardon and aftermath]], for citations and details.</ref>

As of early 2013, Pakistan was estimated to have had a stockpile of around 140 warheads,<ref name="NucDec2017">{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/issues/nuclear-weapons/status-world-nuclear-forces/|title=Status of World Nuclear Forces|website=Federation of American Scientists|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124145358/https://fas.org/issues/nuclear-weapons/status-world-nuclear-forces/|archive-date=24 January 2018|access-date=24 January 2018}}</ref> and in November 2014 it was projected that by 2020 Pakistan would have enough fissile material for 200 warheads.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/Pakistan-to-have-200-nuclear-weapons-by-2020-US-think-tank/articleshow/45250170.cms| title=Pakistan to Have 200 Nuke Weapons by 2020: US Think Tank | newspaper=The Times of india| date=November 2014| access-date=28 November 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141127141607/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/Pakistan-to-have-200-nuclear-weapons-by-2020-US-think-tank/articleshow/45250170.cms| archive-date=27 November 2014| url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2024, [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute|SIPRI]] estimated that Pakistan had a stockpile of around 170 warheads.<ref name=":5" />

=== North Korea ===
{{Main|North Korea and weapons of mass destruction}}

North Korea was a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but announced a withdrawal on 10 January 2003, after the United States accused it of having a secret [[uranium enrichment]] program and cut off energy assistance under the 1994 [[Agreed Framework]]. In February 2005, North Korea claimed to possess functional nuclear weapons, though their lack of a test at the time led many experts to doubt the claim. In October 2006, North Korea stated that, in response to growing intimidation by the United States, it would conduct a nuclear test to confirm its nuclear status. North Korea reported a successful nuclear test on 9 October 2006 (see [[2006 North Korean nuclear test]]). Most US intelligence officials believed that the test was probably only partially successful with a [[nuclear weapon yield|yield]] of less than a kiloton.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Rick|last1=Gladstone|first2=Rogene|last2=Jacquette|accessdate=18 April 2021|title=How the North Korean Nuclear Threat Has Grown|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/17/world/asia/north-korea-nuclear-threat.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=18 February 2017|issn=0362-4331|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|accessdate=18 April 2021|title=TIMELINE:North Korea: climbdowns and tests|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-nuclear-timeline-sb-idUSTRE54O0K020090525|newspaper=Reuters|date=25 May 2009|via=www.reuters.com}}</ref> North Korea conducted a second, higher-yield test on 25 May 2009 (see [[2009 North Korean nuclear test]]) and a third test with still-higher yield on 12 February 2013 (see [[2013 North Korean nuclear test]]).

North Korea claimed to have conducted its [[January 2016 North Korean nuclear test|first hydrogen-bomb test]] on 5 January 2016, though measurements of seismic disturbances indicate that the detonation was not consistent with a hydrogen bomb.<ref>{{cite news|title=North Korea Test Shows Technical Advance|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=7 January 2016|volume=CCLXVII|issue=5|page=A6}}</ref> On 3 September 2017, [[2017 North Korean nuclear test|North Korea detonated a device]], which caused a magnitude 6.1 tremor, consistent with a low-powered [[Thermonuclear weapon|thermonuclear]] detonation; NORSAR estimates the yield at 250 kilotons<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.norsar.no/press/latest-press-release/archive/the-nuclear-explosion-in-north-korea-on-3-september-2017-a-revised-magnitude-assessment-article1548-984.html|title=The nuclear explosion in North Korea on 3 September 2017: A revised magnitude assessment |website=NORSAR.no|access-date=15 September 2017|archive-url = https://archive.today/20170913180851/https://www.norsar.no/press/latest-press-release/archive/the-nuclear-explosion-in-north-korea-on-3-september-2017-a-revised-magnitude-assessment-article1548-984.html|archive-date=13 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> of TNT. In 2018, North Korea announced a halt in nuclear weapons tests and made a conditional commitment to denuclearisation of the [[Korean Peninsula]];<ref>{{cite news|title=North Korea has Begun Dismantlement of the Punggye-ri Nuclear Test Site'|url= https://www.38north.org/2018/05/punggye051418/|work=38north.org|access-date=3 August 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180803213550/https://www.38north.org/2018/05/punggye051418/|archive-date=3 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title='Destruction at North Korea's Nuclear Test Site: A Review in Photos'|url = https://www.38north.org/2018/05/punggye052518/|website=38north.org|access-date=3 August 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180814103301/https://www.38north.org/2018/05/punggye052518/|archive-date=14 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> however, in December 2019, it indicated it no longer considered itself bound by the moratorium.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sang-Hun|first=Choe|date=31 December 2019|title=North Korea Is No Longer Bound by Nuclear Test Moratorium, Kim Says|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/31/world/asia/north-korea-kim-speech.html|access-date=18 June 2020|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

[[Kim Jong Un]] officially declared North Korea a nuclear weapons state during a speech on 9 September 2022, [[Day of the Foundation of the Republic|the country's foundation day]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 September 2022|title=North Korea declares itself a nuclear weapons state, in 'irreversible' move|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/09/asia/north-korea-kim-nuclear-weapons-state-law-intl-hnk/index.html|access-date=9 September 2022|website=[[CNN]]}}</ref>

According to the [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute|Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)]], North Korea's military nuclear programme remains central to its national security strategy and it may have assembled up to 30 nuclear weapons and could produce more. North Korea conducted more than 90 ballistic missile tests during 2022, the highest number it has ever undertaken in a single year.<ref name=":5" />

== States believed to possess nuclear weapons ==

=== Israel ===
{{Main|Nuclear weapons and Israel|Israel and weapons of mass destruction}}

Israel is generally understood to have been the sixth country to develop nuclear weapons, but does not acknowledge it. It had "rudimentary, but deliverable," nuclear weapons available as early as 1966.<ref>{{Citation| title = Israel and the Bomb| place = New York| publisher = Columbia University Press| last = Cohen| first = Avner| year = 1998| isbn = 978-0-231-10482-1| url = https://archive.org/details/israelbomb00cohe|page=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| first = Mohamed| last = ElBaradei| url = http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Transcripts/2004/alahram27072004.html| title = Transcript of the Director General's Interview with Al-Ahram News| author-link = Mohamed ElBaradei| publisher = [[International Atomic Energy Agency]]| date = 27 July 2004| access-date = 3 June 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120418221656/http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/transcripts/2004/alahram27072004.html| archive-date = 18 April 2012| url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NTI">{{cite web| access-date = 23 June 2009| work = Israel| title = Nuclear Overview| format = profile| publisher = NTI| url = http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Israel/Nuclear/| url-status=dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090102210432/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Israel/Nuclear/| archive-date = 2 January 2009}}</ref><ref name="auto">''My Promised Land'', by [[Ari Shavit]], (London 2014), page 188</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Israel's Quest for Yellowcake: The Secret Argentina-Israel Connection, 1963–1966|author=Nuclear Proliferation International History Project|url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/israels-quest-for-yellowcake-the-secret-argentina-israel-connection-1963-1966|publisher=[[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]]|date=28 June 2013|access-date=22 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814114619/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/israels-quest-for-yellowcake-the-secret-argentina-israel-connection-1963-1966|archive-date=14 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/index.html|title=Nuclear Weapons|website=fas.org|access-date=7 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207122117/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/index.html|archive-date=7 December 2010|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NTIIsrael">[http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Israel/Nuclear/index.html NTI Israel Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728090642/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Israel/Nuclear/index.html|date=28 July 2011}} Retrieved 12 July 2007.</ref>{{excessive citations inline|date=August 2024}} Israel is not a party to the NPT. Israel engages in [[Policy of deliberate ambiguity|strategic ambiguity]], saying it would not be the first country to "introduce" nuclear weapons to the Middle East without confirming or denying that it has a nuclear weapons program or arsenal. This policy of "nuclear opacity" has been interpreted as an attempt to get the benefits of [[deterrence theory|deterrence]] with a minimal political cost.<ref name="NTIIsrael" /><ref name="CohenIsrael"/> Due to a US ban on funding countries that have [[weapons of mass destruction]], Israel would lose around $2 billion a year in military and other aid from the US if it admitted to possessing nuclear weapons.<ref name="guardian121206" />

According to the [[Natural Resources Defense Council]] and the [[Federation of American Scientists]], Israel likely possesses around 80–400 nuclear weapons.<ref name="israelcohen">There are a wide range of estimates as to the size of the Israeli nuclear arsenal. For a compiled list of estimates, see [[Avner Cohen]], ''The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's bargain with the Bomb'' (Columbia University Press, 2010), Table 1, page xxvii and page 82.</ref><ref>[https://fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/index.html Israel's Nuclear Weapons] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207122117/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/index.html|date=7 December 2010}}, [[Federation of American Scientists]] (17 August 2000)</ref> The [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] estimates that Israel has approximately 80 intact nuclear weapons, of which 50 are for delivery by [[Jericho II]] medium-range ballistic missiles and 30 are [[gravity bombs]] for delivery by aircraft. [[SIPRI]] also reports that there was renewed speculation in 2012 that Israel may also have developed nuclear-capable [[Popeye Turbo|submarine-launched cruise missiles]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/nuclear-forces/israel|title=Israel|access-date=19 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217155101/http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/nuclear-forces/israel|archive-date=17 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 7 November 2023, during the [[Israel–Hamas war]], Heritage Minister [[Amihai Eliyahu]] said during a radio interview that a nuclear strike would be "one way" to deal with [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]], which commentators and diplomats interpreted as a tacit admission that Israel possesses such a capability. His remarks were criticized by the United States and Russia, and Eliyahu was subsequently suspended from the Israeli cabinet.<ref name="AJ IL Nuclear">{{cite web|title=Israel's nuclear option remark raises 'huge number of questions': Russia's foreign ministry says Israel appeared to have admitted that it has nuclear weapons and is willing to use them.|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/7/israels-nuclear-option-remark-raises-huge-number-of-questions-russia#:~:text=Moscow's%20reaction%20came%20on%20Tuesday,is%20also%20willing%20to%20use|website=Al Jazeera|publisher=Al Jazeera America|access-date=17 Nov 2023}}</ref>

== Launch authority ==

The decision to use nuclear weapons is always restricted to a single person or small group of people. The [[United States]] and [[France]] require their respective presidents to approve the use of nuclear weapons. In the US, the [[Nuclear football|Presidential Emergency Satchel]] is always handled by a nearby aide unless the [[President of the United States|President]] is near a command center. The decision rests with the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. Information from [[China]] is unclear, but "the launch of nuclear weapons is commonly believed to rest with the [[Central Military Commission (China)|Central Military Commission]] of the [[Chinese Communist Party]]."{{Citation needed|date=October 2024|reason=Where is this quote from? This seems like original research}} [[Russia]] grants such power to the [[President of Russia|President]] but may also require approval from the [[Minister of Defence (Russia)|Minister of Defence]] and the [[Chief of the General Staff (Russia)|Chief of the General Staff]]. The [[Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of North Korea|Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces]] has authority in [[North Korea]]. India, Pakistan and Israel have committees for such a decision.<ref name = "UCS Launch Authority">{{cite web|publisher=Union of Concerned Scientists|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/attach/2017/11/Launch-Authority.pdf|title=Whose Finger Is On the Button?|date=December 2017|access-date=21 February 2021}}</ref>

Some countries are known to have delegated launch authority to military personnel in the event that the usual launch authority is incapacitated; whether or not the 'pre-delegated' authority exists at any particular time is kept secret.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Feaver|first1=Peter|last2=Geers|first2=Kenneth|date=October 16, 2017|title="When the Urgency of Time and Circumstances Clearly Does Not Permit . . .": Pre-delegation in Nuclear and Cyber Scenarios|url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2017/10/16/when-urgency-of-time-and-circumstances-clearly-does-not-permit-.-.-.-pre-delegation-in-nuclear-and-cyber-scenarios-pub-73417|archive-url=|website=Carnegie Endowment}}</ref> In the United States, some military commanders have been delegated authority to launch nuclear weapons "when the urgency of time and circumstances clearly does not permit a specific decision by the President."<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-01-08 |title=MILITARY GOT AUTHORITY TO USE NUCLEAR ARMS IN 1957 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1998/03/21/military-got-authority-to-use-nuclear-arms-in-1957/a71f519b-616a-4e75-86d3-424b2d882a4b/ |access-date=2024-10-03 |work=Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Russia has a semi automated [[Dead Hand]] system which may allow military commanders to act based on certain pre-defined criteria. British nuclear-armed submarine commanders are issued with "[[letters of last resort]]" written by the Prime Minister containing secret instructions which may or may not give them delegated launch authority.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Taylor|first=Adam|date=July 13, 2016|title=Every new British prime minister pens a handwritten 'letter of last resort' outlining nuclear retaliation|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/07/13/every-new-british-prime-minister-pens-a-hand-written-letter-of-last-resort-outlining-nuclear-retaliaton/|newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Launch authority of nuclear states
|-
! scope="col"| Country
! scope="col"| Authority
! scope="col"| Notes
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Nuclear weapons of the United States|United States]]
| [[President of the United States]]|| See the [[Nuclear football|Presidential Emergency Satchel]].<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" /><ref name="UCS Whose Finger">{{Cite web|title=Whose Finger Is on the Button? {{!}} Union of Concerned Scientists|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/whose-finger-button|access-date=2023-07-06|website=www.ucsusa.org|language=en}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|Russia]]|| [[President of Russia]]
| [[Cheget|Briefcases]] may also be issued to the [[Minister of Defence (Russia)|Minister of Defence]] and the [[Chief of the General Staff (Russia)|Chief of the General Staff]].<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" /><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/si/2004/sep/tsypkinSept04.asp|title=Adventures of the "Nuclear Briefcase"|author=Mikhail Tsypkin|journal=Strategic Insights|volume=3|issue=9|date=September 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040923072304/http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/si/2004/sep/tsypkinSept04.asp|archive-date=23 September 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.themoscowtimes.com/article/1016/42/362896.htm|title=A 2nd Briefcase for Putin|author=Alexander Golts|newspaper=Moscow Times|date=20 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604040029/http://www.themoscowtimes.com/opinion/article/a-2nd-briefcase-for-putin/362896.html|archive-date=4 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="UCS Whose Finger" />
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
| [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]]|| The [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] and a secretly designated 'second' may order a launch, but this may be challenged by Parliament.<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" /><ref name="UCS Whose Finger" />
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|France}} [[France and weapons of mass destruction|France]]
| [[President of France]]||The [[Chief of the Military Staff of the President of the Republic]] and the [[Chief of the Defence Staff (France)|Chief of the Defence Staff]] may also be involved in decisions.<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" /><ref name="UCS Whose Finger" />
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|China}} [[China and weapons of mass destruction|China]]
| [[Central Military Commission (China)|Central Military Commission]]|| The [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|Chairman of the Central Military Commission]] is the [[Supreme Military Command of the People's Republic of China|Supreme Military Commander]].<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" /><ref name="UCS Whose Finger" />
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|India}} [[India and weapons of mass destruction|India]]
| [[Prime Minister of India]]|| [[Nuclear Command Authority (India)|Nuclear Command Authority]] includes an Executive Council and a Political Council.<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" /><ref name="UCS Whose Finger" />
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]]
| [[National Command Authority (Pakistan)|National Command Authority]]|| Requires a consensus of the council's members.<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" /><ref name="UCS Whose Finger" />
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|North Korea}} [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction|North Korea]]
| [[President of the State Affairs of North Korea|President of the State Affairs]]|| The president of the State Affairs is the ultimate decisionmaker in regards to North Korea's nuclear arsenal.<ref>{{Cite web|title=N. Korea adopts nuclear use manual, signaling return to parallel pursuit of nukes, economy|url=https://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_northkorea/1058447.html|access-date=2023-03-25|website=english.hani.co.kr}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row"| {{flagicon|Israel}} [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|Israel]]
| [[Prime Minister of Israel]]|| Requires agreement of the [[Ministry of Defense (Israel)#Minister of Defense|Minister of Defense]] and [[Chief of the General Staff (Israel)|Chief of the General Staff]].<ref name="UCS Launch Authority" />
|}

== Nuclear weapons sharing ==
{{Main|Nuclear sharing}}
{{see also|Germany and weapons of mass destruction|Italian nuclear weapons program|Netherlands and weapons of mass destruction}}

=== Nuclear weapons shared by the United States ===
{|class="wikitable sortable" align="right" border="1"
|+ Weapons provided for nuclear sharing (2021)<ref name=":0">{{cite Q|Q105699219|quote="About 100 of these (versions −3 and −4) are thought to be deployed at six bases in five European countries: Aviano and Ghedi in Italy; Büchel in Germany; Incirlik in Turkey; Kleine Brogel in Belgium; and Volkel in the Netherlands. This number has declined since 2009 partly due to reduction of operational storage capacity at Aviano and Incirlik (Kristensen 2015, 2019c). ... Concerns were raised about the security of the nuclear weapons at the Incirlik base during the failed coup attempt in Turkey in July 2016, and the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee for Europe stated in September 2020 that “our presence, quite honestly, in Turkey is certainly threatened,” and further noted that “we don’t know what’s going to happen to Incirlik” (Gehrke 2020). Despite rumors in late 2017 that the weapons had been “quietly removed” (Hammond 2017), reports in 2019 that US officials had reviewed emergency nuclear weapons evacuation plans (Sanger 2019) indicated that that there were still weapons present at the base. The numbers appear to have been reduced, however, from up to 50 to approximately 20."}}</ref>
! Country|| Base|| Estimated
|-
| {{BEL}}|| [[Kleine Brogel Air Base|Kleine Brogel]]|| 20
|-
| {{DEU}}|| [[Büchel Air Base|Büchel]]|| 20
|-
| {{ITA}}|| [[Aviano Air Base|Aviano]]|| rowspan="2"| 20
|-
| {{ITA}}|| [[Ghedi Air Base|Ghedi]]
|-
| {{NLD}}|| [[Volkel Air Base|Volkel]]|| 20
|-
| {{TUR}}|| [[Incirlik Air Base|Incirlik]]|| 20
|-
! !! !! 100
|-
|}

Under [[NATO]] [[nuclear weapons sharing]], the United States has provided nuclear weapons for Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Turkey to deploy and store.<ref name=NATOSharing>{{cite web|url=http://www.bits.de/public/researchnote/rn97-3.htm|title=Berlin Information-center for Transatlantic Security: NATO Nuclear Sharing and the N.PT – Questions to be Answered|publisher=Bits.de|access-date=15 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519054302/http://www.bits.de/public/researchnote/rn97-3.htm|archive-date=19 May 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> This involves pilots and other staff of the "non-nuclear" NATO states practicing, handling, and delivering the US nuclear bombs, and adapting non-US warplanes to deliver US nuclear bombs. However, since all US nuclear weapons are protected with [[Permissive Action Link]]s, the host states cannot easily arm the bombs without authorization codes from the [[United States Department of Defense|US Department of Defense]].<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rja14/Papers/SE-11.pdf|title=Security Engineering: A Guide to Building Dependable Distributed Systems|chapter=Nuclear Command and Control|publisher=Ross Anderson, University of Cambridge Computing Laboratory|access-date=29 April 2010}}</ref> Former Italian President [[Francesco Cossiga]] acknowledged the presence of US nuclear weapons in Italy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://notizie.tiscali.it/articoli/politica/08/22/cossiga_atomica_in_italia_123.html|title=Cossiga: "In Italia ci sono bombe atomiche Usa"|access-date=16 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928225725/http://notizie.tiscali.it/articoli/politica/08/22/cossiga_atomica_in_italia_123.html|archive-date=28 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> US nuclear weapons were also deployed in [[Canada]] as well as [[Greece]] from 1963. However, the United States withdrew three of the four nuclear-capable weapons systems from Canada by 1972, the fourth by 1984, and all nuclear-capable weapons systems from Greece by 2001.<ref>[https://www.institutmontaigne.org/en/expressions/weapons-mass-debate-greece-key-security-player-both-europe-and-nato Weapons of Mass Debate - Greece: a Key Security Player for both Europe and NATO], Institut Montaigne, 7 December 2001]</ref><ref name="nrdc-euro">{{Cite report|title=U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Europe|url=http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/euro/euro.pdf|author=Hans M. Kristensen|date=February 2005|publisher=[[Natural Resources Defense Council]]|access-date=23 May 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723003003/http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/euro/euro.pdf|archive-date=23 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> {{As of|April 2019}}, the United States maintained around 100 nuclear weapons in Europe, as reflected in the accompanying table.<ref name=":0" />

=== Nuclear weapons shared by Russia ===
{| class="wikitable"; style="float" position="left"; margin-left:15px;"
|+Russian nuclear weapons in host countries
!scope="col"|Country
!scope="col"|Air base
!scope="col"|Warheads
|-
|scope="row"| {{BLR}}
| Probably [[Lida (air base)|Lida]]<ref name="FAS_BLR"/>
| ~130

|}
{{As of|since=y|June 2023}},<ref name="FAS_BLR">{{cite web|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans|last2=Korda|first2=Matt|title=Russian Nuclear Weapons Deployment Plans in Belarus: Is There Visual Confirmation?|url=https://fas.org/publication/russian-nuclear-weapons-deployment-plans-in-belarus-is-there-visual-confirmation/|website=Federation of American Scientists|access-date=17 July 2023|date=30 June 2023}}</ref> the leaders of Russia and Belarus have claimed that a "number of"<ref name="claimed_transfer">{{cite web|last1=Faulconbridge|first1=Guy|title=Lukashenko: I have veto over use of Russian nuclear weapons in Belarus|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/lukashenko-i-have-veto-over-use-russian-nuclear-weapons-belarus-2023-07-06/|website=Reuters|access-date=17 July 2023|date=6 July 2023}}</ref> nuclear weapons are located on Belarusian territory while remaining in Russian possession.<ref name="FAS_BLR"/> Sources hostile to these countries have confirmed that nuclear warheads have been delivered to Belarus, but claim that the first transfers were instead made in August 2023.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Borysenko|first1=Ivan|title=Russia delivers first nuclear warheads to Belarus - Budanov|url=https://english.nv.ua/nation/russia-delivers-first-nuclear-warheads-to-belarus-ukraine-war-news-50350466.html|website=The New Voice of Ukraine|publisher=NV|access-date=10 September 2023}}</ref> Russia's stated intention is to provide Belarus with two delivery systems: dual-capable [[9K720 Iskander|Iskander-M]] missile systems and necessary training and modifications for Belarusian [[Su-25]] aircraft to carry nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Foreign Ministry Announces Conversion of Belarusian Su-25 Aircraft to Carry Nuclear Weapons|url=https://www.eurointegration.com.ua/eng/news/2022/10/15/7148746/|website=eurointegration.com|publisher=European Pravada|access-date=17 October 2022}}</ref>

The deployment of Russian weapons to Belarus was framed by Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] as being equivalent to the deployments of American nuclear weapons to NATO Allies in Europe under international law.<ref name="claimed_transfer"/>

=== Criticism of nuclear weapons sharing ===
Members of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] have called on all countries to "refrain from nuclear sharing for military purposes under any kind of security arrangements."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050508053154/http://www.un.org/events/npt2005/statements/npt02malaysia.pdf Statement on behalf of the non-aligned state parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons], 2 May 2005</ref> The Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad (ISSI) has criticized the arrangement for allegedly violating Articles I and II of the NPT, arguing that "these Articles do not permit the NWS to delegate the control of their nuclear weapons directly or indirectly to others."<ref>[http://www.issi.org.pk/journal/2000_files/no_4/article/6a.htm ISSI – NPT in 2000: Challenges ahead], Zafar Nawaz Jaspal, The Institute of Strategic Studies, Islamabad {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109082520/http://www.issi.org.pk/journal/2000_files/no_4/article/6a.htm|date=9 January 2009}}</ref> NATO has argued that the weapons' sharing is compliant with the NPT because "the US nuclear weapons based in Europe are in the sole possession and under constant and complete custody and control of the United States."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_topics/20091022_NATO_Position_on_nuclear_nonproliferation-eng.pdf|title=NATO's Positions Regarding Nuclear Non-Proliferation, Arms Control and Disarmament and Related Issues|publisher=[[NATO]]|access-date=8 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911033954/http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_topics/20091022_NATO_Position_on_nuclear_nonproliferation-eng.pdf|archive-date=11 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

== States formerly possessing nuclear weapons ==
Nuclear weapons have been present in many nations, often as staging grounds under control of other powers. However, in only one instance has a nation given up nuclear weapons after being in full control of them. The [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|fall of the Soviet Union]] left several [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet republics]] in physical possession of nuclear weapons, although not operational control which was dependent on Russian-controlled electronic [[Permissive Action Link]]s and the Russian command and control system.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNanc3lYUsQC|chapter=Why Ukraine gave up nuclear weapons : nonproliferation incentives and disincentives|author=William C. Martel|pages=88–104|title=Pulling Back from the Nuclear Brink: Reducing and Countering Nuclear Threats|editor=Barry R. Schneider, William L. Dowdy|publisher=Psychology Press|year=1998|isbn=9780714648569|access-date=6 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="pikayev-1994">{{cite journal|url=http://cns.miis.edu/npr/pdfs/pikaye13.pdf|title=Post-Soviet Russia and Ukraine: Who can push the Button?|author=Alexander A. Pikayev|journal=The Nonproliferation Review|volume=1|issue=3|pages=31–46|date=Spring–Summer 1994|doi=10.1080/10736709408436550|access-date=6 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521083227/http://cns.miis.edu/npr/pdfs/pikaye13.pdf|archive-date=21 May 2014|url-status=live | issn=1073-6700 }}</ref> Of these, Kazakhstan and Ukraine continue to have neither their own nuclear weapons nor another state's nuclear weapons stationed in their territory whereas Belarus does again claim to have Russian-owned nuclear weapons stationed on its territory since 2023.

=== South Africa ===
{{Main|South Africa and weapons of mass destruction|Nuclear programme of South Africa}}
[[File:South African nuclear bomb casings.jpg|right|thumb|Alleged spare bomb casings from South Africa's nuclear weapon programme. Their purpose is disputed.<ref name=lewisSA>{{cite web|last1=Lewis|first1=Jeffrey|title=Revisiting South Africa's Bomb|url=http://www.armscontrolwonk.com/archive/1200544/revisiting-south-africas-bomb/|website=Arms Control Wonk. Leading Voice on Arms Control, Disarmament and Non-Proliferation|date=3 December 2015|access-date=6 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151206174810/http://www.armscontrolwonk.com/archive/1200544/revisiting-south-africas-bomb/|archive-date=6 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

[[South Africa]] produced six nuclear weapons in the 1980s, but dismantled them in the early 1990s.

In 1979, there was a detection of a putative covert nuclear test in the [[Indian Ocean]], called the [[Vela incident]]. It has long been speculated that it was a test by Israel, in collaboration with and with the support of South Africa, though this has never been confirmed. South Africa could not have constructed such a nuclear bomb by itself until November 1979, two months after the "double flash" incident.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/23/israel-south-africa-nuclear-weapons|title=Revealed: how Israel offered to sell South Africa nuclear weapons|last=McGreal|first=Chris|location=Washington, D.C.|date=24 May 2010|work=The Guardian|access-date=6 February 2022}}</ref>

South Africa acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1991.<ref>[https://fas.org/nuke/guide/rsa/nuke/index.html Nuclear Weapons Program (South Africa)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016020250/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/rsa/nuke/index.html|date=16 October 2015}}, [[Federation of American Scientists]] (29 May 2000).</ref><ref>Von Wielligh, N. & von Wielligh-Steyn, L. (2015). The Bomb – South Africa's Nuclear Weapons Programme. Pretoria: Litera.</ref>

=== Former Soviet republics ===
{{See also|Ukraine and weapons of mass destruction}}

* [[Kazakhstan]] had 1,400 Soviet-era nuclear weapons on its territory and transferred them all to Russia by 1995, after Kazakhstan acceded to the NPT.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/kazakhstan/index.html|title=Kazakhstan Special Weapons|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]|access-date=7 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117015936/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/kazakhstan/index.html|archive-date=17 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Ukraine]] had as many as 3,000 nuclear weapons deployed on its territory when it became independent from the Soviet Union in 1991, equivalent to the third-largest nuclear arsenal in the world.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} At the time Ukraine acceded to the NPT in December 1994, Ukraine had agreed to dispose of all nuclear weapons within its territory. The warheads were removed from Ukraine by 1996 and disassembled in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/ukraine/|title=Ukraine Special Weapons|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]|access-date=7 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016045730/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/ukraine/|archive-date=16 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite Russia's subsequent and internationally disputed [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexation of Crimea]] in 2014, Ukraine reaffirmed its 1994 decision to accede to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear-weapon state.<ref>[https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/25/joint-statement-united-states-and-ukraine Joint Statement by the United States and Ukraine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216154310/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/25/joint-statement-united-states-and-ukraine|date=16 February 2017}}, 25 March 2014.</ref>
* [[Belarus]], which since 2023 has resumed hosting Russian nuclear weapons, also had single warhead missiles stationed on its territory into the 1990s while a constituent of the Soviet Union. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, 81 single warhead missiles were stationed on newly Belarusian territory, but were all transferred to Russia by 1996. Belarus was a member of the [[Non Proliferation Treaty|Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)]] from May 1992<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/belarus/index.html|title=Belarus Special Weapons|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]|access-date=7 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117022903/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/belarus/index.html|archive-date=17 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> through February 2022, when it held a [[2022 Belarusian constitutional referendum|constitutional referendum]] resulting in the cessation of its non-nuclear status.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Belarus votes to give up non-nuclear status|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/27/belarus-holds-referendum-to-renounce-non-nuclear-status|access-date=2022-03-01|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref>

In connection with their accession to the NPT, all three countries received assurances that their sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity would be respected, as stated in the [[Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances]]. This agreement has been violated by Russia since the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]] began in 2014, during which [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|Russia annexed Crimea]], [[War in Donbas (2014–2022)|occupied Eastern Ukraine]], and in 2022, [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|invaded the remainder of the country]] with no direct response.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Borda|first=Aldo Zammit|title=Ukraine war: what is the Budapest Memorandum and why has Russia's invasion torn it up?|url=http://theconversation.com/ukraine-war-what-is-the-budapest-memorandum-and-why-has-russias-invasion-torn-it-up-178184|access-date=2022-05-05|website=The Conversation|date=2 March 2022|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Pifer|first=Steven|date=2014-04-12|title=The Budapest Memorandum and U.S. Obligations|url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2014/12/04/the-budapest-memorandum-and-u-s-obligations/|access-date=2022-05-05|publisher=[[Brookings Institution]]|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ukraine's forgotten security guarantee: The Budapest Memorandum|url=https://www.dw.com/en/ukraines-forgotten-security-guarantee-the-budapest-memorandum/a-18111097|access-date=2022-05-05|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|date=12 May 2014|language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== Stationed countries ===
Up until the 1990s the US had stationed nuclear weapons outside of its territories and sharing countries.<ref>{{cite web|author=Hans M. Kristensen| title=The Withdrawal of U.S. Nuclear Weapons From South Korea|date=September 28, 2005|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]|url=http://www.nukestrat.com/korea/withdrawal.htm|accessdate=2017-09-24| author-link=Hans M. Kristensen}}</ref>

==== South Korea ====
{{Main|South Korea and weapons of mass destruction}}

==== Philippines ====
{{Main|Philippines and weapons of mass destruction}}

During the [[Cold War]], specifically during the presidency of [[Ferdinand Marcos]] from 1965 to 1986, American nuclear warheads were secretly stockpiled in the [[Philippines]].<ref>{{cite webhttps://newsinfo.inquirer.net/58985/us-stored-nukes-in-philippines-under-marcos%E2%80%93bayan#:~:text=Citing%20a%20declassified%20%E2%80%9CTop%20Secret,%E2%80%94as%20early%20as%201966.%E2%80%9D|title=US stored nukes in Philippines under Marcos–Bayan|access-date=2024-04-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB197/nd-17c.pdf|title=Presidential Decision on Categories of Information for Symington Subcommittee to be protected by executive privilege|access-date=2024-04-15}}</ref>

==== Taiwan ====
{{Main|Taiwan and weapons of mass destruction|Timeline of the Republic of China's nuclear program}}

Taiwan was developing capacities to construct nuclear weapons up until 1988.<ref>{{cite book |isbn=978-1-72733-733-4 |publication-place=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[Institute for Science and International Security]] |lccn=2018910946 |first1=David |last1=Albright |first2=Andrea |last2=Stricker |title=Taiwans's Former Nuclear Weapons Program: Nuclear Weapons On-Demand |year=2018 |access-date=13 August 2024 |url=https://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/TaiwansFormerNuclearWeaponsProgram_POD_color_withCover.pdf |archive-date=16 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116043944/https://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/TaiwansFormerNuclearWeaponsProgram_POD_color_withCover.pdf }}</ref><ref>"ROC Chief of the General Staff, General Hau Pei-tsun, met the director of [[American Institute in Taiwan]], David Dean in his office after Colonel Chang's defection in 1988. Dean questioned him with the US satellite imagery detecting a minimized nuclear explosion at the Jioupeng military test field in Pingtung in 1986. Hao answered that, after nearly 20 years of research, ROC had successfully produced a controlled nuclear reaction. Hau recorded the statement in his diary and published on the Issue 1 (2000), but was removed from the later re-issues." {{cite book|last=Hau|first=Pei-tsun|title=Ba nian can mou zong zhang ri ji|trans-title=8-year Diary of the Chief of the General Staff (1981–1989) |url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL13062852M/Ba_nian_can_mou_zong_zhang_ri_ji_(She_hui_ren_wen)#about/about |publisher=[[:zh:天下文化|Commonwealth Publishing]] |date=1 January 2000 |issue=1|isbn=9576216389 |language=zh-TW |location=Taipei|ol=13062852M }}</ref> Before 1974, the United States stationed some of its arsenal in Taiwan.<ref name=nsaebb>{{cite news |work=[[National Security Archive]] |series=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book |issue=20 |first1=Robert S. |last1=Norris |first2=William M. |last2=Arkin |first3=William |last3=Burr |title=United States Secretly Deployed Nuclear Bombs In 27 Countries and Territories During Cold War |date=20 October 1999 |publication-place=Washington, D.C. |url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/news/19991020 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207142738/https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/news/19991020 }}</ref>

==== Japan ====
{{Main|United States nuclear weapons in Japan}}

After World War II the US had nuclear weapons stationed in Japan until the 1970s.

==== Canada ====
{{main|Canada and weapons of mass destruction}}

The US stationed nuclear weapons at [[CFB Goose Bay]] in [[Labrador]] between 1964 and 1984.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canada-and-nuclear-weapons#:~:text=Canada%20helped%20develop%20nuclear%20weapons,nor%20tested%20a%20nuclear%20weapon|title=Canada and Nuclear Weapons|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia|last=Noakes|first=Taylor C.|access-date=17 January 2024}}</ref>

'''Greece'''

The US stationed nuclear weapons in Greece until they were removed in 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Greece|url=https://www.icanw.org/greece|access-date=2024-06-10|website=ICAN|language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{cols|colwidth=21em}}
* [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]]
* [[Doomsday Clock]]
* [[Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country]]
* [[International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons]]
* [[No first use]]
* [[Nuclear disarmament]]
* [[Nuclear latency]]
* [[Nuclear power]]
*[[Nuclear program of Iran]]
* [[Nuclear proliferation]]
* [[Nuclear terrorism]]
* [[Nuclear warfare]]
* [[Nuclear-weapon-free zone]]
{{colend}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book| title=The Military Balance 2012| author=International Institute for Strategic Studies|author-link=International Institute for Strategic Studies| editor-last=Hackett|editor-first = James| date=7 March 2012| publisher=[[Routledge]]|location= London, England| isbn=978-1857436426| ref=IISS2012}}
* {{Citation| title = The Third Temple's holy of holies: Israel's nuclear weapons| first = Warner D.| last = Farr| series = The Counterproliferation Papers, Future Warfare Series| volume = 2| publisher = USAF Counterproliferation Center, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base| url = https://fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/farr.htm|date=September 1999| access-date = 2 July 2006}}.
* [https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/when-did-and-didnt-states-proliferate Philipp C. Bleek, “When Did (and Didn’t) States Proliferate? Chronicling the Spread of Nuclear Weapons,” Discussion Paper (Cambridge, MA: Project on Managing the Atom, Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, June 2017).]
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/ The Nuclear Weapon Archive]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080920020429/http://thebulletin.metapress.com/content/0096-3402/?sortorder=asc&Article%20Category=Nuclear%20Notebook Nuclear Notebook] from [[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]]
* [http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/euro/contents.asp U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Europe: A review of post-Cold War policy, force levels, and war planning] NRDC, February 2005
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071208135127/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/military/proliferation/ Tracking Nuclear Proliferation] Online NewsHour with Jim Lehrer
* [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]'s data on world nuclear forces
* [http://wilsoncenter.org/nuclear-history-documents Nuclear Proliferation International History Project] For more on the history of nuclear proliferation see the Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project website.
* [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/proliferation-watch-us-intelligence-assessments-potential-nuclear-powers-1977%E2%80%932001 Proliferation Watch: US Intelligence Assessments of Potential Nuclear Powers, 1977–2001]

{{Clear}}

{{Military country lists}}
{{Nuclear Technology}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:States With Nuclear Weapons}}
[[Category:Nuclear weapons|*]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Military comparisons lists of countries|Nuclear weapons]]
[[Category:Nuclear weapons policy]]
[[Category:Nuclear proliferation]]
[[Category:Nuclear technology-related lists]]

Nuclear triad

2024-10-26T12:30:21Z

Brandmeister: /* Triad powers */ wlink

{{short description|Set of three types of nuclear-strike weapons}}
{{Use American English|date = April 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{nuclear weapons}}
A '''nuclear triad''' is a three-pronged military force structure of land-based [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s (ICBMs), [[submarine-launched ballistic missile]]s (SLBMs), and [[strategic bomber]]s with [[Nuclear weapon|nuclear bombs and missiles]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/nuclear-triad/606335|title = Britannica Academic|url-access = subscription}}</ref> Countries build nuclear triads to eliminate an enemy's ability to destroy a nation's nuclear forces in a [[Pre-emptive nuclear strike|first-strike]] attack, which preserves their own ability to launch a [[second strike]] and therefore increases their [[nuclear deterrence]].<ref name="NW">{{cite web |first = John |last = Barry |url = http://www.newsweek.com/id/226494 |title = Do We Still Need a Nuclear 'Triad'? |work = [[Newsweek]] |date = 12 December 2009 |access-date = 8 October 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/USNuclearDeterrence.html |title = Nuclear Stockpile |publisher = US Department of Defense |author = Office for the Deputy Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Nuclear Matters |access-date = 8 October 2010 |url-status = bot: unknown |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120628212728/http://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/USNuclearDeterrence.html |archive-date = 28 June 2012 |df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="Time">{{cite magazine |url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,959948,00.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080307080808/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,959948,00.html |url-status = dead |archive-date = 7 March 2008 |title = Toning Up the Nuclear Triad |magazine = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date = 23 September 1985 |access-date = 8 October 2010 }}</ref>

Only four countries are known to have the nuclear triad: [[United States|the United States]], [[Russia]], [[India]], and [[China]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mizokami |first=Kyle |date=2021-11-26 |title=How Pakistan Developed Its Own Nuclear Triad |url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/reboot/how-pakistan-developed-its-own-nuclear-triad-196943 |access-date=2023-07-08 |website=The National Interest |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Babur (Hatf 7) |url=https://missilethreat.csis.org/missile/hatf-7/ |access-date=2023-07-08 |website=Missile Threat |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Israel]] is suspected to possess a nuclear triad, but its status is not confirmed.

==Traditional components of a strategic nuclear triad==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 200
| header = The components of the nuclear triad
| image1 = Kremlin Tupolev Tu-160.jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = Bomber aircraft
| image2 = Minuteman II in silo 1980.jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 = Intercontinental ballistic missile
| image3 = Jin (Type 094) Class Ballistic Missile Submarine.JPG
| alt3 =
| caption3 = Ballistic missile submarine
|
}}
While traditional [[nuclear strategy]] holds that a nuclear triad provides the best level of deterrence from attack, most nuclear powers do not have the military budget to sustain a full triad. The only two countries that have successfully maintained a strong nuclear triad for most of the nuclear age are the United States and Russia.<ref name="Time"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/russias_nuclear_rearmament_policy_shift_or_business_as_usual/|title=Russia's Nuclear Rearmament: Policy Shift or Business as Usual? {{!}} NTI|website=www.nti.org|access-date=2018-04-03}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Triads include:
#[[Bomber aircraft]]: Aircraft carrying nuclear bombs, or nuclear-armed cruise missiles, for use against ground or sea targets.<ref name="NW"/><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |url= http://www.nti.org/learn/glossary/#intercontinental-ballistic-missile-icbm |title= Glossary {{!}} Learn {{!}} NTI |website= www.nti.org |access-date= 2018-04-03 }}</ref>
#Land-based [[missiles]] ([[MRBM]]s or [[ICBM]]s): Delivery vehicles powered by a liquid or solid-fueled rocket that primarily travel in a ballistic (free-fall) trajectory.<ref name="NW"/><ref name="Time"/><ref name=":3" />
#[[Ballistic missile submarine]]s ([[Ballistic missile submarine|SSBNs]]): Nuclear missiles launched from ships or submarines. They are classified under an umbrella of vessels and submarines that are capable of launching a ballistic missile.<ref name=":3" /><ref name="NW"/><ref name="Time"/>

The triad enables a nation to deliver a nuclear attack by air from land or sea. The United States built its triad to maximize the probability that it could retaliate for a first strike. Having three legs also protects against new technology, like an enemy [[Missile defense|missile-defense system]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Suellentrop |first1=Chris |title=What Is the Nuclear Triad? |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2001/11/what-is-the-nuclear-triad.html |work=Slate |date=15 November 2001 }}</ref> It also gives the [[commander-in-chief]] the flexibility to use different types of weapons for the appropriate strike while also maintaining a reserve of nuclear weapons safe from a counter-force strike.

* [[Strategic bomber]]s are the first leg of the triad. They have greater flexibility in their deployment and weaponry, and can be quickly deployed and recalled in response to last-minute decisions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/chabolla2/|title=US Nuclear Triad Overview|website=large.stanford.edu|access-date=2018-04-03}}</ref> Since bombers are recallable, sending them away from a potential target is a highly visible way of demonstrating to enemies and allies that a nation wants to resolve a fight, thus preventing war.<ref name=":1" /> Some disadvantages include confusion on the type of [[payload]]. Bombers can hold both nuclear and conventional weapons. During an event, an enemy could suspect that a conventionally-armed bomber was actually carrying a nuclear weapon, encouraging the enemy to attack the bomber or make a nuclear strike.<ref name=":1" /> Furthermore, bombers that are scrambled might intensify tension and arouse suspicion of an upcoming nuclear strike.<ref name=":1" /> Bombers can serve as both a first- and second-strike weapon. For example, a bomber armed with [[AGM-129 ACM]] missiles could be classified as a first-strike weapon and bombers that are classified as needing an [[aerial refueling]] aircraft to strike targets would constitute as a [[Second strike|second-strike]] weapon.<ref name="NW" /><ref name="Time" /> If dispersed in small airfields or aboard an aircraft carrier, they can reasonably avoid a counterstrike giving them regional second-strike capacity. Aircraft such as the [[Dassault Mirage 2000|Mirage 2000]], [[McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle|F-15E]], [[North American A-5 Vigilante|A-5 Vigilante]], [[Sea Harrier]], or [[FB-111]] were tasked with land or sea-based strategic nuclear attack missions. Bombers that contain an [[aerial refueling]] fleet support intercontinental strategic operations for both heavy bombers and smaller aircraft. It also makes it possible for bombers to be alert and on standby, making these airborne assets nearly impossible to eliminate in a first strike.<ref name="heritage.org" />
* [[Intercontinental ballistic missiles]] (ICBMs) allow for a long-range strike launched from a controlled environment. These missiles can also be launched, and reach targets, faster than the other legs of the triad.<ref name="heritage.org">{{Cite web |title = Time to Modernize and Revitalize the Nuclear Triad |url = http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2012/01/time-to-modernize-and-revitalize-the-nuclear-triad |website = The Heritage Foundation |access-date = 18 December 2015 |language = en-US }}</ref> On top of these advantages, ICBMs are known as the most immediate leg of the triad. It offers militaries the ability to launch a nuclear attack more quickly than the other two options.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://armscontrolcenter.org/pruning-the-nuclear-triad-pros-and-cons-of-submarines-bombers-and-missiles/|title=Pruning the Nuclear Triad? Pros and Cons of Submarines, Bombers, and Missiles – The Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation|date=2013-05-16|work=The Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation|access-date=2018-04-02|language=en-US}}</ref> If launched from a fixed, unmovable position, such as a [[missile silo]], they are vulnerable to a first strike, though their interception once aloft is [[missile defense|substantially difficult]].<ref name="NW" /><ref name="Time" /> Because firing an ICBM is an unmistakable act, they provide stronger clarity about when a country is under attack and who the attacker is. Some disadvantages of using ICBMs include weaker deterrence, compared to the other legs of the triad,<ref name=":1" /> and vulnerability. ICBMs do not contribute as much nuclear deterrence as bombers or submarines because they cannot be forward-deployed in a particular location. While they are less expensive, they are still vulnerable.<ref name=":1" /> Some ICBMs are mobile by either rail or road. [[Medium-range ballistic missile]]s and [[BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile|ground-launched cruise missiles]] were assigned to strategic targets but were eventually forbidden by an [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty|arms control treaty]] of the United States and Russia until 2019 when the United States withdrew from the treaty.<ref name="INF-Withdrawal">{{cite web|url=https://2017-2021.state.gov/u-s-withdrawal-from-the-inf-treaty-on-august-2-2019/|title=U.S. Withdrawal from the INF Treaty on August 2, 2019|date=2 August 2019|website=U.S. Department of State|access-date=22 September 2023}}</ref>

* [[SLBM|Submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs)]], launched from submarines, allow for a greater chance of survival from a first strike, giving the commander a second-strike capability.<ref name="NW" /><ref name="Time" /> Because of its low detectability, quick mobility and concealment, SLBMs are almost invulnerable at sea.<ref name=":2" /> An SLBM is the most difficult to get accurate targeting for as it requires a precise geographical fix on a target. As for the disadvantages of using these submarines, an attack on an SLBM could be from the work of uncertainty. They can be destroyed through purposeful fruition or operational accidents. These events would create confusion about whether or not this was a deliberate attack. Some long-range submarine-launched missiles are counted towards triad status.<ref name=":2" /> Total cost of maintaining SLBM could get expensive as it is increased by costs of submarine force, crew size and deterrence patrols.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="heritage.org" />
[[Tactical nuclear weapon]]s, also known as non-strategic nuclear weapons,<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/RL32572.pdf|title=Nonstrategic Nuclear Weapons|last=Woolf|first=Amy|date=13 February 2018|website=Federation of American Scientists|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060525195529/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/RL32572.pdf|archive-date=2006-05-25|url-status=dead|access-date=4 April 2018}}</ref> are used in air, land and sea warfare. Their primary use in a non-strategic war-fighting role is to destroy military forces in the battle area. But, depending on the target in today's nuclear age, they are not counted toward triad status because of the possibility that many of these systems could be used as strategic weapons. During the [[Cold War]], it was easy to point out which nuclear weapons were tactical. Each type of weapon had different capabilities that were better suited for different missions.<ref name=":4" /> [[Air-to-air missile]]s, rockets, [[surface-to-air missile]]s, small [[Air-to-surface missile|air-to-ground rockets]], bombs, and precision munitions have been developed and deployed with [[Nuclear weapon|nuclear warheads]]. Ground forces have included tactical nuclear artillery shells, surface-to-surface rockets, land mines, medium and small man-packable nuclear engineering demolition charges, and even man-carried or vehicle-mounted recoilless rifles. Naval forces have carried weapons that include nuclear-armed naval rockets, [[depth charge]]s, [[torpedo]]es, and [[Naval artillery|naval gunnery shells]].

==Triad powers==
{{see|List of nuclear triads}}
===China===
{{main|PLA Rocket Force|Xian H-6|Type 094 submarine|Type 092 submarine}}
Unlike the United States and Russia, where strategic nuclear forces are enumerated by treaty limits and subject to verification, China—a nuclear power since 1964—is not subject to these requirements. Instead, China currently has a triad structure smaller than those of Russia and the United States. China's [[People's Republic of China and weapons of mass destruction|nuclear force]] is closer in number and capability to those of France or the United Kingdom, making it much smaller than the American or Russian triads. The Chinese nuclear force consists mainly of land-based missiles, including ICBMs, IRBMs, tactical ballistic missiles, and cruise missiles. Unlike the US and Russia, China stores large numbers of its missiles in massive tunnel complexes; U.S. Representative [[Mike Turner|Michael Turner]],<ref>{{Cite web |title = U.S. Lawmaker Warns of China's Nuclear Strategy |url = http://chinadigitaltimes.net/2011/10/u-s-lawmaker-warns-of-chinas-nuclear-strategy |website = China Digital Times |date = 17 October 2011 |access-date = 18 December 2015 |language = en-US }}</ref> referring to 2009 Chinese media reports, said "This network of tunnels could be in excess of 5,000 kilometers (3,110 miles) and is used to transport nuclear weapons and forces.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.straitstimes.com/BreakingNews/Asia/Story/STIStory_723617.html |title=US worries over China's underground nuclear network |website=www.straitstimes.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016013947/http://www.straitstimes.com/BreakingNews/Asia/Story/STIStory_723617.html |archive-date=2011-10-16}}</ref> The Chinese Army Newsletter calls this system of tunnels the [[Underground Great Wall of China]].<ref>{{Cite web |work = The Chosun Ilbo |edition = English |title = China Builds Underground 'Great Wall' Against Nuke Attack |url = http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2009/12/14/2009121400292.html |access-date = 18 December 2015 |archive-date = 16 February 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200216013048/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2009/12/14/2009121400292.html |url-status = dead }}</ref> China's nuclear warheads are believed to be stored in a central storage facility and not with the launchers.<ref name=":10" />

China currently has one [[Type 092 submarine]] which is currently active with [[JL-1]] Submarine Launch Ballistic Missiles (SLBM) according to the Office of Naval Intelligence.<ref>https://fas.org/irp/agency/oni/pla-navy.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.oni.navy.mil/Intelligence_Community/china_media/2015_PLA_NAVY_PUB_Print.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=5 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420033342/http://www.oni.navy.mil/Intelligence_Community/china_media/2015_PLA_NAVY_PUB_Print.pdf |archive-date=20 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In addition, the People's Liberation Army Navy ([[People's Liberation Army Navy|PLAN]]) has deployed four newer [[Type 094 submarine]]s and plans to deploy up to eight of these Jin-class SSBN by the end of 2020.<ref name="janes.com">{{Cite web|title = US upgrades assessment of China's Type 094 SSBN fleet {{!}} IHS Jane's 360|url = http://www.janes.com/article/50761/us-upgrades-assessment-of-china-s-type-094-ssbn-fleet|website = IHS Jane's 360 |access-date = 18 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title = Home Security Systems : My Home Security |url = http://www.globalsecuritynewswire.org/gsn/nw_20111017_2472.php |website = GlobalSecurityNewswire.org |access-date = 18 December 2015 }}</ref> The newer Type 094 fleet uses the newer [[JL-2]] SLBM. The Chinese fleet carried out a series of successful JL-2 launches in 2009,<ref name="globalsecurity-2009">{{cite web |url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/china/jl-2.htm |title = JL-2 (CSS-NX-14) |author =  |publisher = [[GlobalSecurity.org]] |access-date = 28 October 2014 }}</ref> 2012<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2013_06/Pentagon-Sees-China-Progressing-on-SLBM |title = Pentagon Sees China Progressing on SLBM |last1 = Taylor |first1 = Marcus |last2 = Tamerlani |first2 = Eric |publisher = [[Arms Control Association]] |date = 3 June 2013 |access-date = 28 October 2015 }}</ref> and 2015.<ref name="gertz2015">{{cite web |last = Gertz |first = Bill |url = http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2015/feb/18/inside-the-ring-china-tests-nuclear-missile-for-su/ |title = China conducts JL-2 sub missile test |work = The Washington Times |date = 18 February 2015 |access-date = 10 March 2015 }}</ref> The United States expected the 094 SSBN to carry out its first deterrent patrol in 2015 with the JL-2 missiles active.<ref name="janes.com"/> According to Pentagon report, China began to ensure that one nuclear-armed ballistic missile submarine would always on stand by for deterrence around 2023.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/chinas-intensifying-nuclear-armed-submarine-patrols-add-complexity-us-allies-2023-04-04/ |title=Analysis: China's intensifying nuclear-armed submarine patrols add complexity for U.S., allies |website=Reuters |first1= Greg |last1=Torode |first2=Eduardo |last2=Baptista |date=4 April 2023 }}</ref>

Although there is an aged, upgraded bomber force consisting of [[Xian H-6]]s with an uncertain nuclear delivery role. The [[PLAAF]] has a limited capability fleet of H-6 bombers modified for aerial refueling as well as forthcoming Russian [[Ilyushin Il-78]] aerial refueling tankers.<ref>{{Cite web |title = HY-6 (Hongzhaji You-6) Aerial Refueling Tanker |url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/china/hy-6.htm |publisher = GlobalSecurity.org |access-date = 18 December 2015 }}</ref> China has also introduced a newer and modernized H-6 variant, the H-6K that has enhanced capabilities such as launching long ranged cruise missile the [[CJ-10 (missile)|CJ-10]]. In addition to the H-6 bomber, there are numerous tactical fighter and fighter-bombers such as the [[Shenyang J-16|J-16]], [[Chengdu J-10|J-10]], [[Xian JH-7|JH-7A]] and [[Sukhoi Su-30|Su-30]] that are all capable of carrying nuclear weapons.
It is estimated that China maintains an arsenal of about 250 nuclear warheads and that it has produced about 610 nuclear warheads since [[596 (nuclear test)|becoming a nuclear power]] in 1964. China is phasing out old liquid-fueled ballistic missiles and arming several new solid-fueled missiles. In the same estimate, it is believed that China has a small inventory of air-delivered nuclear bombs. As well as production is more than likely underway of new warheads for missiles to arm the Jin-class submarines.<ref name=":10" />

The U.S. intelligence community expects that China will increase their total number of warheads and long-range ballistic missiles from about 50 to exceed 100 in the next 15 years, this calculation has been sliding since 2001.<ref name=":10" /> Since the end of the Cold War, China is suspected to have doubled their nuclear arsenal, while the other nuclear powers under the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]] have cut their forces in half.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haynes|first=Susan Turner|date=2016|title=China's Nuclear Threat Perceptions|jstor=26271504|journal=Strategic Studies Quarterly|volume=10|issue=2|pages=25–62e}}</ref> A [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] report raises the possibility of China moving towards a more vigorous nuclear doctrine that will allow first use of nuclear weapons in times of war. While it is not expected that China will give up the current "no first use" policy in the near future, the Pentagon report raises concerns that "this issue has been and will continue to be debated in China. It remains to be seen, how the introduction of more capable and survivable nuclear systems in greater numbers will shape the terms of this debate or affect Beijing's thinking about nuclear options in the future."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Boahui|s2cid=153811484|date=2007|title=The Modernization of Chinese Nuclear Forces and Its Impacts on Sino-U.S. Relations|journal= Asian Affairs: An American Review|volume=34|issue=2|pages=87–100|doi=10.3200/AAFS.34.2.87-100}}</ref>

===India===
{{main|Strategic Forces Command|Agni (missile)|K Missile family|Sukhoi Su-30MKI|INS Arihant}}
[[File:Agni-V during its first test flight.jpg|thumb|[[Agni-V]] intercontinental ballistic missile]]
[[File:Arihant 1.svg|thumb|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']] ]]
India's nuclear weapons policy is that of "[[no first use]]" and "[[Minimum Credible Deterrence|minimum credible deterrence]]," which means that the country will not use nuclear weapons unless they are attacked first, but the country does have the capability to induce the second strike. Before 2016, India already possessed land-based ballistic missiles and aircraft that are nuclear-capable.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Davenport|first=Kelsey|date=2012|title=India Moves Closer to Nuclear Triad|journal=Arms Control Today|volume=42}}</ref> India's land-based arsenal includes the [[Prithvi (missile)|Prithvi-1]] with a range of {{convert|150 to 600|km}}, the [[Agni-V|Agni-1]] with a range of {{convert|700|km}}, the [[Agni (missile)|Agni-2]] with a range of {{convert|2,000|km}}, [[Agni (missile)|Agni-P]] with a range of {{convert|1,000 to 2,000|km}}, [[Agni (missile)|Agni-3]] with a range of 3,000, the [[Agni (missile)|Agni-4]] with a range of {{convert|3,500|km}}, and the [[Agni (missile)|Agni-5]] with a range of {{convert|7,000|km}}.<ref name=":7" /> These are all [[intermediate-range ballistic missile]]s, but the Agni-5 is an intercontinental range ballistic missile. An intermediate-range ballistic missile has a range of {{convert|3,000 to 5,000|km}} and intercontinental missiles are missiles with the ability to travel farther than {{convert|5,500|km}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/missiles|title=Worldwide Ballistic Missile Inventories {{!}} Arms Control Association|website=www.armscontrol.org|language=en|access-date=2018-04-19}}</ref> In addition, the {{convert|5,000–8000|km}} range [[Agni-V]] ICBM was also successfully tested beginning April 2012<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.livemint.com/2012/04/19224759/AgniV-test-launch-puts-India.html?atype=tp|title=Agni-V test launch puts India in select group|last=Malik|first=Aman|date=20 April 2012|newspaper=Mint|access-date=15 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120731032745/http://www.livemint.com/2012/04/19224759/AgniV-test-launch-puts-India.html?atype=tp|archive-date=31 July 2012|url-status=dead|page=3|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and entered service.<ref name="Agni-V, India's first ICBM test-fired successfully2">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Agni-V-Indias-first-ICBM-test-fired-successfully/articleshow/12726732.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121031081800/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-04-19/india/31367147_1_agni-v-mirv-payload-targetable-re-entry-vehicles|url-status=live|archive-date=31 October 2012|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|title=Agni-V, India's first ICBM test-fired successfully|access-date=26 June 2012}}</ref>

The country currently has four types of bombers that are capable of carrying nuclear bombs. Land and air strike capabilities are under the control of [[Strategic Forces Command]] which is a part of [[Nuclear Command Authority (India)|Nuclear Command Authority]]. Their inventory of aircraft includes the [[Sukhoi Su-30MKI]], [[Mirage 2000|Mirage 2000H]], [[SEPECAT Jaguar]] and [[Dassault Rafale|Rafale]], which was purchased from France.<ref name=":7" />
[[File:Dassault Mirage 2000.jpg|thumb|The [[Mirage 2000]] of the Indian Air Force is believed to be assigned the nuclear strike role, operating from Maharajpur Air Force Station]]
India completed its nuclear triad with the commissioning of {{INS|Arihant}} in August 2016, which was India's first submarine built indigenously.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/54911545.cms|title=Indigenous sub, Arihant, completes India's nuclear triad|website=The Economic Times|access-date=22 November 2016|last1=Pandit|first1=Rajat}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/indias-first-nuclear-submarine-ins-arihant-ready-for-operations-passes-deep-sea-tests/articleshow/51098650.cms|title=India's first Nuclear submarine INS ''Arihant'' ready for operation, passes deep sea test|newspaper=The Economic Times|date=2018-07-14|last1=Pubby|first1=Manu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/Politics/lvVxsu1L5GPLvD7Z5j3baJ/Nuclear-triad-weapons-ready-for-deployment-DRDO.html|title=Nuclear triad weapons ready for deployment: DRDO|date=2014-07-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140326/nation-current-affairs/article/india-close-attaining-nuclear-triad-status|title=India close to attaining nuclear triad status|date=26 March 2014|newspaper=Deccan Chronicle|access-date=26 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://freepressjournal.in/after-missile-test-india-inches-closer-to-n-triad/|title=After missile test, India inches closer to N-Triad|date=26 March 2014|newspaper=Free Press Journal|access-date=26 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-set-to-complete-N-triad-with-Arihant-commissioning/articleshow/54907081.cms|title=India set to complete N-triad with Arihant commissioning – Times of India|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=18 October 2016 }}</ref> INS ''Arihant'' is a nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine armed with 12 [[Sagarika (missile)|K-15 missiles]] with a range of {{convert|750|km}},<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-tests-new-underwater-nuclear-missile/articleshow/32694060.cms|title=India tests new underwater nuclear missile|website=The Times of India|date=26 March 2014 |access-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> which later got upgraded with [[K-4 (SLBM)|K-4]] missiles with an extended range of {{convert|3500|km}}.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Now-India-has-a-nuclear-triad/article16074127.ece|title=Now, India has a nuclear triad|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=22 November 2016|date=2016-10-17|last1=Peri|first1=Dinakar}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=India successfully test-fires underwater missile |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-successfully-testfires-underwater-missile/article4350553.ece |work=The Hindu |date=27 January 2013 |language=en-IN }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sunday-guardian.com/news/india-tests-3000-km-range-n-missile-in-secret|title=India tests 3,000 km range n-missile in secret|work=Sunday Guardian|location=London|access-date=3 March 2016|archive-date=20 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150520032940/http://www.sunday-guardian.com/news/india-tests-3000-km-range-n-missile-in-secret|url-status=dead}}</ref> In November 2017, it tested the [[BrahMos]] missile from the Sukhoi-30 MKI platform.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/brahmos-on-sukhoi-why-is-it-so-important/130648|title=BrahMos on Sukhoi: Why is it so important?|work=Times Now|date=22 November 2017 |location=India|access-date=22 November 2017}}</ref> The INS ''Arihant'' was the first [[Ballistic missile submarine|SSBN]] to be completed under India's program. The {{INS|Arighat}} is currently under sea trails. This would be the second SSBN of the three underway to be finished. 2 more improved and bigger Arihant class submarines are under construction, and that will be followed by three 13000 tonnes [[S5-class submarine]] planned.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lexisnexis.com/hottopics/lnacademic/|title=Register|url-access=registration|website=www.lexisnexis.com|access-date=2018-04-10}}</ref> After the INS ''Arihant'' was completed, India now possesses air-launched nuclear-capable cruise missiles, nuclear-missile-armed submarines and strategic aircraft with nuclear bombs and missiles.

===Russia===
{{main|Strategic Missile Troops|Long Range Aviation|Borei-class submarine|Typhoon-class submarine|Delta-class submarine}}
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Also a nuclear power, Russia inherited the arsenal of all of the former Soviet states; this consists of silo-based as well as rail and road mobile ICBMs, sea-based SLBMs, strategic bombers, strategic aerial refueling aircraft, and long-range tactical aircraft capable of carrying gravity bombs, standoff missiles, and cruise missiles. The Russian [[Strategic Rocket Forces]] have [[ICBM]]s capable of delivering nuclear warheads: silo-based [[R-36 (missile)|R-36M2 (SS-18)]], silo-based [[UR-100N|UR-100N (SS-19)]], mobile [[RT-2PM Topol|RT-2PM "Topol" (SS-25)]], silo-based [[RT-2UTTH Topol M|RT-2UTTH "Topol M" (SS-27)]], mobile [[RT-2UTTH Topol M|RT-2UTTH "Topol M" (SS-27)]], mobile [[RS-24|RS-24 "Yars" (SS-29)]] ''(Future replacement for [[R-36 (missile)|R-36]] and [[UR-100N]] missiles)''. Russian strategic nuclear submarine forces are equipped with the following SLBMs:
* [[SS-N-18|R-29R "Vysota"]], NATO name SS-N-18 "Stingray"; [[R-29RMU Sineva|RSM-54 R-29RMU "Sineva"]], NATO name SS-N-23 "Skiff"; and the [[R-29RMU2 Layner|R-29RMU2.1 "Liner"]]. These are in use with the [[Delta-class submarine]].
* [[RSM-56 Bulava|RSM-56 R-30 "Bulava"]], NATO name SS-NX-32, for the [[Borei-class submarine]]s.

The Russian [[Long Range Aviation]] operates supersonic [[Tupolev Tu-22M]], and [[Tupolev Tu-160]] bombers and the long range turboprop powered [[Tupolev Tu-95]]. They are all mostly armed with strategic stand off missiles or cruise missiles such as the [[Kh-15 (missile)|KH-15]] and the [[Kh-55 (missile family)|KH-55/Kh-102]]. These bombers and nuclear capable strike aircraft such as the [[Sukhoi Su-24]] are supported by [[Ilyushin Il-78]] aerial refuelling aircraft.

The USSR was required to destroy its stock of [[IRBM]]s in accordance with the [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty|INF treaty]].

====Soviet nuclear triad during the Cold War====
The Soviet Union developed their [[Soviet atomic bomb project|first nuclear bombs]] only a few years after the United States. The USSR entered the nuclear age in 1949 with [[RDS-1|their imitation]] of the American [[Fat Man]] plutonium implosion design. Although the Soviet Union was behind the U.S. in the years following [[World War II]] in terms of nuclear development, they soon closed the gap. By 1953, the U.S. successfully tested the world's first hydrogen bomb, [[Ivy Mike]] with a yield of about 10 MT. It was only two years later on 12 August 1955 that the Soviet Union successfully tested their own hydrogen bomb, the [[RDS-6]] (known as Joe-4 in America). In addition, the development of stealth and fighter bombers by the USSR were heavily modeled on the American counterparts, the [[B-52]] and [[B-47]].

=====ICBMs=====
The development of the ICBM (Inter-continental Ballistic Missile) was led by the Soviet Union. The first-ever mid-range ballistic missile, R-5M, was created by the Soviet Union and accepted for military purposes on 21 July 1956. This missile had a range of 700 miles with a yield of 1 MT. From its acceptance in 1956 until 1968 there were 48 launchers with R-5M ballistic missiles equipped with nuclear warheads deployed by the Soviet Union.<ref>Wade, Mark. "R-5M". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 10 April 2018.</ref>

After the creation of ICBMs and improvements on distance and accuracy had been achieved, the modernization of the Soviet nuclear arsenal was undertaken. The first "shrapnel" [[Multiple reentry vehicle|MRVs]] (Multiple reentry vehicles) were successfully tested by 1970 with the [[R-36 (missile)|R-36]] (or SS-9) ICBM, and their deployment followed the next year. This meant that a single missile would now contain multiple nuclear warheads. Further development using the R-36 heavy ICBM type created the [[R-36M]] (SS-18). MRV's evolved into [[MIRV]]s, which did not function as dispersal devices, but rather allowed independent targets for the multiple nuclear warheads. MIRV as well as single warhead R-36 ICBMS were deployed by the Soviet Union in 1975. The next generation of the Soviet ICBM was the R-36M UTTH, which increased the accuracy of the warhead and allowed for innovations that allowed the missiles to carry up to 8 warheads. The final improved generated the [[R-36M2 Voevoda]], which allowed even more accurate attacks and increased the number of warheads to 10. Some "light" ICBMs developed by the Soviet Union included the [[UR-100N]] (SS-19) and the [[MR-UR-100]] (SS-17), with lower launch weights and fewer warhead capabilities. MRVs, unlike MIRVs which allowed for independent targeting, had a downside known as the "fratricide effect", which refers to the inability to distance multiple warheads from each other, allowing the chance for the initial explosion to destroy the other warheads.<ref name="Arbatov, Alexey 2016">Arbatov, Alexey, and Vladimir Dvorkin. "SOVIET UNION." MIRVs (2016): 55.</ref>

By 1975, there were around 1600 ICBM launchers deployed by the Soviet Union. Not only did this number exceed American estimates, but the addition of MRVs and MIRVs further amplified the destructive capabilities of Soviet ICBMs. These launchers also utilized the increases in accuracy and range from the [[SS-17]], [[SS-18]], [[SS-19]] ICBM silo-based types. One final advent to the Soviet Union's development of ICBMs was the mobile-launcher [[SS-20]] type.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Odom |first1=William E. |title=The Soviet Approach to Nuclear Weapons: A Historical Review |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |date=1983 |volume=469 |pages=117–135 |doi=10.1177/0002716283469001012 |jstor=1044540 |s2cid=145322589 }}</ref>

MIRVs were not mentioned in the [[SALT I]] treaty (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) between the US and USSR in 1972, and consequently were insignificantly limited in the [[SALT II]] treaty of 1979. As a result, the increase in ICBM launchers and nuclear warheads continued by both countries. It is thought that the Soviet Union attained an advantage regarding ICBMs by the late 1970s.<ref>{{cite journal |id={{Project MUSE|241063}} |last1=Podvig |first1=Pavel |title=The Window of Vulnerability That Wasn't: Soviet Military Buildup in the 1970s—A Research Note |journal=International Security |date=2008 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=118–138 |doi=10.1162/isec.2008.33.1.118 |s2cid=57568873 }}</ref>

=====SLBMs=====
[[File:Image Submarine Golf II class.jpg|thumb|The [[Golf-class submarine|Project 629]] submarines was amongst the first to be capable of launching ballistic missiles]]
The Soviet Union also led the way in the development of the third part of the nuclear triad, [[Submarine-launched ballistic missile|SLBM]]'s. They launched the first SLBM, with an [[R-11FM]] ballistic missile in 1956, and in 1957 introduced submarines with two R-11FM's in 1957.<ref>Wade, Mark. "R-11". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 10 April 2011.</ref> However, these early submarines had to be surfaced in order to launch their missiles. It is in this aspect that the US became the leader when they deployed the first SSBN, {{USS|George Washington|SSBN-598}}, in 1959 with [[Polaris A-1]] missiles able to be launched underwater. However, the first successful underwater launch of a ballistic missile was in July 1960. It was not until 1963 that the Soviet Union was able to match the US in this regard, with an R-21 missile. There was also a considerable gap between the United States employment of MRVs and MIRVs on SLBMs to that of the Soviets, which the US had achieved as early as 1964. In 1974, the USSR deployed [[SS-N-6]], the first Soviet SSBN with shrapnel MRV nuclear warheads. Three years later, the Soviet Navy deployed their first SLBM with MIRV warheads, the [[SS-N-18]] missile<ref name="Arbatov, Alexey 2016"/>

These technologies comprise a majority of the nuclear advances made by the Soviet Union from the 1950s–1970s. As the 1980s came about, the new technology of cruise-missiles significantly altered deterrence strategies in both the US and Soviet Union. At this point, the nuclear triad maintained its importance in ensuring a second-strike capability, although this significance has waned dramatically since the end of the Cold War.

===United States===
{{summary style section|date=March 2023}}
{{main|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}

==== Nuclear triad during the Cold War (1960–1990) ====
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| footer = The elements of the US nuclear triad in the 1960s – a {{Sclass|George Washington|submarine|0}} SSBN, an [[LGM-25C Titan II]] ICBM and a [[Boeing B-52 Stratofortress|B-52G Stratofortress]] strategic bomber
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The origins of the United States' nuclear triad can be traced back to the 1960s. Its main motivation for developing the program was that the [[United States Navy|Navy]], [[United States Army|Army]], and [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] all wanted to play a role in the operation of the country's [[Nuclear weapons of the United States|nuclear arsenal]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc847627/m2/1/high_res_d/RL33640_2016Mar10.pdf|title=U.S. Strategic Nuclear Forces: Background, Developments, and Issues|last=Woolf|first=Amy|date=10 March 2016|access-date=5 April 2018}}</ref> The United States also desired the nuclear triad because it would give them a variety of platforms to deliver a deadly strike to the Soviet Union. Forcing the Soviet Union to put focus on potential attacks from the land, air, and sea would give the United States a significant advantage in terms of deterrence. Specifically, the nuclear triad was viewed as a way to complicate Soviet first strike and attack planning as well as ensure the survivability of U.S. assets.<ref name=":5" />

Throughout the 1960s, the United States steadily commissioned increasing numbers of delivery vehicles capable of carrying nuclear warheads. In 1967, the greatest number of deployment ready delivery vehicles of the decade was recorded at 2,268.<ref name=":5" /> In 1970, a significant change brought about a dramatic increase in the nuclear arsenal. The 1970s saw a large increase in delivery vehicles and warheads because of the introduction of the [[Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle|multiple independent reentry vehicle]] or MIRV, which allowed for the deployment of ICBMs and SLBMs that could carry multiple warheads.<ref name=":5" /> Up until 1990 and the [[START I|Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty]] (START) with the Soviet Union, the number of delivery vehicles possessed by the United States hovered between 1,875 and 2,200.<ref name=":5" />

[[Intercontinental ballistic missile|ICBMs]] were viewed by the United States as the means to attack hardened targets within the Soviet Union such as underground bunkers. Stored in underground silos, these long range missiles were accurate and could be fired quickly. During the Cold War, the United States maintained multiple different types of ICBMs. This portion of the triad consisted of [[Minuteman-II|Minuteman II]] missiles (single warhead), [[Minuteman-III|Minuteman III]] missiles (three-warhead), and [[LGM-118 Peacekeeper|Peacekeeper]] missiles (ten-warhead). The ICBM count for the United States in 1990 included 2,450 warheads in 1,000 ICBMs.<ref name=":5" />

In terms of submarine launched missiles, the United States utilized various classes of submarines as the delivery vehicles. Missile submarines played an especially important role in terms of strategic deterrence. These submarines were extremely hard to locate and could be positioned right off of enemy coastlines. In terms of the nuclear triad, this leg was meant to be the most survivable. The United States commissioned various classes of submarines throughout the Cold War as new improvements were made to each class. The first submarines to carry nuclear weapons were a collection of [[Regulus missile submarines|five boats]] equipped with the [[SSM-N-8 Regulus]] [[cruise missile]], which were employed in the Pacific as part of the regular strategic deterrent from 1959 to 1964. The Regulus boats were essentially a stop-gap until sufficient [[ballistic missile submarine]]s became available. Referred to as the "[[41 for Freedom]]," the {{Sclass|George Washington|submarine|5}}, {{Sclass|Ethan Allen| submarine|5}}, {{Sclass|Lafayette|submarine|5}}, {{Sclass|James Madison|submarine|5}}, and {{Sclass|Benjamin Franklin|submarine|4}}es were all commissioned between 1959 and 1967.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ssbn655.org/41-for-freedom/41-for-freedom.html|title=41 for Freedom|date=2017|access-date=6 April 2018}}</ref> These classes of submarines carried [[UGM-27 Polaris|Polaris A-1/A-2/A-3]], [[UGM-73 Poseidon|Poseidon C-3]] and [[UGM-96 Trident I|Trident C-4]] missiles. Along with the "41 for Freedom" classes, the United States also commissioned the {{Sclass|Ohio|submarine|2}}s before the Cold War's end. ''Ohio''-class submarines carried Trident C-4 and [[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident D-5]] missiles. In 1990, the United States was in possession of around 600 SLBMs and 5,216 warheads.<ref name=":5" />

Rounding out the United States' nuclear triad during the Cold War were its [[Strategic bomber|long-range bombers]]. The leg of the nuclear triad was the most versatile since bombers could be moved quickly and recalled if necessary to avoid unnecessary strikes. The U.S. bomber force during the Cold War consisted of [[Boeing B-52 Stratofortress|B-52H and B-52G Stratofortresses]], [[Rockwell B-1 Lancer|B-1 Lancers]], and the newly commissioned [[Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit|B-2 Spirits]]. By 1990, the United States possessed 94 B-52H bombers, 96 B-1 bombers, and 2 B-2 bombers, along with a total of almost 5,000 available weapons.<ref name=":5" />

==== Nuclear triad after the Cold War (1990–2010) ====
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| footer = The elements of the post-Cold War US nuclear triad: an {{Sclass|Ohio|submarine|0}} SSBN, an [[LGM-118 Peacekeeper]] ICBM, and a [[Northrop-Grumman B-2 Spirit|B-2 Spirit]] strategic bomber
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The pinnacle of the 1990s in terms of global nuclear policy was the [[START I|START]] Treaty in 1991 and the [[START II]] Treaty in 1993. These treaties called for the reduction of nuclear warheads and delivery systems within both the Soviet Union and the United States. Specifically, the U.S. was limited to 6,000 total warheads, 4,900 warheads on ballistic missiles, and 1,600 delivery vehicles.<ref name=":5" /> Consequentially, the United States began reducing both its warhead and delivery vehicle counts during this time. By the time they had completed the implementation of the START Treaty in 2001, the total warhead count was 6,196 and the total delivery system count was 1,064.<ref name=":5" /> These values continued to shrink, and by 2009 the United States reduced its warhead and delivery vehicles counts to 2,200 and 850 respectively.<ref name=":5" />

Following the Cold War, the United States continued upgrading its various types of ICBMs. [[Minuteman-II|Minuteman II]] variants were all but eliminated and continued efforts were put toward [[Minuteman-III|Minuteman III]] and [[LGM-118 Peacekeeper|Peacekeeper]] variants. In 2001, the United States possessed 500 Minuteman III missiles (three warheads each) and 50 Peacekeeper missiles (ten warheads each).<ref name=":5" />

Within its nuclear submarine fleet, the United States eliminated the usage of the "[[41 for Freedom]]" classes of ballistic missiles submarines in favor of the more versatile {{Sclass|Ohio|submarine|4}}. During the 1990s, the United States reached a total of 18 submarines within this class.<ref name=":5" /> In 2001, these 18 submarines were all deployable and could carry 24 Trident II missiles each (6 to 8 warheads on each missile).<ref name=":5" />

The United States kept up to date with its strategic bomber leg of the triad following the Cold War as well. B-52G variants were phased out in favor of B-52H classes. In 2001, 94 [[Boeing B-52 Stratofortress|B-52H]] bombers, each capable of carrying 20 cruise missiles, were active along with 21 B-2 bombers each capable of carrying 16 bombs.<ref name=":5" /> [[Rockwell B-1 Lancer|B-1]] Lancer bombers were phased out of the triad and reoriented for different missions in an effort to honor the delivery systems limitations set by the START Treaties.

==== Modern nuclear triad (2010–present) ====
The Obama Administration made clear in the 2010 Nuclear Posture Review ([[Nuclear Posture Review|NPR]]) that the United States will retain a nuclear triad for the foreseeable future.<ref name=":5" /> Each leg was still viewed as necessary because of how they strengthened each other's weaknesses and gave the United States plenty of options for a nuclear strike should one or multiple legs go down. Following the [[New START Treaty]] set into place in 2010, the United States continued reducing its numbers of warheads and delivery systems with a focus on modernizing and updating its most effective platforms. The United States has released a plan to complete its downsizing efforts in 2018, reducing its 2010 numbers of 880 delivery vehicles and 2,152 warheads to 800 delivery vehicles and 1,550 warheads.<ref name=":5" /> In their release of the 2017 [[Nuclear Posture Review|NPR]], the Trump Administration made clear that the United States supports global nuclear weapons elimination. President [[Donald Trump]] also stated his intent to keep the US safe, as well as allies and partners. Until a time where nuclear weapons are no longer needed, the Trump Administration has also stated its intent to maintain a "modern, flexible, and resilient" nuclear armada. Since the height of the [[Cold War]], the US's nuclear armada has been reduced by over 85 percent. The Trump Administration acknowledges it faces a "more diverse and advanced nuclear-threat environment than ever before."<ref>{{Cite journal|date=27 January 2017|title=Nuclear Posture Review|url=https://media.defense.gov/2018/Feb/02/2001872877/-1/-1/1/EXECUTIVE-SUMMARY.PDF|journal=Office of the Secretary of Defense|via=US Department of Defense}}</ref>

It is estimated that the US currently has around 475 [[B61 nuclear bomb|B-61]] and [[B83 nuclear bomb|B-83]] bombs. The B61-7 is carried by the B-2, whereas the B61-3, 4, and 10 are lighter and can be carried by the [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]], [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II|F-35]], and other light aircraft. These smaller bombs also yield smaller payloads due to their decreased size. The B61-11 is a more hardened bomb that can be used to destroy hardened targets such as bunkers, however it is unlikely that it can penetrate steel or concrete. The B83 is currently the largest bomb in the US arsenal. The US plans to retire it by the year 2025 after the new B61 LEP is completed.<ref name=":5" />
[[File:Columbia class.png|thumb|The {{Sclass|Columbia|submarine|0}} is planned as the United States' new SSBN, replacing the ''Ohio''-class|240px]]
[[File:Artist Rendering B21 Bomber Air Force Official.jpg|thumb|The [[Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider|B-21 Raider]]. This aircraft will serve as the new long range bomber for the United States, replacing the [[B-52H]] and [[Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit|B-2]] bombers.|240x240px]]
The United States continues to operate its [[Minuteman-III|Minuteman III ICBMs]] (three warheads each) from underground hardened silos under the command of U.S. [[Air Force Global Strike Command]]. The Peacekeeper variants were eliminated to allow for the United States to honor the reduction requirements set forth by the New START Treaty. By February 2015, the United States Air Force had deactivated all missiles of this type and filled the silos containing them with gravel.<ref name=":5" /> The U.S. Minuteman III ICBMs are spread between three Air Force bases which are [[Francis E. Warren Air Force Base]] in Wyoming, [[Malmstrom Air Force Base]] in Montana, and [[Minot Air Force Base]] in North Dakota with each of these bases in possession of 150 missiles.<ref name=":5" /><ref name= 2024Tests >Christina Stassis [https://www.defensenews.com/training-sim/2024/06/06/us-test-fires-two-unarmed-minuteman-iii-ballistic-missiles/ (6 Jun 2024) US test-fires two unarmed Minuteman III ballistic missiles]</ref> Multiple programs have been put into place and are currently in place to work on up-keeping and modernizing the United States ICBM force including the Propulsion Replacement Program, Guidance Replacement Program, Propulsion System Rocket Engine Program, Safety Enhanced Reentry Vehicle (SERV), Solid Rocket Motor Warm Line Program, Rapid Execution and Combat Targeting (REACT) Service Life Extension Program, and Fuse Replacement Programs. The Air Force plans to keep the Minuteman III program viable and updated through 2030 and is in the process of developing a potential replacement in the form of the [[Ground Based Strategic Deterrent]] (GBSD) through various companies such as [[Northrop Grumman]] and [[Lockheed Martin]].<ref name=":5" />

The ballistic missile submarine leg of the United States' nuclear triad is still robust. Currently, the SSBN fleet consists of 14 ''Ohio''-class submarines each capable of carrying 24 Trident II missiles.<ref name=":5" /> These ballistic missile submarines are based out of [[Kings Bay, Georgia|Kings Bay]], Georgia, and [[Bangor Base, Washington|Bangor]], Washington. The [[New START]] Treaty has led the United States to reduce the number of missiles carried on each submarine from 24 to 20 and these reductions have been reached in 2018. In the early 2000s, the United States possessed 18 ''Ohio''-class submarines. Following START Treaty protocol, the United States enacted various programs to reach the treaty's requirements. The Backfit Program was utilized to eliminate the submarines that still carried [[UGM-96 Trident I|Trident I]] missiles leaving the United States with ''Ohio''-class submarines that only carried [[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II]] missiles.<ref name=":5" /> This reduction led to the conversion of four [[Ballistic missile submarine|SSBNs]] to [[Cruise missile submarine|SSGNs]]. SSGNs are guided missile submarines which carry conventional Tomahawk cruise missiles. Currently, the United States plans to begin retiring the ''Ohio''-class submarines in 2027. That being said, a replacement for the ''Ohio'' class, the [[Columbia-class submarine]], is currently being developed. It was first scheduled to enter service in 2031.<ref name=":5" /> As of 2024, construction is reported to be anywhere from 12 to 36 months behind schedule.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stone |first=Mike |date=2 April 2024 |title=US Navy ship building schedules hit by supply-chain woes, labor shortages |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/us-navy-ship-building-schedules-hit-by-supply-chain-woes-labor-shortages-2024-04-02/ |access-date=4 May 2024 |website=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=LaGrone |first=Mallory Shelbourne and Sam |date=2024-03-12 |title=Supplier Problems Put Columbia Nuclear Missile Sub at Risk for 1-Year Delay |url=https://news.usni.org/2024/03/11/first-columbia-nuclear-missile-sub-at-risk-of-1-year-delay-due-to-supplier-problems |access-date=2024-05-04 |website=USNI News |language=en-US}}</ref>

The strategic bomber program for the United States still remains viable as well. [[Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit|B-2]] and [[Boeing B-52 Stratofortress|B-52H]] bombers still make up the entirety of the long range bomber force designed to deliver a nuclear payload. The [[Rockwell B-1 Lancer]] is also used for long range bombing missions. However, in 1997, it was modified to carry only conventional payloads. The B-1 Lancer is no longer used to deliver nuclear payloads. Currently, 76 B-52H bombers are maintained at bases in [[Barksdale Air Force Base]] in Louisiana, and [[Minot Air Force Base]] in North Dakota. Along with these, 20 B-2 bombers are in service at [[Whiteman Air Force Base]] in Missouri. The United States Air Force is in the process of integrating a new long range bomber, the [[Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider|B-21 Raider]], into service. This aircraft is scheduled to begin service in 2025.<ref name=":5" /> The B-21 is expected to have increased range and lower cost, though the details are classified. In 1997, the average cost of a B-2 was $737 million. The projected average cost for the B-21 Raider is $550 million per plane.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gertler|first=Jeremiah|date=7 June 2017|title=Air Force B-21 Raider Long-Range Strike Bomber|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/R44463.pdf|journal=Congressional Research Service}}</ref>

Long-Range Standoff, or [[LRSO]] weapons are another active option available to the US. Air-Launched cruise missiles (ALCM) and Advanced Cruise Missiles (ACM) are the missiles currently maintained by the Air Force. Both are carried via the B-52 bomber. The ACM's most current design gives it higher stealth capabilities than the ALCM. In 2006, the US had 1,142 ALCMs and 394 ACMs. Since then, the number of ALC missiles has been reduced to 528. By 2030, the Air Force plans to phase out the ALCM and replace them with the long range standoff (LRSO) cruise missile.<ref name=":5" />

[[United States Strategic Command]] is responsible for strategic nuclear deterrence, [[Air Force Global Strike Command|global strike]], and operating the Defense Department's [[Global Information Grid]].

By 2024 the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] had prepared an updated nuclear strategy.<ref name= nscAnnounce1 >Joe Edwards [https://www.newsweek.com/us-announce-bold-new-nuclear-strategy-1909423 (7 Jun 2024) US To Announce Bold New Nuclear Strategy]</ref><ref name=mDaltonSummary >C. Todd Lopez, DOD News [https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3910495/ (18 Sep 2024) With Two Nuclear-Armed Strategic Competitors, U.S. Modernization Top Priority] Summary of Nuclear Triad by Melissa Dalton, UnderSecretary, USAF </ref>

==Partial triad powers==

===France===
During the [[Cold War (1953–1962)|Cold War]], France obtained [[ballistic missile submarine]]s, land-based missiles, and nuclear-armed bombers. France was the fourth country to maintain a nuclear triad. In February 1960, France performed its first nuclear weapons test codenamed "[[Gerboise Bleue]]", meaning Blue Jerboa.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/frances-nuclear-arsenal-could-kill-millions-people-minutes-22056|title=France's Nuclear Arsenal Could Kill Millions of People in Minutes|last=Mizokami|first=Kyle|website=The National Interest|language=en|access-date=2018-04-10|date=2017-08-26}}</ref> In 1955, the country started Project Coelacanth, the [[Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program|naval nuclear propulsion program]].<ref name=":6" /> Their first attempt to build a nuclear ballistic missile submarine, Q.244, failed and was cancelled in 1959.<ref name=":6" /> The development of the land based reactor, PAT 1, allowed for Q.252 to be successful. The development of Q.252 led to the submarine ''Le'' {{ship|French submarine|Redoutable|S611|2}}. The French produced the Mer-Sol Balistique Strategique, or M1 MSBS, a "submarine-launched ballistic missile".<ref name=":6" /> Between 1971 and 1980, France finished their first generation of nuclear ballistic missile submarines, which included all five submarines in ''Le'' {{Sclass|Redoutable| submarine (1967)|5}} and the one ''L''{{'}}{{ship|French submarine|Inflexible|S615|2}} submarine. Of the five submarines in the ''Le Redoutable'' class, only one submarine contained an [[M2 (missile)|M-2 missile]], the ''[[Le Foudroyant]]''; The M-1 missile was put on the ''Le Redoutable'' and ''[[Le Terrible]]''; two ships contained both [[M2 (missile)|M-2 missiles]] and [[M2 (missile)|M-20 missiles]]. The ''L'Inflexible'' contained [[M4 (missile)|M4 missiles]].<ref name=":6" /> At this time, The [[Force Océanique Stratégique]], the country's submarine fleet, contained 87 percent of the country's entire nuclear weaponry.<ref name=":6" /> Between 1986 and 2010, the country began work on their second generation of nuclear ballistic missile submarines, which included the {{Sclass|Triomphant|submarine|5}}, the ''Téméraire'', the ''Vigilant'', and the ''Terrible''.<ref name=":6" /> The ''Triumphant'' class of ships contained the [[M45 (missile)|M45]] intermediate-range missile. The ''Terrible'' submarine contained the [[M51 (missile)|M51 missile]].<ref name=":6" />

====Modern capabilities====

Today, France's national security is based on [[Deterrence theory|deterrence]]. Since the Cold War, France has scaled down their weapons program; the budget for nuclear forces has been reduced from 40 percent to 20 percent; they stopped work on ground-launched ballistic missiles; nuclear testing sites have shut down; and their total ballistic missile submarine arsenal has been lowered from five to four.<ref name=france>{{Cite journal|last=Rutherford|first=Ian P.|title=NATO's New Strategic Concept, Nuclear Weapons, and Global Zero.|journal=International Journal|volume=66|pages=2}}</ref>

While France has drastically reduced its nuclear arsenal, it currently maintains approximately 300 nuclear weapons.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2018|title=Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat|journal=Arms Control Today|via=armscontrol.org}}</ref> France deploys four ''Le'' {{Sclass|Triomphant|submarine|0}} nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines ([[SSBN]]) on the Atlantic Coast. Out of the four, one is deployed at all times and the other three are on standby at all times. France is in the process of upgrading its current SLBMs to a newer model. The most recent addition to the French submarine fleet came in September 2010 in the form of {{ship|French submarine|Le Terrible|S619|2}}, which is equipped with the newer model of SLBMs. France plans to modernize the rest of its submarine fleet by 2020.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nti.org/learn/countries/france/nuclear/|title=French Nuclear Capabilities|date=March 2016|website=Nuclear Threat Initiative|access-date=24 April 2018}}</ref>{{update inline|date=February 2023}}

As far as air-capabilities are concerned, France maintains four separate fighter squadrons meant to act as a deterrence against foreign threats. There are 23 [[Dassault Mirage 2000N/2000D|Mirage 2000N]] aircraft and 20 [[Dassault Rafale|Rafale]] aircraft equipped with ASMP-air-launched cruise missiles (ALCM). The {{ship|French aircraft carrier|Charles de Gaulle||2}} aircraft carrier also maintains approximately 24 Rafale M aircraft. The Rafale M aircraft, as well as the Mirage 2000N K3 aircraft, is equipped with an upgraded [[ASMP-A]] air-launched cruise missile with a range of 500 kilometers. In February 2015, [[François Hollande|Francois Hollande]], the President of France at the time, declared that "France possesses 54 ASMP-A missiles", confirming their exact number of missiles.<ref name=":12" />

===Pakistan===
Pakistan is one of eight declared nuclear weapons states in the world. It has variety of land launched nuclear weapon capable missiles. For instance, the [[Shaheen-III|Shaheen 3]] [[Medium-range ballistic missile|(MRBM)]], [[Ababeel (missile)|Ababeel]] [[Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle|(MIRV)]] etc.

It also owns air-launched nuclear-capable missiles like the [[Ra'ad]] [[Air-launched cruise missile|(ALCM)]]. Moreover, Pakistan also has [[F 16|F-16]], [[CAC/PAC JF-17 Thunder|JF-17]], [[Mirage III]] aircraft.

Pakistan has only 1 sea-launched nuclear weapon capable missile, called the [[Babur (cruise missile)|Babur 3]], with a range of 450 km. However, it's a [[submarine-launched cruise missile]] (SLCM), not a [[submarine-launched ballistic missile]] (SLBM) as required to have a complete nuclear triad.

Pakistan can launch nukes from land, air and sea platforms but from submarines it can only deploy cruise missiles, not ballistic missiles.

==Suspected triad powers==

===Israel===
{{main|Jericho (missile)|Popeye Turbo|F-15I}}
Israel neither confirms nor denies possession of nuclear weapons as national policy. However, the existence of a nuclear force is often hinted at blatantly. Evidence of an advanced weapons program including miniaturized as well as thermonuclear devices has been presented, especially with the extensive photographic evidence given by former Israeli nuclear weapons assembler [[Vanunu|Mordechai Vanunu]] in 1986. Since the 1960s, in Dimona, they have operated a nuclear reactor and an underground plutonium-separation plant. The US Defense Intelligence Agency concluded in 1999 that Israel had produced approximately 80 warheads, and projected that their stockpile would moderately increase by 2020.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|title=Global Nuclear Weapon Inventories, 1945–2013|journal = Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|volume = 69|issue = 5|pages = 75–81|last1=Kristensen|first1=Hans M.|last2=Norris|first2=Robert S.|date=27 November 2015|doi=10.1177/0096340213501363|s2cid = 145692541|doi-access=free}}</ref> They are currently estimated to have produced enough nuclear material for 115 to 190 warheads.<ref name=":10" /> [[Israel]] has been reported in a congressional testimony by the United States Department of Defense of having aircraft-delivered nuclear weapons as early as the mid-1960s, a demonstrated missile-based force also since the mid-1960s, an IRBM in the mid-1980s, an ICBM in the early 2000s<ref name="CRS-RL30427">{{cite report|url=http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl30427.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040627015931/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl30427.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 June 2004|title=Missile Survey: Ballistic and Cruise Missiles of Foreign Countries|last=Feickert|first=Andrew|date=5 March 2004|publisher=Congressional Research Service|id=RL30427|access-date=21 June 2010}}</ref> and they are suspected of having second-strike capabilities with the arrival of the {{Sclass|Dolphin|submarine|1}} and [[Popeye (missile)#Popeye Turbo SLCM|Popeye Turbo]] submarine-launched cruise missile.

[[Nuclear weapons and Israel|Israel maintains]] an inventory of nuclear-capable fighter aircraft such as the long-range [[F-15E Strike Eagle]], [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]] and previously the [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|F-4 Phantom]], [[Dassault Mirage III]], [[Douglas A-4 Skyhawk|A-4 Skyhawk]] and the [[IAI Nesher|Nesher]]. Israel has a considerable and growing number of long-range tanker aircraft and aerial refueling capacity on its long-range fighter-bomber aircraft. This capacity was used in the 1985 long-range [[Operation Wooden Leg|conventional strike]] against the PLO in Tunisia.<ref>{{Cite web |title = Israel Air Force, Israel |url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/israel/iaf.htm |publisher = GlobalSecurity.org |access-date = 18 December 2015 }}</ref>

In a report by London's ''Sunday Times'' in June 2000, a missile test was reported. This being the only public evidence of a nuclear version of a single missile being tested off the coast of Sri Lanka.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Collina|first=Tom Z.|date=July–August 2012|title=Israel has Nuclear-Armed Sub. Report Says|jstor=23629351|journal=Arms Control Today|volume=42|issue=6|pages=34}}</ref> According to an official report that was submitted to the United States Congress in 2004,<ref name="CRS-RL30427" /> it may be that the [[Jericho (missile)|Jericho 3]] with a payload of 1,000 kg that allows Israel to have nuclear strike capabilities within the entire Middle East, Africa, Asia, Europe and almost all parts of [[North America]], as well as within large parts of [[South America]] and Northern [[Oceania]]. Israel also has a regional reach with its Jericho 2 IRBM force.

While the Persian Gulf War was beginning in 1991, Germany agreed to subsidize the sale of two ''Dolphin''-class diesel-powered submarines to Israel: there was a total of six submarines that were ordered and three have been delivered so far by the Germans.<ref name=":11" /> ''[[Jane's Defence Weekly]]'' reports that the Israeli ''Dolphin-class'' submarines are widely believed to be [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|nuclear armed]], offering Israel a [[second strike|second-strike]] capability with a demonstrated range of at least 1500 km in a 2002 test.<ref name="fas_popeye">{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/missile/popeye-t.htm|title=Popeye Turbo|date=20 June 2000|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]}}</ref><ref name="janes-20091001">{{cite news|url=http://www.janes.com/news/defence/jdw/jdw091001_1_n.shtml|title=Israel seeks sixth ''Dolphin'' in light of Iranian 'threat'|last=Ben-David|first=Alon|date=1 October 2009|work=[[Jane's Defence Weekly]]|access-date=3 November 2009}}</ref>

Israel is known to have nuclear-capable aircraft and land-base missiles, with the addition of nuclear-armed submarines this would mean that they now have a full triad of land-, air-, and sea-based nuclear delivery systems<ref name=":10" /> some of which would be invulnerable to a first strike by an enemy for the first time in their country's history. No other nation in the Middle East is known to be in possession of nuclear weapons, even though Iran, Iraq, Syria and Libya have started development programs that were never completed.<ref name=":11" />

==Other nuclear delivery systems==

[[File:USAF MMIII C5 airdrop(Oct 1974).jpg|thumb|right|Air Mobile ICBM Feasibility Demonstration—24 October 1974]]
Nuclear delivery systems are not limited to those covered in the Nuclear Triad. Other methods of delivery could include [[Space weapon|orbital weapons]], [[nuclear torpedo]] and [[Boost-glide|hypersonic glide vehicles]]. The [[Outer Space Treaty]] bans these types of weapons from outer space, stating that "the moon and other celestial bodies shall be used for peaceful purposes only."<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |last1=Ferreira-Snyman |first1=A |title=Selected Legal Challenges Relating to the Military use of Outer Space, with Specific Reference to Article IV of the Outer Space Treaty |journal=Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal |date=12 April 2015 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=487–529 |doi=10.4314/pelj.v18i3.02 |doi-access=free |hdl=10394/15837 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Although the treaty bans the use of nuclear weapons in space, technology that has already been deployed legally to space could be used in support of Earth-based nuclear weapons. [[GPS]] and other [[global navigation satellite system]]s can be used for missile and bomb guidance, and [[reconnaissance satellite]]s can be used to gather intelligence about enemies and targets.<ref name=":8" /> The existence of military assets in space increases the probability of a space-based conflict.

A [[nuclear torpedo]] is essentially a torpedo with a warhead attached to it. Russia is currently working on undersea [[nuclear torpedo]], which is referred to as the Poseidon ([[Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System|Status-6]]), according to the Pentagon.<ref name=":9">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/02/02/politics/pentagon-nuclear-posture-review-russian-drone/index.html|title=US says Russia 'developing' undersea nuclear-armed torpedo|author1=Barbara Starr |author2=Zachary Cohen|work=CNN|access-date=2018-04-10}}</ref> This thermonuclear warhead has the potential to hit any United States coast and radioactively contaminate the coastal regions.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Russia's underwater "doomsday drone": Science fiction, but real danger|last=Sutyagin|first=Igor|date=13 June 2016|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=243–246 |doi=10.1080/00963402.2016.1194617|bibcode=2016BuAtS..72d.243S |s2cid=148003388 }}</ref> The innovative missile is a concern to the [[United States]], because there is potential for the missile to not be stopped by the country's ballistic missile defenses. Initial reports of Status-6 were not confirmed, but it has now been confirmed that weapon is real and capable.

[[Boost-glide|Hypersonic Glide Vehicles]] (HGVs) are capable of containing nuclear warheads, and therefore could be used in strikes against nuclear assets. HGVs were developed to be lightweight, to travel at faster speeds, and to travel in the atmosphere. The difference between [[Intercontinental ballistic missile|ICBMs]] and HGVs is that HGVs are designed to be powered by the [[oxygen]] in the atmosphere, while ICBMs have to carry an oxidant on board (which makes them heavy). Their ability to attack fast over long distance and hide from radars enables this technology to have the potential to be used as nuclear weapons.<ref name=":9" />

== Redefining the nuclear triad ==
[[William J. Perry|William Perry]], who served as the 19th [[United States Secretary of Defense]], has spoken for the removal of the land-based missiles from the nuclear triad. Perry believes that ICBMs are turning more into liabilities than assets. Perry says it would save "considerable cost" and would prevent an accidental nuclear war. Perry had experienced a false alarm for an incoming missile which later turned out to be a computer error.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}} Perry's experience occurred 40 years ago, but similar false alarms have occurred since then, such as the [[2018 Hawaii false missile alert|2018 Hawaii False Missile Alert.]] Perry says that a major problem with ICBMs is that they cannot be recalled once launched in the event of a false alarm.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

American political scientist [[Matthew Kroenig]] has spoken against the removal of the land-based missiles leg of the nuclear triad. Kroenig writes that ICBMs offer defense from a [[pre-emptive nuclear strike]]. If the US had hundreds of ICBMs all over the US then this first attack would be a "near-insurmountable task."<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Kroenig|first=Matthew|date=Fall 2018|title=The Case for the US ICBM Force|url=https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/SSQ/documents/Volume-12_Issue-3/Kroenig.pdf|journal=Strategic Studies Quarterly|pages=19}}</ref> Kroenig writes that these ICBMs could save "millions of American lives".<ref name=":13" /> A study estimated that if the US were to keep its ICBMs, a Russian nuclear attack would result in 70 million US casualties, whereas if the US were to remove its ICBMs, that number increases to 125 million US casualties.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|last=Kroenig|first=Matthew|title=The Logic of American Nuclear Strategy|pages=Chapter 2}}</ref> Kroenig also writes that the risk of accidental launch is less than the benefit of keeping ICBMs.<ref name=":13" /> Also, Kroenig says "If ICBMs are truly expendable, then there is no reason to risk an accidental nuclear war just to avoid losing them."<ref name=":13"/>{{explain|date=May 2021}} Kroenig also writes that ICBMs are the least costly leg of the triad.<ref name=":13" /> The annual operating cost of ICBMs is $1.4 billion for ICBMs, compared to $1.8 billion for bombers and $3.8 billion for SLBMs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Congressional Budget Office|title=Approaches for Managing the Costs|pages=15–18}}</ref>

The U.S. Department of Defense defends the current triad, stating that "Without ICBMs, a conventional-only attack on the limited number of submarine and bomber bases could significantly degrade the U.S. nuclear arsenal without rising to the level of nuclear use. This significantly lowers the threshold for an attack against the U.S. homeland. Also, the Triad's diversity enables mitigation of risk if a particular leg of the Triad is degraded or unavailable."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Importance of Modernizing the Nuclear Triad |url=https://media.defense.gov/2020/Nov/24/2002541293/-1/-1/1/FACTSHEET-THE-IMPORTANCE-OF-MODERNIZING-THE-NUCLEAR-TRIAD.PDF |publisher=U.S. Department of Defense |access-date=12 February 2021 |date=November 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Fail-deadly]]
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]
*[[Mutual assured destruction]]
*[[People's Republic of China and weapons of mass destruction#Nuclear weapons|Nuclear weapons of the People's Republic of China]]
*[[India and weapons of mass destruction|Nuclear weapons of India]]
*[[Russia and weapons of mass destruction#Nuclear weapons|Nuclear weapons of Russia]]
*[[Nuclear weapons of the United States]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Nuclear triad}}

[[Category:Nuclear triad]]
[[Category:Nuclear strategy]]

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2024-10-26T12:29:25Z

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Animals & plants:
''[[Callicebus urubambensis]]'' [http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/1200343/26367059/1436028902233/PC29_Vermeer__Tello_Peruvian_Callicebus.pdf?token=avFszdrCAejBsGKOVchYp0LivCE%3D] • ''[[Ephedra foeminiea]]'' • ''[[Cyperus zumula]]'' (cat grass) • ''[[Billolivia longipetiolata]]'' • ''[[Rhinela yunga]]'' • ''[[Micropetasos burmensis]]'' • ''[[Catocala kotshubeji]]'' • ''[[Euidosomus acuminatus]]'' • ''[[Cyrtodactylus vilaphong]]''

[[S2 (meteorite)]] ([https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2408721121]) • [[Stefan Norblin]] • Update [[Tollense valley battlefield]] with [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/warriors-from-the-south-arrowheads-from-the-tollense-valley-and-central-europe/C4F6ECB759833BFD337D37ADAE564C4B] and [https://edition.cnn.com/2024/09/23/science/tollense-valley-bronze-age-battlefield-arrowheads/index.html] • {{ill|Poisk (program)|ru|Поиск (программа)}} • [[Ülker (given name)]] • [[Coronation of Napoleon as King of Italy]] ([https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/timelines/napoleons-consecration-and-coronation-in-milan-26-may-1805/], [https://one.bid/en/grafika-i-rysunek-napoleon-napoleon-przyjmuje-zelazna-korone-koronacja-na-krola-wloch-17-iii-1805-w-mediolanie-rys-jean-victor-adam-lit-c-e-p-motte-paryz-1822-1826/2233714]) • [[Carvillo Ring]] • {{ill|Anatoly Sorokin|ru|Сорокин, Анатолий Иванович}} • [[MSC Irina]] • {{ill|Semyon Gretsov|ru|Грецов, Семён Васильевич}} • [[Fire extinguishing agent]] • {{ill|Party gold|ru|Золото партии}} • [[Vopiscus Fortunatus Plempius]] • [[Burla Khatun]] • [[Rodchenkov Anti-Doping Act]] • [[France, the army, head of the army, Joséphine]] • {{ill|Hut on chicken legs|ru|Избушка на курьих ножках}} • {{ill|Decursio|pl|Decursio (wojsko)}} [[:File:Roman coins sestertius Nero countermark X Legion Gemina.jpg]] • [[Lev Gindilis]] • {{ill|Grani.ru|ru|Грани.ру}} • [[Casualties of the Russian invasion of Ukraine]] • [[Zarif Gayibov]] ([https://news.day.az/culture/1622147.html]) • {{ill|Jabbar Majnunbayov|az|Cabbar Məcnunbəyov}} • {{ill|Jamshid Amirov|az|Cəmşid Əmirov}} • {{ill|Young Reformers|ru|Младореформаторы}} • [[Aga Yusif Dadashev]] • [[Mutanjan]] ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-66470586]) • [[Rizvan Sadyrkhanov]] ([https://news.day.az/culture/1594885.html]) • [[Political opposition in Azerbaijan]] • {{ill|soused apples|ru|Мочёные яблоки}} • {{ill|Agent Mail.ru|ru|Агент Mail.ru}} • {{ill|Place of power|ru|Места силы}} • [[Anti-counterfeiting]] (from redir) • {{ill|Muscovite–Novgorodian Wars|ru|Московско-новгородские войны}} • {{ill|Moon-2015|ru|Луна-2015}} • [[Maya astrology]] • [[Asmus Remmer]] • {{ill|Russian handicrafts|ru|Русские народные промыслы}} • [[Operation Osarium]] ([https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/spain-alicante-archaeological-artifacts-seized/index.html]) • [[Death of Bruce Lee]] (from redirect, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9664576/]) • {{ill|Laziness as the Truth of Mankind|ru|Лень как действительная истина человечества}} • [[RV Prince Madog]] ([https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/titanic-warning-ss-mesaba-irish-sea-intl-scli-scn/index.html]) • {{ill|War to the châteaux, peace to the cottages|ru|Мир — хижинам, война — дворцам!}} • {{ill|Disarmament dollar|ru|Монета разоружения}} • [[Maya body modification]] [https://www.archaeology.org/issues/387-features/maya-clothing/8759-nasal-prostheses] • {{ill|Helmet of Yaroslav II of Vladimir|ru|Шлем Ярослава Всеволодовича}} [http://annales.info/rus/small/dinr_75_2_shlem.htm] • [[Soviet propaganda in the Winter War]] (Greet Us, Beautiful Finland) • {{ill|Roza Asgarova|az|Roza Əsgərova}} • {{ill|Mark Markov-Grinberg|ru|Марков-Гринберг, Марк Борисович}} («Поворот истории», «Отныне и навсегда») • ''[[De viribus quantitatis]]'' [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/apr/10/italy.books] [https://www.theregister.com/2007/04/10/magic_maths/] • ''[[The Caviar Connection]]'' • [[Gallus papyrus]] • {{ill|Adila Huseynzade|az|Ədilə Hüseynzadə}} • [[1991 Moscow rally]] ([https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/4722082]) • [[Take My Love (Plazma album)]] • [[Blue Lagoon (band)]] • [[List of duels of Alexander Pushkin]] • {{ill|Azerbaijan People's Party|az|Azərbaycan Xalq Partiyası}} • {{ill|Russian Venus|ru|Русская Венера}} • [[Primitivo Miranda]] • [[Roman cavalry helmet]] • [[Emericellipsin]] ([https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0003683820030102]) • {{ill|Magic tablecloth|ru|Скатерть-самобранка}} • [[The Tale of the First Dervish]] ([https://www.capradio.org/news/npr/story?storyid=653642391]) • {{ill|Elchin Aliyev (architect)|az|Elçin Əliyev (memar)}} • {{ill|Karvan (band)|az|Karvan (qrup)}} • {{ill|Karabakh (hotel)|az|Qarabağ mehmanxanası}} • {{ill|Ayyub Abbasov|az|Əyyub Abbasov (yazıçı)}} • [[Womenswear]] (from redir) • [[Khalilov wrench]] • [[Damir Hajiyev]] ([http://www.kaspiy.az/news.php?id=5214#.XkgOCSN7nIU]) • [[James Madsen]] (Allosaurus jimmadseni) • [[Elchin Khalilov]] • [[Hydrology of the Caspian Sea]] (sea level, evaporation) • ''[[Let the Little Children Come to Me]]'' • [[Siege of Sestus]] • {{ill|Ali bey Verdiyev|az|Əli bəy Verdiyev}} • [[Beger's operation]] • [[Wildlife of the Caspian Sea]] • {{ill|Seyran Valiyev|ru|Велиев, Сейран Сулейман оглы}} • [[Amundsen Sea Low]] • [[Mercury (Giambologna)]] • [[Thomas Taylor Hammond]] • Woolshed Company fake [[viral video]]s • [[Alexey Yablokov]] (from redir) • [[Ho-ate]] • [[Piotr Kwiatkiewicz]] • [[Touloumpakia]] • {{ill|Natalya Daryalova|ru|Дарьялова, Наталья Аркадьевна}} • [[Tupac Shakur: Before I Wake...]] • [[Wind River (2000 film)]] • {{ill|1975 Sokolniki Arena stampede|ru|Трагедия после хоккейного матча в Сокольниках}} • [[Rory of the Hills]] • [[Wilhelm Kray]] • [[Michael Mawema]] • [[Paul Grabwinkler]] • {{ill|Barge 725|ru|Баржа 725}} • [[Nike of Brescia]] • [[Draped Warrior]] ([https://books.google.pl/books?id=tUQvAAAAMAAJ&q=Wadsworth+Atheneum+spartan+warrior&dq=Wadsworth+Atheneum+spartan+warrior&hl=ru&sa=X&redir_esc=y]) • [[Angel Flight Down]] • {{ill|Natalya Bode|ru|Боде, Наталья Фёдоровна}} • {{ill|Manryu|ru|Манрю}} • Pontifical gloves [https://books.google.pl/books?id=7VDcmDeLuV4C&pg=PA620&dq=papal+gloves+john&hl=ru&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=papal%20gloves%20john&f=false] • [[LEUTX]] http://dev.biologists.org/content/early/2016/08/26/dev.134510 • [[Dance Me to the End of Love (film)]] • [[Seduced by Evil]] • {{ill|Olga Iordan|ru|Иордан, Ольга Генриховна}} • [[Jessie Cartwright]] (Radarange) • [[Nadezhda Kozhina]] • [[Kubinka (Baku)]] http://news.day.az/society/328126.html • {{ill|Credendo vides|it}} • [[Carl Schweninger]] • [[Mogente Hoard]] • {{ill|Vengerovo (meteorite)|ru|Венгерово (метеорит)}} • {{ill|Jahangir Baghirov|az|Cahangir Bağırov}} • {{ill|Pavel Mikhaylovich Plotnikov|ru|Плотников, Павел Михайлович}} • {{ill|François-Marie Firmin-Girard|fr}} (''The Japanese Toilette'') • {{ill|Madonna of the Candle|it|Madonna della Candeletta}} • [[Nikolai Kochergin]] • {{ill|Vladimir Milashevsky|ru|Милашевский, Владимир Алексеевич}} • [[Literature Encyclopedia]] (Литературная энциклопедия Френкеля) • {{ill|Megalonisos Petalion|fr}} • [[Geneleos Group]] • [[Periklis Yannopoulos]] • [[Papyrus Anastasi III]] • [[Papyrus Anastasi V]] • [[Papyrus Anastasi VI]] • [[Tuaredda beach]] • {{ill|Iosif Rapoport|ru|Рапопорт, Иосиф Абрамович}} • [[Cashmere wood]] • {{ill|Operation Eis Stoß|ru|Айсштосс}} • {{ill|Megalithic Face of Borzone|it|Volto megalitico di Borzone}} • [[Mazarin Chest]] • {{ill|Cristina Brondo|es}} • [[Qiantu K50 Event!]] • [[Andromeda (Poynter)|''Andromeda'' (Poynter)]] • {{ill|Papyrus (animated series)|fr|Papyrus (série télévisée d'animation)}} • {{ill|Yosip Tymchenko|uk|Тимченко Йосип Андрійович}} • {{ill|Nikita Mikhaylovsky|ru|Михайловский, Никита Александрович}} • {{ill|Maria Jaczynowska|pl}} • Total solar eclipse:[http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=2003JBAA..113..343M&db_key=AST&page_ind=4&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_VIEW&classic=YES] [https://books.google.ru/books?id=UOnH01tv078C&printsec=frontcover&dq=total+solar+eclipses&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=K6ANVdqqB8ztavDWgKgD&ved=0CFwQ6AEwCTgK#v=onepage&q=total%20solar%20eclipses&f=false] [https://books.google.ru/books?id=1F_zSwe9iU4C&pg=PA81&dq=total+solar+eclipse+mythology&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=X5wNVY2oENPoaNO-gtAG&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=total%20solar%20eclipse%20mythology&f=false] • [[Johann Susmann Galant]] • бювет, каптаж • [[Bernard D. Yallop]] • {{ill|Navy-style macaroni|ru|Макароны по-флотски}} • {{ill|Woman Holding a Fruit|ru|Женщина, держащая плод}} • [https://books.google.ru/books?id=mKp8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA244&lpg=PA244&dq=streets+of+broken+lights+tv+series&source=bl&ots=lW9-sz2oa0&sig=Eh0wyRSsjibc58QTSCaiBtk704Y&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=g0PeVMHVDMjUOcivgPAK&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=streets%20of%20broken%20lights%20tv%20series&f=false] • {{ill|Sobesednik|ru|Собеседник}} • {{ill|Church of the Saviour in the Wood|ru|Собор Спаса на Бору}} • {{ill|Monastery of the Elevation of the Cross (Moscow)|ru|Крестовоздвиженский монастырь (Москва)}} • {{ill|Narzan|ru|Нарзан}} • {{ill|Aydyn Garadaghly|az|Aydın Qaradağlı}} • {{ill|Franz Xaver Schönwerth|de}} ([http://www.afr.com/lifestyle/arts-and-entertainment/books/a-giant-cache-of-previously-unpublished-fairy-tales-has-been-unearthed-20150330-1lzxr8]) • [[Wickquasgeck Trail]] • [[Great Kremlin Treasure Trove]] • [[Hatun Xauxa]] • {{ill|The House of a Thousand Floors|cs|Dům o tisíci patrech}} • [[History of New Caledonia]] (from redir) • [[Brontoscopy]] (Libri fulgurales) • ''{{ill|Extrême Limite|fr}}'' • [[Huseynaga Sadygov]] • [[Bastynga]] ([http://books.google.ru/books?id=GrkvAAAAMAAJ&q=%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0&dq=%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=eAO7U5GfBYv54QSk5oDQCA&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAA]) • [[1990 Tupolev Tu-154 hijacking]] ([http://www.1sn.ru/41757.html]) • [[1980 TAC Colombia Sud Aviation Caravelle crash]] [http://sudaviation.com/?page_id=298] • [[1985 Air Mali Antonov An-24 crash]] • [[1983 Nigeria Airways Fokker F-28 crash]] • [[Arrhenius sarcophagus]] • [[Wenudjebauendjed]] • [[Sheikh el-Balad]] • [[Heresenes]] • [[Tomb of the Spectatii]] • {{ill|1977 Rossiya hotel fire|ru|Пожар в гостинице «Россия» (1977)}} • [[PS1-10afx]] • [[Vasily Komarovsky]] • [[Jack Altausen]] • [[Vasily Kubanev]] • [[Mikhail Kulchitsky]] • ''[[Raging Angels]]'' • [[Wildlife of Easter Island]] • [[Acoustoelectric domain]] • [[Acoustomagnetoelectric effect]] • [[Anti-Stokes luminescence]] • [[de Sitter group]] • [[Joule loss]] • [[Vladivostok Rostral Column]] • [[Actinide magnetism]] • [[Amorphous magnets]] • [[Dingle temperature]] • [[Dion (particle)]] • [[Doppleron]] • [[Doring–Volmer–Frenkel–Zeldovich–Kagan theory]] • [[Bean–Rodbell model]] • [[Holohedry]] • [[Libron]] • [[Lorentz lemma]] • [[Lorentz–Dirac equation]] • [[Jourdain principle]] • [[Light-induced drift]] • [[Quasi-coordinates]] • [[Nottingham effect]] • [[Cowling number]] • [[spin Hamiltonian]] • [[Spin–phonon coupling]] • [[Spin superfluidity]] • [[Vacansion]] • [[Kapitza law]] • [[Kapitza temperature jump]] • [[Gerasimov–Drell–Hearn sum rule]] • [[X-ray emulsion chamber]] • [[Urea electrolysis]] • [[Defecton]] • [[Sadovsky effect]] • [[Impuriton]] • [[Debuncher]] • [[Geomagnetic trap]] • [[Pomeranchuk theorem]] • [[Sensibilized luminescence]] • [[Ferroelectric semiconductor]] • [[Heterolaser]] • [[Sasaki–Shibuya effect]] • [[Self-defocusing]] • [[Self-induced transparency]] • [[Shilnikov criterion]] • [[Davydov splitting]] • [[Gravitational paradox]] • [[Edera (TV series)]] • [[Gyrotropy]] • [[Gorodok (TV program)]] • [[Krupp Raumer S]] • {{ill|A Knight at the Crossroads|ru|Витязь на распутье}} • [[Magnetic field freezing-in]] • [[Transport in Baku]] - phaetons [http://www.trend.az/life/socium/1164286.html] [http://news.day.az/society/51765.html] [http://www.trend.az/life/history/1564811.html] • for the History of asthma: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2892047/] [https://books.google.ru/books?id=-K_1Vew6tdwC&pg=PA24&dq=history+of+asthma+greek&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=4gg6VfrkM8LcywO0iIC4AQ&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=history%20of%20asthma%20greek&f=false] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6757243]

List of nuclear triads

2024-10-26T12:28:40Z

Brandmeister: ←Created page with 'The following list of currently deployed nuclear triads includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). Where available, the names and number of nuclear warheads are given. The list excludes non-strategic (tactical) nuclear weapons and the partial nuclear triad of France and Pakistan. The United States and Rus...'

The following list of currently deployed [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). Where available, the names and number of nuclear [[warheads]] are given. The list excludes [[Tactical nuclear weapon|non-strategic (tactical) nuclear weapons]] and the [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]].

The United States and Russia, previously Soviet Union, have been wielding their nuclear triads since the 1960s. India completed its nuclear triad in 2018<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/indias-second-nuclear-powered-submarine-ins-arighaat-commissioned/article68581283.ece|title=INS Arighaat, India’s second nuclear ballistic missile submarine, commissioned into service |publisher=[[The Hindu]]| author=Dinakar Peri| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref> and China in 2020.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://chinapower.csis.org/china-nuclear-weapons/|title=How is China Modernizing its Nuclear Forces?|publisher=[[Center for Strategic and International Studies]]| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|[[ICBM]]
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|[[SLBM]]
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
| 1920<ref name="rbk">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/25/11/2023/655f958a9a7947b548382147|title=Каким ядерным оружием обладают западные страны|publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=25 November 2023| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Of them 1511 W76-1, 384 W88 and 25 W76-2.<ref name="rbk"/>}}
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|[[ALCM]]
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|[[Unguided bomb]]
|{{n/a}}
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|Ground silo / [[transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]{{efn|Expected to be replaced by [[RS-28 Sarmat]].}}
|ICBM
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarines]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|ALCM
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-5]]
|ICBM
|Ground silo
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-16]]
|MRBM
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-41]]
|ICBM
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher, rail mobile
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|3–10 (for the JL-3)<ref>{{cite web | url =https://nipp.org/information_series/mark-b-schneider-the-chinese-nuclear-threat-no-599-september-26-2024/#_edn51|title=The Chinese Nuclear Threat|author=Mark B. Schneider|publisher=National Institute for Public Policy| date=2024| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>
|[[Type 094 submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
| [[DF-21]]{{efn|Reportedly, China also possesses [[CJ-10K]] and [[CJ-20]] nuclear-capable [[ALCM]]s, as well as nuclear-capable [[YJ-21]] [[ALBM]] delivered by [[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6K]].<ref>{{cite journal | url =https://nipp.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Analysis-Schneider-4.3.pdf|title=China's nuclear delivery vehicles|author=Mark B. Schneider|journal=Journal of Policy & Strategy|volume=4|issue=3|publisher=National Institute for Public Policy| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>}}
| MRBM
|[[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6N]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|~20<ref name="BAS">{{cite journal | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1533162?needAccess=true&page=3|author=Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda|title=Indian nuclear forces, 2018|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists| volume=74|issue=6|date=2018| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|{{n/a}}
|Transporter erector launcher/ rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|{{n/a}}
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|~24<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
| ~4<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Sukanya-class patrol vessel|''Sukanya''-class patrol vessels]]
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|12<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|Classified 20-[[kiloton|kt]] bomb
|Unguided bomb
|~16<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|-
|?
|Unguided and [[laser guided bomb]]s
|~32<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[SEPECAT Jaguar]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

[[Category:Lists of weapons]] [[Category:Nuclear technology-related lists]] [[Category:Nuclear weapons]]

User:Brandmeister/sandbox

2024-10-26T11:21:40Z

Brandmeister:

The following list of currently deployed [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). Where available, the names and number of nuclear [[warheads]] are given. The list excludes [[Tactical nuclear weapon|non-strategic (tactical) nuclear weapons]], the [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]], as well as [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|unconfirmed nuclear triad of Israel]].

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|[[ICBM]]
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|[[SLBM]]
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
| 1920<ref name="rbk">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/25/11/2023/655f958a9a7947b548382147|title=Каким ядерным оружием обладают западные страны|publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=25 November 2023| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Of them 1511 W76-1, 384 W88 and 25 W76-2.<ref name="rbk"/>}}
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|[[ALCM]]
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|[[Unguided bomb]]
|{{n/a}}
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|Ground silo / [[transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]{{efn|Expected to be replaced by [[RS-28 Sarmat]].}}
|ICBM
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarines]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|ALCM
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-5]]
|ICBM
|Ground silo
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-16]]
|MRBM
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-41]]
|ICBM
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher, rail mobile
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|3–10 (for the JL-3)
|[[Type 094 submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
| [[DF-21]]{{efn|Reportedly, China also possesses [[CJ-10K]] and [[CJ-20]] nuclear-capable [[ALCM]]s, as well as nuclear-capable [[YJ-21]] [[ALBM]] delivered by [[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6K]].<ref>{{cite journal | url =https://nipp.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Analysis-Schneider-4.3.pdf|title=China's nuclear delivery vehicles|author=Mark B. Schneider|journal=Journal of Policy & Strategy|volume=4|issue=3|publisher=National Institute for Public Policy| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>}}
| MRBM
|[[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6N]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|~20<ref name="BAS">{{cite journal | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1533162?needAccess=true&page=3|author=Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda|title=Indian nuclear forces, 2018|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists| volume=74|issue=6|date=2018| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|{{n/a}}
|Transporter erector launcher/ rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|{{n/a}}
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|~24<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
| ~4<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Sukanya-class patrol vessel|''Sukanya''-class patrol vessels]]
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|12<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|Classified 20-[[kiloton|kt]] bomb
|Unguided bomb
|~16<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|-
|
|Unguided and [[laser guided bomb]]s
|~32<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[SEPECAT Jaguar]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

User:Brandmeister/sandbox

2024-10-26T10:28:44Z

Brandmeister:

The following list of currently deployed [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). Where available, the names and number of nuclear [[warheads]] are given. The list excludes [[Tactical nuclear weapon|non-strategic (tactical) nuclear weapons]], the [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]], as well as [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|unconfirmed nuclear triad of Israel]].

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|[[ICBM]]
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|[[SLBM]]
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
| 1920<ref name="rbk">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/25/11/2023/655f958a9a7947b548382147|title=Каким ядерным оружием обладают западные страны|publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=25 November 2023| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Of them 1511 W76-1, 384 W88 and 25 W76-2.<ref name="rbk"/>}}
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|[[ALCM]]
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|[[Unguided bomb]]
|{{n/a}}
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|Ground silo / [[transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]{{efn|Expected to be replaced by [[RS-28 Sarmat]].}}
|ICBM
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarines]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|ALCM
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-5]]
|ICBM
|Ground silo
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-16]]
|MRBM
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-41]]
|ICBM
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher, rail mobile
|-
|[[DF-45]]
|
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|[[Type 094 submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
| [[DF-21]]{{efn|Reportedly, China also possesses [[CJ-10K]] and [[CJ-20]] nuclear-capable [[ALCM]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | url =https://nipp.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Analysis-Schneider-4.3.pdf|title=China's nuclear delivery vehicles|author=Mark B. Schneider|journal=Journal of Policy & Strategy|volume=4|issue=3|publisher=National Institute for Public Policy| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>}}
| MRBM
|[[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6N]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|~20<ref name="BAS">{{cite journal | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1533162?needAccess=true&page=3|author=Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda|title=Indian nuclear forces, 2018|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists| volume=74|issue=6|date=2018| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|{{n/a}}
|Transporter erector launcher/ rail mobile
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|{{n/a}}
|Transporter erector launcher / rail mobile
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|~24<ref name="BAS"/>
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
| ~4<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Sukanya-class patrol vessel|''Sukanya''-class patrol vessels]]
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|12<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|Classified 20-[[kiloton|kt]] bomb
|Unguided bomb
|~16<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|-
|
|Unguided and [[laser guided bomb]]s
|~32<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[SEPECAT Jaguar]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

User:Brandmeister/sandbox

2024-10-26T09:53:41Z

Brandmeister:

The following list of currently deployed [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). Where available, the names and number of nuclear [[warheads]] are given. The list excludes [[Tactical nuclear weapon|non-strategic tactical nuclear weapons]], the [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]], as well as [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|unconfirmed nuclear triad of Israel]].

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|[[ICBM]]
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|[[SLBM]]
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
| 1920<ref name="rbk">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/25/11/2023/655f958a9a7947b548382147|title=Каким ядерным оружием обладают западные страны|publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=25 November 2023| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Of them 1511 W76-1, 384 W88 and 25 W76-2.<ref name="rbk"/>}}
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|[[ALCM]]
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|[[Unguided bomb]]
|{{n/a}}
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|Ground silo / [[transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]{{efn|Expected to be replaced by [[RS-28 Sarmat]].}}
|ICBM
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarines]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|ALCM
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-5]]
|ICBM
|Ground silo
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-16]]
|MRBM
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-41]]
|ICBM
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher, rail-mobile
|-
|[[DF-45]]
|
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|
|[[Type 094 submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
| [[DF-21]]{{efn|Reportedly, China also possesses [[CJ-10K]] and [[CJ-20]] nuclear-capable [[ALCM]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | url =https://nipp.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Analysis-Schneider-4.3.pdf|title=China's nuclear delivery vehicles|author=Mark B. Schneider|journal=Journal of Policy & Strategy|volume=4|issue=3|publisher=National Institute for Public Policy| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>}}
| MRBM
|[[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6N]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|~20<ref name="BAS">{{cite journal | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1533162?needAccess=true&page=3|author=Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda|title=Indian nuclear forces, 2018|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists| volume=74|issue=6|date=2018| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>
|
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|
|
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|
|
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|~24<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
| ~4<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Sukanya-class patrol vessel|''Sukanya''-class patrol vessels]]
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|12<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|~16<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|~32<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[SEPECAT Jaguar]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

User:Brandmeister/sandbox

2024-10-26T09:45:49Z

Brandmeister:

The following list of currently deployed [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). Where available, the names and number of nuclear [[warheads]] are given. The list excludes [[tactical nuclear weapons]], the [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]], as well as [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|unconfirmed nuclear triad of Israel]].

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|[[ICBM]]
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|[[SLBM]]
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
| 1920<ref name="rbk">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/25/11/2023/655f958a9a7947b548382147|title=Каким ядерным оружием обладают западные страны|publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=25 November 2023| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Of them 1511 W76-1, 384 W88 and 25 W76-2.<ref name="rbk"/>}}
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|[[ALCM]]
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|[[Unguided bomb]]
|{{n/a}}
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|Ground silo / [[transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]{{efn|Expected to be replaced by [[RS-28 Sarmat]].}}
|ICBM
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarines]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|ALCM
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-5]]
|ICBM
|Ground silo
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-16]]
|MRBM
|Transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-41]]
|ICBM
|
|-
|[[DF-45]]
|
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|
|
|[[Type 094 submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
| [[DF-21]]{{efn|Reportedly, China also possesses [[CJ-10K]] and [[CJ-20]] nuclear-capable [[ALCM]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | url =https://nipp.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Analysis-Schneider-4.3.pdf|title=China's nuclear delivery vehicles|author=Mark B. Schneider|journal=Journal of Policy & Strategy|volume=4|issue=3|publisher=[[National Institute for Public Policy]]| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>}}
| MRBM
|[[Xi'an H-6|Xi'an H-6N]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|~20<ref name="BAS">{{cite journal | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1533162?needAccess=true&page=3|author=Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda|title=Indian nuclear forces, 2018|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists| volume=74|issue=6|date=2018| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>
|
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|
|
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|
|
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|~24<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
|
| ~4<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Sukanya-class patrol vessel|''Sukanya''-class patrol vessels]]
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|
|12<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|
|~16<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|
|~32<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[SEPECAT Jaguar]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

User:Brandmeister/sandbox

2024-10-26T09:02:06Z

Brandmeister:

The following list of currently deployed [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). Where available, the names and number of nuclear [[warheads]] are given. The list excludes [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]], as well as [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|unconfirmed nuclear triad of Israel]].

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|[[ICBM]]
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|[[SLBM]]
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
| 1920<ref name="rbk">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/25/11/2023/655f958a9a7947b548382147|title=Каким ядерным оружием обладают западные страны|publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=25 November 2023| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Of them 1511 W76-1, 384 W88 and 25 W76-2.<ref name="rbk"/>}}
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|[[ALCM]]
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|[[Unguided bomb]]
|{{n/a}}
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|Ground silo / [[transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]{{efn|Expected to be replaced by [[RS-28 Sarmat]].}}
|ICBM
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarines]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|ALCM
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-5]]
|ICBM
|
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|
|-
|[[DF-16]]
|MRBM
|
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|
|-
|[[DF-41]]
|ICBM
|
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|
|
|[[Type 094 submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|
|
|
|[[Xi'an H-6]]{{efn|Additionally, the [[JH-7]], [[J-15]] and [[J-16]] fighter planes can be armed with [[tactical nuclear]] warheads to strike ground targets and submarines.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://indsr.org.tw/uploads/enindsr/files/202206/da91a09f-0a2b-4dad-bf71-b18e1f332796.pdf|title=China’s Nuclear Triad: Delivery Capabilities of New-Generation Strategic Nuclear Forces|author=Tzu-Yun Su|publisher=[[Institute for National Defense and Security Research]]| accessdate =26 October 2024}}</ref>}}
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|
|~20<ref name="BAS">{{cite journal | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1533162?needAccess=true&page=3|author=Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda|title=Indian nuclear forces, 2018|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists| volume=74|issue=6|date=2018| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>
|
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~24<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
|
| ~4<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Sukanya-class patrol vessel|''Sukanya''-class patrol vessels]]
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|
|12<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|
|~16<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|
|~32<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[SEPECAT Jaguar]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

User:Brandmeister/sandbox

2024-10-26T08:25:21Z

Brandmeister:

The following list of currently deployed [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). The list excludes [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]], as well as [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|unconfirmed nuclear triad of Israel]].

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|[[ICBM]]
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|[[SLBM]]
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
| 1920<ref name="rbk">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/25/11/2023/655f958a9a7947b548382147|title=Каким ядерным оружием обладают западные страны|publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=25 November 2023| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Of them 1511 W76-1, 384 W88 and 25 W76-2.<ref name="rbk"/>}}
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|[[ALCM]]
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|[[Unguided bomb]]
|{{n/a}}
|{{n/a}}
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|Ground silo / [[transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]{{efn|Expected to be replaced by [[RS-28 Sarmat]].}}
|ICBM
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarines]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|ALCM
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|
|
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|
|
|[[Jin-class submarine|''Jin''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|
|
|
|[[Xi'an H-6]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|
|~20<ref name="BAS">{{cite journal | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1533162?needAccess=true&page=3|author=Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda|title=Indian nuclear forces, 2018|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists| volume=74|issue=6|date=2018| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>
|
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~24<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
|
| ~4<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Sukanya-class patrol vessel|''Sukanya''-class patrol vessels]]
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|
|12<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|
|~16<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|
|~32<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[SEPECAT Jaguar]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

User:Brandmeister/sandbox

2024-10-25T21:27:53Z

Brandmeister:

The following list of modern [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). The list excludes [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]], as well as [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|unconfirmed nuclear triad of Israel]].

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|[[ICBM]]
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|[[SLBM]]
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
| 1920<ref name="rbk">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/25/11/2023/655f958a9a7947b548382147|title=Каким ядерным оружием обладают западные страны|publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=25 November 2023| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Of them 1511 W76-1, 384 W88 and 25 W76-2.<ref name="rbk"/>}}
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|[[ALCM]]
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|[[Unguided bomb]]
|–
|–
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|Ground silo / [[transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]
|ICBM
|
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo / transporter erector launcher
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarines]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|ALCM
|
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|
|
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|
|
|[[Jin-class submarine|''Jin''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|
|
|
|[[Xi'an H-6]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|
|~20<ref name="BAS">{{cite journal | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1533162?needAccess=true&page=3|author=Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda|title=Indian nuclear forces, 2018|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists| volume=74|issue=6|date=2018| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>
|
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~24<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
|
| ~4<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Sukanya-class patrol vessel|''Sukanya''-class patrol vessels]]
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|
|12<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|
|~16<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|
|~32<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[SEPECAT Jaguar]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

User:Brandmeister/sandbox

2024-10-25T21:20:32Z

Brandmeister:

The following list of modern [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). The list excludes [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]], as well as [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|unconfirmed nuclear triad of Israel]].

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|[[ICBM]]
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|[[SLBM]]
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
| 1920<ref name="rbk">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/25/11/2023/655f958a9a7947b548382147|title=Каким ядерным оружием обладают западные страны|[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=25 November 2023| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Of them 1511 W76-1, 384 W88 and 25 W76-2.<ref name="rbk"/>}}
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|[[ALCM]]
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|[[Unguided bomb]]
|–
|–
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|[[Transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]
|ICBM
|
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarines]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|ALCM
|
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|
|
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|
|
|[[Jin-class submarine|''Jin''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|
|
|
|[[Xi'an H-6]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|
|~20<ref name="BAS">{{cite journal | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1533162?needAccess=true&page=3|author=Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda|title=Indian nuclear forces, 2018|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists| volume=74|issue=6|date=2018| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>
|
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~24<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
|
| ~4<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Sukanya-class patrol vessel|''Sukanya''-class patrol vessels]]
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|
|12<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|
|~16<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|
|~32<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[SEPECAT Jaguar]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

User:Brandmeister/sandbox

2024-10-25T20:34:51Z

Brandmeister:

The following list of modern [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). The list excludes [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]], as well as [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|unconfirmed nuclear triad of Israel]].

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|[[ICBM]]
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|[[SLBM]]
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|[[ALCM]]
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|[[Unguided bomb]]
|–
|–
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|[[Transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]
|ICBM
|
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarines]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]s
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|ALCM
|
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|
|
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|
|
|[[Jin-class submarine|''Jin''-class submarines]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|
|
|
|[[Xi'an H-6]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|
|~20<ref name="BAS">{{cite journal | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1533162?needAccess=true&page=3|author=Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda|title=Indian nuclear forces, 2018|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists| volume=74|issue=6|date=2018| accessdate =25 October 2024}}</ref>
|
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|
|~8<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~24<ref name="BAS"/>
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
|
| ~4<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Sukanya-class patrol vessel|''Sukanya''-class patrol vessels]]
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|
|12<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|
|~16<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|
|~32<ref name="BAS"/>
|[[SEPECAT Jaguar]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

User:Brandmeister/sandbox

2024-10-25T20:08:42Z

Brandmeister:

The following list of modern [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). The list excludes [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]], as well as [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|unconfirmed nuclear triad of Israel]].

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|ICBM
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|SLBM
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarine]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|ALCM
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|Unguided bomb
|–
|–
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|[[Transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]
|ICBM
|
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarine]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|[[ALCM]]
|
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|
|
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|
|
|[[Jin-class submarine|''Jin''-class submarine]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|
|
|
|[[Xi'an H-6]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|
|~20
|
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~8
|
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|
|~8
|
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~24
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
| [[Prithvi (missile)#Dhanush (missile)|Dhanush]]
| SLBM
|
| ~4
|
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|
|12
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|[[Aerial bomb]]
|
|~16
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

User:Brandmeister/sandbox

2024-10-25T19:49:16Z

Brandmeister:

The following list of modern [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). The list excludes [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]], as well as [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|unconfirmed nuclear triad of Israel]].

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|ICBM
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|SLBM
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarine]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|ALCM
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|Unguided bomb
|–
|–
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|[[Transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]
|ICBM
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarine]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|[[ALCM]]
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|
|
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|
|[[Jin-class submarine|''Jin''-class submarine]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|
|
|[[Xi'an H-6]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|
|~20
|
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~8
|
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|
|~8
|
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~24
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|12
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|[[Aerial bomb]]
|~16
|[[Dassault Mirage 2000#Mirage 2000E|Dassault Mirage 2000H]]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

User:Brandmeister/sandbox

2024-10-25T19:36:15Z

Brandmeister:

The following list of modern [[nuclear triad]]s includes all four countries known to possess them (United States, Russia, China and India). The list excludes [[Force de dissuasion|partial nuclear triad of France]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]], as well as [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|unconfirmed nuclear triad of Israel]].

==United States==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[LGM-30G Minuteman III]]
|ICBM
|[[W78]] / [[W87]]<ref name="nmh">{{cite web | url =https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/NMHB2020rev/chapters/chapter3.html|title=Nuclear Delivery Systems|work=Nuclear Matters Handbook|publisher=Acquisition & Sustainment Office of the Under Secretary of Defense| date=2020| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|400<ref name="defense">{{cite web | url =https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Experience/Americas-Nuclear-Triad/|title=America’s Nuclear Triad|publisher=[[Department of Defense]]| date=| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>{{efn|If authorized by the [[President of the United States|President]], Minuteman III could carry up to two additional warheads.<ref name="nmh"/>}}
|[[Missile launch facility|Ground silo]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[UGM-133 Trident II|Trident II D5]]
|SLBM
|[[W76|W76-0/1/2]], [[W88]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|
|[[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarine]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[AGM-86B|AGM-86B/C/D]]
|ALCM
|[[W80-1]]<ref name="nmh"/>
|
|[[B-52H Stratofortress]]
|-
|[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61-7/11]], [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83-1]]
|Nuclear bomb
|–
|–
|[[B-2A Spirit]]
|}

==Russia==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of Russia}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RS-24 Yars]]
|ICBM
|772<ref name="rbc">{{cite web | url =https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/12/2023/656dd0409a794774eb6ac706|title=Какое ядерное оружие есть у России и США. Инфографика |publisher=[[RBK Group]]| language=Russian|date=5 December 2023| accessdate =24 October 2024}}</ref>
|[[Transporter erector launcher]]
|-
|[[RS-20V Voyevoda]]
|ICBM
|340<ref name="rbc"/>
|Ground silo
|-
|[[RT-2PM2 Topol-M]]
|ICBM
|78<ref name="rbc"/>
|
|-
|[[Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)|Avangard missile complex]]
|ICBM
|7<ref name="rbc"/>
|
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|SLBM
|576<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Borei-class submarine|''Borei''-class submarine]]
|-
|[[R-29RMU Sineva]] / [[R-29RMU2 Layner|Layner]]
|SLBM
|320<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Delta III-class submarine]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Kh-55]], [[Kh-102]]
|[[ALCM]]
|448<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-95MS]]
|-
|Kh-55, Kh-102
|ALCM
|132<ref name="rbc"/>
|[[Tupolev Tu-160]]
|}

==China==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of China}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[DF-15]]
|[[SRBM]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[DF-21|DF-21 Mod 6]]
|[[MRBM]]
|
|
|Mobile launcher
|-
|[[DF-26]]
|[[IRBM]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[DF-31AG]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[JL-2]], [[JL-3]]
|SLBM
|
|[[Jin-class submarine|''Jin''-class submarine]]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|
|
|[[Xi'an H-6]]
|}

==India==
{{see|Nuclear weapons of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Land
! Weapon
! Type
! Warhead
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Agni-I]]
|SRBM
|
|~20
|
|-
|[[Agni-II]]
|SRBM
|
|~8
|
|-
|[[Agni-III]]
|IRBM
|
|~8
|
|-
|[[Agni-IV]]
|IRBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Agni-V]]
|ICBM
|
|
|
|-
|[[Prithvi-II]]
|
|
|~24
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Sea
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|[[Sagarika (missile)|Sagarika (K-15)]]
|SLBM
|
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Air
! Weapon
! Type
! Number of warheads
! Delivery
|-
|
|Unguided bomb
|
|[[INS Arihant|INS ''Arihant'']], [[INS Arighat|INS ''Arighat'']]
|}

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of states with nuclear weapons]]

Prithvi-II

2024-10-25T19:35:58Z

Brandmeister: ←Redirected page to Prithvi (missile)#Prithvi II

#REDIRECT[[Prithvi (missile)#Prithvi II]]