https://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=CehilizmWikipedia - User contributions [en]2024-11-15T23:27:23ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.3https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Last_universal_common_ancestor&diff=1251867791Last universal common ancestor2024-10-18T15:05:40Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
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<div>{{Short description|Most recent common ancestor of all current life on Earth}}<br />
{{good article}}<br />
{{Redirect|LUCA|other uses|Luca (disambiguation){{!}}Luca}}<br />
{{use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}<br />
[[File:Phylogenetic tree of life 1990 LUCA.svg|thumb|upright=1.75|[[Phylogenetic tree]] linking all major groups of living organisms, namely the [[Bacteria]], [[Archaea]], and [[Eukaryote|Eukarya]], as proposed by Woese et al 1990,<ref name="Woese Kandler Wheelis 1990"/> with the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) shown at the root]]<br />
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The '''last universal common ancestor''' ('''LUCA''') is the hypothesized common ancestral [[Cell (biology)|cell]] from which the [[Three-domain system|three domains of life]],<!--<ref name="Woese Kandler Wheelis 1990"/>--> the [[Bacteria]], the [[Archaea]], and the [[Eukarya]] originated. The cell had a [[lipid bilayer]]; it possessed the [[genetic code]] and [[ribosome]]s which [[Translation (biology)|translated]] from [[DNA]] or [[RNA]] to [[protein]]s. The LUCA probably existed at latest 3.6 billion years ago, and possibly as early as 4.3 billion years ago<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moody |first1=Edmund |last2=Álvarez-Carretero |first2=Sandra |last3=Mahendrarajah |first3=Tara |title=The nature of the last universal common ancestor and its impact on the early Earth system |journal=[[Nature Ecology and Evolution]] |date=12 July 2024 |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=1654–1666 |doi=10.1038/s41559-024-02461-1 |doi-access=free |pmid=38997462 |pmc=11383801 }}</ref> or earlier. The nature of this point or stage of divergence remains a topic of research.<!--<ref name="Harold_2014"/>--><br />
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All earlier forms of life preceding this divergence and all extant organisms are generally thought to share [[common ancestry]]. On the basis of a formal statistical test, this theory of a universal common ancestry (UCA) is supported versus competing multiple-ancestry hypotheses.<!--<ref name="Theobald-2010"/>--> The [[first universal common ancestor]] (FUCA) is a hypothetical non-cellular ancestor to LUCA and other now-extinct sister lineages.<br />
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Whether the genesis of [[virus]]es falls before or after the LUCA–as well as the diversity of extant viruses and their hosts–remains a subject of investigation.<br />
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While no fossil evidence of the LUCA exists, the detailed biochemical similarity of all current life (divided into the three domains) makes its existence widely accepted by biochemists. Its characteristics can be inferred from [[phylogenetic bracketing|shared features of modern genomes]]. These genes describe a complex life form with many [[co-adapted]] features, including [[transcription (biology)|transcription]] and [[translation (biology)|translation]] mechanisms to convert information from [[DNA]] to [[mRNA]] to [[protein]]s.<br />
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== Historical background ==<br />
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{{further|Tree of life (biology)}}<br />
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[[File:Darwin Tree 1837.png|thumb|upright|A [[Tree of life (biology)|tree of life]], like this one from [[Charles Darwin]]'s notebooks {{circa|July&nbsp;1837}}, implies a single common ancestor at its root (labelled "1").]]<br />
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A [[phylogenetic tree]] directly portrays the idea of [[evolution]] by [[common descent|descent from a single ancestor]]<!-- at the root of the tree-->.<ref name="Gregory 2008">{{cite journal |last=Gregory |first=T. Ryan |year=2008 |title=Understanding evolutionary trees |journal=Evolution: Education and Outreach |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–137 |doi=10.1007/s12052-008-0035-x|s2cid=15488906 |doi-access=free }}</ref><!-- <ref name="Baum Smith Donovan 2005">{{cite journal |last=Baum |first=David A. |last2=Smith |first2=Stacey DeWitt |last3=Donovan |first3=Samuel S. S. |title=The Tree-Thinking Challenge |journal=Science |volume=310 |issue=5750 |date=2005 |doi=10.1126/science.1117727 |pages=979–980}}</ref> --> An early tree of life was sketched by [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] in his ''[[Philosophie zoologique]]'' in 1809.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lamarck |first=Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet de |author-link=Jean-Baptiste Lamarck |title=Philosophie zoologique |orig-date=1809 |year=1994 |location=Paris |page=737 <!-- |oclc=31599154 --> |url=https://ia801004.us.archive.org/28/items/LamarckPZ/Lamarck_PZ.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Noble |first=Denis |author-link=Denis Noble |date=1 July 2020 |title=Editorial: Charles Darwin, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, and 21st&nbsp;century arguments on the fundamentals of biology |journal=Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology |volume=153 |pages=1–4 |doi=10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2020.02.005 |pmid=32092299 |s2cid=211475380 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079610720300134 |access-date=2022-12-23 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301193402/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079610720300134 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Charles Darwin]] more famously proposed the theory of universal common descent through an evolutionary process in his book ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' in 1859: "Therefore I should infer from analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed."<ref name="Darwin 1859">{{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Darwin |year=1859 |title=The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection |pages=484, 490<!-- original pages --> |publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]] |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F373&pageseq=484 |access-date=8 October 2022 |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008150204/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F373&pageseq=484 |url-status=live }}</ref> The last sentence of the book begins with a restatement of the hypothesis:<br />
{{blockquote|text=There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one&nbsp;...|source=<ref name="Darwin 1859"/>}}<br />
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The term "last universal common ancestor" or "LUCA" was first used in the 1990s for such a primordial organism.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Wikham |first=Gene Stephen |date=March 1995 |title=The molecular phylogenetic analysis of naturally occurring hyperthermophilic microbial communities |publisher=[[Indiana University]] |degree=PhD |page=4}} {{ProQuest|304192982}}</ref><ref name="Forterre 1997 pp. 764–770">{{cite journal |last=Forterre |first=Patrick |year=1997 |title=Archaea: What can we learn from their sequences? |journal=Current Opinion in Genetics & Development |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=764–770 |doi=10.1016/s0959-437x(97)80038-x|pmid=9468785 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Koonin |first1=Eugene V. |author1-link=Eugene Koonin |last2=Galperin |first2=Michael Y. |year=2003 |title=Sequence - Evolution - Function: Computational approaches in comparative genomics |location=Boston, MA |publisher=Kluwer |isbn=978-1-4757-3783-7 |page=252 |oclc=55642057 }}</ref><br />
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== Inferring LUCA's features ==<br />
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=== An anaerobic thermophile ===<br />
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{{further|Phylogenetic bracketing}}<br />
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{{multiple image<br />
|align = center<br />
|total_width = 850<br />
|image1 = Inferring LUCA's genome.svg<br />
|caption1 = A direct way to infer LUCA's [[genome]] would be to find genes common to all surviving descendants, but little can be learnt by this approach, as there are only about 30 such genes. They are mostly for [[ribosome]] proteins, proving that LUCA had the [[genetic code]]. Many other LUCA genes have been lost in later lineages over 4 billion years of evolution.<ref name="Weiss Preiner Xavier 2018"/><br />
|image2 = Three ways to infer genes present in LUCA.jpg<br />
|caption2 = Three ways to infer genes present in LUCA: universal presence, presence in both the [[Bacteria]]l and [[Archaea]]n domains, and presence in two [[Phylum|phyla]] in both domains. The first yields as stated only about 30 genes; the second, some 11,000 with [[Horizontal gene transfer|lateral gene transfer]] (LGT) very likely; the third, 355 genes probably in LUCA, since they were found in at least two phyla in both domains, making LGT an unlikely explanation.<ref name="Weiss Preiner Xavier 2018"/><br />
}}<br />
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In 2016, Madeline C. Weiss and colleagues genetically analyzed 6.1 million protein-coding genes and 286,514 protein clusters from sequenced [[Prokaryote|prokaryotic]] genomes representing many [[Phylogenetic tree|phylogenetic trees]], and identified 355 protein clusters that were probably common to the LUCA. The results of their analysis are highly specific, though debated. They depict LUCA as "[[Anaerobic organism|anaerobic]], [[Carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]]-fixing, [[Hydrogen|H<sub>2</sub>]]-dependent with a [[Wood–Ljungdahl pathway]] (the reductive [[Acetyl-CoA|acetyl-coenzyme A]] pathway), [[Nitrogen|N<sub>2</sub>]]-fixing and [[Thermophile|thermophilic]]. LUCA's biochemistry was replete with [[Iron(II) sulfide|FeS]] clusters and [[Radical (chemistry)|radical]] reaction mechanisms."<ref name="Weiss et al 20162">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Madeline C. |last2=Sousa |first2=F. L. |last3=Mrnjavac |first3=N. |last4=Neukirchen |first4=S. |last5=Roettger |first5=M. |last6=Nelson-Sathi |first6=S. |last7=Martin |first7=William F. |author7-link=William F. Martin |display-authors=3 |year=2016 |title=The physiology and habitat of the last universal common ancestor |url=http://complexityexplorer.s3.amazonaws.com/supplemental_materials/3.6+Early+Metabolisms/Weiss_et_al_Nat_Microbiol_2016.pdf |journal=Nature Microbiology |volume=1 |issue=9 |page=16116 |doi=10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.116 |pmid=27562259 |s2cid=2997255 |access-date=10 October 2022 |archive-date=18 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418220101/https://complexityexplorer.s3.amazonaws.com/supplemental_materials/3.6+Early+Metabolisms/Weiss_et_al_Nat_Microbiol_2016.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Cofactor (biochemistry)|cofactors]] also reveal "dependence upon [[Transition metal|transition metals]], [[Flavin mononucleotide|flavins]], [[S-adenosyl methionine]], [[coenzyme A]], [[ferredoxin]], [[molybdopterin]], [[Corrin|corrins]] and [[selenium]]. Its genetic code required [[nucleoside]] modifications and S-adenosylmethionine-dependent [[Methylation|methylations]]."<ref name="Weiss et al 20162" /> They show that [[Methanogen|methanogenic]] [[Clostridium|clostridia]] were [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal, near the root of the phylogenetic tree]], in the 355<!--yes, the same 355--> protein lineages examined, and that the LUCA may therefore have inhabited an anaerobic [[hydrothermal vent]] setting in a geochemically active environment rich in H<sub>2</sub>, CO<sub>2</sub>, and iron, where [[ocean]] water interacted with hot [[magma]] beneath the [[Seabed|ocean floor]].<ref name="Weiss et al 20162" /> It is even inferred that LUCA also grew from H<sub>2</sub> and CO<sub>2</sub> via the reverse incomplete Krebs cycle.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Harrison |first1=Stuart A. |last2=Palmeira |first2=Raquel Nunes |last3=Halpern |first3=Aaron |last4=Lane |first4=Nick |date=2022-11-01 |title=A biophysical basis for the emergence of the genetic code in protocells |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics |volume=1863 |issue=8 |pages=148597 |doi=10.1016/j.bbabio.2022.148597 |pmid=35868450 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Other metabolic pathways inferred in LUCA are the [[pentose phosphate pathway]], [[glycolysis]], and [[gluconeogenesis]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Harrison |first1=Stuart A. |last2=Lane |first2=Nick |date=2018-12-12 |title=Life as a guide to prebiotic nucleotide synthesis |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=5176 |bibcode=2018NatCo...9.5176H |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-07220-y |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=6289992 |pmid=30538225}}</ref> Even if phylogenetic evidence may point to a hydrothermal vent environment for a thermophilic LUCA, this does not constitute evidence that the [[Abiogenesis|origin of life]] took place at a hydrothermal vent since mass extinctions may have removed previously existing branches of life.<ref name="Cantine-2017" /> <br />
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While the gross anatomy of the LUCA can be reconstructed only with much uncertainty, its [[Metabolic pathway|biochemical mechanisms]] can be described in some detail, based on the "universal" properties currently shared by all independently living organisms on Earth.<ref name="W19982">{{cite journal |last=Wächtershäuser |first=Günter |year=1998 |title=Towards a Reconstruction of Ancestral Genomes by Gene Cluster Alignment |journal=Systematic and Applied Microbiology |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=473–474, IN1, 475–477 |doi=10.1016/S0723-2020(98)80058-1 |bibcode=1998SyApM..21N1475W }}</ref><br />
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[[File:LUCA systems and environment.svg|thumb|upright=2|LUCA systems and environment, including the [[Wood–Ljungdahl pathway|Wood–Ljungdahl or reductive acetyl–CoA pathway]] to [[Carbon fixation|fix carbon]], and most likely [[DNA]] complete with the [[genetic code]] and [[enzyme]]s to [[DNA replication|replicate]] it, [[Transcription (biology)|transcribe it to RNA]], and [[Translation (biology)|translate it to proteins]].]]<br />
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The LUCA certainly had [[gene]]s and a [[genetic code]].<ref name="Weiss Preiner Xavier 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Madeline C. |last2=Preiner |first2=Martina |last3=Xavier |first3=Joana C. |last4=Zimorski |first4=Verena |last5=Martin |first5=William F. |date=2018-08-16 |title=The last universal common ancestor between ancient Earth chemistry and the onset of genetics |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=e1007518 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1007518 |pmc=6095482 |pmid=30114187 |s2cid=52019935 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Its genetic material was most likely DNA,<ref name="W1998">{{cite journal |last=Wächtershäuser |first=Günter |year=1998 |title=Towards a Reconstruction of Ancestral Genomes by Gene Cluster Alignment |journal=Systematic and Applied Microbiology |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=473–474, IN1, 475–477 |doi=10.1016/S0723-2020(98)80058-1 |bibcode=1998SyApM..21N1475W }}</ref> so that it lived after the [[RNA world]].{{efn|Other studies propose that LUCA may have been defined wholly through [[RNA]],<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21228404-300-life-began-with-a-planetary-mega-organism/ |title=Life began with a planetary mega-organism |last=Marshall |first=Michael |magazine=[[New Scientist]] |access-date=31 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160725170104/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21228404-300-life-began-with-a-planetary-mega-organism/ |archive-date=25 July 2016 |df=dmy-all |url-status=live}}</ref> consisted of a RNA-DNA hybrid genome, or possessed a retrovirus-like genetic cycle with DNA serving as a stable genetic repository.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koonin |first1=Eugene V. |last2=Martin |first2=William |date=1 December 2005 |df=dmy-all |title=On the origin of genomes and cells within inorganic compartments |journal=Trends in Genetics |volume=21 |issue=12 |pages=647–654 |doi=10.1016/j.tig.2005.09.006 |pmid=16223546 |pmc=7172762 }}</ref>}}<ref name="PiP">{{cite journal |last=Garwood |first=Russell J. |title=Patterns In Palaeontology: The first 3 billion years of evolution |year=2012 |journal=Palaeontology Online |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=1–14 |url=http://www.palaeontologyonline.com/articles/2012/patterns-in-palaeontology-the-first-3-billion-years-of-evolution/ |access-date=June 25, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626104131/http://www.palaeontologyonline.com/articles/2012/patterns-in-palaeontology-the-first-3-billion-years-of-evolution/ |archive-date=June 26, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> The DNA was kept double-stranded by an [[enzyme]], [[DNA polymerase]], which recognises the structure and directionality of DNA.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koonin |first1=Eugene V. |author1-link=Eugene V. Koonin |last2=Krupovic |first2=M. |last3=Ishino |first3=S. |last4=Ishino |first4=Y. |title=The replication machinery of LUCA: common origin of DNA replication and transcription. |journal=BMC Biology |date=2020 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=61 |doi=10.1186/s12915-020-00800-9 |pmid=32517760 |pmc=7281927 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The integrity of the DNA was maintained by a group of [[DNA repair|repair]] enzymes including [[DNA topoisomerase]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Muzammil |last2=Xu |first2=Dongyi |last3=Wang |first3=Weidong |date=2017-05-23 |df=dmy-all |title=Type IA topoisomerases can be "magicians" for both DNA and RNA in all domains of life |journal=RNA Biology |volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=854–864 |doi=10.1080/15476286.2017.1330741 |pmc=5546716 |pmid=28534707 }}</ref> If the genetic code was based on [[Nucleic acid double helix|dual-stranded DNA]], it was expressed by copying the information to single-stranded RNA. The RNA was produced by a DNA-dependent [[RNA polymerase]] using nucleotides similar to those of DNA<!--, with the exception that the DNA nucleotide [[thymidine]] was replaced by [[uridine]] in RNA-->.<ref name="W1998"/> It had multiple [[DNA-binding protein]]s, such as histone-fold proteins.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lupas |first1=Andrei N. |last2=Alva |first2=Vikram |year=2018 |title=Histones predate the split between bacteria and archaea |journal=Bioinformatics |volume=35 |issue=14 |pages=2349–2353 |doi=10.1093/bioinformatics/bty1000 |pmid=30520969}}</ref> The genetic code was expressed into [[protein]]s. These were assembled from 20 free [[amino acid]]s by [[Translation (biology)|translation]] of a [[messenger RNA]] via a mechanism of [[ribosome]]s, [[transfer RNA]]s, and a group of related proteins.<ref name=W1998/><br />
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LUCA was likely capable of [[sexual reproduction|sexual interaction]] in the sense that adaptive gene functions were present that promoted the transfer of DNA between individuals of the population to facilitate [[genetic recombination]]. Homologous gene products that promote genetic recombination are present in bacteria, archaea and eukaryota, such as the [[RecA]] protein in bacteria, the RadA protein in archaea, and the [[RAD51|Rad51]] and [[DMC1 (gene)|Dmc1]] proteins in eukaryota.<ref>Bernstein, H., Bernstein, C. (2017). Sexual Communication in Archaea, the Precursor to Eukaryotic Meiosis. In: Witzany, G. (eds) Biocommunication of Archaea. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65536-9_7 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223213424/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-65536-9_7 |date=23 February 2024 }}</ref><br />
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The functionality of LUCA as well as evidence for the early evolution membrane-dependent biological systems together suggest that LUCA had cellularity and cell membranes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gogarten |first1=Johann Peter |last2=Taiz |first2=Lincoln |date=1992 |title=Evolution of proton pumping ATPases: Rooting the tree of life |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00039176 |journal=Photosynthesis Research |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=137–146 |doi=10.1007/bf00039176 |pmid=24408574 |bibcode=1992PhoRe..33..137G |s2cid=20013957 |issn=0166-8595 |access-date=4 December 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223213452/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00039176 |url-status=live }}</ref> As for the cell's gross structure, it contained a water-based [[cytoplasm]] effectively enclosed by a [[lipid bilayer]] membrane; it was capable of reproducing by cell division.<ref name="W19984">{{cite journal |last=Wächtershäuser |first=Günter |year=1998 |title=Towards a Reconstruction of Ancestral Genomes by Gene Cluster Alignment |journal=Systematic and Applied Microbiology |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=473–474, IN1, 475–477 |doi=10.1016/S0723-2020(98)80058-1|bibcode=1998SyApM..21N1475W }}</ref> It tended to exclude [[sodium]] and concentrate [[potassium]] by means of specific [[Ion transporter|ion transporters]] (or ion pumps). The cell multiplied by duplicating all its contents followed by [[cellular division]]. The cell used [[chemiosmosis]] to produce energy. It also [[Redox|reduced]] CO<sub>2</sub> and oxidized H<sub>2</sub> ([[methanogenesis]] or [[acetogenesis]]) via [[acetyl]]-[[Thioester|thioesters]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=W. |last2=Russell |first2=M. J. |date=October 2007 |title=On the origin of biochemistry at an alkaline hydrothermal vent |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |volume=362 |issue=1486 |pages=1887–1925 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1881 |pmc=2442388 |pmid=17255002}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lane |first1=Nick |author1-link=Nick Lane |last2=Allen |first2=J. F. |last3=Martin |first3=William |author3-link=William F. Martin |date=April 2010 |title=How did LUCA make a living? Chemiosmosis in the origin of life |journal=BioEssays |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=271–280 |doi=10.1002/bies.200900131 |pmid=20108228}}</ref><br />
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By [[phylogenetic bracketing]], analysis of the presumed LUCA's offspring groups, LUCA appears to have been a small, single-celled organism. It likely had a ring-shaped coil of [[DNA]] floating freely within the cell. Morphologically, it would likely not have stood out within a mixed population of small modern-day bacteria. The originator of the [[three-domain system]], [[Carl Woese]], stated that in its genetic machinery, the LUCA would have been a "simpler, more rudimentary entity than the individual ancestors that spawned the three [domains] (and their descendants)".<ref name="Woese Kandler Wheelis 1990">{{cite journal |last1=Woese |first1=C.R. |author1-link=Carl Woese |last2=Kandler |first2=O. |author-link2=Otto Kandler |last3=Wheelis |first3=M.L. |author-link3=Mark Wheelis |date=June 1990 |title=Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya |journal=PNAS |volume=87 |issue=12 |pages=4576–4579 |bibcode=1990PNAS...87.4576W |doi=10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 |doi-access=free |pmc=54159 |pmid=2112744}}</ref> <br />
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[[File:Reduktiver Acetyl-CoA-Weg.png|thumb|upright=1.6|The LUCA used the [[Wood–Ljungdahl pathway|Wood–Ljungdahl or reductive acetyl–CoA pathway]] to [[Carbon fixation|fix carbon]], if it was an [[autotroph]], or to [[Anaerobic respiration|respire anaerobically]], if it was a [[heterotroph]].]]<br />
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An alternative to the search for "universal" traits is to use genome analysis to identify phylogenetically ancient genes. This gives a picture of a LUCA that could live in a geochemically harsh environment and is like modern prokaryotes. Analysis of biochemical pathways implies the same sort of chemistry as does phylogenetic analysis. Weiss and colleagues write that "Experiments ... demonstrate that ... [[Wood–Ljungdahl pathway|acetyl-CoA pathway]] [chemicals used in anaerobic respiration] [[formate]], [[methanol]], [[Acetyl group|acetyl]] moieties, and even [[pyruvate]] arise spontaneously ... from CO<sub>2</sub>, native metals, and water", a combination present in hydrothermal vents.<ref name="Weiss Preiner Xavier 20182">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Madeline C. |last2=Preiner |first2=Martina |last3=Xavier |first3=Joana C. |last4=Zimorski |first4=Verena |last5=Martin |first5=William F. |date=2018-08-16 |title=The last universal common ancestor between ancient Earth chemistry and the onset of genetics |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=e1007518 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1007518 |pmc=6095482 |pmid=30114187 |s2cid=52019935 |doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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An experiment shows that Zn<sup>2+</sup>, Cr<sup>3+</sup>, and Fe can promote 6 of the 11 reactions of an ancient anabolic pathway called the [[reverse Krebs cycle]] in acidic conditions which implies that LUCA might have inhabited either hydrothermal vents or acidic metal-rich hydrothermal fields.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muchowska |first1=Kamila B. |last2=Varma |first2=Sreejith J. |last3=Chevallot-Beroux |first3=Elodie |last4=Lethuillier-Karl |first4=Lucas |last5=Li |first5=Guang |last6=Moran |first6=Joseph |date=2 October 2017 |title=Metals promote sequences of the reverse Krebs cycle |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320171263 |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=1 |issue=11 |pages=1716–1721 |doi=10.1038/s41559-017-0311-7 |issn=2397-334X |pmc=5659384 |pmid=28970480 |bibcode=2017NatEE...1.1716M }}</ref><br />
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Because both bacteria and archaea have differences in the structure of phospholipids and cell wall, ion pumping, most proteins involved in DNA replication, and glycolysis, it is inferred that LUCA had a permeable membrane without an ion pump. The emergence of Na<sup>+</sup>/H<sup>+</sup> antiporters likely lead to the evolution of impermeable membranes present in eukaryotes, archaea, and bacteria. It is stated that "The late and independent evolution of glycolysis but not gluconeogenesis is entirely consistent with LUCA being powered by natural proton gradients across leaky membranes. Several discordant traits are likely to be linked to the late evolution of cell membranes, notably the cell wall, whose synthesis depends on the membrane and DNA replication".<ref name="Sojo Pomiankowski Lane 20142">{{Cite journal |last1=Sojo |first1=Víctor |last2=Pomiankowski |first2=Andrew |last3=Lane |first3=Nick |author3-link=Nick Lane |date=2014-08-12 |title=A Bioenergetic Basis for Membrane Divergence in Archaea and Bacteria |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=e1001926 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001926 |pmc=4130499 |pmid=25116890 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Although LUCA likely had DNA, it is unknown if it could replicate DNA and is suggested to "might just have been a chemically stable repository for RNA-based replication".<ref name="Weiss Preiner Xavier 20183">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Madeline C. |last2=Preiner |first2=Martina |last3=Xavier |first3=Joana C. |last4=Zimorski |first4=Verena |last5=Martin |first5=William F. |date=2018-08-16 |title=The last universal common ancestor between ancient Earth chemistry and the onset of genetics |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=e1007518 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1007518 |pmc=6095482 |pmid=30114187 |s2cid=52019935 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It is likely that the permeable membrane of LUCA was composed of archaeal lipids ([[isoprenoids]]) and bacterial lipids ([[Fatty acid|fatty acids]]). Isoprenoids would have enhanced stabilization of LUCA's membrane in the surrounding extreme habitat. Nick Lane and coauthors state that "The advantages and disadvantages of incorporating isoprenoids into cell membranes in different microenvironments may have driven membrane divergence, with the later biosynthesis of phospholipids giving rise to the unique G1P and G3P headgroups of archaea and bacteria respectively. If so, the properties conferred by membrane isoprenoids place the lipid divide as early as the [[origin of life]]".<ref name="Jordan Nee Lane 20192">{{Cite journal |last1=Jordan |first1=S. F. |last2=Nee |first2=E. |last3=Lane |first3=Nick |author3-link=Nick Lane |date=18 October 2019 |title=Isoprenoids enhance the stability of fatty acid membranes at the emergence of life potentially leading to an early lipid divide |journal=Interface Focus |volume=9 |issue=6 |doi=10.1098/rsfs.2019.0067 |pmc=6802135 |pmid=31641436}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref><br />
<br />
A 2024 study suggests that LUCA's genome was similar in size to that of modern prokaryotes, coding for some 2,600 proteins; that it respired anaerobically, and was an [[acetogen]]; and that it had an early [[CRISPR|CAS]]-based anti-viral immune system.<ref name="Moody et al 2024"/><br />
<br />
=== Alternative interpretations ===<br />
<br />
Some other researchers have challenged Weiss et al.'s 2016 conclusions. Sarah Berkemer and Shawn McGlynn argue that Weiss et al. undersampled the families of proteins, so that the phylogenetic trees were not complete and failed to describe the evolution of proteins correctly. There are two risks in attempting to attribute LUCA's environment from near-universal gene distribution (as in Weiss et al. 2016). On the one hand, it risks misattributing [[Convergent evolution|convergence]] or horizontal gene transfer events to vertical descent; on the other hand, it risks misattributing potential LUCA gene families as horizontal gene transfer events. A phylogenomic and geochemical analysis of a set of proteins that probably traced to the LUCA show that it had K<sup>+</sup>-dependent GTPases and the ionic composition and concentration of its intracellular fluid was seemingly high K<sup>+</sup>/Na<sup>+</sup> ratio, {{chem|NH|4|+}}, Fe<sup>2+</sup>, CO<sup>2+</sup>, Ni<sup>2+</sup>, Mg<sup>2+</sup>, Mn<sup>2+</sup>, Zn<sup>2+</sup>, pyrophosphate, and {{chem|PO|3-|4}} which would imply a terrestrial [[hot spring]] habitat. It possibly had a phosphate-based metabolism. Further, these proteins were unrelated to [[Autotroph|autotrophy]] (the ability of an organism to create its own [[organic matter]]), suggesting that the LUCA had a [[Heterotroph|heterotrophic]] lifestyle (consuming organic matter) and that its growth was dependent on organic matter produced by the physical environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mulkidjanian |first1=Armen Y. |last2=Bychkov |first2=Andrew Yu |last3=Dibrova |first3=Daria V. |last4=Galperin |first4=Michael Y. |last5=Koonin |first5=Eugene V. |author5-link=Eugene V. Koonin |year=2012 |title=Origin of first cells at terrestrial, anoxic geothermal fields |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=109 |issue=14 |pages=E821-30 |bibcode=2012PNAS..109E.821M |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117774109 |pmc=3325685 |pmid=22331915 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Nick Lane]] argues that Na<sup>+</sup>/H<sup>+</sup> antiporters could readily explain the low concentration of Na<sup>+</sup> in the LUCA and its descendants.<br />
<br />
The presence of the energy-handling enzymes [[CODH]]/[[Acetyl-CoA|acetyl-coenzyme A]] synthase in LUCA could be compatible not only with being an [[autotroph]] but also with life as a [[mixotroph]] or [[heterotroph]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adam |first1=Panagiotis S. |last2=Borrel |first2=Guillaume |last3=Gribaldo |first3=Simonetta |date=6 February 2018 |title=Evolutionary history of carbon monoxide dehydrogenase/acetyl-CoA synthase, one of the oldest enzymatic complexes |journal=PNAS |volume=115 |issue=6 |pages=E1166–E1173 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115E1166A |doi=10.1073/pnas.1716667115 |pmc=5819426 |pmid=29358391 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Weiss et al. 2018 reply that no enzyme defines a trophic lifestyle, and that heterotrophs evolved from autotrophs.<ref name="Weiss Preiner Xavier 20184">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Madeline C. |last2=Preiner |first2=Martina |last3=Xavier |first3=Joana C. |last4=Zimorski |first4=Verena |last5=Martin |first5=William F. |date=2018-08-16 |title=The last universal common ancestor between ancient Earth chemistry and the onset of genetics |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=e1007518 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1007518 |pmc=6095482 |pmid=30114187 |s2cid=52019935 |doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Evidence that LUCA was mesophilic ====<br />
<br />
Several lines of evidence now suggest that LUCA was non-thermophilic.<br />
<br />
The content of G + C nucleotide pairs (compared to the occurrence of A + T pairs) can indicate an organism's thermal optimum as they are more thermally stable due to an additional hydrogen bond. As a result they occur more frequently in the rRNA of thermophiles; however this is not seen in LUCA's reconstructed rRNA.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Galtier |first1=Nicolas |last2=Tourasse |first2=Nicolas |last3=Gouy |first3=Manolo |date=1999-01-08 |title=A Nonhyperthermophilic Common Ancestor to Extant Life Forms |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5399.220 |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5399 |pages=220–221 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5399.220 |pmid=9880254 |issn=0036-8075 |access-date=4 December 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223213446/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.283.5399.220 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Groussin |first1=Mathieu |last2=Boussau |first2=Bastien |last3=Charles |first3=Sandrine |last4=Blanquart |first4=Samuel |last5=Gouy |first5=Manolo |date=2013-10-23 |title=The molecular signal for the adaptation to cold temperature during early life on Earth |journal=Biology Letters |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=20130608 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2013.0608 |doi-access=free |pmid=24046876 |pmc=3971708 }}</ref><ref name="Cantine-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Cantine |first1=Marjorie D. |last2=Fournier |first2=Gregory P. |date=2017-07-06 |title=Environmental Adaptation from the Origin of Life to the Last Universal Common Ancestor |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11084-017-9542-5 |journal=Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=35–54 |doi=10.1007/s11084-017-9542-5 |pmid=28685374 |hdl=1721.1/114219 |s2cid=254888920 |hdl-access=free |access-date=4 December 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223213446/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11084-017-9542-5 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
The identification of thermophilic genes in the LUCA has been criticized,<ref name="GogartenDeamer20162">{{cite journal |last1=Gogarten |first1=Johann Peter |last2=Deamer |first2=David |year=2016 |title=Is LUCA a thermophilic progenote? |url=https://zenodo.org/record/895471 |journal=Nature Microbiology |volume=1 |issue=12 |pages=16229 |doi=10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.229 |pmid=27886195 |s2cid=205428194 |access-date=25 June 2019 |archive-date=3 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403040656/https://zenodo.org/record/895471 |url-status=live }}</ref> as they may instead represent genes that evolved later in archaea or bacteria, then migrated between these via [[horizontal gene transfer]], as in Woese's 1998 hypothesis.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Woese |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Woese |date=June 1998 |title=The universal ancestor |journal=PNAS |volume=95 |issue=12 |pages=6854–6859 |bibcode=1998PNAS...95.6854W |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.12.6854 |pmc=22660 |pmid=9618502 |doi-access=free}}</ref> LUCA could have been a mesophile that fixed CO<sub>2</sub> and relied on H<sub>2</sub>, and lived close to hydrothermal vents.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Camprubí |first1=E. |last2=de Leeuw |first2=J. W. |last3=House |first3=C. H. |last4=Raulin |first4=F. |last5=Russell |first5=M. J. |last6=Spang |first6=A. |last7=Tirumalai |first7=M. R. |last8=Westall |first8=F. |date=2019-12-12 |title=The Emergence of Life |journal=Space Science Reviews |volume=215 |issue=8 |pages=56 |bibcode=2019SSRv..215...56C |doi=10.1007/s11214-019-0624-8 |issn=1572-9672 |doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
Further evidence that LUCA was [[Mesophile|mesophilic]] comes from the amino acid composition of its proteins. The abundance of I, V, Y, W, R, E, and L amino acids (denoted IVYWREL) in an organism's proteins is correlated with its optimal growth temperature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zeldovich |first1=Konstantin B |last2=Berezovsky |first2=Igor N |last3=Shakhnovich |first3=Eugene I |date=2007 |title=Protein and DNA Sequence Determinants of Thermophilic Adaptation |journal=PLOS Computational Biology |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=e5 |doi=10.1371/journal.pcbi.0030005 |pmid=17222055 |pmc=1769408 |arxiv=q-bio/0607004 |bibcode=2007PLSCB...3....5Z |issn=1553-7358 |doi-access=free }}</ref> According to phylogentic analysis, the IVYWREL content of LUCA's proteins suggests its ideal temperature was below 50°C.<ref name="Cantine-2017"/><br />
<br />
Finally, evidence that bacteria and archaea both independently underwent phases of increased and subsequently decreased thermo-tolerance suggests a dramatic post-LUCA climate shift that affected both populations and would explain the seeming genetic pervasiveness of thermo-tolerant genetics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boussau |first1=Bastien |last2=Blanquart |first2=Samuel |last3=Necsulea |first3=Anamaria |last4=Lartillot |first4=Nicolas |last5=Gouy |first5=Manolo |date=2008-11-26 |title=Parallel adaptations to high temperatures in the Archaean eon |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature07393 |journal=Nature |volume=456 |issue=7224 |pages=942–945 |doi=10.1038/nature07393 |pmid=19037246 |bibcode=2008Natur.456..942B |s2cid=4348746 |access-date=4 December 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223213509/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature07393 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Age ==<br />
<br />
{{further|Abiogenesis}}<br />
<br />
Studies from 2000 to 2018 have suggested an increasingly ancient time for the LUCA. In 2000, estimates of the LUCA's age ranged from 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago in the [[Paleoarchean]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Doolittle |first=W. F. |date=February 2000 |title=Uprooting the tree of life |journal=[[Scientific American]] |volume=282 |issue=2 |pages=90–95 |bibcode=2000SciAm.282b..90D |pmid=10710791 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0200-90|jstor=26058605 }}</ref> a few hundred million years before the [[Earliest known life forms|earliest fossil evidence of life]], for which candidates range in age from 3.48 to 4.28 billion years ago.<ref name="AST-20131108">{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=N. |author1-link=Nora Noffke |last2=Christian |first2=D. |last3=Wacey |first3=D. |last4=Hazen |first4=R. M. |date=December 2013 |title=Microbially induced sedimentary structures recording an ancient ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 billion-year-old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |journal=Astrobiology |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–1124 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |pmc=3870916 |pmid=24205812 |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030}}</ref><ref name="NG-20131208">{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |year=2013 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hassenkam |first1=T. |last2=Andersson |first2=M. P. |last3=Dalby |first3=K. N. |last4=Mackenzie |first4=D. M. A. |last5=Rosing |first5=M. T. |display-authors=3 |s2cid=205257931 |year=2017 |title=Elements of Eoarchean life trapped in mineral inclusions |journal=Nature |volume=548 |issue=7665 |pages=78–81 |bibcode=2017Natur.548...78H |pmid=28738409 |doi=10.1038/nature23261}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnke |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |author-link4=Wendy Mao |date=24 November 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1&nbsp;billion-year-old zircon |journal=PNAS |volume=112 |issue=47 |pages=14518–14521 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |pmc=4664351 |pmid=26483481|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dodd |first1=Matthew S. |last2=Papineau |first2=Dominic |last3=Grenne |first3=Tor |author4=Slack, John F. |author5=Rittner, Martin |author6=Pirajno, Franco |author7=O'Neil, Jonathan |author8=Little, Crispin T. S. |display-authors=3 |s2cid=2420384 |date=2 March 2017 |title=Evidence for early life in Earth's oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates |journal=Nature |volume=543 |issue=7643 |pages=60–64 |bibcode=2017Natur.543...60D |doi=10.1038/nature21377 |pmid=28252057 |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/112179/1/ppnature21377_Dodd_for%20Symplectic.pdf |access-date=25 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723232142/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/112179/1/ppnature21377_Dodd_for%20Symplectic.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2018 |url-status=live|doi-access=free }}</ref> This placed the origin of the first forms of life shortly after the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] which was thought to have repeatedly sterilized Earth's surface. However, a 2018 study by Holly Betts and colleagues applied a [[molecular clock]] model to the genomic and fossil record (102 species, 29 common protein-coding genes, mostly ribosomal), concluding that LUCA preceded the Late Heavy Bombardment (making the LUCA over 3.9 billion years ago).<ref name="Betts Puttick Clark 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Betts |first1=Holly C. |last2=Puttick |first2=Mark N. |last3=Clark |first3=James W. |last4=Williams |first4=Tom A. |last5=Donoghue |first5=Philip C. J. |last6=Pisani |first6=Davide |title=Integrated genomic and fossil evidence illuminates life's early evolution and eukaryote origin |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |year=2018 |volume=2 |issue=10 |pages=1556–1562 |doi=10.1038/s41559-018-0644-x |pmid=30127539 |pmc=6152910|bibcode=2018NatEE...2.1556B }}</ref> A 2022 study suggested an age of around 3.6-4.2 billion years for the LUCA.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Moody |first1=Edmund RR |last2=Mahendrarajah |first2=Tara A. |last3=Dombrowski |first3=Nina |last4=Clark |first4=James W. |last5=Petitjean |first5=Celine |last6=Offre |first6=Pierre |last7=Szöllősi |first7=Gergely J. |last8=Spang |first8=Anja |last9=Williams |first9=Tom A. |date=2022-02-22 |title=An estimate of the deepest branches of the tree of life from ancient vertically evolving genes |journal=eLife |volume=11 |doi=10.7554/eLife.66695 |doi-access=free |issn=2050-084X |pmc=8890751 |pmid=35190025}}</ref> A 2024 study suggested that the LUCA lived around 4.2 billion years ago (with a confidence interval of 4.09–4.33 billion years ago).<ref name="Moody et al 2024">{{Cite journal |last1=Moody |first1=Edmund R. R. |last2=Álvarez-Carretero |first2=Sandra |last3=Mahendrarajah |first3=Tara A. |last4=Clark |first4=James W. |last5=Betts |first5=Holly C. |last6=Dombrowski |first6=Nina |last7=Szánthó |first7=Lénárd L. |last8=Boyle |first8=Richard A. |last9=Daines |first9=Stuart |last10=Chen |first10=Xi |last11=Lane |first11=Nick |author11-link=Nick Lane |last12=Yang |first12=Ziheng |last13=Shields |first13=Graham A. |last14=Szöllősi |first14=Gergely J. |last15=Spang |first15=Anja |date=12 July 2024 |title=The nature of the last universal common ancestor and its impact on the early Earth system |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution|volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=1654–1666 |doi=10.1038/s41559-024-02461-1 |doi-access=free |pmid=38997462 |pmc=11383801 }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Root of the tree of life ==<br />
<br />
[[File:Tree Of Life (with horizontal gene transfer).svg|thumb|2005 [[tree of life (biology)|tree of life]] showing [[horizontal gene transfer]]s between branches including (coloured lines) the [[symbiogenesis]] of [[plastid]]s and [[Mitochondrion|mitochondria]]. "Horizontal gene transfer and how it has impacted the evolution of life is presented through a web connecting bifurcating branches that complicate, yet do not erase, the tree of life".<ref name="Smets Barkay 2005">{{cite journal |last1=Smets |first1=Barth F. |last2=Barkay |first2=Tamar |title=Horizontal gene transfer: perspectives at a crossroads of scientific disciplines |journal=Nature Reviews Microbiology |date=September 2005 |volume=3 |issue=9 |pages=675–678 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro1253 |pmid=16145755 |s2cid=2265315 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7615190}}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
{{for|branching of bacteria phyla|Bacterial phyla}}<br />
<br />
In 1990, a novel concept of the [[Tree of life (biology)|tree of life]] was presented, dividing the living world into three stems, classified as the domains [[Bacteria]], [[Archaea]], [[Eukarya]].<ref name="Woese Kandler Wheelis 1990" /><ref name="Sapp2009">{{Cite book |last=Sapp |first=Jan A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d7zOviXnbSYC |title=The new foundations of evolution: on the tree of life |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-199-73438-2 |location=New York |pages=Chapter 19: 257ff (novel concept of the tree of life); Chapters 17-21 plus concluding remarks: 226-318 (discussion of the tree and its rooting); 286ff (LUCA) |author-link=Jan Sapp |access-date=21 November 2023 |archive-date=6 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106185704/https://books.google.com/books?id=d7zOviXnbSYC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Brock_2015">{{Cite book |last1=Madigan |first1=Michael T. |title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms |last2=Martinko |first2=John M. |last3=Bender |first3=Kelly S. |last4=Buckley |first4=Daniel H. |last5=Stahl |first5=David A. |publisher=Pearson Education Limited |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-292-01831-7 |edition=14 |location=Boston |pages=29; 374; 381}}</ref><ref name="Brock_2022">{{Cite book |last1=Madigan |first1=Michael T. |title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms |last2=Aiyer |first2=Jennifer |last3=Buckley |first3=Daniel H. |last4=Sattley |first4=Matthew |last5=Stahl |first5=David A. |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-292-40479-0 |edition=16 |location=Harlow |pages=Unit 3, chapter 13: 431 (LUCA); 435 (tree of life); 428, 438, 439 (viruses)}}</ref> It is the first tree founded exclusively on molecular phylogenetics, and which includes the evolution of microorganisms. It has been called a "universal phylogenetic tree in rooted form".<ref name="Woese Kandler Wheelis 1990"/> This tree and its rooting became the subject of debate.<ref name="Sapp2009"/>{{efn|One debate dealt with a former [[Cladistics|cladistic]] hypothesis: The tree could not be ascribed a root in the usual algorithmic way, because that would require an [[Outgroup (cladistics)|outgroup]] for reference. In the case of the universal tree, no outgroup would exist. <br />
The cladistic method was used "to root the purple bacteria, for example. But establishing a root for the universal tree of life, the branching order among the primary urkingdoms, was another matter entirely."{{sfn|Sapp|2009|p=255}} }}<br />
<br />
In the meantime, numerous modifications of this tree, mainly concerning the role and importance of horizontal gene transfer for its rooting and early ramifications have been suggested (e.g.<ref name="Brown Doolittle 1995" /><ref name="Smets Barkay 2005" />). Since heredity occurs both vertically and horizontally, the tree of life may have been more weblike or netlike in its early phase and more treelike when it grew three-stemmed.<ref name="Smets Barkay 2005" /> Presumably horizontal gene transfer has decreased with growing cell stability.<ref name="Harold_2014">{{Cite book |last=Harold |first=Franklin M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XjOOBAAAQBAJ&q=In+Search+of+Cell+History |title=In Search of Cell History: The Evolution of Life's Building Blocks |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-226-17428-0 |location=Chicago, London |access-date=12 October 2023 |archive-date=31 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031202816/https://books.google.com/books?id=XjOOBAAAQBAJ&q=In+Search+of+Cell+History |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
A modified version of the tree, based on several molecular studies, has its root between a [[monophyletic]] [[domain (biology)|domain]] [[Bacteria]] and a [[clade]] formed by [[Archaea]] and [[Eukaryota]].<ref name="Brown Doolittle 1995">{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=J. R. |last2=Doolittle |first2=W. F. |year=1995 |title=Root of the Universal Tree of Life Based on Ancient Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetase Gene Duplications |journal=PNAS |volume=92 |issue=7 |pages=2441–2445 |pmid=7708661 |pmc=42233 |doi=10.1073/pnas.92.7.2441 |bibcode=1995PNAS...92.2441B |doi-access=free }}</ref> A small minority of studies place the root in the domain bacteria, in the phylum [[Bacillota]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Valas |first1=R. E. |last2=Bourne |first2=P. E. |title=The origin of a derived superkingdom: how a gram-positive bacterium crossed the desert to become an archaeon |journal=Biology Direct |volume=6 |page=16 |year=2011 |pmid=21356104 |pmc=3056875 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-6-16 |doi-access=free }}</ref> or state that the phylum [[Chloroflexota]] (formerly Chloroflexi) is [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] to a clade with Archaea and Eukaryotes and the rest of bacteria (as proposed by [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith]]).<ref name="CS2">{{cite journal |last=Cavalier-Smith |first=Tom |author-link=Tom Cavalier-Smith |title=Rooting the tree of life by transition analyses |journal=Biology Direct |volume=1 |page=19 |year=2006 |pmid=16834776 |pmc=1586193 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-1-19 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Metagenomics|Metagenomic]] analyses recover a two-domain system with the domains Archaea and Bacteria; in this view of the tree of life, Eukaryotes are derived from Archaea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Raymann |first1=Kasie |last2=Brochier-Armanet |first2=Céline |last3=Gribaldo |first3=Simonetta |date=2015-05-26 |title=The two-domain tree of life is linked to a new root for the Archaea |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=112 |issue=21 |pages=6670–6675 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1420858112 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4450401 |pmid=25964353|bibcode=2015PNAS..112.6670R |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hug |first1=Laura A. |last2=Baker |first2=Brett J. |last3=Anantharaman |first3=Karthik |last4=Brown |first4=Christopher T. |last5=Probst |first5=Alexander J. |last6=Castelle |first6=Cindy J. |last7=Butterfield |first7=Cristina N. |last8=Hernsdorf |first8=Alex W. |last9=Amano |first9=Yuki |last10=Ise |first10=Kotaro |last11=Suzuki |first11=Yohey |last12=Dudek |first12=Natasha |last13=Relman |first13=David A. |last14=Finstad |first14=Kari M. |last15=Amundson |first15=Ronald |display-authors=3 |date=2016-04-11 |title=A new view of the tree of life |journal=Nature Microbiology |volume=1 |issue=5 |page=16048 |doi=10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.48 |pmid=27572647 |s2cid=3833474 |issn=2058-5276|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Tom A. |last2=Foster |first2=Peter G. |last3=Cox |first3=Cymon J. |last4=Embley |first4=T. Martin |date=December 11, 2013 |title=An archaeal origin of eukaryotes supports only two primary domains of life |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12779 |journal=Nature |volume=504 |issue=7479 |pages=231–236 |doi=10.1038/nature12779 |pmid=24336283 |bibcode=2013Natur.504..231W |s2cid=4461775 |issn=1476-4687 |access-date=23 September 2022 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001043017/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12779 |url-status=live }}</ref> With the later gene pool of LUCA's descendants, sharing a common framework of the [[Chargaff's rules|AT/GC rule]] and the standard twenty amino acids, horizontal gene transfer would have become feasible and could have been common.<ref name="Harris Hill 2021"/><br />
<br />
The nature of LUCA remains disputed. In 1994, on the basis of primordial metabolism (sensu [[Günter Wächtershäuser|Wächtershäuser]]), [[Otto Kandler]] proposed a successive divergence of the three domains of life<ref name="Woese Kandler Wheelis 1990"/> from a multiphenotypical ''population'' of [[Pre-cell|pre-cells]], reached by gradual evolutionary improvements ([[cellularization]]).<ref name="Kandler_1994">{{Cite book |last=Kandler |first=Otto |title=Early Life on Earth. Nobel Symposium 84 |date=1994 |publisher=Columbia University Press |editor=Stefan Bengtson |location=New York |pages=152–160 |chapter=The early diversification of life |author-link=Otto Kandler }}</ref><ref name="Kandler_1995">{{cite journal |last=Kandler |first=Otto |title=Cell Wall Biochemistry in Archaea and its Phylogenetic Implications |journal=Journal of Biological Physics |volume=20 |issue=1–4 |pages=165–169 |year=1995 |doi=10.1007/BF00700433 |s2cid=83906865 |author-link=Otto Kandler}}</ref><ref name="Kandler_1998">{{Cite book |last=Kandler |first=Otto |title=Thermophiles: The keys to molecular evolution and the origin of life? |publisher=Taylor and Francis Ltd. |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-203-48420-3 |editor1=Jürgen Wiegel |location=London |pages=19–31 |chapter=The early diversification of life and the origin of the three domains: A proposal |author-link=Otto Kandler |editor2=Michael W. W. Adams |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FtSzl4iastsC |access-date=21 June 2023 |archive-date=25 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225201522/https://books.google.com/books?id=FtSzl4iastsC |url-status=live }}</ref> These phenotypically diverse pre-cells were metabolising, self-reproducing entities exhibiting frequent mutual exchange of genetic information. Thus, in this scenario there was no "first cell". It may explain the unity and, at the same time, the partition into three lines (the three domains) of life. Kandler's pre-cell theory is supported by Wächtershäuser.<ref name="Wächtershäuser_2003">{{cite journal |last=Wächtershäuser |first=Günter |author-link=Günter Wächtershäuser |year=2003 |title=From pre-cells to Eukarya – a tale of two lipids |journal=Molecular Microbiology |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=13–22 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2958.2003.03267.x |pmid=12492850 |s2cid=37944519 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Wächtershäuser_2006">{{Cite journal |last=Wächtershäuser |first=Günter |date=October 2006 |title=From volcanic origins of chemoautotrophic life to Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=361 |issue=1474 |pages=1787–1808 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1904 |pmc=1664677 |pmid=17008219}}</ref> In 1998, [[Carl Woese]], based on the RNA world concept, proposed that no individual organism could be considered a LUCA, and that the genetic heritage of all modern organisms derived through [[horizontal gene transfer]] among an ancient community of organisms.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Woese |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Woese |title=The universal ancestor |journal=PNAS |volume=95 |issue=12 |pages=6854–6859 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9618502 |bibcode=1998PNAS...95.6854W |pmc=22660 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.12.6854 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Other authors concur that there was a "complex collective genome"<ref name="Egel 2012">{{cite journal |last=Egel |first=Richard |date=March 2012 |title=Primal Eukaryogenesis: On the Communal Nature of Precellular States, Ancestral to Modern Life |journal=Life |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=170–212 |bibcode=2012Life....2..170E |doi=10.3390/life2010170 |pmc=4187143 |pmid=25382122 |doi-access=free}}</ref> at the time of the LUCA, and that horizontal gene transfer was important in the evolution of later groups;<ref name="Egel 2012"/> Nicolas Glansdorff states that LUCA "was in a metabolically and morphologically heterogeneous community, constantly shuffling around genetic material" and "remained an evolutionary entity, though loosely defined and constantly changing, as long as this promiscuity lasted."<ref name="Glansdorff Xu Labedan 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Glansdorff |first1=Nicolas |last2=Xu |first2=Ying |last3=Labedan |first3=Bernard |title=The Last Universal Common Ancestor: emergence, constitution and genetic legacy of an elusive forerunner |journal=Biology Direct |volume=3 |issue=1 |date=9 July 2008 |page=29 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-3-29 |pmid=18613974 |pmc=2478661 |s2cid=18250196 |doi-access=free }}</ref> <br />
<br />
The theory of a universal common ancestry of life is widely accepted. In 2010, based on "the vast array of molecular sequences now available from all domains of life,"<ref name="Steel">{{cite journal |last1=Steel |first1=M. |last2=Penny |first2=D. |s2cid=205055573 |title=Origins of life: Common ancestry put to the test |journal=Nature |volume=465 |issue=7295 |pages=168–169 |date=May 2010 |pmid=20463725 |doi=10.1038/465168a |bibcode=2010Natur.465..168S|doi-access=free }}</ref> D. L. Theobald published a "[[statistical hypothesis test|formal test]]" of universal common ancestry (UCA). This deals with the [[common descent]] of all extant terrestrial organisms, each being a genealogical descendant of a single species from the distant past. His formal test favoured the existence of a universal common ancestry over a wide class of alternative hypotheses that included horizontal gene transfer. Basic biochemical principles imply that all organisms do have a common ancestry.<ref name="Theobald-2010">{{cite journal |last=Theobald |first=D. L. |s2cid=4422345 |title=A formal test of the theory of universal common ancestry |journal=Nature |volume=465 |issue=7295 |pages=219–222 |date=May 2010 |pmid=20463738 |doi=10.1038/nature09014 |bibcode=2010Natur.465..219T }}</ref><br />
<br />
A proposed, earlier, non-cellular ancestor to LUCA is the [[First universal common ancestor]] (FUCA).<ref name="Prosdocimi 2019">{{cite book |last1=Prosdocimi |first1=Francisco |date=2019 |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30363-1_3 |title=Evolution, Origin of Life, Concepts and Methods |pages=43–54 |editor-last=Pontarotti |editor-first=Pierre |access-date=2023-11-02 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-30363-1_3 |isbn=978-3-030-30363-1 |last2=José |first2=Marco V. |last3=de Farias |first3=Sávio Torres|chapter=The First Universal Common Ancestor (FUCA) as the Earliest Ancestor of LUCA's (Last UCA) Lineage |s2cid=199534387 }}</ref><ref name="Prosdocimi 2023">{{Citation |last1=Prosdocimi |first1=Francisco |last2=José |first2=Marco V. |last3=de Farias |first3=Sávio Torres |chapter=The First Universal Common Ancestor (FUCA) as the Earliest Ancestor of LUCA's (Last UCA) Lineage |date=2019 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30363-1_3 |title=Evolution, Origin of Life, Concepts and Methods |pages=43–54 |editor-last=Pontarotti |editor-first=Pierre |access-date=2023-11-02 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-30363-1_3 |isbn=978-3-030-30363-1 |s2cid=199534387 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223214032/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-30363-1_3 |url-status=live }}</ref> FUCA would therefore be the ancestor to every modern cell as well as ancient, now-extinct cellular lineages not descendant of LUCA. FUCA is assumed to have had other descendants than LUCA, none of which have modern descendants. Some genes of these ancient now-extinct cell lineages are thought to have been [[Horizontal gene transfer|horizontally transferred]] into the genome of early descendants of LUCA.<ref name="Harris Hill 2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Harris |first1=Hugh M. B. |last2=Hill |first2=Colin |date=2021 |title=A Place for Viruses on the Tree of Life |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2020.604048 |pmid=33519747 |pmc=7840587 |issn=1664-302X |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
== LUCA and viruses ==<br />
<br />
The [[Viral evolution|origin of viruses]] remains disputed. Since viruses need host cells for their replication, it is likely that they emerged ''after'' the [[Evolution of cells|formation of cells]]. Viruses may even have multiple origins and different types of viruses may have evolved independently over the history of life.<ref name="Brock_2022"/> There are different hypotheses for the origins of viruses, for instance an early viral origin from the [[RNA world]] or a later viral origin from [[Selfish dna|selfish DNA]].<ref name="Brock_2022"/><br />
<br />
Based on how viruses are currently distributed across the [[bacteria]] and [[archaea]], the LUCA is suspected of having been prey to multiple viruses, ancestral to those that now have those two domains as their hosts.<ref name="KrupovicLUCA2020">{{cite journal |last1=Krupovic |first1=M. |last2=Dolja |first2=V. V. |last3=Koonin |first3=Eugene V. |author3-link=Eugene V. Koonin |title=The LUCA and its complex virome. |journal=Nature Reviews Microbiology |date=2020 |volume=18 |issue=11 |pages=661–670 |doi=10.1038/s41579-020-0408-x |pmid=32665595 |s2cid=220516514 |url=https://hal-pasteur.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-02909671/file/Krupovic_Koonin_edit_1591967607_1_R2_upload.pdf |access-date=15 August 2021 |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021002511/https://hal-pasteur.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-02909671/file/Krupovic_Koonin_edit_1591967607_1_R2_upload.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Furthermore, extensive virus evolution seems to have preceded the LUCA, since the [[Jelly roll fold|jelly-roll structure]] of [[capsid]] proteins is shared by RNA and DNA viruses across all three domains of life.<ref name="Forterre Prangishvili 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Forterre |first1=Patrick |last2=Prangishvili |first2=David |title=The origin of viruses |journal=Research in Microbiology |volume=160 |issue=7 |year=2009 |doi=10.1016/j.resmic.2009.07.008 |pages=466–472|pmid=19647075 |s2cid=2767388 }}</ref><ref name="Durzyńska Goździcka-Józefiak 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Durzyńska |first1=Julia |last2=Goździcka-Józefiak |first2=Anna |title=Viruses and cells intertwined since the dawn of evolution |journal=Virology Journal |volume=12 |issue=1 |date=16 October 2015 |page=169 |doi=10.1186/s12985-015-0400-7 |pmid=26475454 |pmc=4609113 |doi-access=free }}</ref> LUCA's viruses were probably mainly dsDNA viruses in the groups called ''[[Duplodnaviria]]'' and ''[[Varidnaviria]]''. Two other [[single-stranded DNA virus]] groups within the ''[[Monodnaviria]]'', the ''[[Microviridae]]'' and the ''[[Tubulavirales]]'', likely infected the last bacterial common ancestor. The last archaeal common ancestor was probably host to spindle-shaped viruses. All of these could well have affected the LUCA, in which case each must since have been lost in the host domain where it is no longer extant. By contrast, RNA viruses do not appear to have been important parasites of LUCA, even though straightforward thinking might have envisaged viruses as beginning with [[RNA viruses]] directly derived from an RNA world. Instead, by the time the LUCA lived, RNA viruses had probably already been out-competed by DNA viruses.<ref name="KrupovicLUCA2020"/><br />
<br />
LUCA might have been the ancestor to some viruses, as it might have had at least two descendants: LUCELLA, the Last Universal Cellular Ancestor, the ancestor to all cells, and the archaic virocell ancestor, the ancestor to large-to-medium-sized [[DNA virus|DNA viruses]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nasir |first1=Arshan |last2=Kim |first2=Kyung Mo |last3=Caetano-Anollés |first3=Gustavo |date=2012-09-01 |title=Viral evolution |journal=Mobile Genetic Elements |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=247–252 |doi=10.4161/mge.22797 |issn=2159-2543 |pmc=3575434 |pmid=23550145}}</ref> Viruses might have evolved before LUCA but after the [[First universal common ancestor]] (FUCA), according to the reduction hypothesis, where [[Giant virus|giant viruses]] evolved from primordial cells that became [[Parasitism|parasitic]].<ref name="Harris Hill 2021"/><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
* {{annotated link|Abiogenesis}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Cellularization}} <br />
* {{annotated link|Chemoton}} <br />
* {{annotated link|Darwinian threshold}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Last eukaryotic common ancestor}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Mitochondrial Eve}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Pre-cell}} <br />
* {{Annotated link|Proto-metabolism|prefer=explicit}} <br />
* {{annotated link|Timeline of the evolutionary history of life}} <br />
* {{annotated link|Urmetazoan}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Y-chromosomal Adam}}<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist|25em}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
<br />
<!--RS books only--><br />
* {{cite book |last=Lane |first=Nick |author-link=Nick Lane |title=[[The Vital Question]] |year=2016 |orig-date=2015 |publisher=[[Profile Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-1781250372 |ref=none}}<br />
<br />
{{Origin of life}}<br />
{{Evolution}}<br />
{{Self-replicating organic structures}}<br />
{{Organisms et al.}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Origin of life]]<br />
[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]<br />
[[Category:Genetic genealogy]]<br />
[[Category:Phylogenetics]]<br />
[[Category:Hypothetical life forms]]<br />
[[Category:Most recent common ancestors]]<br />
[[Category:Events in biological evolution]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Last_universal_common_ancestor&diff=1251867445Last universal common ancestor2024-10-18T15:03:37Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Most recent common ancestor of all current life on Earth}}<br />
{{good article}}<br />
{{Redirect|LUCA|other uses|Luca (disambiguation){{!}}Luca}}<br />
{{use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}<br />
[[File:Phylogenetic tree of life 1990 LUCA.svg|thumb|upright=1.75|[[Phylogenetic tree]] linking all major groups of living organisms, namely the [[Bacteria]], [[Archaea]], and [[Eukaryote|Eukarya]], as proposed by Woese et al 1990,<ref name="Woese Kandler Wheelis 1990"/> with the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) shown at the root]]<br />
<br />
The '''last universal common ancestor''' ('''LUCA''') is the hypothesized common ancestral [[Cell (biology)|cell]] from which the [[Three-domain system|three domains of life]],<!--<ref name="Woese Kandler Wheelis 1990"/>--> the [[Bacteria]], the [[Archaea]], and the [[Eukarya]] originated. The cell had a [[lipid bilayer]]; it possessed the [[genetic code]] and [[ribosome]]s which translated from [[DNA]] or [[RNA]] to [[protein]]s. The LUCA probably existed at latest 3.6 billion years ago, and possibly as early as 4.3 billion years ago<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moody |first1=Edmund |last2=Álvarez-Carretero |first2=Sandra |last3=Mahendrarajah |first3=Tara |title=The nature of the last universal common ancestor and its impact on the early Earth system |journal=[[Nature Ecology and Evolution]] |date=12 July 2024 |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=1654–1666 |doi=10.1038/s41559-024-02461-1 |doi-access=free |pmid=38997462 |pmc=11383801 }}</ref> or earlier. The nature of this point or stage of divergence remains a topic of research.<!--<ref name="Harold_2014"/>--><br />
<!--refs only for DIRECT QUOTATIONS in lead, all else to article body please--><br />
<br />
All earlier forms of life preceding this divergence and all extant organisms are generally thought to share [[common ancestry]]. On the basis of a formal statistical test, this theory of a universal common ancestry (UCA) is supported versus competing multiple-ancestry hypotheses.<!--<ref name="Theobald-2010"/>--> The [[first universal common ancestor]] (FUCA) is a hypothetical non-cellular ancestor to LUCA and other now-extinct sister lineages.<br />
<!--refs only for DIRECT QUOTATIONS in lead, all else to article body please--><br />
<br />
Whether the genesis of [[virus]]es falls before or after the LUCA–as well as the diversity of extant viruses and their hosts–remains a subject of investigation.<br />
<!--refs only for DIRECT QUOTATIONS in lead, all else to article body please--><br />
<br />
While no fossil evidence of the LUCA exists, the detailed biochemical similarity of all current life (divided into the three domains) makes its existence widely accepted by biochemists. Its characteristics can be inferred from [[phylogenetic bracketing|shared features of modern genomes]]. These genes describe a complex life form with many [[co-adapted]] features, including [[transcription (biology)|transcription]] and [[translation (biology)|translation]] mechanisms to convert information from [[DNA]] to [[mRNA]] to [[protein]]s.<br />
<!--refs only for DIRECT QUOTATIONS in lead, all else to article body please--><br />
<br />
== Historical background ==<br />
<br />
{{further|Tree of life (biology)}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Darwin Tree 1837.png|thumb|upright|A [[Tree of life (biology)|tree of life]], like this one from [[Charles Darwin]]'s notebooks {{circa|July&nbsp;1837}}, implies a single common ancestor at its root (labelled "1").]]<br />
<br />
A [[phylogenetic tree]] directly portrays the idea of [[evolution]] by [[common descent|descent from a single ancestor]]<!-- at the root of the tree-->.<ref name="Gregory 2008">{{cite journal |last=Gregory |first=T. Ryan |year=2008 |title=Understanding evolutionary trees |journal=Evolution: Education and Outreach |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–137 |doi=10.1007/s12052-008-0035-x|s2cid=15488906 |doi-access=free }}</ref><!-- <ref name="Baum Smith Donovan 2005">{{cite journal |last=Baum |first=David A. |last2=Smith |first2=Stacey DeWitt |last3=Donovan |first3=Samuel S. S. |title=The Tree-Thinking Challenge |journal=Science |volume=310 |issue=5750 |date=2005 |doi=10.1126/science.1117727 |pages=979–980}}</ref> --> An early tree of life was sketched by [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] in his ''[[Philosophie zoologique]]'' in 1809.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lamarck |first=Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet de |author-link=Jean-Baptiste Lamarck |title=Philosophie zoologique |orig-date=1809 |year=1994 |location=Paris |page=737 <!-- |oclc=31599154 --> |url=https://ia801004.us.archive.org/28/items/LamarckPZ/Lamarck_PZ.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Noble |first=Denis |author-link=Denis Noble |date=1 July 2020 |title=Editorial: Charles Darwin, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, and 21st&nbsp;century arguments on the fundamentals of biology |journal=Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology |volume=153 |pages=1–4 |doi=10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2020.02.005 |pmid=32092299 |s2cid=211475380 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079610720300134 |access-date=2022-12-23 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301193402/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079610720300134 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Charles Darwin]] more famously proposed the theory of universal common descent through an evolutionary process in his book ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' in 1859: "Therefore I should infer from analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed."<ref name="Darwin 1859">{{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Darwin |year=1859 |title=The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection |pages=484, 490<!-- original pages --> |publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]] |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F373&pageseq=484 |access-date=8 October 2022 |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008150204/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F373&pageseq=484 |url-status=live }}</ref> The last sentence of the book begins with a restatement of the hypothesis:<br />
{{blockquote|text=There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one&nbsp;...|source=<ref name="Darwin 1859"/>}}<br />
<br />
The term "last universal common ancestor" or "LUCA" was first used in the 1990s for such a primordial organism.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Wikham |first=Gene Stephen |date=March 1995 |title=The molecular phylogenetic analysis of naturally occurring hyperthermophilic microbial communities |publisher=[[Indiana University]] |degree=PhD |page=4}} {{ProQuest|304192982}}</ref><ref name="Forterre 1997 pp. 764–770">{{cite journal |last=Forterre |first=Patrick |year=1997 |title=Archaea: What can we learn from their sequences? |journal=Current Opinion in Genetics & Development |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=764–770 |doi=10.1016/s0959-437x(97)80038-x|pmid=9468785 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Koonin |first1=Eugene V. |author1-link=Eugene Koonin |last2=Galperin |first2=Michael Y. |year=2003 |title=Sequence - Evolution - Function: Computational approaches in comparative genomics |location=Boston, MA |publisher=Kluwer |isbn=978-1-4757-3783-7 |page=252 |oclc=55642057 }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Inferring LUCA's features ==<br />
<br />
=== An anaerobic thermophile ===<br />
<br />
{{further|Phylogenetic bracketing}}<br />
<br />
{{multiple image<br />
|align = center<br />
|total_width = 850<br />
|image1 = Inferring LUCA's genome.svg<br />
|caption1 = A direct way to infer LUCA's [[genome]] would be to find genes common to all surviving descendants, but little can be learnt by this approach, as there are only about 30 such genes. They are mostly for [[ribosome]] proteins, proving that LUCA had the [[genetic code]]. Many other LUCA genes have been lost in later lineages over 4 billion years of evolution.<ref name="Weiss Preiner Xavier 2018"/><br />
|image2 = Three ways to infer genes present in LUCA.jpg<br />
|caption2 = Three ways to infer genes present in LUCA: universal presence, presence in both the [[Bacteria]]l and [[Archaea]]n domains, and presence in two [[Phylum|phyla]] in both domains. The first yields as stated only about 30 genes; the second, some 11,000 with [[Horizontal gene transfer|lateral gene transfer]] (LGT) very likely; the third, 355 genes probably in LUCA, since they were found in at least two phyla in both domains, making LGT an unlikely explanation.<ref name="Weiss Preiner Xavier 2018"/><br />
}}<br />
<br />
In 2016, Madeline C. Weiss and colleagues genetically analyzed 6.1 million protein-coding genes and 286,514 protein clusters from sequenced [[Prokaryote|prokaryotic]] genomes representing many [[Phylogenetic tree|phylogenetic trees]], and identified 355 protein clusters that were probably common to the LUCA. The results of their analysis are highly specific, though debated. They depict LUCA as "[[Anaerobic organism|anaerobic]], [[Carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]]-fixing, [[Hydrogen|H<sub>2</sub>]]-dependent with a [[Wood–Ljungdahl pathway]] (the reductive [[Acetyl-CoA|acetyl-coenzyme A]] pathway), [[Nitrogen|N<sub>2</sub>]]-fixing and [[Thermophile|thermophilic]]. LUCA's biochemistry was replete with [[Iron(II) sulfide|FeS]] clusters and [[Radical (chemistry)|radical]] reaction mechanisms."<ref name="Weiss et al 20162">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Madeline C. |last2=Sousa |first2=F. L. |last3=Mrnjavac |first3=N. |last4=Neukirchen |first4=S. |last5=Roettger |first5=M. |last6=Nelson-Sathi |first6=S. |last7=Martin |first7=William F. |author7-link=William F. Martin |display-authors=3 |year=2016 |title=The physiology and habitat of the last universal common ancestor |url=http://complexityexplorer.s3.amazonaws.com/supplemental_materials/3.6+Early+Metabolisms/Weiss_et_al_Nat_Microbiol_2016.pdf |journal=Nature Microbiology |volume=1 |issue=9 |page=16116 |doi=10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.116 |pmid=27562259 |s2cid=2997255 |access-date=10 October 2022 |archive-date=18 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418220101/https://complexityexplorer.s3.amazonaws.com/supplemental_materials/3.6+Early+Metabolisms/Weiss_et_al_Nat_Microbiol_2016.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Cofactor (biochemistry)|cofactors]] also reveal "dependence upon [[Transition metal|transition metals]], [[Flavin mononucleotide|flavins]], [[S-adenosyl methionine]], [[coenzyme A]], [[ferredoxin]], [[molybdopterin]], [[Corrin|corrins]] and [[selenium]]. Its genetic code required [[nucleoside]] modifications and S-adenosylmethionine-dependent [[Methylation|methylations]]."<ref name="Weiss et al 20162" /> They show that [[Methanogen|methanogenic]] [[Clostridium|clostridia]] were [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal, near the root of the phylogenetic tree]], in the 355<!--yes, the same 355--> protein lineages examined, and that the LUCA may therefore have inhabited an anaerobic [[hydrothermal vent]] setting in a geochemically active environment rich in H<sub>2</sub>, CO<sub>2</sub>, and iron, where [[ocean]] water interacted with hot [[magma]] beneath the [[Seabed|ocean floor]].<ref name="Weiss et al 20162" /> It is even inferred that LUCA also grew from H<sub>2</sub> and CO<sub>2</sub> via the reverse incomplete Krebs cycle.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Harrison |first1=Stuart A. |last2=Palmeira |first2=Raquel Nunes |last3=Halpern |first3=Aaron |last4=Lane |first4=Nick |date=2022-11-01 |title=A biophysical basis for the emergence of the genetic code in protocells |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics |volume=1863 |issue=8 |pages=148597 |doi=10.1016/j.bbabio.2022.148597 |pmid=35868450 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Other metabolic pathways inferred in LUCA are the [[pentose phosphate pathway]], [[glycolysis]], and [[gluconeogenesis]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Harrison |first1=Stuart A. |last2=Lane |first2=Nick |date=2018-12-12 |title=Life as a guide to prebiotic nucleotide synthesis |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=5176 |bibcode=2018NatCo...9.5176H |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-07220-y |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=6289992 |pmid=30538225}}</ref> Even if phylogenetic evidence may point to a hydrothermal vent environment for a thermophilic LUCA, this does not constitute evidence that the [[Abiogenesis|origin of life]] took place at a hydrothermal vent since mass extinctions may have removed previously existing branches of life.<ref name="Cantine-2017" /> <br />
<br />
While the gross anatomy of the LUCA can be reconstructed only with much uncertainty, its [[Metabolic pathway|biochemical mechanisms]] can be described in some detail, based on the "universal" properties currently shared by all independently living organisms on Earth.<ref name="W19982">{{cite journal |last=Wächtershäuser |first=Günter |year=1998 |title=Towards a Reconstruction of Ancestral Genomes by Gene Cluster Alignment |journal=Systematic and Applied Microbiology |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=473–474, IN1, 475–477 |doi=10.1016/S0723-2020(98)80058-1 |bibcode=1998SyApM..21N1475W }}</ref><br />
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[[File:LUCA systems and environment.svg|thumb|upright=2|LUCA systems and environment, including the [[Wood–Ljungdahl pathway|Wood–Ljungdahl or reductive acetyl–CoA pathway]] to [[Carbon fixation|fix carbon]], and most likely [[DNA]] complete with the [[genetic code]] and [[enzyme]]s to [[DNA replication|replicate]] it, [[Transcription (biology)|transcribe it to RNA]], and [[Translation (biology)|translate it to proteins]].]]<br />
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The LUCA certainly had [[gene]]s and a [[genetic code]].<ref name="Weiss Preiner Xavier 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Madeline C. |last2=Preiner |first2=Martina |last3=Xavier |first3=Joana C. |last4=Zimorski |first4=Verena |last5=Martin |first5=William F. |date=2018-08-16 |title=The last universal common ancestor between ancient Earth chemistry and the onset of genetics |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=e1007518 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1007518 |pmc=6095482 |pmid=30114187 |s2cid=52019935 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Its genetic material was most likely DNA,<ref name="W1998">{{cite journal |last=Wächtershäuser |first=Günter |year=1998 |title=Towards a Reconstruction of Ancestral Genomes by Gene Cluster Alignment |journal=Systematic and Applied Microbiology |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=473–474, IN1, 475–477 |doi=10.1016/S0723-2020(98)80058-1 |bibcode=1998SyApM..21N1475W }}</ref> so that it lived after the [[RNA world]].{{efn|Other studies propose that LUCA may have been defined wholly through [[RNA]],<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21228404-300-life-began-with-a-planetary-mega-organism/ |title=Life began with a planetary mega-organism |last=Marshall |first=Michael |magazine=[[New Scientist]] |access-date=31 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160725170104/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21228404-300-life-began-with-a-planetary-mega-organism/ |archive-date=25 July 2016 |df=dmy-all |url-status=live}}</ref> consisted of a RNA-DNA hybrid genome, or possessed a retrovirus-like genetic cycle with DNA serving as a stable genetic repository.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koonin |first1=Eugene V. |last2=Martin |first2=William |date=1 December 2005 |df=dmy-all |title=On the origin of genomes and cells within inorganic compartments |journal=Trends in Genetics |volume=21 |issue=12 |pages=647–654 |doi=10.1016/j.tig.2005.09.006 |pmid=16223546 |pmc=7172762 }}</ref>}}<ref name="PiP">{{cite journal |last=Garwood |first=Russell J. |title=Patterns In Palaeontology: The first 3 billion years of evolution |year=2012 |journal=Palaeontology Online |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=1–14 |url=http://www.palaeontologyonline.com/articles/2012/patterns-in-palaeontology-the-first-3-billion-years-of-evolution/ |access-date=June 25, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626104131/http://www.palaeontologyonline.com/articles/2012/patterns-in-palaeontology-the-first-3-billion-years-of-evolution/ |archive-date=June 26, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> The DNA was kept double-stranded by an [[enzyme]], [[DNA polymerase]], which recognises the structure and directionality of DNA.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koonin |first1=Eugene V. |author1-link=Eugene V. Koonin |last2=Krupovic |first2=M. |last3=Ishino |first3=S. |last4=Ishino |first4=Y. |title=The replication machinery of LUCA: common origin of DNA replication and transcription. |journal=BMC Biology |date=2020 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=61 |doi=10.1186/s12915-020-00800-9 |pmid=32517760 |pmc=7281927 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The integrity of the DNA was maintained by a group of [[DNA repair|repair]] enzymes including [[DNA topoisomerase]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Muzammil |last2=Xu |first2=Dongyi |last3=Wang |first3=Weidong |date=2017-05-23 |df=dmy-all |title=Type IA topoisomerases can be "magicians" for both DNA and RNA in all domains of life |journal=RNA Biology |volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=854–864 |doi=10.1080/15476286.2017.1330741 |pmc=5546716 |pmid=28534707 }}</ref> If the genetic code was based on [[Nucleic acid double helix|dual-stranded DNA]], it was expressed by copying the information to single-stranded RNA. The RNA was produced by a DNA-dependent [[RNA polymerase]] using nucleotides similar to those of DNA<!--, with the exception that the DNA nucleotide [[thymidine]] was replaced by [[uridine]] in RNA-->.<ref name="W1998"/> It had multiple [[DNA-binding protein]]s, such as histone-fold proteins.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lupas |first1=Andrei N. |last2=Alva |first2=Vikram |year=2018 |title=Histones predate the split between bacteria and archaea |journal=Bioinformatics |volume=35 |issue=14 |pages=2349–2353 |doi=10.1093/bioinformatics/bty1000 |pmid=30520969}}</ref> The genetic code was expressed into [[protein]]s. These were assembled from 20 free [[amino acid]]s by [[Translation (biology)|translation]] of a [[messenger RNA]] via a mechanism of [[ribosome]]s, [[transfer RNA]]s, and a group of related proteins.<ref name=W1998/><br />
<br />
LUCA was likely capable of [[sexual reproduction|sexual interaction]] in the sense that adaptive gene functions were present that promoted the transfer of DNA between individuals of the population to facilitate [[genetic recombination]]. Homologous gene products that promote genetic recombination are present in bacteria, archaea and eukaryota, such as the [[RecA]] protein in bacteria, the RadA protein in archaea, and the [[RAD51|Rad51]] and [[DMC1 (gene)|Dmc1]] proteins in eukaryota.<ref>Bernstein, H., Bernstein, C. (2017). Sexual Communication in Archaea, the Precursor to Eukaryotic Meiosis. In: Witzany, G. (eds) Biocommunication of Archaea. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65536-9_7 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223213424/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-65536-9_7 |date=23 February 2024 }}</ref><br />
<br />
The functionality of LUCA as well as evidence for the early evolution membrane-dependent biological systems together suggest that LUCA had cellularity and cell membranes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gogarten |first1=Johann Peter |last2=Taiz |first2=Lincoln |date=1992 |title=Evolution of proton pumping ATPases: Rooting the tree of life |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00039176 |journal=Photosynthesis Research |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=137–146 |doi=10.1007/bf00039176 |pmid=24408574 |bibcode=1992PhoRe..33..137G |s2cid=20013957 |issn=0166-8595 |access-date=4 December 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223213452/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00039176 |url-status=live }}</ref> As for the cell's gross structure, it contained a water-based [[cytoplasm]] effectively enclosed by a [[lipid bilayer]] membrane; it was capable of reproducing by cell division.<ref name="W19984">{{cite journal |last=Wächtershäuser |first=Günter |year=1998 |title=Towards a Reconstruction of Ancestral Genomes by Gene Cluster Alignment |journal=Systematic and Applied Microbiology |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=473–474, IN1, 475–477 |doi=10.1016/S0723-2020(98)80058-1|bibcode=1998SyApM..21N1475W }}</ref> It tended to exclude [[sodium]] and concentrate [[potassium]] by means of specific [[Ion transporter|ion transporters]] (or ion pumps). The cell multiplied by duplicating all its contents followed by [[cellular division]]. The cell used [[chemiosmosis]] to produce energy. It also [[Redox|reduced]] CO<sub>2</sub> and oxidized H<sub>2</sub> ([[methanogenesis]] or [[acetogenesis]]) via [[acetyl]]-[[Thioester|thioesters]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=W. |last2=Russell |first2=M. J. |date=October 2007 |title=On the origin of biochemistry at an alkaline hydrothermal vent |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |volume=362 |issue=1486 |pages=1887–1925 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1881 |pmc=2442388 |pmid=17255002}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lane |first1=Nick |author1-link=Nick Lane |last2=Allen |first2=J. F. |last3=Martin |first3=William |author3-link=William F. Martin |date=April 2010 |title=How did LUCA make a living? Chemiosmosis in the origin of life |journal=BioEssays |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=271–280 |doi=10.1002/bies.200900131 |pmid=20108228}}</ref><br />
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By [[phylogenetic bracketing]], analysis of the presumed LUCA's offspring groups, LUCA appears to have been a small, single-celled organism. It likely had a ring-shaped coil of [[DNA]] floating freely within the cell. Morphologically, it would likely not have stood out within a mixed population of small modern-day bacteria. The originator of the [[three-domain system]], [[Carl Woese]], stated that in its genetic machinery, the LUCA would have been a "simpler, more rudimentary entity than the individual ancestors that spawned the three [domains] (and their descendants)".<ref name="Woese Kandler Wheelis 1990">{{cite journal |last1=Woese |first1=C.R. |author1-link=Carl Woese |last2=Kandler |first2=O. |author-link2=Otto Kandler |last3=Wheelis |first3=M.L. |author-link3=Mark Wheelis |date=June 1990 |title=Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya |journal=PNAS |volume=87 |issue=12 |pages=4576–4579 |bibcode=1990PNAS...87.4576W |doi=10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 |doi-access=free |pmc=54159 |pmid=2112744}}</ref> <br />
<br />
[[File:Reduktiver Acetyl-CoA-Weg.png|thumb|upright=1.6|The LUCA used the [[Wood–Ljungdahl pathway|Wood–Ljungdahl or reductive acetyl–CoA pathway]] to [[Carbon fixation|fix carbon]], if it was an [[autotroph]], or to [[Anaerobic respiration|respire anaerobically]], if it was a [[heterotroph]].]]<br />
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An alternative to the search for "universal" traits is to use genome analysis to identify phylogenetically ancient genes. This gives a picture of a LUCA that could live in a geochemically harsh environment and is like modern prokaryotes. Analysis of biochemical pathways implies the same sort of chemistry as does phylogenetic analysis. Weiss and colleagues write that "Experiments ... demonstrate that ... [[Wood–Ljungdahl pathway|acetyl-CoA pathway]] [chemicals used in anaerobic respiration] [[formate]], [[methanol]], [[Acetyl group|acetyl]] moieties, and even [[pyruvate]] arise spontaneously ... from CO<sub>2</sub>, native metals, and water", a combination present in hydrothermal vents.<ref name="Weiss Preiner Xavier 20182">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Madeline C. |last2=Preiner |first2=Martina |last3=Xavier |first3=Joana C. |last4=Zimorski |first4=Verena |last5=Martin |first5=William F. |date=2018-08-16 |title=The last universal common ancestor between ancient Earth chemistry and the onset of genetics |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=e1007518 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1007518 |pmc=6095482 |pmid=30114187 |s2cid=52019935 |doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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An experiment shows that Zn<sup>2+</sup>, Cr<sup>3+</sup>, and Fe can promote 6 of the 11 reactions of an ancient anabolic pathway called the [[reverse Krebs cycle]] in acidic conditions which implies that LUCA might have inhabited either hydrothermal vents or acidic metal-rich hydrothermal fields.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muchowska |first1=Kamila B. |last2=Varma |first2=Sreejith J. |last3=Chevallot-Beroux |first3=Elodie |last4=Lethuillier-Karl |first4=Lucas |last5=Li |first5=Guang |last6=Moran |first6=Joseph |date=2 October 2017 |title=Metals promote sequences of the reverse Krebs cycle |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320171263 |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=1 |issue=11 |pages=1716–1721 |doi=10.1038/s41559-017-0311-7 |issn=2397-334X |pmc=5659384 |pmid=28970480 |bibcode=2017NatEE...1.1716M }}</ref><br />
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Because both bacteria and archaea have differences in the structure of phospholipids and cell wall, ion pumping, most proteins involved in DNA replication, and glycolysis, it is inferred that LUCA had a permeable membrane without an ion pump. The emergence of Na<sup>+</sup>/H<sup>+</sup> antiporters likely lead to the evolution of impermeable membranes present in eukaryotes, archaea, and bacteria. It is stated that "The late and independent evolution of glycolysis but not gluconeogenesis is entirely consistent with LUCA being powered by natural proton gradients across leaky membranes. Several discordant traits are likely to be linked to the late evolution of cell membranes, notably the cell wall, whose synthesis depends on the membrane and DNA replication".<ref name="Sojo Pomiankowski Lane 20142">{{Cite journal |last1=Sojo |first1=Víctor |last2=Pomiankowski |first2=Andrew |last3=Lane |first3=Nick |author3-link=Nick Lane |date=2014-08-12 |title=A Bioenergetic Basis for Membrane Divergence in Archaea and Bacteria |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=e1001926 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001926 |pmc=4130499 |pmid=25116890 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Although LUCA likely had DNA, it is unknown if it could replicate DNA and is suggested to "might just have been a chemically stable repository for RNA-based replication".<ref name="Weiss Preiner Xavier 20183">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Madeline C. |last2=Preiner |first2=Martina |last3=Xavier |first3=Joana C. |last4=Zimorski |first4=Verena |last5=Martin |first5=William F. |date=2018-08-16 |title=The last universal common ancestor between ancient Earth chemistry and the onset of genetics |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=e1007518 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1007518 |pmc=6095482 |pmid=30114187 |s2cid=52019935 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It is likely that the permeable membrane of LUCA was composed of archaeal lipids ([[isoprenoids]]) and bacterial lipids ([[Fatty acid|fatty acids]]). Isoprenoids would have enhanced stabilization of LUCA's membrane in the surrounding extreme habitat. Nick Lane and coauthors state that "The advantages and disadvantages of incorporating isoprenoids into cell membranes in different microenvironments may have driven membrane divergence, with the later biosynthesis of phospholipids giving rise to the unique G1P and G3P headgroups of archaea and bacteria respectively. If so, the properties conferred by membrane isoprenoids place the lipid divide as early as the [[origin of life]]".<ref name="Jordan Nee Lane 20192">{{Cite journal |last1=Jordan |first1=S. F. |last2=Nee |first2=E. |last3=Lane |first3=Nick |author3-link=Nick Lane |date=18 October 2019 |title=Isoprenoids enhance the stability of fatty acid membranes at the emergence of life potentially leading to an early lipid divide |journal=Interface Focus |volume=9 |issue=6 |doi=10.1098/rsfs.2019.0067 |pmc=6802135 |pmid=31641436}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref><br />
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A 2024 study suggests that LUCA's genome was similar in size to that of modern prokaryotes, coding for some 2,600 proteins; that it respired anaerobically, and was an [[acetogen]]; and that it had an early [[CRISPR|CAS]]-based anti-viral immune system.<ref name="Moody et al 2024"/><br />
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=== Alternative interpretations ===<br />
<br />
Some other researchers have challenged Weiss et al.'s 2016 conclusions. Sarah Berkemer and Shawn McGlynn argue that Weiss et al. undersampled the families of proteins, so that the phylogenetic trees were not complete and failed to describe the evolution of proteins correctly. There are two risks in attempting to attribute LUCA's environment from near-universal gene distribution (as in Weiss et al. 2016). On the one hand, it risks misattributing [[Convergent evolution|convergence]] or horizontal gene transfer events to vertical descent; on the other hand, it risks misattributing potential LUCA gene families as horizontal gene transfer events. A phylogenomic and geochemical analysis of a set of proteins that probably traced to the LUCA show that it had K<sup>+</sup>-dependent GTPases and the ionic composition and concentration of its intracellular fluid was seemingly high K<sup>+</sup>/Na<sup>+</sup> ratio, {{chem|NH|4|+}}, Fe<sup>2+</sup>, CO<sup>2+</sup>, Ni<sup>2+</sup>, Mg<sup>2+</sup>, Mn<sup>2+</sup>, Zn<sup>2+</sup>, pyrophosphate, and {{chem|PO|3-|4}} which would imply a terrestrial [[hot spring]] habitat. It possibly had a phosphate-based metabolism. Further, these proteins were unrelated to [[Autotroph|autotrophy]] (the ability of an organism to create its own [[organic matter]]), suggesting that the LUCA had a [[Heterotroph|heterotrophic]] lifestyle (consuming organic matter) and that its growth was dependent on organic matter produced by the physical environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mulkidjanian |first1=Armen Y. |last2=Bychkov |first2=Andrew Yu |last3=Dibrova |first3=Daria V. |last4=Galperin |first4=Michael Y. |last5=Koonin |first5=Eugene V. |author5-link=Eugene V. Koonin |year=2012 |title=Origin of first cells at terrestrial, anoxic geothermal fields |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=109 |issue=14 |pages=E821-30 |bibcode=2012PNAS..109E.821M |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117774109 |pmc=3325685 |pmid=22331915 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Nick Lane]] argues that Na<sup>+</sup>/H<sup>+</sup> antiporters could readily explain the low concentration of Na<sup>+</sup> in the LUCA and its descendants.<br />
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The presence of the energy-handling enzymes [[CODH]]/[[Acetyl-CoA|acetyl-coenzyme A]] synthase in LUCA could be compatible not only with being an [[autotroph]] but also with life as a [[mixotroph]] or [[heterotroph]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adam |first1=Panagiotis S. |last2=Borrel |first2=Guillaume |last3=Gribaldo |first3=Simonetta |date=6 February 2018 |title=Evolutionary history of carbon monoxide dehydrogenase/acetyl-CoA synthase, one of the oldest enzymatic complexes |journal=PNAS |volume=115 |issue=6 |pages=E1166–E1173 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115E1166A |doi=10.1073/pnas.1716667115 |pmc=5819426 |pmid=29358391 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Weiss et al. 2018 reply that no enzyme defines a trophic lifestyle, and that heterotrophs evolved from autotrophs.<ref name="Weiss Preiner Xavier 20184">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Madeline C. |last2=Preiner |first2=Martina |last3=Xavier |first3=Joana C. |last4=Zimorski |first4=Verena |last5=Martin |first5=William F. |date=2018-08-16 |title=The last universal common ancestor between ancient Earth chemistry and the onset of genetics |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=e1007518 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1007518 |pmc=6095482 |pmid=30114187 |s2cid=52019935 |doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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==== Evidence that LUCA was mesophilic ====<br />
<br />
Several lines of evidence now suggest that LUCA was non-thermophilic.<br />
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The content of G + C nucleotide pairs (compared to the occurrence of A + T pairs) can indicate an organism's thermal optimum as they are more thermally stable due to an additional hydrogen bond. As a result they occur more frequently in the rRNA of thermophiles; however this is not seen in LUCA's reconstructed rRNA.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Galtier |first1=Nicolas |last2=Tourasse |first2=Nicolas |last3=Gouy |first3=Manolo |date=1999-01-08 |title=A Nonhyperthermophilic Common Ancestor to Extant Life Forms |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5399.220 |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5399 |pages=220–221 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5399.220 |pmid=9880254 |issn=0036-8075 |access-date=4 December 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223213446/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.283.5399.220 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Groussin |first1=Mathieu |last2=Boussau |first2=Bastien |last3=Charles |first3=Sandrine |last4=Blanquart |first4=Samuel |last5=Gouy |first5=Manolo |date=2013-10-23 |title=The molecular signal for the adaptation to cold temperature during early life on Earth |journal=Biology Letters |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=20130608 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2013.0608 |doi-access=free |pmid=24046876 |pmc=3971708 }}</ref><ref name="Cantine-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Cantine |first1=Marjorie D. |last2=Fournier |first2=Gregory P. |date=2017-07-06 |title=Environmental Adaptation from the Origin of Life to the Last Universal Common Ancestor |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11084-017-9542-5 |journal=Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=35–54 |doi=10.1007/s11084-017-9542-5 |pmid=28685374 |hdl=1721.1/114219 |s2cid=254888920 |hdl-access=free |access-date=4 December 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223213446/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11084-017-9542-5 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
The identification of thermophilic genes in the LUCA has been criticized,<ref name="GogartenDeamer20162">{{cite journal |last1=Gogarten |first1=Johann Peter |last2=Deamer |first2=David |year=2016 |title=Is LUCA a thermophilic progenote? |url=https://zenodo.org/record/895471 |journal=Nature Microbiology |volume=1 |issue=12 |pages=16229 |doi=10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.229 |pmid=27886195 |s2cid=205428194 |access-date=25 June 2019 |archive-date=3 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403040656/https://zenodo.org/record/895471 |url-status=live }}</ref> as they may instead represent genes that evolved later in archaea or bacteria, then migrated between these via [[horizontal gene transfer]], as in Woese's 1998 hypothesis.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Woese |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Woese |date=June 1998 |title=The universal ancestor |journal=PNAS |volume=95 |issue=12 |pages=6854–6859 |bibcode=1998PNAS...95.6854W |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.12.6854 |pmc=22660 |pmid=9618502 |doi-access=free}}</ref> LUCA could have been a mesophile that fixed CO<sub>2</sub> and relied on H<sub>2</sub>, and lived close to hydrothermal vents.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Camprubí |first1=E. |last2=de Leeuw |first2=J. W. |last3=House |first3=C. H. |last4=Raulin |first4=F. |last5=Russell |first5=M. J. |last6=Spang |first6=A. |last7=Tirumalai |first7=M. R. |last8=Westall |first8=F. |date=2019-12-12 |title=The Emergence of Life |journal=Space Science Reviews |volume=215 |issue=8 |pages=56 |bibcode=2019SSRv..215...56C |doi=10.1007/s11214-019-0624-8 |issn=1572-9672 |doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
Further evidence that LUCA was [[Mesophile|mesophilic]] comes from the amino acid composition of its proteins. The abundance of I, V, Y, W, R, E, and L amino acids (denoted IVYWREL) in an organism's proteins is correlated with its optimal growth temperature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zeldovich |first1=Konstantin B |last2=Berezovsky |first2=Igor N |last3=Shakhnovich |first3=Eugene I |date=2007 |title=Protein and DNA Sequence Determinants of Thermophilic Adaptation |journal=PLOS Computational Biology |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=e5 |doi=10.1371/journal.pcbi.0030005 |pmid=17222055 |pmc=1769408 |arxiv=q-bio/0607004 |bibcode=2007PLSCB...3....5Z |issn=1553-7358 |doi-access=free }}</ref> According to phylogentic analysis, the IVYWREL content of LUCA's proteins suggests its ideal temperature was below 50°C.<ref name="Cantine-2017"/><br />
<br />
Finally, evidence that bacteria and archaea both independently underwent phases of increased and subsequently decreased thermo-tolerance suggests a dramatic post-LUCA climate shift that affected both populations and would explain the seeming genetic pervasiveness of thermo-tolerant genetics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boussau |first1=Bastien |last2=Blanquart |first2=Samuel |last3=Necsulea |first3=Anamaria |last4=Lartillot |first4=Nicolas |last5=Gouy |first5=Manolo |date=2008-11-26 |title=Parallel adaptations to high temperatures in the Archaean eon |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature07393 |journal=Nature |volume=456 |issue=7224 |pages=942–945 |doi=10.1038/nature07393 |pmid=19037246 |bibcode=2008Natur.456..942B |s2cid=4348746 |access-date=4 December 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223213509/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature07393 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Age ==<br />
<br />
{{further|Abiogenesis}}<br />
<br />
Studies from 2000 to 2018 have suggested an increasingly ancient time for the LUCA. In 2000, estimates of the LUCA's age ranged from 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago in the [[Paleoarchean]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Doolittle |first=W. F. |date=February 2000 |title=Uprooting the tree of life |journal=[[Scientific American]] |volume=282 |issue=2 |pages=90–95 |bibcode=2000SciAm.282b..90D |pmid=10710791 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0200-90|jstor=26058605 }}</ref> a few hundred million years before the [[Earliest known life forms|earliest fossil evidence of life]], for which candidates range in age from 3.48 to 4.28 billion years ago.<ref name="AST-20131108">{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=N. |author1-link=Nora Noffke |last2=Christian |first2=D. |last3=Wacey |first3=D. |last4=Hazen |first4=R. M. |date=December 2013 |title=Microbially induced sedimentary structures recording an ancient ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 billion-year-old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |journal=Astrobiology |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–1124 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |pmc=3870916 |pmid=24205812 |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030}}</ref><ref name="NG-20131208">{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |year=2013 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hassenkam |first1=T. |last2=Andersson |first2=M. P. |last3=Dalby |first3=K. N. |last4=Mackenzie |first4=D. M. A. |last5=Rosing |first5=M. T. |display-authors=3 |s2cid=205257931 |year=2017 |title=Elements of Eoarchean life trapped in mineral inclusions |journal=Nature |volume=548 |issue=7665 |pages=78–81 |bibcode=2017Natur.548...78H |pmid=28738409 |doi=10.1038/nature23261}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnke |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |author-link4=Wendy Mao |date=24 November 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1&nbsp;billion-year-old zircon |journal=PNAS |volume=112 |issue=47 |pages=14518–14521 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |pmc=4664351 |pmid=26483481|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dodd |first1=Matthew S. |last2=Papineau |first2=Dominic |last3=Grenne |first3=Tor |author4=Slack, John F. |author5=Rittner, Martin |author6=Pirajno, Franco |author7=O'Neil, Jonathan |author8=Little, Crispin T. S. |display-authors=3 |s2cid=2420384 |date=2 March 2017 |title=Evidence for early life in Earth's oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates |journal=Nature |volume=543 |issue=7643 |pages=60–64 |bibcode=2017Natur.543...60D |doi=10.1038/nature21377 |pmid=28252057 |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/112179/1/ppnature21377_Dodd_for%20Symplectic.pdf |access-date=25 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723232142/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/112179/1/ppnature21377_Dodd_for%20Symplectic.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2018 |url-status=live|doi-access=free }}</ref> This placed the origin of the first forms of life shortly after the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] which was thought to have repeatedly sterilized Earth's surface. However, a 2018 study by Holly Betts and colleagues applied a [[molecular clock]] model to the genomic and fossil record (102 species, 29 common protein-coding genes, mostly ribosomal), concluding that LUCA preceded the Late Heavy Bombardment (making the LUCA over 3.9 billion years ago).<ref name="Betts Puttick Clark 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Betts |first1=Holly C. |last2=Puttick |first2=Mark N. |last3=Clark |first3=James W. |last4=Williams |first4=Tom A. |last5=Donoghue |first5=Philip C. J. |last6=Pisani |first6=Davide |title=Integrated genomic and fossil evidence illuminates life's early evolution and eukaryote origin |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |year=2018 |volume=2 |issue=10 |pages=1556–1562 |doi=10.1038/s41559-018-0644-x |pmid=30127539 |pmc=6152910|bibcode=2018NatEE...2.1556B }}</ref> A 2022 study suggested an age of around 3.6-4.2 billion years for the LUCA.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Moody |first1=Edmund RR |last2=Mahendrarajah |first2=Tara A. |last3=Dombrowski |first3=Nina |last4=Clark |first4=James W. |last5=Petitjean |first5=Celine |last6=Offre |first6=Pierre |last7=Szöllősi |first7=Gergely J. |last8=Spang |first8=Anja |last9=Williams |first9=Tom A. |date=2022-02-22 |title=An estimate of the deepest branches of the tree of life from ancient vertically evolving genes |journal=eLife |volume=11 |doi=10.7554/eLife.66695 |doi-access=free |issn=2050-084X |pmc=8890751 |pmid=35190025}}</ref> A 2024 study suggested that the LUCA lived around 4.2 billion years ago (with a confidence interval of 4.09–4.33 billion years ago).<ref name="Moody et al 2024">{{Cite journal |last1=Moody |first1=Edmund R. R. |last2=Álvarez-Carretero |first2=Sandra |last3=Mahendrarajah |first3=Tara A. |last4=Clark |first4=James W. |last5=Betts |first5=Holly C. |last6=Dombrowski |first6=Nina |last7=Szánthó |first7=Lénárd L. |last8=Boyle |first8=Richard A. |last9=Daines |first9=Stuart |last10=Chen |first10=Xi |last11=Lane |first11=Nick |author11-link=Nick Lane |last12=Yang |first12=Ziheng |last13=Shields |first13=Graham A. |last14=Szöllősi |first14=Gergely J. |last15=Spang |first15=Anja |date=12 July 2024 |title=The nature of the last universal common ancestor and its impact on the early Earth system |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution|volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=1654–1666 |doi=10.1038/s41559-024-02461-1 |doi-access=free |pmid=38997462 |pmc=11383801 }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Root of the tree of life ==<br />
<br />
[[File:Tree Of Life (with horizontal gene transfer).svg|thumb|2005 [[tree of life (biology)|tree of life]] showing [[horizontal gene transfer]]s between branches including (coloured lines) the [[symbiogenesis]] of [[plastid]]s and [[Mitochondrion|mitochondria]]. "Horizontal gene transfer and how it has impacted the evolution of life is presented through a web connecting bifurcating branches that complicate, yet do not erase, the tree of life".<ref name="Smets Barkay 2005">{{cite journal |last1=Smets |first1=Barth F. |last2=Barkay |first2=Tamar |title=Horizontal gene transfer: perspectives at a crossroads of scientific disciplines |journal=Nature Reviews Microbiology |date=September 2005 |volume=3 |issue=9 |pages=675–678 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro1253 |pmid=16145755 |s2cid=2265315 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7615190}}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
{{for|branching of bacteria phyla|Bacterial phyla}}<br />
<br />
In 1990, a novel concept of the [[Tree of life (biology)|tree of life]] was presented, dividing the living world into three stems, classified as the domains [[Bacteria]], [[Archaea]], [[Eukarya]].<ref name="Woese Kandler Wheelis 1990" /><ref name="Sapp2009">{{Cite book |last=Sapp |first=Jan A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d7zOviXnbSYC |title=The new foundations of evolution: on the tree of life |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-199-73438-2 |location=New York |pages=Chapter 19: 257ff (novel concept of the tree of life); Chapters 17-21 plus concluding remarks: 226-318 (discussion of the tree and its rooting); 286ff (LUCA) |author-link=Jan Sapp |access-date=21 November 2023 |archive-date=6 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106185704/https://books.google.com/books?id=d7zOviXnbSYC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Brock_2015">{{Cite book |last1=Madigan |first1=Michael T. |title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms |last2=Martinko |first2=John M. |last3=Bender |first3=Kelly S. |last4=Buckley |first4=Daniel H. |last5=Stahl |first5=David A. |publisher=Pearson Education Limited |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-292-01831-7 |edition=14 |location=Boston |pages=29; 374; 381}}</ref><ref name="Brock_2022">{{Cite book |last1=Madigan |first1=Michael T. |title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms |last2=Aiyer |first2=Jennifer |last3=Buckley |first3=Daniel H. |last4=Sattley |first4=Matthew |last5=Stahl |first5=David A. |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-292-40479-0 |edition=16 |location=Harlow |pages=Unit 3, chapter 13: 431 (LUCA); 435 (tree of life); 428, 438, 439 (viruses)}}</ref> It is the first tree founded exclusively on molecular phylogenetics, and which includes the evolution of microorganisms. It has been called a "universal phylogenetic tree in rooted form".<ref name="Woese Kandler Wheelis 1990"/> This tree and its rooting became the subject of debate.<ref name="Sapp2009"/>{{efn|One debate dealt with a former [[Cladistics|cladistic]] hypothesis: The tree could not be ascribed a root in the usual algorithmic way, because that would require an [[Outgroup (cladistics)|outgroup]] for reference. In the case of the universal tree, no outgroup would exist. <br />
The cladistic method was used "to root the purple bacteria, for example. But establishing a root for the universal tree of life, the branching order among the primary urkingdoms, was another matter entirely."{{sfn|Sapp|2009|p=255}} }}<br />
<br />
In the meantime, numerous modifications of this tree, mainly concerning the role and importance of horizontal gene transfer for its rooting and early ramifications have been suggested (e.g.<ref name="Brown Doolittle 1995" /><ref name="Smets Barkay 2005" />). Since heredity occurs both vertically and horizontally, the tree of life may have been more weblike or netlike in its early phase and more treelike when it grew three-stemmed.<ref name="Smets Barkay 2005" /> Presumably horizontal gene transfer has decreased with growing cell stability.<ref name="Harold_2014">{{Cite book |last=Harold |first=Franklin M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XjOOBAAAQBAJ&q=In+Search+of+Cell+History |title=In Search of Cell History: The Evolution of Life's Building Blocks |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-226-17428-0 |location=Chicago, London |access-date=12 October 2023 |archive-date=31 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031202816/https://books.google.com/books?id=XjOOBAAAQBAJ&q=In+Search+of+Cell+History |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
A modified version of the tree, based on several molecular studies, has its root between a [[monophyletic]] [[domain (biology)|domain]] [[Bacteria]] and a [[clade]] formed by [[Archaea]] and [[Eukaryota]].<ref name="Brown Doolittle 1995">{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=J. R. |last2=Doolittle |first2=W. F. |year=1995 |title=Root of the Universal Tree of Life Based on Ancient Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetase Gene Duplications |journal=PNAS |volume=92 |issue=7 |pages=2441–2445 |pmid=7708661 |pmc=42233 |doi=10.1073/pnas.92.7.2441 |bibcode=1995PNAS...92.2441B |doi-access=free }}</ref> A small minority of studies place the root in the domain bacteria, in the phylum [[Bacillota]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Valas |first1=R. E. |last2=Bourne |first2=P. E. |title=The origin of a derived superkingdom: how a gram-positive bacterium crossed the desert to become an archaeon |journal=Biology Direct |volume=6 |page=16 |year=2011 |pmid=21356104 |pmc=3056875 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-6-16 |doi-access=free }}</ref> or state that the phylum [[Chloroflexota]] (formerly Chloroflexi) is [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] to a clade with Archaea and Eukaryotes and the rest of bacteria (as proposed by [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith]]).<ref name="CS2">{{cite journal |last=Cavalier-Smith |first=Tom |author-link=Tom Cavalier-Smith |title=Rooting the tree of life by transition analyses |journal=Biology Direct |volume=1 |page=19 |year=2006 |pmid=16834776 |pmc=1586193 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-1-19 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Metagenomics|Metagenomic]] analyses recover a two-domain system with the domains Archaea and Bacteria; in this view of the tree of life, Eukaryotes are derived from Archaea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Raymann |first1=Kasie |last2=Brochier-Armanet |first2=Céline |last3=Gribaldo |first3=Simonetta |date=2015-05-26 |title=The two-domain tree of life is linked to a new root for the Archaea |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=112 |issue=21 |pages=6670–6675 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1420858112 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4450401 |pmid=25964353|bibcode=2015PNAS..112.6670R |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hug |first1=Laura A. |last2=Baker |first2=Brett J. |last3=Anantharaman |first3=Karthik |last4=Brown |first4=Christopher T. |last5=Probst |first5=Alexander J. |last6=Castelle |first6=Cindy J. |last7=Butterfield |first7=Cristina N. |last8=Hernsdorf |first8=Alex W. |last9=Amano |first9=Yuki |last10=Ise |first10=Kotaro |last11=Suzuki |first11=Yohey |last12=Dudek |first12=Natasha |last13=Relman |first13=David A. |last14=Finstad |first14=Kari M. |last15=Amundson |first15=Ronald |display-authors=3 |date=2016-04-11 |title=A new view of the tree of life |journal=Nature Microbiology |volume=1 |issue=5 |page=16048 |doi=10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.48 |pmid=27572647 |s2cid=3833474 |issn=2058-5276|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Tom A. |last2=Foster |first2=Peter G. |last3=Cox |first3=Cymon J. |last4=Embley |first4=T. Martin |date=December 11, 2013 |title=An archaeal origin of eukaryotes supports only two primary domains of life |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12779 |journal=Nature |volume=504 |issue=7479 |pages=231–236 |doi=10.1038/nature12779 |pmid=24336283 |bibcode=2013Natur.504..231W |s2cid=4461775 |issn=1476-4687 |access-date=23 September 2022 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001043017/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12779 |url-status=live }}</ref> With the later gene pool of LUCA's descendants, sharing a common framework of the [[Chargaff's rules|AT/GC rule]] and the standard twenty amino acids, horizontal gene transfer would have become feasible and could have been common.<ref name="Harris Hill 2021"/><br />
<br />
The nature of LUCA remains disputed. In 1994, on the basis of primordial metabolism (sensu [[Günter Wächtershäuser|Wächtershäuser]]), [[Otto Kandler]] proposed a successive divergence of the three domains of life<ref name="Woese Kandler Wheelis 1990"/> from a multiphenotypical ''population'' of [[Pre-cell|pre-cells]], reached by gradual evolutionary improvements ([[cellularization]]).<ref name="Kandler_1994">{{Cite book |last=Kandler |first=Otto |title=Early Life on Earth. Nobel Symposium 84 |date=1994 |publisher=Columbia University Press |editor=Stefan Bengtson |location=New York |pages=152–160 |chapter=The early diversification of life |author-link=Otto Kandler }}</ref><ref name="Kandler_1995">{{cite journal |last=Kandler |first=Otto |title=Cell Wall Biochemistry in Archaea and its Phylogenetic Implications |journal=Journal of Biological Physics |volume=20 |issue=1–4 |pages=165–169 |year=1995 |doi=10.1007/BF00700433 |s2cid=83906865 |author-link=Otto Kandler}}</ref><ref name="Kandler_1998">{{Cite book |last=Kandler |first=Otto |title=Thermophiles: The keys to molecular evolution and the origin of life? |publisher=Taylor and Francis Ltd. |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-203-48420-3 |editor1=Jürgen Wiegel |location=London |pages=19–31 |chapter=The early diversification of life and the origin of the three domains: A proposal |author-link=Otto Kandler |editor2=Michael W. W. Adams |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FtSzl4iastsC |access-date=21 June 2023 |archive-date=25 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225201522/https://books.google.com/books?id=FtSzl4iastsC |url-status=live }}</ref> These phenotypically diverse pre-cells were metabolising, self-reproducing entities exhibiting frequent mutual exchange of genetic information. Thus, in this scenario there was no "first cell". It may explain the unity and, at the same time, the partition into three lines (the three domains) of life. Kandler's pre-cell theory is supported by Wächtershäuser.<ref name="Wächtershäuser_2003">{{cite journal |last=Wächtershäuser |first=Günter |author-link=Günter Wächtershäuser |year=2003 |title=From pre-cells to Eukarya – a tale of two lipids |journal=Molecular Microbiology |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=13–22 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2958.2003.03267.x |pmid=12492850 |s2cid=37944519 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Wächtershäuser_2006">{{Cite journal |last=Wächtershäuser |first=Günter |date=October 2006 |title=From volcanic origins of chemoautotrophic life to Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=361 |issue=1474 |pages=1787–1808 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1904 |pmc=1664677 |pmid=17008219}}</ref> In 1998, [[Carl Woese]], based on the RNA world concept, proposed that no individual organism could be considered a LUCA, and that the genetic heritage of all modern organisms derived through [[horizontal gene transfer]] among an ancient community of organisms.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Woese |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Woese |title=The universal ancestor |journal=PNAS |volume=95 |issue=12 |pages=6854–6859 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9618502 |bibcode=1998PNAS...95.6854W |pmc=22660 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.12.6854 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Other authors concur that there was a "complex collective genome"<ref name="Egel 2012">{{cite journal |last=Egel |first=Richard |date=March 2012 |title=Primal Eukaryogenesis: On the Communal Nature of Precellular States, Ancestral to Modern Life |journal=Life |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=170–212 |bibcode=2012Life....2..170E |doi=10.3390/life2010170 |pmc=4187143 |pmid=25382122 |doi-access=free}}</ref> at the time of the LUCA, and that horizontal gene transfer was important in the evolution of later groups;<ref name="Egel 2012"/> Nicolas Glansdorff states that LUCA "was in a metabolically and morphologically heterogeneous community, constantly shuffling around genetic material" and "remained an evolutionary entity, though loosely defined and constantly changing, as long as this promiscuity lasted."<ref name="Glansdorff Xu Labedan 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Glansdorff |first1=Nicolas |last2=Xu |first2=Ying |last3=Labedan |first3=Bernard |title=The Last Universal Common Ancestor: emergence, constitution and genetic legacy of an elusive forerunner |journal=Biology Direct |volume=3 |issue=1 |date=9 July 2008 |page=29 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-3-29 |pmid=18613974 |pmc=2478661 |s2cid=18250196 |doi-access=free }}</ref> <br />
<br />
The theory of a universal common ancestry of life is widely accepted. In 2010, based on "the vast array of molecular sequences now available from all domains of life,"<ref name="Steel">{{cite journal |last1=Steel |first1=M. |last2=Penny |first2=D. |s2cid=205055573 |title=Origins of life: Common ancestry put to the test |journal=Nature |volume=465 |issue=7295 |pages=168–169 |date=May 2010 |pmid=20463725 |doi=10.1038/465168a |bibcode=2010Natur.465..168S|doi-access=free }}</ref> D. L. Theobald published a "[[statistical hypothesis test|formal test]]" of universal common ancestry (UCA). This deals with the [[common descent]] of all extant terrestrial organisms, each being a genealogical descendant of a single species from the distant past. His formal test favoured the existence of a universal common ancestry over a wide class of alternative hypotheses that included horizontal gene transfer. Basic biochemical principles imply that all organisms do have a common ancestry.<ref name="Theobald-2010">{{cite journal |last=Theobald |first=D. L. |s2cid=4422345 |title=A formal test of the theory of universal common ancestry |journal=Nature |volume=465 |issue=7295 |pages=219–222 |date=May 2010 |pmid=20463738 |doi=10.1038/nature09014 |bibcode=2010Natur.465..219T }}</ref><br />
<br />
A proposed, earlier, non-cellular ancestor to LUCA is the [[First universal common ancestor]] (FUCA).<ref name="Prosdocimi 2019">{{cite book |last1=Prosdocimi |first1=Francisco |date=2019 |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30363-1_3 |title=Evolution, Origin of Life, Concepts and Methods |pages=43–54 |editor-last=Pontarotti |editor-first=Pierre |access-date=2023-11-02 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-30363-1_3 |isbn=978-3-030-30363-1 |last2=José |first2=Marco V. |last3=de Farias |first3=Sávio Torres|chapter=The First Universal Common Ancestor (FUCA) as the Earliest Ancestor of LUCA's (Last UCA) Lineage |s2cid=199534387 }}</ref><ref name="Prosdocimi 2023">{{Citation |last1=Prosdocimi |first1=Francisco |last2=José |first2=Marco V. |last3=de Farias |first3=Sávio Torres |chapter=The First Universal Common Ancestor (FUCA) as the Earliest Ancestor of LUCA's (Last UCA) Lineage |date=2019 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30363-1_3 |title=Evolution, Origin of Life, Concepts and Methods |pages=43–54 |editor-last=Pontarotti |editor-first=Pierre |access-date=2023-11-02 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-30363-1_3 |isbn=978-3-030-30363-1 |s2cid=199534387 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223214032/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-30363-1_3 |url-status=live }}</ref> FUCA would therefore be the ancestor to every modern cell as well as ancient, now-extinct cellular lineages not descendant of LUCA. FUCA is assumed to have had other descendants than LUCA, none of which have modern descendants. Some genes of these ancient now-extinct cell lineages are thought to have been [[Horizontal gene transfer|horizontally transferred]] into the genome of early descendants of LUCA.<ref name="Harris Hill 2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Harris |first1=Hugh M. B. |last2=Hill |first2=Colin |date=2021 |title=A Place for Viruses on the Tree of Life |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2020.604048 |pmid=33519747 |pmc=7840587 |issn=1664-302X |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
== LUCA and viruses ==<br />
<br />
The [[Viral evolution|origin of viruses]] remains disputed. Since viruses need host cells for their replication, it is likely that they emerged ''after'' the [[Evolution of cells|formation of cells]]. Viruses may even have multiple origins and different types of viruses may have evolved independently over the history of life.<ref name="Brock_2022"/> There are different hypotheses for the origins of viruses, for instance an early viral origin from the [[RNA world]] or a later viral origin from [[Selfish dna|selfish DNA]].<ref name="Brock_2022"/><br />
<br />
Based on how viruses are currently distributed across the [[bacteria]] and [[archaea]], the LUCA is suspected of having been prey to multiple viruses, ancestral to those that now have those two domains as their hosts.<ref name="KrupovicLUCA2020">{{cite journal |last1=Krupovic |first1=M. |last2=Dolja |first2=V. V. |last3=Koonin |first3=Eugene V. |author3-link=Eugene V. Koonin |title=The LUCA and its complex virome. |journal=Nature Reviews Microbiology |date=2020 |volume=18 |issue=11 |pages=661–670 |doi=10.1038/s41579-020-0408-x |pmid=32665595 |s2cid=220516514 |url=https://hal-pasteur.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-02909671/file/Krupovic_Koonin_edit_1591967607_1_R2_upload.pdf |access-date=15 August 2021 |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021002511/https://hal-pasteur.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-02909671/file/Krupovic_Koonin_edit_1591967607_1_R2_upload.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Furthermore, extensive virus evolution seems to have preceded the LUCA, since the [[Jelly roll fold|jelly-roll structure]] of [[capsid]] proteins is shared by RNA and DNA viruses across all three domains of life.<ref name="Forterre Prangishvili 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Forterre |first1=Patrick |last2=Prangishvili |first2=David |title=The origin of viruses |journal=Research in Microbiology |volume=160 |issue=7 |year=2009 |doi=10.1016/j.resmic.2009.07.008 |pages=466–472|pmid=19647075 |s2cid=2767388 }}</ref><ref name="Durzyńska Goździcka-Józefiak 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Durzyńska |first1=Julia |last2=Goździcka-Józefiak |first2=Anna |title=Viruses and cells intertwined since the dawn of evolution |journal=Virology Journal |volume=12 |issue=1 |date=16 October 2015 |page=169 |doi=10.1186/s12985-015-0400-7 |pmid=26475454 |pmc=4609113 |doi-access=free }}</ref> LUCA's viruses were probably mainly dsDNA viruses in the groups called ''[[Duplodnaviria]]'' and ''[[Varidnaviria]]''. Two other [[single-stranded DNA virus]] groups within the ''[[Monodnaviria]]'', the ''[[Microviridae]]'' and the ''[[Tubulavirales]]'', likely infected the last bacterial common ancestor. The last archaeal common ancestor was probably host to spindle-shaped viruses. All of these could well have affected the LUCA, in which case each must since have been lost in the host domain where it is no longer extant. By contrast, RNA viruses do not appear to have been important parasites of LUCA, even though straightforward thinking might have envisaged viruses as beginning with [[RNA viruses]] directly derived from an RNA world. Instead, by the time the LUCA lived, RNA viruses had probably already been out-competed by DNA viruses.<ref name="KrupovicLUCA2020"/><br />
<br />
LUCA might have been the ancestor to some viruses, as it might have had at least two descendants: LUCELLA, the Last Universal Cellular Ancestor, the ancestor to all cells, and the archaic virocell ancestor, the ancestor to large-to-medium-sized [[DNA virus|DNA viruses]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nasir |first1=Arshan |last2=Kim |first2=Kyung Mo |last3=Caetano-Anollés |first3=Gustavo |date=2012-09-01 |title=Viral evolution |journal=Mobile Genetic Elements |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=247–252 |doi=10.4161/mge.22797 |issn=2159-2543 |pmc=3575434 |pmid=23550145}}</ref> Viruses might have evolved before LUCA but after the [[First universal common ancestor]] (FUCA), according to the reduction hypothesis, where [[Giant virus|giant viruses]] evolved from primordial cells that became [[Parasitism|parasitic]].<ref name="Harris Hill 2021"/><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
* {{annotated link|Abiogenesis}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Cellularization}} <br />
* {{annotated link|Chemoton}} <br />
* {{annotated link|Darwinian threshold}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Last eukaryotic common ancestor}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Mitochondrial Eve}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Pre-cell}} <br />
* {{Annotated link|Proto-metabolism|prefer=explicit}} <br />
* {{annotated link|Timeline of the evolutionary history of life}} <br />
* {{annotated link|Urmetazoan}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Y-chromosomal Adam}}<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist|25em}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
<br />
<!--RS books only--><br />
* {{cite book |last=Lane |first=Nick |author-link=Nick Lane |title=[[The Vital Question]] |year=2016 |orig-date=2015 |publisher=[[Profile Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-1781250372 |ref=none}}<br />
<br />
{{Origin of life}}<br />
{{Evolution}}<br />
{{Self-replicating organic structures}}<br />
{{Organisms et al.}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Origin of life]]<br />
[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]<br />
[[Category:Genetic genealogy]]<br />
[[Category:Phylogenetics]]<br />
[[Category:Hypothetical life forms]]<br />
[[Category:Most recent common ancestors]]<br />
[[Category:Events in biological evolution]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Winter_rest&diff=1225117183Winter rest2024-05-22T13:30:07Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Annual state for some plants and animals}}<br />
{{Redirect|Winter sleep|the film of the same name|Winter Sleep (film)}}<br />
{{Dormancy}}'''Winter rest''' (from the [[German language|German]] term ''Winterruhe'') is a state of reduced activity of [[plant]]s and [[warm-blooded]] [[animal]]s living in extratropical regions of the [[Earth|world]] during the more hostile environmental conditions of [[winter]]. In this state, they save energy during cold weather while they have limited access to food sources.<br />
<br />
==Plants==<br />
[[Deciduous]] trees lose their foliage in the winter. Tree [[growth rings]] are a result of winter rest, as there is rapid growth in the warmer [[spring (season)|spring]], then slower growth later in the year.<br />
<br />
[[Perennial plant|Perennial]] and [[Biennial plant|biennial]] [[herbaceous plants]] lose their frost-sensitive, above-ground parts before the winter, and regrow in the spring. Herbaceous plants that are [[Annual plant|annual]], producing seeds before the winter, can also be considered to have winter rest in some form, because their seeds may stay inactive over the winter before [[germinating]]. Annual plants which have seeds that germinate before winter also have winter rest. [[Winter cereals]], for example, which are sown in the fall and germinate before the frost, become dormant during the winter and actually require a few weeks of cold before they are able to flower.<br />
<br />
==Animals==<br />
Winter rest in an animal is different from true [[hibernation]], since their [[metabolism]] is not reduced drastically. Body temperature is not significantly lowered, however their [[heart rate]] is reduced. This means that animals like the [[raccoon]] can quickly become active again if temperatures rise or the snow melts.<ref>{{cite book | last=MacClintock | first=Dorcas | title=A Natural History of Raccoons | publisher=The Blackburn Press | location=Caldwell, New Jersey | year=1981 | isbn=978-1-930665-67-5}}</ref> Other animals that winter rest are [[European badger|badgers]]. Also, contrary to the popular knowledge, [[Bear|bears]] do not go into true hibernation either. Bears' body tempature goes lower less than other small mammalias which has true hibernation, mostly changes around 6-7 celcius degrees.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Do Bears Really Hibernate? |url=https://www.nationalforests.org/blog/do-bears-really-hibernate |access-date=2024-05-22 |website=1 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Growing season]]<br />
* [[Cereal germ]] — the part of the [[cereal]] seed that grows into a plant<br />
* [[Seed dormancy]]<br />
* [[Stratification (botany)|Stratification]] — the simulation of natural winter conditions for seeds<br />
* [[Thermoregulation]] — The ability for an organism to keep its temperature within a certain range<br />
{{br}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Animal physiology]]<br />
[[Category:Winter phenomena]]<br />
[[Category:Plant physiology]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{ethology-stub}}<br />
{{plant-physiology-stub}}</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Winter_rest&diff=1225117123Winter rest2024-05-22T13:29:40Z<p>Cehilizm: Bears added.</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Annual state for some plants and animals}}<br />
{{Redirect|Winter sleep|the film of the same name|Winter Sleep (film)}}<br />
{{Dormancy}}'''Winter rest''' (from the [[German language|German]] term ''Winterruhe'') is a state of reduced activity of [[plant]]s and [[warm-blooded]] [[animal]]s living in extratropical regions of the [[Earth|world]] during the more hostile environmental conditions of [[winter]]. In this state, they save energy during cold weather while they have limited access to food sources.<br />
<br />
==Plants==<br />
[[Deciduous]] trees lose their foliage in the winter. Tree [[growth rings]] are a result of winter rest, as there is rapid growth in the warmer [[spring (season)|spring]], then slower growth later in the year.<br />
<br />
[[Perennial plant|Perennial]] and [[Biennial plant|biennial]] [[herbaceous plants]] lose their frost-sensitive, above-ground parts before the winter, and regrow in the spring. Herbaceous plants that are [[Annual plant|annual]], producing seeds before the winter, can also be considered to have winter rest in some form, because their seeds may stay inactive over the winter before [[germinating]]. Annual plants which have seeds that germinate before winter also have winter rest. [[Winter cereals]], for example, which are sown in the fall and germinate before the frost, become dormant during the winter and actually require a few weeks of cold before they are able to flower.<br />
<br />
==Animals==<br />
Winter rest in an animal is different from true [[hibernation]], since their [[metabolism]] is not reduced drastically. Body temperature is not significantly lowered, however their [[heart rate]] is reduced. This means that animals like the [[raccoon]] can quickly become active again if temperatures rise or the snow melts.<ref>{{cite book | last=MacClintock | first=Dorcas | title=A Natural History of Raccoons | publisher=The Blackburn Press | location=Caldwell, New Jersey | year=1981 | isbn=978-1-930665-67-5}}</ref> Other animals that winter rest are [[European badger|badgers]]. Also, contrary to the popular knowledge, bears do not go into true hibernation either. Bears' body tempature goes lower less than other small mammalias which has true hibernation, mostly changes around 6-7 celcius degrees.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Do Bears Really Hibernate? |url=https://www.nationalforests.org/blog/do-bears-really-hibernate |access-date=2024-05-22 |website=1 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Growing season]]<br />
* [[Cereal germ]] — the part of the [[cereal]] seed that grows into a plant<br />
* [[Seed dormancy]]<br />
* [[Stratification (botany)|Stratification]] — the simulation of natural winter conditions for seeds<br />
* [[Thermoregulation]] — The ability for an organism to keep its temperature within a certain range<br />
{{br}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Animal physiology]]<br />
[[Category:Winter phenomena]]<br />
[[Category:Plant physiology]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{ethology-stub}}<br />
{{plant-physiology-stub}}</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radicalism_(historical)&diff=1217572002Radicalism (historical)2024-04-06T16:48:13Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Other uses|Radical (disambiguation)}}<br />
{{Populism sidebar|variants}}<br />
{{Multiple issues|<br />
{{update|date=January 2024}}<br />
{{Expand Turkish|date=January 2024}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Radicalism'''<ref name=":0">{{cite web|publisher=Academia|title=Popülizm ve Türkiye'de Boyutları|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/38139819/Populizm_ve_Turkiyede_Boyutlari.pdf}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> is an idea influenced by [[narodnik]] and [[populism]]. It is similar to [[Atatürk's Main Principles#Populism|Atatürk's principle of radicaism]], but should not be confused.<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
=== Ottoman period ===<br />
During the reign of [[Abdulaziz|Sultan Abdulaziz]], some [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] intellectuals, especially [[Ali Suavi]], were influenced by the [[Narodniks|Narodnik movement]] in [[Russia]] and began to deal with the problems of the people. At the end of the 19th century, many literary figures, especially [[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], were affected by populism. After the [[Young Turk Revolution]], the word 'folk' found wide usage. For a long time, populism was thought of as the act of benevolent intellectuals for the benefit of the masses.<br />
<br />
This understanding began to change after [[World War I]]. [[Ziya Gökalp]] concluded, under the influence of [[Émile Durkheim|Durkheim]], that [[class conflict]] was bad, and shortly after the [[Russian Revolution|Soviet Revolution in 1918]], opposed it and defended populism against it. Gökalp defined populism as follows:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|If a society consists of several strata or classes, then it is not an [[egalitarian]] society. The aim of populism is to suppress stratification or class differences and instead to create a social structure of professional groups in [[solidarity]] with each other. In other words, we can summarize populism as follows: there are no [[social class]]es, there are [[profession]]s!<ref>Zafer Toprak (1977). Meşrutiyette Solidarist Düşünce: Halkçılık. ''Toplum ve Bilim'', 1, s. 92.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
=== Turkish War of Independence and the Republic period ===<br />
This approach largely lends itself to [[solidarism]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ziya Gökalp'te "Solidarizm" ve "Milli İktisat"|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/326817|publisher=Dergipark}}</ref> This understanding greatly influenced [[Nationalism|nationalists]], especially the [[Kemalism|Kemalists]], during the [[Turkish War of Independence]]. Although the corporations proposed by Gökalp were not realized, the principle of no classes was accepted by the Kemalist leaders. Kemalist leaders, especially Atatürk, insisted that classes were not yet developed in Turkey. They adopted the idea of solidarity in order to fight [[communism]] and the idea of [[class struggle]]. They also saw this as the justification for the [[one-party system]].<ref>Paul Dumont (1999). Kemalist İdeolojinin Kökenleri. Jacob M. Landau (Yay. Haz.) (1999). Atatürk ve Türkiye'nin Modernleşmesi, İstanbul: Sarmal, ISBN 975-8304-18-6 (s. 49-72) içinde. s.60.</ref><br />
<br />
== Atatürk's principle of populism/radicalism==<br />
The principle of [[populism]], first of all, is aimed at the realization and establishment of a [[Progressivism|progressive]], [[western democracy]], which means "the administration of the people, by the people for the people".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Atatürk ilkeleri|url=https://www.ttk.gov.tr/belgelerle-tarih/ataturk-ilkeleri-belleten-makale/|publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu}}</ref> It also prioritizes [[Westphalian sovereignty|national sovereignty]]. The state aims at the [[welfare]] and happiness of the citizens. It envisages the division of labor and solidarity among citizens. It ensures that the nation enjoys equal access to government services. It is understood from Atatürk's radicalism principle that: No privilege is given to any person, group or any class in society. Everyone is equal before the law.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} According to the principle of radicalism,{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} no one can gain superiority over others in terms of religion, race, sect or money when judged before the law.<br />
<br />
Radicalism is defined in the [[The Six Arrows|six pillars]] of the [[Republican People's Party]] founded by Mustafa Kemal as follows: "For us, people must be treated equally before the law. No distinction should be made between class, family and individuals. We believe that the people of Turkey are not as a whole made up of various classes, but as a whole; as one. We see Turkish society as having various professions according to the needs of social life." However, this should not be confused with [[Collective farming|collectivism]]. The "radicalism" that Atatürk refers to here is not a socialist ideology used by [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] countries and is also not incompatible with [[individualism]]. Atatürk's radicalism, as mentioned in the 1935 [[Republican People's Party|CHP]] program and Atatürk's Medeni Bilgiler book, is [[solidarist]] based on the [[Class collaboration|solidarity of the classes]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler PDF|date=1930|publisher=Toplumsal Dönüşüm Yayınları|page=107|language=tr}}</ref> and also [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler PDF|date=1930|publisher=Toplumsal Dönüşüm Yayınları|pages=101–102|language=tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
Necessary measures have been taken for equality between women and men, the end of [[sex segregation]] in schools, the measures taken to prepare a new [[Turkish alphabet]] that every citizen can learn and to treat every citizen equally before state organs support the principle of radicalism.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}<br />
<br />
According to [[Ahmet Taner Kışlalı]], [[Kemalist]] radicalismwanted to strengthen the poorest and most uneducated segment of the society and to ensure social solidarity.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Kemalizm, Laiklik ve Demokrasi|publisher=İmge Kitabevi|page=49|language=tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
Although radicalism a principle that is quickly adopted, after [[World War II]], it remained largely in the background during the rapid industrialization and [[Capitalism|capitalistization]] process.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
* [[Atatürk's Main Principles]]<br />
** [[Atatürk's Main Principles#Populism|Radicalism (Atatürk's Main Principles)]]<br />
**<br />
**<br />
**<br />
* [[Classical radicalism]]<br />
* [[Narodniks]]<br />
* [[Populism]]<br />
<br />
== References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Political ideologies]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Deny&diff=1214457693Jean Deny2024-03-19T02:09:26Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|French grammarian (1879–1963)}}<br />
{{other uses|Deny (disambiguation){{!}}Deny}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = <br />
| image = <br />
| imagesize = <br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_name = <br />
| birth_date = 12 July 1879<br />
| birth_place = Kiev<br />
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1963|11|05|1879|07|12}}<br />
| death_place = [[Gérardmer]]<br />
| othername = <br />
| occupation = <br />
| years_active = <br />
| spouse = <br />
| signature = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Jean Deny''' (12 July 1879 – 5 Novembre 1963) was a French grammarian, specialist of oriental languages.<br />
<br />
== Biography ==<br />
Jean Deny was born to a French father and a Polish mother settled in Kiev. He became familiar with the French, Polish, Ukrainian and Russian languages at a young age. After the baccalaureate, he specialized in Oriental languages ([[classical Arabic]], [[Arabic dialect]], Persian, Turkish and Russian). He became professor of [[Turkology]] at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] after he taught at the [[École nationale des langues orientales vivantes]] of which he was administrator from 1937 to 1948.<br />
<br />
He retired in 1949 and died in 1963.<br />
<br />
== Selected works ==<br />
*1921: ''Grammaire de la langue turque (dialecte osmanli)''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.saendig.com/cgi/his-webshop.pl?start=1&dif=100&t=temartic&f=sort&c=Reihenf1&f1=Titel&c1=Grammaire+de+la+Langue+Turque|title = Grammaire de la Langue Turque — Band 1 Grammaire de la Langue Turque — Band 2 (Buch: Sändig Reprint Verlag)}}</ref><br />
*1955: ''Principes de grammaire turque''<br />
*1959: ''L’osmanli moderne et le turk de Turquie''<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://data.bnf.fr/12508286/jean_deny/ Jean Deny] on [[data.bnf.fr]]<br />
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=JexHxBDyT-YC&dq=Jean+Deny&pg=PA287 Dictionnaire des orientalistes de langue française]<br />
* [http://www.histoire.ens.fr/IMG/file/Coeure/colloque_jean_deny_programme_recto.pdf Colloque Jean Deny]<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{Portal bar|languages|France}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Deny, Jean}}<br />
[[Category:Linguists from France]]<br />
[[Category:Turkologists]]<br />
[[Category:Writers from Kyiv]]<br />
[[Category:1879 births]]<br />
[[Category:1963 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Paris]]<br />
[[Category:Emigrants from the Russian Empire to France]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Deny&diff=1214457634Jean Deny2024-03-19T02:08:55Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|French grammarian (1879–1963)}}<br />
{{other uses|Deny (disambiguation){{!}}Deny}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = <br />
| image = <br />
| imagesize = <br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_name = <br />
| birth_date = 12 July 1879<br />
| birth_place = Kiev<br />
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1963|11|05|1879|07|12}}<br />
| death_place = [[Gérardmer]]<br />
| othername = <br />
| occupation = <br />
| years_active = <br />
| spouse = <br />
| signature = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Jean Deny''' (12 July 1879 – 5 Novembre 1963) was a French grammarian, specialist of oriental languages.<br />
<br />
== Biography ==<br />
Born to a French father and a Polish mother settled in Kiev, Jean Deny became familiar with the French, Polish, Ukrainian and Russian languages at a young age. After the baccalaureate, he specialized in Oriental languages ([[classical Arabic]], [[Arabic dialect]], Persian, Turkish and Russian). He became professor of [[Turkology]] at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] after he taught at the [[École nationale des langues orientales vivantes]] of which he was administrator from 1937 to 1948.<br />
<br />
He retired in 1949 and died in 1963.<br />
<br />
== Selected works ==<br />
*1921: ''Grammaire de la langue turque (dialecte osmanli)''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.saendig.com/cgi/his-webshop.pl?start=1&dif=100&t=temartic&f=sort&c=Reihenf1&f1=Titel&c1=Grammaire+de+la+Langue+Turque|title = Grammaire de la Langue Turque — Band 1 Grammaire de la Langue Turque — Band 2 (Buch: Sändig Reprint Verlag)}}</ref><br />
*1955: ''Principes de grammaire turque''<br />
*1959: ''L’osmanli moderne et le turk de Turquie''<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://data.bnf.fr/12508286/jean_deny/ Jean Deny] on [[data.bnf.fr]]<br />
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=JexHxBDyT-YC&dq=Jean+Deny&pg=PA287 Dictionnaire des orientalistes de langue française]<br />
* [http://www.histoire.ens.fr/IMG/file/Coeure/colloque_jean_deny_programme_recto.pdf Colloque Jean Deny]<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{Portal bar|languages|France}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Deny, Jean}}<br />
[[Category:Linguists from France]]<br />
[[Category:Turkologists]]<br />
[[Category:Writers from Kyiv]]<br />
[[Category:1879 births]]<br />
[[Category:1963 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Paris]]<br />
[[Category:Emigrants from the Russian Empire to France]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fenerbah%C3%A7e_S.K._(football)&diff=1194242291Fenerbahçe S.K. (football)2024-01-08T00:12:54Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
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<div>{{Short description|Turkish association football club}}<br />
{{About||the parent multi-sport club|Fenerbahçe S.K.|the female department of the club|Fenerbahçe S.K. (women's football)}}<br />
<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}<br />
{{Infobox football club<br />
| clubname = Fenerbahçe<br />
| image = Fenerbahçe.svg<br />
| upright = 0.84<br />
| fullname = {{lang|tr|Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü}} <br />(Fenerbahçe Sports Club)<br />
| short name = {{unbulleted list|FB|Fener}}<br />
| nickname = {{unbulleted indent list|{{lang|tr|Sarı Kanaryalar}} (The Yellow Canaries)|{{lang|tr|Sarı Lacivertliler}} (The Yellow-Navy Blues)|{{lang|tr|Efsane}} (The Legend)|{{lang|tr|Fener}} (The Beacon of Light)}}<br />
| founded = {{start date and age|1907|05|03|df=yes}}<ref group=lower-alpha>Although it is known that the club was founded in the spring of 1907, the day and month are unknown. The founding date is traditionally regarded as 3 May in honor of [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]'s founder [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]'s date of visit of the club in 1918.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fenerbahce.org/kulup/tarihce|title=Fenerbahçe Tarihi|publisher=[[Fenerbahçe S.K.]]|access-date=2 July 2021|language=tr|trans-title=History of Fenerbahçe}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fenerbahce.org/kulup/ataturk-fenerbahce|title=Atatürk ve Fenerbahçe|publisher=[[Fenerbahçe S.K.]]|access-date=2 July 2021|language=tr|trans-title=Atatürk and Fenerbahçe}}</ref><br />
| ground = [[Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium]]<br />
| capacity = 47,234 ([[All-seater stadium|all-seater]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fenerbahce.org/kulup/tesislerimiz/ulker-stadyumu-fenerbahce-sukru-saracoglu-spor-kompleksi|title=Ülker Stadyumu Fenerbahçe Şükrü Saracoğlu Spor Kompleksi|publisher=[[Fenerbahçe S.K.]]|access-date=4 March 2018|language=tr}}</ref><br />
| chairman = [[Ali Koç]]<br />
| chrtitle = President<br />
| manager = [[İsmail Kartal]]<br />
| mgrtitle = Head coach<br />
| league = {{Turkish football updater|Fenerbahçe}}<br />
| season = {{Turkish football updater|Fenerbahçe2}}<br />
| position = {{Turkish football updater|Fenerbahçe3}}<br />
| current = 2023–24 Fenerbahçe S.K. season<br />
| website = https://www.fenerbahce.org/<br />
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{{Fenerbahçe S.K. sections}}<br />
'''Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü''' ({{IPA-tr|feˈnæɾbahtʃe|lang}}, ''Fenerbahçe Sports Club'') is a Turkish professional [[association football|football]] club based in [[Kadıköy]], [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]]. They represent the men's football department of [[Fenerbahçe S.K.]], a prominent [[sports club|multi-sport club]]. Fenerbahçe, also referred to colloquially as '''Fener''', has [[List of unrelegated association football clubs|never been relegated]] from the top division of Turkish football and currently competes in the [[Süper Lig|Turkish Super League]], the [[Turkish Cup]], the [[Turkish Super Cup]] and [[UEFA Europa Conference League]].<br />
<br />
Fenerbahçe is nicknamed ''Sarı Kanaryalar'' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]] for "Yellow Canaries") and plays its home games at [[Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium]], a traditional home ground granted to the club by the mayor of Istanbul in 1994. The stadium is based in [[Kadıköy]], Istanbul. The club's name translates as "Lighthouse in the Garden" and comes from the [[Fenerbahçe (Istanbul neighbourhood)|Fenerbahçe]] neighbourhood of the [[Kadıköy]] district in Istanbul.<br />
<br />
Fenerbahçe is one of the most successful Turkish clubs having won a record 28 Turkish championship titles (19 [[Süper Lig]], seven [[Turkish Cup|Turkish Cups]] and nine [[Turkish Super Cup]] titles. The club also sits at the first place in [[Football_records_and_statistics_in_Turkey#Süper_Lig_all-time_table_(1959–present)|Süper Lig all-time table]].<br />
<br />
In international club football, Fenerbahçe has won the [[Balkans Cup]] in [[1966–67 Balkans Cup|1968]], which is marked as the first ever non-domestic trophy won by a Turkish football club. In [[UEFA competitions]], Fenerbahçe has reached the quarter-finals in the [[1963–64 European Cup Winners' Cup|1963–64]] [[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]] and in the [[2007–08 UEFA Champions League|2007–08]] [[UEFA Champions League]], and has reached the semi-finals in the [[2012–13 UEFA Europa League]]. Fenerbahçe is a member of the [[European Club Association]].<br />
<br />
Fenerbahçe is one of the most popular football clubs in Turkey.<ref>{{cite web|title=İşte Türkiye'nin taraftar haritası! En çok taraftarı olan takım hangisi?|url=http://www.aksam.com.tr/spor/iste-turkiyenin-taraftar-haritasi-en-cok-taraftari-olan-takim-hangisi/haber-187790|website=aksam.com.tr|publisher=Akşam|language=Turkish|access-date=14 December 2017}}</ref> They boast a large fanbase throughout the country, as well as in [[Northern Cyprus]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tarihçe|url=https://kktcfenerbahceliler.org/hakkimizda/|access-date=2021-08-17|website=KKTC FENERBAHÇELİLER DERNEĞİ|language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Fenerbahçe taraftarı derneğini bağrına bastı|url=http://haberkibris.com/fenerbahce-taraftari-dernegini-bagrina-basti--2012-08-14.html|website=haberkibris.com|date=14 August 2012|publisher=HaberKıbrıs|language=Turkish|access-date=14 December 2017}}</ref> [[Azerbaijan]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biga Fenerbahçeliler Derneğinden Azerbaycan'a Destek|url=https://bigahavadis.com/haber/biga_fenerbahceliler_derneginden_azerbaycana_destek-10276.html|access-date=2021-08-17|website=bigahavadis.com|language=tr}}</ref> and in the [[Turkish diaspora]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=fan page - Almanya Fenerbahce Dernekleri|url=https://www.fenerbahce.de/almanya-fenerbahce-dernekleri/|access-date=2021-08-17|website=www.fenerbahce.de|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-01-02|title=İngiltere Fenerbahçeli'ler Derneği yeniden açılıyor|url=https://londragazete.com/spor/26429/ingiltere-fenerbahceliler-dernegi-yeniden-aciliyor/|access-date=2021-08-17|website=Londra Gazete|language=en-GB}}</ref> In their home at the [[Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium]], Fenerbahçe's average attendances have always been among the highest in Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.samanyoluhaber.com/|title=Samanyolu Haber: Son Dakika ve En Son Haberler|website=www.samanyoluhaber.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Samanyolu Haber: Son Dakika ve En Son Haberler|url=http://www.samanyoluhaber.com/haber-42907.html|website=www.samanyoluhaber.com|access-date=21 October 2017}}</ref> Fenerbahçe's most intense rivalries is with their major neighbors, [[Galatasaray S.K.|Galatasaray]] and [[Beşiktaş J.K.|Beşiktaş]]. Matches between Fenerbahçe and Galatasaray are often referred to as [[The Intercontinental Derby]] and are widely regarded as one of the fiercest and most intense derbies globally.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the Istanbul Derby - Fenerbahce vs Galatasaray|url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/football/history-istanbul-derby-fenerbahce-galatasaray|access-date=21 November 2017|website=sportskeeda.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=FootballDerbies.com - All you need to know about the world's best football matches. Derby, Local Derby or Rivalry.|url=http://www.footballderbies.com/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040215055451/http://www.footballderbies.com/|archive-date=15 February 2004|access-date=5 September 2017|website=footballderbies.com}}</ref> Matches against [[Beşiktaş J.K.|Beşiktaş]] are also [[Derby match|derbys]], and the two teams share a longstanding [[Beşiktaş–Fenerbahçe rivalry|rivalry]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
===Early years 1907–1959===<br />
[[File:Nurizâde Mehmed Ziya.jpg|thumb|130px|right|[[Ziya Songülen]] the founder and first president]]<br />
Fenerbahçe were founded in 1907 in [[Kadıköy]], [[Istanbul]], by local men [[Ziya Songülen]], [[Ayetullah Bey]] and [[Necip Okaner]]. This group founded the club secretly in order to keep a low profile and not get into any trouble with the strict Ottoman rule, so strict that the Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] forbade the Turkish youth to set up a club or engage in the game of football played by the English families that was watched in envy. The three men came together and concluded that Kadıköy was in desperate need of its own football club, where locals would get a chance to practise the game of football. Ziya Songülen was elected the [[List of Fenerbahçe S.K. presidents|first president]] of the club, Ayetullah Bey became the first general secretary and Necip Okaner was given the post of general captain.<ref name="HISTORY">{{cite web|url=http://www.fenerbahce.org/kurumsaldetay.asp?ContentID=6 |title=Tarihçe |language=tr |date=15 April 2007 |access-date=7 January 2013 |publisher=fenerbahce.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222050722/http://www.fenerbahce.org/kurumsaldetay.asp?ContentID=6 |archive-date=22 February 2008 }}</ref><br />
[[File:Fener 1907.png|thumb|The first team in 1908]]<br />
The [[Fenerbahçe Lighthouse|lighthouse]] situated on the Fenerbahçe cape was a big influence on the design of the club's first crest, which sported the yellow and white colors of [[daffodil]]s around the lighthouse. The kits were also designed with yellow and white stripes.<ref name="HISTORY" /> The crest of the club was changed in 1910 when [[Hikmet Topuzer]] redesigned the badge after Ziya Songülen had changed the colors to yellow and navy in the fall of 1909, still seen today. Fenerbahçe's activities were kept in secrecy until a legislation reform in 1908, when, under a new law, all football clubs had to register to exist legally.<ref name="HISTORY" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Ayetullah Bey.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Ayetullah Bey]] the founder and second president]]<br />
The founding line-up included [[Ziya Songülen]], [[Ayetullah Bey]], [[Necip Okaner]], [[Galip Kulaksızoğlu]], [[Hassan Sami Kocamemi]], [[Asaf Beşpınar]], [[Enver Yetiker]], [[Şevkati Hulusi Bey]], [[Fuat Hüsnü Kayacan]], [[Hamit Hüsnü Kayacan]] and Nasuhi Baydar.<ref name="HIST7">{{cite web|url=http://www.fenerbahce.org/kurumsaldetay.asp?ContentID=7 |title=Tarihçe - 4. Sayfa |language=tr |date=15 April 2007 |access-date=7 January 2013 |website=fenerbahce.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120122417/http://www.fenerbahce.org/kurumsaldetay.asp?ContentID=7 |archive-date=20 November 2012 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Struggling with financial difficulties, Fenerbahçe joined the [[Istanbul Football League]] in 1909, finishing fifth in their first year. The first coach of the Fenerbahçe was [[Hüseyin Dalaklı]], who was also the team's player. Fenerbahçe won the [[1911–12 Istanbul Football League|1911–12 season]] of the Istanbul Football League without losing. This championship was the clubs first success in their long history. In the 1913–14 and 1914–15 seasons, the team under the coaching of [[Galip Kulaksızoğlu]] won the [[Istanbul Football League]]. Fenerbahçe finished the seasons 1920–21 and 1922–23 as champions in the [[Istanbul Friday League]]. Fenerbahçe completed the season with a score of 58–0 without losing or conceding goals in the season of 1922–23.<br />
<br />
[[File:General Harrington Cup.JPG|right|thumb|120px|General Harrington Cup]]<br />
Fenerbahçe played against the staff of the [[Royal Navy]] that [[Occupation of Constantinople|occupied Istanbul]] during the [[Turkish War of Independence]]. Some British soldiers formed football teams that were named after the players' speciality, for example [[Essex]] [[Engineers]], [[Irish Guards]], [[Grenadiers]] and [[Artillery]]. These teams played against each other and against local football teams in Istanbul. Fenerbahçe won many of these matches.<ref name="NAVY">{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/d20/tfab/1922/ana.html|title=Müttefik Kuvvetler ile Yapilan Maçlar|language=tr|date=14 June 2007|access-date=7 January 2013|website=angelfire.com}}</ref> The most known match played against the British was the match that would determine the winner of the [[General Harrington Cup]]. Fenerbahçe won the match held on 29 June 1923 at [[Taksim Stadium]] with two goals scored by [[Zeki Rıza Sporel]], one of the important players of the period.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fenerbahce.org/eng/detay.asp?ContentID=980|title=84th Anniversary of the Harington Cup|publisher=Fenerbahçe S.K.|date=30 June 2007|access-date=3 March 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
Fenerbahçe won the championship 6 times in 1937, 1940, 1943, 1945, 1946 and 1950, and became the team that achieved the most victories in the [[Turkish National Division]]. [[Lefter Küçükandonyadis]], one of the important names of Fenerbahçe, scored 423 goals in 615 matches between 1947–1951 and 1953–64.<br />
<br />
Fenerbahçe won the [[Istanbul Football League]] 16 times, the [[Turkish National Division]] 6 times, and the former [[Turkish Football Championship]] 3 times, all of them records, profiling themselves as forerunners and dominating side in Turkish football before the introduction of the professional nationwide league in 1959.<ref name="RSSSF">{{cite web |title=Turkey – List of Champions |url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablest/turkchamp.html |access-date=25 February 2018 |website=[[RSSSF]] |publisher=[[Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation|RSSSF]]}}</ref><ref name="Turkish championships">{{cite web |title=Futbolda Türkiye Şampiyonluklarımız |url=https://www.fenerbahce.org/futbolda-turkiye-sampiyonluklarimiz/ |access-date=14 February 2019 |website=fenerbahce.org |publisher=Fenerbahçe SK Official Website |language=Turkish}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== 1959–1969 ===<br />
[[File:Ignác Molnár (1968).jpg|thumb|left|140px|Under the guidance of [[Ignác Molnár]], the club won many trophies]]<br />
The [[Turkish Football Federation]] founded a professional national league in 1959, which continues today under the name of the [[Süper Lig]]. Fenerbahçe won the [[1959 Turkish National League|first tournament]], beating archrivals [[Galatasaray S.K. (football)|Galatasaray]] 4–1 on aggregate.<ref name="CHAMP1">{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/nj/sivritepe/5859/tl.html|title=1959 Milli Lig|date=17 June 2007|access-date=7 January 2013|publisher=angelfire.com}}</ref> The next year, Fenerbahçe participated in the [[1959–60 European Cup|European Cup]] for the first time. They qualified through a 4–3 win over [[Csepel SC]], being the first Turkish club to advance to the next round by eliminating its opponent. They lost their first-round match to [[OGC Nice|Nice]] 1–5 in a playoff game after drawing on aggregate.<ref name="EURO">{{cite web|url=https://www.rsssf.org/ec/ec195960.html|title=European Competitions 1959-60|date=17 June 2007|website=[[RSSSF]]|access-date=7 January 2013}}</ref> Fenerbahçe reached the [[1963–64 European Cup Winners' Cup#Quarter-finals|quarter-final]] of the [[1963–64 European Cup Winners' Cup]] where it was eliminated by [[MTK Budapest FC|MTK Budapest]].<br />
<br />
Fenerbahçe won four more league titles in the 1960s and were runners-up three times, making it the most successful club of that era.<ref name="ARCHIVES">{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/nj/sivritepe/artl.html|title=Archives|date=5 May 2007|access-date=7 January 2013|website=turkish-soccer.com}}</ref><ref name="TSL">{{cite web|url=http://www.tff.org/default.aspx?pageID=379|title=SÜPER LİG ŞAMPİYONLUKLARI|language=tr|date=10 January 2013|access-date=10 January 2013|website=tff.org|publisher=[[Turkish Football Federation]]}}</ref> Fenerbahçe was coached by [[Ignác Molnár]] at the time, a famous Hungarian coach who had introduced a new style of football in Turkey. Under his guidance, Fenerbahçe managed to eliminate English champions [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]] in the first round of the [[1968–69 European Cup]].<br />
<br />
[[File:Balkan Kupasi 1968.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Fenerbahçe's Balkan Cup championship]]<br />
<br />
In the [[1966–67 Balkans Cup]] (a competition set up for Eastern European clubs from Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, Turkey and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] that existed between the 1960–61 and 1993–94 seasons), Fenerbahçe won the cup after three final matches against Greek club [[AEK Athens F.C.|AEK Athens]], making them the first Turkish club to win a non-domestic competition. This success would remain unparalleled by a Turkish club until [[Sarıyer G.K.|Sarıyer]] and [[Samsunspor]] won the cup many years later in the 1990s, when the competition lost much of its popularity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkfutbolu.net/avrupakupalari/balkan.htm|title=BALKAN KUPASI|language=tr|date=2 February 2017|access-date=2 February 2017|website=turkfutbolu.net|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028062443/http://www.turkfutbolu.net/avrupakupalari/balkan.htm|archive-date=28 October 2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Later years ===<br />
[[File:Waldir Pereira 1958.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Didi (footballer, born 1928)|Didi]] coached the club between 1972 and 1975, winning eight trophies]]<br />
The 1970s saw Fenerbahçe bring in the famous [[Didi (footballer, born 1928)|Didi]] as their new coach. Fenerbahçe won four more league titles, including a double with [[Cemil Turan]] being the top goal scorer three times. The 1970s also established a rivalry with [[Trabzonspor]], where for almost a decade Fenerbahçe and Trabzonspor were competing with each other for the title. The 1980s saw Fenerbahçe win three more league titles. Under the guidance of [[Kálmán Mészöly]], Fenerbahçe managed to eliminate French champions [[FC Girondins de Bordeaux|Bordeaux]] in the first round of the [[1985–86 European Cup]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season=1985/matches/round=1044/match=63935/index.html|title=Bordeaux 2–3 Fenerbahçe|publisher=UEFA.com|access-date=7 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season=1985/matches/round=1044/match=63936/events/|title=Fenerbahçe 0–0 Bordeaux|publisher=UEFA.com|access-date=7 March 2019}}</ref> This victory marked a turning point as for almost a decade no Turkish club managed to get past the first round in European competitions.<br />
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Galatasaray and [[Beşiktaş J.K.|Beşiktaş]] dominated the Turkish League during the 1990s, combining to win nine out of ten titles. Fenerbahçe's only Turkish League success during the 1990s came in the [[1995–96 1.Lig|1995–96 season]] under the guidance of [[Carlos Alberto Parreira]].<ref name="ARCHIVES" /><ref name="TSL" /> In the [[1996–97 UEFA Champions League#Group C|1996–97 UEFA Champions League season]], Fenerbahçe completed the group stage with seven points<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uefa.com/competitions/ucl/history/season=1996/round=76/group=17.html|title=UEFA Champions League 1996–97 Season|date=10 January 2013|access-date=10 January 2013|publisher=uefa.com}}</ref> and, among others, defeated [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] 1–0 at [[Old Trafford]], undoing the record of the English giants being unbeaten for 40 years in their homeground.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rsssf.org/miscellaneous/unb-manutd-euro-home-56.html | title = Manchester United's series of 56 home matches unbeaten in Europe | website = [[RSSSF]] | access-date = 27 January 2019}}</ref><br />
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Fenerbahçe won the league title in 2001, denying Galatasaray a fifth consecutive title. It followed up the next season with a second-place behind Galatasaray with new coach [[Werner Lorant]]. However, the [[2002–03 Süper Lig|next season]] did not go so well as Fenerbahçe finished in sixth place.<ref name="LIG1">{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/nj/sivritepe/0203/1.html|title=2002-2003 1.Süper Lig|date=17 June 2007|access-date=10 January 2013|website=angelfire.com}}</ref> Despite this, that season is memorable to many Fenerbahçe fans due to a 6–0 win against arch-rivals Galatasaray at the [[Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium]] on 6 November 2002.<ref name="6-0">{{cite web|url=http://klasikfutbol.blogspot.com/2008/11/efsane-malar-no1-fenerbahe-6.html|title=Fenerbahçe 6–0 Galatasaray|language=tr|date=10 January 2013|access-date=10 January 2013|website=klasikfutbol.blogspot.com|archive-date=17 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717221041/http://klasikfutbol.blogspot.com/2008/11/efsane-malar-no1-fenerbahe-6.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> After firing Werner Lorant, the club hired another German coach, [[Christoph Daum]]. Daum had previously coached in Turkey, winning the league with Beşiktaş in 1994–95. Fenerbahçe brought in players including [[Pierre van Hooijdonk]], [[Mehmet Aurélio]] and [[Fábio Luciano]] as a rebuilding process. These new players lead Fenerbahçe to its 15th title and third star (one being awarded for every five league titles won by a club).<ref name="LIG2">{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/nj/sivritepe/0304/1.html|title=2003–2004 1.Süper Lig|date=17 June 2007|access-date=10 January 2013|website=angelfire.com}}</ref><br />
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[[File:20070719 Fenerbahce 100.Yıl Kutlamaları (2).jpg|thumb|100th year celebration of the club]]<br />
The [[2004–05 Süper Lig|next year]] was followed by a narrow championship over Trabzonspor, winning a then record 16 Turkish Football League championships.<ref name="LIG3">{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/nj/sivritepe/0405/1.html|title=2004–2005 1.Süper Lig|date=17 June 2007|access-date=10 January 2013|website=angelfire.com}}</ref> Fenerbahçe lost the title in the last week of the [[2005–06 Süper Lig|2005–06 season]] to Galatasaray. Fenerbahçe needed a win, but instead drew 1–1 with [[Denizlispor]] while Galatasaray won 3–0 over [[Kayserispor]]. Soon after, Christoph Daum resigned as manager<ref name="DAUM">{{cite web|url=http://www.fenerbahce.org/fb2008/detay.asp?ContentID=3864|title=Teşekkürlerimizle...|language=tr|date=16 June 2006|access-date=10 January 2013|website=fenerbahce.org}}</ref> and was replaced by [[Zico (footballer)|Zico]] on 4 July 2006.<ref name="ZICO">{{cite web|url=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id=373241&cc=5739|title=Zico signs two-year Fenerbahçe coaching deal|date=4 July 2006|access-date=10 January 2013|publisher=soccernet.espn.go.com|archive-date=26 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026121000/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id=373241&cc=5739|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fenerbahce.org/fb2008/detay.asp?ContentID=4034|title=Yeni Teknik Direktörümüz ZICO|language=tr|date=4 July 2006|access-date=10 January 2013|website=fenerbahce.org}}</ref> Zico began his reign by signing two new defenders: highly touted Uruguayan international [[Diego Lugano]] and Zico's fellow Brazilian [[Edu Dracena]].<ref name="EDU">{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/sport/archives/2006/08/28/2003325300|title=Dracena to Fenerbahçe|date=28 August 2006|access-date=10 January 2013|publisher=taipeitimes.com}}</ref> Zico also signed two strikers in Serbian international [[Mateja Kežman]] and another Brazilian, [[Deivid]].<ref name="KEZMAN">{{cite web|url=http://english.people.com.cn/200608/29/eng20060829_297735.html|title=Fenerbahçe soccer club signs four-year contract with Mateja Kezman|date=29 August 2006|access-date=10 January 2013|website=english.people.com.cn}}</ref> Fenerbahçe's [[2006–07 Süper Lig|2006–07 domestic season]] started with a 6–0 win over relegation candidates [[Kayseri Erciyesspor]].<ref name="KAYERC">{{cite web|url=http://www.ligtv.com.tr/MacRaporu.aspx?m=14719 |title=Maç Raporu |language=tr |date=5 August 2006 |access-date=10 January 2013 |website=ligtv.com.tr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205215217/http://www.ligtv.com.tr/MacRaporu.aspx?m=14719 |archive-date=5 February 2012 }}</ref> In the 32nd week of the Süper Lig, Fenerbahçe drew Trabzonspor 2–2, while Beşiktaş lost to [[Bursaspor]] 0–3, putting the former out of contention for the title.<ref name="FENTRB">{{cite web|url=http://www.ligtv.com.tr/MacRaporu.aspx?m=15218|title=Maç Raporu|language=tr|date=13 May 2007|access-date=10 January 2013|website=ligtv.com.tr|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112125327/http://www.ligtv.com.tr/MacRaporu.aspx?m=15218|archive-date=12 January 2012}}</ref><ref name="BURBJK">{{cite web|url=http://www.ligtv.com.tr/MacRapoasdfasfsfasfru.aspx?m=15220|title=Maç Raporu|language=tr|date=13 May 2007|access-date=10 January 2013|website=ligtv.com.tr}}{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Fenerbahçe won its 17th Süper Lig title in [[2006–07 Süper Lig|2006–07]].<ref name="SEVENTEENTH">{{cite web|url=http://www.uefa.com/footballeurope/news/kind=2/newsid=537891.html|title=Fenerbahçe handed Turkish crown|date=13 May 2007|access-date=10 January 2013|website=uefa.com|publisher=[[UEFA]]}}</ref><br />
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=== 2007–present ===<br />
[[File:Zico6.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Zico (footballer)|Zico]] coached the club between 2006 and 2008]]<br />
[[File:Roberto Carlos in Moscow 3.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Roberto Carlos]] played for the club between 2007 and 2009]]<br />
[[File:Chelsea Fenerbahce CL0708 2.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Fenerbahçe against [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] in the second leg of the [[2007–08 UEFA Champions League#Quarter-finals|2007–08 UEFA Champions League quarter-finals which they lost 2–0]]]]<br />
On 11 January 2007, Fenerbahçe were officially invited to [[G-14]].<ref name="G14">{{cite web|url=http://www.fenerbahce.org/eng/detay.asp?ContentID=652|title=G-14 invite Fenerbahçe to conference|date=31 May 2007|access-date=10 January 2013|publisher=fenerbahce.org}}</ref> G-14 was an association which consists of top European clubs.<br />
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Under Zico's command, Fenerbahçe qualified from the [[2007–08 UEFA Champions League#Group G|2007–08 Champions League group stage]] for the first time and went on to beat [[Sevilla FC|Sevilla]] to become a [[2007–08 UEFA Champions League#Quarter-finals|quarter-finalist in the 2007–08 season]]. Zico is also the most successful manager of the team's history in the Champions League. After successful scores both in the Turkish league and international matches, Zico gained a new nickname from the Fenerbahçe fans: ''Kral Arthur (meaning "King Arthur" in Turkish).''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2008/apr/06/football.comment|title=Zico still a man of style|work=The Guardian|author=Julio Gomes Filho|date=6 April 2008|access-date=9 March 2019}}</ref> In February 2009, Fenerbahçe became the first Turkish club to enter the [[Deloitte Football Money League]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/sports_fenerbahce-first-turkish-club-in-football-money-league_166813.html |title=Fenerbahçe first Turkish club in Football Money League |access-date=2016-02-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303133257/http://www.todayszaman.com/sports_fenerbahce-first-turkish-club-in-football-money-league_166813.html |archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> Since 2000, Fenerbahçe improved the club's finances and facilities, bringing world stars to the club such as [[Ariel Ortega]], [[Pierre van Hooijdonk]], [[Alex (footballer, born 1977)|Alex]], [[Stephen Appiah]], [[Nicolas Anelka]] and, more recently, [[Mateja Kežman]], [[Roberto Carlos]], [[Dani Güiza]], [[Dirk Kuyt]], [[Diego (footballer, born 1985)|Diego]], [[Nani (footballer)|Nani]], [[Robin van Persie]], and [[Mesut Özil]].<br />
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In the [[2009–10 Süper Lig|2009–10 season]] Fenerbahçe lost the title on the last matchday; Fenerbahçe players were told that a draw would be enough towards the end of the match only to find out that the other critical game went against their favour, as Bursaspor beat Beşiktaş 2–1 to win the title. Despite the title loss, Fenerbahçe ended the season with the most clean sheets (10), as well as the joint longest winning streak (8).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.whoscored.com/Regions/225/Tournaments/17/Seasons/1919|title=Superlig Tables|date=10 January 2013|access-date=10 January 2013|website=whoscored.com}}</ref> In July 2011, Fenerbahçe fans invaded the pitch during a friendly against the Ukrainian champions [[FC Shakhtar Donetsk|Shakhtar Donetsk]]. As punishment, Fenerbahçe were sentenced to two Süper Lig games in an empty stadium. The [[Turkish Football Federation|TFF]] later allowed those two games to be filled with spectators; men were barred, while women and children under 12 were admitted for free.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.boston.com/sports/soccer/articles/2011/09/21/turkey_wants_more_women_and_children_at_stadiums/?p1=Well_MostPop_Emailed4|title=Turkey wants more women and children at stadiums|date=21 September 2011|access-date=10 January 2013|website=The Boston Globe}} {{Dead link|date=September 2013|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}</ref> On 29 October 2012, [[Antalyaspor]] ended Fenerbahçe's 47-match unbeaten run in the Süper Lig at the Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium. Fenerbahçe had not lost a match at home since they were beaten 2–3 by eventual champions Bursaspor in week 22, on 22 February 2010. Fenerbahçe won 38 and drew 9 in the 47 matches they played within 980 days since 22 February 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?newsId=296608 |title=Antalya ends Fener's 47-match unbeaten run at Şükrü Saracoğlu |publisher=[[Today's Zaman]] |date=30 October 2012 |access-date=5 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121031142219/http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?newsId=296608 |archive-date=31 October 2012}}</ref> On 3 November 2012, Fenerbahçe pecked [[Akhisar Belediyespor]] to break a 181-day away jinx.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?newsId=297051 |title=Canaries peck Akhisar to break 181-day away jinx |publisher=[[Today's Zaman]] |date=3 November 2012 |access-date=5 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105141808/http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?newsId=297051 |archive-date=5 November 2012}}</ref> On 2 May 2013, Fenerbahçe were eliminated by [[S.L. Benfica|Benfica]] 3–2 on aggregate in the [[2012–13 UEFA Europa League#Semi-finals|semi-final]] of the [[2012–13 UEFA Europa League|2012–13 Europa League]], one of the biggest successes in Fenerbahçe's history in [[UEFA competitions]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/22372585|title=Oscar Cardozo scored twice as Benfica dramatically overcame Fenerbahce in Lisbon to set up a Europa League final against Chelsea|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=2 May 2013|access-date=4 May 2013}}</ref><br />
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On 28 June 2013, [[Ersun Yanal]] agreed to take charge of Fenerbahçe to replace [[Aykut Kocaman]], who resigned in late May.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/troubled-fenerbahce-appoint-ersun-yanal-as-coach/402528-5-21.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010002343/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/troubled-fenerbahce-appoint-ersun-yanal-as-coach/402528-5-21.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 October 2013|title=Troubled Fenerbahce appoint Ersun Yanal as coach|date=28 June 2013|access-date=29 June 2013|website=ibnlive.in.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fenerbahce.org/detay.asp?ContentID=35251|title=Hocamız Ersun Yanal|language=tr|date=28 June 2013|access-date=29 June 2013|website=fenerbahce.org}}</ref> Ersun Yanal's appointment coincided with tough times for Fenerbahçe, who had just been banned from [[UEFA|European competitions]] for two seasons over their alleged involvement in a domestic [[2011 Turkish sports corruption scandal|sports corruption scandal]]. Fenerbahçe, which finished second in the Süper Lig in 2012–13, thus missed-out on the 2013–14 Champions League, which it had been due to enter in the [[2013–14 UEFA Champions League qualifying phase and play-off round#Third qualifying round|third qualifying round]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/sport/archives/2013/06/27/2003565760|title=Turkish duo barred from Europe over match fixing|date=27 June 2013|access-date=29 June 2013|publisher=taipeitimes.com}}</ref> Fenerbahçe finished the [[2014–15 Süper Lig|2014–15 season]] as runners-up, forcing the board of directors to undertake some major changes. For the [[2015–16 Süper Lig|2015–16 season]], Fenerbahçe brought in [[Vítor Pereira (footballer, born 1968)|Vítor Pereira]] as their new coach. Portuguese star [[Nani (footballer)|Nani]], Danish defender [[Simon Kjær]] and Robin van Persie were added to the squad to fulfill the club's ambitions to be successful in the Süper Lig and European competitions. On 10 December 2015, Fenerbahçe played their 200th European game against [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/35020011|title=Fenerbahçe 1–1 Celtic|publisher=BBC Sport|author=Alasdair Lamont|date=10 December 2015|access-date=9 March 2019}}</ref> On 12 October 2022, Fenerbahçe played their 250th European game against [[AEK Larnaca FC|AEK Larnaca]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-12 |title=Fenerbahçe, Avrupa'da 250. sınavında |url=https://www.haberturk.com/fenerbahce-avrupa-da-250-sinavinda-3528586-spor |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=haberturk.com |language=tr}}</ref> the best of the best<br />
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== Former notable players ==<br />
{{Main|List of Fenerbahçe S.K. players}}<br />
[[File:Zekirizasporel.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Zeki Rıza Sporel]], all-time top scorer of Fenerbahçe]]<br />
[[File:LefterKüçükandonyadisStatueKadıköy01.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Statue of [[Lefter Küçükandonyadis]] at Yoğurtçu Park, close to [[Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium]] in Kadıköy, Istanbul]]<br />
[[File:Cemilturan.webp|165px|thumb|[[Cemil Turan]], one of the best players of the 1970's.]]<br />
When it was first founded in 1907, Fenerbahçe had a large squad. One of these players, [[Galip Kulaksızoğlu]], was the longest serving player of the original squad, spending 17 years at the club, retiring in 1924 after 216 matches.<ref name=OYUNCULAR>{{cite web|url=http://www.fenerbahcecumhuriyeti.org/Fenerbahcenin_En_Cok_Forma_Giyen_Futbolculari.asp|title=FENERBAHÇE'NİN EN UZUN SÜRE FORMA GİYEN FUTBOLCULAR|publisher=fenerbahcecumhuriyeti.org|access-date=2013-07-27|archive-date=1 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901094657/http://fenerbahcecumhuriyeti.org/Fenerbahcenin_En_Cok_Forma_Giyen_Futbolculari.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Zeki Rıza Sporel]] and [[Bekir Refet]], the first Turkish footballer ever to play abroad, were among the first products of the Fenerbahçe youth system. During his 18-year career with the club, Zeki Rıza scored 470 goals in 352 matches, or 1.3 goals every match, making him the all-time top scorer of Fenerbahçe.<ref name="OYUNCULAR" /> Zeki Rıza was also capped for the [[Turkey national football team|Turkish national team]] 16 times, scoring 15 goals. [[Cihat Arman]] became the first in a long-line of long-serving [[Goalkeeper (association football)|goalkeepers]], playing 12 seasons and in 308 matches with the club.<ref name="OYUNCULAR" /><br />
[[Lefter Küçükandonyadis]] was one of the first Turkish football players to play in Europe. Lefter spent two seasons in Europe, playing for [[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]] and [[OGC Nice|Nice]] before returning to Fenerbahçe. All in all, Lefter scored 423 goals in 615 matches for the club, helping them to two [[Istanbul Football League]] titles and three [[Süper Lig|Turkish League]] titles.<br />
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Another notable player, [[Can Bartu]], became the next big Turkish export to Europe. He was also the first Turkish football player to play in a European competition final, doing so with Fiorentina against [[Atlético Madrid]] in 1962. Can also spent some seasons playing for [[Venezia F.C.|Venezia]] and [[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]] before returning to Fenerbahçe in 1967. He was a four-time league champion with Fenerbahçe and scored 162 goals in 330 matches. Some of the other most notable Turkish players who played for Fenerbahçe include: [[Fikret Arıcan]], [[Fikret Kırcan]], [[Halit Deringör]], [[Melih Kotanca]], [[Burhan Sargun]], [[Nedim Doğan]], [[Cemil Turan]], [[Selçuk Yula]], [[Müjdat Yetkiner]], [[Oğuz Çetin]], [[Rıdvan Dilmen]], [[Aykut Kocaman]], [[Rüştü Reçber]] and [[Tuncay Şanlı]].<br />
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[[File:Alexsandro de Souza.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Alex (footballer, born 1977)|Alex]], captain of Fenerbahçe from 2007 to 2012 and the most successful foreign player in the history of the club and the Turkish Super League]]<br />
Former Romania goalkeeper [[Ilie Datcu]] was the first foreigner to reach 100 [[Cap (sport)|caps]] for Fenerbahçe. In recent decades, Fenerbahçe have gained an influx of foreigners who have helped the club to 19 Süper Lig titles. Among these include [[Uche Okechukwu]], who after 13 seasons with Fenerbahçe and [[İstanbulspor]] became the longest serving foreigner in Turkey. During Uche's career with Fenerbahçe, he won two league titles and became a fan favourite. More recently, Fenerbahçe have been the home to Brazilian-born [[Mehmet Aurélio]] who, in 2006, became the first naturalized Turkish citizen to play for the Turkish national team.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/46ef87ae8.html|title=A naturalized citizen plays for Turkish national soccer team, and not everyone is happy|publisher=EurasiaNet|author=Nicolas Birch|date=21 August 2006|access-date=10 March 2019}}</ref><br />
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[[Alex (footballer, born 1977)|Alex]] is another Brazilian player who scored the most goals of all foreign players who have played for Fenerbahçe. He managed to become [[List of Süper Lig top scorers|top scorer]] of the Turkish Süper Lig on two occasions (in [[2006–07 Süper Lig|2006–07]] and [[2010–11 Süper Lig|2010–11]]), [[Milliyet Sports Awards|Turkish Footballer of the Year]] twice (in 2005 and 2010), as well as assist leader in the [[2007–08 UEFA Champions League|2007–08 season]] of the UEFA Champions League.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season=2008/statistics/round=15105/players/type=assists/index.html |title=Statistics – Tournament phase – Assists |publisher=Union of European Football Associations |website=UEFA.com |access-date=14 April 2016 }}</ref> Based on all those achievements, as well as his exemplary character and sportsmanship on and off the field, acknowledged by fans of Fenerbahçe and their rivals alike, he became the most successful and renowned foreign player to have ever played for the club and one of a few whose statue has been erected by the supporters of the club in the Yoğurtçu Park, in the near of Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://de.uefa.com/memberassociations/association=tur/news/newsid=2197418.html|title=Mitgliedsverbände - Türkei - News – UEFA.com|last=uefa.com|date=15 December 2014}}</ref> Some of the other foreign top players who played for Fenerbahçe over the years include: [[Harald Schumacher|Toni Schumacher]] (1988–91), [[Jes Høgh]] (1995–99), [[Jay-Jay Okocha]] (1996–98), [[Elvir Bolić]] (1995–2000), [[Kennet Andersson]] (2000–02), [[Ariel Ortega]] (2002–03), [[Pierre van Hooijdonk]] (2003–05), [[Nicolas Anelka]] (2005–06), [[Stephen Appiah]] (2005–08), [[Mateja Kežman]] (2006–09), [[Diego Lugano]] (2006–11), [[Roberto Carlos]] (2007–09), [[Dirk Kuyt]] (2012–15), [[Robin van Persie]] (2015–2018) and [[Nani (footballer)|Nani]] (2015–16).<br />
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== Support ==<br />
{{Main|Fenerbahçe S.K. supporters}}<br />
[[File:FB-BJK.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Fenerbahçe supporters in the [[Beşiktaş–Fenerbahçe rivalry|derby match]] against [[Beşiktaş J.K.|Beşiktaş]]]]<br />
Fenerbahçe have developed a strong following since their foundation in 1907. They are one of the most popular clubs in Turkey, with about 35% of the fans supporting them, and the most popular in [[Istanbul]] and [[Ankara]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aksam.com.tr/spor/iste-turkiyenin-taraftar-haritasi-en-cok-taraftari-olan-takim-hangisi/haber-187790|title=İşte Türkiye'nin taraftar haritası! En çok taraftarı olan takım hangisi?|website=aksam.com.tr|publisher=[[Akşam]]|access-date=7 June 2018|language=tr}}</ref> They have a large fanbase throughout the country, in [[Northern Cyprus]], [[Azerbaijan]] and in the [[Turkish diaspora]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://haberkibris.com/fenerbahce-taraftari-dernegini-bagrina-basti--2012-08-14.html|title=Fenerbahçe taraftarı derneğini bağrına bastı|website=haberkibris.com|date=14 August 2012|publisher=HaberKıbrıs|access-date=7 June 2018|language=tr}}</ref> Since the rebuilding of the [[Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium]], Fenerbahçe's average attendances have been among the highest in Turkey.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samanyoluhaber.com/haber-42907.html|title=Samanyolu Haber: Son Dakika ve En Son Haberler|website=www.samanyoluhaber.com|access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref><br />
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Fenerbahçe have several supporter organisations, including Genç Fenerbahçeliler (GFB), Kill For You (KFY), Antu/Fenerlist, EuroFeb (Fenerbahçe supporters in Europe), Group CK (Cefakâr Kanaryalar), 1907 ÜNİFEB, Vamos Bien, and SUADFEB. Many [[fanzine]]s, [[blog]]s, [[podcast]]s, [[Internet forum|forums]] and [[Website|fan websites]] have been dedicated to the club.<br />
<br />
=== Relationships with other clubs ===<br />
More recently, in November 2011 Fenerbahçe's [[Genç Fenerbahçeliler]] created a friendly relationship with [[Torcida Sandžak]], the organized supporters of Serbian club [[FK Novi Pazar|Novi Pazar]]. During a Süper Lig match against [[İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor]] at the Şükrü Saraçoğlu Stadium, the Genç Fenerbahçeliler and 1907 Gençlik stand deployed a giant banner reading ''"Kalbimiz Seninle Novi Pazar"'' ("Novi Pazar, Our Hearts Are With You")<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gencfb.org/fenerbahce/haber/novi-pazara-gidiyoruz/4104/|title=Novi Pazar'a Gidiyoruz!|language=tr|date=28 February 2012|access-date=10 January 2013|publisher=gencfb.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502143517/http://www.gencfb.org/fenerbahce/haber/novi-pazara-gidiyoruz/4104/|archive-date=2 May 2012}}</ref> and later, in the game against [[Radnicki Kragujevac]] in the [[Serbian SuperLiga]], [[Torcida Sandžak]] members deployed a giant banner reading ''"Sancak'ta atıyor, Fenerbahçe'nin kalbi"'' ("The heart of Fenerbahçe beats in Sandžak").<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gencfb.org/fenerbahce/haber/volimo-te-torcida-1989-sand-ak/3883/|title=Volimo Te Torcida 1989 Sandžak!|language=tr|date=11 October 2011|access-date=10 January 2013|publisher=gencfb.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117031512/http://www.gencfb.org/fenerbahce/haber/volimo-te-torcida-1989-sand-ak/3883/|archive-date=17 January 2012}}</ref><br />
On 2 March 2012, Fenerbahçe's Genç Fenerbahçeliler and 1907 Gençlik members were invited to Novi Pazar for the match against [[FK Partizan|Partizan]] in the Serbian SuperLiga. Thousands of Torcida Sandžak members welcomed Genç Fenerbahçeliler and 1907 Gençlik's 17 members.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gencfb.org/fenerbahce/haber/novi-pazarda-muhtesem-karsilama/4111/|title=Novi Pazar'da Muhteşem Karşılama!|language=tr|date=3 March 2012|access-date=10 January 2013|publisher=gencfb.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306013117/http://www.gencfb.org/fenerbahce/haber/novi-pazarda-muhtesem-karsilama/4111/|archive-date=6 March 2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
There is an informal friendship and fraternization between the fans of AEK and Fenerbahçe. In the 2017 Euroleague final, [[Fenerbahçe S.K. supporters]] displayed a banner which read "Same City's Sons"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Το πανό των οπαδών της "Φενέρ" για την ΑΕΚ! {{!}} Filathlos.gr {{!}} Το Εγκυρότερο Αθλητικό Blog! |url=https://www.filathlos.gr/aek/334210-to-pano-ton-opadon-tes-phener-gia-ten-aek |access-date=2023-03-18 |website=Filathlos.gr |language=el}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 May 2017 |title="Aynı Şehrin Çocukları: Fenerbahçe & AEK Athens" #Fener4Glory |url=https://twitter.com/tribundergi/status/866320354721058816 |access-date=2023-03-18 |website=Twitter |language=tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Rivalries ===<br />
[[File:Fenerbahçe-Galatasaray karşılaşması, 4 Ocak 1914.jpg|thumb|right|Fenerbahçe against Galatasaray in 1914]]<br />
{{Main|The Intercontinental Derby|Beşiktaş–Fenerbahçe rivalry}}<br />
<br />
"The big three" clubs of Istanbul, [[Beşiktaş J.K.|Beşiktaş]], [[Galatasaray S.K. (football)|Galatasaray]] and Fenerbahçe, have a century-long history of rivalry. The Fenerbahçe–Galatasaray rivalry is the primary Istanbul derby and the most important rivalry in [[Football in Turkey|Turkish football]]; matches between the two teams are known as ''[[The Intercontinental Derby]]'' ({{lang-tr|Kıtalararası Derbi}}). The rivalry started on 23 February 1934, when a friendly game between both clubs turned into a riot, forcing the match to be abandoned. The rivalry has led to violence among supporters on numerous occasions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/sports/story/2000/04/17/galatasaray_leeds000417.html|title=Turkey to send anti-terror police to Leeds to protect Galatasaray|date=11 October 2000|access-date=10 January 2013|publisher=cbc.ca}}</ref> Torches, smoke, flags, and giant posters are used to create visual grandeur and apply psychological pressure on visiting teams, which fans call ''"welcoming them to hell".''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espn.com/soccer/columns/story/_/id/1162997/rewind-to-1993:-'welcome-to-hell'|title=Welcome to Hell|publisher=ESPN FC|author=Jon Carter|date=18 September 2012|access-date=12 March 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Stadium ==<br />
{{Main|Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium}}<br />
[[File:FB-GS Seramoni.jpg|thumb|right|[[Pre-game ceremony|Pre-match ceremony]] in the [[Intercontinental Derby]] against Galatasaray]]<br />
[[File:FB-Chelsea.jpg|left|thumb|200px|In the [[2007–08 UEFA Champions League#Quarter-finals|2007–08 UEFA Champions League]] quarter-finals match against [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]]]<br />
<br />
Fenerbahçe play their home matches at the [[Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium]],<ref name="STAD">{{cite web|url=http://www.fenerbahce.org/stadyum/tr/index.asp |title=Wiew Saraçoglu |date=15 April 2007 |access-date=10 January 2013 |publisher=fenerbahce.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070825042631/http://www.fenerbahce.org/stadyum/tr/index.asp |archive-date=25 August 2007 }}</ref> their own traditional home ground in the Kadıköy district of Istanbul, since 1908. Most recently renovated between 1999 and 2006, its capacity is 47,834.<ref name="capacity">{{cite web|url=http://www.tff.org/Default.aspx?pageID=394&stadID=86 |title=Turkish Football Federation Information|language=tr|date=13 May 2007|access-date=7 January 2013|publisher=tff.org}}</ref> The club's museum has been situated in the stadium since 2005, after having been housed at a variety of locations.<ref name="MUSUEM">{{cite web|url=http://www.fenerbahce.org/fbmuze/|title=FENERBAHÇE MÜZESİ TARİHİ|language=tr|date=15 April 2007|access-date=10 January 2013|publisher=fenerbahce.org}}</ref> Before Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium was built, the field was known as Papazın Çayırı ("The field of the priest"). The field, however, became the very first football pitch of Turkey, where the first league games of the [[Istanbul Football League]] were all held successively. In 1908, local teams of the league needed a regular football field, so this land was leased from the Ottoman Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] for 30 Ottoman gold pounds a year. The total construction cost was 3,000 Ottoman gold pounds. The name was changed to the Union Club Field after the club which made the highest donation for the construction.<br />
<br />
The Union Club Field was used by many teams in İstanbul, including the owner, Union Club (which changed its name to İttihatspor after [[World War I]]), Fenerbahçe, Galatasaray, and Beşiktaş. However, it had lost its importance when a bigger venue, the [[Taksim Stadium]], was built in 1922, inside the courtyard of the historic Taksim Topçu Kışlası (Taksim Artillery Barracks), which was located at the present-day [[Taksim Square|Taksim Gezi Parkı]] (Taksim Park). İttihatspor (which had close relations with the political [[İttihat ve Terakki]]), was forced to sell it to the state, in which [[Şükrü Saracoğlu]] was a member of the [[Republican People's Party|CHP]] government. Thus, the ownership of the stadium passed to the state, but the field was immediately leased to Fenerbahçe.<br />
<br />
Later, on 27 May 1933, Fenerbahçe purchased the stadium from the government when Şükrü Saracoğlu was the president of Fenerbahçe, for either the symbolic amount of 1 [[Turkish lira|TL]] or the worth of the stadium which was 9,000 TL. The name of the field was changed to Fenerbahçe Stadium, and this made Fenerbahçe the first football club in Turkey to own their stadium, with the help of the government. In the following years, Fenerbahçe renovated the stadium and increased its [[seating capacity]]. By 1949, Fenerbahçe Stadium was the largest football venue in Turkey, with a seating capacity of 25,000. The name of the stadium was changed once more in 1998, becoming Fenerbahçe Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium, named after Fenerbahçe's president and Turkey's fifth Prime Minister, Şükrü Saracoğlu. In 1999, the latest round of renovations and capacity increasing projects started. The tribunes on the four sides of the stadium were torn down one at a time, as the Turkish Super League seasons progressed, and the entire renewal and construction project was finalised in 2006, with the efforts of Fenerbahçe president [[Aziz Yıldırım]] and the team's board of directors.<br />
<br />
[[File:Fenerbahçe Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadyumu Panorama 2014-12-23.jpg|center|1100px|thumb|A panoramic view of the Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium in 2014]]<br />
<br />
== Club crest and colours ==<br />
{{Football kit box<br />
|align=right<br />
|pattern_la=_fb19072la<br />
|pattern_b=_fb19072<br />
|pattern_ra=_fb19072ra<br />
|leftarm=FFFFFF<br />
|body=FFFFFF<br />
|rightarm=FFFFFF<br />
|shorts=FFFFFF<br />
|socks=FFFFFF<br />
|title={{center|<small>Fenerbahçe changed their colours to yellow and navy blue in 1908</small>}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Since the club's foundation, Fenerbahçe have used the same badge, which has only undergone minor alterations. It was designed by [[Hikmet Topuzer]], nicknamed Topuz Hikmet, who played as a right winger, in 1910, and had made as [[lapel pin]]s by [[Tevfik Taşçı|Tevfik Haccar Taşçı]] in [[London]]. The crest consists of five colours. The white section which includes the writing ''Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü ★ 1907 ★'' represents purity and open-heartedness, the red section represents love and attachment to the club and symbolises the [[Flag of Turkey|Turkish flag]]. The yellow section symbolises other ones' envy and jealousy about Fenerbahçe, while the navy symbolises nobility. The [[oak]] leaf which rises from the navy and yellow section shows the force and the power of being a member of Fenerbahçe. The green colour of the leaf shows that the success of Fenerbahçe is imperative.<ref name=EMBLEM>{{cite web|url=http://www.fenerbahce.org/eng/kurumsaldetay.asp?ContentID=16|title=Emblem|language=en|date=22 May 2017|access-date=22 May 2017|publisher=fenerbahce.org}}</ref> Hikmet Topuzer describes the story of the emblem as below:<br />
{{cquote|After the change of the club’s colours from yellow and white to yellow and navy, it was an issue to create an emblem with our new colours. My friends left the design of this emblem to me. Firstly, I brought together the colours of our national flag, red and white. Then drew a heart shape over the red and gave it a yellow and navy colour, adding an acorn leaf that represents resistance, power and strength. I wrote the club name and foundation date on the white section. When drawing our emblem, I tried to give this meaning: Serving the club with dependence from heart. The design was favored by my friends and our new emblem was made through the guidance of Tevfik Haccar, who was in Germany at time. After the [[Turkish alphabet|new alphabet]] was approved, the design was protected, but the club name on the emblem was changed to Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü ★ 1907 ★.<ref name="EMBLEM" />}}The club badge for the 2023-24 season contains 5 stars to represent 28 championships as an act of protest against the [[Turkish Football Federation#Controversies|TFF]]’s lack of recognition of the club’s pre-1959 titles. However, the Federation has not allowed Fenerbahçe to display the badge in league matches.<br />
<br />
=== Shirt sponsors and manufacturers ===<br />
[[File:Fenerbahce outfit.JPG|thumb|160px|One of the first ever kits of the club (1908)]]<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"<br />
|-<br />
! style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}"| Period<br />
! style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}"| Kit manufacturers<br />
! style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}"| Shirt sponsors<br />
|-<br />
| 1977–1978 ||[[Admiral Sportswear|Admiral]]|| Pereja / [[Şekerbank]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nadirkitap.com/tuna-fenerbahce-on-kapak-posteri-3-mayis-1978-hayat-spor-dergisi-kitap7271009.html|title=TUNA / FENERBAHÇE ÖN KAPAK POSTERİ. 3 MAYIS 1978 - HAYAT SPOR DERGİSİ {{!}} Nadir Kitap|website=NadirKitap|language=TR|access-date=2019-10-25}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1978–1980 || rowspan=4| — || rowspan=1| — <br />
|-<br />
| 1980–1982 || [[Banker Kastelli]]<br />
|-<br />
| 1982–1983 || Hisar Bank<br />
|-<br />
| 1983–1984 || İstanbul Bankası<br />
|-<br />
| 1984–1985 || [[Adidas]] || rowspan=2| [[Turkish Bank|Türk Bank]]<br />
|-<br />
| 1985–1987 || rowspan=2| Güner<br />
|-<br />
| 1987–1988 || [[Tamek]]<br />
|-<br />
| 1988–1989 || rowspan=6| [[Adidas]] || rowspan=2| [[Ziraat Bankası|Emlak Bankası]]<br />
|-<br />
| 1989–1996<br />
|-<br />
| 1996–1997 || [[VakıfBank]]<br />
|-<br />
| 1997–1998 || [[Ziraat Bankası|Emlak Bankası]]<br />
|-<br />
| 1998–1999 || [[Rifle (fashion)|Rifle]] / [[Proton (automobile)|Proton 5x5]]<br />
|-<br />
| 1999–2000 || [[Proton (automobile)|Proton 5x5]]<br />
|-<br />
| 2000–2001 || rowspan=2| Fenerium || [[Telsim]]<br />
|-<br />
| 2001–2004 || [[Avea|Aria]]<br />
|-<br />
| 2004–2012 || rowspan=7| [[Adidas]] || rowspan=1| [[Avea]]<br />
|-<br />
| 2012–2014 || [[Türk Telekom]]<br />
|-<br />
| 2014–2015 || —<br />
|-<br />
| 2015–2016 || [[Yandex]] / <sup>[[Turkish Airlines]]</sup><sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| 2016–2017 || Nesine.com / <sup>[[Borajet|Borajet Airlines]]</sup><sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| 2017–2018 || [[Acıbadem Healthcare Group|Acıbadem]] / <sup>[[Borajet|Borajet Airlines]]</sup><sup>1</sup><br />
|-<br />
| 2018–2021 || rowspan=2| [[Avis Rent a Car|Avis]]<br />
|-<br />
| 2021–2023 || rowspan=2| [[Puma (brand)|Puma]]<br />
|-<br />
| 2023– || rowspan=1| [[Koç Holding|Otokoç]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<sup>1</sup> <small>European Shirt sponsor</small><br />
<br />
==Honours==<br />
<br />
===Domestic competitions===<br />
'''[[List of Turkish football champions|Turkish national championships]]: 28 titles'''<ref name="RSSSF" /><ref name="Turkish championships" /><br />
* '''[[Süper Lig]]''' (since 1959)<br />
: '''Winners (19):''' [[1959 Milli Lig|1959]], [[1960–61 Milli Lig|1960–61]], [[1963–64 1.Lig|1963–64]], [[1964–65 1.Lig|1964–65]], [[1967–68 1.Lig|1967–68]], [[1969–70 1.Lig|1969–70]], [[1973–74 1.Lig|1973–74]], [[1974–75 1.Lig|1974–75]], [[1977–78 1.Lig|1977–78]], [[1982–83 1.Lig|1982–83]], [[1984–85 1.Lig|1984–85]], [[1988–89 1.Lig|1988–89]], [[1995–96 1.Lig|1995–96]], [[2000–01 1.Lig|2000–01]], [[2003–04 Süper Lig|2003–04]], [[2004–05 Süper Lig|2004–05]], [[2006–07 Süper Lig|2006–07]], [[2010–11 Süper Lig|2010–11]], [[2013–14 Süper Lig|2013–14]]<br />
: ''Runners-up (24):'' [[1959-60 Milli Lig|1959–60]], [[1961-62 Milli Lig|1961–62]], [[1966-67 1.Lig|1966–67]], [[1970-71 1.Lig|1970–71]], [[1972-73 1.Lig|1972–73]], [[1975–76 1.Lig|1975–76]], [[1976–77 1.Lig|1976–77]], [[1979–80 1.Lig|1979–80]], [[1983–84 1.Lig|1983–84]], [[1989-90 1.Lig|1989–90]], [[1991-92 1.Lig|1991–92]], [[1993-94 1.Lig|1993–94]], [[1997-98 1.Lig|1997–98]], [[2001-02 Süper Lig|2001–02]], [[2005-06 Süper Lig|2005–06]], [[2007-08 Süper Lig|2007–08]], [[2009–10 Süper Lig|2009–10]], [[2011–12 Süper Lig|2011–12]], [[2012–13 Süper Lig|2012–13]], [[2014–15 Süper Lig|2014–15]], [[2015–16 Süper Lig|2015–16]], [[2017–18 Süper Lig|2017–18]], [[2021–22 Süper Lig|2021–22]], [[2022–23 Süper Lig|2022–23]]<br />
* '''[[Turkish National Division]]''' (1937–1950)<br />
: '''Winners (6) (record):''' [[1937 Turkish National Division|1937]], [[1940 Turkish National Division|1940]], [[1943 Turkish National Division|1943]], [[1945 Turkish National Division|1945]], [[1946 Turkish National Division|1946]], [[1950 Turkish National Division|1950]]<br />
: ''Runners-up (2):'' [[1944 Turkish National Division|1944]], [[1947 Turkish National Division|1947]]<br />
* '''[[Turkish Football Championship]]''' (1924–1951)<br />
: '''Winners (3) (shared-record):''' [[1933 Turkish Football Championship|1933]], [[1935 Turkish Football Championship|1935]], [[1944 Turkish Football Championship|1944]]<br />
: ''Runners-up (2):'' [[1940 Turkish Football Championship|1940]], [[1947 Turkish Football Championship|1947]]<br />
<br />
'''National cups (26)'''<br />
* '''[[Turkish Cup]]'''<br />
: '''Winners (7):''' 1967–68, 1973–74, 1978–79, 1982–83, [[2011-12 Turkish Cup|2011–12]], [[2012-13 Turkish Cup|2012–13]], [[2022–23 Turkish Cup|2022–23]]<br />
: ''Runners-up (11):'' 1962–63, 1964–65, [[1988–89 Turkish Cup|1988–89]], [[1995–96 Turkish Cup|1995–96]], [[2000–01 Turkish Cup|2000–01]], [[2004–05 Turkish Cup|2004–05]], [[2005–06 Turkish Cup|2005–06]], [[2008–09 Turkish Cup|2008–09]], [[2009–10 Turkish Cup|2009–10]], [[2015–16 Turkish Cup|2015–16]], [[2017–18 Turkish Cup|2017–18]]<br />
* '''[[Turkish Super Cup]]'''<br />
: '''Winners (9):''' [[1968 Presidential Cup|1968]], 1973, 1975, 1984, 1985, 1990, [[2007 Turkish Super Cup|2007]], [[2009 Turkish Super Cup|2009]], [[2014 Turkish Super Cup|2014]]<br />
: ''Runners-up (9):'' 1970, 1974, 1978, 1979, 1983, 1989, 1996, [[2012 Turkish Super Cup|2012]], [[2013 Turkish Super Cup|2013]]<br />
* '''[[Prime Minister's Cup]]'''<ref name="Prime Minister Cup">{{cite web|url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablest/turkvarcuphist.html|title=Turkey – List of Prime Minister's Cup and Atatürk Cup Finals|website=[[RSSSF]]|publisher=[[Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation|RSSSF]]|access-date=11 September 2018}}</ref><br />
: '''Winners (8) (record):''' 1945, 1946, 1950, 1973, 1980, 1989, 1993, 1998<br />
: ''Runners-up (7):'' 1944, 1971, 1976, 1977, 1992, 1994, 1995<br />
* '''[[Atatürk Cup]]'''<br />
: '''Winners (1) (shared-record):''' [[1998 Atatürk Cup|1998]]<br />
* '''[[Spor Toto Cup]]'''<br />
: '''Winners (1):''' 1967<br />
<br />
===Regional competitions===<br />
* '''[[Istanbul Football League]]'''<br />
: '''Winners (16) (record):''' [[1911–12 Istanbul Football League|1911–12]], [[1913–14 Istanbul Football League|1913–14]], [[1914–15 Istanbul Football League|1914–15]], [[1920–21 Istanbul Football League|1920–21]], [[1922–23 Istanbul Football League|1922–23]], [[1929–30 Istanbul Football League|1929–30]], [[1932–33 Istanbul Football League|1932–33]], [[1934–35 Istanbul Football League|1934–35]], [[1935–36 Istanbul Football League|1935–36]], [[1936–37 Istanbul Football League|1936–37]], [[1943–44 Istanbul Football League|1943–44]], [[1946–47 Istanbul Football League|1946–47]], [[1947–48 Istanbul Football League|1947–48]], [[1952–53 Istanbul Football League|1952–53]], [[1956–57 Istanbul Football League|1956–57]], [[1958–59 Istanbul Football League|1958–59]]<br />
: ''Runners-up (18):'' [[1915–16 Istanbul Football League|1915–16]], [[1917–18 Istanbul Football League|1917–18]], [[1921–22 Istanbul Football League|1921–22]], [[1925–26 Istanbul Football League|1925–26]], [[1926–27 Istanbul Football League|1926–27]], [[1928–29 Istanbul Football League|1928–29]], [[1930–31 Istanbul Football League|1930–31]], [[1933–34 Istanbul Football League|1933–34]], [[1937–38 Istanbul Football League|1937–38]], [[1938–39 Istanbul Football League|1938–39]], [[1939–40 Istanbul Football League|1939–40]], [[1940–41 Istanbul Football League|1940–41]], [[1942–43 Istanbul Football League|1942–43]], [[1944–45 Istanbul Football League|1944–45]], [[1945–46 Istanbul Football League|1945–46]], [[1949–50 Istanbul Football League|1949–50]], [[1955–56 Istanbul Football League|1955–56]], [[1957–58 Istanbul Football League|1957–58]]<br />
* '''[[Istanbul Football Cup]]'''<br />
: '''Winners (1):''' [[1945 Istanbul Football Cup|1944–45]]<br />
: ''Runners-up (2):'' [[1942 Istanbul Football Cup|1941–42]], [[1944 Istanbul Football Cup|1943–44]]<br />
* '''[[Istanbul Shield]]'''<br />
: '''Winners (4) (record):''' 1929–30, 1933–34, 1937–38 , 1938–39<br />
: ''Runners-up (1):'' 1932–33<br />
<br />
===International competitions===<br />
* '''[[Balkans Cup]]'''<br />
: '''Winners (1):''' [[1966–67 Balkans Cup|1966–67]]<br />
<br />
===Other competitions===<br />
* '''Atatürk Cup'''<br />
: '''Winners (1) (shared-record):''' 1963–64<br />
* '''[[General Harrington Cup]]'''<br />
: '''Winners (1):''' 1923<br />
* '''[[Fleet Cup]]'''<br />
: '''Winners (4) (record):''' 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985<br />
* '''[[TSYD Cup]]'''<br />
: '''Winners (12) (shared-record):''' 1969, 1973, 1975, 1976, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1982, 1985, 1986, 1994, 1995<br />
* '''[[TSYD Cup|TSYD Challenge Cup]]'''<br />
: '''Winners (2) (record):''' 1976, 1980<br />
<br />
===Doubles and Trebles===<br />
* '''Doubles'''<br />
: '''League and Cup:''' 1967–68, 1973–74, 1982–83<br />
* '''Domestic Trebles'''<br />
: '''League, Cup and Super Cup:''' 1967–68<br />
* '''International Trebles'''<br />
: '''League, Cup and Balkan Cup:''' 1968<br />
<br />
== European record ==<br />
{{Main|Fenerbahçe S.K. in European football}}<br />
<br />
=== Best achievements ===<br />
{{updated|25 July 2022}}<br />
{| class="toccolours" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="left" style="margin:0em;"<br />
|- bgcolor=<br />
! Season<br />
! Achievement<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="4" bgcolor=#EFEFEF | [[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" | [[1963–64 European Cup Winners' Cup|1963–64]]<br />
| align="center" | '''Quarter-Finalist'''<br />
| align="left" | eliminated by {{flagicon|Hungary}} [[MTK Budapest FC|MTK Budapest]] 0–2 in Budapest, 3–1 in Istanbul, 0–1 in Rome<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="4" bgcolor=#EFEFEF | [[Balkans Cup]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" | [[1966–67 Balkans Cup|1966–67]]<br />
| align="center" | '''Champion'''<br />
| align="left" | won against {{flagicon|Greece}} [[AEK Athens F.C.|AEK Athens]] 1–2 in Athens, 1–0 in Istanbul, 3–1 in Istanbul<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="4" bgcolor=#EFEFEF | [[UEFA Champions League]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" | [[2007–08 UEFA Champions League|2007–08]]<br />
| align="center" | '''Quarter-Finalist'''<br />
| align="left" | eliminated by {{flagicon|England}} [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] 2–1 in Istanbul, 0–2 in London<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="4" bgcolor=#EFEFEF | [[UEFA Europa League]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" | [[2012–13 UEFA Europa League|2012–13]]<br />
| align="center" | '''Semi-Finalist'''<br />
| align="left" | eliminated by {{flagicon|Portugal}} [[S.L. Benfica|Benfica]] 1–0 in Istanbul, 1–3 in Lisbon<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="4" bgcolor=#EFEFEF | [[UEFA Europa Conference League]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="center" | [[2021–22 UEFA Europa Conference League|2021–22]]<br />
| align="center" | '''Knockout round play-offs'''<br />
| align="left" | eliminated by {{flagicon|Czech Republic}} [[SK Slavia Prague|Slavia Prague]] 2–3 in Istanbul, 2–3 in Prague<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
=== Statistics of UEFA competitions ===<br />
{{updated|14 December 2023}}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
!Competition!!Pld!!W!!D!!L!!GF!!GA!!GD<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|[[UEFA Champions League]]<br />
|107||32||21||54||120||179||{{nowrap|–59}}<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|[[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]]<br />
|9||3||1||5||11||11||0<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|[[UEFA Europa League]]<br />
|136||60||33||43||191||171||+20<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|[[UEFA Europa Conference League]]<br />
|14||10||0||4||38||19||+19<br />
|-<br />
!align=center|Total<br />
!266||105||55||106||360||380||–20<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />'''Pld''' = Matches played; '''W''' = Matches won; '''D''' = Matches drawn; '''L''' = Matches lost; '''GF''' = Goals for; '''GA''' = Goals against; '''GD''' = Goal Difference.<br />
<br />
=== UEFA club coefficient ranking ===<br />
{{see also|UEFA coefficient}}<br />
<br />
{{updated|21 June 2023}}<ref>{{cite web|author=Bert Kassies |url=https://kassiesa.net/uefa/data/method5/trank2023.html |title=UEFA Team Ranking 2023 |publisher=Xs4all.nl |access-date=2023-06-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uefa.com/nationalassociations/uefarankings/club/#/yr/2023 |title=Member associations – UEFA rankings – Club coefficients – |publisher=Uefa.com |access-date=2023-06-21}}</ref><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! Rank !! Team !! Points<br />
|-<br />
|rowspan=2|56|| align="left" |{{flagicon|TUR}} [[İstanbul Başakşehir F.K.|İstanbul Başakşehir]]||rowspan=2|31.000<br />
|-<br />
|align="left" |{{flagicon|SCO}} [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]]<br />
|-<br />
|rowspan=2|58|| bgcolor="#ddffdd" align="left" |{{flagicon|TUR}} Fenerbahçe||rowspan=2|30.000<br />
|-<br />
|align="left" |{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Lille OSC|Lille]]<br />
|-<br />
|60|| align="left" |{{flagicon|FRA}} [[AS Monaco FC|Monaco]]||29.000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ UEFA club coefficient ranking over years<br />
|-<br />
! Year !! Rank!! Points<br />
|-bgcolor="#b53109"<br />
|[[2013-14 Fenerbahçe S.K. season|2013–14]]||53||41.340<br />
|-bgcolor="#b53109"<br />
|[[2014-15 Fenerbahçe S.K. season|2014–15]]||75||30.020<br />
|-bgcolor="#ddffdd"<br />
|[[2015-16 Fenerbahçe S.K. season|2015–16]]||52||40.920<br />
|-bgcolor="#ddffdd"<br />
|[[2016-17 Fenerbahçe S.K. season|2016–17]]||39||51.840<br />
|-bgcolor="#b53109"<br />
|[[2017-18 Fenerbahçe S.K. season|2017–18]]||61||23.500<br />
|-bgcolor="#ddffdd"<br />
|[[2018-19 Fenerbahçe S.K. season|2018–19]]||45||31.500<br />
|-bgcolor="#b53109"<br />
|[[2019-20 Fenerbahçe S.K. season|2019–20]]||52||31.500<br />
|-bgcolor="#b53109"<br />
|[[2020-21 Fenerbahçe S.K. season|2020–21]]||85||19.500<br />
|-bgcolor="#b53109"<br />
|[[2021-22 Fenerbahçe S.K. season|2021–22]]||107||14.500<br />
|-bgcolor="#ddffdd"<br />
|[[2022-23 Fenerbahçe S.K. season|2022–23]]||58||30.000<br />
|}<br />
{{legend2|#ddffdd|Placement has improved to the previous year|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}<br />
{{legend2|#b53109|Placement has deteriorated to the previous year|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}<br />
{{legend2|#FFFFFF|No change in placement to the previous year|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}<br />
<br />
=== Statistics of Non-UEFA competition ===<br />
{{updated|31 August 1968}}<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
!Competition!!Pld!!W!!D!!L!!GF!!GA!!GD<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|[[Balkans Cup]]<br />
|29||10||6||13||34||45||{{nowrap|–11}}<br />
|-<br />
!align=center|Total<br />
!29||10||6||13||34||45||–11<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small>'''Pld''' = Matches played; '''W''' = Matches won; '''D''' = Matches drawn; '''L''' = Matches lost; '''GF''' = Goals for; '''GA''' = Goals against; '''GD''' = Goal Difference. </small><br />
<br />
== Players ==<br />
=== Current squad ===<br />
<section begin=squad />{{updated|15 September 2023}}.<ref name="Current squad">{{cite web|title=FUTBOL A TAKIMI |url=https://www.fenerbahce.org/branslar/futbolatakimi/oyuncular#oyuncular|access-date=18 July 2019}}</ref><br />
{{fs start}}<br />
{{fs player|no=3|pos=DF|nat=TUR|name=[[Samet Akaydin]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=4|pos=DF|nat=TUR|name=[[Serdar Aziz]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=5|pos=MF|nat=TUR|name=[[İsmail Yüksek]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=6|pos=DF|nat=GHA|name=[[Alexander Djiku]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=7|pos=DF|nat=TUR|name=[[Ferdi Kadıoğlu]]|other=}}<br />
{{fs player|no=8|pos=MF|nat=TUR|name=[[Mert Hakan Yandaş]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=9|pos=FW|nat=BIH|name=[[Edin Džeko]]|other=[[Captain (association football)|captain]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=10|pos=FW|nat=SER|name=[[Dušan Tadić]]|other=}}<br />
{{fs player|no=11|pos=FW|nat=ENG|name=[[Ryan Kent]]|other=}}<br />
{{fs player|no=15|pos=FW|nat=NOR|name=[[Joshua King (footballer)|Joshua King]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=16|pos=DF|nat=TUR|name=[[Mert Müldür]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=17|pos=MF|nat=TUR|name=[[İrfan Kahveci]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=20|pos=FW|nat=TUR|name=[[Cengiz Ünder]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=21|pos=DF|nat=NGA|name=[[Bright Osayi-Samuel]]|other=}}<br />
{{Fs mid}}<br />
{{fs player|no=22|pos=FW|nat=TUR|name=[[Umut Nayir]]|other=}}<br />
{{fs player|no=23|pos=FW|nat=BEL|name=[[Michy Batshuayi]]|other=}}<br />
{{fs player|no=24|pos=DF|nat=NED|name=[[Jayden Oosterwolde]]|other=}}<br />
{{fs player|no=26|pos=MF|nat=SLO|name=[[Miha Zajc]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=27|pos=MF|nat=POR|name=[[Miguel Crespo]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=28|pos=MF|nat=TUR|name=[[Bartuğ Elmaz]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=35|pos=MF|nat=BRA|name=[[Fred (footballer, born 1993)|Fred]]}}<br />
{{Fs player|no=40|pos=GK|nat=CRO|name=[[Dominik Livaković]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=50|pos=DF|nat=BRA|name=[[Rodrigo Becão]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=53|pos=MF|nat=POL|name=[[Sebastian Szymański]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=70|pos=GK|nat=TUR|name=[[İrfan Can Eğribayat]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=95|pos=DF|nat=TUR|name=[[Yusuf Akçiçek]]}}<br />
{{fs player|no=97|pos=GK|nat=TUR|name=Furkan Onur Akyüz}}<br />
{{fs player|no=99|pos=FW|nat=TUR|name=[[Emre Mor]]}}<br />
{{fs end}}<br />
<br />
===Players with multiple nationalities===<br />
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* {{flagicon|GHA}}{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Alexander Djiku]]<br />
* {{flagicon|TUR}}{{flagicon|NED}}{{flagicon|CAN}} [[Ferdi Kadıoğlu]]<br />
* {{flagicon|NOR}}{{flagicon|GAM}} [[Joshua King (footballer)|Joshua King]]<br />
* {{flagicon|TUR}}{{flagicon|AUT}} [[Mert Müldür]]<br />
* {{flagicon|NGR}}{{flagicon|ENG}} [[Bright Osayi-Samuel]]<br />
* {{flagicon|BEL}}{{flagicon|COD}} [[Michy Batshuayi]]<br />
* {{flagicon|NED}}{{flagicon|SUR}}{{flagicon|IDN}} [[Jayden Oosterwolde]]<br />
* {{flagicon|POR}}{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Miguel Crespo]]<br />
* {{flagicon|TUR}}{{flagicon|DEN}}{{flagicon|MKD}} [[Emre Mor]]<br />
{{div col end}}<br />
<br />
=== Academy players training with the main squad ===<br />
{{updated|15 September 2023}}.<ref name="team squad at TFF">{{cite web|title=Fenerbahçe AŞ Takım Kadrosu |url=https://www.tff.org/Default.aspx?pageID=28&kulupId=3592|access-date=17 August 2022}}</ref><br />
{{fs start}}<br />
{{fs player|no=49|pos=MF|nat=TUR|name=Muhammet İmre}}<br />
{{fs player|no=67|pos=GK|nat=TUR|name=Muhammet Doğukan Demir}}<br />
{{fs mid}}<br />
{{fs player|no=93|pos=GK|nat=TUR|name=Ömer Bircan Camcı}}<br />
{{fs player|no=95|pos=DF|nat=TUR|name=[[Yusuf Akçiçek]]}}<br />
{{fs end}}<br />
<br />
=== Unregistered players under contract ===<br />
{{fs start}}<br />
{{fs player|no=14|pos=DF|nat=BRA|name=[[Luan Peres]]}}<br />
{{fs mid}}<br />
{{fs player|no=18|pos=MF|nat=BRA|name=[[Lincoln (footballer, born 1998)|Lincoln]]}}<br />
{{fs end}}<br />
<br />
=== Out on loan ===<br />
{{fs start}}<br />
{{fs player|no=|pos=GK|nat=TUR|name=[[Ertuğrul Çetin]]|other=at [[Gençlerbirliği S.K.|Gençlerbirliği]] until 30 June 2024}}<br />
{{fs player|no=|pos=DF|nat=TUR|name=[[Çağtay Kurukalıp]]|other=at [[İskenderunspor (1978)|İskenderunspor]] until 30 June 2024}}<br />
{{fs player|no=|pos=DF|nat=TUR|name=Emir Ortakaya|other=at [[Kocaelispor]] until 30 June 2024}}<br />
{{fs player|no=|pos=DF|nat=EGY|name=[[Omar Fayed (footballer, born 2003)|Omar Fayed]]|other=at [[FK Novi Pazar|Novi Pazar]] until 30 June 2024}}<br />
{{fs player|no=|pos=DF|nat=TUR|name=Yiğit Efe Demir|other=at [[Gençlerbirliği S.K.|Gençlerbirliği]] until 30 June 2024}}<br />
{{fs player|no=|pos=MF|nat=TUR|name=[[Emre Demir]]|other=at [[Ümraniyespor]] until 30 June 2024}}<br />
{{fs player|no=|pos=MF|nat=TUR|name=Erkan Arda Çağdaş|other=at [[İnegölspor]] until 30 June 2024}}<br />
{{fs mid}}<br />
{{fs player|no=|pos=MF|nat=KOR|name=[[Jo Jin-ho (footballer)|Jo Jin-ho]]|other=at [[FK Novi Pazar|Novi Pazar]] until 30 June 2024}}<br />
{{fs player|no=|pos=MF|nat=TUR|name=Yusuf Kocatürk|other=at [[İnegölspor]] until 30 June 2024}}<br />
{{fs player|no=|pos=FW|nat=TUR|name=[[Bora Aydınlık]]|other=at [[Hull City A.F.C.|Hull City]] until 30 June 2024}}<br />
{{fs player|no=|pos=FW|nat=TUR|name=[[Burak Kapacak]]|other=at [[Sivasspor]] until 30 June 2024}}<br />
{{fs player|no=|pos=FW|nat=ITA|name=[[João Pedro (footballer, born 1992)|João Pedro]]|other=at [[Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense|Grêmio]] until 30 June 2024}}<br />
{{fs player|no=|pos=FW|nat=TUR|name=[[Tiago Cukur]]|other=at [[S.K. Beveren|Beveren]] until 30 June 2024}}<br />
{{fs end}}<br />
<br />
=== Academy teams ===<br />
{{Main|Fenerbahçe S.K. Academy}}<br />
<br />
=== Retired number(s) ===<br />
{{main|Retired numbers in association football#Dedication to fans|l1=Retired numbers in football}}<br />
* 12, representing the supporters of the club<br />
<br />
=== Team captains ===<br />
{{main|List of Fenerbahçe S.K. football captains}}<br />
<br />
== Records ==<br />
=== Past seasons ===<br />
{{main|List of Fenerbahçe S.K. seasons}}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width: 100%; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=11 | Domestic results since 1959<br />
|-<br />
|-bgcolor="#efefef"<br />
! Season<br />
! Place<br />
! G<br />
! W<br />
! D<br />
! L<br />
! GS<br />
! GA<br />
! Pts<br />
![[Turkish Cup]]<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|[[Turkish National League 1959|1959]]<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|rowspan=1|16<br />
|rowspan=1|13<br />
|rowspan=1|2<br />
|rowspan=1|1<br />
|rowspan=1|33<br />
|rowspan=1|8<br />
|rowspan=1|26<br />
|rowspan=1|–<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1959–60<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|rowspan=1|38<br />
|rowspan=1|27<br />
|rowspan=1|6<br />
|rowspan=1|5<br />
|rowspan=1|88<br />
|rowspan=1|38<br />
|rowspan=1|60<br />
|rowspan=1|–<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1960–61<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|rowspan=1|38<br />
|rowspan=1|26<br />
|rowspan=1|9<br />
|rowspan=1|3<br />
|rowspan=1|81<br />
|rowspan=1|29<br />
|rowspan=1|61<br />
|rowspan=1|–<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1961–62<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|rowspan=1|38<br />
|rowspan=1|23<br />
|rowspan=1|7<br />
|rowspan=1|8<br />
|rowspan=1|64<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|53<br />
|rowspan=1|–<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1962–63<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=cc9966|'''3'''<br />
|rowspan=1|42<br />
|rowspan=1|24<br />
|rowspan=1|12<br />
|rowspan=1|6<br />
|rowspan=1|73<br />
|rowspan=1|28<br />
|rowspan=1|60<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|Runners-up<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1963–64<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|rowspan=1|34<br />
|rowspan=1|21<br />
|rowspan=1|11<br />
|rowspan=1|2<br />
|rowspan=1|55<br />
|rowspan=1|14<br />
|rowspan=1|53<br />
|rowspan=1|Third round<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1964–65<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|18<br />
|rowspan=1|11<br />
|rowspan=1|1<br />
|rowspan=1|52<br />
|rowspan=1|13<br />
|rowspan=1|47<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|Runners-up<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1965–66<br />
|rowspan=1|'''4'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|10<br />
|rowspan=1|12<br />
|rowspan=1|8<br />
|rowspan=1|32<br />
|rowspan=1|25<br />
|rowspan=1|32<br />
|rowspan=1|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1966–67<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|rowspan=1|32<br />
|rowspan=1|17<br />
|rowspan=1|9<br />
|rowspan=1|6<br />
|rowspan=1|37<br />
|rowspan=1|20<br />
|rowspan=1|43<br />
|rowspan=1|Quarter-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1967–68<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|rowspan=1|32<br />
|rowspan=1|19<br />
|rowspan=1|11<br />
|rowspan=1|2<br />
|rowspan=1|38<br />
|rowspan=1|12<br />
|rowspan=1|49<br />
|align=center bgcolor=gold|Winners<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1968–69<br />
|rowspan=1|'''4'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|13<br />
|rowspan=1|9<br />
|rowspan=1|8<br />
|rowspan=1|34<br />
|rowspan=1|25<br />
|rowspan=1|35<br />
|rowspan=1|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1969–70<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|17<br />
|rowspan=1|10<br />
|rowspan=1|3<br />
|rowspan=1|31<br />
|rowspan=1|6<br />
|rowspan=1|44<br />
|rowspan=1|First round<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1970–71<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|14<br />
|rowspan=1|13<br />
|rowspan=1|3<br />
|rowspan=1|43<br />
|rowspan=1|23<br />
|rowspan=1|41<br />
|rowspan=1|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1971–72<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=cc9966|'''3'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|14<br />
|rowspan=1|11<br />
|rowspan=1|5<br />
|rowspan=1|37<br />
|rowspan=1|21<br />
|rowspan=1|39<br />
|rowspan=1|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1972–73<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|16<br />
|rowspan=1|10<br />
|rowspan=1|4<br />
|rowspan=1|42<br />
|rowspan=1|17<br />
|rowspan=1|42<br />
|rowspan=1|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1973–74<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|15<br />
|rowspan=1|13<br />
|rowspan=1|2<br />
|rowspan=1|39<br />
|rowspan=1|15<br />
|rowspan=1|43<br />
|align=center bgcolor=gold|Winners<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1974–75<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|15<br />
|rowspan=1|13<br />
|rowspan=1|2<br />
|rowspan=1|43<br />
|rowspan=1|18<br />
|rowspan=1|43<br />
|rowspan=1|Quarter-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1975–76<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|14<br />
|rowspan=1|12<br />
|rowspan=1|4<br />
|rowspan=1|40<br />
|rowspan=1|18<br />
|rowspan=1|40<br />
|rowspan=1|Fourth round<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1976–77<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|12<br />
|rowspan=1|15<br />
|rowspan=1|3<br />
|rowspan=1|31<br />
|rowspan=1|17<br />
|rowspan=1|39<br />
|rowspan=1|Quarter-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1977–78<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|17<br />
|rowspan=1|8<br />
|rowspan=1|5<br />
|rowspan=1|48<br />
|rowspan=1|24<br />
|rowspan=1|42<br />
|rowspan=1|Quarter-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1978–79<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=cc9966|'''3'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|15<br />
|rowspan=1|8<br />
|rowspan=1|7<br />
|rowspan=1|41<br />
|rowspan=1|23<br />
|rowspan=1|38<br />
|align=center bgcolor=gold|Winners<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1979–80<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|12<br />
|rowspan=1|11<br />
|rowspan=1|7<br />
|rowspan=1|31<br />
|rowspan=1|27<br />
|rowspan=1|35<br />
|rowspan=1|Quarter-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1980–81<br />
|rowspan=1|'''10'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|9<br />
|rowspan=1|11<br />
|rowspan=1|10<br />
|rowspan=1|31<br />
|rowspan=1|27<br />
|rowspan=1|29<br />
|rowspan=1|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1981–82<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=cc9966|'''3'''<br />
|rowspan=1|32<br />
|rowspan=1|15<br />
|rowspan=1|11<br />
|rowspan=1|6<br />
|rowspan=1|48<br />
|rowspan=1|26<br />
|rowspan=1|41<br />
|rowspan=1|Quarter-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1982–83<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|rowspan=1|34<br />
|rowspan=1|18<br />
|rowspan=1|13<br />
|rowspan=1|3<br />
|rowspan=1|43<br />
|rowspan=1|20<br />
|rowspan=1|49<br />
|align=center bgcolor=gold|Winners<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1983–84<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|rowspan=1|34<br />
|rowspan=1|17<br />
|rowspan=1|11<br />
|rowspan=1|6<br />
|rowspan=1|46<br />
|rowspan=1|24<br />
|rowspan=1|45<br />
|rowspan=1|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1984–85<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|rowspan=1|34<br />
|rowspan=1|18<br />
|rowspan=1|14<br />
|rowspan=1|2<br />
|rowspan=1|65<br />
|rowspan=1|25<br />
|rowspan=1|50<br />
|rowspan=1|Quarter-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1985–86<br />
|rowspan=1|'''5'''<br />
|rowspan=1|36<br />
|rowspan=1|13<br />
|rowspan=1|16<br />
|rowspan=1|7<br />
|rowspan=1|40<br />
|rowspan=1|32<br />
|rowspan=1|42<br />
|rowspan=1|Fifth round<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1986–87<br />
|rowspan=1|'''5'''<br />
|rowspan=1|36<br />
|rowspan=1|13<br />
|rowspan=1|13<br />
|rowspan=1|10<br />
|rowspan=1|46<br />
|rowspan=1|39<br />
|rowspan=1|39<br />
|rowspan=1|Quarter-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1987–88<br />
|rowspan=1|'''8'''<br />
|rowspan=1|38<br />
|rowspan=1|15<br />
|rowspan=1|10<br />
|rowspan=1|13<br />
|rowspan=1|45<br />
|rowspan=1|43<br />
|rowspan=1|55<br />
|rowspan=1|Fourth round<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1988–89<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|rowspan=1|36<br />
|rowspan=1|29<br />
|rowspan=1|6<br />
|rowspan=1|1<br />
|rowspan=1|103<br />
|rowspan=1|27<br />
|rowspan=1|93<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|Runners-up<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1989–90<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|rowspan=1|34<br />
|rowspan=1|22<br />
|rowspan=1|4<br />
|rowspan=1|8<br />
|rowspan=1|70<br />
|rowspan=1|38<br />
|rowspan=1|70<br />
|rowspan=1|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1990–91<br />
|rowspan=1|'''5'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|12<br />
|rowspan=1|8<br />
|rowspan=1|10<br />
|rowspan=1|53<br />
|rowspan=1|53<br />
|rowspan=1|44<br />
|rowspan=1|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1991–92<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|23<br />
|rowspan=1|2<br />
|rowspan=1|5<br />
|rowspan=1|81<br />
|rowspan=1|35<br />
|rowspan=1|71<br />
|rowspan=1|Round of 16<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1992–93<br />
|rowspan=1|'''5'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|18<br />
|rowspan=1|4<br />
|rowspan=1|8<br />
|rowspan=1|75<br />
|rowspan=1|41<br />
|rowspan=1|58<br />
|rowspan=1|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1993–94<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|rowspan=1|30<br />
|rowspan=1|21<br />
|rowspan=1|6<br />
|rowspan=1|3<br />
|rowspan=1|69<br />
|rowspan=1|26<br />
|rowspan=1|69<br />
|rowspan=1|Quarter-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1994–95<br />
|rowspan=1|'''4'''<br />
|rowspan=1|34<br />
|rowspan=1|20<br />
|rowspan=1|7<br />
|rowspan=1|7<br />
|rowspan=1|78<br />
|rowspan=1|35<br />
|rowspan=1|67<br />
|rowspan=1|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|-align=center<br />
|rowspan=1|1995–96<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|rowspan=1|34<br />
|rowspan=1|26<br />
|rowspan=1|6<br />
|rowspan=1|2<br />
|rowspan=1|68<br />
|rowspan=1|19<br />
|rowspan=1|84<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|Runners-up<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|1996–97<br />
|align=center bgcolor=#cc9966|'''3'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|22<br />
|align=center|7<br />
|align=center|5<br />
|align=center|79<br />
|align=center|25<br />
|align=center|'''73'''<br />
|align=center|Quarter-finals<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|1997–98<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|21<br />
|align=center|8<br />
|align=center|5<br />
|align=center|61<br />
|align=center|25<br />
|align=center|'''71'''<br />
|align=center|Quarter-finals<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|1998–99<br />
|align=center bgcolor=#cc9966|'''3'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|22<br />
|align=center|6<br />
|align=center|6<br />
|align=center|84<br />
|align=center|29<br />
|align=center|'''72'''<br />
|align=center|''Banned''<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|1999–00<br />
|align=center|'''4'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|17<br />
|align=center|10<br />
|align=center|7<br />
|align=center|59<br />
|align=center|44<br />
|align=center|'''61'''<br />
|align=center|Round of 32<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2000–01<br />
|align=center bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|24<br />
|align=center|4<br />
|align=center|6<br />
|align=center|82<br />
|align=center|39<br />
|align=center|'''76'''<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|Runners-up<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2001–02<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|24<br />
|align=center|3<br />
|align=center|7<br />
|align=center|70<br />
|align=center|31<br />
|align=center|'''75'''<br />
|align=center|Fourth round<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2002–03<br />
|align=center|'''6'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|13<br />
|align=center|12<br />
|align=center|9<br />
|align=center|55<br />
|align=center|42<br />
|align=center|'''51'''<br />
|align=center|Second round<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2003–04<br />
|align=center bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|23<br />
|align=center|7<br />
|align=center|4<br />
|align=center|82<br />
|align=center|41<br />
|align=center|'''76'''<br />
|align=center|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2004–05<br />
|align=center bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|26<br />
|align=center|2<br />
|align=center|6<br />
|align=center|77<br />
|align=center|24<br />
|align=center|'''80'''<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|Runners-up<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2005–06<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|25<br />
|align=center|6<br />
|align=center|3<br />
|align=center|90<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|'''81'''<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|Runners-up<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2006–07<br />
|align=center bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|20<br />
|align=center|10<br />
|align=center|4<br />
|align=center|65<br />
|align=center|21<br />
|align=center|'''70'''<br />
|align=center|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2007–08<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|22<br />
|align=center|7<br />
|align=center|5<br />
|align=center|72<br />
|align=center|37<br />
|align=center|'''73'''<br />
|align=center|Quarter-finals<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2008–09<br />
|align=center|'''4'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|18<br />
|align=center|7<br />
|align=center|9<br />
|align=center|60<br />
|align=center|36<br />
|align=center|'''61'''<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|Runners-up<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2009–10<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|23<br />
|align=center|5<br />
|align=center|6<br />
|align=center|61<br />
|align=center|28<br />
|align=center|'''74'''<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|Runners-up<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2010–11<br />
| align="center" bgcolor="gold" |'''1'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|26<br />
|align=center|4<br />
|align=center|4<br />
|align=center|84<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|'''82'''<br />
|align=center|Group stage<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2011–12<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|20<br />
|align=center|8<br />
|align=center|6<br />
|align=center|61<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|'''68'''<br />
|align=center bgcolor=gold|Winners<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2012–13<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|18<br />
|align=center|7<br />
|align=center|9<br />
|align=center|56<br />
|align=center|39<br />
|align=center|'''61'''<br />
|align=center bgcolor=gold|Winners<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2013–14<br />
|align=center bgcolor=gold|'''1'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|23<br />
|align=center|5<br />
|align=center|6<br />
|align=center|74<br />
|align=center|33<br />
|align=center|'''74'''<br />
|align=center|Fourth round<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2014–15<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|22<br />
|align=center|8<br />
|align=center|4<br />
|align=center|60<br />
|align=center|29<br />
|align=center|'''74'''<br />
|align=center|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2015–16<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|22<br />
|align=center|8<br />
|align=center|4<br />
|align=center|60<br />
|align=center|27<br />
|align=center|'''74'''<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|Runners-up<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2016–17<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=cc9966|'''3'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|18<br />
|align=center|10<br />
|align=center|6<br />
|align=center|60<br />
|align=center|32<br />
|align=center|'''64'''<br />
|align=center|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2017–18<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|21<br />
|align=center|9<br />
|align=center|4<br />
|align=center|78<br />
|align=center|36<br />
|align=center|'''72'''<br />
|align=center bgcolor=silver|Runners-up<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2018–19<br />
|align=center|'''6'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|11<br />
|align=center|13<br />
|align=center|10<br />
|align=center|44<br />
|align=center|44<br />
|align=center|'''46'''<br />
|align=center|Round of 16<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2019–20<br />
|align=center|'''7'''<br />
|align=center|34<br />
|align=center|15<br />
|align=center|8<br />
|align=center|11<br />
|align=center|58<br />
|align=center|46<br />
|align=center|'''53'''<br />
|align=center|Semi-finals<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2020–21<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=cc9966|'''3'''<br />
|align=center|40<br />
|align=center|25<br />
|align=center|7<br />
|align=center|8<br />
|align=center|72<br />
|align=center|41<br />
|align=center|'''82'''<br />
|align=center|Quarter-finals<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2021–22<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|align=center|38<br />
|align=center|21<br />
|align=center|10<br />
|align=center|7<br />
|align=center|73<br />
|align=center|38<br />
|align=center|'''73'''<br />
|align=center|Round of 16<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|2022–23<br />
|rowspan=1 bgcolor=silver|'''2'''<br />
|align=center|36<br />
|align=center|25<br />
|align=center|5<br />
|align=center|6<br />
|align=center|87<br />
|align=center|42<br />
|align=center|'''80'''<br />
|align=center bgcolor=gold|Winners<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Most ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:95%"<br />
! width="200" style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}| Outline<br />
! width="100" style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}| Record<br />
! width="150" style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}| Year<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Most wins<br />
| 29<br />
| 1988–89<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Most draws<br />
| 16<br />
| 1985–86<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Most defeats<br />
| 13<br />
| 1987–88<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Most wins in a row<br />
| 12<br />
| 2005–06<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Most defeats in a row<br />
| 3<br />
| 1966–67, 1980–81, 1987–88, 1992–93, 2018–19, 2021–22<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Most goals scored<br />
| 103<br />
| 1988–89<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Most goals conceded<br />
| 53<br />
| 1990–91<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Highest number of points in any half of a season<br />
| 49/51<br />
| 2010–11<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Fewest ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:95%"<br />
! width="200" style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}| Outline<br />
! width="100" style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}| Record<br />
! width="150" style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}| Year<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Fewest wins<br />
| 9<br />
| 1980–81<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Fewest draws<br />
| 2<br />
| 1959, 1991–92, 2004–05<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Fewest defeats<br />
| 1<br />
| 1959, 1963–64, 1988–89<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Fewest goals scored<br />
| 31<br />
| 1969–70, 1976–77, 1979–80<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Fewest goals conceded<br />
| 6<br />
| 1969–70<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Player records ===<br />
==== Most goals ====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:95%"<br />
! width="250" style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}| Outline<br />
! width="150" style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}| Player<br />
! width="150" style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}| Record<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Most goals in all-time<br />
| {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Zeki Rıza Sporel]]<br />
| '''470'''<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Most goals in Süper Lig<br />
| {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Aykut Kocaman]]<br />
| 140<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Most goals in one match<br />
| {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Melih Kotanca]] &<br /> {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Zeki Rıza Sporel]]<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Most goals in one league match<br />
| {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Tanju Çolak]]<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Most goals in UEFA competitions<br />
| {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Alex (footballer, born 1977)|Alex de Souza]]<br />
| 15<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small>Note: Zeki Rıza Sporel scored his record eight goals against Anadolu in 1931, Melih Kotanca repeated this record against Topkapı in 1940. Tanju Çolak scored six goals against [[Karşıyaka S.K.|Karşıyaka]] in the 1992–93 season.</small><br />
<br />
==== Most appearances ====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:95%"<br />
! width="250" style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}| Outline<br />
! width="150" style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}| Player<br />
! width="150" style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}| Record<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Most appearances in all-time<br />
| {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Müjdat Yetkiner]]<br />
| '''763'''<br />
|-<br />
| align="left"| Most appearances in UEFA competitions<br />
| {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Volkan Demirel]]<br />
| 86<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Club officials ==<br />
{{See also|List of Fenerbahçe S.K. presidents|List of Fenerbahçe S.K. managers}}<br />
<br />
=== Board members ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"<br />
|-<br />
! style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}"| Position<br />
! style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}"| Name<br />
|-<br />
| President || {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Ali Koç]]<br />
|-<br />
| Deputy Chairman || {{flagicon|TUR}} Erol Bilecik<br />
|-<br />
| Board Member || {{flagicon|TUR}} Burak Çağlan Kızılhan<br />
|-<br />
| Board Member || {{flagicon|TUR}} Mehmet Dereli<br />
|-<br />
| Board Member || {{flagicon|TUR}} Fethi Pekin<br />
|-<br />
| Board Member || {{flagicon|TUR}} Acar Sertaç Komsuoğlu<br />
|-<br />
| Board Member || {{flagicon|TUR}} Simla Türker Bayazıt<br />
|-<br />
| Board Member || {{flagicon|TUR}} Hüseyin Arslan<br />
|-<br />
| Board Member || {{flagicon|TUR}} Esin Güral Argat<br />
|-<br />
| Board Member || {{flagicon|TUR}} Nüket Küçükel Ezberci<br />
|-<br />
| Board Member || {{flagicon|TUR}} Ahmet Ketenci<br />
|-<br />
| Board Member || {{flagicon|TUR}} Mustafa Kemal Danabaş<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small>Source:<ref name="Yönetim Kurulu Üyeleri">{{cite web|url=http://www.fenerbahce.org/detay.asp?ContentID=9|title=Yönetim Kurulu Üyeleri|language=tr|date=20 May 2017|access-date=14 August 2018|website=fenerbahce.org}}</ref></small><br />
<br />
=== Technical staff ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"<br />
|-<br />
! style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}"| Position<br />
! style="color:#FFED00; background:#163962; {{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}"| Name<br />
|-<br />
| Sporting Director || {{flagicon|POR}} Mario Branco<br />
|-<br />
| Assistant to the Sporting Director || {{flagicon|TUR}} Onur Özkan<br />
|-<br />
| Administrative Manager || {{flagicon|TUR}} Emir Yolaç<br />
|-<br />
| Head Coach || {{flagicon|TUR}} [[İsmail Kartal]]<br />
|-<br />
| Assistant Coach || {{flagicon|TUR}} Recep Karatepe<br />
|-<br />
| Assistant Coach ||{{flagicon|TUR}} Zeki Murat Göle<br />
|-<br />
| Assistant Coach || {{flagicon|TUR}} Kemal Kurak<br />
|-<br />
| Assistant Coach || {{flagicon|TUR}} Sercan Terzioğlu<br />
|-<br />
| Athletic Performance Coach || {{flagicon|TUR}} Cengiz Sirkan<br />
|-<br />
| Athletic Performance Coach || {{flagicon|TUR}} Cihan Mert Cengiz<br />
|-<br />
| Analyst || {{flagicon|TUR}} Kerem Güneş<br />
|-<br />
| Analyst || {{flagicon|TUR}} Mehmet Turhan Demir<br />
|-<br />
| Goalkeeping Coach || {{flagicon|TUR}} Haluk Kaplan<br />
|-<br />
| Goalkeeping Coach || {{flagicon|TUR}} Yasin Cirav<br />
|-<br />
| Tactical Analysis Expert || {{flagicon|TUR}} Melikşah Sezgin<br />
|-<br />
| Doctor || {{flagicon|TUR}} Dr. Osman İlhancik<br />
|-<br />
| Doctor || {{flagicon|TUR}} Dr. Ertuğrul Karanlık<br />
|-<br />
| Media Officer || {{flagicon|TUR}} Alper Yemeniciler<br />
|-<br />
| Interpreter || {{flagicon|TUR}} Sinan Levi<br />
|-<br />
| Interpreter || {{flagicon|TUR}} Saruhan Karaman<br />
|-<br />
| Physiotherapist || {{flagicon|TUR}} Umut Şahin<br />
|-<br />
| Physiotherapist || {{flagicon|TUR}} Ata Özgür Ercan<br />
|-<br />
| Physiotherapist || {{flagicon|TUR}} Bülent Uyar<br />
|-<br />
| Dietician || {{flagicon|TUR}} Şengül Sangu Talak<br />
|-<br />
| Masseur || {{flagicon|TUR}} Muhammed Fatih Yeniay<br />
|-<br />
| Masseur || {{flagicon|TUR}} Eyüp Emre Yeşiller<br />
|-<br />
| Masseur || {{flagicon|TUR}} Özkan Alaca<br />
|-<br />
| Masseur || {{flagicon|TUR}} Veysel Çabşek<br />
|-<br />
| Material Manager || {{flagicon|TUR}} Dursun Çetin<br />
|-<br />
| Material Manager || {{flagicon|TUR}} Cemil Bulut<br />
|-<br />
| Material Manager || {{flagicon|TUR}} Sefa Eroğlu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small>Source:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fenerbahce.org/futbola/kategori.asp?ContentCategoryID=19|title=Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü Resmi Sitesi / Türkiye'nin En Gelişmiş Spor Kulübü Portalı|first=Burak|last=Çelik|website=fenerbahce.org}}</ref></small><br />
<br />
== Fenerbahçe as a company ==<br />
'''Fenerbahçe Futbol A.Ş.''' is a listed company in [[Borsa Istanbul]] as {{IMKB|FENER}}; [[Fenerbahçe S.K.|Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü]] owns a 67.07% stake. The company had a negative equity of 424,317,388 [[Turkish lira|Turkish lire]]; total assets of 311,233,179 lire; revenue 317,610,262 lire and a net loss of 181,234,264 in the 2014–15 season.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kap.org.tr |title=Agreements|date=20 May 2016|access-date=3 June 2016|website=www.kap.org.tr}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=September 2021}} The club was required to have an aggregate break-even in 2019 (2016–17, 2017–18 and 2018–19 season), and more specifically a maximum annual net loss of €30 million, €20 million and €10 million in 2015–16, 2016–17 and 2017–18 seasons.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}} Turkish clubs [[Beşiktaş J.K.|Beşiktaş]], [[Kardemir Karabükspor]] and [[Trabzonspor]] (twice) also entered into settlement agreements in 2014, 2015 and 2016, with [[Bursaspor]] and [[Galatasaray S.K. (football)|Galatasaray]] being banned from European football in 2015 and 2016 respectively due to breaching overdue payable and the settlement agreement respectively.<br />
<br />
== Trivia ==<br />
* Fenerbahçe went through the [[1922–23 Istanbul Football League|1922–23]] season of the [[Istanbul Football League]] undefeated (11W, 1D) without conceding a single goal (58-0).<br />
* First Turkish team to win a non-domestic trophy ([[1966–67 Balkans Cup]])<ref name="BALKAN">{{cite web|url=http://www.turkfutbolu.net/avrupakupalari/balkan.htm|title=BALKAN KUPASI|language=tr|date=15 April 2007|access-date=10 January 2013|publisher=turkfutbolu.net|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028062443/http://www.turkfutbolu.net/avrupakupalari/balkan.htm|archive-date=28 October 2012}}</ref><br />
* All-time best record in the Turkish Super Lig cumulative standings with the highest number of wins and the fewest losses.<ref name="REKORLAR">{{cite web|url=http://www.fenerbahcecumhuriyeti.org/Fenerbahcenin_Rekorlari.asp|title=Fenerbahçe'nin Rekorları ve Tarihindeki İlkler|language=tr|date=15 April 2007|access-date=10 January 2013|publisher=fenerbahcecumhuriyeti.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115132254/http://www.fenerbahcecumhuriyeti.org/Fenerbahcenin_Rekorlari.asp|archive-date=15 January 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
* Best winning percentage in a season:<br />
: 29 wins and 6 draws in 36 matches, 0.888 in the [[1988–89 1.Lig|1988–89]] season<br />
* Best group stage finish for a Turkish club in the [[UEFA Europa League|Europa League]]:<br />
: 15 points in 6 games against {{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[FC Twente|Twente]], {{flagicon|Moldova}} [[FC Sheriff Tiraspol|Sheriff Tiraspol]] and {{flagicon|Romania}} [[FC Steaua București|Steaua București]], in the [[2009–10 UEFA Europa League|2009–10]] season<br />
* In the 1988–89 season, Fenerbahçe set a record for the highest goals scored in a single season with 103 goals scored in 36 matches of the regular season.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{Portal|Association football|Turkey}}<br />
* [[Fenerbahçe S.K.]]<br />
* [[Fenerbahçe S.K. (women's football)|Fenerbahçe Women's Football]]<br />
* [[Fenerbahçe S.K. (basketball)|Fenerbahçe Basketball]]<br />
* [[Fenerbahçe S.K. (women's basketball)|Fenerbahçe Women's Basketball]]<br />
* [[Fenerbahçe S.K. (men's volleyball)|Fenerbahçe Men's Volleyball]]<br />
* [[Fenerbahçe S.K. (women's volleyball)|Fenerbahçe Women's Volleyball]]<br />
* [[List of unrelegated association football clubs]]<br />
<br />
== Footnotes ==<br />
{{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
'''Sources'''<br />
* {{cite book|last=Yüce|first=Mehmet|title=Osmanlı Melekleri: Futbol Tarihimizin Kadim Devreleri Türkiye Futbol Tarihi – Birinci Cilt |year=2014|publisher=İletişim Yayınları|location=Istanbul|isbn=9789750515804|language=tr}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Yüce|first=Mehmet|title=İdmancı Ruhlar: Futbol Tarihimizin Klasik Devreleri: 1923–1952 Türkiye Futbol Tarihi – 2. Cilt |year=2015|publisher=İletişim Yayınları|location=Istanbul|isbn=9789750516955|language=tr}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{Commons category-inline}}<br />
<!--Please explain your reasoning on the talk page before adding fansites etc.--><br />
* {{Official website|http://www.fenerbahce.org}} {{in lang|tr|en}}<br />
* [http://1907.org/ Official website of 1907 Fenerbahçe Association] {{in lang|tr}}<br />
<br />
{{Fenerbahçe S.K.}}<br />
{{Fenerbahçe S.K. squad}}<br />
{{Fenerbahçe S.K. managers}}<br />
{{Fenerbahçe S.K. presidents}}<br />
{{Fenerbahçe S.K. seasons}}<br />
{{Navboxes|titlestyle=background:#163962;color:#FFED00;{{box-shadow border|a|#FFED00|1px}}|list1=<br />
{{Top level Turkish football seasons}}<br />
{{Süper Lig}}<br />
{{Turkish Cup}}<br />
{{Turkish Super Cup}}<br />
{{Football in Turkey}}<br />
{{Turkish clubs in European football}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fenerbahce S.K. (football)}}<br />
[[Category:Fenerbahçe S.K. (football)| ]]<br />
[[Category:Fenerbahçe S.K.|Football]]<br />
[[Category:Association football clubs established in 1907]]<br />
[[Category:Football clubs in Istanbul]]<br />
[[Category:Sport in Kadıköy]]<br />
[[Category:1907 establishments in the Ottoman Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Unrelegated association football clubs]]<br />
[[Category:Companies listed on the Istanbul Stock Exchange]]<br />
[[Category:Süper Lig clubs]]<br />
[[Category:Sports clubs and teams in Istanbul]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Centennial&diff=1183215947Centennial2023-11-02T22:24:49Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Celebration at the 100th anniversary of an event}}<br />
{{other uses|Centennial (disambiguation)|Centenary (disambiguation)}}<br />
<br />
A '''centennial''', or '''centenary''' in [[British English]], is a 100th [[anniversary]] or otherwise relates to a [[century]], a period of an exact century.<br />
<br />
== Notable events ==<br />
Notable centennial events at a national or world-level include:<br />
* [[Centennial Exhibition]], 1876, [[Philadelphia]], Pennsylvania. First official [[World's Fair]] in the United States, celebrating the 100th anniversary of the signing of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] in Philadelphia. About 10 million visitors attended, equivalent to about 20% of the population of the United States at the time. The exhibition ran from May 10, 1876, to November 10, 1876. (It included a [[Centennial Monorail|monorail]].)<br />
* [[New Zealand Centennial Exhibition]], 1939–1940, celebrated one hundred years since the signing of the [[Treaty of Waitangi]] in 1840 and the subsequent mass European settlement of New Zealand. 2,641,043 (2.6 million) visitors attended the exhibition, which ran from 8 November 1939 until 4 May 1940.<br />
* [[1967 International and Universal Exposition]], better known as ''Expo 67'', celebrating [[Canadian Centennial|Canada's centennial year]]. This "Category One" [[World's Fair]] held in [[Montreal, Quebec]], Canada, from April 27 to October 29, 1967. Sixty-two nations participated, and it set the single-day attendance record for a world's fair, with 569,500 visitors on its third day. Official attendance was 50,306,648. Was endpoint of the [[Centennial Voyageur Canoe Pageant]], the longest canoe race in history. (Its monorail was a major attraction.)<br />
* [[Atatürk Centennial]], in memory of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]'s (founding president of [[Turkey]]) 100th birthday.<br />
* [[1996 Summer Olympics]], 100th anniversary of the 1st Summer Olympics in 1896.<br />
* [[Philippine Centennial]], 100th anniversary of the proclamation of Philippine Independence.<br />
* [[100th Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution and Republic of China]]<br />
* [[100th Anniversary of the Independence of Albania]]<br />
* [[First World War centenary]], started in 2014 with [[Centenary of the outbreak of World War I|commemorations of the outbreak of the war]] and concluded in 2018 with [[Armistice Day centenary|Armistice centennial commemorations]].<br />
* [[Independence Day (Finland)#100th anniversary|100th Anniversary of the Independence of Finland]]<br />
*[[100th Anniversary of the Chinese Communist Party]] (CPC)<br />
*100th Anniversary of the Republic of Turkey<br />
<br />
== Other events ==<br />
Selected regional or other centennial events include:<br />
<br />
=== Argentina ===<br />
* [[Argentina Centennial]] (1910)<br />
<br />
=== Australia ===<br />
* [[Centenary of Western Australia]], in 1929, which included the [[Western Australian Centenary Air Race]] across Australia.<br />
* [[1934 Centenary of Melbourne]]<br />
<br />
=== Canada ===<br />
* [[Canadian Centennial]] (1967)<br />
* [[Centennial of the City of Toronto]]<br />
<br />
=== Ireland ===<br />
* [[Decade of Centenaries]]<br />
<br />
=== Peru ===<br />
* [[Centennial of the Independence of Peru]] (1921)<br />
<br />
=== Philippines ===<br />
* [[Iglesia ni Cristo Centennial]] (2014)<br />
<br />
=== United States ===<br />
* [[American Civil War Centennial]]<br />
* [[Oregon Centennial]]<br />
* [[Texas Centennial Exposition]]<br />
* [[United States Centennial]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Generation Z]]<br />
*[[Sesquicentennial]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Regional centennial anniversaries|*]]<br />
[[Category:Former disambiguation pages converted to set index articles]]<!--- admin note: pls keep even if page becomes disambiguation again---></div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ahmet_Taner_K%C4%B1%C5%9Flal%C4%B1&diff=1169979333Ahmet Taner Kışlalı2023-08-12T14:24:31Z<p>Cehilizm: Political view added</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Turkish politician}}<br />
<br />
{{one source|date=March 2013}}<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| honorific-prefix = <br />
| name = Ahmet Taner Kışlalı<br />
| native_name = <!--The person's name in their own language, if different.--><br />
| native_name_lang = <!--ISO 639-1 code, e.g., "fr" for French. If more than one, use {{lang}} in |native_name= instead.--><br />
| honorific-suffix = <br />
| image = Statue of Ahmet Taner Kışlalı.jpg<br />
| image_size = <br />
| smallimage = <!--If this is specified, "image" should not be.--><br />
| alt = Statue of Ahmet Taner Kışlalı in Çayyolu, Ankara<br />
| caption = <br />
| order = <br />
| office = Minister of Culture of Turkey<br />
| term_start =5 January 1978<br />
| term_end = 12 November 1979<br />
| predecessor = [[Avni Akyol]]<br />
| successor = [[Tevfik Koraltan]]<br />
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1939|07|10|df=yes}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Zile]], [[Tokat]], [[Turkey]]<br />
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1999|10|21|1939|07|10|df=yes}}<br />
| death_place = [[Ankara]], [[Turkey]]<br />
| website = {{URL|ahmettanerkislali.com}}<br />
}}<br />
'''Ahmet Taner Kışlalı''' (10 July 1939 – 21 October 1999) was a [[Turkish people|Turkish]] intellectual, political scientist, lawyer, commentator/author for the ''[[Cumhuriyet]]'' newspaper, academics and politician.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ahmet Taner Kislali |publisher=Committee to Protect Journalists| date=1999-10-21 |accessdate=2013-03-13 |url=http://cpj.org/killed/1999/ahmet-taner-kislali.php}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Biography==<br />
He completed his primary and secondary education in [[Kilis]], and graduated from "[[Kabataş Erkek Lisesi]]" high school in [[Istanbul]] in 1957.<br />
<br />
He received a degree from the School of Political Sciences at [[Ankara University]], in 1963. During his college years, he also worked in the newspaper "''Yeni Gün''", published in [[Ankara]]. He got his PhD on "''Çağdaş Türkiye'de Siyasal Güçler''" (''Political Powers in Contemporary Turkey'') from the [[University of Paris]], Department of Constitutional Law and Political Science. He started his academic life as a lecturer in [[Hacettepe University|Hacettepe Üniversitesi]], Ankara. He then moved to School of Political Sciences at Ankara University and became an assistant professor, and later an associate professor in 1977.<br />
<br />
Politically, he was a [[Kemalism|Kemalist]] who adopted the views of [[democratic socialism]] and [[social democracy]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kışlalı |first=Ahmet Taner |date=1999-12-30 |title=Ahmet Taner Kışlalı – İdeolojisi ve Kemalizm... |url=https://www.ahmettanerkislali.com/ideolojisi-ve-kemalizm/ |access-date=2023-08-12 |website=Ahmet Taner Kışlalı |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kışlalı |first=Ahmet Taner |date=1999-12-18 |title=Ahmet Taner Kışlalı – 'Tarihsel Sentez'e Doğru! |url=https://www.ahmettanerkislali.com/tarihsel-senteze-dogru-2/ |access-date=2023-08-12 |website=Ahmet Taner Kışlalı |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kışlalı |first=Ahmet Taner |date=1992-06-07 |title=Ahmet Taner Kışlalı – Demokratik Sol mu? Sosyal Demokrasi mi? |url=https://www.ahmettanerkislali.com/demokratik-sol-mu-sosyal-demokrasi-mi/ |access-date=2023-08-12 |website=Ahmet Taner Kışlalı |language=tr}}</ref> In 1977 he was elected to the Turkish parliament, [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]], as deputy of [[İzmir]]. Between the years 1978 and 1979, he was appointed to position of ministry of culture, by prime minister [[Bülent Ecevit]]. During his term of ministry, he restarted the effort of printing classical works by the state press, making these available to masses at reasonable prices.<br />
<br />
After the [[Military coup in Turkey, 1980|military coup]] of 12 September 1980, Ahmet Taner Kışlalı went back to the academia, and became a full professor in 1988. He continued to give lectures on political science in Department of Communication at Ankara University, after his retirement. Starting from 1991, he had a regular column in the leftist newspaper ''[[Cumhuriyet]]'' with the title "Haftaya Bakış" ("A View of the Week").<br />
<br />
==Assassination==<br />
On 21 October 1999, shortly after having faxed his article to the newly ''Cumhuriyet'' at 9:40 h local time, Ahmet Taner Kışlalı left his home and headed for his car. As he got in the car, he noticed a package placed at the windshield wiper. He picked it up with his left arm, and at that moment an explosion occurred tearing off his left arm at elbow. His wristwatch penetrated into his head together with bomb shrapnel. His wife Nilüfer Kışlalı arranged for his immediate delivery to a hospital, where however his death only was ascertained.<ref name="h">{{cite news |url=http://webarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/1999/10/22/151636.asp |newspaper=[[Hürriyet]] |title=Yine o meçhul fail |date=1999-10-22 |language=Turkish |accessdate=2013-10-22 }}</ref><br />
<br />
After memorial services held at the [[Turkish Grand National Assembly]], Faculty of Communications in [[Ankara University]], Grand Theatre of [[Ankara Opera House]], Ankara Office of ''Cumhuriyet'' newspaper, and religious funeral service at [[Kocatepe Mosque]], he was laid to rest at [[Karşıyaka Cemetery]] in Ankara.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://hurarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/goster/haber.aspx?id=-109256 |newspaper=[[Hürriyet]] |title=Ahmet Taner Kışlalı 4 ayrı yerde tören |date=1999-10-23 |language=Turkish |accessdate=2013-10-22 }}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[List of assassinated people from Turkey]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://www.belgenet.com/kim/akislali.html Who is who entry page in belgenet] {{in lang|tr}}<br />
* {{Official website|https://ahmettanerkislali.com|Ahmet Taner Kışlalı – official website}} {{in lang|tr}}<br />
* {{IMDb name|0457282}}<br />
<br />
{{Secularism in Turkey|state=autocollapse}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kislali, Ahmet Taner}}<br />
[[Category:20th-century Turkish journalists]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century Turkish journalists]]<br />
[[Category:1939 births]]<br />
[[Category:1999 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish non-fiction writers]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish scientists]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish political scientists]]<br />
[[Category:People from Tokat]]<br />
[[Category:Ankara University Faculty of Political Sciences alumni]]<br />
[[Category:Academic staff of Hacettepe University]]<br />
[[Category:Academic staff of Ankara University]]<br />
[[Category:Murdered Cumhuriyet columnists]]<br />
[[Category:Government ministers of Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Assassinated Turkish politicians]]<br />
[[Category:Assassinated Turkish journalists]]<br />
[[Category:Deaths by car bomb in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish terrorism victims]]<br />
[[Category:Terrorism deaths in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:People murdered in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Kabataş Erkek Lisesi alumni]]<br />
[[Category:Ministers of Culture of Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Cumhuriyet people]]<br />
[[Category:Journalists killed in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Deputies of Izmir]]<br />
[[Category:Burials at Karşıyaka Cemetery, Ankara]]<br />
[[Category:1999 murders in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century political scientists]]<br />
[[Category:1990s assassinated politicians]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yeter!_S%C3%B6z_Milletindir!&diff=1157567515Yeter! Söz Milletindir!2023-05-29T13:38:59Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Slogan and political propaganda}}<br />
{{refimprove|date=November 2021}}<br />
<br />
[[File:DP poster created in 1950.jpg|thumb|"Enough! The Word Belongs To The People!", DP 1950]]<br />
'''Yeter! Söz Milletindir!''' was the main slogan used by the [[Democrat Party (Turkey, 1946–1961)|Democrat Party]] in the [[1950 Turkish general election|1950 Turkish general elections]], which has been used since by the [[National Salvation Party]], the [[Welfare Party]] and the [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|Justice and Development Party]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Müftüler-Baç |first=Meltem |year=2016 |title=Divergent Pathways: Turkey and the European Union |publisher=Verlag Barbara Budrich |page=92 |isbn=9783847402954}}</ref> It means "Enough! The Word Belongs To The People!" in English.<br />
<br />
When political [[propaganda]] was legalized in 1950, [[Democrat Party (Turkey, 1946–1961)|DP]] made use of radio and printed materials. An example of propaganda used through posters by the party is; "Enough! The Word Belongs To The People!" The poster has a hand meaning "stop", with the words [[Democrat Party (Turkey, 1946–1961)|Democrat Party]] below it. On the top right, "Yeter! Söz Milletindir!" is written. The term was used by Turkish revolutionaries at the time.<br />
<br />
This poster was made by architect Selçuk Milar. According to historical testimonies, this poster was very effective and helped the [[Democrat Party (Turkey, 1946–1961)|Democrat Party]] win the election.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ozturkcan |first1=Selcen |last2=Okan |first2=Elif Yolbulan |title=Marketing Management in Turkey |date=30 July 2018 |publisher=Emerald Group Publishing |isbn=978-1-78743-927-6 |pages=16–17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OwFlDwAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> and even the members of the [[Republican People's Party]] were surprised by the effectiveness and success of the poster.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Yeter%21+s%C3%B6z+milletindir%21&btnG=#d=gs_qabs&u=%23p%3DJTlTgjRdeeIJ|title=Google Scholar}}</ref> Selçuk Milar gave his full support for the poster, saying that he wanted the Turkish nation and its people to live in democracy, and that the [[Republican People's Party|CHP]] should go with the votes of the people.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1950 elections in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Democrat Party (Turkey, 1946–1961)]]<br />
[[Category:Slogans]]<br />
[[Category:Political posters of Europe]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dersim_massacre&diff=1149019996Dersim massacre2023-04-09T18:18:01Z<p>Cehilizm: Dersim Operation added</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Kurdish uprising against the Turkish government in Dersim, eastern Turkey}}<br />
{{use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}<br />
{{Infobox military conflict<br />
| conflict = Dersim rebellion<br />
| partof = the [[Kurdish rebellions]]<br />
| casus = The [[agha (title)|aghas]] in Dersim objected to losing authority and refused to pay taxes.<br />
| image = Turkish soldiers and local people of Dersim region.jpg<br />
| image_size = <br />
| caption = Turkish soldiers with civilians who official documents say were internally exiled; Salman Yeşildağ said they included his sister and were executed after the photo was taken.<ref name=Radikal>{{cite news|title='Dersim Katliamı'ndaki o fotoğrafın sırrı ortaya çıktı |url=http://www.radikal.com.tr/turkiye/dersim_katliamindaki_o_fotografin_sirri_ortaya_cikti-1257638|access-date=24 December 2014|newspaper=Radikal |date=23 December 2014}}</ref><br />
| date = 20 March – November 1937<br />2 January – December 1938<br />
| place = Dersim region (present-day [[Tunceli Province]], minor parts of [[Erzincan Province]] and [[Elazığ Province]])<ref name="Nazmi Sevgen 1999"/><br />
| result = Turkish victory:<br />
*Seyid Riza was executed<br />
*Kurds of Dersim were subjected to massacres and forced migration<br />
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|Turkey}} [[Turkey]]<br />
| combatant2 = [[Kurdish tribes|Kurds of Dersim]]<br />
| commander1 = {{Plainlist|<br />
*'''[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]'''<br />
*[[İsmet İnönü]]<br />
*[[Fevzi Çakmak]]<br />
*[[Kâzım Orbay]]<br />
}}<br />
| commander2 = {{Plainlist|<br />
*'''[[Seyid Riza]]'''{{POW}}{{Executed}}<br />
*Kamer Agha{{POW}}<br />
*Gabriel Agha{{POW}}<br />
*Bachdiyar{{POW}}{{KIA}}<br />
*Alisher{{KIA}}<br />
}}<br />
| strength1 = [[Turkish Armed Forces]]:<br />
*50,000+ soldiers{{r|McDowall|p=209}}<br />
*[[Ottoman Aviation Squadrons|1st Aircraft Regiment]]<br />
| strength2 = 6,000–10,000 [[Guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]]<ref>"Osman Pamukoğlu, Unutulanlar dışında yeni bir şey yok: Hakkari ve Kuzey Irak dağlarındaki askerler, Harmoni Yayıncılık, 2003, {{ISBN|975-6340-00-2}}, s. 16</ref><ref>Faik Öztrak, 07.07.1939 National Assembly Speech, Dersim Information</ref><br />
| casualties1 = <br />
*110 killed<ref name="NTV Tarih, Aralık 2009, sayfa 59">NTV Tarih, Aralık 2009, sayfa 59.</ref><br />
| casualties2 = <br />
*13,160 killed (official figure)<ref name="NTV Tarih, Aralık 2009, sayfa 59">NTV Tarih, Aralık 2009, sayfa 59.</ref> estimated at 30,000<ref name=Gerlach>{{cite book |last1=Gerlach |first1=Christian |author1-link=Christian Gerlach |title=The Extermination of the European Jews |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-88078-7 |language=en|quote=But by far the bloodiest violence targeted Kurds during the Dersim uprising of 1937–38, when Turkish troops massacred about 30,000 people.|page=401}}</ref><br />
*11,818 forced into migration (official figure)<ref name="NTV Tarih, Aralık 2009, sayfa 59">NTV Tarih, Aralık 2009, sayfa 59.</ref><br />
*According to some sources, 40,000 people died.<ref name="McDowall209">David McDowall, ''A modern history of the Kurds'', I.B.Tauris, 2002, {{ISBN|978-1-85043-416-0}}, p. 209.</ref> While sources of the Kurdish Diaspora claim over ~70,000 casualties.<ref name="pen-kurd.org">{{Cite web |url=http://www.pen-kurd.org/almani/haydar/Dersim-PresseerklC3A4rungEnglish.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=11 February 2011 |archive-date=20 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020041344/http://www.pen-kurd.org/almani/haydar/Dersim-PresseerklC3A4rungEnglish.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
}}<br />
The '''Dersim rebellion''' or the '''Dersim operation''' ({{lang-tr|Dersim İsyanı, Dersim Harekâtı}}; {{lang-ku|Serhildana Dêrsimê, Operasyona Dêrsimê|italic=yes}}) was a [[Kurds|Kurdish]]<ref name="Nazmi Sevgen 1999">Nazmi Sevgen, Zazalar ve Kızılbaşlar: Coğrafya-Tarih-Hukuk-Folklor-Teogoni, Kalan Yayınları, Ağustos 1999, {{ISBN|975-8424-00-9}}, s. 12.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PUSgS0Y-pRsC&q=seyid+riza+kurdistan&pg=PA119 |title=Être Kurde, un délit?: portrait d'un peuple nié - Jacqueline Sammali - Google Livres |isbn=9782738437723 |access-date=2013-12-24|last1=Sammali |first1=Jacqueline |year=1995 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxKFhFCzeLcC&q=seyid+riza+kurdistan&pg=PA125 |title=Les Kurdes et leur histoire - Sabri Cigerli - Google Livres |isbn=9782738476623 |access-date=2013-12-24|last1=Cigerli |first1=Sabri |year=1999 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weeklyzaman.com/en/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?newsId=4970 |title=Can Kurds rely on the Turkish state? |publisher=Weeklyzaman.com |date=2011-10-14 |access-date=2013-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129011435/http://www.weeklyzaman.com/en/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?newsId=4970 |archive-date=2014-11-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=http://uca.edu/politicalscience/dadm-project/middle-eastnorth-africapersian-gulf-region/turkeykurds-1922-present/ |title=16. Turkey/Kurds (1922-present) |publisher=Uca.edu |access-date=2013-12-24}}</ref> uprising against the central government in the Dersim region of eastern [[Turkey]], which includes parts of [[Tunceli Province]], [[Elazığ Province]], and [[Bingöl Province]].<ref name="GD">Birinci Genel Müfettişlik Bölgesi, ''Güney Doğu'', İstanbul, p. 66, 194. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> The rebellion was led by [[Seyid Riza]], a chieftain of the Abasan tribe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.massviolence.org/IMG/article_PDF/Dersim-Massacre-1937-1938.pdf|title=Accueil - Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance - Réseau de recherche|website=www.massviolence.org|access-date=13 August 2017}}</ref> As a result of the [[Turkish Armed Forces]] campaign in 1937 and 1938 against the rebellion and the subsequent '''Dersim massacre''' ({{Lang-ku|Tertelê}}), <ref>{{cite book |last1=Strasser |first1=Sabine |last2=Akçınar |first2=Mustafa |title=Migration and Social Remittances in a Global Europe |date=2017 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-60126-1 |pages=143–163 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/978-1-137-60126-1_7 |language=en |chapter=Dersim Across Borders: Political Transmittances Between the Kurdish-Turkish Province Tunceli and Europe|doi=10.1057/978-1-137-60126-1_7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma: The Case of the Dersim Massacre 1937-38 |journal=Is This a Culture of Trauma? An Interdisciplinary Perspective |date=1 January 2013 |pages=63–75 |doi=10.1163/9781848881624_008|isbn=9781848881624 }}</ref> (sometimes called the '''Dersim genocide''')<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ayata |first1=Bilgin |last2=Hakyemez |first2=Serra |title=The AKP's engagement with Turkey's past crimes: an analysis of PM Erdoğan's "Dersim apology" |journal=Dialectical Anthropology |date=2013 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=131–143 |doi=10.1007/s10624-013-9304-3 |s2cid=144503079 |language=en |issn=1573-0786}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Deniz |first1=Dilşa |title=Re-assessing the Genocide of Kurdish Alevis in Dersim, 1937-38 |journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention|date=2020 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=20–43 |doi=10.5038/1911-9933.14.2.1728 |url=https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/gsp/vol14/iss2/5/ |issn=1911-0359|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ilengiz |first1=Çiçek |title=Erecting a Statue in the Land of the Fallen: Gendered Dynamics of the Making of Tunceli and Commemorating Seyyid Rıza in Dersim |journal=L'Homme |date=2019 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=75–92 |doi=10.14220/lhom.2019.30.2.75|s2cid=213908434 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erbal |first1=Ayda |title=The Armenian Genocide, AKA the Elephant in the Room |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |date=2015 |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=783–790 |doi=10.1017/S0020743815000987 |jstor=43998041 |s2cid=162834123 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43998041 |issn=0020-7438}}</ref> of civilians, thousands of Kurds were killed and many others were internally displaced.<ref name=":3" /><br />
<br />
On 23 November 2011, Turkish prime minister [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] gave an apology for the Dersim massacre, describing it as "one of the most tragic events of our near history" adding that, whilst some sought to justify it as a legitimate response to events on the ground, it was in reality "an operation which was planned step by step". However, this is viewed with suspicion by some, "who see it as an opportunistic move against the main opposition party, the secular [[Republican People's Party (Turkey)|CHP]]."<ref name=BBC/><br />
{{Campaignbox Kurdish Rebellions in Turkey}}<br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
<br />
===Ottoman period===<br />
[[Kurds|Kurdish]] tribes, which were [[feudalism|feudal]] ([[manorialism|manorial]]) communities led by [[tribal chief|chieftains]] (''[[agha (title)|agha]]'') during the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] period, enjoyed a certain degree of freedom within the boundaries of the [[Manorialism|manor]]s owned by the ''aghas''. Local authority in these small manorial communities was in the hands of feudal lords, tribal chieftains and other dignitaries, who owned the land and ruled over the serfs who lived and worked on their estates.<ref name="Bulut">Faik Bulut, ''Devletin Gözüyle Türkiye'de Kürt İsyanlar (Kurdish rebellions in Turkey, from the government point of view)'', Yön Yayınclık, 1991, 214-215. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> However, the general political authority in the [[administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire|provinces]], such as Dersim, was in the hands of the Ottoman government.<br />
<br />
===Early republican era===<br />
Following the establishment of the [[Republic of Turkey]] in 1923, some [[Kurds|Kurdish]] tribes became unhappy about certain aspects of Atatürk's "Kemalist policies", described as "the ideology of the new political élite tied to the single-party régime", imposing a policy of [[Turkification]], including the removal of functionaries of "Kurdish race" in [[Turkish Kurdistan]]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Massacre in Dersim Still Haunts Kurds in Turkey|publisher= Fondation-Institut kurde de Paris|last=Ashly|first=Jaclynn |date=January 13, 2021|url= https://www.institutkurde.org/en/info/the-massacre-in-dersim-still-haunts-kurds-in-turkey-1232551954|access-date=2021-08-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A short history of Turkification: From Dersim to Tunceli|publisher=Ahval|last=Kardaş|first=Ümit|date=May 30, 2019|url=https://ahvalnews.com/turkification/short-history-turkification-dersim-tunceli|access-date=2021-08-12|archive-date=28 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128080742/https://ahvalnews.com/turkification/short-history-turkification-dersim-tunceli|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Dersim massacre 1937-38|publisher= SciencesPo|last=Hans-Lukas|first=Kieser|date=July 27, 2011|url= https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/dersim-massacre-1937-1938.html|access-date=2021-08-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Princeton University Press| isbn = 978-1-4008-8371-4| last = Hassan| first = Mona| title = Longing for the Lost Caliphate: A Transregional History| date = 2017-01-10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqqtDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168}}</ref> and [[land reform]],<ref name="cagaptay">{{cite journal|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13537110208428662|title=Reconfiguring the Turkish nation in the 1930s|journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 8:2|publisher=Yale University|author=Soner Çağaptay|year=2002|volume=8|issue=2|pages=67–82|doi=10.1080/13537110208428662|s2cid=143855822}}</ref> and staged armed revolts that were put down by the [[Turkish Armed Forces|Turkish military]].<br />
<br />
Dersim had been a particularly difficult province for the Ottoman government to control, with 11 different armed rebellions between 1876 and 1923.<ref name=McDowall>{{cite book|last=McDowall|first=David|title=A Modern History of the Kurds|year=2007|publisher=Tauris & Co|location=London}}</ref>{{RP|207–208}}<ref name="Ntv-tarih">[https://www.nadirkitap.com/ntv-tarih-sayi-11-dersim-1937-1938-dergi8008970.html NTV Tarih, Issue: 11, "Dersim 1937-1938"]</ref> The rebellious stance of the [[agha (title)|aghas]] in Dersim continued during the early years of the Republic of Turkey. Aghas in Dersim objected to losing authority in their [[manorialism|manorial affairs]] and refused to pay taxes; and complaints from the provincial governors in Dersim were sent to the [[central government]] in [[Ankara]],<ref>{{cite web|title= Military documents to shine light on 'Dersim massacre'<br />
|publisher= Hurriyet Daily News|last=Ziflioğlu|first=Vercihan|date=November 18, 2009|url= http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=military-documents-to-shine-a-light-on-the-8220dersim-massacre8221-2009-11-18|access-date=2010-09-22}}</ref> which favoured land reform and direct control over the country's [[farmland]]s, as well as [[state planning]] for [[agriculture|agricultural production]].<ref name="cagaptay"/> In an Interior Ministry report in 1926, it was considered necessary to use force against the aghas of Dersim.<ref>Beşikçi, Ismail. (1990) ''Tunceli Kanunu (1935) ve Dersim Jenosidi'' (The 1935 law concerning Tunceli and the genocide of Dersim), Bonn, p.29. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> On November 1, 1936, during a speech in parliament, [[Atatürk]] described Dersim as Turkey's most important interior problem.<ref>Hasretyan, M. A. (1995) Türkiye'de Kürt Sorunu (1918-1940), Berlin, Wêşanên, ënstîtuya Kurdî: I.,p.262</ref><br />
<br />
====Resettlement Law====<br />
The Turkification process began with the [[1934 Turkish Resettlement Law]].<ref>{{cite web<br />
|title= Reconfiguring the Turkish nation in the 1930s<br />
|publisher= Harvard<br />
|last= Çağaptay<br />
|first= Soner<br />
|year= 2002<br />
|url= http://www.hks.harvard.edu/kokkalis/GSW4/CagaptayPAPER.PDF<br />
|access-date= 2010-08-02<br />
|archive-date= 12 May 2013<br />
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130512014341/http://www.hks.harvard.edu/programs/kokkalis<br />
|url-status= dead<br />
}}</ref> Its measures included the forced relocation of people within Turkey, with the aim of promoting cultural homogeneity. In 1935, the Tunceli Law was passed to apply the Resettlement Law to the newly-named region of [[Tunceli Province|Tunceli]], previously known as Dersim and populated by [[Kurds|Kurdish]] [[Alevism|Alevis]].<ref name=unwelcome>{{cite book|last=Lundgren|first=Asa|page=44|title=The unwelcome neighbour: Turkey's Kurdish policy|year=2007|publisher=Tauris & Co|location=London}}</ref> This area had a reputation for being rebellious, having been the scene of eleven separate periods of armed conflict over the previous 40 years.<ref name=McDowall/><ref name="Ntv-tarih"/><br />
<br />
===="Tunceli" law====<br />
The Dersim region included the [[Tunceli Province]] whose name was changed from Dersim to Tunceli with the "Law on Administration of the Tunceli Province" (''Tunceli Vilayetinin İdaresi Hakkında Kanun''), no. 2884 of 25 December 1935<ref>''New perspectives on Turkey'', Issues 1-4, Simon's Rock of Bard College, 1999 [https://books.google.com/books?id=uTotAQAAIAAJ&q=Tunceli+25+December+2884 p. 15.]</ref> on January 4, 1936.<ref>Paul J. White, ''Primitive rebels or revolutionary modernizers?: the Kurdish national movement in Turkey'', Zed Books, 2000, {{ISBN|978-1-85649-822-7}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=a80KQ4jdOeUC&dq=4+January+1936+Tunceli&pg=PA80 p. 80.]</ref><br />
<br />
====Fourth General Inspectorate====<br />
In order to consolidate its authority in the process of Turkification of [[Minorities in Turkey|religious and ethnic minorities]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/867135/65687_13.pdf|title=Young Turk social engineering : mass violence and the nation state in eastern Turkey, 1913- 1950|last=Üngör|first=Umut|website=University of Amsterdam|pages=244–247|access-date=8 April 2020}}</ref><ref>Cemil Koçak, ''Umumi müfettişlikler (1927-1952)'', İletişim Yayınları, 2003, {{ISBN|978-975-05-0129-6}}, p. 144.</ref> the [[Turkish Grand National Assembly]] passed Law No. 1164 on 25 June 1927<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/20607|title=Üçüncü Umumi Müfettişliği'nin Kurulması ve III. Umumî Müfettiş Tahsin Uzer'in Bazı Önemli Faaliyetleri|website=Dergipark|page=2|access-date=8 April 2020}}</ref> which allowed the state to establish Inspectorates-General.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Bayir|first=Derya|title=Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law|date=2016-04-22|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-09579-8|pages=139|language=en}}</ref> Following the First Inspectorate-General (1 January 1928, [[Diyarbakır Province]]),<ref>Birinci Genel Müfettişlik Bölgesi, p. 66.</ref> the Second Inspectorate-General (19 February 1934, [[Edirne Province]])<ref name="GD" /> and the Third Inspectorate-General (25 August 1935, [[Erzurum Province]]),<ref>''Cumhuriyet'', August 26, 1935.</ref><ref>Erdal Aydoğan, [http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr/dergiler/45/793/10156.pdf "Üçüncü Umumi Müfettişliği'nin Kurulması ve III. Umumî Müfettiş Tahsin Uzer'in Bazı Önemli Faaliyetleri"], ''Atatürk Yolu'', Ankara Üniversitesi Türk İnkılâp Tarihi Enstitüsü, Vol. 33-34, pp. 1-14.</ref> the [[Fourth Inspectorate-General (Turkey)|Fourth Inspectorate-General]] (''Dördüncü Umumi Müfettişlik'') was established in January 1936, in the traditional Dersim region, which includes [[Tunceli Province]], [[Elazığ Province]] and [[Bingöl Province]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cagaptay|first=Soner|title=Islam, Secularism and Nationalism in Modern Turkey: Who is a Turk?|date=2 May 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-17448-5|pages=108–110|language=en}}</ref> The Fourth Inspectorate-General was governed by a "Governor Commander" within a military authority. He was given wide-ranging authority in juridical, military and civilian matters. He also had the power to resettle or exile people who lived in the region.<ref name=":0" /> The quell the rebellion, the Turkish Interior Minister [[Şükrü Kaya|Sükrü Kaya]] ordered that boys and girls of the Dersim region were to be educated in boarding schools outside of the Dersim region.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Turkyilmaz|first=Zeynep|date=2016|title=Maternal Colonialism and Turkish Woman's Burden in Dersim: Educating the "Mountain Flowers" of Dersim|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/629829|journal=[[Journal of Women's History]]|volume=28|issue=3|pages=166–167|doi=10.1353/jowh.2016.0029|s2cid=151865028|issn=1527-2036|via=[[Project MUSE]]}}</ref> In those schools, they were to be Turkified and following their graduation, married off to each other.<ref name=":2" /> Women were to be Turkified at an earlier stage than men as women lacked contact with the outside world and if not Turkified, were unable to pass the Turkishness on to their children.<ref name=":2" /> In September 1937, the [[Elazığ Girls' Institute|Elazig Girls' Institute]] in which the aim was to raise Turkish women out of Kurdish girls was established in [[Elâzığ|Elazıg]].<ref name=":2" /> <br />
<br />
On 1 November 1936, during a speech in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]], [[Atatürk]] described the situation in Dersim as Turkey's most important internal problem.<ref>Hasretyan, M. A. (1995) ''Türkiye'de Kürt Sorunu (1918-1940)'', Berlin, Wêşanên, ënstîtuya Kurdî: I., p. 262. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
== The rebellion ==<br />
[[File:Dersim region in the mid 1930s English.png|thumb|300px|A 1937 map of Dersim showing the central district, [[Hozat]]]]<br />
<br />
After the "Tunceli" Law, the [[Turkish military]] built observation posts in certain districts. Following public meetings in January 1937, a letter of protest against the law was written to be sent to the local governor. According to Kurdish sources, the emissaries of the letter were arrested and executed. In May, a group of local people ambushed a police convoy in response.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jwaideh|first=Wadie|title=The Kurdish National Movement: Its Origins and Development|year=2006|publisher=Syracuse University Press|page=215}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Meeting at Halbori cells===<br />
Seyid Riza, the chieftain of Yukarı Abbas Uşağı, sent his followers to the Haydaran, Demenan, Yusufan, and Kureyşan tribes to make an alliance.<ref name="Faik221">Faik Bulut, ''ibid'', p. 221. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to Turkish authorities, on March 20–21, 1937, at 23:00 hrs, the Demenan and Haydaran tribes broke a bridge connecting Pah and Kahmut in the Harçik Valley. The Inspector General gave the order to prepare for action to the 2nd Mobile Gendarmerie Battalion at [[Pülümür]], the 3rd Mobile Gendarmerie Battalion at Pülür, the 9th Gendarmier Battalion at Mazkirt, and the Mobile Gendarmerie Regiment at [[Hozat]], and sent one infantry company of the 9th Mobile Gendarmier Battalion to Pah.<ref name="Faik221"/><br />
<br />
== Turkish military operations ==<br />
[[File:Breguet 19 Sabiha.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Sabiha Gökçen]] holding a bomb before the bombardment operation over Dersim with her [[Breguet 19]]]]<br />
[[File:Sabiha Gokcen and her colleagues in front of Breguet 19.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Sabiha Gökçen]] and her colleagues in front of a Breguet 19, 1937–38]]<br />
[[File:Lost girls of Dersim.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Local people of Dersim, 1938]]<br />
<br />
Around 25,000 troops were deployed to quell the rebellion. This task was substantially completed by the summer and the leaders of the rebellion, including tribal leader Seyid Riza, were hanged. However, remnants of the rebel forces continued to resist and the number of troops in the region was doubled. The area was also bombed from the air.<ref name=McDowall/> The rebels continued to resist until they ran out of ammunition, in late 1938, by which time the region was devastated.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chaliand|first=Gerard|title=A People without a country: the Kurds and Kurdistan|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplewithoutcou00elat|url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=Olive Branch Press|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/peoplewithoutcou00elat/page/58 58]|isbn=9780940793927}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to [[Osman Pamukoğlu]], a general in Turkish Army in the 1990s, Atatürk had given the operational order himself.<ref>[http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/15589937.asp "Pamukoğlu: Dersim'in emrini Atatürk verdi"], ''[[Hürriyet]]'', August 19, 2010. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
===1937===<br />
<br />
====First Dersim Operation====<br />
On September 10–12, 1937, [[Seyid Riza]] came to the government building of the Erzincan Province for peace talks and was arrested.<ref>Ahmet Kahraman, pp. 286-287. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> On the next day, he was transferred to the headquarters of the General Inspectorate at Elazığ and hanged with 6 (or 10) of his fellows on November 15–18, 1937<ref>Ahmet Kahraman, pp. 292-293. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> [[İhsan Sabri Çağlayangil|Ihsan Sabri Çağlayangil]], who would later become foreign minister,<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Former Ministers of Foreign Affairs|url=http://www.mfa.gov.tr/list-of-former-ministers-of-foreign-affairs.en.mfa|access-date=2020-07-22|website=www.mfa.gov.tr}}</ref> arranged the trials and hanging of the leaders of the rebellion and some of their sons.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Van Bruinessen|first=Martin|title=Conceptual and historical dimensions of genocide|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=1994|editor-last=Andreopoulos|editor-first=George J.|pages=141–170}}</ref> <br />
<br />
They were:<br />
*Seyit Rıza<br />
*Resik Hüseyin (Seyit Rıza's son, 16 years old)<br />
*Seyit Hüseyin (the chieftain of Kureyşan-Seyhan tribe)<br />
*Fındık Aga (Yusfanlı Kamer Aga's son)<br />
*Hasan Aga (of the Demenan tribe, Cebrail Ağa's son)<br />
*Hasan (a Kureyşan tribesman Ulkiye's son)<br />
*Ali Aga (Mirza Ali's son)<br />
<br />
On November 17, 1937, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk came to Pertek to take part in the opening ceremony for the Singeç Bridge.<ref>''Cumhuriyet'', November 18, 1937, 17 Kasım 1937: Atatürk'ün Diyarbakır'dan Elâzığ'a gelişi, Tunceli'nin Pertek kazasına geçerek Murat Nehri üzerinde Singeç Köprüsü'nü hizmete açışı. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><ref>[http://www.pertek.gov.tr/page.asp?id=25 "Atatürk Pertek'te"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727231843/http://www.pertek.gov.tr/page.asp?id=25 |date=2010-07-27 }}, The government of Pertek District. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> In his journey to Elazığ the same month, he was accompanied by the Minister of the Interior [[Şükrü Kaya]] and Sabiha Gökçen.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kezer|first=Zeynep|date=2014|title=Spatializing Difference: The Making of an Internal Border in Early Republican Elazığ, Turkey|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/jsah.2014.73.4.507|journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians|volume=73|issue=4|pages=523|doi=10.1525/jsah.2014.73.4.507|jstor=10.1525/jsah.2014.73.4.507|issn=0037-9808}}</ref><br />
<br />
===1938===<br />
<br />
==== Second Dersim Operation ====<br />
The prime minister, [[Celal Bayar]] (in office: October 25, 1937 – January 25, 1939) had agreed to an attack on the Dersim rebels.<ref>[http://www.taraf.com.tr/ayse-hur/makale-1937-1938de-dersimde-neler-oldu.htm "1937-1938’de Dersim’de neler oldu?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522181621/http://www.taraf.com.tr/ayse-hur/makale-1937-1938de-dersimde-neler-oldu.htm |date=2010-05-22 }}, ''[[Taraf]]'', November 16, 2008. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> The operation started on January 2, 1938 and finished on August 7, 1938.<br />
<br />
==== Third Dersim Operation ====<br />
{{Expand section|date=March 2011}}<br />
The Third Tunceli Operation was carried out between August 10–17, 1938.<br />
<br />
====Sweep operations====<br />
Sweep operations that started on September 6, were continued for 17 days.<ref>Faik Bulut, ''ibid'', p. 277. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Aerial operations====<br />
Turkish planes flew numerous sorties against the rebels during the rebellion. Among the pilots was [[Kemal Atatürk]]'s adopted daughter, [[Sabiha Gökçen]], the first female fighter pilot. A report of the General Staff mentioned the "serious damage" that had been caused by her 50&nbsp;kg bomb, upon a group of fleeing ''bandits''.<ref>Reşat Hallı, ''Türkiye Cumhuriyetinde Ayaklanmalar (1924–1938)'', T. C. Genelkurmay Baskanlığı Harp Tarihi Dairesi, 1972, p. 382. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
Muhsin Batur, engaged in operations for about two months over Dersim, stated in his memoirs that he wanted to avoid talking about this part of his life.<ref>Muhsin Batur, ''Anılar, Görüşler, Üç Dönemin Perde Arsası'', Milliyet Yayınları, 1985, p. 25. {{in lang|tr}}</ref>{{better source|date=March 2023}} <!-- He graduated from military school in 1940 and began to serve as a pilot from 1942 --> Kurdish leader [[Nuri Dersimi]] claimed that the Turkish air force bombed the district with [[poisonous gas]] in 1938.<ref>Martin van Bruinessen, ''Kurdish ethno-nationalism versus nation-building states: collected articles'', Isis Press, 2000, {{ISBN|978-975-428-177-4}}, p. 116.</ref><br />
<br />
===Massacres===<br />
According to an official report of the Fourth General Inspectorate, 13,160 civilians were killed by the Turkish Army and 11,818 people were taken into exile, depopulating the province.<ref name="Radikal2">[http://www.radikal.com.tr/Radikal.aspx?aType=RadikalDetay&ArticleID=965187&Date=19.11.2009&CategoryID=77 "Resmi raporlarda Dersim katliamı: 13 bin kişi öldürüldü"], ''[[Radikal]]'', November 19, 2009. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> According to a claim by [[Nuri Dersimi]], many tribesmen were shot dead after surrendering, and women and children were locked into haysheds which were then set on fire.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.let.uu.nl/~Martin.vanBruinessen/personal/publications/Dersim_rebellion.pdf |title=The Suppression of the Dersim Rebellion in Turkey (1937-38) Page 4 |access-date=2013-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521155242/http://www.let.uu.nl/~Martin.vanBruinessen/personal/publications/Dersim_rebellion.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-21 |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to McDowall, 40,000 people were killed.{{r|McDowall|p=209}} [[Christian Gerlach]] reports that 30,000 [[Kurds]] were massacred by the [[Turkish Army]] after the rebellion.<ref name=Gerlach/><br />
<br />
Hüseyin Aygün, a jurist author, wrote in his book ''Dersim 1938 and Obligatory Settlement'': "The rebellion was clearly caused by provocation. It caused the most violent tortures that were ever seen in a rebellion in the Republican years. Those who didn't take part in the rebellion, and the families of the rebels, were also tortured."<ref>Hüseyin Aygün, ''Dersim 1938 ve zorunlu iskân: telgraflar, dilekçeler, mektuplar'', Dipnot Yayınları, 2009, {{ISBN|978-975-9051-75-4}}, p. .{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Numbers killed===<br />
The contemporary British estimate of the number of deaths was 40,000, although this number could be exaggerated.<ref name=McDowall/> It has been suggested that the total number of deaths may be 7,594,<ref name=unwelcome/> over 10,000,<ref name=Kieser>Hans-Lukas Kieser: [http://www.hist.net/kieser/pu/responses.html ''Some Remarks on Alevi Responses to the Missionaries in Eastern Anatolia (19th–20th cc.).''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012053751/http://www.hist.net/kieser/pu/responses.html |date=12 October 2017 }} In: ''Altruism and Imperialism. The Western Religious and Cultural Missionary Enterprise in the Middle East.'' Middle East Institute Conference: Bellagio Italien, August 2000</ref> or over 13,000.<ref name=BBC>{{cite news|title=Turkey PM Erdogan apologises for 1930s Kurdish killings|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15857429|access-date=24 November 2011|newspaper=BBC News |date=23 November 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Deportations ===<br />
{{Further|Deportations of Kurds}}Around 3,000 people were forcibly deported from Dersim.<ref name="unwelcome" /> On the 4th of May 1938 a Turkish Cabinet decision resolved that Turkish military forces which had previously been massed in the area would attack Nazimiye, Keçigezek Sin and Karaoglan. "''This time all the people in the area will be collected and deported out of the area and this collection operation will attack the villages without warning and collect the people. To do this, we will collect the people as well as the arms they have. At the moment, we are ready to deport 2,000 people."'' In the same decision ordering to respond to any resistance by rendering those "''incapable of movement on the spot and until the end''", [[İsmail Beşikçi]] concludes this meant to kill them, along with orders to destroy their homes and deporting those remaining.<ref>{{Cite book|last=White|first=Paul J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a80KQ4jdOeUC|title=Primitive Rebels Or Revolutionary Modernizers: The Kurdish Nationalist Movement in Turkey|date=October 2000|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-85649-822-7|pages=82|language=en}}</ref><!-- Content regarding "Two Strands of Hair: The Lost Girls of Dersim" to include here. https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/sequel-to-film-on-dersim-on-the-way-17012 --><br />
<br />
===Ethnocide===<br />
The policy of population resettlement under the [[1934 Turkish Resettlement Law|1934 Law on Resettlement]] was a key component of the Turkification process that began to be implemented first with the [[Armenian genocide]] in 1915 as Turkey transitioned from a [[Cultural pluralism|pluralistic]], multi-ethnic society to a "unidimensional Turkish nation-state". [[İsmail Beşikçi]] has argued that the Turkish government actions in Dersim were genocide.<ref>{{Cite book|last=İsmail|first=Beşikçi|title=Tunceli Kanunu (1935) ve Dersim jenosidi|year=2013|isbn=9786058693395}}</ref> [[Martin van Bruinessen]] has argued that the actions of the government were not genocide, under [[international law]], because they were not aimed at the extermination of a people, but at resettlement and suppression.<ref>Martin van Bruinessen: Genocide in Kurdistan? 1994, S. 141–170.</ref> Van Bruinessen has instead talked of an [[ethnocide]] directed against the local language and identity.<ref>[http://let.uu.nl/~martin.vanbruinessen/personal/publications/Dersim_rebellion.pdf The Suppression of the Dersim Rebellion in Turkey (1937-38)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108232606/http://www.let.uu.nl/~Martin.vanBruinessen/personal/publications/Dersim_rebellion.pdf |date=2016-01-08 }} Excerpts from: Martin van Bruinessen, "Genocide in Kurdistan? The suppression of the Dersim rebellion in Turkey (1937-38) and the chemical war against the Iraqi Kurds (1988)", in: George J. Andreopoulos (ed), Conceptual and historical dimensions of genocide. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994, pp. 141-170.</ref> According to Van Bruinessen, the 1934 law created "the legal framework for a policy of ethnocide." Dersim was one of the first territories where this policy was applied.<ref>George J Andreopoulos, ''Genocide'', page 11.</ref><br />
<br />
In March 2011, a Turkish court ruled that the actions of the Turkish government in Dersim could not be considered genocide according to the law because they were not directed systematically against an ethnic group.<ref>{{cite news|last=Saymaz|first=Ismail|title=Turkish prosecutor refuses to hear Dersim 'genocide' claim|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=turkish-prosecutor-refuses-to-hear-dersim-8216genocide8217-claims-2011-03-15|access-date=24 November 2011|newspaper=[[Hürriyet Daily News]] |date=14 March 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Aftermath ==<br />
<br />
=== Early Turkish interpretation ===<br />
Turkish state's reaction to the uprising was publicly justified as "disciplining and punishment" (''tedip ve tenkil''). It contributed to a Kemalist perception of Dersim and its populace, which characterises the province as unruly and defends violent state intervention. This narrative is encountered in [[Naşit Hakkı Uluğ]]'s book The Feudal Lord and Dersim (''Derebeyi ve Dersim''), which depicts Dersim as a security threat to the Turkish Republic.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Collective and State Violence in Turkey: Construction of a National Identity from Empire to Nation-State|publisher=Berghahn Books|editor-last=Astourian|editor-first=Stephan|chapter=Physical and Epistemic Violence against Alevis in Modern Turkey|editor-last2=Kévorkian|editor-first2=Raymond}}</ref> It was not until 2009 that the massacre was publicly acknowledged, and in recent years, oral history has been used as a method to study anti-civilian violence excluded from the official history of the event.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Orhan|first1=Gozde|date=2020|title=Remembering a Massacre: How Did the Rise of Oral History as a Methodology Improve Dersim Studies?|journal=Wrocławski Rocznik Historii Mówionej|doi=10.26774/wrhm.249|s2cid=226660222|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Turkish government apology ===<br />
On November 23, 2011, [[Prime Minister]] [[Recep Tayyip Erdogan]] apologized "on behalf of the state" over the killing of over 13,000 people during the rebellion.<ref>{{cite web|author=SELCAN HACAOGLU November 23, 2011 10:15 AM |url=https://news.yahoo.com/turkish-pm-apologizes-over-1930s-killings-kurds-115137515.html |title=Turkish PM apologizes over 1930s killings of Kurds |publisher=News.yahoo.com |date=2011-11-23 |access-date=2013-12-24}}</ref> His remarks were widely commented on both inside and outside Turkey.<ref>Arin, Kubilay Yado, Turkey and the Kurds – From War to Reconciliation? UC Berkeley Center for Right Wing Studies Working Paper Series, March 26, 2015.https://www.academia.edu/11674094/Turkey_and_the_Kurds_From_War_to_Reconciliation</ref> His comments were pointedly directed at opposition leader [[Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu]] (who in fact is from [[Tunceli]]). Erdogan reminded his audience that Kılıçdaroğlu's party, the [[Republican People's Party (Turkey)|CHP]], had been in power at the time of the massacre, then the only political party in Turkey.<ref name=BBC/> He described the massacre as "one of the most tragic events of our near history" saying that, whilst some sought to justify it as a legitimate response to events on the ground, it was in reality "an operation which was planned step by step".<ref>{{cite news|title=Turkey apologises for 1930s killing of thousands of Kurds|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/turkey/8910369/Turkey-apologises-for-1930s-killing-of-thousands-of-Kurds.html|access-date=24 November 2011|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=24 November 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
*[[Ararat rebellion]]<br />
*[[Koçgiri rebellion]]<br />
*[[Sheikh Said rebellion]]<br />
*[[Kurdish Alevism]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Ashly |first1=Jaclynn |title=The Massacre in Dersim Still Haunts Kurds in Turkey |journal=Jacobin |date=12 January 2021 |url=https://jacobinmag.com/2021/01/massacre-dersim-turkey-kurds-erdogan |access-date=9 February 2021}}<br />
*Boztas, Özgür Inan. "[https://www.academia.edu/20250731/Did_a_Genocide_Take_Place_in_the_Dersim_Region_of_Turkey_in_1938 Did a Genocide Take Place in the Dersim Region of Turkey in 1938?]." Strassler Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies (2015): 1-20.<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Ayata |first1=Bilgin |last2=Hakyemez |first2=Serra |date=2013 |title=The AKP's engagement with Turkey's past crimes: an analysis of PM Erdoğan's "Dersim apology" |journal=Dialectical Anthropology |language=en |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=131–143 |doi=10.1007/s10624-013-9304-3 |issn=1573-0786 |s2cid=144503079}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Deniz |first1=Dilşa |date=2020 |title=Re-assessing the Genocide of Kurdish Alevis in Dersim, 1937-38 |url=https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/gsp/vol14/iss2/5/ |journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=20–43 |doi=10.5038/1911-9933.14.2.1728 |issn=1911-0359 |doi-access=free}} <br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Ilengiz |first1=Çiçek |date=2019 |title=Erecting a Statue in the Land of the Fallen: Gendered Dynamics of the Making of Tunceli and Commemorating Seyyid Rıza in Dersim |journal=L'Homme |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=75–92 |doi=10.14220/lhom.2019.30.2.75 |s2cid=213908434}} <br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Erbal |first1=Ayda |date=2015 |title=The Armenian Genocide, AKA the Elephant in the Room |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43998041 |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=783–790 |doi=10.1017/S0020743815000987 |issn=0020-7438 |jstor=43998041 |s2cid=162834123}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category|Dersim rebellion}}<br />
*[http://www.massviolence.org/IMG/article_PDF/Dersim-Massacre-1937-1938.pdf Dersim Massacre, 1937-1938], Hans-Lukas Kieser<br />
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{{Middle East conflicts}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Dersim Rebellion}}<br />
[[Category:Dersim rebellion| ]]<br />
[[Category:Conflicts in 1937]]<br />
[[Category:Conflicts in 1938]]<br />
[[Category:1937 in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:1938 in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:1937 protests]]<br />
[[Category:1938 protests]]<br />
[[Category:Rebellions in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Kurdish–Turkish conflict]]<br />
[[Category:Kurdish people]]<br />
[[Category:Kurdistan]]<br />
[[Category:Massacres of Kurds]]<br />
[[Category:Alevism]]<br />
[[Category:Alevis]]<br />
[[Category:Yarsanism]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnic cleansing in Asia]]<br />
[[Category:Mass murder in 1938]] <br />
[[Category:Mass murder in 1937]] <br />
[[Category:Massacres in 1937]] <br />
[[Category:Massacres in 1938]] <br />
[[Category:20th-century mass murder in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:1937 murders in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:1938 murders in Turkey]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1148847681Turkish nationalism2023-04-08T17:47:58Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Pan-Turkism */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
<br />
'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either [[Turkey#Demographics|national]] or [[Ethnic Turk|ethnic]] definition. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
<br />
After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a [[language reform]] with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign (mostly Arabic and Persian) influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Turkish History Thesis]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1930s. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
<br />
The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |jstor=24585883 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
<br />
==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician; his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term ''[[vatan]]'' ("Homeland" or "Motherland").]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), [[Turkish-Islamic nationalism|Turkish-Islamic synthesis]] (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism#Nationalism|Kemalism]] (which defines the "[[Turkish people|Turks]]" as the [[national identity]] of the people of [[Turkey]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
<br />
In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on Atatürk's sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
<br />
Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".<br />
<br />
===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]].<br />
<br />
Pan-Turkism ({{lang-tr|Türkçülük or Pan-Türkizm}}), as he stated in his book ''Principles of Turkism'', was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s nationalist view which he called "Turkism", as an ideal of the unity of [[Turkic peoples]].<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref><br />
<br />
===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like [[Hilmi Ziya Ülken]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&dq=anatolianism&pg=PA182 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
<br />
Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
<br />
=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]].]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
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The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
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After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> [[Turkish-Islamic synthesis]], and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic ''[[ummah]]''. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
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===Turkish Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
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===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivite ve Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''National Activity and Vigorous Development''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
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Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
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==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states: ''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years''. But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|Minister of Justice]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that ''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime''.<br />
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There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
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In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
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==See also==<br />
*[[Pan-Turkism]]<br />
*[[Kemalism]]<br />
*[[Ottomanism]]<br />
*[[Neo-Ottomanism]]<br />
*[[Turanism]]<br />
*[[Turkification]]<br />
*[[Racism and discrimination in Turkey]]<br />
*[[Anti-Armenian sentiment in Turkey]]<br />
*[[Anti-Turkish sentiment]]<br />
*[[Sun Language Theory]]<br />
*''[[16 Great Turkic Empires]]''<br />
*[[Nationalist Movement Party]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]<br />
[[Category:Anti-Armenianism]]<br />
[[Category:Antisemitism in Turkey]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1145302243Turkish nationalism2023-03-18T11:03:32Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
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<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
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'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either [[Turkey#Demographics|national]] or [[Ethnic Turk|ethnic]] definition. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
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==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
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After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a [[language reform]] with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign (mostly Arabic and Persian) influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Turkish History Thesis]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1930s. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
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The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
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==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician; his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term ''[[vatan]]'' ("Homeland" or "Motherland").]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), [[Turkish-Islamic nationalism|Turkish-Islamic synthesis]] (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism#Nationalism|Kemalism]] (which defines the "[[Turkish people|Turks]]" as the [[national identity]] of the people of [[Turkey]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
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The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
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In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on Atatürk's sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
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Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".<br />
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===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]].<br />
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Pan-Turkism, as he stated in his book ''Principles of Turkism'', was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s nationalist view which he called "Turkism", as an ideal of the unity of [[Turkic peoples]].<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
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The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref><br />
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===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
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Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
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=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]].]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
<br />
After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> [[Turkish-Islamic synthesis]], and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic ''[[ummah]]''. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
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===Turkish Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
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===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
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Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states: ''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years''. But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|Minister of Justice]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that ''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime''.<br />
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There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
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In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solidarity&diff=1145050580Solidarity2023-03-17T00:55:32Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
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<div>{{short description|Unity of feeling or action on a common interest}}<br />
{{About|the social principle|the Polish trade union|Solidarity (Polish trade union)|other uses}}<br />
[[File:The hand that will rule the world.jpg|thumbnail|upright=1.4|A [[raised fist]] in solidarity of the worker movement]]<br />
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'''Solidarity''' or '''solidarism''' is an awareness of shared interests, objectives, standards, and sympathies creating a psychological sense of unity of groups or classes. It is based on [[class collaboration]] and rejects [[class conflict]].<ref name="dict1">''Merriam Webster'', http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/solidarity.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/solidarity|title=solidarity|access-date=19 March 2018|via=The Free Dictionary}}</ref> Unlike [[Collectivism and individualism|collectivism]], solidarism does not reject [[individual]]s and sees individuals as the basis of [[society]].<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Boston|first1=677 Huntington Avenue|last2=Ma 02115 +1495‑1000|date=2018-10-02|title=Social Solidarity, Human Rights, and Collective Action: Considerations in the Implementation of the National Health Insurance in South Africa|url=https://www.hhrjournal.org/2018/10/social-solidarity-human-rights-and-collective-action-considerations-in-the-implementation-of-the-national-health-insurance-in-south-africa/|access-date=2021-08-30|website=Health and Human Rights|language=en-us}}</ref> It refers to the [[social relations|ties in a society]] that bind people together as one. The term is generally employed in [[sociology]] and the other [[social sciences]] as well as in [[philosophy]] and [[bioethics]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Social Security in Poland – cultural, historical and economical issues|first1=Stanisław|last1=Adamiak|first2=Ewa|last2=Chojnacka|first3=Damian|last3=Walczak|date=1 December 2013|journal=Copernican Journal of Finance & Accounting|volume=2|issue=2|pages=11–26|doi=10.12775/cjfa.2013.013|url=http://apcz.umk.pl/czasopisma/index.php/CJFA/article/download/CJFA.2013.013/3189|doi-access=free}}</ref> It is also a significant concept in [[Catholic social teaching]]; therefore it is a core concept in [[Christian democracy|Christian democratic]] political ideology.<ref name="FitzpatrickKwon2013">{{cite book |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Tony |last2=Kwon |first2=Huck-ju |last3= Manning |first3=Nick |author4=James Midgley, Gillian Pascall |title= International Encyclopedia of Social Policy |date= 4 July 2013 |publisher= Routledge |language=en |isbn= 978-1-136-61003-5|page=1866}}</ref><br />
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{{Christian democracy sidebar}}<br />
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What forms the basis of solidarity and how it is implemented vary between societies. In [[Global North and Global South|Global South]] societies it may be mainly based on [[kinship]] and shared values while [[Global North and Global South|Global North]] societies accumulate various theories as to what contributes to a sense of solidarity, or rather, social cohesion.<ref name="dict1"/><br />
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Solidarity is also one of six principles of the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]]<ref>[[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union#The text|Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]], Title IV</ref> and December 20 of each year is [[International Human Solidarity Day]] recognized as an [[international observance]]. Concepts of solidarity are mentioned in the Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights,<ref>[http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=31058&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights]</ref> but not defined clearly.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Prainsack|first1=Barbara|last2=Buyx|first2=Alena|date=2012|title=Solidarity in Contemporary Bioethics -- towards a New Approach|journal=Bioethics|volume=26|issue=7|pages=343–350|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2012.01987.x|pmid=22827315|s2cid=3463430}}</ref> As biotechnology and biomedical enhancement research and production increase, the need for distinct definition of solidarity within healthcare system frameworks is important. It is not mentioned in the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] nor in the United Nations' [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and has hence lesser legal meaning when compared to basic rights.<br />
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{{Labor|expanded=unions}}<br />
[[File:Helsingin Kaupunginteatteri solidarity for Ukraine RL-220309-2215.jpg|thumb|The [[Helsinki City Theatre]] in [[Helsinki|Helsinki, Finland]] illuminated in the colors of the [[flag of Ukraine]], in solidarity with [[Ukraine]] during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]]]<br />
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== Discourse ==<br />
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=== Émile Durkheim ===<br />
According to [[Émile Durkheim]], the types of social solidarity correlate with types of society. Durkheim introduced the terms [[mechanical and organic solidarity|''mechanical'' and ''organic solidarity'']]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thijssen|first=Peter|date=November 2012|title=From mechanical to organic solidarity, and back: With Honneth beyond Durkheim.|journal=European Journal of Social Theory|volume=15|pages=454–470|via=EBSCO|doi=10.1177/1368431011423589|s2cid=147685052}}</ref> as part of his theory of the development of societies in ''[[The Division of Labour in Society]]'' (1893). In a society exhibiting mechanical solidarity, its cohesion and integration comes from the homogeneity of individuals—people feel connected through similar work, educational and religious training, and lifestyle. Mechanical solidarity normally operates in traditional small-scale societies.<ref name="dict2">''Collins Dictionary of Sociology'', p405-6.</ref> In [[tribalism|tribal]] society, solidarity is usually based on [[kinship]] ties of familial networks. Organic solidarity comes from the interdependence that arises from specialization of work and the complementarities between people—a development which occurs in modern and industrial societies.<ref name="dict2" /><br />
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Although individuals perform different tasks and often have different values and interest, the order and very solidarity of society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specified tasks. "Organic" here refers to the interdependence of the component parts, and thus social solidarity is maintained in more complex societies through the interdependence of its component parts (e.g., farmers produce the food to feed the factory workers who produce the tractors that allow the farmer to produce the food).<br />
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=== Peter Kropotkin ===<br />
[[File:PraxisGermany - Copy.png|thumb|upright=1|[[Anarchist]] banner [[Dresden]] [[Germany]], translating to "Solidarity must become practice"]]<br />
A connection between the biological and the social was of principal importance for the idea of solidarity as expressed by the anarchist ideologist and former Prince [[Peter Kropotkin]] (1842–1921). In his most famous book, ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' (1902), written partly in response to Huxleyan Social Darwinism, Kropotkin studied the use of cooperation as a survival mechanism in human societies at their various stages, as well as with animals. According to him, [[mutual aid (organization theory)|mutual aid]], or cooperation, within a species has been an important factor in the evolution of social institutions. Solidarity is essential for mutual aid; supportive activity towards other people does not result from the expectation of reward, but rather from instinctive feelings of solidarity.<br />
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In his introduction to the book, Kropotkin wrote: <blockquote>"The number and importance of mutual-aid institutions which were developed by the creative genius of the savage and half-savage masses, during the earliest clan-period of mankind and still more during the next village-community period, and the immense influence which these early institutions have exercised upon the subsequent development of mankind, down to the present times, induced me to extend my researches to the later, historical periods as well; especially, to study that most interesting period&nbsp;– the free medieval city republics, whose universality and influence upon our modern civilization have not yet been duly appreciated. And finally, I have tried to indicate in brief the immense importance which the mutual-support instincts, inherited by mankind from its extremely long evolution, play even now in our modern society, which is supposed to rest upon the principle "every one for himself, and the State for all," but which it never has succeeded, nor will succeed in realizing".<ref>Kropotkin, P. Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution.&nbsp;– L.: Freedom press, 1998.</ref></blockquote> Kropotkin advocated an alternative economic and social system, which would be coordinated through a horizontal network of voluntary associations with goods distributed in compliance with the physical needs of the individual, rather than according to labour.<ref><br />
Efremenko D., Evseeva Y. Studies of Social Solidarity in Russia: Tradition and Modern Trends. // American Sociologist, v. 43, 2012, no. 4, pp. 349-365.&nbsp;– NY: Springer Science+Business Media<br />
</ref><br />
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== Bioethics ==<br />
Solidarity is a re-emerging concept in contemporary philosophy within various sub-fields of law, [[ethics]], and [[political philosophy]].<ref>{{Citation|title=Solidarity|year=1999|editor=Bayertz, Kurt|location=Dordrecht|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|isbn=978-0-7923-5475-8}}</ref> Early ancient philosophers such as [[Socrates]] and [[Aristotle]] discuss solidarity as a [[virtue ethics]] framework because in order to live a good life one must perform actions and behave in a way that is in solidarity with the community.<br />
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One notable approach in [[bioethics]] is to identify solidarity primarily as a three-tiered practice enacted at the interpersonal, communal, and contractual and legal levels.<ref>{{Citation |author=Prainsack, Barbara |author2=Buyx, Alena |year=2012 |title=Solidarity in Contemporary Bioethics&nbsp;– Towards a New Approach |journal=Bioethics |volume=26 |issue=26/7 |pages=343–350 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2012.01987.x|pmid=22827315 |s2cid=3463430 }}</ref> This approach is driven by the quest to differentiate between the diverse applications of the concept and to clarify its meaning, both historically and in terms of its potential as a fruitful concept for contemporary moral, social and political issues.<ref>{{Citation |author=Prainsack, Barbara |author2=Buyx, Alena |year=2011 |title=Solidarity: reflections on an emerging concept in bioethics |publisher=Nuffield Council on Bioethics |location=London |url=http://nuffieldbioethics.org/project/solidarity/ |access-date= 2013-11-04 |isbn= 978-1-904384-25-0}}</ref> The modern practice of bioethics is significantly influenced by Immanuel [[Immanuel Kant|Kant's]] concept of the [[Categorical imperative|Categorical Imperative]]. Pastor and philosopher Fritz Jahr's article "Bio-Ethics: A Review of the Ethical Relationships of Humans to Animals and Plants" refines Kant's original Categorical Imperative discourse<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=December 2007|title=Fritz Jahr's 1927 concept of bioethics|journal=Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal|volume=17|issue=4|pages=279–295|doi=10.1353/ken.2008.0006|issn=1054-6863|pmid=18363267|s2cid=21957991}}</ref> by including the notion of the Bioethical Imperative.<ref name="Sass 2014 221–228">{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=2014|title=Bioethik – Bioethics|journal=Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte|volume=56|pages=221–228|jstor=24361919}}</ref><br />
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Biomedical technology has also further introduced solidarity as the pivotal concept in bioethics. Scholars, such as Ori Levi,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levi|first=Ori|date=2011|title=Will Biomedical Enhancements Undermine Solidarity, Responsibility, Equality and Autonomy?|journal=Bioethics|volume=25|issue=4|pages=177–184|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2009.01779.x|pmid=20002073|pmc=2888791}}</ref> bring to attention the negative implications of biomedical enhancements. Another scholar, Dr. Meulen ter Ruud, discusses the application of solidarity within healthcare systems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ter Meulen|first=Ruud|date=March 2015|title=Solidarity and Justice in Health Care: A Critical Analysis of Their Relationship|url=http://web.b.ebscohost.com.proxylib.csueastbay.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=ca775723-a36f-4e9e-9698-f5b166bc5956%40sessionmgr103&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=PHL2307207&db=phl|journal=Diametros: An Online Journal of Philosophy}}</ref><br />
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=== Imperative ===<br />
Fritz Jahr describes that bioethics is ultimately made up of "academic discipline, principle, and virtue".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=December 2007|title=Fritz Jahr's 1927 concept of bioethics|journal=Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal|volume=17|issue=4|pages=279–295|doi=10.1353/ken.2008.0006|issn=1054-6863|pmid=18363267|s2cid=21957991}}</ref> This echoes back to the deep influence [[Socrates]] has on the normalization of bioethics and its practices. Jahr utilizes Kant's Categorical Imperative to demonstrate the obligatory, yet innately human practice of the Bioethical Imperative:<blockquote>"This results in the guiding principle for our actions is the ''Bioethical Imperative'': Respect every living being in general as an end in itself, and treat it if possible, as such"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=December 2007|title=Fritz Jahr's 1927 concept of bioethics|journal=Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal|volume=17|issue=4|pages=279–295|doi=10.1353/ken.2008.0006|issn=1054-6863|pmid=18363267|s2cid=21957991}}</ref></blockquote>as it arises in the relationships not only between conscious human being, but also with plants and other animal species. Jahr fully believes that in order to truly practice bioethics, one must be in solidarity with all forms of life.<ref name=":0" /> If one only decides to be in solidarity in humans, then one should not behave virtuously in any manner.<ref name="Sass 2014 221–228"/><br />
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== Catholic social teaching ==<br />
{{Social teachings of the popes}}<br />
Solidarity is an integral element of [[Catholic social teaching]]. According to [[Pope Francis]]:<br />
{{blockquote|No one can remain insensitive to the inequalities that persist in the world ... the Brazilian people, particularly the humblest among you, can offer the world a valuable lesson in solidarity, a word that is too often forgotten or silenced because it is uncomfortable ... I would like to make an appeal to those in possession of greater resources, to public authorities and to all people of good will who are working for social justice: never tire of working for a more just world, marked by greater solidarity<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicsocialteaching.org.uk/themes/solidarity/|title=Solidarity|website=catholicsocialteaching.org.uk|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref>}}<br />
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The Church's teaching on solidarity is explained in the [[Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church]], and briefly summarised in the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s1c2a3.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - Social justice|website=www.vatican.va|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref><blockquote><br />
*1939. The principle of solidarity, also articulated in terms of "friendship" or "social charity," is a direct demand of human and Christian brotherhood<br />
*1940. Solidarity is manifested in the first place by the distribution of goods and remuneration for work ...<br />
*1941. Socio-economic problems can be resolved only with the help of all the forms of solidarity: solidarity of the poor among themselves, between rich and poor, of workers among themselves, between employers and employees in a business, solidarity among nations and peoples. International solidarity is a requirement of the moral order; world peace depends in part upon this<br />
*1942. The virtue of solidarity goes beyond material goods. In spreading the spiritual goods of the faith, the Church has promoted, and often opened new paths for, the development of temporal goods as well. And so throughout the centuries has the Lord's saying been verified: "Seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things shall be yours as well."</blockquote><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{Portal|Society}}<br />
*[[Altruism]]<br />
*[[Autarky]]<br />
*[[Classism]]<br />
*[[Corporatism]]<br />
*[[Generalized exchange]]<br />
*[[Group cohesiveness]]<br />
*[[Hierarchy]]<br />
*[[Linked fate]]<br />
*[[Solidarism]]<br />
*[[Solidarity economy]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*{{Citation<br />
| last1 = Jary<br />
| first1 = David<br />
| last2 = Jary<br />
| first2 = Julia<br />
| title = Collins Dictionary of Sociology<br />
| publisher = [[HarperCollins]]<br />
| year = 1991<br />
| location = Glasgow<br />
| url = https://archive.org/details/collinsdictionar0000jary/page/774<br />
| isbn = 978-0-00-470804-1<br />
| page = [https://archive.org/details/collinsdictionar0000jary/page/774 774]<br />
| url-access = registration<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
* [https://ugp.rug.nl/GROJIL/article/view/35459 Solidarity as a Principle of International Law: Its Application in Consensual Intervention] – article by Themistoklis Tzimas, GroJIL Vol 6, No 2 (2018): International Legal Reformation<br />
* [http://www.socialpolicy.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/141330/JWI_Solidarity_Obligations_and_Expressions.pdf Solidarity: Obligations and Expressions] – paper by Ashley Taylor at Social Policy, The University of Edinburgh, January 2014<br />
* [https://www.biblio.com/guy-ankerl/author/2271024 Towards a Social Contract on Worldwide Scale, book by Guy-Ankerl] : Solidarity Contract, Geneva, ILO, 1980, {{ISBN|92-9014-165-4}}<br />
* [https://academic.oup.com/phe/article/12/2/133/5528519 Solidarity and Responsibility in Health Care] – article by Ben Davies and Julian Savulescu, Public Health Ethics, Volume 12, Issue 2, July 2019, Pages 133–144, 4 July 2019<br />
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318012758_Afterword_What_Solidarity_of_the_Future_in_Solidarity_and_the_Crisis_of_Trust_ed_Jacek_Koltan_European_Solidarity_Centre_Gdansk_2016_pp_133-143 Afterword: What Solidarity of the Future?] – article by Jacek Kołtan in: Solidarity and the Crisis of Trust, ed. Jacek Koltan, [[European Solidarity Centre]]: Gdansk 2016, pp.&nbsp;133–143<br />
<br />
{{Christian Democracy}}<br />
{{Nationalism}}<br />
{{Conservatism navbox}}<br />
{{Subject bar |commons=yes |commons-search=Category:Solidarity |q=yes |d=yes |d-search=Q815726}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=November 2017}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Altruism]]<br />
[[Category:Community building]]<br />
[[Category:Sociological terminology]]<br />
[[Category:Virtue]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solidarity&diff=1145049211Solidarity2023-03-17T00:45:28Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Unity of feeling or action on a common interest}}<br />
{{About|the social principle|the Polish trade union|Solidarity (Polish trade union)|other uses}}<br />
[[File:The hand that will rule the world.jpg|thumbnail|upright=1.4|A [[raised fist]] in solidarity of the worker movement]]<br />
<br />
'''Solidarity''' or '''solidarism''' is an awareness of shared interests, objectives, standards, and sympathies creating a psychological sense of unity of groups or classes. It is based on [[class collaboration]] and rejects [[class conflict]].<ref name="dict1">''Merriam Webster'', http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/solidarity.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/solidarity|title=solidarity|access-date=19 March 2018|via=The Free Dictionary}}</ref> It refers to the [[social relations|ties in a society]] that bind people together as one. The term is generally employed in [[sociology]] and the other [[social sciences]] as well as in [[philosophy]] and [[bioethics]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Social Security in Poland – cultural, historical and economical issues|first1=Stanisław|last1=Adamiak|first2=Ewa|last2=Chojnacka|first3=Damian|last3=Walczak|date=1 December 2013|journal=Copernican Journal of Finance & Accounting|volume=2|issue=2|pages=11–26|doi=10.12775/cjfa.2013.013|url=http://apcz.umk.pl/czasopisma/index.php/CJFA/article/download/CJFA.2013.013/3189|doi-access=free}}</ref> It is also a significant concept in [[Catholic social teaching]]; therefore it is a core concept in [[Christian democracy|Christian democratic]] political ideology.<ref name="FitzpatrickKwon2013">{{cite book |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Tony |last2=Kwon |first2=Huck-ju |last3= Manning |first3=Nick |author4=James Midgley, Gillian Pascall |title= International Encyclopedia of Social Policy |date= 4 July 2013 |publisher= Routledge |language=en |isbn= 978-1-136-61003-5|page=1866}}</ref><br />
<br />
{{Christian democracy sidebar}}<br />
<br />
What forms the basis of solidarity and how it is implemented vary between societies. In [[Global North and Global South|Global South]] societies it may be mainly based on [[kinship]] and shared values while [[Global North and Global South|Global North]] societies accumulate various theories as to what contributes to a sense of solidarity, or rather, social cohesion.<ref name="dict1"/> Unlike [[Collectivism and individualism|collectivism]], solidarism does not reject [[individual]]s and sees individuals as the basis of [[society]].<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Boston|first1=677 Huntington Avenue|last2=Ma 02115 +1495‑1000|date=2018-10-02|title=Social Solidarity, Human Rights, and Collective Action: Considerations in the Implementation of the National Health Insurance in South Africa|url=https://www.hhrjournal.org/2018/10/social-solidarity-human-rights-and-collective-action-considerations-in-the-implementation-of-the-national-health-insurance-in-south-africa/|access-date=2021-08-30|website=Health and Human Rights|language=en-us}}</ref><br />
<br />
Solidarity is also one of six principles of the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]]<ref>[[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union#The text|Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]], Title IV</ref> and December 20 of each year is [[International Human Solidarity Day]] recognized as an [[international observance]]. Concepts of solidarity are mentioned in the Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights,<ref>[http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=31058&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights]</ref> but not defined clearly.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Prainsack|first1=Barbara|last2=Buyx|first2=Alena|date=2012|title=Solidarity in Contemporary Bioethics -- towards a New Approach|journal=Bioethics|volume=26|issue=7|pages=343–350|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2012.01987.x|pmid=22827315|s2cid=3463430}}</ref> As biotechnology and biomedical enhancement research and production increase, the need for distinct definition of solidarity within healthcare system frameworks is important. It is not mentioned in the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] nor in the United Nations' [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and has hence lesser legal meaning when compared to basic rights.<br />
<br />
{{Labor|expanded=unions}}<br />
[[File:Helsingin Kaupunginteatteri solidarity for Ukraine RL-220309-2215.jpg|thumb|The [[Helsinki City Theatre]] in [[Helsinki|Helsinki, Finland]] illuminated in the colors of the [[flag of Ukraine]], in solidarity with [[Ukraine]] during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]]]<br />
<br />
== Discourse ==<br />
<br />
=== Émile Durkheim ===<br />
According to [[Émile Durkheim]], the types of social solidarity correlate with types of society. Durkheim introduced the terms [[mechanical and organic solidarity|''mechanical'' and ''organic solidarity'']]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thijssen|first=Peter|date=November 2012|title=From mechanical to organic solidarity, and back: With Honneth beyond Durkheim.|journal=European Journal of Social Theory|volume=15|pages=454–470|via=EBSCO|doi=10.1177/1368431011423589|s2cid=147685052}}</ref> as part of his theory of the development of societies in ''[[The Division of Labour in Society]]'' (1893). In a society exhibiting mechanical solidarity, its cohesion and integration comes from the homogeneity of individuals—people feel connected through similar work, educational and religious training, and lifestyle. Mechanical solidarity normally operates in traditional small-scale societies.<ref name="dict2">''Collins Dictionary of Sociology'', p405-6.</ref> In [[tribalism|tribal]] society, solidarity is usually based on [[kinship]] ties of familial networks. Organic solidarity comes from the interdependence that arises from specialization of work and the complementarities between people—a development which occurs in modern and industrial societies.<ref name="dict2" /><br />
<br />
Although individuals perform different tasks and often have different values and interest, the order and very solidarity of society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specified tasks. "Organic" here refers to the interdependence of the component parts, and thus social solidarity is maintained in more complex societies through the interdependence of its component parts (e.g., farmers produce the food to feed the factory workers who produce the tractors that allow the farmer to produce the food).<br />
<br />
=== Peter Kropotkin ===<br />
[[File:PraxisGermany - Copy.png|thumb|upright=1|[[Anarchist]] banner [[Dresden]] [[Germany]], translating to "Solidarity must become practice"]]<br />
A connection between the biological and the social was of principal importance for the idea of solidarity as expressed by the anarchist ideologist and former Prince [[Peter Kropotkin]] (1842–1921). In his most famous book, ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' (1902), written partly in response to Huxleyan Social Darwinism, Kropotkin studied the use of cooperation as a survival mechanism in human societies at their various stages, as well as with animals. According to him, [[mutual aid (organization theory)|mutual aid]], or cooperation, within a species has been an important factor in the evolution of social institutions. Solidarity is essential for mutual aid; supportive activity towards other people does not result from the expectation of reward, but rather from instinctive feelings of solidarity.<br />
<br />
In his introduction to the book, Kropotkin wrote: <blockquote>"The number and importance of mutual-aid institutions which were developed by the creative genius of the savage and half-savage masses, during the earliest clan-period of mankind and still more during the next village-community period, and the immense influence which these early institutions have exercised upon the subsequent development of mankind, down to the present times, induced me to extend my researches to the later, historical periods as well; especially, to study that most interesting period&nbsp;– the free medieval city republics, whose universality and influence upon our modern civilization have not yet been duly appreciated. And finally, I have tried to indicate in brief the immense importance which the mutual-support instincts, inherited by mankind from its extremely long evolution, play even now in our modern society, which is supposed to rest upon the principle "every one for himself, and the State for all," but which it never has succeeded, nor will succeed in realizing".<ref>Kropotkin, P. Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution.&nbsp;– L.: Freedom press, 1998.</ref></blockquote> Kropotkin advocated an alternative economic and social system, which would be coordinated through a horizontal network of voluntary associations with goods distributed in compliance with the physical needs of the individual, rather than according to labour.<ref><br />
Efremenko D., Evseeva Y. Studies of Social Solidarity in Russia: Tradition and Modern Trends. // American Sociologist, v. 43, 2012, no. 4, pp. 349-365.&nbsp;– NY: Springer Science+Business Media<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
== Bioethics ==<br />
Solidarity is a re-emerging concept in contemporary philosophy within various sub-fields of law, [[ethics]], and [[political philosophy]].<ref>{{Citation|title=Solidarity|year=1999|editor=Bayertz, Kurt|location=Dordrecht|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|isbn=978-0-7923-5475-8}}</ref> Early ancient philosophers such as [[Socrates]] and [[Aristotle]] discuss solidarity as a [[virtue ethics]] framework because in order to live a good life one must perform actions and behave in a way that is in solidarity with the community.<br />
<br />
One notable approach in [[bioethics]] is to identify solidarity primarily as a three-tiered practice enacted at the interpersonal, communal, and contractual and legal levels.<ref>{{Citation |author=Prainsack, Barbara |author2=Buyx, Alena |year=2012 |title=Solidarity in Contemporary Bioethics&nbsp;– Towards a New Approach |journal=Bioethics |volume=26 |issue=26/7 |pages=343–350 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2012.01987.x|pmid=22827315 |s2cid=3463430 }}</ref> This approach is driven by the quest to differentiate between the diverse applications of the concept and to clarify its meaning, both historically and in terms of its potential as a fruitful concept for contemporary moral, social and political issues.<ref>{{Citation |author=Prainsack, Barbara |author2=Buyx, Alena |year=2011 |title=Solidarity: reflections on an emerging concept in bioethics |publisher=Nuffield Council on Bioethics |location=London |url=http://nuffieldbioethics.org/project/solidarity/ |access-date= 2013-11-04 |isbn= 978-1-904384-25-0}}</ref> The modern practice of bioethics is significantly influenced by Immanuel [[Immanuel Kant|Kant's]] concept of the [[Categorical imperative|Categorical Imperative]]. Pastor and philosopher Fritz Jahr's article "Bio-Ethics: A Review of the Ethical Relationships of Humans to Animals and Plants" refines Kant's original Categorical Imperative discourse<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=December 2007|title=Fritz Jahr's 1927 concept of bioethics|journal=Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal|volume=17|issue=4|pages=279–295|doi=10.1353/ken.2008.0006|issn=1054-6863|pmid=18363267|s2cid=21957991}}</ref> by including the notion of the Bioethical Imperative.<ref name="Sass 2014 221–228">{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=2014|title=Bioethik – Bioethics|journal=Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte|volume=56|pages=221–228|jstor=24361919}}</ref><br />
<br />
Biomedical technology has also further introduced solidarity as the pivotal concept in bioethics. Scholars, such as Ori Levi,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levi|first=Ori|date=2011|title=Will Biomedical Enhancements Undermine Solidarity, Responsibility, Equality and Autonomy?|journal=Bioethics|volume=25|issue=4|pages=177–184|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2009.01779.x|pmid=20002073|pmc=2888791}}</ref> bring to attention the negative implications of biomedical enhancements. Another scholar, Dr. Meulen ter Ruud, discusses the application of solidarity within healthcare systems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ter Meulen|first=Ruud|date=March 2015|title=Solidarity and Justice in Health Care: A Critical Analysis of Their Relationship|url=http://web.b.ebscohost.com.proxylib.csueastbay.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=ca775723-a36f-4e9e-9698-f5b166bc5956%40sessionmgr103&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=PHL2307207&db=phl|journal=Diametros: An Online Journal of Philosophy}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Imperative ===<br />
Fritz Jahr describes that bioethics is ultimately made up of "academic discipline, principle, and virtue".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=December 2007|title=Fritz Jahr's 1927 concept of bioethics|journal=Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal|volume=17|issue=4|pages=279–295|doi=10.1353/ken.2008.0006|issn=1054-6863|pmid=18363267|s2cid=21957991}}</ref> This echoes back to the deep influence [[Socrates]] has on the normalization of bioethics and its practices. Jahr utilizes Kant's Categorical Imperative to demonstrate the obligatory, yet innately human practice of the Bioethical Imperative:<blockquote>"This results in the guiding principle for our actions is the ''Bioethical Imperative'': Respect every living being in general as an end in itself, and treat it if possible, as such"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=December 2007|title=Fritz Jahr's 1927 concept of bioethics|journal=Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal|volume=17|issue=4|pages=279–295|doi=10.1353/ken.2008.0006|issn=1054-6863|pmid=18363267|s2cid=21957991}}</ref></blockquote>as it arises in the relationships not only between conscious human being, but also with plants and other animal species. Jahr fully believes that in order to truly practice bioethics, one must be in solidarity with all forms of life.<ref name=":0" /> If one only decides to be in solidarity in humans, then one should not behave virtuously in any manner.<ref name="Sass 2014 221–228"/><br />
<br />
== Catholic social teaching ==<br />
{{Social teachings of the popes}}<br />
Solidarity is an integral element of [[Catholic social teaching]]. According to [[Pope Francis]]:<br />
{{blockquote|No one can remain insensitive to the inequalities that persist in the world ... the Brazilian people, particularly the humblest among you, can offer the world a valuable lesson in solidarity, a word that is too often forgotten or silenced because it is uncomfortable ... I would like to make an appeal to those in possession of greater resources, to public authorities and to all people of good will who are working for social justice: never tire of working for a more just world, marked by greater solidarity<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicsocialteaching.org.uk/themes/solidarity/|title=Solidarity|website=catholicsocialteaching.org.uk|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
The Church's teaching on solidarity is explained in the [[Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church]], and briefly summarised in the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s1c2a3.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - Social justice|website=www.vatican.va|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref><blockquote><br />
*1939. The principle of solidarity, also articulated in terms of "friendship" or "social charity," is a direct demand of human and Christian brotherhood<br />
*1940. Solidarity is manifested in the first place by the distribution of goods and remuneration for work ...<br />
*1941. Socio-economic problems can be resolved only with the help of all the forms of solidarity: solidarity of the poor among themselves, between rich and poor, of workers among themselves, between employers and employees in a business, solidarity among nations and peoples. International solidarity is a requirement of the moral order; world peace depends in part upon this<br />
*1942. The virtue of solidarity goes beyond material goods. In spreading the spiritual goods of the faith, the Church has promoted, and often opened new paths for, the development of temporal goods as well. And so throughout the centuries has the Lord's saying been verified: "Seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things shall be yours as well."</blockquote><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{Portal|Society}}<br />
*[[Altruism]]<br />
*[[Autarky]]<br />
*[[Classism]]<br />
*[[Corporatism]]<br />
*[[Generalized exchange]]<br />
*[[Group cohesiveness]]<br />
*[[Hierarchy]]<br />
*[[Linked fate]]<br />
*[[Solidarism]]<br />
*[[Solidarity economy]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*{{Citation<br />
| last1 = Jary<br />
| first1 = David<br />
| last2 = Jary<br />
| first2 = Julia<br />
| title = Collins Dictionary of Sociology<br />
| publisher = [[HarperCollins]]<br />
| year = 1991<br />
| location = Glasgow<br />
| url = https://archive.org/details/collinsdictionar0000jary/page/774<br />
| isbn = 978-0-00-470804-1<br />
| page = [https://archive.org/details/collinsdictionar0000jary/page/774 774]<br />
| url-access = registration<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
* [https://ugp.rug.nl/GROJIL/article/view/35459 Solidarity as a Principle of International Law: Its Application in Consensual Intervention] – article by Themistoklis Tzimas, GroJIL Vol 6, No 2 (2018): International Legal Reformation<br />
* [http://www.socialpolicy.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/141330/JWI_Solidarity_Obligations_and_Expressions.pdf Solidarity: Obligations and Expressions] – paper by Ashley Taylor at Social Policy, The University of Edinburgh, January 2014<br />
* [https://www.biblio.com/guy-ankerl/author/2271024 Towards a Social Contract on Worldwide Scale, book by Guy-Ankerl] : Solidarity Contract, Geneva, ILO, 1980, {{ISBN|92-9014-165-4}}<br />
* [https://academic.oup.com/phe/article/12/2/133/5528519 Solidarity and Responsibility in Health Care] – article by Ben Davies and Julian Savulescu, Public Health Ethics, Volume 12, Issue 2, July 2019, Pages 133–144, 4 July 2019<br />
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318012758_Afterword_What_Solidarity_of_the_Future_in_Solidarity_and_the_Crisis_of_Trust_ed_Jacek_Koltan_European_Solidarity_Centre_Gdansk_2016_pp_133-143 Afterword: What Solidarity of the Future?] – article by Jacek Kołtan in: Solidarity and the Crisis of Trust, ed. Jacek Koltan, [[European Solidarity Centre]]: Gdansk 2016, pp.&nbsp;133–143<br />
<br />
{{Christian Democracy}}<br />
{{Nationalism}}<br />
{{Conservatism navbox}}<br />
{{Subject bar |commons=yes |commons-search=Category:Solidarity |q=yes |d=yes |d-search=Q815726}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=November 2017}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Altruism]]<br />
[[Category:Community building]]<br />
[[Category:Sociological terminology]]<br />
[[Category:Virtue]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solidarity&diff=1145049144Solidarity2023-03-17T00:44:59Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Unity of feeling or action on a common interest}}<br />
{{About|the social principle|the Polish trade union|Solidarity (Polish trade union)|other uses}}<br />
[[File:The hand that will rule the world.jpg|thumbnail|upright=1.4|A [[raised fist]] in solidarity of the worker movement]]<br />
<br />
'''Solidarity''' or '''solidarity''' is an awareness of shared interests, objectives, standards, and sympathies creating a psychological sense of unity of groups or classes. It is based on [[class collaboration]] and rejects [[class conflict]].<ref name="dict1">''Merriam Webster'', http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/solidarity.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/solidarity|title=solidarity|access-date=19 March 2018|via=The Free Dictionary}}</ref> It refers to the [[social relations|ties in a society]] that bind people together as one. The term is generally employed in [[sociology]] and the other [[social sciences]] as well as in [[philosophy]] and [[bioethics]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Social Security in Poland – cultural, historical and economical issues|first1=Stanisław|last1=Adamiak|first2=Ewa|last2=Chojnacka|first3=Damian|last3=Walczak|date=1 December 2013|journal=Copernican Journal of Finance & Accounting|volume=2|issue=2|pages=11–26|doi=10.12775/cjfa.2013.013|url=http://apcz.umk.pl/czasopisma/index.php/CJFA/article/download/CJFA.2013.013/3189|doi-access=free}}</ref> It is also a significant concept in [[Catholic social teaching]]; therefore it is a core concept in [[Christian democracy|Christian democratic]] political ideology.<ref name="FitzpatrickKwon2013">{{cite book |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Tony |last2=Kwon |first2=Huck-ju |last3= Manning |first3=Nick |author4=James Midgley, Gillian Pascall |title= International Encyclopedia of Social Policy |date= 4 July 2013 |publisher= Routledge |language=en |isbn= 978-1-136-61003-5|page=1866}}</ref><br />
<br />
{{Christian democracy sidebar}}<br />
<br />
What forms the basis of solidarity and how it is implemented vary between societies. In [[Global North and Global South|Global South]] societies it may be mainly based on [[kinship]] and shared values while [[Global North and Global South|Global North]] societies accumulate various theories as to what contributes to a sense of solidarity, or rather, social cohesion.<ref name="dict1"/> Unlike [[Collectivism and individualism|collectivism]], solidarism does not reject [[individual]]s and sees individuals as the basis of [[society]].<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Boston|first1=677 Huntington Avenue|last2=Ma 02115 +1495‑1000|date=2018-10-02|title=Social Solidarity, Human Rights, and Collective Action: Considerations in the Implementation of the National Health Insurance in South Africa|url=https://www.hhrjournal.org/2018/10/social-solidarity-human-rights-and-collective-action-considerations-in-the-implementation-of-the-national-health-insurance-in-south-africa/|access-date=2021-08-30|website=Health and Human Rights|language=en-us}}</ref><br />
<br />
Solidarity is also one of six principles of the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]]<ref>[[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union#The text|Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]], Title IV</ref> and December 20 of each year is [[International Human Solidarity Day]] recognized as an [[international observance]]. Concepts of solidarity are mentioned in the Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights,<ref>[http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=31058&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights]</ref> but not defined clearly.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Prainsack|first1=Barbara|last2=Buyx|first2=Alena|date=2012|title=Solidarity in Contemporary Bioethics -- towards a New Approach|journal=Bioethics|volume=26|issue=7|pages=343–350|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2012.01987.x|pmid=22827315|s2cid=3463430}}</ref> As biotechnology and biomedical enhancement research and production increase, the need for distinct definition of solidarity within healthcare system frameworks is important. It is not mentioned in the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] nor in the United Nations' [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and has hence lesser legal meaning when compared to basic rights.<br />
<br />
{{Labor|expanded=unions}}<br />
[[File:Helsingin Kaupunginteatteri solidarity for Ukraine RL-220309-2215.jpg|thumb|The [[Helsinki City Theatre]] in [[Helsinki|Helsinki, Finland]] illuminated in the colors of the [[flag of Ukraine]], in solidarity with [[Ukraine]] during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]]]<br />
<br />
== Discourse ==<br />
<br />
=== Émile Durkheim ===<br />
According to [[Émile Durkheim]], the types of social solidarity correlate with types of society. Durkheim introduced the terms [[mechanical and organic solidarity|''mechanical'' and ''organic solidarity'']]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thijssen|first=Peter|date=November 2012|title=From mechanical to organic solidarity, and back: With Honneth beyond Durkheim.|journal=European Journal of Social Theory|volume=15|pages=454–470|via=EBSCO|doi=10.1177/1368431011423589|s2cid=147685052}}</ref> as part of his theory of the development of societies in ''[[The Division of Labour in Society]]'' (1893). In a society exhibiting mechanical solidarity, its cohesion and integration comes from the homogeneity of individuals—people feel connected through similar work, educational and religious training, and lifestyle. Mechanical solidarity normally operates in traditional small-scale societies.<ref name="dict2">''Collins Dictionary of Sociology'', p405-6.</ref> In [[tribalism|tribal]] society, solidarity is usually based on [[kinship]] ties of familial networks. Organic solidarity comes from the interdependence that arises from specialization of work and the complementarities between people—a development which occurs in modern and industrial societies.<ref name="dict2" /><br />
<br />
Although individuals perform different tasks and often have different values and interest, the order and very solidarity of society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specified tasks. "Organic" here refers to the interdependence of the component parts, and thus social solidarity is maintained in more complex societies through the interdependence of its component parts (e.g., farmers produce the food to feed the factory workers who produce the tractors that allow the farmer to produce the food).<br />
<br />
=== Peter Kropotkin ===<br />
[[File:PraxisGermany - Copy.png|thumb|upright=1|[[Anarchist]] banner [[Dresden]] [[Germany]], translating to "Solidarity must become practice"]]<br />
A connection between the biological and the social was of principal importance for the idea of solidarity as expressed by the anarchist ideologist and former Prince [[Peter Kropotkin]] (1842–1921). In his most famous book, ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' (1902), written partly in response to Huxleyan Social Darwinism, Kropotkin studied the use of cooperation as a survival mechanism in human societies at their various stages, as well as with animals. According to him, [[mutual aid (organization theory)|mutual aid]], or cooperation, within a species has been an important factor in the evolution of social institutions. Solidarity is essential for mutual aid; supportive activity towards other people does not result from the expectation of reward, but rather from instinctive feelings of solidarity.<br />
<br />
In his introduction to the book, Kropotkin wrote: <blockquote>"The number and importance of mutual-aid institutions which were developed by the creative genius of the savage and half-savage masses, during the earliest clan-period of mankind and still more during the next village-community period, and the immense influence which these early institutions have exercised upon the subsequent development of mankind, down to the present times, induced me to extend my researches to the later, historical periods as well; especially, to study that most interesting period&nbsp;– the free medieval city republics, whose universality and influence upon our modern civilization have not yet been duly appreciated. And finally, I have tried to indicate in brief the immense importance which the mutual-support instincts, inherited by mankind from its extremely long evolution, play even now in our modern society, which is supposed to rest upon the principle "every one for himself, and the State for all," but which it never has succeeded, nor will succeed in realizing".<ref>Kropotkin, P. Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution.&nbsp;– L.: Freedom press, 1998.</ref></blockquote> Kropotkin advocated an alternative economic and social system, which would be coordinated through a horizontal network of voluntary associations with goods distributed in compliance with the physical needs of the individual, rather than according to labour.<ref><br />
Efremenko D., Evseeva Y. Studies of Social Solidarity in Russia: Tradition and Modern Trends. // American Sociologist, v. 43, 2012, no. 4, pp. 349-365.&nbsp;– NY: Springer Science+Business Media<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
== Bioethics ==<br />
Solidarity is a re-emerging concept in contemporary philosophy within various sub-fields of law, [[ethics]], and [[political philosophy]].<ref>{{Citation|title=Solidarity|year=1999|editor=Bayertz, Kurt|location=Dordrecht|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|isbn=978-0-7923-5475-8}}</ref> Early ancient philosophers such as [[Socrates]] and [[Aristotle]] discuss solidarity as a [[virtue ethics]] framework because in order to live a good life one must perform actions and behave in a way that is in solidarity with the community.<br />
<br />
One notable approach in [[bioethics]] is to identify solidarity primarily as a three-tiered practice enacted at the interpersonal, communal, and contractual and legal levels.<ref>{{Citation |author=Prainsack, Barbara |author2=Buyx, Alena |year=2012 |title=Solidarity in Contemporary Bioethics&nbsp;– Towards a New Approach |journal=Bioethics |volume=26 |issue=26/7 |pages=343–350 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2012.01987.x|pmid=22827315 |s2cid=3463430 }}</ref> This approach is driven by the quest to differentiate between the diverse applications of the concept and to clarify its meaning, both historically and in terms of its potential as a fruitful concept for contemporary moral, social and political issues.<ref>{{Citation |author=Prainsack, Barbara |author2=Buyx, Alena |year=2011 |title=Solidarity: reflections on an emerging concept in bioethics |publisher=Nuffield Council on Bioethics |location=London |url=http://nuffieldbioethics.org/project/solidarity/ |access-date= 2013-11-04 |isbn= 978-1-904384-25-0}}</ref> The modern practice of bioethics is significantly influenced by Immanuel [[Immanuel Kant|Kant's]] concept of the [[Categorical imperative|Categorical Imperative]]. Pastor and philosopher Fritz Jahr's article "Bio-Ethics: A Review of the Ethical Relationships of Humans to Animals and Plants" refines Kant's original Categorical Imperative discourse<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=December 2007|title=Fritz Jahr's 1927 concept of bioethics|journal=Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal|volume=17|issue=4|pages=279–295|doi=10.1353/ken.2008.0006|issn=1054-6863|pmid=18363267|s2cid=21957991}}</ref> by including the notion of the Bioethical Imperative.<ref name="Sass 2014 221–228">{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=2014|title=Bioethik – Bioethics|journal=Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte|volume=56|pages=221–228|jstor=24361919}}</ref><br />
<br />
Biomedical technology has also further introduced solidarity as the pivotal concept in bioethics. Scholars, such as Ori Levi,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levi|first=Ori|date=2011|title=Will Biomedical Enhancements Undermine Solidarity, Responsibility, Equality and Autonomy?|journal=Bioethics|volume=25|issue=4|pages=177–184|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2009.01779.x|pmid=20002073|pmc=2888791}}</ref> bring to attention the negative implications of biomedical enhancements. Another scholar, Dr. Meulen ter Ruud, discusses the application of solidarity within healthcare systems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ter Meulen|first=Ruud|date=March 2015|title=Solidarity and Justice in Health Care: A Critical Analysis of Their Relationship|url=http://web.b.ebscohost.com.proxylib.csueastbay.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=ca775723-a36f-4e9e-9698-f5b166bc5956%40sessionmgr103&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=PHL2307207&db=phl|journal=Diametros: An Online Journal of Philosophy}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Imperative ===<br />
Fritz Jahr describes that bioethics is ultimately made up of "academic discipline, principle, and virtue".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=December 2007|title=Fritz Jahr's 1927 concept of bioethics|journal=Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal|volume=17|issue=4|pages=279–295|doi=10.1353/ken.2008.0006|issn=1054-6863|pmid=18363267|s2cid=21957991}}</ref> This echoes back to the deep influence [[Socrates]] has on the normalization of bioethics and its practices. Jahr utilizes Kant's Categorical Imperative to demonstrate the obligatory, yet innately human practice of the Bioethical Imperative:<blockquote>"This results in the guiding principle for our actions is the ''Bioethical Imperative'': Respect every living being in general as an end in itself, and treat it if possible, as such"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=December 2007|title=Fritz Jahr's 1927 concept of bioethics|journal=Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal|volume=17|issue=4|pages=279–295|doi=10.1353/ken.2008.0006|issn=1054-6863|pmid=18363267|s2cid=21957991}}</ref></blockquote>as it arises in the relationships not only between conscious human being, but also with plants and other animal species. Jahr fully believes that in order to truly practice bioethics, one must be in solidarity with all forms of life.<ref name=":0" /> If one only decides to be in solidarity in humans, then one should not behave virtuously in any manner.<ref name="Sass 2014 221–228"/><br />
<br />
== Catholic social teaching ==<br />
{{Social teachings of the popes}}<br />
Solidarity is an integral element of [[Catholic social teaching]]. According to [[Pope Francis]]:<br />
{{blockquote|No one can remain insensitive to the inequalities that persist in the world ... the Brazilian people, particularly the humblest among you, can offer the world a valuable lesson in solidarity, a word that is too often forgotten or silenced because it is uncomfortable ... I would like to make an appeal to those in possession of greater resources, to public authorities and to all people of good will who are working for social justice: never tire of working for a more just world, marked by greater solidarity<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicsocialteaching.org.uk/themes/solidarity/|title=Solidarity|website=catholicsocialteaching.org.uk|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
The Church's teaching on solidarity is explained in the [[Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church]], and briefly summarised in the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s1c2a3.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - Social justice|website=www.vatican.va|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref><blockquote><br />
*1939. The principle of solidarity, also articulated in terms of "friendship" or "social charity," is a direct demand of human and Christian brotherhood<br />
*1940. Solidarity is manifested in the first place by the distribution of goods and remuneration for work ...<br />
*1941. Socio-economic problems can be resolved only with the help of all the forms of solidarity: solidarity of the poor among themselves, between rich and poor, of workers among themselves, between employers and employees in a business, solidarity among nations and peoples. International solidarity is a requirement of the moral order; world peace depends in part upon this<br />
*1942. The virtue of solidarity goes beyond material goods. In spreading the spiritual goods of the faith, the Church has promoted, and often opened new paths for, the development of temporal goods as well. And so throughout the centuries has the Lord's saying been verified: "Seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things shall be yours as well."</blockquote><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{Portal|Society}}<br />
*[[Altruism]]<br />
*[[Autarky]]<br />
*[[Classism]]<br />
*[[Corporatism]]<br />
*[[Generalized exchange]]<br />
*[[Group cohesiveness]]<br />
*[[Hierarchy]]<br />
*[[Linked fate]]<br />
*[[Solidarism]]<br />
*[[Solidarity economy]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*{{Citation<br />
| last1 = Jary<br />
| first1 = David<br />
| last2 = Jary<br />
| first2 = Julia<br />
| title = Collins Dictionary of Sociology<br />
| publisher = [[HarperCollins]]<br />
| year = 1991<br />
| location = Glasgow<br />
| url = https://archive.org/details/collinsdictionar0000jary/page/774<br />
| isbn = 978-0-00-470804-1<br />
| page = [https://archive.org/details/collinsdictionar0000jary/page/774 774]<br />
| url-access = registration<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
* [https://ugp.rug.nl/GROJIL/article/view/35459 Solidarity as a Principle of International Law: Its Application in Consensual Intervention] – article by Themistoklis Tzimas, GroJIL Vol 6, No 2 (2018): International Legal Reformation<br />
* [http://www.socialpolicy.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/141330/JWI_Solidarity_Obligations_and_Expressions.pdf Solidarity: Obligations and Expressions] – paper by Ashley Taylor at Social Policy, The University of Edinburgh, January 2014<br />
* [https://www.biblio.com/guy-ankerl/author/2271024 Towards a Social Contract on Worldwide Scale, book by Guy-Ankerl] : Solidarity Contract, Geneva, ILO, 1980, {{ISBN|92-9014-165-4}}<br />
* [https://academic.oup.com/phe/article/12/2/133/5528519 Solidarity and Responsibility in Health Care] – article by Ben Davies and Julian Savulescu, Public Health Ethics, Volume 12, Issue 2, July 2019, Pages 133–144, 4 July 2019<br />
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318012758_Afterword_What_Solidarity_of_the_Future_in_Solidarity_and_the_Crisis_of_Trust_ed_Jacek_Koltan_European_Solidarity_Centre_Gdansk_2016_pp_133-143 Afterword: What Solidarity of the Future?] – article by Jacek Kołtan in: Solidarity and the Crisis of Trust, ed. Jacek Koltan, [[European Solidarity Centre]]: Gdansk 2016, pp.&nbsp;133–143<br />
<br />
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<br />
[[Category:Altruism]]<br />
[[Category:Community building]]<br />
[[Category:Sociological terminology]]<br />
[[Category:Virtue]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solidarity&diff=1145048713Solidarity2023-03-17T00:41:39Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Unity of feeling or action on a common interest}}<br />
{{About|the social principle|the Polish trade union|Solidarity (Polish trade union)|other uses}}<br />
[[File:The hand that will rule the world.jpg|thumbnail|upright=1.4|A [[raised fist]] in solidarity of the worker movement]]<br />
<br />
'''Solidarity''' is an awareness of shared interests, objectives, standards, and sympathies creating a psychological sense of unity of groups or classes. It is based on [[class collaboration]] and rejects [[class conflict]].<ref name="dict1">''Merriam Webster'', http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/solidarity.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/solidarity|title=solidarity|access-date=19 March 2018|via=The Free Dictionary}}</ref> It refers to the [[social relations|ties in a society]] that bind people together as one. The term is generally employed in [[sociology]] and the other [[social sciences]] as well as in [[philosophy]] and [[bioethics]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Social Security in Poland – cultural, historical and economical issues|first1=Stanisław|last1=Adamiak|first2=Ewa|last2=Chojnacka|first3=Damian|last3=Walczak|date=1 December 2013|journal=Copernican Journal of Finance & Accounting|volume=2|issue=2|pages=11–26|doi=10.12775/cjfa.2013.013|url=http://apcz.umk.pl/czasopisma/index.php/CJFA/article/download/CJFA.2013.013/3189|doi-access=free}}</ref> It is also a significant concept in [[Catholic social teaching]]; therefore it is a core concept in [[Christian democracy|Christian democratic]] political ideology.<ref name="FitzpatrickKwon2013">{{cite book |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Tony |last2=Kwon |first2=Huck-ju |last3= Manning |first3=Nick |author4=James Midgley, Gillian Pascall |title= International Encyclopedia of Social Policy |date= 4 July 2013 |publisher= Routledge |language=en |isbn= 978-1-136-61003-5|page=1866}}</ref><br />
<br />
{{Christian democracy sidebar}}<br />
<br />
What forms the basis of solidarity and how it is implemented vary between societies. In [[Global North and Global South|Global South]] societies it may be mainly based on [[kinship]] and shared values while [[Global North and Global South|Global North]] societies accumulate various theories as to what contributes to a sense of solidarity, or rather, social cohesion.<ref name="dict1"/> Unlike [[Collectivism and individualism|collectivism]], solidarism does not reject [[individual]]s and sees individuals as the basis of [[society]].<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Boston|first1=677 Huntington Avenue|last2=Ma 02115 +1495‑1000|date=2018-10-02|title=Social Solidarity, Human Rights, and Collective Action: Considerations in the Implementation of the National Health Insurance in South Africa|url=https://www.hhrjournal.org/2018/10/social-solidarity-human-rights-and-collective-action-considerations-in-the-implementation-of-the-national-health-insurance-in-south-africa/|access-date=2021-08-30|website=Health and Human Rights|language=en-us}}</ref><br />
<br />
Solidarity is also one of six principles of the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]]<ref>[[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union#The text|Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]], Title IV</ref> and December 20 of each year is [[International Human Solidarity Day]] recognized as an [[international observance]]. Concepts of solidarity are mentioned in the Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights,<ref>[http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=31058&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights]</ref> but not defined clearly.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Prainsack|first1=Barbara|last2=Buyx|first2=Alena|date=2012|title=Solidarity in Contemporary Bioethics -- towards a New Approach|journal=Bioethics|volume=26|issue=7|pages=343–350|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2012.01987.x|pmid=22827315|s2cid=3463430}}</ref> As biotechnology and biomedical enhancement research and production increase, the need for distinct definition of solidarity within healthcare system frameworks is important. It is not mentioned in the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] nor in the United Nations' [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and has hence lesser legal meaning when compared to basic rights.<br />
<br />
{{Labor|expanded=unions}}<br />
[[File:Helsingin Kaupunginteatteri solidarity for Ukraine RL-220309-2215.jpg|thumb|The [[Helsinki City Theatre]] in [[Helsinki|Helsinki, Finland]] illuminated in the colors of the [[flag of Ukraine]], in solidarity with [[Ukraine]] during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]]]<br />
<br />
== Discourse ==<br />
<br />
=== Émile Durkheim ===<br />
According to [[Émile Durkheim]], the types of social solidarity correlate with types of society. Durkheim introduced the terms [[mechanical and organic solidarity|''mechanical'' and ''organic solidarity'']]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thijssen|first=Peter|date=November 2012|title=From mechanical to organic solidarity, and back: With Honneth beyond Durkheim.|journal=European Journal of Social Theory|volume=15|pages=454–470|via=EBSCO|doi=10.1177/1368431011423589|s2cid=147685052}}</ref> as part of his theory of the development of societies in ''[[The Division of Labour in Society]]'' (1893). In a society exhibiting mechanical solidarity, its cohesion and integration comes from the homogeneity of individuals—people feel connected through similar work, educational and religious training, and lifestyle. Mechanical solidarity normally operates in traditional small-scale societies.<ref name="dict2">''Collins Dictionary of Sociology'', p405-6.</ref> In [[tribalism|tribal]] society, solidarity is usually based on [[kinship]] ties of familial networks. Organic solidarity comes from the interdependence that arises from specialization of work and the complementarities between people—a development which occurs in modern and industrial societies.<ref name="dict2" /><br />
<br />
Although individuals perform different tasks and often have different values and interest, the order and very solidarity of society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specified tasks. "Organic" here refers to the interdependence of the component parts, and thus social solidarity is maintained in more complex societies through the interdependence of its component parts (e.g., farmers produce the food to feed the factory workers who produce the tractors that allow the farmer to produce the food).<br />
<br />
=== Peter Kropotkin ===<br />
[[File:PraxisGermany - Copy.png|thumb|upright=1|[[Anarchist]] banner [[Dresden]] [[Germany]], translating to "Solidarity must become practice"]]<br />
A connection between the biological and the social was of principal importance for the idea of solidarity as expressed by the anarchist ideologist and former Prince [[Peter Kropotkin]] (1842–1921). In his most famous book, ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' (1902), written partly in response to Huxleyan Social Darwinism, Kropotkin studied the use of cooperation as a survival mechanism in human societies at their various stages, as well as with animals. According to him, [[mutual aid (organization theory)|mutual aid]], or cooperation, within a species has been an important factor in the evolution of social institutions. Solidarity is essential for mutual aid; supportive activity towards other people does not result from the expectation of reward, but rather from instinctive feelings of solidarity.<br />
<br />
In his introduction to the book, Kropotkin wrote: <blockquote>"The number and importance of mutual-aid institutions which were developed by the creative genius of the savage and half-savage masses, during the earliest clan-period of mankind and still more during the next village-community period, and the immense influence which these early institutions have exercised upon the subsequent development of mankind, down to the present times, induced me to extend my researches to the later, historical periods as well; especially, to study that most interesting period&nbsp;– the free medieval city republics, whose universality and influence upon our modern civilization have not yet been duly appreciated. And finally, I have tried to indicate in brief the immense importance which the mutual-support instincts, inherited by mankind from its extremely long evolution, play even now in our modern society, which is supposed to rest upon the principle "every one for himself, and the State for all," but which it never has succeeded, nor will succeed in realizing".<ref>Kropotkin, P. Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution.&nbsp;– L.: Freedom press, 1998.</ref></blockquote> Kropotkin advocated an alternative economic and social system, which would be coordinated through a horizontal network of voluntary associations with goods distributed in compliance with the physical needs of the individual, rather than according to labour.<ref><br />
Efremenko D., Evseeva Y. Studies of Social Solidarity in Russia: Tradition and Modern Trends. // American Sociologist, v. 43, 2012, no. 4, pp. 349-365.&nbsp;– NY: Springer Science+Business Media<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
== Bioethics ==<br />
Solidarity is a re-emerging concept in contemporary philosophy within various sub-fields of law, [[ethics]], and [[political philosophy]].<ref>{{Citation|title=Solidarity|year=1999|editor=Bayertz, Kurt|location=Dordrecht|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|isbn=978-0-7923-5475-8}}</ref> Early ancient philosophers such as [[Socrates]] and [[Aristotle]] discuss solidarity as a [[virtue ethics]] framework because in order to live a good life one must perform actions and behave in a way that is in solidarity with the community.<br />
<br />
One notable approach in [[bioethics]] is to identify solidarity primarily as a three-tiered practice enacted at the interpersonal, communal, and contractual and legal levels.<ref>{{Citation |author=Prainsack, Barbara |author2=Buyx, Alena |year=2012 |title=Solidarity in Contemporary Bioethics&nbsp;– Towards a New Approach |journal=Bioethics |volume=26 |issue=26/7 |pages=343–350 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2012.01987.x|pmid=22827315 |s2cid=3463430 }}</ref> This approach is driven by the quest to differentiate between the diverse applications of the concept and to clarify its meaning, both historically and in terms of its potential as a fruitful concept for contemporary moral, social and political issues.<ref>{{Citation |author=Prainsack, Barbara |author2=Buyx, Alena |year=2011 |title=Solidarity: reflections on an emerging concept in bioethics |publisher=Nuffield Council on Bioethics |location=London |url=http://nuffieldbioethics.org/project/solidarity/ |access-date= 2013-11-04 |isbn= 978-1-904384-25-0}}</ref> The modern practice of bioethics is significantly influenced by Immanuel [[Immanuel Kant|Kant's]] concept of the [[Categorical imperative|Categorical Imperative]]. Pastor and philosopher Fritz Jahr's article "Bio-Ethics: A Review of the Ethical Relationships of Humans to Animals and Plants" refines Kant's original Categorical Imperative discourse<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=December 2007|title=Fritz Jahr's 1927 concept of bioethics|journal=Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal|volume=17|issue=4|pages=279–295|doi=10.1353/ken.2008.0006|issn=1054-6863|pmid=18363267|s2cid=21957991}}</ref> by including the notion of the Bioethical Imperative.<ref name="Sass 2014 221–228">{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=2014|title=Bioethik – Bioethics|journal=Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte|volume=56|pages=221–228|jstor=24361919}}</ref><br />
<br />
Biomedical technology has also further introduced solidarity as the pivotal concept in bioethics. Scholars, such as Ori Levi,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levi|first=Ori|date=2011|title=Will Biomedical Enhancements Undermine Solidarity, Responsibility, Equality and Autonomy?|journal=Bioethics|volume=25|issue=4|pages=177–184|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2009.01779.x|pmid=20002073|pmc=2888791}}</ref> bring to attention the negative implications of biomedical enhancements. Another scholar, Dr. Meulen ter Ruud, discusses the application of solidarity within healthcare systems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ter Meulen|first=Ruud|date=March 2015|title=Solidarity and Justice in Health Care: A Critical Analysis of Their Relationship|url=http://web.b.ebscohost.com.proxylib.csueastbay.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=ca775723-a36f-4e9e-9698-f5b166bc5956%40sessionmgr103&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=PHL2307207&db=phl|journal=Diametros: An Online Journal of Philosophy}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Imperative ===<br />
Fritz Jahr describes that bioethics is ultimately made up of "academic discipline, principle, and virtue".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=December 2007|title=Fritz Jahr's 1927 concept of bioethics|journal=Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal|volume=17|issue=4|pages=279–295|doi=10.1353/ken.2008.0006|issn=1054-6863|pmid=18363267|s2cid=21957991}}</ref> This echoes back to the deep influence [[Socrates]] has on the normalization of bioethics and its practices. Jahr utilizes Kant's Categorical Imperative to demonstrate the obligatory, yet innately human practice of the Bioethical Imperative:<blockquote>"This results in the guiding principle for our actions is the ''Bioethical Imperative'': Respect every living being in general as an end in itself, and treat it if possible, as such"<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Sass|first=Hans-Martin|date=December 2007|title=Fritz Jahr's 1927 concept of bioethics|journal=Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal|volume=17|issue=4|pages=279–295|doi=10.1353/ken.2008.0006|issn=1054-6863|pmid=18363267|s2cid=21957991}}</ref></blockquote>as it arises in the relationships not only between conscious human being, but also with plants and other animal species. Jahr fully believes that in order to truly practice bioethics, one must be in solidarity with all forms of life.<ref name=":0" /> If one only decides to be in solidarity in humans, then one should not behave virtuously in any manner.<ref name="Sass 2014 221–228"/><br />
<br />
== Catholic social teaching ==<br />
{{Social teachings of the popes}}<br />
Solidarity is an integral element of [[Catholic social teaching]]. According to [[Pope Francis]]:<br />
{{blockquote|No one can remain insensitive to the inequalities that persist in the world ... the Brazilian people, particularly the humblest among you, can offer the world a valuable lesson in solidarity, a word that is too often forgotten or silenced because it is uncomfortable ... I would like to make an appeal to those in possession of greater resources, to public authorities and to all people of good will who are working for social justice: never tire of working for a more just world, marked by greater solidarity<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicsocialteaching.org.uk/themes/solidarity/|title=Solidarity|website=catholicsocialteaching.org.uk|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
The Church's teaching on solidarity is explained in the [[Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church]], and briefly summarised in the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s1c2a3.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - Social justice|website=www.vatican.va|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref><blockquote><br />
*1939. The principle of solidarity, also articulated in terms of "friendship" or "social charity," is a direct demand of human and Christian brotherhood<br />
*1940. Solidarity is manifested in the first place by the distribution of goods and remuneration for work ...<br />
*1941. Socio-economic problems can be resolved only with the help of all the forms of solidarity: solidarity of the poor among themselves, between rich and poor, of workers among themselves, between employers and employees in a business, solidarity among nations and peoples. International solidarity is a requirement of the moral order; world peace depends in part upon this<br />
*1942. The virtue of solidarity goes beyond material goods. In spreading the spiritual goods of the faith, the Church has promoted, and often opened new paths for, the development of temporal goods as well. And so throughout the centuries has the Lord's saying been verified: "Seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things shall be yours as well."</blockquote><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{Portal|Society}}<br />
*[[Altruism]]<br />
*[[Autarky]]<br />
*[[Classism]]<br />
*[[Corporatism]]<br />
*[[Generalized exchange]]<br />
*[[Group cohesiveness]]<br />
*[[Hierarchy]]<br />
*[[Linked fate]]<br />
*[[Solidarism]]<br />
*[[Solidarity economy]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*{{Citation<br />
| last1 = Jary<br />
| first1 = David<br />
| last2 = Jary<br />
| first2 = Julia<br />
| title = Collins Dictionary of Sociology<br />
| publisher = [[HarperCollins]]<br />
| year = 1991<br />
| location = Glasgow<br />
| url = https://archive.org/details/collinsdictionar0000jary/page/774<br />
| isbn = 978-0-00-470804-1<br />
| page = [https://archive.org/details/collinsdictionar0000jary/page/774 774]<br />
| url-access = registration<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
* [https://ugp.rug.nl/GROJIL/article/view/35459 Solidarity as a Principle of International Law: Its Application in Consensual Intervention] – article by Themistoklis Tzimas, GroJIL Vol 6, No 2 (2018): International Legal Reformation<br />
* [http://www.socialpolicy.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/141330/JWI_Solidarity_Obligations_and_Expressions.pdf Solidarity: Obligations and Expressions] – paper by Ashley Taylor at Social Policy, The University of Edinburgh, January 2014<br />
* [https://www.biblio.com/guy-ankerl/author/2271024 Towards a Social Contract on Worldwide Scale, book by Guy-Ankerl] : Solidarity Contract, Geneva, ILO, 1980, {{ISBN|92-9014-165-4}}<br />
* [https://academic.oup.com/phe/article/12/2/133/5528519 Solidarity and Responsibility in Health Care] – article by Ben Davies and Julian Savulescu, Public Health Ethics, Volume 12, Issue 2, July 2019, Pages 133–144, 4 July 2019<br />
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318012758_Afterword_What_Solidarity_of_the_Future_in_Solidarity_and_the_Crisis_of_Trust_ed_Jacek_Koltan_European_Solidarity_Centre_Gdansk_2016_pp_133-143 Afterword: What Solidarity of the Future?] – article by Jacek Kołtan in: Solidarity and the Crisis of Trust, ed. Jacek Koltan, [[European Solidarity Centre]]: Gdansk 2016, pp.&nbsp;133–143<br />
<br />
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{{Use Oxford spelling|date=November 2017}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Altruism]]<br />
[[Category:Community building]]<br />
[[Category:Sociological terminology]]<br />
[[Category:Virtue]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_the_United_States&diff=1145042486Economy of the United States2023-03-16T23:52:47Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|National economy of the United States}}<br />
{{redirect|Economy of America}}<br />
{{Use American English|date=September 2019}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2019}}<br />
{{Infobox economy<br />
| country = the United States<br />
| image = Lower Manhattan from Governors Island August 2017 panorama.jpg<br />
| image_size = 275px<br />
| caption = [[New York City]], the world’s principal [[financial center]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/new-york-widens-lead-over-london-top-finance-centres-index-2022-03-24/|title=New York widens lead over London in top finance centres index |website=www.reuters.com |date=March 24, 2022 |access-date=July 29, 2022|last1=Jones |first1=Huw }}{{SemiBareRefNeedsTitle|date=July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/financial-centre-futures/global-financial-centres-index/gfci-32-explore-the-data/gfci-32-rank/|title=The Global Financial Centres Index 32|date=September 22, 2022|publisher=Long Finance|access-date=September 22, 2022}}</ref> and the epicenter of the principal American metropolitan economy<ref name=NYCEpicenterUSMetroEconomy>{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/09/united-states-america-economic-output-new-york-la/|title=This 3D map shows the U.S. cities with the highest economic output|author=Iman Ghosh|publisher=World Economic Forum|date=September 24, 2020|access-date=March 5, 2023|quote=The New York metro area dwarfs all other cities for economic output by a large margin.}}</ref><br />
| currency = [[United States dollar]] (USD) <br /> {{increase}} [[US Dollar Index]]<br />
| year = October 1, 2022 – September 30, 2023<br />
| organs = [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[G-20 major economies|G-20]], [[Group of Seven|G7]], [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], [[United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement|USMCA]], [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]] and others<br />
| group = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[Developed country|Developed/Advanced]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2022 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=April 20, 2022}}</ref><br />
* [[World Bank high-income economy|High-income economy]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups |title=World Bank Country and Lending Groups |publisher=[[World Bank]] |website=datahelpdesk.worldbank.org |access-date=September 29, 2019}}</ref>}}<br />
| population = {{increase}} 336,196,037 (2023)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/popclock/?intcmp=home_pop |title=U.S. and World Population Clock |publisher=U.S.census.gov <https://www.census.gov> |access-date=2022-01-01}}</ref><br />
| gdp = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{increase}} $25.035 trillion ([[GDP (nominal)|nominal]]; 2022)<ref name="IMFWEOCN">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: October 2022|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|website=imf.org}}</ref><br />
* {{increase}} $25.035 trillion ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]; 2022)<ref name="IMFWEOCN"/>}}<br />
| gdp rank = {{plainlist| <br />
* [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|1st (nominal; 2022)]]<br />
* [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|2nd (PPP; 2022)]]}}<br />
| growth = {{plainlist| <br />
* {{Increase}} 2.1%&nbsp;(2022)<ref name="US_growth">https://www.bea.gov/sites/default/files/2023-01/gdp4q22_adv.pdf</ref> <br />
* {{Increase}} 1.4%&nbsp;{{abbr|(2023f)|2023 forecast}}<ref name="IMF_forecast">https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2023/01/31/world-economic-outlook-update-january-2023</ref> <br />
* {{Increase}} 1.0%&nbsp;{{abbr|(2024f)|2024 forecast}}<ref name="IMF_forecast"/><br />
}}<br />
| per capita = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{increase}} $75,179 (nominal; 2022)<ref name="IMFWEOCN"/><br />
* {{increase}} $75,179 (PPP; 2022)<ref name="IMFWEOCN"/><br />
}}<br />
| per capita rank = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[List of countries by GDP per capita (nominal)|7th (nominal; 2022)]]<br />
* [[List of countries by GDP per capita (PPP)|8th (PPP; 2022)]]}}<br />
| sectors = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[Primary sector of the economy|Agriculture]]: 0.9%<br />
* [[Secondary sector of the economy|Industry]]: 18.9%<br />
* [[Tertiary sector of the economy|Services]]: 80.2%<br />
* (2017 est.)<ref name="CIA_US">{{cite web|title=Field Listing: GDP – Composition, by Sector of Origin|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/|website=Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=April 3, 2018}}</ref>}}<br />
| components = {{plainlist|<br />
* Household consumption: 68.4%<br />
* Government consumption: 17.3%<br />
* Investment in fixed capital: 17.2%<br />
* Investment in inventories: 0.1%<br />
* Exports of goods and services: 12.1% <br />
* Imports of goods and services: −15% <br />
* (2017 est.)<ref name="CIA_US" />}}<br />
| inflation = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{DecreasePositive}} 6.0% (February 2023)<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/economy/2023/02/14/cpi-january-inflation-data-today-live-updates/11247836002/|title=January CPI inflation rate slows to 6.4% but monthly inflation rose by 0.5%|website=[[USA Today]] }}</ref><br />
}}<br />
| poverty = {{plainlist|<br />
*{{increaseNegative}} 11.6% (2021)<ref name="PovertyCB">{{cite web|title=Poverty in the United States: 2021 |url=https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2022/demo/p60-277.html|date=September 13, 2022|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |access-date=October 5, 2022}}</ref><br />
*{{increaseNegative}} 38 million (2021)<ref name="PovertyCB" /><br />
}}<br />
| gini = {{plainlist|<br />
*{{increaseNegative}} 48.9 {{color|red|high}} (2020, [[United States Census Bureau|USCB]])<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/visualizations/2021/demo/p60-273/figure3.pdf |title=Income Distribution Measures and Percent Change Using Money Income and Equivalence-Adjusted Income |publisher=United States Census Bureau |website=census.gov|access-date=January 15, 2021}}</ref><br />
*{{increaseNegative}} 43.4 {{color|darkorange|medium}} (2017, [[Congressional Budget Office|CBO]])<ref>{{cite web |title=The Distribution of Household Income, 2017 |url=https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2020-10/56575-Household-Income.pdf |pages=31, 32 |website=cbo.gov |publisher=[[Congressional Budget Office]] |date=October 2, 2020 |access-date=October 19, 2020}}</ref>}}<br />
| hdi = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{increase}} 0.921 {{color|darkgreen|very high}} (2021)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/indicators/137506 |title=Human Development Index (HDI) |publisher=[[Human Development Report|HDRO (Human Development Report Office)]] [[United Nations Development Programme]] |website=hdr.undp.org |access-date=November 12, 2022}}</ref> ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|21st]])<br />
* {{increase}} 0.819 {{color|darkgreen|very high}} [[List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI|(25th)]] (2021)<ref>{{cite web |title=Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI) |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/indicators/138806 |website=hdr.undp.org |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]] |access-date=November 12, 2022}}</ref>}}<br />
| labor = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{increase}} 164.409 million (March 2022)<ref name="BLS_JobsData" /><br />
* {{increase}} 62.4% employment rate (March 2022)<ref name="BLS_JobsData" />}}<br />
| unemployment = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{decreasePositive}} 3.4% (January 2023)<ref name="BLS_JobsData">{{cite web|url=https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t01.htm |title=Employment status of the civilian population by sex and age |publisher=[[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] |website=BLS.gov |access-date=October 4, 2020}}</ref><br />
* {{decreasePositive}} 10.4% youth unemployment (December 2022; 16 to 19 year-olds)<ref name="BLS_JobsData" /><br />
* {{decreasePositive}} 5.7 million unemployed (July 2022)<ref name="BLS_JobsData" />}}<br />
| average gross salary = {{IncreasePositive}} $6,738 (2021)<ref name="CPS 2015">{{cite web|url=https://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?DataSetCode=AV_AN_WAGE|title=Usual Weekly Earnings of Wage and Salary Workers First Quarter 2017|date=July 17, 2018 |website=Bureau of Labor Statistics|publisher=U.S. Department of Labor|access-date=September 13, 2018}}</ref><br />
| gross median = {{increase}} $1,041 weekly (Q2, 2022)<ref>{{cite web |title=Usual Weekly Earnings Summary |url=https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/wkyeng.pdf |website=www.bls.gov |publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics |date=January 17, 2020}}</ref><br />
| occupations = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[Primary sector of the economy|Agriculture]]: 1.0%<br />
* [[Secondary sector of the economy|Industry]]: 19%<br />
* [[Tertiary sector of the economy|Services]]: 80% <br />
* (FY 2018)<ref>{{cite web|title=Employment by major industry sector|url=https://www.bls.gov/emp/tables/employment-by-major-industry-sector.htm|publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics|access-date=July 5, 2018}}</ref>}}<br />
| industries = {{hlist| [[Petroleum]] | [[steel]] | [[motor vehicles]] | [[aerospace]] | [[telecommunications]] | [[chemicals]] | [[electronics]] | [[food processing]] | [[information technology]] | [[consumer goods]] | [[lumber]]| [[mining]] }}<br />
| exports = {{increase}} $2.528 trillion (2021)<ref name=bea>{{cite web|title=us-international-trade-goods-and-services-december-2021 |url=https://www.bea.gov/news/2022/us-international-trade-goods-and-services-december-2021|work=[[Bureau of Economic Analysis-U.S. Department of commerce]]|access-date=April 16, 2022}}</ref><br />
| export-goods = {{ublist|[[Agricultural]] products 10.7%| [[Fuels]] and [[mining]] products 9.4%| [[Manufacturers]] 74.8%| Others 5.1%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/historical/SAEXP.pdf|title=Exports of goods by principal end-use category|work=Census Bureau}}</ref>}}<br />
| export-partners = {{ublist|{{flag|European Union}}(+) 18.7%| {{flag|Canada}}(+) 18.3%| {{flag|Mexico}}(+) 15.9%| {{flag|China}}(-) 8%| {{flag|Japan}}(+) 4.4%||Others 34.8%<ref name=wto>{{cite web|title=U.S. trade in goods with World, Seasonally Adjusted |url=https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/Press-Release/current_press_release/ft900.pdf|work=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=June 1, 2021}}</ref>}}<br />
| imports = {{increase}} $3.387 trillion (2021)<ref name=bea /><br />
| import-goods = {{ublist|[[Agricultural]] products 10.5%| [[Fuels]] and [[mining]] products 10.7%| [[Manufacturers]] 78.4%| Others 4.2%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/historical/SAIMP.pdf|title=Imports of goods by principal end-use category|work=Census Bureau}}</ref>}}<br />
| import-partners = {{ublist|{{flag|China}}(-) 21.4%| {{flag|European Union}}(+) 18.9%| {{flag|Mexico}}(+) 13.2%| {{flag|Canada}}(+) 12.6%| {{flag|Japan}}(+) 6%||Others 27.9%<ref name=wto />}}<br />
| current account = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{increaseNegative}} −$985.25 billion (2022)<ref name="IMF_Finance"/> <br />
* {{increaseNegative}} −3.93% of GDP (2022)<ref name="IMF_Finance"/> <br />
}}<br />
| FDI = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{increase}} Inward: $367&nbsp;billion (2021)<ref name="UNFDI">{{cite web|title=UNCTAD 2022|url=https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/tdstat47_en.pdf|access-date=2022-01-06|website=UNCTAD}}</ref><br />
* {{increase}} Outward: $403&nbsp;billion (2021)<ref name="UNFDI"/> <br />
}}<br />
| debt = {{plainlist| <br />
* {{increaseNegative}} $30.568 trillion <br />
* {{increaseNegative}} 122.1% of GDP (2022)<ref name="IMF_Finance">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=111,&s=NID_NGDP,NGSD_NGDP,GGR,GGR_NGDP,GGX,GGX_NGDP,GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,BCA,BCA_NGDPD,&sy=2022&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: October 2022|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|website=imf.org}}</ref> <br />
}}<br />
| gross external debt = {{increaseNegative}} $24.35 trillion (September 2022)<ref>{{cite web|publisher=U.S. Department of the Treasury|url=https://ticdata.treasury.gov/Publish/debta2022q3.html|title=Treasury TIC Data|access-date=2022-01-30 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
| revenue = $8.371 trillion<ref name="IMF_Finance"/><br />33.4% of GDP (2022)<br />
| expenses = $9.379 trillion<ref name="IMF_Finance"/><br />37.4% of GDP (2022)<br />
| balance = –5.5% of GDP (2022)<ref name="CBO_Hist_20">[https://www.cbo.gov/about/products/budget-economic-data#2 CBO-Historical Budget Data-Retrieved January 28, 2020]</ref><br />
| reserves = $242.47 billion (December 2022)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://home.treasury.gov/data/us-international-reserve-position/12232022|title=U.S. International Reserve Position|website=Treasury.gov|access-date=January 18, 2019}}</ref><br />
| credit = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[Standard & Poor's]]:<ref>{{cite web |title=Sovereigns rating list |publisher=Standard & Poor's |url=http://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/eu?sectorName=null&subSectorCode=39&filter=U |access-date=August 20, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110618090608/http://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/eu?sectorName=null&subSectorCode=39&filter=U |archive-date=June 18, 2011 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name=guardian>{{cite news |title=How Fitch, Moody's and S&P rate each country's credit rating |date=April 15, 2011 |first1=Simon |last1=Rogers |first2=Ami |last2=Sedghi |work=The Guardian|location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2010/apr/30/credit-ratings-country-fitch-moodys-standard |access-date=May 28, 2011}}</ref><br />
* AA+ (Domestic)<br />
* AA+ (Foreign)<br />
* AAA (T&C Assessment)<br />
* Outlook: Stable<br />
----<br />
* [[Moody's]]:<ref name=guardian /><ref>{{cite news|last=Riley|first=Charles|title=Moody's affirms Aaa rating, lowers outlook|url=https://money.cnn.com/2011/08/02/news/economy/moodys_credit_rating/index.htm?hpt=hp_t1|publisher=CNN|date=August 2, 2017}}</ref><br />
* Aaa<br />
* Outlook: Stable<br />
----<br />
* [[Fitch Group|Fitch]]:<ref>{{cite web|title=Fitch Affirms United States at 'AAA'; Outlook Stable|url=https://www.fitchratings.com/creditdesk/press_releases/detail.cfm?pr_id=824532|website=Fitch Ratings}}</ref><br />
* AAA<br />
* Outlook: Stable<br />
----<br />
* Scope Ratings:<ref>{{cite web|title=Scope affirms the United States of America's AA ratings with Stable Outlook|url=https://www.scoperatings.com/ratings-and-research/rating/EN/172707|website=Scope Ratings}}</ref><br />
* AA<br />
* Outlook: Stable}}<br />
| aid = ''donor'': [[Official development assistance|ODA]], $35.26 billion (2017)<ref name="oecd-aid">{{cite web|title=Development aid rises again in 2016 but flows to poorest countries dip |url=http://www.oecd.org/dac/development-aid-rises-again-in-2016-but-flows-to-poorest-countries-dip.htm |website=[[OECD]] |access-date=2017-09-25 |date=2017-04-11 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
| cianame = united-states<br />
| spelling = US<br />
}}<br />
{{Economy of the United States sidebar}}<br />
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The [[United States]] is a [[developed country|highly developed]] [[Economic liberalism|liberal-capitalist]] [[market economy]].<ref>[http://usa.usembassy.de/economy-conditions.htm "U.S. Economy - Basic Conditions & Resources"]. U.S. Diplomatic Mission to Germany. "The United States is said to have a mixed economy because privately owned businesses and government both play important roles." Retrieved October 24, 2011.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120114051146/http://infopedia.usembassy.or.kr/ENG/_f_030401.html (4)Outline of the U.S. Economy – (2)How the U.S. Economy Works]. U.S. Embassy Information Resource Center. "As a result, the American economy is perhaps better described as a 'mixed' economy, with the government playing an important role along with private enterprise. Although Americans often disagree about exactly where to draw the line between their beliefs in both free enterprise and government management, the mixed economy they have developed has been remarkably successful." Retrieved October 24, 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Karagiannis|editor-first1=Nikolaos|editor-last2= Madjd-Sadjadi|editor-first2=Zagros|editor-last3= Sen|editor-first3=Swapan |date=2013 |title=The US Economy and Neoliberalism: Alternative Strategies and Policies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aYKfai1RlPYC&pg=PA1|location= |publisher=[[Routledge]]|page=1–2|isbn=978-1138904910}}</ref> It is the world's largest economy by [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|nominal GDP]], and the second-largest by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|purchasing power parity]] (PPP) behind [[China]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=Report for Selected Country Groups and Subjects (PPP valuation of country GDP)|publisher=IMF|language=en-US|access-date=20 April 2022}}</ref> It has the world's seventh-highest [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|per capita GDP (nominal)]] and the eighth-highest [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|per capita GDP (PPP)]] as of 2022.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=October 20, 2022}}</ref> The U.S. accounted for 24.7% of the [[global economy]] in 2022 in nominal terms, and around 15.5% in PPP terms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pwc.com/gx/en/issues/economy/global-economy-watch/projections.html|website=PWC|title=Global Economy Watch - Projections > Real GDP / Inflation > Share of 2016 world GDP|access-date=23 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=United States' share of global gross domestic product (GDP) adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP) |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/270267/united-states-share-of-global-gross-domestic-product-gdp/#:~:text=In%202021%2C%20the%20United%20States,purchasing%20power%20parity%20(PPP). |website=Statiata}}</ref> The [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] is the currency of record most used in [[international trade|international transactions]] and is the world's foremost [[reserve currency]], backed by the nation’s massive economy, stable government and legal framework, large [[U.S. Treasury|U.S. treasuries market]], advanced [[Military of the United States|military]], its role as the reference standard for the [[petrodollar|petrodollar system]], and its linked [[eurodollar]].<ref name="federalreserve.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/pf/pdf/pf_4.pdf |title=The Implementation of Monetary Policy – The Federal Reserve in the International Sphere|access-date=August 24, 2010}}</ref> Several countries [[International use of the US dollar|use it as their official currency]] and in others it is the [[de facto currency|''de facto'' currency]].<ref name="Benjamin J. Cohen 2006, p. 17">Benjamin J. Cohen, ''The Future of Money'', Princeton University Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0691116660}}; ''cf.'' "the dollar is the de facto currency in Cambodia", Charles Agar, ''[[Frommer's]] Vietnam'', 2006, {{ISBN|0471798169}}, p. 17</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.multpl.com/us-gdp-growth-rate/table/by-year|title = US GDP Growth Rate by Year |date=March 31, 2014 |access-date=June 18, 2014 |website = multpl.com|publisher = US Bureau of Economic Analysis}}</ref> <br />
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The nation's economy is fueled by abundant [[natural resource]]s, a well-developed [[transportation infrastructure]], and high [[productivity]].<ref name="Wright, Gavin 2007 p. 185">Wright, Gavin, and Jesse Czelusta, "Resource-Based Growth Past and Present", in ''Natural Resources: Neither Curse Nor Destiny'', ed. Daniel Lederman and William Maloney (World Bank, 2007), p. 185. {{ISBN|0821365452}}.</ref> Americans have the highest average [[Household income|household]] and [[List of countries by average wage|employee]] income among [[OECD]] member states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/topics/income/|title=Income|work=Better Life Index|publisher=OECD|access-date=September 28, 2019|quote=In the United States, the average household net adjusted disposable income per capita is USD 45 284 a year, much higher than the OECD average of USD 33 604 and the highest figure in the OECD.}}</ref> In 2021, they had the highest [[median household income]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Income Distribution Database |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=IDD |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref> The U.S. has one of the world's highest [[Income inequality in the United States|income inequalities]] among the [[developed countries]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gini Index coefficient - distribution of family income - The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison |access-date=2022-08-24 |website=www.cia.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Gray |first=Sarah |date=June 4, 2018 |title=Trump Policies Highlighted in Scathing U.N. Report On U.S. Poverty|url=http://fortune.com/2018/06/04/trump-policies-u-n-report-u-s-poverty/|work=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]|access-date=September 13, 2018|quote="The United States has the highest rate of income inequality among Western countries", the report states.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://undocs.org/A/HRC/38/33/ADD.1|title=Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights on his mission to the United States of America|last=Alston|first=Philip|author-link=Philip Alston|date=2018 |website=[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|OHCHR]]|publisher= |access-date=January 16, 2023}}</ref> The [[List of the largest trading partners of the United States|largest U.S. trading partners]] are [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], China, [[Japan]], [[Germany]], [[South Korea]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Taiwan]], [[India]], and Vietnam.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/highlights/top/top1612yr.html|title = Top Trading Partners |date=December 2016 |access-date=July 8, 2017 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref> The U.S. is the world's [[List of countries by imports|largest importer]] and [[List of countries by exports|second-largest exporter]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/wts2019_e/wts2019_e.pdf |title=World Trade Statistical Review 2019 |work=[[World Trade Organization]] |page=100 |access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref> It has [[free trade agreements]] with [[United States free-trade agreements|several countries]], including the [[United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement|USMCA]], Australia, South Korea, Switzerland, Israel, and several others that are in effect or under negotiation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements |title=United States free trade agreements |work=[[Office of the United States Trade Representative]] |access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref> <br />
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By [[History of the United States (1865–1918)|1890]], the United States had overtaken the [[British Empire]] as the world's most productive economy.<ref name="Digital History">{{cite web|author1=Digital History |author2=Steven Mintz |url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=188 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040302193732/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=188 |archive-date=2004-03-02 |title=Digital History |publisher=Digitalhistory.uh.edu |access-date=April 21, 2012 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> It is the world's largest producer of [[List of countries by oil production|petroleum]] and [[List of countries by natural gas production|natural gas]].<ref name="lop">{{cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=36292|title=United States remains the world's top producer of petroleum and natural gas hydrocarbons|website=EIA}}</ref> In 2016, it was the world's largest trading country<ref>{{cite news|author1=Katsuhiko Hara|author2=Issaku Harada (staff writers) |url=http://asia.nikkei.com/Politics-Economy/Economy/US-overtook-China-as-top-trading-nation-in-2016 |title=US overtook China as top trading nation in 2016 |newspaper=Nikkei Asian Review |date=April 13, 2017|access-date=2017-06-22 |df=mdy-all |location=Tokyo}}</ref> as well as its [[Manufacturing in the United States|third-largest manufacturer]], representing a [[List of countries by manufacturing output|fifth of the global manufacturing output]].<ref name="Vargo, Frank">{{cite web |url=http://shopfloor.org/2011/03/u-s-manufacturing-remains-worlds-largest/18756 |title=U.S. Manufacturing Remains World's Largest |publisher=Shopfloor |date=March 11, 2011 |access-date=March 28, 2012 |author=Vargo, Frank |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404234310/http://shopfloor.org/2011/03/u-s-manufacturing-remains-worlds-largest/18756 | archive-date=April 4, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The U.S. not only has the largest internal market for goods, but also dominates the services trade. U.S. total trade amounted to $4.2{{nbs}}trillion in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres17_e/pr791_e.htm |title=Trade recovery expected in 2017 and 2018, amid policy uncertainty |publisher=World Trade Organization |date=April 12, 2017|access-date=2017-06-22 |df=mdy-all |location=Geneva, Switzerland}}</ref> Of the world's [[Fortune Global 500|500 largest companies]], 121 are headquartered in the U.S.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=http://fortune.com/global500/list/filtered?hqcountry=U.S.|title=Global 500 2016 |work=Fortune}} Number of companies data taken from the "Country" filter.</ref> The U.S. has the world's [[List of countries by the number of billionaires|highest number of billionaires]], with a total wealth of $3.0{{nbs}}trillion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/05/09/the-countries-with-the-largest-number-of-billionaires.html|title=The US is home to more billionaires than China, Germany and Russia combined|date=May 9, 2019|publisher=CNBC|access-date=May 9, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://hk.asiatatler.com/life/top-10-countries-with-the-most-billionaires-in-2019|title=Wealth-X's Billionaire Census 2019 report reveals insights and trends about the world's top billionaires|website=hk.asiatatler.com|access-date=May 14, 2019}}</ref> US commercial banks had $20{{nbs}}trillion in assets as of August 2020.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/TLAACBW027SBOG/ |title=Total Assets, All Commercial Banks |date=January 3, 1973}}</ref> U.S. [[global assets under management]] had more than $30{{nbs}}trillion in assets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.agefi.fr/sites/agefi.fr/files/fichiers/2016/07/bcg-doubling-down-on-data-july-2016_tcm80-2113701.pdf |title=Doubling Down on Data |website= |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/45045/1/S1900994_en.pdf |title=The asset management industry in the United States |website= |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref> During the [[Great Recession]] of 2008, the U.S. economy suffered a significant decline.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/great-recession-and-its-aftermath#:~:text=The%20decline%20in%20overall%20economic,recession%20since%20World%20War%20II. |title=The Great Recession and Its Aftermath |last=Weinberg |first=John |date=November 22, 2013 |website=federalreservehistory.org |publisher= |access-date=November 22, 2013}}</ref><ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/double-dip-or-just-one-big-economic-dive/2011/08/05/gIQANKAIxI_story.html Washington Post-Ezra Klein-Double Dip, or just one big economic dive-August 5, 2011]</ref> The [[American Reinvestment and Recovery Act]] was passed by the US administration, and in the years that followed, the U.S. experienced the longest economic expansion on record by July 2019.<ref name=CNBC_2019-07-02 > {{ cite news | url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/07/02/this-is-now-the-longest-us-economic-expansion-in-history.html | title=This is now the longest US economic expansion in history | last=Li | first=Yun | newspaper=[[CNBC]] | date=2019-07-02 | quote=This month marks the 121st month of the economic expansion arising out of the great financial crisis, making it the longest run on record going back to 1854. }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Estimated Impact of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act on Employment and Economic Output from October 2011 Through December 2011|url=http://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/02-22-ARRA.pdf|website=A CBO Report|publisher=Congressional Budget Office|access-date=February 19, 2017|date=February 2012}}</ref><ref name="Bernanke_Recovery">[https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/bernanke20121120a.htm Federal Reserve-Ben Bernanke-The Economic Recovery and Economic Policy-November 20, 2012]</ref><ref name="nyt2018"/><br />
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The [[New York Stock Exchange]] and [[Nasdaq]] are the world's [[List of stock exchanges|largest stock exchanges]] by [[market capitalization]] and [[trade volume]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics|title=Monthly Reports - World Federation of Exchanges|publisher=WFE}}</ref><ref name="sfc.hk">[http://www.sfc.hk/web/doc/EN/research/stat/a01.pdf Table A – Market Capitalization of the World's Top Stock Exchanges (As at end of June 2012)]. Securities and Exchange Commission (China).</ref> In 2014, the U.S. economy is ranked first in international ranking on [[venture capital]]<ref>[http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/Global_venture_capital_insights_and_trends_2014/$FILE/EY_Global_VC_insights_and_trends_report_2014.pdf Adapting and evolving{{snd}}Global venture capital insights and trends 2014]. EY, 2014.</ref> and global [[research and development]] funding.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.battelle.org/docs/tpp/2014_global_rd_funding_forecast.pdf?sfvrsn=4 |title=2014 Global R&D Funding Forecast |date=December 16, 2013 |website=battelle.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209171411/http://www.battelle.org/docs/tpp/2014_global_rd_funding_forecast.pdf?sfvrsn=4 |archive-date= February 9, 2014}}</ref> [[Consumer spending]] comprised 68% of the U.S. economy in 2018,<ref name=consumerecon>[https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=ntyj "Personal consumption expenditures (PCE)/gross domestic product (GDP)"] ''FRED Graph'', Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis</ref> while its [[Wage share|labor share of income]] was 43% in 2017.<ref>[https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/W270RE1A156NBEA "Shares of gross domestic income: Compensation of employees, paid: Wage and salary accruals: Disbursements: To persons"] ''FRED Graph'', Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis</ref> The U.S. has the world's largest [[List of largest consumer markets|consumer market]].<ref name="unstats.un.org">{{cite web|title=United Nations Statistics Division – National Accounts Main Aggregates Database |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/selbasicFast.asp}}</ref> The nation's labor market has attracted [[Immigration to the United States|immigrants from all over the world]] and its [[List of countries by net migration rate|net migration rate]] is among the highest in the world.<ref name="The World Factbook">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2112rank.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080709064749/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2112rank.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 9, 2008 |title=Country comparison :: net migration rate |date=2014 |access-date=June 18, 2014 |website=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=The World Factbook}}</ref> The U.S. is one of the top-performing economies in studies such as the [[Ease of Doing Business Index]], the [[Global Competitiveness Report]], and others.<ref name="World Economic Forum">{{cite web |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR2013-14/GCR_Rankings_2013-14.pdf |title=Rankings: Global Competitiveness Report 2013–2014 |publisher=World Economic Forum |access-date=June 1, 2014}}</ref><br />
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==History==<br />
{{Main|Economic history of the United States}}<br />
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===Colonial era and 18th century===<br />
{{Further|Mercantilism|American Revolution}}<br />
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The economic history of the United States began with British settlements along the [[East Coast of the United States|Eastern seaboard]] in the 17th and 18th centuries. After 1700, the United States gained population rapidly, and [[import]]s as well as [[export]]s grew along with it. Africa, Asia, and most frequently Europe, contributed to the trade of the colonies.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-24 |title=Colonial Economy |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/american-revolution/colonial-economy |access-date=2022-05-20 |website=National Museum of American History |language=en}}</ref> These [[Thirteen Colonies|13 colonies]] gained independence from the [[British Empire]] in the late 18th century<ref>{{Cite web |title=Digital History |url=https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/revolution/declaration_of_independence.cfm |access-date=2022-05-20 |website=www.digitalhistory.uh.edu}}</ref> and quickly grew from colonial economies towards an economy focused on agriculture.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-24 |title=Territory Worth Contesting |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/american-revolution/territory-worth-contesting |access-date=2022-05-20 |website=National Museum of American History |language=en}}</ref><br />
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===19th century===<br />
{{Further|Industrial Revolution in the United States}}<br />
{{See also|List of tariffs in the United States|Protectionism in the United States|Tariff in United States history|American System (economic plan)}}<br />
[[File:LOSSING(1876) p293 WASHBURN'S & MOEN MANUFACTURING CO., WORCESTER, MA.jpg|thumb|[[Washburn and Moen North Works District|Washburn and Moen Manufacturing Company]] in [[Worcester, Massachusetts]], 1876]]<br />
In 180 years, the U.S. grew to become a huge, integrated, and industrialized economy that made up around one-fifth of the [[world economy]]. As a result, the U.S. GDP per capita converged on and eventually surpassed that of the [[British Empire]], as well as other countries that it previously trailed economically. The economy maintained high wages, attracting immigrants by the millions from all over the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=19th century: Immigration Galore – Peopling of NYC: The Immigrant Experience |url=https://peopleofnyc.commons.gc.cuny.edu/19th-century-immigration-galore/ |access-date=2022-05-20 |language=en-CAC}}</ref> In the 1820s and 1830s, mass production replaced artisans with factories. New government regulations strengthened patents.<br />
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In the early 1800s, the United States was largely agricultural, with more than 80 percent of the population engaged in farming. Most of the manufacturing centered on the first stages of the transformation of raw materials, with lumber and sawmills, textiles, and boots and shoes leading the way. The rich resource endowments contributed to the rapid economic expansion of the nineteenth century. Ample land availability allowed the number of farmers to keep growing, but activity in manufacturing, services, transportation, and other sectors grew at a much faster pace. Thus, by 1860, the share of the rural population in the U.S. had fallen from over 80 percent to roughly 50 percent. <ref>{{cite book |author1=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=88ff |isbn=978-1107507180 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xYEGswEACAAJ}}</ref><br />
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In the 19th century, [[List of recessions in the United States|recessions]] frequently coincided with [[Financial crisis|financial crises]]. The 1837 Panic was followed by a five-year depression marked by bank failures and then-record-high unemployment levels.<ref>{{cite book |author1=W. J. Rorabaugh |author2=Donald T. Critchlow |author3=Paula C. Baker |title=America's Promise: A Concise History of the United States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VL_6X5zWOokC&pg=PA210 |year=2004 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0742511897 |page=210}}</ref> Because of the great changes in the economy over the centuries, it is difficult to compare the severity of modern recessions to early recessions.<ref>{{cite book |year=1986 |title=Appendix A The Development and Role of the National Bureau of Economic Research's Business Cycle Chronologies |last1=Moore |first1=Geoffrey H. |last2=Zarnowitz |url=https://www.nber.org/chapters/c10035 |first2=Victor |pages=735–780 |publisher=University of Chicago Press }} in {{Harvnb|Gordon|1986|pp=743–45}}</ref> Recessions after World War II appear to have been less severe than earlier recessions, but the reasons for this are unclear.<ref>{{cite book |title=Recessions and Depressions: Understanding Business Cycles |last=Knoop |first=Todd A. |publisher=Praeger Publishers |date=July 30, 2004 |isbn=978-0275981624 |pages=166–71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ak_PQO2NprUC}}</ref><br />
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===20th century===<br />
[[File:NIE 1905 Petroleum - oil wells at Los Angeles.jpg|thumb|[[History of oil in California through 1930|Oil wells]] in [[Los Angeles]], 1905]]<br />
[[File:B-24 Liberator Consolidated-Vultee Plant, Fort Worth Texas.jpg|thumb|[[Consolidated B-24 Liberator]]s at the Consolidated-Vultee Plant in [[Fort Worth, Texas]], 1943]]<br />
[[File:New McDonald's restaurant in Mount Pleasant, Iowa.jpg|thumb|[[McDonald's]] restaurant in [[Mount Pleasant, Iowa]], 2008]]<br />
At the beginning of the century, new [[Innovation|innovations]] and improvements in existing innovations opened the door for improvements in the standard of living among American consumers. Many firms grew large by taking advantage of economies of scale and better communication to run nationwide operations. Concentration in these industries raised fears of monopolies that would drive prices higher and output lower, but many of these firms were cutting costs so fast that trends were towards lower prices and more output in these industries. Many workers shared the success of these large firms, which typically offered the highest wages in the world.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=95|isbn=978-1107507180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xYEGswEACAAJ}}</ref><br />
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The United States has been the world's largest national economy in terms of GDP since at least the 1920s.<ref name="Digital History" /> For many years following the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, when the danger of [[recession]] appeared most serious, the government strengthened the economy by spending heavily itself or cutting taxes so that consumers would spend more and by fostering rapid growth in the money supply, which also encouraged more spending. Ideas about the best tools for stabilizing the economy changed substantially between the 1930s and the 1980s. From the [[New Deal]] era that began in 1933 to the [[Great Society]] initiatives of the 1960s, national policymakers relied principally on [[fiscal policy]] to influence the economy.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://open.lib.umn.edu/macroeconomics/chapter/17-1-the-great-depression-and-keynesian-economics/ | title=17.1 the Great Depression and Keynesian Economics | date=December 2016 }}</ref><br />
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During the world wars of the twentieth century, the United States fared better than the rest of the combatants because none of the First World War and relatively little of the Second World War were fought on American territory (and none on the then-48 states). Yet, even in the United States, the wars meant sacrifice. During the peak of Second World War activity, nearly 40 percent of U.S. GDP was devoted to war production. Decisions about large swaths of the economy were largely made for military purposes, and nearly all relevant inputs were allocated to the war effort. Many goods were rationed, prices and wages controlled, and many durable consumer goods were no longer produced. Large segments of the workforce were inducted into the military and paid half their wages; roughly half of those were sent into harm's way. <ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=97f|isbn=978-1107507180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xYEGswEACAAJ}}</ref><br />
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The approach, advanced by British economist [[John Maynard Keynes]], gave elected officials a leading role in directing the economy since spending and taxes are controlled by the [[President of the United States|U.S. president]] and [[Congress of the United States|Congress]]. The [[Post–World War II baby boom|"Baby Boom"]] saw a dramatic increase in fertility in the period 1942–1957; it was caused by delayed marriages and childbearing during the depression years, a surge in prosperity, a demand for suburban single-family homes (as opposed to inner city apartments), and new optimism about the future. The boom peaked around 1957 and then began to fade.<ref name="Susan Kellogg 1988">Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, ''Domestic Revolutions: a Social History of American Family Life'' (1988) ch 9</ref> A period of high inflation, interest rates, and unemployment after 1973 weakened confidence in fiscal policy as a tool for regulating the overall pace of economic activity.<ref name=buchanan1977>{{cite book |last=Buchanan |first=James M. |title=Democracy in Deficit: The Political Legacy of Lord Keynes |year=1977 |publisher=Academic Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0865972278 |pages=1–55|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RgARQAACAAJ}}</ref><br />
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The U.S. economy grew by an [[Annual average GDP growth|average]] of 3.8% from 1946 to 1973, while real [[median household income]] surged by 74% (or 2.1% a year).<ref name=hhes>{{cite web|url=http://www2.census.gov/prod2/popscan/p60-162.pdf|title=Current Population Reports: Money Income of Households and Persons in the United States (1987)|publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.census.gov/prod2/popscan/p60-001.pdf|title=Current Population Reports: Income of nonfarm families and individuals (1946)|publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce}}</ref><br />
<br />
The worst recession in recent decades, in terms of lost output, occurred during the [[financial crisis of 2007–2008]], when GDP fell by 5.0% from the spring of 2008 to the spring of 2009. Other significant recessions took place in 1957–1958, when GDP fell 3.7% following the [[1973 oil crisis]], with a 3.1% fall from late 1973 to early 1975, and in the 1981–1982 recession, when GDP dropped by 2.9%.<ref name=gcn>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalcrisisnews.com/usa/us-out-of-recession-as-economy-grows-by-3-5-percent/id=1238/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091103100949/http://www.globalcrisisnews.com/usa/us-out-of-recession-as-economy-grows-by-3-5-percent/id%3D1238/|title=Global Crisis News|publisher=GCN|date=October 30, 2009|archive-date=November 3, 2009|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="cnn1">{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/BUSINESS/03/21/us.recession.ap/index.html |title=Worries grow of deeper U.S. recession |publisher=CNN|access-date=November 17, 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080611130336/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/BUSINESS/03/21/us.recession.ap/index.html |archive-date=June 11, 2008}}</ref> Recent, mild recessions have included the 1990–1991 downturn, when output fell by 1.3%, and the 2001 recession, in which GDP slid by 0.3%; the 2001 downturn lasted just eight months. <ref name="cnn1" /> The most vigorous, sustained periods of growth, on the other hand, took place from early 1961 to mid-1969, with an expansion of 53% (5.1% a year), from mid-1991 to late 2000, at 43% (3.8% a year), and from late 1982 to mid-1990, at 37% (4% a year).<ref name=gcn /><br />
<br />
In the 1970s and 1980s, it was popular in the U.S. to believe that [[Economy of Japan|Japan's economy]] would surpass that of the U.S., but this did not occur.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://business.time.com/2011/02/14/is-china-facing-a-japanese-future/ |title=Is China facing a Japanese future?|magazine=Time |access-date=February 27, 2012|date=February 14, 2011|last1=Schuman|first1=Michael}}</ref><br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, several [[emerging countries]] have begun to close the economic gap with the United States. In most cases, this has been due to moving the manufacture of goods formerly made in the U.S. to countries where they could be made for sufficiently less money to cover the cost of shipping plus a higher profit. In other cases, some countries have gradually learned to produce the same products and services that previously only the U.S. and a few other countries could produce. Real income growth in the U.S. has slowed.<br />
<br />
===21st century===<br />
{{Further|Great Recession}}<br />
[[File:Donald Trump and Mike Pence meet with automobile industry leaders.jpg|thumb|President [[Donald Trump]] with [[Automotive industry in the United States|automobile industry]] leaders, 2017]]<br />
The United States economy experienced a recession in 2001 with an unusually slow jobs recovery, with the number of jobs not regaining the February 2001 level until January 2005.<ref name="Payems" /> This "jobless recovery" overlapped with the building of a [[United States housing bubble|housing bubble]] and arguably a wider debt bubble, as the ratio of household debt to GDP rose from a record level of 70% in Q1 2001 to 99% in Q1 2008. Homeowners were borrowing against their bubble-priced homes to fuel consumption, driving up their debt levels while providing an unsustainable boost to GDP. When housing prices began falling in 2006, the value of securities backed by mortgages fell dramatically, causing the equivalent of a [[bank run]] in the essentially unregulated [[shadow banking|non-depository]] banking system, which had outgrown the traditional, regulated depository banking system. Many mortgage companies and other non-depository banks (e.g., investment banks) faced a worsening crisis in 2007–2008, with the [[Subprime mortgage crisis|banking crisis]] peaking in September 2008, with the bankruptcy of [[Lehman Brothers]] and bailouts of several other financial institutions.<ref name="FCIC_1">{{cite web |url = http://fcic.law.stanford.edu/report/conclusions |title = Financial Crisis Inquiry Report-Conclusions-January 2011 |publisher = Fcic.law.stanford.edu |date=March 10, 2011 |access-date=April 22, 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
The Bush administration (2001–2009) and Obama administrations (2009–2017) applied banking [[Troubled Asset Relief Program|bailout programs]] and Keynesian [[American Reinvestment and Recovery Act|stimulus]] via high government deficits, while the Federal Reserve maintained near-zero interest rates. These measures helped the economy recover, as households paid down debts in 2009–2012, the only years since 1947 where this occurred,<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?graph_id=111185| title = FRED – Household Debt Changes| date = October 1945}}</ref> presenting a significant barrier to recovery.<ref name="FCIC_1" /> Real GDP regained its pre-crisis (late 2007) peak by 2011,<ref name="FRED – Real GDP">{{cite web |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/GDPC1 |title=FRED – Real GDP}}</ref> household net worth by Q2 2012,<ref name="FRED – Household Net Worth">{{cite web |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/TNWBSHNO |title=FRED – Household Net Worth}}</ref> non-farm payroll jobs by May 2014,<ref name="Payems">{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/PAYEMS| title = FRED – Total Non-Farm Payrolls| date = January 1939}}</ref> and the unemployment rate by September 2015.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/UNRATE| title = FRED – Civilian Unemployment Rate| date = January 1948}}</ref> Each of these variables continued into post-recession record territory following those dates, with the U.S. recovery becoming the second longest on record in April 2018.<ref name="nyt2018">[https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/20/business/economy/economy-recovery.html ''The New York Times''. Casselbaum. "Up, Up, Up Goes the Economy" March 20, 2018].</ref><br />
<br />
Debt held by the public, a measure of national debt, has risen throughout the 21st century. Rising from 31% in 2000 to 52% in 2009, and reaching 77% of GDP in 2017, the U.S. ranked 43rd highest in debt out of 207 countries. Income inequality peaked in 2007 and fell during the Great Recession, yet still ranked 41st highest among 156 countries in 2017 (i.e., 74% of countries had a more equal income distribution).<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2186rank.html#us| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070613005546/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2186rank.html#us| url-status = dead| archive-date = June 13, 2007| title = CIA World Factbook – Debt to GDP}}</ref><br />
<br />
====COVID-19 pandemic====<br />
{{Further||COVID-19 recession|Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19 recession}}<br />
{{Update section|date=October 2021}}<br />
In the first two quarters of 2020 amid [[Donald Trump]]'s presidency,<ref name="CNBC_Q3">{{cite news |last1=Pound |first1=Jesse |title=Fed's Bullard says the recession is over but rates will 'stay low for a long time' |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/08/28/feds-bullard-says-the-recession-is-over-but-rates-will-stay-low-for-a-long-time.html |access-date=September 4, 2020 |work=CNBC |date=28 August 2020}}</ref> the U.S. economy suffered major setbacks beginning in March 2020, due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic|novel coronavirus]] and having to "shut-down" major sectors of the American economy.<ref>President Trump's statements to reporters gathered at [[Joint Base Andrews]] on 5{{nbs}}May 2020, before his departure en route to Phoenix, Arizona, {{YouTube|DYZNpBhBkws|President Donald J. Trump departs from Joint Base Andrews en route to Phoenix}}, May 5, 2020, minutes 10:06–10:14.</ref> As of March 2020, US exports of automobiles and industrial machines had plummeted as a result of the worldwide pandemic.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wiseman|first=Paul|date=May 5, 2020|title=US trade gap rises to $44.4 billion as virus slams commerce|language=en|agency=Associated Press|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/us-trade-gap-rises-44-125440989.html}}</ref> Social distancing measures which took effect in March 2020, and which negatively impacted the demand for goods and services, resulted in the US [[GDP]] declining at a [[Trade-to-GDP ratio|4.8% annualized rate]] in the first quarter, the steepest pace of contraction in output since the fourth quarter of 2008.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mutikani|first=Lucia|date=May 5, 2020|title=U.S. trade deficit widens, services sector contracts amid coronavirus|language=en|publisher=Reuters|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/u-trade-deficit-widens-services-123754175.html}}</ref> US retails sales dropped a record 8.7% in March alone. The US airline industry had also been hit hard, seeing a sharp decline in its revenues.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Shepardson|first1=David|last2=Rucinski|first2=Tracy|date=May 6, 2020|title=Exclusive: U.S. airlines burn through $10 billion a month as traffic plummets|language=en|publisher=Reuters|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/exclusive-u-airlines-burn-10-212139039.html}}</ref> The [[COVID-19 recession]] has been widely described as the most severe global economic downturn since the [[Great Depression]] and "far worse" than the [[Great Recession]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloombergquint.com/business/global-great-lockdown-will-dwarf-the-great-recession |title=The Great Recession Was Bad. The 'Great Lockdown' Is Worse. |website=BloombergQuint |access-date=April 15, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nysscpa.org/news/publications/the-trusted-professional/article/imf-says-%27great-lockdown%27-worst-recession-since-depression-far-worse-than-last-crisis-041420 |title=IMF Says 'Great Lockdown' Worst Recession Since Depression, Far Worse Than Last Crisis |website=nysscpa.org |access-date=April 15, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Ben Winck |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/imf-economic-outlook-great-lockdown-worst-recession-century-coronavirus-pandemic-2020-4 |title=IMF economic outlook: 'Great Lockdown' will be worst recession in century |publisher=Business Insider |date=April 14, 2020 |access-date=April 27, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|editor=Larry Elliott Economics |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/apr/14/great-lockdown-coronavirus-to-rival-great-depression-with-3-hit-to-global-economy-says-imf |title='Great Lockdown' to rival Great Depression with 3% hit to global economy, says IMF &#124; Business |work=The Guardian |date=April 14, 2020 |access-date=April 27, 2020}}</ref><br />
<br />
In May 2020, [[CNN]] gave an analysis based on unemployment data that the US economy was perhaps the worst that it had been since the 1930s.<ref>{{cite news|last=Collinson|first=Stephen|date=May 7, 2020|title=Trump economy faces long-term disaster as jobs data looms|language=en|publisher=CNN|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/05/07/politics/donald-trump-coronavirus-economy/index.html}}</ref> By May 8, the US had reached a record 14.7 percent unemployment, with 20.5 million jobs lost in April.<ref>{{cite news|last=Ross|first=Jamie|date=May 8, 2020|title=Trump's Live Reaction to Record Unemployment: Don't Blame Me|language=en|publisher=[[Yahoo! News|Yahoo Business]]|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/trump-live-reaction-record-unemployment-133210016.html}}</ref> The Chairman of the [[US Federal Reserve]], [[Jerome Powell]], warned that it may take "an extended time" before the US economy fully recovers from weak economic growth, due to the pandemic, and that in the foreseeable future the US can expect "low productivity growth and stagnant incomes".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Schneider|first1=Howard|last2=Saphir|first2=Ann|date=May 13, 2020|title=In nod to grim U.S. outlook, Fed's Powell calls for more fiscal support|language=en|publisher=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-fed-powell/in-nod-to-grim-us-outlook-feds-powell-calls-for-more-fiscal-support-idUSKBN22P1FG}}</ref> By 31 May 2020, more than forty million Americans had filed for unemployment benefits.<ref>{{cite news|last=Fottrell|first=Quentin|date=May 31, 2020|title=Over 40 million people filed for unemployment since March – $1,200 stimulus checks are a mere Band-Aid for Americans|language=en|publisher=[[MarketWatch]] (for Yahoo! Finance)|url=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/heres-how-much-trouble-laid-off-americans-are-in-and-why-1200-stimulus-checks-are-only-a-band-aid-2020-05-19?siteid=yhoof2&yptr=yahoo,}}</ref><br />
<br />
By June 2020, the slump in US continental flights due to the coronavirus pandemic had resulted in the US government temporarily halting service of fifteen US airlines to 75 domestic airports.<ref>{{cite news|last=Shepardson|first=David|date=June 4, 2020|title=U.S. airlines gain final approval to drop services to 75 domestic airports|language=en|publisher=Reuters|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/u-finalizes-order-allowing-15-035146552.html}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported on June 10, 2020, that "the United States budget deficit grew to a record $1.88{{nbs}}trillion for the first eight months of this [[fiscal year]]."<ref>{{cite news|date=June 10, 2020|title=Fed Expects Unemployment Rate to Stay High: Live Updates|language=en|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/10/business/stock-market-today-coronavirus.html}}</ref><br />
<br />
The US economy increased 5.7% in 2021, which was its best performance since [[Ronald Reagan]]'s presidency (1981–1989).<ref>{{cite web|title=US economy grew 5.7% in 2021 in rebound from 2020 recession|url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/us-economy-grew-57-2021-rebound-2020-recession-82507751|access-date=2022-01-28|website=ABC News|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
2021–2022 marked a historical [[2021–2022 inflation surge|inflation surge]] in the United States, with the [[Consumer Price Index]] inflation rate hitting 9.1% higher in June 2022 than June 2021 constituting a 41-year high inflation rate with critics blaming the [[Federal Reserve]] among other factors.<ref>{{cite web|title=Inflation Hits 9.1 Percent, Highest Level in 41 Years|url=https://reason.com/2022/07/13/inflation-hits-9-1-percent-highest-level-in-41-years/|date=July 13, 2022}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Data==<br />
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2021 (with IMF staff estimates in 2022–2027). Inflation below 5% is in green.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PCPIPCH,LUR,GGXWDG_NGDP,&sy=1980&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 | title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects }}</ref><br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
!Year<br />
!GDP<br />
<small>(in Bil. US$PPP)</small><br />
!GDP per capita<br />
<small>(in US$ PPP)</small><br />
!GDP<br />
<small>(in Bil. US$nominal)</small><br />
!GDP per capita<br />
<small>(in US$ nominal)</small><br />
!GDP growth<br />
<small>(real)</small><br />
!Inflation rate<br />
<small>(in Percent)</small><br />
!Unemployment<br />
<small>(in Percent)</small><br />
!Government debt<br />
<small>(in % of GDP)</small><br />
|-<br />
|1980<br />
|2,857.3<br />
|12,552.9<br />
|2,857.3<br />
|12,552.9<br />
|{{Decrease}}-0.3%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}13.5%<br />
|7.2%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1981<br />
|{{Increase}}3,207.0<br />
|{{Increase}}13,948.7<br />
|{{Increase}}3,207.0<br />
|{{Increase}}13,948.7<br />
|{{Increase}}2.5%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}10.4%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}7.6%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1982<br />
|{{Increase}}3,343.8<br />
|{{Increase}}14,405.0<br />
|{{Increase}}3,343.8<br />
|{{Increase}}14,405.0<br />
|{{Decrease}}-1.8%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}6.2%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.7%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1983<br />
|{{Increase}}3,634.0<br />
|{{Increase}}15,513.7<br />
|{{Increase}}3,634.0<br />
|{{Increase}}15,513.7<br />
|{{Increase}}4.6%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.2%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}9.6%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|{{Increase}}4,037.7<br />
|{{Increase}}17,086.4<br />
|{{Increase}}4,037.7<br />
|{{Increase}}17,086.4<br />
|{{Increase}}7.2%<br />
|{{Increase}}4.4%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}7.5%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1985<br />
|{{Increase}}4,339.0<br />
|{{Increase}}18,199.3<br />
|{{Increase}}4,339.0<br />
|{{Increase}}18,199.3<br />
|{{Increase}}4.2%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.5%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}7.2%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1986<br />
|{{Increase}}4,579.6<br />
|{{Increase}}19,034.8<br />
|{{Increase}}4,579.6<br />
|{{Increase}}19,034.8<br />
|{{Increase}}3.5%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.9%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}7.0%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1987<br />
|{{Increase}}4,855.3<br />
|{{Increase}}20,001.0<br />
|{{Increase}}4,855.3<br />
|{{Increase}}20,001.0<br />
|{{Increase}}3.5%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.6%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}6.2%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1988<br />
|{{Increase}}5,236.4<br />
|{{Increase}}21,376.0<br />
|{{Increase}}5,236.4<br />
|{{Increase}}21,376.0<br />
|{{Increase}}4.2%<br />
|{{Increase}}4.1%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.5%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1989<br />
|{{Increase}}5,641.6<br />
|{{Increase}}22,814.1<br />
|{{Increase}}5,641.6<br />
|{{Increase}}22,814.1<br />
|{{Increase}}3.7%<br />
|{{Increase}}4.8%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.3%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|{{Increase}}5,963.1<br />
|{{Increase}}23,848.0<br />
|{{Increase}}5,963.1<br />
|{{Increase}}23,848.0<br />
|{{Increase}}1.9%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.4%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.6%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|{{Increase}}6,158.1<br />
|{{Increase}}24,302.8<br />
|{{Increase}}6,158.1<br />
|{{Increase}}24,302.8<br />
|{{Decrease}}-0.1%<br />
|{{Increase}}4.2%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}6.9%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|{{Increase}}6,520.3<br />
|{{Increase}}25,392.9<br />
|{{Increase}}6,520.3<br />
|{{Increase}}25,392.9<br />
|{{Increase}}3.5%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.0%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}7.5%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1993<br />
|{{Increase}}6,858.6<br />
|{{Increase}}26,364.2<br />
|{{Increase}}6,858.6<br />
|{{Increase}}26,364.2<br />
|{{Increase}}2.8%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.0%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}6.9%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1994<br />
|{{Increase}}7,287.3<br />
|{{Increase}}27,674.0<br />
|{{Increase}}7,287.3<br />
|{{Increase}}27,674.0<br />
|{{Increase}}4.0%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.6%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}6.1%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1995<br />
|{{Increase}}7,639.8<br />
|{{Increase}}28,671.5<br />
|{{Increase}}7,639.8<br />
|{{Increase}}28,671.5<br />
|{{Increase}}2.7%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.8%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.6%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1996<br />
|{{Increase}}8,073.1<br />
|{{Increase}}29,947.0<br />
|{{Increase}}8,073.1<br />
|{{Increase}}29,947.0<br />
|{{Increase}}3.8%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.9%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.4%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1997<br />
|{{Increase}}8,577.6<br />
|{{Increase}}31,440.1<br />
|{{Increase}}8,577.6<br />
|{{Increase}}31,440.1<br />
|{{Increase}}4.4%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.3%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.9%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1998<br />
|{{Increase}}9,062.8<br />
|{{Increase}}32,833.7<br />
|{{Increase}}9,062.8<br />
|{{Increase}}32,833.7<br />
|{{Increase}}4.5%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.5%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.5%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|{{Increase}}9,631.2<br />
|{{Increase}}34,496.2<br />
|{{Increase}}9,631.2<br />
|{{Increase}}34,496.2<br />
|{{Increase}}4.8%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.2%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.2%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|2000<br />
|{{Increase}}10,251.0<br />
|{{Increase}}36,312.8<br />
|{{Increase}}10,251.0<br />
|{{Increase}}36,312.8<br />
|{{Increase}}4.1%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.4%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.0%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|{{Increase}}10,581.9<br />
|{{Increase}}37,101.5<br />
|{{Increase}}10,581.9<br />
|{{Increase}}37,101.5<br />
|{{Increase}}1.0%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.8%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}4.7%<br />
|53.1%<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|{{Increase}}10,929.1<br />
|{{Increase}}37,945.8<br />
|{{Increase}}10,929.1<br />
|{{Increase}}37,945.8<br />
|{{Increase}}1.7%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.6%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.8%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}55.5%<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|{{Increase}}11,456.5<br />
|{{Increase}}39,405.4<br />
|{{Increase}}11,456.5<br />
|{{Increase}}39,405.4<br />
|{{Increase}}2.8%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.3%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}6.0%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}58.6%<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|{{Increase}}12,217.2<br />
|{{Increase}}41,641.6<br />
|{{Increase}}12,217.2<br />
|{{Increase}}41,641.6<br />
|{{Increase}}3.9%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.7%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.5%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}66.2%<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|{{Increase}}13,039.2<br />
|{{Increase}}44,034.3<br />
|{{Increase}}13,039.2<br />
|{{Increase}}44,034.3<br />
|{{Increase}}3.5%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.4%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.1%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}65.5%<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|{{Increase}}13,815.6<br />
|{{Increase}}46,216.9<br />
|{{Increase}}13,815.6<br />
|{{Increase}}46,216.9<br />
|{{Increase}}2.8%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.2%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.6%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}64.2%<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|{{Increase}}14,474.3<br />
|{{Increase}}47,943.4<br />
|{{Increase}}14,474.3<br />
|{{Increase}}47,943.4<br />
|{{Increase}}2.0%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.9%<br />
|{{Steady}}4.6%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}64.6%<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|{{Increase}}14,769.9<br />
|{{Increase}}48,470.6<br />
|{{Increase}}14,769.9<br />
|{{Increase}}48,470.6<br />
|{{Increase}}0.1%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.8%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.8%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}73.5%<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|{{Decrease}}14,478.1<br />
|{{Decrease}}47,102.4<br />
|{{Decrease}}14,478.1<br />
|{{Decrease}}47,102.4<br />
|{{Decrease}}-2.6%<br />
|{{Increase}}-0.3%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.3%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}86.7%<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|{{Increase}}15,049.0<br />
|{{Increase}}48,586.3<br />
|{{Increase}}15,049.0<br />
|{{Increase}}48,586.3<br />
|{{Increase}}2.7%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.6%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.6%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}95.2%<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|{{Increase}}15,599.7<br />
|{{Increase}}50,008.1<br />
|{{Increase}}15,599.7<br />
|{{Increase}}50,008.1<br />
|{{Increase}}1.6%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.1%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}8.9%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}99.5%<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|{{Increase}}16,254.0<br />
|{{Increase}}51,736.7<br />
|{{Increase}}16,254.0<br />
|{{Increase}}51,736.7<br />
|{{Increase}}2.3%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.1%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}8.1%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}103.1%<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|{{Increase}}16,843.2<br />
|{{Increase}}53,245.5<br />
|{{Increase}}16,843.2<br />
|{{Increase}}53,245.5<br />
|{{Increase}}1.8%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.5%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}7.4%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}104.6%<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|{{Increase}}17,550.7<br />
|{{Increase}}55,083.5<br />
|{{Increase}}17,550.7<br />
|{{Increase}}55,083.5<br />
|{{Increase}}2.3%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.6%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}6.2%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}104.6%<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|{{Increase}}18,206.0<br />
|{{Increase}}56,729.7<br />
|{{Increase}}18,206.0<br />
|{{Increase}}56,729.7<br />
|{{Increase}}2.7%<br />
|{{Increase}}0.1%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.3%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}105.2%<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|{{Increase}}18,695.1<br />
|{{Increase}}57,840.0<br />
|{{Increase}}18,695.1<br />
|{{Increase}}57,840.0<br />
|{{Increase}}1.7%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.3%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.9%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}107.2%<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|{{Increase}}19,479.6<br />
|{{Increase}}59,885.7<br />
|{{Increase}}19,479.6<br />
|{{Increase}}59,885.7<br />
|{{Increase}}2.3%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.1%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.4%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}106.2%<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|{{Increase}}20,527.2<br />
|{{Increase}}62,769.7<br />
|{{Increase}}20,527.2<br />
|{{Increase}}62,769.7<br />
|{{Increase}}2.9%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.4%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}3.9%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}107.5%<br />
|-<br />
|2019<br />
|{{Increase}}21,372.6<br />
|{{Increase}}65,051.9<br />
|{{Increase}}21,372.6<br />
|{{Increase}}65,051.9<br />
|{{Increase}}2.3%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.8%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}3.7%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}108.8%<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|{{Decrease}}20,893.8<br />
|{{Decrease}}63,078.5<br />
|{{Decrease}}20,893.8<br />
|{{Decrease}}63,078.5<br />
|{{Decrease}}-3.4%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.2%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}8.1%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}134.5%<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|{{Increase}}22,996.1<br />
|{{Increase}}69,227.1<br />
|{{Increase}}22,996.1<br />
|{{Increase}}69,227.1<br />
|{{Increase}}5.7%<br />
|{{Increase}}4.7%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.4%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}128.1%<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|{{Increase}}25,035.2<br />
|{{Increase}}75,179.6<br />
|{{Increase}}25,035.2<br />
|{{Increase}}75,179.6<br />
|{{Increase}}1.6%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}8.1%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}3.7%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}122.1%<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|{{Increase}}26,185.2<br />
|{{Increase}}78,421.9<br />
|{{Increase}}26,185.2<br />
|{{Increase}}78,421.9<br />
|{{Increase}}1.0%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.5%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}4.6%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}122.9%<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|{{Increase}}27,057.2<br />
|{{Increase}}80,779.3<br />
|{{Increase}}27,057.2<br />
|{{Increase}}80,779.3<br />
|{{Increase}}1.2%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.2%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.4%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}126.0%<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|{{Increase}}28,045.3<br />
|{{Increase}}83,463.2<br />
|{{Increase}}28,045.3<br />
|{{Increase}}83,463.2<br />
|{{Increase}}1.8%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.0%<br />
|{{Steady}}5.4%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}129.4%<br />
|-<br />
|2026<br />
|{{Increase}}29,165.5<br />
|{{Increase}}86,521.2<br />
|{{Increase}}29,165.5<br />
|{{Increase}}86,521.2<br />
|{{Increase}}2.1%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.0%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.9%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}132.2%<br />
|-<br />
|2027<br />
|{{Increase}}30,281.5<br />
|{{Increase}}89,546.4<br />
|{{Increase}}30,281.5<br />
|{{Increase}}89,546.4<br />
|{{Increase}}1.9%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.0%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.7%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}134.9%<br />
|}<br />
[[File:CPI 1914-2022.webp|thumb|center|alt=CPI 1914-2022|400px|<br />
{{legend|#0076BA |[[Inflation]]}}<br />
{{legend|#EE220C |[[Deflation]]}}<br />
{{legend-line|#1DB100 solid 3px|[[Money supply|M2 money supply]] increases Year/Year}}<br />
]]<br />
<br />
==GDP==<br />
{{Main|Economic history of the United States#1790–2006 GDP}}<br />
[[File:United States GDP.webp|thumb|300px|right|United States real quarterly GDP (annualized)]]<br />
[[File:Presidential Comparison Real GDP - v1.png|thumb|right|300px|U.S. cumulative real (inflation-adjusted) GDP growth by US president (from Reagan to Obama)<ref>[https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/GDPC1 FRED-Real GDP-Retrieved July 1, 2018].</ref>]]<br />
U.S. nominal GDP was $19.5{{nbs}}trillion in 2017. Annualized, nominal GDP reached $20.1{{nbs}}trillion in Q1 2018, the first time it exceeded $20{{nbs}}trillion. About 70% of U.S. GDP is personal consumption, with business investment 18%, government 17% (federal, state and local but excluding transfer payments such as Social Security, which is in consumption) and net exports a negative 3% due to the U.S. trade deficit.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/national/gdp/gdpnewsrelease.htm| title = BEA News Release{{snd}}GDP Second Quarter 2018{{snd}}July 27, 2018}}</ref> Real [[gross domestic product]], a measure of both production and income, grew by 2.3% in 2017, vs. 1.5% in 2016 and 2.9% in 2015. Real GDP grew at a quarterly annualized rate of 2.2% in Q1 2018, 4.2% in Q2 2018, 3.4% in Q3 2018 and 2.2% in Q4 2018; the Q2 rate was the best growth rate since Q3 2014, and the overall yearly GDP growth of 2.9% in 2018 was the best performance of the economy in a decade.<ref name="Real_GDP" /> In 2020, the growth rate of the GDP has started to drop as a result of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], resulting in the GDP shrinking at a quarterized annual growth rate of &minus;5.0% in Q1 2020{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} and &minus;32.9% in Q2 2020,{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} respectively.<br />
<br />
As of 2014, China passed the U.S. as the largest economy in GDP terms, measured at purchasing power parity conversion rates. The U.S. was the largest economy for more than a century prior to that milestone; China has more than tripled the U.S. growth rate for each of the past 40 years. As of 2017, the European Union as an aggregate had a GDP roughly 5% larger than the U.S.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003104/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html#us CIA World Factbook-United States-Retrieved July 29, 2018].</ref><br />
<br />
Real GDP per capita (measured in 2009 dollars) was $52,444 in 2017 and has been growing each year since 2010. It grew 3.0% per year on average in the 1960s, 2.1% in the 1970s, 2.4% in the 1980s, 2.2% in the 1990s, 0.7% in the 2000s, and 0.9% from 2010 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/A939RX0Q048SBEA| title = FRED{{snd}}Real GDP per Capita{{snd}}Annual Average| date = January 1947}}</ref> Reasons for slower growth since 2000 are debated by economists and may include aging demographics, slower population and growth in labor force, slower productivity growth, reduced corporate investment, greater income inequality reducing demand, lack of major innovations, and reduced labor power.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/21/magazine/are-we-doomed-to-slow-growth.html ''The New York Times''. Adam Davidson. "Are We Doomed to Slow Growth?" February 17, 2016].</ref> The U.S. ranked 20th out of 220 countries in GDP per capita in 2017.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html#us| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004710/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html#us| url-status = dead| archive-date = June 13, 2007| title = ''CIA World Factbook''. "USA Economy".}}</ref> Among the modern U.S. Presidents, Bill Clinton had the highest cumulative percent real GDP increase during his two terms, Reagan second and Obama third.<ref name="Real_GDP">{{cite web|url=https://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/national/gdp/gdpnewsrelease.htm|title=Bureau of Economic Analysis|first=US Department of Commerce, BEA, Bureau of Economic|last=Analysis|website=bea.gov|access-date=May 7, 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
The development of the nation's GDP according to [[World Bank]]:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG/countries|title=GDP growth (annual %)|publisher=Data.worldbank.org|access-date=December 8, 2014}}</ref> U.S. real GDP grew by an average of 1.7% from 2000 to the first half of 2014, a rate around half the historical average up to 2000.<ref name="bea.gov">{{cite web|title=National Income and Product Accounts Gross Domestic Product: Second Quarter 2014 (Advance Estimate) Annual Revision: 1999 through First Quarter 2014|url=https://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/national/gdp/gdpnewsrelease.htm|website=Bureau of Economic Analysis|publisher=Bureau of Economic Analysis|access-date=July 31, 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==By economic sector==<br />
===Nominal GDP sector composition===<br />
[[File:Number of Businesses by Type (US Census Bureau 2019).png|thumb|190x190px|Number of businesses by type (US Census Bureau, 2019)]]<br />
Nominal GDP sector composition, 2015 (in millions of dollars) at [[Real gross domestic product|2005 constant prices]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=95|title=UNCTADstat – Table view|website=unctadstat.unctad.org|access-date=2017-11-26 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! style="width:2%;"|No.<br />
! style="width:95%;"|Country/Economy<br />
! style="width:15%;"|[[Real gross domestic product|Real GDP]]<br />
! style="width:10%;"|Agri.<br />
! style="width:10%;"|Indus.<br />
! style="width:10%;"|Serv.<br />
|-<br />
|–<br />
|'''{{noflag}} World'''<br />
|60,093,221<br />
<br />
|1,968,215<br />
|16,453,140<br />
|38,396,695<br />
|-<br />
|1<br />
|{{flag|United States}}<br />
|15,160,104<br />
|149,023<br />
|3,042,332<br />
|11,518,980<br />
|}<br />
Nominal GDP Sector Composition, 2016 (in millions of dollars) at current prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=57&pr.y=7&sy=2016&ey=2020&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=111&s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,PPPGDP,PPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|website=imf.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-11-26 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! style="width:2%;"|No.<br />
! style="width:25%;"|Country/Economy<br />
! style="width:15%;"|[[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|Nominal GDP]]<br />
! style="width:10%;"|Agri.<br />
! style="width:10%;"|Indus.<br />
! style="width:10%;"|Serv.<br />
|-<br />
|1<br />
|{{flag|United States}}<br />
|18,624,450<br />
<br />
|204,868.95<br />
|3,613,143.3<br />
|14,806,437.75<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" |*Percentages from [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-11-26 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Employment==<br />
{{Further|List of largest United States–based employers globally|List of U.S. states by employment rate}}<br />
{{see also|JOLTS report}}<br />
{{legend-line|#89A54E solid 3px|Total job openings}}<br />
{{legend-line|#4572A7 solid 3px|[[Turnover (employment)|Total quits]]}}<br />
[[File:Jobs and quits rate.webp|thumb|380px|right|{{legend-line|#AA4643 solid 3px|[[Unemployment in the United States|Total unemployed people]]}}]]<br />
[[File:Job Growth by U.S. President - v1.png|thumb|right|300px|Job growth by US president, measured as cumulative percentage change from month after inauguration to end of term<ref>[https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/PAYEMS Federal Reserve Economic Data-All Employees Total Non-Farm-Retrieved July 29, 2018].</ref>]]<br />
[[File:U.S. Econonomic Trends 2014-2017 Nine Panel.png|thumb|right|300px|Panel chart illustrates nine key economic variables measured annually in 2014–2017. The years 2014–2016 were during President Obama's second term, while 2017 was during President Trump's term. Refer to citations on detail page.]]<br />
There were approximately 160.4 million people in the U.S. labor force in 2017, the fourth largest labor force in the world behind China, India, and the European Union.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/| title = ''CIA World Factbook''. "United States.| date = February 16, 2022}}</ref><br />
The government (federal, state and local) employed 22 million in 2010.<ref name="Mcfeatters">{{cite news| url=http://napavalleyregister.com/news/opinion/editorial/article_43f9e712-b96a-11df-9e2d-001cc4c002e0.html | newspaper=Napa Valley Register | title=Saluting 154 million in workforce on Labor Day | first=Dale | last=McFeatters | date=September 6, 2010}}</ref> Small businesses are the nation's largest employer, representing 37% of American workers.<ref name="sba.gov" /> The second-largest share of employment belongs to large businesses employing 36% of the U.S. workforce.<ref name="sba.gov" /> [[White-collar worker|White collar workers]] comprise 44% of the workforce as of 2022, up from 34% in 2000.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-12-04 |title=Is a white-collar recession looming? |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2022/12/04/is-a-white-collar-recession-looming | newspaper=[[The Economist]] | quote=Managerial and professional occupations now make up 44% of total employment, up from 34% in 2000, according to the BLS (see chart). }}</ref><br />
<br />
The nation's [[private sector]] employs 85% of working Americans. [[Public sector|Government]] accounts for 14% of all U.S. workers. Over 99% of all private employing organizations in the U.S. are small businesses.<ref name="sba.gov" /> The 30 million small businesses in the U.S. account for 64% of newly created jobs (those created minus those lost).<ref name="sba.gov" /> Jobs in small businesses accounted for 70% of those created in the last decade.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=if9NOcUK1F0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/if9NOcUK1F0| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|title=Obama: Small Business 'Heart' of Economy – YouTube |work=Youtube |access-date=April 21, 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref><br />
<br />
The proportion of Americans employed by small business versus large business has remained relatively the same year by year as some small businesses become large businesses and just over half of small businesses survive for more than five years.<ref name="sba.gov" /> Amongst large businesses, several of the largest companies and employers in the world are American companies. Amongst them are [[Walmart]], which is both the largest company and the largest [[private sector]] employer in the world. Walmart employs 2.1 million people worldwide and 1.4 million in the U.S. alone.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2010/full_list/ |publisher=CNN | title=Global 500 2010: Global 500 1–100}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090318030352/http://walmartstores.com/download/2230.pdf Walmart Corporate and Financial Facts].</ref><br />
[[File:US Census Bureau Number of Employees per Business.png|thumb|300x300px|US Census Bureau (number of employees per business)]]<br />
There are nearly thirty million small businesses in the U.S.. Minorities such as [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanics]], African Americans, Asian Americans, and Native Americans (35% of the country's population),<ref>"[https://articles.latimes.com/2010/jun/10/nation/la-na-census-20100611 Minority population growing in the United States, census estimates show]". ''Los Angeles Times''. June 10, 2010.</ref> own 4.1 million of the nation's businesses. Minority-owned businesses generate almost $700{{nbs}}billion in revenue, and they employ almost five million workers in the U.S.<ref name="sba.gov" /><ref>{{cite web<br />
| url = http://www.bls.gov/web/laus/lauhsthl.htm<br />
| title = Current Unemployment Rates for States and Historical Highs/Lows<br />
| publisher = BLS<br />
| date = June 2012<br />
| access-date = June 15, 2012<br />
}}</ref><br />
Americans have the highest average [[List of countries by average wage|employee]] income among [[OECD]] nations.<ref name="autogenerated4">{{cite web |title=OECD Better Life Index |url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/#/11111111111 |access-date=November 25, 2012 |publisher=OECD}}</ref> The median household income in the U.S. as of 2008 is $52,029.<ref>[https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100223212411/http://www.census.gov/prod/2009pubs/acsbr08-2.pdf Median Household Income for States: 2007 and 2008], September 2009, [https://www.census.gov/ census.gov].</ref> About 284,000 working people in the U.S. have two full-time jobs and 7.6 million have part-time ones in addition to their full-time employments.<ref name="Mcfeatters" /> Out of all working individuals in the U.S., 12% belong to a labor union and most union members work for the government.<ref name="Mcfeatters" /> The decline of [[Trade unions in the United States|union membership]] in the U.S. over the last several decades parallels that of labor's share of the economy.<ref>Doree Armstrong (February 12, 2014). [http://www.washington.edu/news/2014/02/12/jake-rosenfeld-explores-the-sharp-decline-of-union-membership-influence/ Jake Rosenfeld explores the sharp decline of union membership, influence]. ''UW Today.'' See also: Jake Rosenfeld (2014) ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674725119 What Unions No Longer Do].'' [[Harvard University Press]]. {{ISBN|0674725115}}</ref><ref>Keith Naughton, Lynn Doan and Jeffrey Green (February 20, 2015). [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-02-20/unions-poised-for-comeback-as-middle-class-wages-stall As the Rich Get Richer, Unions Are Poised for Comeback]. ''Bloomberg.''<br />
* "A 2011 study drew a link between the decline in union membership since 1973 and expanding wage disparity. Those trends have since continued, said [[Bruce Western]], a professor of sociology at Harvard University who co-authored the study."</ref><ref>Michael Hiltzik (March 25, 2015). [https://www.latimes.com/business/hiltzik/la-fi-mh-imf-agrees-loss-of-union-power-20150325-column.html IMF agrees: Decline of union power has increased income inequality]. ''[[Los Angeles Times]].''</ref> The World Bank ranks the United States first in the ease of hiring and firing workers.<ref name="EDBI">{{cite web|url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/ExploreEconomies/?economyid=197|access-date=June 28, 2007|title=Doing Business in the United States (2006)|publisher=World Bank}}</ref> The United States is the only advanced economy that does not [[List of statutory minimum employment leave by country|legally guarantee its workers paid vacation]] or [[Sick leave#United States|paid sick days]], and is one of just a few countries in the world without [[paid family leave]] as a [[legal right]], with the others being [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Suriname]] and [[Liberia]].<ref>Rebecca Ray, Milla Sanes, and John Schmitt (May 2013). [http://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/no-vacation-update-2013-05.pdf No-Vacation Nation Revisited]. ''[[Center for Economic and Policy Research]].''</ref><ref>Tara Siegel Bernard (February 22, 2013). [https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/23/your-money/us-trails-much-of-the-world-in-providing-paid-family-leave.html In Paid Family Leave, U.S. Trails Most of the Globe]. ''[[The New York Times]]''</ref><ref>Maxwell Strachan, Alissa Scheller, Jan Diehm (October 29, 2013). [https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/29/american-exceptionalism_n_4170683.html?ncid=txtlnkushpmg00000029 15 Ways The United States Is The Best (At Being The Worst)]. ''[[The Huffington Post]].''</ref> In 2014 and again in 2020, the [[International Trade Union Confederation]] graded the U.S. a 4{{nbs}}out of{{nbs}}5+, its third-lowest score, on the subject of powers and [[Labor rights|rights granted to labor unions]].<ref>Ishaan Tharoor (May 20, 2014). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2014/05/20/map-the-worst-places-in-the-world-to-be-a-worker/ MAP: The worst places in the world to be a worker]. ''[[The Washington Post]].'' see also: [http://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/survey_ra_2014_eng_v2.pdf ITUC Global Rights Index].</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1= O'Brien |first1=Fergal |last2= Schneeweiss |first2=Zoe |date=June 18, 2020 |title=U.S. Ranked Worst for Workers' Rights Among Major Economies |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-06-18/u-s-ranked-worst-for-workers-rights-among-major-economies |work=Bloomberg|access-date=June 19, 2020}}</ref> Some scholars, including business theorist [[Jeffrey Pfeffer]] and political scientist Daniel Kinderman, posit that contemporary employment practices in the United States relating to the increased performance pressure from management, and the hardships imposed on employees such as toxic working environments, [[precarity]], and long hours, could be responsible for 120,000 excess deaths annually, making the workplace the fifth leading cause of death in the United States.<ref>{{cite book |last= Pfeffer|first=Jeffrey|date=2018 |title=Dying for a Paycheck: How Modern Management Harms Employee Health and Company Performance – and What We Can Do About It|publisher=HarperBusiness|page=38 |isbn=978-0062800923|author-link=Jeffrey Pfeffer}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= McGregor|first=Jena|date=March 22, 2018|title=This professor says the workplace is the fifth leading cause of death in the U.S.|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/on-leadership/wp/2018/03/22/this-professor-says-the-workplace-is-the-fifth-leading-cause-of-death-in-the-u-s/|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=July 5, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Kinderman|first=Daniel|date=2019|title=The Neoliberal Revolution in Industrial Relations|journal=Catalyst|volume=2|issue=4|pages=117–118|issn=2475-7365|quote=Neoliberal industrial relations reform and increased employer discretion has enabled employers to significantly increase the performance pressure, with serious repercussions for employees. In the United States, work-related issues including layoffs, job insecurity, toxic cultures, and long hours may be responsible for up to 120,000 deaths a year.}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Unemployment===<br />
{{Main|Unemployment in the United States|List of U.S. states and territories by unemployment rate}}<br />
[[File:U1-U6 unemployment rate.webp|thumb|450px|U1-U6 unemployment rate]]<br />
As of December 2017, the [[unemployment]] rate in the U.S. was 4.1%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/UNRATE |title=Federal Reserve Database-FRED-Data Series UNRATE |publisher=Research.stlouisfed.org |date=September 6, 2013 |access-date=October 20, 2013}}</ref> or 6.6 million people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/UNEMPLOY |title=Federal Reserve Database-FRED-Data Series Unemploy |date=January 1948 |publisher=Research.stlouisfed.org |access-date=October 20, 2013}}</ref> The government's broader U-6 unemployment rate, which includes the part-time [[underemployment|underemployed]], was 8.1%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/U6RATE |title=Federal Reserve Database-FRED-Data Series U6RATE-March 2013 |publisher=Research.stlouisfed.org |date=September 6, 2013 |access-date=October 20, 2013}}</ref> or 8.2 million people. These figures were calculated with a civilian labor force of approximately 160.6 million people,<ref name="research.stlouisfed.org">{{cite web|url=http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/CLF16OV |title=Federal Reserve Database-CLF160V Data Series|date=January 1948|publisher=Research.stlouisfed.org |access-date=October 20, 2013}}</ref> relative to a U.S. population of approximately 327 million people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/POP |title=FRED Database – POP Data Series – U.S. Population. November 2012 |date=January 1952 |publisher=Research.stlouisfed.org |access-date=October 20, 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Between 2009 and 2010, following the Great Recession, the emerging problem of [[jobless recovery|jobless recoveries]] resulted in record levels of [[long-term unemployment]] with more than six million workers looking for work for more than six months as of January 2010. This particularly affected older workers.<ref name="Goodman">[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/21/business/economy/21unemployed.html "Millions of Unemployed Face Years Without Jobs"] article by [[Peter S. Goodman]] in ''[[The New York Times]]'' February 20, 2010.</ref> A year after the recession ended in June 2009, immigrants gained 656,000 jobs in the U.S., while U.S.-born workers lost more than a million jobs, due in part to an aging country (relatively more white retirees) and demographic shifts.<ref>"[https://money.cnn.com/2010/10/29/news/economy/jobs_immigrants/ Immigrants top native born in U.S. job hunt]". [[CNNMoney.com]]. October 29, 2010.</ref> In April 2010, the official unemployment rate was 9.9%, but the government's broader [[Unemployment#United States Bureau of Labor statistics|U-6 unemployment]] rate was 17.1%.<ref>"[https://blogs.wsj.com/economics/2010/05/07/broader-u-6-unemployment-rate-increases-to-171-in-april/ Broader U-6 Unemployment Rate Increases to 17.1% in April]". ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''. May 7, 2010.</ref> Between February 2008 and February 2010, the number of people working part-time for economic reasons (i.e., would prefer to work full-time) increased by 4.0 million to 8.8 million, an 83% increase in part-time workers during the two-year period.<ref name="EconPost">{{cite web |title=Four million more people working part time than 2 years ago |publisher=EconPost.com |date=March 17, 2010 |url=http://econpost.com/unitedstateseconomy/four-million-more-people-working-part-time-2-years-ago |access-date=March 30, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100711052533/http://econpost.com/unitedstateseconomy/four-million-more-people-working-part-time-2-years-ago |archive-date=July 11, 2010 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
<br />
By 2013, although the unemployment rate had fallen below 8%, the record proportion of long term unemployed and continued decreasing household income remained indicative of a jobless recovery.<ref name=SchwartzJobless>{{cite news|last=Schwartz|first=Nelson|title=Recovery in U.S. Is Lifting Profits, but Not Adding Jobs|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/04/business/economy/corporate-profits-soar-as-worker-income-limps.html?pagewanted=all|access-date=March 18, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times |date=March 3, 2013}}</ref> However, the number of payroll jobs returned to its pre-recession (November 2007) level by May 2014 as the economy recovered.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/PAYEMS |title=FRED – All Employees Total Non-farm Payrolls |date=January 1939}}</ref><br />
<br />
After being higher in the post-war period, the U.S. unemployment rate fell below the rising [[eurozone]] unemployment rate in the mid-1980s and has remained significantly lower almost continuously since.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Constance Sorrentino|author2=Joyanna Moy|title=U.S. labor market performance in international perspective|journal=Monthly Labor Review|date=June 2002 |url=http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2002/06/art2full.pdf |access-date=August 22, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chronic Unemployment in the Euro Area: Causes and Cures|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/1999/01/0599ch4.pdf |work=World Economic Outlook|publisher=International Monetary Fund|access-date=August 22, 2013|year=1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Unemployment|url=http://www.unc.edu/depts/europe/euroeconomics/Unemployment.php|work=Euro Economics|publisher=University of North Carolina|access-date=August 22, 2013|quote=Chart}}</ref> In 1955, 55% of Americans worked in services, between 30% and 35% in industry, and between 10% and 15% in [[Agriculture in the United States|agriculture]]. By 1980, over 65% were employed in services, between 25% and 30% in industry, and less than 5% in agriculture.<ref>Time-Life Books, Library of Nations: United States, Sixth European English language printing, 1989</ref> [[Male unemployment]] continued to be significantly higher than those of females (at 9.8% vs. 7.5% in 2009). The unemployment among Caucasians continues being much lower than those for African-Americans (at 8.5% vs. 15.8% also in 2009).<ref name="CPS06052009">{{cite web |url=http://www.bls.gov/cps/ |title=Current Population Survey |publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Government |date=June 5, 2009 |access-date=June 19, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[youth unemployment]] rate was 18.5% in July 2009, the highest rate in that month since 1948.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20100327214616/http://www.bls.gov/news.release/youth.nr0.htm Employment and Unemployment Among Youth Summary]". United States Department of Labor. August 27, 2009.</ref> The unemployment rate of young African Americans was 28.2% in May 2013.<ref>"[https://www.forbes.com/sites/susanadams/2013/06/07/the-unemployment-news-is-worse-for-many/ The Unemployment News Is Worse For Many]". ''[[Forbes]]''. June 7, 2013.</ref><br />
<br />
The unemployment rate reached an all-time high of 14.7% in April 2020 before falling back to 11.1% in June 2020. Due to the effects of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19 pandemic]], Q2 GDP in the US fell 32.9% in 2020.<ref>{{cite web|title=Gross Domestic Product, 2nd Quarter 2020 (Advance Estimate) and Annual Update {{!}} U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA)|url=https://www.bea.gov/news/2020/gross-domestic-product-2nd-quarter-2020-advance-estimate-and-annual-update|access-date=2021-06-08|website=www.bea.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=The U.S. economy added 4.8 million jobs in June, but fierce new headwinds have emerged|language=en-US|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/07/02/june-2020-jobs-report/|access-date=2021-06-08|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Cox|first=Jeff|date=2020-07-30|title=Second-quarter GDP plunged by worst-ever 32.9% amid virus-induced shutdown|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/07/30/us-gdp-q2-2020-first-reading.html|access-date=2021-06-08|website=CNBC|language=en}}</ref> The unemployment rate continued its rapid decline falling to 3.9% in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-07 |title=The US labor market recovered rapidly in 2021 but still fell short even before Omicron wave |url=https://www.piie.com/blogs/realtime-economic-issues-watch/us-labor-market-recovered-rapidly-2021-still-fell-short-even |access-date=2022-04-12 |website=PIIE |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Employment by sector===<br />
{{See also|List of largest United States–based employers globally#Employment_by_major_industry_sector|l1=Employment by Major Industry Sector in United States}}<br />
<br />
U.S. employment, as estimated in 2012, is divided into 79.7% in the service sector, 19.2% in the manufacturing sector, and 1.1% in the agriculture sector.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/ |title=The World Factbook (United States) |publisher=CIA.gov |date=September 25, 2013 |access-date=October 26, 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
United States non-farm employment by industry sector February 2013.<ref name="Inflation2">{{cite web |url=http://www.bls.gov/cpi/cpid1302.pdf|title=CPI Detailed Report – Data for February 2013|publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics|access-date=June 1, 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Income and wealth==<br />
[[File:Median personal income after taxes.webp|thumb|300px|Median personal income after taxes<br />
{{legend|#FF2600|[[State income tax]]}}<br />
{{legend|#FFD932|[[Payroll tax in the United States|Payroll tax]] [[employee]] side}}<br />
{{legend|#B51700|[[Federal income tax]]}}<br />
{{legend|#1DB100|[[Median income]] after tax}}<br />
{{legend|#FF95CA|[[Payroll tax in the United States|Payroll tax]] [[employer]] side}}<br />
]]<br />
{{Main|Income in the United States|Affluence in the United States}}<br />
{{See also|Personal income in the United States|Household income in the United States|Income inequality in the United States|List of United States counties by per capita income}}<br />
[[File:US Real Household Median Income thru 2014.png|thumb|450px|U.S. real median household income (1984–2018)]]<br />
[[File:Top 1 pct share of income 1979 2007 2014.png|thumb|450px|U.S. share of income (pre-tax and after-tax) earned by top 1% households in 1979, 2007, and 2015 (CBO data). The first date (1979) reflects the more egalitarian pre-1980 period, 2007 was the peak inequality of the post-1980 period, and the 2015 number reflects the Obama tax increases on the top 1% along with residual effects of the Great Recession.<ref name="CBO_Dist2015">{{cite web| url = https://www.cbo.gov/publication/54646| title = CBO. ''The Distribution of Household Income, 2015''| date = November 8, 2018}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:U.S. Income and Net Worth Distribution.png|thumb|450px|U.S. family pre-tax income and net worth distribution for 2013 and 2016, from the Federal Reserve [[Survey of Consumer Finances]]<ref name=fed2017sept>[[Federal Reserve Bulletin]]. September 2017, Vol. 103, No. 3. See PDF: [https://www.federalreserve.gov/publications/files/scf17.pdf Changes in U.S. Family Finances from 2013 to 2016: Evidence from the Survey of Consumer Finances]. Table 1 (on the left) is taken from page 4 of the PDF. Table 2 (on the right) is taken from page 13. See: [[Survey of Consumer Finances]] and [https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/scfindex.htm more data].</ref>]]<br />
<br />
===Income measures===<br />
Real (i.e., inflation-adjusted) median household income, a good measure of middle-class income, was $59,039 in 2016, a record level. However, it was just above the previous record set in 1998, indicating the purchasing power of middle-class family income has been stagnant or down for much of the past twenty years.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/MEHOINUSA672N| title = FRED – Real Median Household Income| date = January 1984}}</ref> During 2013, employee compensation was $8.969{{nbs}}trillion, while gross private investment totals $2.781{{nbs}}trillion.<ref name="Fed Z.1">{{cite web | url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/z1/current/z1.pdf | title=Z.1: Financial Accounts of the United States | publisher=[[Federal Reserve Board of Governors]] | date=March 6, 2014 | access-date=May 31, 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527095440/http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/z1/Current/z1.pdf | archive-date=May 27, 2014 | url-status=dead | df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
<br />
Americans have the highest average [[household income]] among OECD nations, and in 2010 had the fourth-highest [[median household income]], down from second-highest in 2007.<ref name="Household Income">{{cite journal |date=March 18, 2014 |title=Household Income |url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/society-at-a-glance-2014_soc_glance-2014-en |journal=Society at a Glance 2014: OECD Social Indicators |series=Society at a Glance |publisher=OECD Publishing |doi=10.1787/soc_glance-2014-en |isbn=9789264200722 |access-date=May 29, 2014 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated4 /> According to one analysis middle-class incomes in the United States fell into a tie with those in Canada in 2010, and may have fallen behind by 2014, while several other advanced economies have closed the gap in recent years.<ref>David Leonhardt and Kevin Quealy (April 22, 2014). [https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/23/upshot/the-american-middle-class-is-no-longer-the-worlds-richest.html?_r=0 The American Middle Class Is No Longer the World's Richest]. ''[[The New York Times]].''</ref><br />
<br />
===Income inequality===<br />
Income inequality has become a hotly debated topic globally. According to the ''CIA World Factbook'', U.S. income inequality ranked 41st highest among 156 countries in 2017 (i.e., 74% of countries have a more equal income distribution).<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2172rank.html#us| title = ''CIA World Factbook''. "Distribution of Family Income"| access-date = June 17, 2018| archive-date = June 4, 2011| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110604005151/http://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2007/06/12/afx3810988.html#us| url-status = dead}}</ref> According to the [[Congressional Budget Office]], the top 1% of income households earned about a 9% share of the pre-tax income in 1979, versus 19% in 2007 and 17% in 2014. For after-tax income, these figures were 7%, 17%, and 13%, respectively. These figures indicate the share of income earned by top earners more than doubled between 1979 and 2007, then fell somewhat following the [[Great Recession]], and the higher tax rates and re-distributive policies applied by President Barack Obama in 2013 (i.e., expiration of the [[Bush Tax Cuts]] for the top 1% and subsidies for lower income persons via the [[Affordable Care Act]]).<ref name="CBO_Dist2014">{{cite web| url = https://www.cbo.gov/publication/53597| title = CBO. ''The Distribution of Household Income, 2014''| date = March 19, 2018}}</ref> Recasting the 2012 income using the 1979 income distribution (representing the more egalitarian 1950–1980 period), the bottom 99% of families would have averaged about $7,100 more income.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/13/business/rethinking-the-income-gap-and-a-college-education.html ''The New York Times''. Eduardo Porter "Rethinking the Rise of Inequality". November 13, 2013].</ref> [[Income inequality in the United States]] has grown from 2005 to 2012 in more than two out of three metropolitan areas.<ref name=Chokshi>{{cite news|last1=Chokshi|first1=Niraj|title=Income inequality seems to be rising in more than 2 in 3 metro areas|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/govbeat/wp/2014/08/11/income-inequality-seems-to-be-rising-in-more-than-2-in-3-metro-areas/|access-date=September 13, 2014|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=August 11, 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Upper class|top 1 percent of income-earners]] accounted for 52 percent of the income gains from 2009 to 2015, where income is defined as market income excluding government transfers,<ref>[[Emmanuel Saez|Saez, Emmanuel]] (June 30, 2016). [http://elsa.berkeley.edu/~saez/saez-UStopincomes-2015.pdf "Striking it Richer: The Evolution of Top Incomes in the United States"]. ''[[University of California, Berkeley]].''</ref> while their share of total income has more than doubled from nine percent in 1976 to twenty percent in 2011.<ref name="PikettySaez">Alvaredo, Facundo; [[Anthony B. Atkinson|Atkinson, Anthony B.]]; [[Thomas Piketty|Piketty, Thomas]]; [[Emmanuel Saez|Saez, Emmanuel]] (2013). [http://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.27.3.3 "The Top 1{{nbs}}Percent in International and Historical Perspective"]. ''Journal of Economic Perspectives.''</ref> According to a 2014 OECD report, 80% of total pre-tax market income growth went to the top 10% from 1975 to 2007.<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/OECD2014-FocusOnTopIncomes.pdf Focus on Top Incomes and Taxation in OECD Countries: Was the crisis a game changer?] ''[[OECD]],'' May 2014.</ref><br />
<br />
A number of economists and others have expressed growing concern about [[Income inequality in the United States|income inequality]], calling it "deeply worrying",<ref name=Noah1>[http://www.tnr.com/blog/timothy-noah/99651/white-house-heres-why-you-have-care-about-inequality White House: Here's Why You Have To Care About Inequality] Timothy Noah | tnr.com| January 13, 2012.</ref> unjust,<ref name="Richer">{{cite news|last=Krugman|first=Paul|title=For Richer|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/20/magazine/20INEQUALITY.html?pagewanted=all|newspaper=The New York Times|date=October 20, 2002}}</ref> a danger to democracy/social stability,<ref name=Oligarchy>[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/04/opinion/oligarchy-american-style.html?_r=1&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss ''The New York Times''. "Oligarchy, American Style"]. Paul Krugman. November 3, 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens |author1=Martin Gilens |author2=Benjamin I. Page |name-list-style=amp|journal=[[Perspectives on Politics]] |date=2014 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=564–581 |doi=10.1017/S1537592714001595 |url=http://scholar.princeton.edu/sites/default/files/mgilens/files/gilens_and_page_2014_-testing_theories_of_american_politics.doc.pdf|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>[[Thomas Piketty|Piketty, Thomas]] (2014). ''[[Capital in the Twenty-First Century]].'' [[Belknap Press]]. {{ISBN|067443000X}} p. 514: *"the risk of a drift towards oligarchy is real and gives little reason for optimism about where the United States is headed."</ref> or a sign of [[American decline|national decline]].<ref name=Packer>"The Broken Contract", By George Packer, ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'', November/December 2011</ref> Yale professor [[Robert Shiller]] has said, "The most important problem that we are facing now today, I think, is rising inequality in the United States and elsewhere in the world."<ref>{{cite news|last=Christoffersen|first=John|title=Rising inequality 'most important problem,' says Nobel-winning economist|url=https://www.stltoday.com/business/local/rising-inequality-most-important-problem-says-nobel-winning-economist/article_a5065957-05c3-5ac0-ba5b-dab91c22973a.html|access-date=October 19, 2013|newspaper=St. Louis Post-Dispatch|date=October 14, 2013}}</ref> [[Thomas Piketty]] of the [[Paris School of Economics]] argues that the post-1980 increase in inequality played a role in the 2008 crisis by contributing to the nation's financial instability.<ref>[[Thomas Piketty|Piketty, Thomas]] (2014). ''[[Capital in the Twenty-First Century]].'' [[Belknap Press]]. {{ISBN|067443000X}} pp. 297–98.</ref> In 2016, the economists Peter H. Lindert and [[Jeffrey G. Williamson]] claimed that inequality is the highest it has been since the nation's founding.<ref>Jeff Guo (July 1, 2016). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/07/01/income-inequality-today-may-be-the-highest-since-the-nations-founding/ Income inequality today may be higher today than in any other era]. ''[[The Washington Post]]''</ref> In 2018, income inequality was at the highest level ever recorded by the [[United States Census Bureau|Census Bureau]], with a Gini index of 0.485.<ref>{{cite news |last= Telford|first=Taylor|date=September 26, 2019|title=Income inequality in America is the highest it's been since census started tracking it, data shows|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/09/26/income-inequality-america-highest-its-been-since-census-started-tracking-it-data-show|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=September 27, 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
Others disagree, saying that the inequality issue is a political distraction from what they consider real problems like chronic unemployment and sluggish growth.<ref name=Winship>{{cite web|last1=Winship|first1=Scott|title=Overstating the Costs of Inequality|url=http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/articles/2013/03/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship.pdf|website=Brookings|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=Spring 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024141452/http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Research/Files/Articles/2013/03/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship.pdf|archive-date=October 24, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Income Inequality in America: Fact and Fiction|url=http://www.economics21.org/files/e21ib_1.pdf|website=e21|publisher=Manhattan Institute|access-date=August 14, 2014|date=May 2014}}</ref> [[George Mason University]] economics professor [[Tyler Cowen]] has called inequality a "red herring",<ref>{{cite news|last1=Porter|first1=Eduardo|title=Tyler Cowen on Inequality and What Really Ails America|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/31/upshot/tyler-cowen-on-inequality-and-what-really-ails-america.html|work=The New York Times|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=July 30, 2014}}</ref> saying that factors driving its increase within a nation can simultaneously be driving its reduction globally, and arguing that redistributive policies intended to reduce inequality can do more harm than good regarding the real problem of stagnant wages.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Cowen|first1=Tyler|title=Income Inequality Is Not Rising Globally. It's Falling|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/20/upshot/income-inequality-is-not-rising-globally-its-falling-.html|work=The New York Times|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=July 19, 2014}}</ref> [[Robert Lucas Jr.]] has argued that the salient problem American living standards face is a government that has grown too much, and that recent policy shifts in the direction of European-style taxation, welfare spending, and regulation may be indefinitely putting the U.S. on a significantly lower, European level income trajectory.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lucas|first1=Robert E. Jr.|title=The U.S. Recession of 2007–201?|url=http://econ.washington.edu/files/2013/05/millimansl.pdf|access-date=August 12, 2014|location=Lecture at the University of Washington|date=May 19, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812204022/http://econ.washington.edu/files/2013/05/millimansl.pdf|archive-date=August 12, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Henninger|first1=Daniel|title=The Disappearing Recovery: What if the weak recovery is all the recovery we are going to get?|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304911104576443953024891120?mod=djemEditorialPage_h&mg=reno64-wsj&url=http%3A%2F%2Fonline.wsj.com%2Farticle%2FSB10001424052702304911104576443953024891120.html%3Fmod%3DdjemEditorialPage_h|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=July 13, 2011}}</ref> Some researchers have disputed the accuracy of the underlying data regarding claims about inequality trends,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Stiles|first1=Andrew|title=The Full Piketty: Experts raise questions about Frenchman's data on income inequality|url=http://freebeacon.com/blog/the-full-piketty/|work=The Washington Free Beacon|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=May 28, 1014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Feldstein|first1=Martin|title=Piketty's Numbers Don't Add Up: Ignoring dramatic changes in tax rules since 1980 creates the false impression that income inequality is rising|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304081804579557664176917086|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=May 14, 2014}}</ref> and economists Michael Bordo and Christopher M. Meissner have argued that inequality cannot be blamed for the 2008 financial crisis.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Michael Bordo|author2=Christopher M. Meissner|title=Does inequality lead to a financial crisis?|url=http://www.voxeu.org/article/does-inequality-lead-financial-crisis|publisher=Vox|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=March 24, 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to a report by the [[Congressional Research Service]], decreased progressiveness in [[capital gains tax]]es was the largest contributor to the increase in overall income inequality in the U.S. from 1996 to 2006.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hungerford|first=Thomas L.|title=Changes in the Distribution of Income Among Tax Filers Between 1996 and 2006: The Role of Labor Income, Capital Income, and Tax Policy|publisher=Congressional Research Service|location=Washington, DC|url=http://taxprof.typepad.com/files/crs-1.pdf|access-date=January 1, 2014|format=Report 7-5700/R42131|date=December 29, 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
As of 2010 The U.S. had the fourth-widest income distribution among [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] nations, behind Turkey, Mexico, and Chile.<ref>{{cite web|title=Inequality and Poverty|url=http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/OECD2013-Inequality-and-Poverty-8p.pdf|publisher=OECD|access-date=July 30, 2014|date=May 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.compareyourcountry.org/inequality?cr=usa&cr1=oecd&lg=en&page=0 Compare your country: Income distribution and poverty]. [[OECD]].</ref><ref name="National Research Council" /> The [[Brookings Institution]] said in March 2013 that income inequality was increasing and becoming permanent, sharply reducing [[Socio-economic mobility in the United States|social mobility in the US]].<ref name="BrookingsPerm">{{cite web|title=Inequality Rising and Permanent Over Past Two Decades|url=http://www.brookings.edu/about/projects/bpea/latest-conference/2013-spring-permanent-inequality-panousi|work=Brookings Papers on Economic Activity|publisher=Brookings Institution|access-date=March 23, 2013|author=Vasia Panousi|author2=Ivan Vidangos|author3=Shanti Ramnath|author4=Jason DeBacker|author5=Bradley Heim|date=Spring 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408151547/http://www.brookings.edu/about/projects/bpea/latest-conference/2013-spring-permanent-inequality-panousi|archive-date=April 8, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The [[OECD]] ranks the U.S. 10th in social mobility, behind the [[Nordic countries]], Australia, Canada, Germany, Spain, and France.<ref>Dave Serchuk. [https://www.forbes.com/sites/daveserchuk/2011/12/07/happy-countrysocial-mobility/ Happy Country=Social Mobility?] ''[[Forbes]].'' July 12, 2011.</ref> Of the major developed nations, only Italy and Great Britain have lower mobility.<ref>Steve Hargreaves (December 18, 2013). [https://money.cnn.com/2013/12/09/news/economy/america-economic-mobility/index.html The myth of the American Dream]. ''[[CNN]].'' 2014.</ref> This has been partly attributed to the depth of [[Poverty in the United States|American poverty]], which leaves poor children economically disadvantaged,<ref name=DeParle>DeParle, Jason (January 4, 2012). [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/05/us/harder-for-americans-to-rise-from-lower-rungs.html?sq=mobility&st=cse&scp=1&pagewanted=all Harder for Americans to Rise From Lower Rungs]. ''[[The New York Times]]''.</ref> though others have observed that a relative rise in the U.S. is mathematically harder due to its higher and more widely distributed income range than in nations with artificial income compression, even if one enjoys more absolute mobility in the U.S., and have questioned how meaningful such international comparisons are.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Schneider|first1=Donald|title=A Guide to Understanding International Comparisons of Economic Mobility|url=http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2013/07/a-guide-to-understanding-international-comparisons-of-economic-mobility|publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]]|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=July 29, 2013}}</ref><br />
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There has been a widening gap between productivity and median incomes since the 1970s.<ref>Mishel, Lawrence (April 26, 2012). [http://www.epi.org/publication/ib330-productivity-vs-compensation/ The wedges between productivity and median compensation growth]. ''[[Economic Policy Institute]].''</ref> The primary cause for the gap between productivity and income growth is the decline in per capita hours worked.<ref name="Gordon 2013">{{cite journal |title=U.S. Productivity Growth: The Slowdown Has Returned After a Temporary Revival |journal=International Productivity Monitor, Centre for the Study of Living Standards |date=Spring 2013 |last=Gordon |first=Robert J. |volume=25 |pages=13–19 |url=http://faculty-web.at.northwestern.edu/economics/Gordon/SAN-to-NBER%20Baily-Sharpe%20as%20published_130327.pdf |access-date=2014-07-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809065612/http://faculty-web.at.northwestern.edu/economics/Gordon/SAN-to-NBER%20Baily-Sharpe%20as%20published_130327.pdf |archive-date=August 9, 2014 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Other causes include the rise in non-cash benefits as a share of worker compensation (which aren't counted in CPS income data), immigrants entering the labor force, statistical distortions including the use of different inflation adjusters by the BLS and CPS, productivity gains being skewed toward less labor-intensive sectors, income shifting from labor to capital, a skill gap-driven wage disparity, productivity being falsely inflated by hidden technology-driven depreciation increases and import price measurement problems, and/or a natural period of adjustment following an income surge during aberrational post-war circumstances.<ref name=Winship /><ref>{{cite web|last1=Rose|first1=Stephen|title=Does Productivity Growth Still Benefit Working Americans?: Unraveling the Income Growth Mystery to Determine How Much Median Incomes Trail Productivity Growth|url=http://www.itif.org/files/DoesProductivityGrowthStillBenefitWorkingAmericans.pdf|publisher=The Information Technology and Innovation Foundation|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=June 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_324645/lang--en/index.htm|title=Global wage growth stagnates, lags behind pre-crisis rates|date=December 5, 2014|access-date=August 10, 2017}}</ref><br />
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According to a 2018 study by the OECD, given that the unemployed and at-risk workers get almost no government support and are further set back by a very weak [[collective bargaining]] system, the U.S. has much higher income inequality and a larger percentage of low-income workers than almost any other developed nation.<ref>{{cite news |last=Van Dam |first=Andrew |date=July 4, 2018 |title=Is it great to be a worker in the U.S.? Not compared with the rest of the developed world|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/07/04/is-it-great-to-be-a-worker-in-the-u-s-not-compared-to-the-rest-of-the-developed-world/|newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=July 6, 2018}}</ref><br />
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===Household net worth and wealth inequality===<br />
{{Bar chart|float=right<br />
| title = Net worth in the United States, 2006–2018<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/TNWBSHNO| title = Federal Reserve Economic Data{{snd}}Households and Nonprofit Organizations{{snd}}Net Worth Level| date = October 1945}}</ref><br />
| table_width = 20<br />
| bar_width = 20<!--must be an unformatted number--><br />
| data_max = 110,000<!--upper bound on the values in the data fields--><br />
| label_type = Year<br />
| data_type = {{center|Wealth (billions in [[USD]])}}<br />
| label1 = 2006 | data1 = 67,704<br />
| label2 = 2007 | data2 = 68,156<br />
| label3 = 2008 | data3 = 58,070<br />
| label4 = 2009 | data4 = 60,409<br />
| label5 = 2010 | data5 = 64,702<br />
| label6 = 2011 | data6 = 66,457<br />
| label7 = 2012 | data7 = 72,316<br />
| label8 = 2013 | data8 = 81,542<br />
| label9 = 2014 | data9 = 86,927<br />
| label10 = 2015 | data10 = 89,614<br />
| label11 = 2016 | data11 = 95,101<br />
| label12 = 2017 | data12 = 103,484<br />
| label13 = 2018 | data13 = 104,329<br />
| caption =<br />
}}<br />
As of Q4 2017, total household net worth in the United States was a record $99{{nbs}}trillion, an increase of $5.2{{nbs}}trillion from 2016. This increase reflects both stock market and housing price gains. This measure has been setting records since Q4 2012.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?graph_id=369801| title = FRED "Household and Non-Profit net worth{{snd}}Real and Nominal"}}</ref> If divided evenly, the $99{{nbs}}trillion represents an average of $782,000 per household (for about 126.2 million households) or $302,000 per person. However, median household net worth (i.e., half of the families above and below this level) was $97,300 in 2016. The bottom 25% of families had a median net worth of zero, while the 25th to 50th percentile had a median net worth of $40,000.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/scfindex.htm| title = Federal Reserve – Survey of Consumer Finances 2016}}</ref><br />
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Wealth inequality is more unequal than income inequality, with the top 1% households owning approximately 42% of the net worth in 2012, versus 24% in 1979.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://gabriel-zucman.eu/uswealth/| title = Economist Gabriel Zucman "Wealth Inequality in the United States Since 1913"| date = October 12, 2014}}</ref> According to a September 2017 report by the Federal Reserve, wealth inequality is at record highs; the top 1% controlled 38.6% of the country's wealth in 2016.<ref>{{cite news |last=Egan|first=Matt |date=September 27, 2017|title=Record inequality: The top 1% controls 38.6% of America's wealth|url=https://money.cnn.com/2017/09/27/news/economy/inequality-record-top-1-percent-wealth/index.html|work=[[CNNMoney]]|access-date=October 12, 2017}}</ref> The [[Boston Consulting Group]] posited in June 2017 report that 1% of the Americans will control 70% of country's wealth by 2021.<ref>{{cite news |last=Steverman|first=Ben |date=June 16, 2017 |title=The U.S. Is Where the Rich Are the Richest|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-06-16/the-u-s-is-where-the-rich-are-the-richest|work=Bloomberg |access-date=October 22, 2017}}</ref><br />
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The top 10% wealthiest possess 80% of all financial assets.<ref name="hurst34">{{cite book |last=Hurst|first=Charles E.|title=Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences|year=2007|publisher=Pearson Education, Inc.|isbn=978-0205698295|page=34|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M0FVPwAACAAJ}}</ref> [[Wealth inequality in the United States|Wealth inequality in the U.S.]] is greater than in most developed countries other than Sweden.<ref name="Weissmann">{{cite news |date=June 23, 2021 |title=Global Wealth Databook 2021 |pages=115–118 |newspaper=Credit Suisse |url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/media/assets/corporate/docs/about-us/research/publications/global-wealth-databook-2021.pdf |access-date=March 4, 2022}}</ref> [[Inherited wealth]] may help explain why many Americans who have become rich may have had a "substantial head start".<ref name="Salon-20140324">{{cite web |last=Bruenig |first=Matt |title=You call this a meritocracy? How rich inheritance is poisoning the American economy |url=http://www.salon.com/2014/03/24/death_of_meritocracy_how_inheritance_is_poisoning_the_american_economy/ |date=March 24, 2014 |work=[[Salon (website)|Salon]] |access-date=August 24, 2014}}</ref><ref name="ECO-20140318">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Inequality – Inherited wealth |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/buttonwood/2014/03/inequality |date=March 18, 2014 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |access-date=August 24, 2014}}</ref> In September 2012, according to the [[Institute for Policy Studies]], "over 60 percent" of the [[Forbes 400|Forbes richest 400 Americans]] "grew up in substantial privilege".<ref name="OW-20120924">{{cite web |last=Pizzigati |first=Sam |title=The 'Self-Made' Hallucination of America's Rich |url=http://inequality.org/selfmade-myth-hallucinating-rich/ |date=September 24, 2012 |work=[[Institute for Policy Studies]] |access-date=August 24, 2014}}</ref> Median household wealth fell 35% in the U.S., from $106,591 to $68,839 between 2005 and 2011, due to the [[Great Recession]], but has since recovered as indicated above.<ref>{{cite web|title=Median Household Net Worth by Quintile|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/pdf/cb14-156_net_worth_graphic.pdf|website=United States Census|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912175408/http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/pdf/cb14-156_net_worth_graphic.pdf|archive-date=September 12, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
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About 30% of the entire world's millionaire population resides in the United States ({{as of|2009|lc=y}}).<ref name="WorldWealthReport2010">{{cite web|url=http://www.capgemini.com/insights-and-resources/by-publication/world-wealth-report-2010/|title=World Wealth Report 2010 – Resource|date=June 18, 2010|access-date=August 10, 2017}}</ref> The [[Economist Intelligence Unit]] estimated in 2008 that there were 16,600,000 millionaires in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.barclayswealth.com/files/volume5.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326020703/http://www.barclayswealth.com/files/volume5.pdf |archive-date=March 26, 2009 |title=Barclays Wealth Insights |url-status=dead |access-date=February 2, 2017}}. Volume 5: Evolving Fortunes. Barclays (2008). p. 7</ref> Furthermore, 34% of the world's billionaires are American (in 2011).<ref name="forbes.com" /><ref>{{cite news|last=Ody |first=Elizabeth |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-09/carlos-slim-tops-forbes-list-of-billionaires-for-second-year.html |title=Carlos Slim Tops Forbes List of Billionaires for Second Year |publisher=Bloomberg |date=March 10, 2011 |access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref><br />
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===Home ownership===<br />
{{Further|Home-ownership in the United States}}<br />
[[File:Aerial - Interstate 805 in San Diego, CA 01.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of [[San Diego]] suburb]]<br />
<br />
The U.S. home ownership rate in Q1 2018 was 64.2%, well below the all-time peak of 69.2% set in Q4 2004 during a [[United States housing bubble|housing bubble]]. Millions of homes were lost to foreclosure during the [[Great Recession]] of 2007–2009, bringing the ownership rate to a trough of 62.9% in Q2 2016. The average ownership rate from 1965 to 2017 was 65.3%.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/RHORUSQ156N| title = FRED "Homeownership rate for the United States"| date = January 1965}}</ref><br />
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The average home in the United States has more than 700 square feet per person (65 square meters), which is 50%–100% more than the average in other high-income countries. Similarly, ownership rates of gadgets and amenities are relatively high compared to other countries.<ref name="Rector-Johnson">{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/Research/Welfare/bg1713.cfm|title=Understanding Poverty in America|date=January 5, 2004|author1=Robert E. Rector|author2=Kirk A. Johnson|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100313053958/http://www.heritage.org/research/welfare/bg1713.cfm|archive-date=March 13, 2010|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Rector">{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/Research/Welfare/bg2064.cfm|title=How Poor Are America's Poor? Examining the "Plague" of Poverty in America|date=August 27, 2007|author=Robert Rector|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100312170900/http://www.heritage.org/Research/Welfare/bg2064.cfm|archive-date=March 12, 2010|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>W. Michael Cox and Richard Alm (1999), The myths of rich and poor: why we're better off than we think. New York: Basic Books</ref><br />
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It was reported by Pew Research Center in 2016 that, for the first time in 130 years, Americans aged 18 to 34 are more likely to live with their parents than in any other housing situation.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/money/us-money-blog/2016/may/27/housing-market-real-estate-millennials-living-at-home-with-parents Millennials aren't buying homes right now. What if they never do?] ''[[The Guardian]].'' May 27, 2016.</ref><br />
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In one study by ATTOM Data Solutions, in 70% of the counties surveyed, homes are increasingly unaffordable for the average U.S. worker.<ref>{{cite news |last=Min |first=Sarah |date=March 28, 2019|title=Average Americans can't afford a home in 70 percent of the country|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/housing-market-2019-americans-cant-afford-a-home-in-70-percent-of-the-country|work=[[CBS News]] |access-date=April 1, 2019}}</ref><br />
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As of 2018, the number of U.S. citizens residing in their vehicles because they can't find affordable housing has "exploded", particularly in cities with steep increases in the cost of housing such as [[Los Angeles]], [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] and [[San Francisco]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Berr |first=Johnathan |date=July 31, 2018 |title=More Americans are forced to "reside" in their vehicles|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/more-americans-are-living-in-their-vehicles-amid-high-housing-prices/|work=[[CBS MoneyWatch]]|access-date=August 2, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.governing.com/topics/health-human-services/gov-homeless-shelter-car.html |first=Mattie|last=Quinn|title='It's the New Form of Affordable Housing': More People Are Living in Their Cars|magazine=[[Governing (magazine)|Governing]]|date=July 24, 2018|access-date=January 19, 2019}}</ref><br />
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===Profits and wages===<br />
[[File:Wages in the United States.webp|thumb|300px|Wages in the United States<br />
{{legend-line|#5E5E5E solid 3px|[[Nominalism|Nominal]] wages}}<br />
{{legend|#0094EC|outline=#0076BA|[[Adjusted-for-inflation|Adjusted for inflation]] wages}}<br />
]]<br />
{{See also|List of U.S. states and territories by median wage and mean wage}}<br />
<br />
[[Real wages]] (wages adjusted for inflation) for most workers in the United States and median incomes have either declined or remained stagnant for the last twenty to forty years.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bergsten |first=C. Fred |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1255691875 |title=The United States vs. China : the quest for global economic leadership |date=2022 |isbn=978-1-5095-4735-7 |location=Cambridge |pages=303 |oclc=1255691875}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Nathaniel |title=Why American wages haven't grown despite increases in productivity |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/19/heres-how-labor-dynamism-affects-wage-growth-in-america.html |access-date=2022-11-25 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=DeSilver |first=Drew |title=For most U.S. workers, real wages have barely budged in decades |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/08/07/for-most-us-workers-real-wages-have-barely-budged-for-decades/ |access-date=2022-11-25 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Wage Stagnation in Nine Charts |url=https://www.epi.org/publication/charting-wage-stagnation/ |access-date=2022-11-25 |website=Economic Policy Institute |language=en-US}}</ref> A 2020 microanalysis demonstrated that in the preceding four decades labor's share of national output declined while over the same period the profit share of the same output increased.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mattei|first=Clara E.|date=2022 |title=The Capital Order: How Economists Invented Austerity and Paved the Way to Fascism|page=18|url=https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo181707138.html|location= |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|isbn=978-0226818399}}</ref><br />
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In 1970, [[wage]]s represented more than 51% of the U.S. GDP and profits were less than 5%. But by 2013, wages had fallen to 44% of the economy, while profits had more than doubled to 11%.<ref name="DThompson">{{cite news|last=Derek|first=Thompson|title=Corporate Profits Are Eating the Economy|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/03/corporate-profits-are-eating-the-economy/273687/|access-date=March 18, 2013|newspaper=The Atlantic|date=March 4, 2013}}</ref> Inflation-adjusted ("real") per capita [[Disposable and discretionary income|disposable personal income]] rose steadily in the U.S. from 1945 to 2008, but has since remained generally level.<ref>[http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/graph/?g=f3v "Real Disposable Personal Income: Per capita"] ''Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis'', 2013</ref><ref>[http://thinkprogress.org/economy/2013/01/25/1495171/the-rich-are-enjoying-the-recovery-while-wages-fall-for-everyone-else/ "The Rich Are Enjoying The Recovery While Wages Fall For Everyone Else"] ''ThinkProgress'', January 25, 2013.</ref><br />
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In 2005, median personal income for those over the age of 18 ranged from $3,317 for an unemployed, married [[Asian American]] female<ref name="US Census Bureau, females, 18 or older, unemployed, personal income, 2005">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new02_067.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205211730/http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new02_067.htm|archive-date=February 5, 2012|title=US Census Bureau, females, 18 or older, unemployed, personal income, 2005|access-date=December 8, 2006}}</ref> to $55,935 for a full-time, year-round employed Asian American male.<ref name="US Census Bureau, male, 18 or older, employed full-time year round, 2005">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new02_037.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205211741/http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new02_037.htm|archive-date=February 5, 2012|title=US Census Bureau, male, 18 or older, employed full-time year round, 2005|access-date=December 8, 2006}}</ref> According to the U.S. Census men tended to have higher income than women while Asians and [[White American|Whites]] earned more than [[African American]]s and [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanics]]. The overall median personal income for all individuals over the age of 18 was $24,062<ref name="US Census Bureau, 18+ age, 2005">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new02_001.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205211745/http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new02_001.htm|archive-date=February 5, 2012|title=US Census Bureau, 18+ age, 2005|access-date=December 8, 2006}}</ref> ($32,140 for those age 25 or above) in the year 2005.<ref name="US Census Bureau, Personal income for all sexes, races in 2005">{{cite web |url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_001.htm |title=US Census Bureau, Personal income for all sexes, races in 2005 |access-date=November 19, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070319232115/http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_001.htm |archive-date=March 19, 2007 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
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As a reference point, the minimum wage rate in 2009 and 2017 was $7.25 per hour or $15,080 for the 2080 hours in a typical work year. The minimum wage is a little more than the poverty level for a single person unit and about 50% of the [[Poverty in the United States|poverty level]] for a family of four.<br />
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According to an October 2014 report by the [[Pew Research Center]], [[real wages]] have been flat or falling for the last five decades for most U.S. workers, regardless of job growth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/10/09/for-most-workers-real-wages-have-barely-budged-for-decades/|title=For most workers, real wages have barely budged for decades|last=Desilver |first=Drew |date=October 9, 2014|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=July 20, 2018 |quote=But a look at five decades' worth of government wage data suggests that the better question might be, why should now be any different? For most U.S. workers, real wages{{snd}}that is, after inflation is taken into account{{snd}}have been flat or even falling for decades, regardless of whether the economy has been adding or subtracting jobs.}}</ref> Bloomberg reported in July 2018 that real GDP per capita has grown substantially since the Great Recession, but real compensation per hour, including benefits, hasn't increased at all.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Noah |date=July 25, 2018|title=How About a Free Market for Wages?|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2018-07-25/states-should-ban-contracts-barring-workers-from-joining-rivals |work=Bloomberg Opinion |access-date=August 31, 2018}}</ref><br />
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An August 2017 survey by [[CareerBuilder]] found that eight out of ten U.S. workers live paycheck to paycheck. CareerBuilder spokesman Mike Erwin blamed "stagnant wages and the rising cost of everything from education to many consumer goods".<ref>{{cite news |last=Picchi |first=Aimee |date=August 24, 2017 |title=Vast number of Americans live paycheck to paycheck|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/americans-living-paycheck-to-paycheck/|work=[[CBS News]] |access-date=August 25, 2017}}</ref> According to a survey by the federal [[Consumer Financial Protection Bureau]] on the financial well-being of U.S. citizens, roughly half have trouble paying bills, and more than one third have faced hardships such as not being able to afford a place to live, running out of food, or not having enough money to pay for medical care.<ref>{{cite news |last=Albrecht |first=Leslie |date=September 27, 2017 |title=One-third of American households can't afford food, shelter or medical care|url=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/one-third-of-american-households-cant-afford-food-shelter-or-medical-care-2017-09-27|work=[[Marketwatch]] |access-date=October 6, 2017}}</ref> According to journalist and author [[Alissa Quart]], the cost of living is rapidly outpacing the growth of salaries and wages, including those for traditionally secure professions such as teaching. She writes that "middle-class life is now 30% more expensive than it was 20 years ago."<ref>{{cite news |last=Getlen |first=Larry |date=July 23, 2018|title=America's middle class is slowly being 'wiped out'|url=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/americas-middle-class-is-slowly-being-wiped-out-2018-07-23|work=[[MarketWatch]]|access-date=July 29, 2018}}</ref><br />
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In February 2019, the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] reported that seven million U.S. citizens are three months or more behind on their car payments, setting a record. This is considered a red flag by economists, that Americans are struggling to pay bills in spite of a low unemployment rate.<ref>{{cite news |last= Long|first=Heather|date=February 13, 2019 |title=Record 7 million Americans are 3 months behind on car payments|url=https://www.boston.com/cars/car-news/2019/02/13/record-7-million-americans-are-3-months-behind-on-car-payments|work=boston.com |access-date=February 15, 2019}}</ref> A May 2019 poll conducted by [[NPR]] found that among rural Americans, 40% struggle to pay for healthcare, food and housing, and 49% could not pay cash for a $1,000 emergency, and would instead choose to borrow in order to pay for such an unexpected emergency expense.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Neel |first1=Joe|last2=Neighmond |first2=Patti |date=May 21, 2019|title=Poll: Many Rural Americans Struggle With Financial Insecurity, Access To Health Care|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2019/05/21/725059882/poll-many-rural-americans-struggle-with-financial-insecurity-access-to-health-ca|work=NPR |access-date=May 21, 2019}}</ref> Some experts assert that the US has experienced a "two-tier recovery", which has benefitted 60% of the population, while the other 40% on the "lower tier" have been struggling to pay bills as the result of stagnant wages, increases in the cost of housing, education and healthcare, and growing debts.<ref>{{cite news |last=Long |first=Heather|date=July 4, 2019 |title='This doesn't look like the best economy ever': 40% of Americans say they still struggle to pay bills |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/this-doesnt-look-like-the-best-economy-ever-40percent-of-americans-say-they-still-struggle-to-pay-bills/ar-AADRErK?li=BBnbcA1|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=July 5, 2019}}</ref><br />
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A 2021 study by the [[National Low Income Housing Coalition]] found that workers would have to make at least $24.90 an hour to be able to afford (meaning 30% of a person's income or less) renting a standard two-bedroom home or $20.40 for a one-bedroom home anywhere in the US. The former is 3.4 times higher than the current federal minimum wage.<ref>{{cite news |last=Romo |first=Vanessa |date=July 14, 2021 |title=Rents Are Out Of Reach For Most Americans Earning Minimum Wage, A Study Says |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/07/14/1016230724/rents-are-out-of-reach-for-most-americans-earning-minimum-wage-a-study-says |work=NPR |location= |access-date=July 15, 2021}}</ref><br />
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===Poverty===<br />
{{Main|Poverty in the United States}}<br />
[[File:Number in Poverty and Poverty Rate 1959 to 2011. United States..PNG|thumb|upright=1.8|Number in poverty and poverty rate: 1959 to 2016. United States.]]<br />
Starting in the 1980s [[relative poverty]] rates have consistently exceeded those of other wealthy nations, though analyses using a common data set for comparisons tend to find that the U.S. has a lower absolute poverty rate by market income than most other wealthy nations.<ref name="National Research Council">{{cite book |title=U.S. Health in International Perspective |url= http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=13497&page=171 |publisher=National Research Council and Institute of Medicine |access-date=April 8, 2013 |author1=Woolf, Steven |author2=Aaron, Laudon |year = 2013|pages=171–72|doi = 10.17226/13497|pmid = 24006554|isbn = 978-0-309-26414-3}}</ref> [[Extreme poverty]] in the United States, meaning households living on less than $2 per day before government benefits, doubled from 1996 levels to 1.5 million households in 2011, including 2.8 million children.<ref name=NatlPovertyCtr>[http://npc.umich.edu/publications/policy_briefs/brief28/policybrief28.pdf "Extreme Poverty in the United States, 1996 to 2011"] ''National Poverty Center'', February 2012.</ref> In 2013, [[child poverty]] reached record high levels, with 16.7 million children living in [[Famine scales#Combined intensity and magnitude scales|food insecure]] households, about 35% more than 2007 levels.<ref name=WalkerBBC>{{cite news|last=Walker|first=Duncan|title=The children going hungry in America|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-21636723|access-date=March 13, 2013|newspaper=BBC News|date=March 6, 2013}}</ref> As of 2015, 44 percent of children in the United States live with low-income families.<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/nccp-finds-44-percent-u-s-children-live-low-income-families/ Report finds 44 percent of U.S. children live in low-income families]. ''PBS Newshour''. April 6, 2015.</ref><br />
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In 2016, 12.7% of the U.S. population [[Poverty in the United States|lived in poverty]], down from 13.5% in 2015. The poverty rate rose from 12.5% in 2007 before the [[Great Recession]] to a 15.1% peak in 2010, before falling back to just above the 2007 level. In the 1959–1962 period, the poverty rate was over 20%, but declined to the all-time low of 11.1% in 1973 following the [[War on Poverty]] begun during the Lyndon Johnson presidency.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2017/demo/p60-259.html| title = U.S. Census Bureau{{snd}}Income and Poverty in the United States 2016}}</ref> In June 2016, The IMF warned the United States that its high poverty rate needs to be tackled urgently.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/business-36599316 IMF warns the US over high poverty]. BBC, June 22, 2016.</ref><br />
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[[File:US Wealth Inequality - v2.png|thumb|250px|[[Wealth inequality in the United States]] increased from 1989 to 2013.<ref>{{cite news|title=Trends in Family Wealth, 1989 to 2013|url=https://www.cbo.gov/publication/51846|date=August 18, 2016|work=[[Congressional Budget Office]]}}</ref>]]<br />
The population in extreme-poverty neighborhoods rose by one third from 2000 to 2009.<ref name="Concentrated Poverty">Kneebone, Elizabeth; Nadeau, Carey; Berube, Alan (November 3, 2011). [http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2011/11/03-poverty-kneebone-nadeau-berube "The Re-Emergence of Concentrated Poverty: Metropolitan Trends in the 2000s"]. ''[[Brookings Institution]].''</ref> People living in such neighborhoods tend to suffer from inadequate access to quality education; higher crime rates; higher rates of physical and psychological ailment; limited access to credit and wealth accumulation; higher prices for goods and services; and constrained access to job opportunities.<ref name="Concentrated Poverty" /> As of 2013, 44% of America's poor are considered to be in "deep poverty", with an income 50% or more below the government's official poverty line.<ref>Shah, Neil (October 11, 2013).[https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304500404579127603306039292 U.S. Poverty Rate Stabilizes{{snd}}For Some]. ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' (New York).</ref><br />
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According to the US [[Department of Housing and Urban Development]]'s Annual Homeless Assessment Report, {{As of|2017|lc=y}} there were around 554,000 homeless people in the United States on a given night,<ref name="bbc2017">{{cite web |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-42248999 |title = US homeless people numbers rise for first time in seven years |publisher = BBC |date=December 6, 2017}}</ref> or 0.17% of the population. Almost two thirds stayed in an emergency shelter or transitional housing program and the other third were living on the street, in an abandoned building, or another place not meant for human habitation. About 1.56 million people, or about 0.5% of the U.S. population, used an emergency shelter or a transitional housing program between October 1, 2008, and September 30, 2009.<ref name=HUDhomeless2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huduser.org/publications/pdf/5thHomelessAssessmentReport.pdf |title=HUD 5th Annual Homelessness Assessment Report to Congress, June 2010 |access-date=October 20, 2013}}</ref> Around 44% of homeless people are employed.<ref>[http://www.nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/employment.html Employment and Homelessness]. ''[[National Coalition for the Homeless]],'' July 2009.</ref><br />
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The United States has one of the least extensive social safety nets in the developed world, reducing both relative poverty and absolute poverty by [[Welfare's effect on poverty|considerably less than the mean for wealthy nations]].<ref name="Sme">{{cite journal |last1= Smeeding |first1= T.M. |year=2005 |title= Public Policy: Economic Inequality and Poverty: The United States in Comparative Perspective| journal= Social Science Quarterly |volume=86 |pages=955–83 |doi= 10.1111/j.0038-4941.2005.00331.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Kenworthy |first1= L. |year= 1999 |title= Do Social-Welfare Policies Reduce Poverty? A Cross-National Assessment| journal =Social Forces|volume = 77|issue=3|pages= 1119–39 |doi=10.1093/sf/77.3.1119|url= https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/160860/1/lis-wps-188.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bradley, D. |author2=E. Huber |author3=S. Moller |author4=F. Nielsen |author5=J.D. Stephens |name-list-style=amp|year=2003 | title = Determinants of Relative Poverty in Advanced Capitalist Democracies| journal = American Sociological Review | volume = 68 | issue = 1| pages = 22–51 | doi = 10.2307/3088901 |jstor=3088901}}</ref><ref>Kevin Drum (September 26, 2013). [https://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2013/09/we-can-reduce-poverty-if-we-want-we-just-have-want We Can Reduce Poverty If We Want To. We Just Have To Want To.] ''[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]].''</ref><ref>Gould, Elise and Wething, Hilary (July 24, 2012). [http://www.epi.org/publication/ib339-us-poverty-higher-safety-net-weaker/ "U.S. poverty rates higher, safety net weaker than in peer countries."] ''[[Economic Policy Institute]].''</ref> Some experts posit that those in poverty live in conditions rivaling the [[Developing country|developing world]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Temin|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Temin|date=2017 |title=The Vanishing Middle Class: Prejudice and Power in a Dual Economy|url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/vanishing-middle-class|publisher= [[MIT Press]]|isbn=978-0262036160}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= Alston|first=Philp|date=December 15, 2017 |title=Extreme poverty in America: read the UN special monitor's report|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/15/extreme-poverty-america-un-special-monitor-report|work=The Guardian |access-date=December 16, 2017}}</ref> A May 2018 report by the U.N. Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights found that over five million people in the United States live "in 'Third World' conditions".<ref>{{cite news |date=June 4, 2018|title="Contempt for the poor in US drives cruel policies," says UN expert|url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2018/06/contempt-poor-us-drives-cruel-policies-says-un-expert|work=OHCHR|access-date=June 6, 2018}}</ref> Over the last three decades the poor in America have been [[Incarceration in the United States|incarcerated]] at a much higher rate than their counterparts in other developed nations, with penal confinement being "commonplace for poor men of working age".<ref>Bruce Western. [https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/23042281?uid=3739896&uid=2&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=21104624536741 Poverty Politics and Crime Control in Europe and America]. ''[[Contemporary Sociology]]''<br />
Vol. 40, No. 3 (May 2011), pp. 283–86</ref> Some scholars contend that the shift to [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] social and economic policies starting in the late 1970s has expanded the penal state, retrenched the social [[welfare state]], deregulated the economy and criminalized poverty, ultimately "transforming what it means to be poor in America".<ref>Stephen Haymes, Maria Vidal de Haymes and Reuben Miller (eds), ''[http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415673440/ The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States],'' (London: [[Routledge]], 2015), {{ISBN|0415673445}}, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=qnHfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3], [https://books.google.com/books?id=qnHfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA346 346].</ref><ref>[[Loïc Wacquant]], ''[https://www.dukeupress.edu/Punishing-the-Poor/ Punishing the Poor: The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190223135712/https://www.dukeupress.edu/Punishing-the-Poor/index-viewby%3Dtitle%26sort%3D.html |date=February 23, 2019}},'' ([[Duke University Press]], 2009), {{ISBN|082234422X}}, pp. 125–16, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NkyFsGi2erEC&pg=PT336 312]</ref><ref>Marie Gottschalk. ''[http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10731.html Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics].'' [[Princeton University Press]], 2014. {{ISBN|0691164053}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=CzDFCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 p. 10]</ref><br />
<br />
==Health care==<br />
[[File:Health Insurance Coverage in the U.S. 2016 - v1.png|thumb|right|300px|U.S. health insurance coverage by source in 2016. CBO estimated ACA/Obamacare was responsible for 23 million persons covered via exchanges and Medicaid expansion.<ref name="CBO_Subsidy2016">{{cite web|url=https://www.cbo.gov/publication/51385|title=Federal Subsidies for Health Insurance Coverage for People Under Age 65|publisher=CBO|date=March 24, 2016}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:OECD life expectacy and health spending per capita 2013 v1.png|thumb|right|300px|Chart showing life expectancy at birth and health care spending per capita for OECD countries as of 2015. The U.S. is an outlier, with much higher spending but below average life expectancy.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.oecd.org/health/health-systems/health-at-a-glance-19991312.htm| title = OECD Health at a Glance 2015{{snd}}Table 3.3}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:Healthcare costs to GDP OECD 2015 v1.png|thumb|right|300px|Bar chart comparing healthcare costs as percentage of GDP across OECD countries]]<br />
[[File:U.S. healthcare coverage 2008-2026.png|thumb|right|300px|U.S. uninsured number (millions) and rate (%), including historical data through 2016 and two CBO forecasts (2016/Obama policy and 2018/Trump policy) through 2026. Two key reasons for more uninsured under President Trump include: 1) Eliminating the individual mandate to have health insurance; and 2) Stopping cost sharing reduction payments.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbo.gov/publication/53826|title=Federal Subsidies for Health Insurance Coverage for People Under Age 65: 2018 to 2028|date=May 23, 2018|access-date=June 17, 2018}}</ref>]]<br />
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{{Main|Health care in the United States}}<br />
{{POV section|talk=US Healthcare section|date=August 2015}}<br />
{{Update|uninsured statistics|date=October 2016}}<br />
<br />
===Coverage===<br />
{{Further|Health insurance coverage in the United States}}<br />
The American system is a mix of public and private insurance. The government provides insurance coverage for approximately 53 million elderly via [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]], 62 million lower-income persons via [[Medicaid]], and 15 million military veterans via the [[Veteran's Administration]]. About 178 million employed by companies receive subsidized health insurance through their employer, while 52 million other persons directly purchase insurance either via the subsidized marketplace exchanges developed as part of the [[Affordable Care Act]] or directly from insurers. The private sector delivers healthcare services, with the exception of the Veteran's Administration, where doctors are employed by the government.<ref name="Census2016">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2017/demo/p60-260.html|title=Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2016|first=US Census|last=Bureau|website=census.gov}}</ref><br />
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Multiple surveys indicate the number of uninsured fell between 2013 and 2016 due to expanded [[Medicaid]] eligibility and health insurance exchanges established due to the [[Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act]], also known as the "ACA" or "Obamacare". According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], in 2012 there were 45.6 million people in the US (14.8% of the under-65 population) who were without health insurance. This figure fell by 18.3 million (40%) to 27.3 million (8.6% of the under-65 population) by 2016.<ref name="Census_HistTable">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/health-insurance/historical-series/hic.html|title=Health Insurance Historical Tables –HIC Series|first=US Census|last=Bureau|publisher=Census}}</ref><br />
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However, under President Trump these gains in healthcare coverage have begun to reverse. The [[Commonwealth Fund]] estimated in May 2018 that the number of uninsured increased by four million from early 2016 to early 2018. The rate of those uninsured increased from 12.7% in 2016 to 15.5%. The impact was greater among lower-income adults, who had a higher uninsured rate than higher-income adults. Regionally, the South and West had higher uninsured rates than the North and East. Further, those 18 states that have not expanded Medicaid had a higher uninsured rate than those that did.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/blog/2018/apr/health-coverage-erosion |title=Commonwealth Fund – First Look at Health Insurance Coverage in 2018 Finds ACA Gains Beginning to Reverse |year=2018 |doi=10.26099/aacp-5268 |last1=Collins |first1=Sara R. |last2=Gunja |first2=Munira Z. |last3=Doty |first3=Michelle M. |last4=Bhupal |first4=Herman K. |publisher=Commonwealth Fund}}</ref><br />
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According to [[Physicians for a National Health Program]], this lack of insurance causes roughly 48,000 unnecessary deaths per year.<ref name=uninsureddeaths>{{cite web |last= Woolhandler |first= S. |date= September 12, 2012 |title= Despite slight drop in uninsured, last year's figure points to 48,000 preventable deaths |publisher= Physicians for a National Health Program |url= http://www.pnhp.org/news/2012/september/despite-slight-drop-in-uninsured-last-year%E2%80%99s-figure-points-to-48000-preventable- |access-date= September 26, 2012 |display-authors= etal |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120924021844/http://www.pnhp.org/news/2012/september/despite-slight-drop-in-uninsured-last-year%E2%80%99s-figure-points-to-48000-preventable- |archive-date=September 24, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The group's methodology has been criticized by [[John C. Goodman]] for not looking at cause of death or tracking insurance status changes over time, including the time of death.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Goodman|first=John|title=Does Lack Of Insurance Cause Premature Death?|url=https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/forefront.20090921.002196|publisher=Health Affairs|date=September 21, 2009|doi=10.1377/forefront.20090921.002196}}</ref> A 2009 study by former [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] policy adviser Richard Kronick found no increased mortality from being uninsured after certain risk factors were controlled for.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kronick|first1=Richard|title=Health Insurance Coverage and Mortality Revisited|journal=Health Services Research|date=August 2009|volume=44|issue=4|pages=1211–31|doi=10.1111/j.1475-6773.2009.00973.x|pmid=19453392|pmc=2739025}}<!--|access-date=August 15, 2014--></ref><br />
<br />
===Outcomes===<br />
The U.S. lags in overall healthcare performance but is [[Biomedical research in the United States|a global leader in medical innovation]]. America solely developed or contributed significantly to nine of the top ten most important medical innovations since 1975 as ranked by a 2001 poll of physicians, while the EU and Switzerland together contributed to five. Since 1966, Americans have received more [[List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prizes in Medicine]] than the rest of the world combined. From 1989 to 2002, four times more money was invested in private biotechnology companies in America than in Europe.<ref>{{cite news |last= Cowen |first=Tyler |title=Poor U.S. Scores in Health Care Don't Measure Nobels and Innovation |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/05/business/05scene.html?_r=1& |access-date=October 9, 2012 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=October 5, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Whitman, Glen |author2=Raad, Raymond |title=Bending the Productivity Curve: Why America Leads the World in Medical Innovation |url= http://www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/bending-productivity-curve-why-america-leads-world-medical-innovation |publisher=The Cato Institute |access-date=October 9, 2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
Of 17 high-income countries studied by the [[National Institutes of Health]] in 2013, the United States ranked at or near the top in obesity rate, frequency of automobile use and accidents, homicides, [[infant mortality]] rate, incidence of heart and lung disease, sexually transmitted infections, adolescent pregnancies, recreational drug or alcohol deaths, injuries, and rates of disability. Together, such lifestyle and societal factors place the U.S. at the bottom of that list for life expectancy. On average, a U.S. male can be expected to live almost four fewer years than those in the top-ranked country, though Americans who reach age 75 live longer than those who reach that age in peer nations.<ref name=nihbph>{{cite book|url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=13497 |title="U.S. Health in International Perspective: Shorter Lives, Poorer Health" (2013) National Institutes of Health Committee on Population, Board on Population Health and Public Health Practice |year=2013 |publisher=Books.nap.edu |doi=10.17226/13497 |pmid=24006554 |isbn=978-0-309-26414-3 |access-date=October 20, 2013|author1=National Research Council (US) |last2=Woolf |first2=S. H. |last3=Aron |first3=L. }}</ref> One consumption choice causing several of the maladies described above are cigarettes. Americans smoked 258 billion cigarettes in 2016.<ref name="CDCTobaccoFree">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/economics/econ_facts/index.htm|title=Economic Trends in Tobacco|last=CDCTobaccoFree|date=2018-05-04|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us|access-date=2019-06-03 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Cigarettes cost the United States $326{{nbs}}billion each year in direct healthcare costs ($170{{nbs}}billion) and lost productivity ($156{{nbs}}billion).<ref name="CDCTobaccoFree" /><br />
<br />
A comprehensive 2007 study by European doctors found the five-year [[cancer]] survival rate was significantly higher in the U.S. than in all 21 European nations studied, 66.3% for men versus the European mean of 47.3% and 62.9% versus 52.8% for women.<ref>{{cite news|last=Martin|first=Nicole|title=UK cancer survival rate lowest in Europe|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1560849/UK-cancer-survival-rate-lowest-in-Europe.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1560849/UK-cancer-survival-rate-lowest-in-Europe.html |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=August 19, 2013|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=August 21, 2007}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Verdecchia|first=A|author2=Francisci, S |author3=Brenner, H |author4=Gatta, G |author5=Micheli, A |author6=Mangone, L |author7=Kunkler, I |author8= EUROCARE-4 Working, Group |title=Recent cancer survival in Europe: a 2000–02 period analysis of EUROCARE-4 data|journal=The Lancet Oncology|date=September 2007|volume=8|issue=9|pages=784–96|pmid=17714993|doi=10.1016/s1470-2045(07)70246-2}}</ref> Americans undergo cancer screenings at significantly higher rates than people in other developed countries, and access [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] and [[CT scan]]s at the highest rate of any OECD nation.<ref name=Atlas>{{cite book|last=MD|first=Scott W. Atlas|title=In excellent health : setting the record straight on America's health care and charting a path for future reform|year=2011|publisher=Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University|location=Stanford, California|isbn=978-0817914448|pages=199–205|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qExi2-3m5IC}}</ref> People in the U.S. diagnosed with [[Hypercholesterolemia|high cholesterol]] or [[hypertension]] access pharmaceutical treatments at higher rates than those diagnosed in other developed nations, and are more likely to successfully control the conditions.<ref>Atlas 2011, pp. 205–07</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Wolf-Maier|first=K.|title=Hypertension Treatment and Control in Five European Countries, Canada, and the United States|journal=Hypertension|date=November 24, 2003|volume=43|issue=1|pages=10–17|doi=10.1161/01.HYP.0000103630.72812.10|pmid=14638619|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Diabetes mellitus|Diabetics]] are more likely to receive treatment and meet treatment targets in the U.S. than in Canada, England, or Scotland.<ref>Atlas 2011, pp. 150–56</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=June E. |last1=O'Neill |first2=Dave M. |last2=O'Neill |title=Health Status, Health Care and Inequality: Canada vs. the U.S |journal=Forum for Health Economics & Policy |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.2202/1558-9544.1094 |year=2008 |s2cid=73172486 |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w13429.pdf}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to a 2018 study of 2016 data by the [[Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation]], the U.S. was ranked 27th in the world for healthcare and education, down from 6th in 1990.<ref>{{cite news |last=McDonald |first=Andy |date=September 28, 2018 |title=U.S. Drops To 27th In The World For Education And Health Care|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/whelp-the-us-now-ranks-27th-in-the-world-on-education-and-healthcare_us_5bae5d02e4b0425e3c23508f|work=The Huffington Post |access-date=October 6, 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Cost===<br />
{{Further|Health care prices in the United States}}<br />
<br />
U.S. healthcare costs are considerably higher than other countries as a share of GDP, among other measures. According to the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], U.S. healthcare costs in 2015 were 16.9% GDP, over 5% GDP higher than the next most expensive OECD country.<ref name="OECD1">{{cite web| url = http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SHA| title = OECD Statistical Database{{snd}}Health expenditure and financing}}</ref> A gap of 5% GDP represents $1{{nbs}}trillion, about $3,000 per person or one-third higher relative to the next most expensive country.<ref name="CDC1">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/health-expenditures.htm|title=FastStats|date=July 18, 2017|website=cdc.gov}}</ref><br />
<br />
The high cost of health care in the United States is attributed variously to technological advance, administration costs, drug pricing, suppliers charging more for medical equipment, the receiving of more medical care than people in other countries, the high wages of doctors, government regulations, the impact of lawsuits, and third party payment systems insulating consumers from the full cost of treatments.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Conover|first1=Christopher J.|title=Health Care Regulation A $169 Billion Hidden Tax|url=http://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/pa527.pdf|publisher=Cato Institute|access-date=September 2, 2014|date=October 4, 2004}}</ref><ref name=Cutler>{{cite web|title=Why Does Health Care Cost so Much in America? Ask Harvard's David Cutler|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/making-sense/why-does-health-care-cost-so-m/|website=Public Broadcasting Service|date=November 19, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Lawler|first1=Joseph|title=Health Care Economist John Goodman on Market-Based Health Care|url=http://www.realclearpolicy.com/blog/2012/09/19/health_care_economist_john_goodman_on_health_care_markets_290.html|publisher=Real Clear Policy|access-date=September 2, 2014|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> The lowest prices for pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and payments to physicians are in government plans. Americans tend to receive more medical care than people do in other countries, which is a notable contributor to higher costs. In the United States, a person is more likely to receive open heart surgery after a heart attack than in other countries. Medicaid pays less than Medicare for many prescription drugs due to the fact Medicaid discounts are set by law, whereas Medicare prices are negotiated by private insurers and drug companies.<ref name=Cutler /><ref>{{cite news|title=Medicaid Pays Less Than Medicare for Many Prescription Drugs, U.S. Report Finds|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/16/us/16drug.html|website=The New York Times}}</ref> Government plans often pay less than overhead, resulting in healthcare providers shifting the cost to the privately insured through higher prices.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dobson|first1=A.|last2=DaVanzo|first2=J.|last3=Sen|first3=N.|title=The Cost-Shift Payment 'Hydraulic': Foundation, History, And Implications|journal=Health Affairs|date=January 1, 2006|volume=25|issue=1|pages=22–33|doi=10.1377/hlthaff.25.1.22|pmid=16403741|doi-access=free}}<!--|access-date=September 2, 2014--></ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Pope|first1=Christopher|title=Legislating Low Prices: Cutting Costs or Care?|url=http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2013/08/legislating-low-prices-cutting-costs-or-care|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=September 2, 2014|date=August 9, 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Composition of economic sectors==<br />
{{Main|Economy of the United States by sector}}<br />
{{See also|Technological and industrial history of the United States|Manufacturing in the United States|Agriculture in the United States}}<br />
[[File:Wheat harvest.jpg|thumb|A [[wheat]] harvest in [[Idaho]]]]<br />
<br />
The United States is the world's second-largest manufacturer, with a 2013 industrial output of US$2.4{{nbs}}trillion. Its manufacturing output is greater than of Germany, France, India, and Brazil combined.<ref name="imt">{{cite web|title=Manufacturing Output by Country|url=http://news.thomasnet.com/IMT/2013/03/14/china-widens-lead-as-worlds-largest-manufacturer/|publisher=imt|access-date=April 4, 2014}}</ref><br />
Its main industries include financials, information technology, petroleum, steel, automobiles, construction machinery, aerospace, agricultural machinery, telecommunications, chemicals, electronics, food processing, consumer goods, lumber, mining and armaments.<br />
<br />
The U.S. leads the world in [[List of aircraft manufacturers|airplane manufacturing]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/aviation_worldbook.html |title=World Book at NASA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100731165241/http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/aviation_worldbook.html |archive-date=July 31, 2010 |access-date=March 5, 2022}}{{full citation needed|date=August 2010}}</ref> which represents a large portion of U.S. industrial output. American companies such as [[Boeing]], [[Cessna]] (see: [[Textron]]), [[Lockheed Martin]] (see: [[Skunk Works]]), and [[General Dynamics]] produce a majority of the world's civilian and military aircraft in factories across the United States.<br />
<br />
The manufacturing sector of the U.S. economy has experienced substantial job losses over the past several years.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/money/economy/2007-04-20-4155011268_x.htm |title=Factory jobs: 3 million lost since 2000 |author=Martin Crutsinger |date=April 20, 2007 |agency=Associated Press |work=USA Today |access-date=March 4, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://prospect.org/article/cost-free-trade |title=The Cost of Free Trade |author=Michael Lind |date=December 1, 2011 |journal=The American Prospect |access-date=March 3, 2012}}</ref> In January 2004, the number of such jobs stood at 14.3 million, down by 3.0 million jobs (17.5%) since July 2000 and about 5.2 million since the historical peak in 1979. Employment in manufacturing was its lowest since July 1950.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=5078&type=0|title=What Accounts for the Decline in Manufacturing Employment?|date=February 18, 2004|access-date=August 10, 2017}}</ref> The number of steel workers fell from 500,000 in 1980 to 224,000 in 2000.<ref>"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iOgfSDKecCcC&pg=PA4557 Congressional Record V. 148, Pt. 4, April 11, 2002 to April 24, 2002]''". [[United States Government Printing Office]].</ref><br />
[[File:Survival rate of US start-ups, 1977–2012.svg|thumb|Statistics released by the U.S. Census Bureau showed that, in 2008, the number of business 'deaths' began overtaking the number of business 'births' and that the trend continued at least through 2012.<ref>{{Cite book|title=UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|publisher=UNESCO Publishing|year=2015|isbn=978-9231001291|location=Paris|page=141|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SDHwCgAAQBAJ}}</ref>]]<br />
The U.S. produces approximately 18% of the world's manufacturing output, a share that has declined as other nations developed competitive manufacturing industries.<ref name="greyhill">{{cite web|title=Manufacturing Output by Country|url=http://greyhill.com/blog/2011/10/5/manufacturing-output-by-country.html|publisher=Greyhill Advisors|access-date=October 5, 2011}}</ref> The job loss during this continual volume growth is the result of multiple factors including increased productivity, trade, and secular economic trends.<ref>{{cite web|title=What Accounts for the Decline in Manufacturing Employment?|url=http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=5078&type=0|publisher=Congressional Budget Office|access-date=October 5, 2011}}</ref> In addition, growth in telecommunications, pharmaceuticals, aircraft, heavy machinery and other industries along with declines in low end, low skill industries such as clothing, toys, and other simple manufacturing have resulted in some U.S. jobs being more highly skilled and better paying. There has been much debate within the United States on whether the decline in manufacturing jobs are related to American unions, lower foreign wages, or both.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://prospect.org/article/back-china |title=Back from China? |author=Harold Meyerson |date=November 29, 2011 |journal=The American Prospect |access-date=March 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name="Pope_2012">{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-01-18/america-s-dirty-war-against-manufacturing-part-1-carl-pope.html |title=America's Dirty War Against Manufacturing: Part 1 |author=Carl Pope |author-link=Carl Pope (environmentalist) |date=January 18–20, 2012 |newspaper=Bloomberg |access-date=January 22, 2012}} [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-01-19/america-s-dirty-war-against-manufacturing-part-2-carl-pope.html Part 2]. [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-01-20/america-s-dirty-war-on-manufacturing-part-3-commentary-by-carl-pope.html Part 3].</ref><ref name="btb 22.01.2012">{{cite web |url=http://www.cepr.net/index.php/blogs/beat-the-press/hasnt-anyone-at-the-nyt-heard-of-exchange-rates |title=Hasn't Anyone at the NYT Heard of Exchange Rates? |author=Dean Baker |author-link=Dean Baker |date=January 22, 2012 |work=Beat the Press |publisher=Center for Economic and Policy Research |access-date=January 22, 2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
Products include [[Wheat production in the United States|wheat]], corn, other [[Food grain|grains]], fruits, vegetables, [[Cotton production in the United States|cotton]]; beef, pork, poultry, dairy products, [[forest products]], and fish.<br />
<br />
==Energy, transportation, and telecommunications==<br />
{{Main|Energy in the United States|Transportation in the United States|Internet in the United States}}<br />
[[File:Map of current Interstates.svg|thumb|The [[Interstate Highway System]] extends {{convert|46876|mi|km}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Interstate FAQ (Question #3) |publisher=Federal Highway Administration |year=2006 |url=http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/faq.htm#question3 |access-date=March 4, 2009}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:Houston Ship Channel Barbours Cut.jpg|thumb|The [[Port of Houston]], one of the largest ports in the United States]]<br />
<br />
===Transportation===<br />
====Road====<br />
The U.S. economy is heavily dependent on road transport for moving people and goods. Personal transportation is dominated by automobiles, which operate on a network of four million miles (6.4 million km) of public roads,<ref>{{cite web|title=Public Road and Street Mileage in the United States by Type of Surface|url=http://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_01_04.html|website=United States Department of Transportation|access-date=January 13, 2015|archive-date=January 2, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102141414/http://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_01_04.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> including one of the world's [[National Highway System (United States)|longest highway systems]] at 57,000 miles (91,700{{nbs}}km).<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.newgeography.com/content/002003-china-expressway-system-exceed-us-interstates |title=China Expressway System to Exceed US Interstates |work=New Geography |location =Grand Forks, ND |date=January 22, 2011 |access-date=September 16, 2011}}</ref> The world's second-largest automobile market,<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/jan/08/china-us-car-sales-overtakes |title=China overtakes US in car sales |newspaper=The Guardian |date=January 8, 2010 |access-date=July 10, 2011 |location=London}}</ref> the United States has the highest rate of per-capita vehicle ownership in the world, with 765 vehicles per 1,000 Americans.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/tra_mot_veh-transportation-motor-vehicles |title=Motor vehicles statistics – countries compared worldwide |publisher=NationMaster |access-date=July 10, 2011}}</ref> About 40% of [[Passenger vehicles in the United States|personal vehicles]] are vans, [[Sport utility vehicle|SUVs]], or light trucks.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.bts.gov/publications/highlights_of_the_2001_national_household_travel_survey/html/section_01.html|title= Household, Individual, and Vehicle Characteristics|publisher= U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics|work= 2001 National Household Travel Survey|access-date= August 15, 2007|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070929125403/http://www.bts.gov/publications/highlights_of_the_2001_national_household_travel_survey/html/section_01.html |archive-date=September 29, 2007|url-status= dead|df= mdy-all}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Rail====<br />
[[Mass transit in the United States|Mass transit accounts for 9% of total U.S. work trips]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.policy.rutgers.edu/vtc/documents/TOD.Euro-Style_Planning-Renne-Wells.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924071956/http://www.policy.rutgers.edu/vtc/documents/TOD.Euro-Style_Planning-Renne-Wells.pdf |author1=Renne, John L. |author2=Wells, Jan S. |title= Emerging European-Style Planning in the United States: Transit-Oriented Development |page=2 |year=2003 |publisher = Rutgers University |access-date=June 11, 2007|archive-date=September 24, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://switchboard.nrdc.org/blogs/kbenfield/natgeo_surveys_countries_trans.html|title=NatGeo surveys countries' transit use: guess who comes in last|last=Benfield|first=Kaid|publisher=Natural Resources Defense Council|date=May 18, 2009|access-date=January 6, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120234533/http://switchboard.nrdc.org/blogs/kbenfield/natgeo_surveys_countries_trans.html|archive-date=January 20, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref> [[Rail transportation in the United States|Transport of goods by rail]] is extensive, though relatively low numbers of passengers (approximately 31 million annually) use intercity rail to travel, partially due to the low population density throughout much of the nation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-07-15 |title= Intercity Passenger Rail: National Policy and Strategies Needed to Maximize Public Benefits from Federal Expenditures |date=November 13, 2006 |publisher=U.S. Government Accountability Office |access-date=June 20, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2013/08/economist-explains-18 |title=The Economist Explains: Why Americans Don't Ride Trains |date=August 29, 2013 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |access-date=May 12, 2015}}</ref> However, ridership on [[Amtrak]], the national intercity passenger rail system, grew by almost 37% between 2000 and 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=Amtrak Ridership Records |url= http://www.amtrak.com/servlet/BlobServer?blobcol=urldata&blobtable=MungoBlobs&blobkey=id&blobwhere=1249227805921&blobheader=application%2Fpdf&blobhead |publisher=Amtrak |date=June 8, 2011|access-date=February 29, 2012}}</ref> Also, [[Light rail in the United States|light rail development]] has increased in recent years.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.metaefficient.com/trains/master-2.html |title=3 Reasons Light Rail Is an Efficient Transportation Option for U.S. Cities |author=McGill, Tracy |work= MetaEfficient |date=January 1, 2011 |access-date=June 14, 2013}}</ref> The state of [[California]] is currently constructing the nation's first [[California High-Speed Rail|high-speed rail system]].<br />
<br />
====Airline====<br />
The [[List of airlines of the United States|civil airline industry]] is entirely privately owned and has been largely [[Airline Deregulation Act|deregulated since 1978]], while [[List of airports in the United States|most major airports]] are publicly owned.<ref>{{cite web|title=Privatization|url=http://www.downsizinggovernment.org/privatization|website=downsizinggovernment.org|publisher=Cato Institute|access-date=December 27, 2014}}</ref> The three largest airlines in the world by passengers carried are U.S.-based; [[American Airlines]] is number one after its 2013 acquisition by U.S. [[US Airways|Airways]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.iata.org/publications/pages/wats-passenger-carried.aspx|title= Scheduled Passengers Carried|publisher= International Air Transport Association (IATA)|year= 2011|access-date= February 17, 2012|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131113175503/http://www.iata.org/publications/pages/wats-passenger-carried.aspx|archive-date= November 13, 2013 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Of the world's thirty busiest passenger airports, twelve are in the United States, including the busiest, [[Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport]].<ref>{{cite web |url =http://www.aci.aero/News/Releases/Most-Recent/2014/03/31/Preliminary-World-Airport-Traffic-and-Rankings-2013--High-Growth-Dubai-Moves-Up-to-7th-Busiest-Airport- |title =Preliminary World Airport Traffic and Rankings 2013 – High Growth Dubai Moves Up to 7th Busiest Airport – March 31, 2014 |publisher=Airports Council International |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401052319/http://www.aci.aero/News/Releases/Most-Recent/2014/03/31/Preliminary-World-Airport-Traffic-and-Rankings-2013--High-Growth-Dubai-Moves-Up-to-7th-Busiest-Airport- |archive-date=April 1, 2014 |date=March 31, 2014 |access-date=May 17, 2014 |url-status= live}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Energy===<br />
[[File:Countries by Natural Gas Proven Reserves (2014).svg|thumb|Countries by [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|natural gas proven reserves]] (2014). The U.S. holds the world's fourth largest [[natural gas]] reserves.]]<br />
The US is the second-largest [[energy development|energy]] consumer in total use.<ref>{{cite web|last=Barr |first=Robert |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/43327793 |title=China surpasses US as top energy consumer – Business – Oil & energy – NBC News |work=NBC News |access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref> The U.S. ranks seventh in energy consumption per capita after Canada and a number of other countries.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061013182222/http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/tablee1c.xls World Per Capita Total Primary Energy Consumption,1980–2005] (MS Excel format)</ref><ref>World Resources Institute "[https://web.archive.org/web/20041212020102/http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/energy-resources/variable-351.html Energy Consumption: Consumption per capita]" (2001). Nations with higher per-capita consumption are: Qatar, Iceland, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Luxembourg and Canada. Except for Canada, these are small countries with a prominent energy-intensive industry such as oil refining or [[steelmaking]].</ref> The majority of this energy is derived from [[fossil fuel]]s: in 2005, it was estimated that 40% of the nation's energy came from petroleum, 23% [[Coal power in the United States|from coal]], and 23% from natural gas. [[Nuclear power]] supplied 8.4% and [[renewable energy]] supplied 6.8%, which was mainly from hydroelectric dams although other renewables are included.<ref>US Dept. of Energy, "[http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/pdf/pages/sec1_3.pdf Annual Energy Report]" (July 2006), Energy Flow diagram</ref><br />
<br />
American dependence on [[List of countries by oil imports|oil imports]] grew from 24% in 1970 to 65% by the end of 2005.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/home/energyspecial/2005/11/15/energy-oil-exxonmobil-cx_pt_1116energy_tertzakian.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060214225748/http://www.forbes.com/home/energyspecial/2005/11/15/energy-oil-exxonmobil-cx_pt_1116energy_tertzakian.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 14, 2006 |title=The U.S. Senate's Oil Spill |work=Forbes |date=November 15, 2005 |access-date=April 21, 2012 |first=Peter |last=Tertzakian}}</ref> [[Transportation in the United States|Transportation]] has the highest [[Oil consumption|consumption rates]], accounting for approximately 69% of the oil used in the United States in 2006,<ref name="btstable4-3">{{cite web |url=http://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_04_03.html |title=Domestic Demand for Refined Petroleum Products by Sector |publisher=U.S. [[Bureau of Transportation Statistics]] |access-date=August 23, 2014}}</ref> and 55% of oil use worldwide as documented in the [[Hirsch report]].<br />
<br />
In 2013, the United States imported 2.808 billion barrels of [[crude oil]], compared to 3.377 billion barrels in 2010.<ref>"[https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/historical/petr.txt U.S. Imports of Crude Oil]". U.S. Census Bureau.</ref> While the U.S. is the largest importer of fuel, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' reported in 2011 that the country was about to become a net fuel exporter for the first time in 62 years. The paper reported expectations that this would continue until 2020.<ref>{{cite news|last=Pleven |first=Liam |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203441704577068670488306242 |title=The Wall Street Journal |date=November 30, 2011 |access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref> In fact, petroleum was the major export from the country in 2011.<ref>{{Cite news | first=Chris | last=Kahn | title=In a first, gas and other fuels top U.S. exports | url=http://www.floridatoday.com/usatoday/article/52298812?odyssey=mod_sectionstories | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311011059/http://www.floridatoday.com/usatoday/article/52298812?odyssey=mod_sectionstories | archive-date=March 11, 2012| newspaper=[[Florida Today]] | location=Melbourne, FL | page= 4A | date=December 31, 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Telecommunications===<br />
<br />
The [[Internet]] was developed in the U.S. and the country hosts many of the world's largest hubs.<ref>[http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_ipto.htm "IPTO – Information Processing Techniques Office"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702210822/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_ipto.htm |date=July 2, 2014}}, ''The Living Internet'', Bill Stewart (ed), January 2000.</ref><br />
<br />
==International trade==<br />
{{Main|Foreign trade of the United States|List of tariffs in the United States|Tariff in United States history}}<br />
{{See also|List of exports of the United States|List of the largest trading partners of the United States|List of imports of the United States|List of U.S. states and territories by exports and imports}}<br />
[[File:Protectionist measures taken 2008–2013 according to Global Trade Alert.png|thumb|[[Protectionist]] measures since 2008 by country<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globaltradealert.org/|title=Global Trade Alert – Independent monitoring of policies that affect world trade|work=globaltradealert.org}}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
The United States is the world's second-largest trading nation.<ref>{{cite news|title=China overtakes US as world's largest goods trader|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7c2dbd70-79a6-11e3-b381-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2q8OrFdV3 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/vEBs4 |archive-date=December 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=Financial Times|access-date=January 10, 2014}}</ref> There is a large amount of U.S. dollars in circulation all around the planet; about 60% of funds used in international trade are U.S. dollars. The dollar is also used as the standard unit of currency in international markets for commodities such as gold and petroleum.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21553424|title=Free exchange: Petrodollar profusion |newspaper=The Economist}}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[North American Free Trade Agreement]], or [[NAFTA]], created one of the [[Trade bloc#Most active regional blocs|largest trade blocs in the world]] in 1994.<ref>{{cite web |title=North American Free Trade Agreement {{!}} History, Purpose, & Provisions |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/North-American-Free-Trade-Agreement |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=March 24, 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) {{!}} United States Trade Representative |url=https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta |website=ustr.gov |access-date=March 24, 2020}}</ref><br />
<br />
Since 1976, the U.S. has sustained merchandise trade deficits with other nations, and since 1982, [[current account deficit]]s. The nation's long-standing surplus in its [[trade in services]] was maintained, however, and reached a record US$231{{nbs}}billion in 2013.<ref name="Exports-Imports">{{cite web |url=https://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/international/trade/2015/pdf/trad1214.pdf|title=U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services|publisher=BEA|date=February 5, 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
The U.S. [[trade deficit]] increased from $502{{nbs}}billion in 2016 to $552{{nbs}}billion in 2017, an increase of $50{{nbs}}billion or 10%.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?graph_id=474908&rn=8252| title = FRED – Trade Balance, Goods and Services, Balance of Payments Basis| date = January 1992}}</ref> During 2017, total imports were $2.90{{nbs}}trillion, while exports were $2.35{{nbs}}trillion. The net deficit in goods was $807{{nbs}}billion, while the net surplus in services was $255{{nbs}}billion.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/historical/index.html| title = U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services{{snd}}Historical Series}}</ref><br />
<br />
Americas ten [[List of the largest trading partners of the United States|largest trading partners]] are China, Canada, Mexico, Japan, Germany, South Korea, United Kingdom, France, India and Taiwan.<ref name="auto" /> The goods trade deficit with China rose from $347{{nbs}}billion in 2016 to $376{{nbs}}billion in 2017, an increase of $30{{nbs}}billion or 8%. In 2017, the U.S. had a goods trade deficit of $71{{nbs}}billion with Mexico and $17{{nbs}}billion with Canada.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/index.html| title = Census – Foreign Trade – Balance by Partner Country}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to the [[globalization index|KOF index of globalization]]{{clarify|reason=What is "KOF"?|date=February 2023}} and the [[globalization index]] by A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Magazine, the U.S. has a relatively high degree of [[globalization]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2023}} U.S. workers send a third of all [[remittances]] in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.finfacts.com/irelandbusinessnews/publish/article_10001284.shtml |title=IMF: US accounts for one-third of annual remittances to Developing Countries of $100bn |publisher=Finfacts.com |access-date=April 21, 2012}}{{subst:dead link}}</ref><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!colspan="10"|<big> Balance of trade 2014 (goods only)</big><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/balance-of-goods-us-trading-partners-from-goldman-sachs-2017-5|title=This chart shows how America stacks up in trade with everyone in the world|website=Business Insider|access-date=2018-03-20 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
! !! China !! Euro area !! Japan !! Mexico !! Pacific !! Canada !! Middle East !! Latin America !! style="background: #91A3B0"| Total by product<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Computer''' || style="background: #FA6E79"| −151.9 || 3.4 || −8.0 || −11.0 ||style="background: #FA6E79"| −26.1 || style="background: #A4C639"| 20.9 || 5.8 || 12.1 || style="background: red"| {{center|'''−155.0'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Oil, gas, minerals''' || 1.9 || 6.4 || 2.4 || style="background: #FA6E79"| −20.8 || 1.1 || style="background: #FA6E79"|−79.8 || style="background: #FA6E79"|−45.1 || style="background: #FA6E79"|−15.9 || style="background: red"| {{center|'''−149.7'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Transportation''' || 10.9 || style="background: #FA6E79"|−30.9 || style="background: #FA6E79"| −46.2 || style="background: #FA6E79"| −59.5 || −0.5 || −6.1 || style="background: #A4C639"| 17.1 || 8.8 ||style="background: red"| {{center|'''−106.3'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Apparel''' || style="background: #FA6E79"| −56.3 || −4.9 || 0.6 || −4.2 || −6.3 || 2.5 || −0.3 || −1.1 ||style="background: red"| {{center|'''−69.9'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Electrical equipment''' || style="background: #FA6E79"| −35.9 || −2.4 || −4.0 || −8.5 || −3.3 || 10.0 || 1.8 || 2.0 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−40.4'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Misc. manufacturing''' || style="background: #FA6E79"| −35.3 || 4.9 || 2.7 || −2.8 || −1.4 || 5.8 || −1.5 || 1.8 || style="background: red"| {{center|'''−25.8'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Furniture''' ||style="background: #FA6E79"|−18.3 || −1.2 || 0.0 || −1.6 || −2.1 || 0.4 || 0.2 || 0.0 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−22.6'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Machinery''' ||style="background: #FA6E79"|−19.9 || style="background: #FA6E79"| −27.0 || style="background: #FA6E79"| −18.8 || 3.9 || 7.6 || style="background: #A4C639"| 18.1 || 4.5 || 9.1 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−22.4'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Primary metals''' || −3.1 || 3.1 || −1.8 || 1.0 || 1.9 || −8.9 || −0.9 || −10.4 ||style="background: red"| {{center|'''−19.1'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Fabricated metals''' || style="background: #FA6E79"|−17.9 || −5.9 || −3.5 || 2.8 || −4.3 || 7.3 || 1.2 || 1.9 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−18.5'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Plastics''' || style="background: #FA6E79"| −15.7 || −1.9 || −2.0 || 5.7 || −4.1 || 2.6 || −0.1 || 0.5 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−15.0'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Textile''' || −12.3 || −1.1 || −0.3 || 2.8 || −4.6 || 1.5 || −0.9 || 0.2 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−14.7'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Beverages, tobacco''' || 1.3 || −9.9 || 0.6 || −3.3 || 0.0 || 1.0 || 0.2 || −0.6 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−10.6'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Nonmetallic minerals''' || −6.1 || −1.9 || −0.4 || −1.2 || 0.1 || 1.9 || −0.5 || −0.8 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−8.9'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Paper''' || −2.7 || 1.2 || 1.1 || 4.3 || 1.2 || −9.8 || 0.9 || −1.9 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−5.8'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Chemical''' || −3.9 || style="background: #FA6E79"| −39.5 || −1.5 || style="background: #A4C639"| 19.1 || 3.2 || 4.6 || −2.4 ||style="background: #A4C639"| 15.8 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−4.7'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Food''' || 0.7 || −3.6 || 6.1 || 4.9 || 0.9 || 0.1 || 1.4 || −1.1 || style="background: green"|{{center|'''9.5'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Agriculture''' || style="background: #A4C639"| 17.8 || 6.2 || 7.3 || −3.0 || 5.7 || −0.8|| 2.8 || −6.5 || style="background: green"|{{center|'''29.5'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Petroleum''' || 0.6 || −1.2 || 0.1 ||style="background: #A4C639"| 16.6 || −2.0 || −0.1 || 0.6 || style="background: #A4C639"| 18.3 || style="background: green"|{{center|'''32.9'''}}<br />
|-<br />
! Total by country/area || style="background: red"| −346.1 || style="background: red"| −106.1 || style="background: red"|−65.6 || style="background: red"| −54.9 || style="background: red"| −33.0 || style="background: red"| −29.0 || style="background: red"| −15.1 ||style="background: green"| 32.3 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Financial position==<br />
<br />
{{Main|Financial position of the United States}}<br />
U.S. household and non-profit net worth exceeded $100{{nbs}}trillion for the first time in Q1 2018; it has been setting records since Q4 2012.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/TNWBSHNO| title = FRED – Household and Non-Profit Net Worth| date = October 1945}}</ref> The U.S. federal government or "national debt" was $21.1{{nbs}}trillion in May 2018, just over 100% GDP.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.treasurydirect.gov/govt/reports/pd/mspd/mspd.htm| title = Treasury Direct – Monthly Statement of the Public Debt}}</ref> Using a subset of the national debt called "debt held by the public", U.S. debt was approximately 77% GDP in 2017. By this measure, the U.S. ranked 43rd highest among 2017 nations.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/| title = CIA World Factbook – USA| date = February 16, 2022}}</ref> Debt held by the public rose considerably as a result of the [[Great Recession]] and its aftermath. It is expected to continue rising as the country ages towards 100% GDP by 2028.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cbo.gov/publication/53651| title = CBO. Budget & Economic Outlook 2018–2028| date = April 9, 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[U.S. public debt]] was $909{{nbs}}billion in 1980, an amount equal to 33% of America's gross domestic product (GDP); by 1990, that number had more than tripled to $3.2{{nbs}}trillion{{snd}}56% of GDP.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100201131532/http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/fy2010/assets/hist.pdf FY 2010 Budget Historical Tables. pp. 127–28].</ref> In 2001 the national debt was $5.7{{nbs}}trillion; however, the [[debt-to-GDP ratio]] remained at 1990 levels.<ref>"[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article742188.ece US spends its way to 28 Eiffel towers: made out of pure gold]". ''The Times''. March 17, 2006.</ref> Debt levels rose quickly in the following decade, and on January 28, 2010, the U.S. debt ceiling was raised to $14.3{{nbs}}trillion.<ref>"[https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE60R5DK20100128?type=politicsNews Senate backs increase in debt limit to $14.3{{nbs}}trillion]". Reuters. January 28, 2010.</ref> Based on the 2010 [[United States federal budget]], total national debt will grow to nearly 100% of GDP, versus a level of approximately 80% in early 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy10/pdf/summary.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010084418/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy10/pdf/summary.pdf|archive-date=October 10, 2011 |title=2010 Budget-Summary Tables S-13 and S-14 |access-date=July 21, 2014}}</ref> The White House estimates that the government's tab for servicing the debt will exceed $700{{nbs}}billion a year in 2019,<ref>"[http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/12/15/2771641.htm?site=thedrum Debt has become America's life blood]". Abc.net.au. December 15, 2009.</ref> up from $202{{nbs}}billion in 2009.<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/23/business/23rates.html?_r=1 Wave of Debt Payments Facing US Government]". ''The New York Times''. November 22, 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
The U.S. Treasury statistics indicate that, at the end of 2006, non-US citizens and institutions held 44% of federal debt held by the public.<ref>"[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy08/pdf/spec.pdf Analytical Perspectives of the FY 2008 Budget] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107153657/http://www.gpoaccess.gov//usbudget/fy08/pdf/spec.pdf |date=January 7, 2010}}".</ref> {{As of|2014}}, China, holding $1.26{{nbs}}trillion in [[treasury bond]]s, is the largest foreign financier of the U.S. public debt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.treasury.gov/ticdata/Publish/mfh.txt|title=Major Foreign Holders of Treasury Securities|date=July 2014|publisher=United States Department of the Treasury|access-date=August 23, 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017031710/http://www.treasury.gov/ticdata/Publish/mfh.txt|archive-date=October 17, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
<br />
The overall financial position of the United States as of 2014 includes $269.6{{nbs}}trillion of assets owned by households, businesses, and governments within its borders, representing more than 15.7 times the annual gross domestic product of the United States. Debts owed during this same period amounted to $145.8{{nbs}}trillion, about 8.5 times the annual gross domestic product.<ref name="2014Q1flowoffunds"><br />
{{cite web<br />
|url = http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/z1/current/z1.pdf<br />
|title = Z.1 Financial Accounts of the United States – Flow of Funds, Balance Sheets, and Integrated Macroeconomic Accounts – First Quarter 2014<br />
|author = Federal Reserve<br />
|date = 2014-06-05<br />
|access-date = July 3, 2010<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100702134328/http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/Z1/current/z1.pdf<br />
|archive-date = July 2, 2010<br />
|url-status = dead<br />
|df = mdy-all<br />
|author-link = Federal Reserve<br />
}}</ref><ref name="2005to2013flowoffunds"><br />
{{cite web<br />
|url = http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/z1/current/annuals/a2005-2013.pdf<br />
|title = Z.1 Financial Accounts of the United States – Flow of Funds, Balance Sheets, and Integrated Macroeconomic Accounts – Historical Annual Tables 2005–2013<br />
|author = Federal Reserve<br />
|date = 2014-06-05<br />
|url-status = dead<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140813015931/http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/z1/Current/annuals/a2005-2013.pdf<br />
|archive-date = August 13, 2014<br />
|df = mdy-all<br />
|author-link = Federal Reserve<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
Since 2010, the U.S. Treasury has been obtaining [[negative real interest rate]]s on government debt.<ref>Saint Louis Federal Reserve (2012) [http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/DFII5 "5-Year Treasury Inflation-Indexed Security, Constant Maturity"] FRED Economic Data chart from government debt auctions (the x-axis at y=0 represents the inflation rate over the life of the security)</ref> Such low rates, outpaced by the [[inflation]] rate, occur when the market believes that there are no alternatives with sufficiently low risk, or when popular institutional investments such as insurance companies, [[pension]]s, or bond, money market, and balanced [[mutual fund]]s are required or choose to invest sufficiently large sums in Treasury securities to hedge against risk.<ref name="liquidation" /><ref>David Wessel (August 8, 2012) [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390444900304577577192417116440 "When Interest Rates Turn Upside Down"] ''The Wall Street Journal'' ([http://www.htisec.com/en/research/shownews.jsp?newsType=DJ&newsid=c-20120808DN019794 full text] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120020448/http://www.htisec.com/en/research/shownews.jsp?newsType=DJ&newsid=c-20120808DN019794 |date=January 20, 2013}})</ref> American economist [[Lawrence Summers]] argues that at such low rates, government debt borrowing saves taxpayer money, and improves creditworthiness.<ref>Lawrence Summers (June 3, 2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20120605042224/http://blogs.reuters.com/lawrencesummers/2012/06/03/breaking-the-negative-feedback-loop/ "Breaking the negative feedback loop"] ''Reuters''</ref><br />
<br />
In the late 1940s through the early 1970s, the US and UK both reduced their debt burden by about 30% to 40% of GDP per decade by taking advantage of negative real interest rates, but there is no guarantee that government debt rates will continue to stay so low.<ref name="liquidation">Carmen M. Reinhart and M. Belen Sbrancia (March 2011) [http://www.imf.org/external/np/seminars/eng/2011/res2/pdf/crbs.pdf "The Liquidation of Government Debt"] National Bureau of Economic Research working paper No. 16893</ref><ref>William H. Gross (May 2, 2011) [http://www.pimco.com/EN/insights/pages/the-caine-mutiny-part-2.aspx "The Caine Mutiny (Part 2)"] ''PIMCO Investment Outlook''</ref> In January 2012, the U.S. Treasury Borrowing Advisory Committee of the Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association unanimously recommended that government debt be allowed to auction even lower, at negative absolute interest rates.<ref>U.S. Treasury (January 31, 2012) [http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1404.aspx "Minutes of the Meeting of the Treasury Borrowing Advisory Committee of the Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association"]</ref><br />
<br />
==Currency and central bank==<br />
{{Main|United States dollar|Federal Reserve}}<br />
[[File:Marriner S. Eccles Federal Reserve Board Building.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Federal Reserve]] is the central banking system of the United States.]]<br />
<br />
The United States dollar is the unit of currency of the United States. The U.S. dollar is the currency most used in international transactions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/pf/pdf/pf_4.pdf |title=The Implementation of Monetary Policy – The Federal Reserve in the International Sphere |access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref> Several countries [[Dollarization|use it as their official currency]], and in many others it is the [[de facto currency]].<ref>Benjamin J. Cohen, ''The Future of Money'', Princeton University Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0691116660}}; ''cf.'' "the dollar is the de facto currency in Cambodia", Charles Agar, ''Frommer's Vietnam'', 2006, {{ISBN|0471798169}}, p. 17</ref><br />
<br />
The federal government attempts to use both [[monetary policy]] (control of the money supply through mechanisms such as changes in interest rates) and [[fiscal policy]] (taxes and spending) to maintain low inflation, high economic growth, and low unemployment. A private [[central bank]], known as the [[Federal Reserve]], was formed in 1913 to provide a stable currency and [[monetary policy]]. The U.S. dollar has been regarded as one of the more stable currencies in the world and many nations back their own currency with U.S. dollar reserves.<ref name="federalreserve.gov" /><ref name="Benjamin J. Cohen 2006, p. 17" /><br />
<br />
The U.S. dollar has maintained its position as the world's primary reserve currency, although it is gradually being challenged in that role.<ref>"[https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/thereporters/stephanieflanders/2009/01/biggest_game_in_town.html Biggest game in town]". BBC News. January 29, 2009.</ref> Almost two thirds of currency reserves held around the world are held in U.S. dollars, compared to around 25% for the next most popular currency, the [[euro]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/np/sta/cofer/eng/cofer.pdf |title=Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves (COFER) – June 30, 2011 |access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref> Rising U.S. national debt and [[quantitative easing]] has caused some to predict that the U.S. dollar will lose its status as the world's reserve currency; however, these predictions have not yet come to fruition.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://money.cnn.com/2011/02/10/markets/dollar/index.htm | title=IMF calls for dollar alternative | publisher=CNN |date=February 10, 2011 |access-date=March 28, 2012 | author=Rooney, Ben}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Corruption==<br />
{{Main|Corruption in the United States}}<br />
In 2019, the United States was ranked 23rd on the [[Transparency International]] [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] with a score of 69 out of 100.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.transparency.org/cpi2019|title=2019 - Cpi}}</ref><br />
This is a decrease from its score in 2018 which was 71 out of 100.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.transparency.org/cpi2018|title=2018 - Cpi}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Law and government==<br />
The United States ranked 4th in the [[ease of doing business index]] in 2012, 18th in the [[Economic Freedom of the World]] index by the [[Fraser Institute]] in 2012, 10th in the [[Index of Economic Freedom]] by ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' and [[The Heritage Foundation]] in 2012, 15th in the 2014 [[Global Enabling Trade Report]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Enabling Trade Index 2014|url=http://widgets.weforum.org/global-enabling-trade-report-2014/|website=World Economic Forum}}</ref> and 3rd on the [[Global Competitiveness Report]].<ref>{{cite web|title=2014 Global Competitiveness Report|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2014-15.pdf}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to the 2014 [[Index of Economic Freedom]], released by ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' and [[The Heritage Foundation]], the U.S. has dropped out of the top ten most economically free countries. The U.S. has been on a steady seven-year economic freedom decline and is the only country to do so.<ref name="US economic freedom">{{cite web|title=2014 Index of Economic Freedom – United States|url=http://www.heritage.org/index/country/unitedstates|publisher=Heritage Foundation|access-date=January 14, 2014}}</ref> The index measures each nation's commitment to free enterprise on a scale of 0 to 100. Countries losing economic freedom and receiving low index scores are at risk of economic stagnation, high unemployment rates, and diminishing social conditions.<ref name="wsj miller">{{cite news|last=Terry|first=Miller|title=America's Dwindling Economic Freedom Regulation, taxes and debt knock the U.S. out of the world's top 10|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702303848104579308811265028066?mg=reno64-wsj&url=http%3A%2F%2Fonline.wsj.com%2Farticle%2FSB10001424052702303848104579308811265028066.html|access-date=January 14, 2014|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=January 13, 2014}}</ref><ref name="Index of economic freedom">{{cite web|title=2014 Index of Economic Freedom|url=http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking|publisher=Heritage Foundation|access-date=January 14, 2014}}</ref> The 2014 Index of Economic Freedom gave the United States a score of 75.5 and is listed as the twelfth-freest economy in world. It dropped two rankings and its score is half a point lower than in 2013.<ref name="US economic freedom" /><br />
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===Regulations===<br />
<br />
{{Main|United States administrative law}}<br />
[[File:BankingCrises.svg|thumb|Number of countries having a banking crisis in each year since 1800. This is based on ''This Time is Different: Eight Centuries of Financial Folly''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reinhartandrogoff.com/|title=This Time is Different |author1=Carmen M. Reinhart|author2=Kenneth S. Rogoff|publisher=Anchor Media Works|website=reinhartandrogoff.com}}</ref> which covers only seventy countries. The general upward trend might be attributed to many factors. One of these is a gradual increase in the percent of people who receive money for their labor. The dramatic feature of this graph is the virtual absence of banking crises during the period of the [[Bretton Woods agreement]], 1945 to 1971. This analysis is similar to Figure 10.1 in Reinhart and Rogoff (2009). For more details see the help file for "bankingCrises" in the Ecdat package available from the [[R (programming language)|Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN).]] ]]<br />
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The [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]] regulates private enterprise in numerous ways. Regulation falls into two general categories.<br />
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Some efforts seek, either directly or indirectly, to control prices. Traditionally, the government has sought to create state-regulated [[monopoly|monopolies]] such as electric utilities while allowing prices in the level that would ensure them normal profits. At times, the government has extended economic control to other kinds of industries as well. In the years following the Great Depression, it devised a complex system to stabilize prices for agricultural goods, which tend to fluctuate wildly in response to rapidly changing supply and demand. A number of other industries—trucking and, later, airlines—successfully sought regulation themselves to limit what they considered as harmful price-cutting, a process called [[regulatory capture]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Regulation and Control in the U.S. Economy: About.com</ref><br />
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Another form of economic regulation, [[Competition law|antitrust law]], seeks to strengthen market forces so that direct regulation is unnecessary. The government—and, sometimes, private parties—have used antitrust law to prohibit practices or mergers that would unduly limit competition.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><br />
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[[Bank regulation in the United States]] is highly fragmented compared to other [[Group of Ten (economic)|G10]] countries where most countries have only one bank regulator. In the U.S., banking is regulated at both the federal and state level. The U.S. also has one of the most highly regulated banking environments in the world; however, many of the regulations are not soundness related, but are instead focused on privacy, disclosure, fraud prevention, anti-money laundering, anti-terrorism, anti-[[usury]] lending, and promoting lending to lower-income segments.<br />
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Since the 1970s, government has also exercised control over private companies to achieve social goals, such as improving the public's health and safety or maintaining a healthy environment. For example, the [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] provides and enforces standards for workplace safety, and the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] provides standards and regulations to maintain air, water, and land resources. The U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] regulates what drugs may reach the market, and also provides standards of disclosure for food products.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><br />
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American attitudes about regulation changed substantially during the final three decades of the 20th century. Beginning in the 1970s, policy makers grew increasingly convinced that economic regulation protected companies at the expense of consumers in industries such as airlines and trucking. At the same time, technological changes spawned new competitors in some industries, such as telecommunications, that once were considered natural monopolies. Both developments led to a succession of laws easing regulation.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><br />
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While leaders of America's two most influential political parties generally favored economic [[deregulation]] during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, there was less agreement concerning regulations designed to achieve social goals. Social regulation had assumed growing importance in the years following the Depression and World War II, and again in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1980s, the government relaxed labor, consumer and [[Environmental policy of the United States|environmental rules]] based on the idea that such regulation interfered with [[free enterprise]], increased the costs of doing business, and thus contributed to inflation. The response to such changes is mixed; many Americans continued to voice concerns about specific events or trends, prompting the government to issue new regulations in some areas, including environmental protection.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><br />
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Where legislative channels have been unresponsive, some citizens have turned to the courts to address social issues more quickly. For instance, in the 1990s, individuals, and eventually the government itself, sued tobacco companies over the health risks of cigarette smoking. The 1998 [[Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement]] provided states with long-term payments to cover medical costs to treat smoking-related illnesses.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><br />
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Between 2000 and 2008, economic regulation in the United States saw the most rapid expansion since the early 1970s. The number of new pages in the Federal Registry, a proxy for economic regulation, rose from 64,438 new pages in 2001 to 78,090 in new pages in 2007, a record amount of regulation. Economically significant regulations, defined as regulations which cost more than $100{{nbs}}million a year, increased by 70%. Spending on regulation increased by 62% from $26.4{{nbs}}billion to $42.7{{nbs}}billion.<ref name="bushregulation">{{cite magazine|title=Bush's Regulatory Kiss-Off – Obama's assertions to the contrary, the 43rd president was the biggest regulator since Nixon|url=http://www.reason.com/news/show/130328.html|magazine=Reason magazine|date=January 2009|access-date=February 12, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902085717/http://www.reason.com/news/show/130328.html|archive-date=September 2, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
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===Taxation===<br />
{{Main|Taxation in the United States}}<br />
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[[Taxation in the United States]] is a complex system which may involve payment to at least four different levels of government and many methods of taxation. Taxes are levied by the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]], by the [[State governments of the United States|state governments]], and often by [[Local government in the United States|local governments]], which may include [[Counties of the United States|counties]], municipalities, [[Township (United States)|township]], [[school district]]s, and other [[Special district (United States)|special-purpose districts]], which include fire, utility, and transit districts.<ref>{{cite news |title=America's Aversion to Taxes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/15/business/economy/slipping-behind-because-of-an-aversion-to-taxes.html?_r=1&src=recg |quote=In 1965, taxes collected by federal, state and municipal governments amounted to 24.7 percent of the nation's output. In 2010, they amounted to 24.8 percent. Excluding Chile and Mexico, the United States raises less tax revenue, as a share of the economy, than every other industrial country. |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=August 14, 2012 |access-date=August 15, 2012 |first=Eduardo |last=Porter}}</ref><br />
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Forms of taxation include taxes on [[Income tax in the United States|income]], [[Property tax in the United States|property]], [[Sales tax in the United States|sales]], imports, payroll, estates and gifts, as well as various fees. When taxation by all government levels taken into consideration, the [[List of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP|total taxation as percentage of GDP]] was approximately a quarter of GDP in 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/index/country/unitedstates |title=Index of Economic Freedom: United States |publisher=Index of Economic Freedom}}</ref> Share of [[black market]] in the U.S. economy is very low compared to other countries.<ref name="Trans-Atlantic Comparisons 3-2">{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,628389-2,00.html |work=Der Spiegel |title=Is the US Really a Nation of God-Fearing Darwin-Haters? |date=June 6, 2009}}</ref><br />
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Although a federal [[wealth tax]] is prohibited by the [[United States Constitution]] unless the receipts are distributed to the States by their populations, state and local government property tax amount to a wealth tax on [[real estate]], and because [[Capital gains tax in the United States|capital gains]] are taxed on nominal instead of inflation-adjusted profits, the capital gains tax amounts to a wealth tax on the inflation rate.<ref name=YglesiasWealth>{{cite news|last=Yglesias|first=Matthew|title=America Does Tax Wealth, Just Not Very Intelligently|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/moneybox/2013/03/06/america_s_wealth_tax_it_s_called_property_taxes_and_they_re_not_very_smart.html|access-date=March 18, 2013|newspaper=Slate|date=March 6, 2013}}</ref><br />
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U.S. taxation is generally [[Progressive tax|progressive]], especially at the federal level, and is among the most progressive in the developed world.<ref name = "CBO 2010">{{cite web|url=http://cbo.gov/publication/44604|title=The Distribution of Household Income and Federal Taxes, 2010|publisher=The US Congressional Budget Office (CBO)|date=December 4, 2013|access-date=August 13, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prasad |first1=M. |last2=Deng|first2= Y. |title=Taxation and the worlds of welfare |journal= Socio-Economic Review |date=April 2, 2009 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–57 |doi= 10.1093/ser/mwp005 |url=http://www.lisdatacenter.org/wps/liswps/480.pdf}}</ref><ref name=Dylan47>{{cite news |last=Matthews |first=Dylan |title=Other countries don't have a "47%" |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2012/09/19/other-countries-dont-have-a-47/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=October 29, 2013 |date=September 19, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Stephen |first=Ohlemacher |title=Tax bills for rich families approach 30-year high |url= http://seattletimes.com/html/politics/2020475301_apustaxingtherich.html|access-date=April 3, 2013|newspaper=The Seattle Times |agency=Associated Press |date=March 3, 2013}}</ref> There is debate over whether taxes should be more or less progressive.<ref name=YglesiasWealth /><ref name=BairParity>{{cite news|last=Bair|first=Sheila|title=Grand Old Parity|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/27/opinion/republicans-must-bridge-the-income-gap.html|access-date=March 18, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 26, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Hodge|first1=Scott A.|title=The Case for a Single-Rate Tax: Why Our Progressive Tax Code is Inconsistent with the Changing Face of American Taxpayers|url=http://taxfoundation.org/article/case-single-rate-tax-why-our-progressive-tax-code-inconsistent-changing-face-american-taxpayers|publisher=Tax Foundation|access-date=August 13, 2014|date=April 29, 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Frank|first1=Robert|title=The Price of Taxing the Rich: The top 1% of earners fill the coffers of states like California and New York during a boom – and leave them starved for revenue in a bust|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052748704604704576220491592684626|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=August 13, 2014|date=March 26, 2011}}</ref><br />
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According to the [[Tax Justice Network]] in 2022, the US fuels more global [[Financial Secrecy Index|financial secrecy]] than [[Banking in Switzerland|Switzerland]], Cayman and Bermuda combined.<ref name="SWI swissinfo.ch 2022">{{cite web | title=Switzerland ranked second-worst global facilitator of tax avoidance | website=SWI swissinfo.ch | date=2022-05-18 | url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/business/switzerland-ranked-second-worst-global-facilitator-of-tax-avoidance/47603522 | access-date=2022-06-28}}</ref><br />
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===Expenditure===<br />
{{Main|United States federal budget|Government spending in the United States|National debt of the United States}}<br />
[[File:2021 US Federal Budget Infographic.png|thumb|400px|right|CBO: U.S. Federal spending and revenue components for fiscal year 2021. Major expenditure categories are healthcare, Social Security, and defense; income and payroll taxes are the primary revenue sources.]]<br />
[[File:CBO Deficit - Baseline Comparison - April 2018.png|thumb|right|350px|Congressional Budget Office (CBO) baseline scenario comparisons: June 2017 (essentially the deficit trajectory that President Trump inherited from President Obama), April 2018 (which reflects Trump's tax cuts and spending bills), and April 2018 alternate scenario (which assumes extension of the Trump tax cuts, among other current policy extensions).<ref name="CBO_BOE2018">{{cite web| url = https://www.cbo.gov/publication/53651| title = CBO Budget and Economic Outlook 2018–2028| date = April 9, 2018}}</ref>]]<br />
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The United States public-sector spending amounts to about 38% of GDP (federal is around 21%, state and local the remainder).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.oecd.org/gga/general-government-spending.htm|title=General Government Spending}}</ref> Each level of government provides many direct services. The federal government, for example, is responsible for national defense, research that often leads to the development of new products, conducts space exploration, and runs numerous programs designed to help workers develop workplace skills and find jobs (including higher education). Government spending has a significant effect on local and regional economies, and on the overall pace of economic activity.<br />
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[[Politics of the United States|State governments]], meanwhile, are responsible for the construction and maintenance of most highways. State, county, or city governments play the leading role in financing and operating public schools. Local governments are primarily responsible for police and fire protection. In 2016, U.S. state and local governments owed $3{{nbs}}trillion and have another $5{{nbs}}trillion in unfunded liabilities.<ref>{{cite news |title=Debt Myths, Debunked |url=https://www.usnews.com/opinion/economic-intelligence/articles/2016-12-01/myths-and-facts-about-the-us-federal-debt |work=U.S. News |date=December 1, 2016}}</ref><br />
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The [[United States welfare state|welfare system in the United States]] began in the 1930s, during the Great Depression, with the passage of the [[New Deal]]. The welfare system was later expanded in the 1960s through [[Great Society]] legislation, which included [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]], [[Medicaid]], the [[Older Americans Act]] and federal education funding.<br />
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Overall, federal, state, and local spending accounted for almost 28% of gross domestic product in 1998.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy01/guide01.html|title=U.S. Budget 2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112170429/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy01/guide01.html|archive-date=January 12, 2012}}</ref><br />
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===Federal budget and debt===<br />
{{Further|United States federal budget}}<br />
During FY2017, the federal government spent $3.98{{nbs}}trillion on a budget or cash basis, up $128{{nbs}}billion or 3.3% vs. FY2016 spending of $3.85{{nbs}}trillion. Major categories of FY 2017 spending included: Healthcare such as Medicare and Medicaid ($1,077B or 27% of spending), Social Security ($939B or 24%), non-defense discretionary spending used to run federal Departments and Agencies ($610B or 15%), Defense Department ($590B or 15%), and interest ($263B or 7%).<ref name="CBO_BOE2018" /><br />
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During FY2017, the federal government collected approximately $3.32{{nbs}}trillion in tax revenue, up $48{{nbs}}billion or 1.5% versus FY2016. Primary receipt categories included individual income taxes ($1,587{{nbs}}billion or 48% of total receipts), Social Security/Social Insurance taxes ($1,162{{nbs}}billion or 35%), and corporate taxes ($297{{nbs}}billion or 9%). Other revenue types included excise, estate and gift taxes. FY 2017 revenues were 17.3% of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP), versus 17.7% in FY 2016. Tax revenues averaged approximately 17.4% GDP over the 1980–2017 period.<ref name="CBO_BOE2018" /><br />
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The federal budget deficit (i.e., expenses greater than revenues) was $665{{nbs}}billion in FY2017, versus $585{{nbs}}billion in 2016, an increase of $80{{nbs}}billion or 14%. The budget deficit was 3.5% GDP in 2017, versus 3.2% GDP in 2016. The budget deficit is forecast to rise to $804{{nbs}}billion in FY 2018, due significantly to the [[Tax Cuts and Jobs Act]] and other spending bills. An aging country and healthcare inflation are other drivers of deficits and debt over the long-run.<ref name="CBO_BOE2018" /><br />
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Debt held by the public, a measure of national debt, was approximately $14.7{{nbs}}trillion or 77% of GDP in 2017, ranked the 43rd highest out of 207 countries.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2186rank.html#us| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070613005546/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2186rank.html#us| url-status = dead| archive-date = June 13, 2007| title = CIA World Factbook-Debt to GDP}}</ref> This debt, as a percent of GDP, is roughly equivalent to those of many western European nations.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.dailyfinance.com/story/is-rising-u-s-debt-inviting-trouble-ask-japan/19469343/|access-date=May 18, 2010|title=Is Rising U.S. Debt Inviting Trouble? Ask Japan|publisher=Daily Finance|first=Vishesh|last=Kumar}}</ref><br />
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==Business culture==<br />
A central feature of the U.S. economy is the economic freedom afforded to the private sector by allowing the private sector to make the majority of economic decisions in determining the direction and scale of what the U.S. economy produces. This is enhanced by relatively low levels of regulation and government involvement,<ref>{{cite web |first=Jack |last=Anderson |url=https://www.forbes.com/global/2006/0522/032.html |title=Tax Misery & Reform Index |work=Forbes |date=May 22, 2006 |access-date=November 17, 2008}}</ref> as well as a court system that generally protects [[Right to property|property rights]] and enforces contracts. Today, the United States is home to 29.6 million small businesses, thirty percent of the world's millionaires, forty percent of the world's billionaires, and 139 of the world's 500 largest companies.<ref name="sba.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.sba.gov/advo/stats/sbfaq.pdf |title=Office of Advocacy – Frequently Asked Questions – How important are small businesses to the U.S. economy? |publisher=SBA.gov |access-date=April 21, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202170306/http://www.sba.gov/advo/stats/sbfaq.pdf |archive-date=December 2, 2010}}</ref><ref name="forbes.com">{{cite news| url=https://www.forbes.com/wealth/billionaires | title=Forbes | date=March 14, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Global 500 2010: Countries">{{cite news| url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2010/countries/US.html |publisher=CNN | title=Global 500 2010: Countries}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://articles.moneycentral.msn.com/Investing/Extra/WhereTheMillionairesAreNow.aspx |title=Where the millionaires are now |publisher=MSN |date=October 22, 2007 |access-date=April 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927143337/http://articles.moneycentral.msn.com/Investing/Extra/WhereTheMillionairesAreNow.aspx |archive-date=September 27, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
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[[File:Boeing 787-10 rollout with President Trump (32335755473) (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Boeing]] CEO [[Dennis Muilenburg]] at the [[Boeing 787 Dreamliner|787-10 Dreamliner]] rollout ceremony]]<br />
From its emergence as an independent nation, the United States has encouraged science and innovation. In the early 20th century, the research developed through informal cooperation between U.S. industry and academia grew rapidly and by the late 1930s exceeded the size of that taking place in Britain (although the quality of U.S. research was not yet on par with British and German research at the time). After World War II, federal spending on defense R&D and antitrust policy played a significant role in U.S. innovation.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Walker, William|title=National innovation systems : a comparative analysis|date=1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195076172|editor1-last=Nelson|editor1-first=Richard R.|location=New York|pages=61–64|chapter=National Innovation Systems: Britain|ref=Walker1993|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFDGjgxc2CYC&pg=PA61}}<!--Author profile: https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/intrel/people/index.php/wbw.html--></ref><br />
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The United States is rich in mineral resources and fertile farm soil, and it is fortunate to have a moderate climate. It also has extensive coastlines on both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as well as on the Gulf of Mexico. Rivers flow from far within the continent and the [[Great Lakes]] (the five large inland lakes along the Canadian border) provide additional shipping access. These extensive waterways have helped shape the country's economic growth over the years and helped bind America's fifty individual states together in a single economic unit.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://usinfo.state.gov/infousa/government/forpolicy/chap2.html| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081114043907/http://usinfo.state.gov/infousa/government/forpolicy/chap2.html| url-status = dead| archive-date = 2008-11-14| title = U.S. Department of state: How the U.S. Economy Works}}</ref><br />
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The number of workers and, more importantly, their productivity help determine the health of the U.S. economy. [[Consumer spending]] in the U.S. rose to about 62% of GDP in 1960, where it stayed until about 1981, and has since risen to 71% in 2013.<ref name=consumerecon /> Throughout its history, the United States has experienced steady growth in the labor force, a phenomenon that is both cause and effect of almost constant economic expansion. Until shortly after World War I, most workers were immigrants from Europe, their immediate descendants, or African Americans who were mostly slaves taken from Africa, or their descendants.<ref>"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EB29BrnCMm4C&pg=PA280 Trends in International Migration 2002: Continuous Reporting System on Migration]''". Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (2003). OECD Publishing. p. 280. {{ISBN|9264199497}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Demographic shift==<br />
{{See also|Demographics of the United States}}<br />
Beginning in the late 20th century, many Latin Americans immigrated, followed by large numbers of Asians after the removal of nation-origin based [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965|immigration quotas]].<ref>{{cite web <br />
|url=https://www.boston.com:80/news/politics/2008/articles/2008/11/11/obama_victory_took_root_in_kennedy_inspired_immigration_act/?page=full<br />
|title=Obama victory took root in Kennedy-inspired Immigration Act<br />
|author=Peter S. Canellos<br />
|date=November 11, 2008<br />
|work=The Boston Globe<br />
|access-date=November 14, 2008}}</ref> The promise of high wages brings many highly skilled workers from around the world to the United States, as well as millions of [[Illegal immigration to the United States|illegal immigrants]] seeking work in the informal economy. More than 13 million people officially entered the United States during the 1990s alone.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jeanette Altarriba|author2=Roberto R. Heredia|title=An Introduction to Bilingualism: Principles and Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87snuOaE7DwC&pg=PA212|year=2007|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0203927823|page=212}}</ref><br />
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[[File:Philadelphia - panoramio - 4net (3).jpg|thumb|Restaurants and shops in [[Chinatown, Philadelphia]]]]<br />
Labor mobility has also been important to the capacity of the American economy to adapt to changing conditions. When immigrants flooded labor markets on the East Coast, many workers moved inland, often to farmland waiting to be tilled. Similarly, economic opportunities in industrial, northern cities attracted black Americans from [[Southern United States|southern]] farms in the first half of the 20th century, in what was known as the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]].<br />
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In the United States, the corporation has emerged as an association of owners, known as stockholders, who form a business enterprise governed by a complex set of rules and customs. Brought on by the process of [[mass production]], corporations, such as [[General Electric]], have been instrumental in shaping the United States. Through the [[stock market]], American banks and investors have grown their economy by investing and withdrawing capital from profitable corporations. Today in the era of [[globalization]], American investors and corporations have influence all over the world. The American government is also included among the major investors in the American economy. Government investments have been directed towards public works of scale (such as from the [[Hoover Dam]]), military-industrial contracts, and the financial industry.<br />
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===Aging===<br />
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The U.S. population is aging, which has significant economic implications for GDP growth, productivity, innovation, inequality, and national debt, according to several studies. The average worker in 2019 was aged 42, vs. 38 in 2000. By 2030, about 59% of adults over 16 will be in the labor force, vs. 62% in 2015. One study estimated that aging since 2000 has reduced productivity between 0.25% and 0.7% per year. Since GDP growth is a function of productivity (output per worker) and the number of workers, both trends slow the GDP growth rate. Older workers save more, which pushes interests rates down, offsetting some of the GDP growth reduction but reducing the Federal Reserve's ability to address a recession by lowering interest rates. Means of addressing the aging trend include immigration (which theoretically brings in younger workers) and higher fertility rates, which can be encouraged by incentives to have more children (e.g., tax breaks, subsidies, and more generous paid leave).<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/15/sunday-review/work-age-economy.html?|title=This Economy Is Not Aging Gracefully |last=Porter |first=Eduardo |date=June 15, 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=June 15, 2019}}</ref><br />
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The [[Congressional Budget Office]] estimated in May 2019 that mandatory spending (e.g., Medicare, Medicaid, and Social Security) will continue growing relative to the size of the economy (GDP) as the population ages. The population aged 65 or older is projected to rise by one-third from 2019–2029. Mandatory program spending (outlays) in 2019 were 12.7% of GDP and are projected to average 14.4% GDP from 2025–2029.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbo.gov/publication/55151|title= Updated Budget Projections: 2019 to 2029|date=May 2, 2019 |work=[[Congressional Budget Office]] |access-date=June 15, 2019}}</ref><br />
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==Entrepreneurship==<br />
{{See also|Technological and industrial history of the United States}}<br />
[[File:Government and State-Owned Enterprises to GDP for United States.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. economy from [[state-owned enterprise]]s or [[government-sponsored enterprise]]s.]]<br />
[[File:PyramidParthenon.jpg|thumb|Tennessee in 1897. The U.S. was a leader in the adoption of [[lightbulb|electric lighting]].]]<br />
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The United States has been a leader in technological innovation since the late 19th century and scientific research since the mid-20th century. In 1876, [[Alexander Graham Bell]] was awarded the first U.S. [[Invention of the telephone|patent for the telephone]]. [[Thomas Edison]]'s laboratory developed the [[phonograph]], the first [[Incandescent light bulb|long-lasting light bulb]], and the first viable [[Kinetoscope|movie camera]]. Edison's company would also pioneer ([[direct current]] based) electric power delivery and market it around the world, followed on by companies such as [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation]] which would rapidly develop [[alternating current]] power delivery. In the early 20th century, the automobile companies of [[Ransom E. Olds]] and [[Henry Ford]] popularized the [[assembly line]]. The [[Wright brothers]], in 1903, made the [[Wright Flyer|first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Benedetti, François |url=http://www.fai.org/news_archives/fai/000295.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912065254/http://www.fai.org/news_archives/fai/000295.asp |archive-date=September 12, 2007 |title=100 Years Ago, the Dream of Icarus Became Reality |publisher=Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) |date=December 17, 2003 |access-date=August 15, 2007}}</ref><br />
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[[File:Steve Jobs and Bill Gates (522695099).jpg|thumb|[[Steve Jobs]] and [[Bill Gates]] are two of the well-known American entrepreneurs.]]<br />
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American society highly emphasizes entrepreneurship and business. [[Entrepreneurship]] is the act of being an entrepreneur, which can be defined as "one who undertakes [[innovation]]s, finance and business acumen in an effort to transform innovations into economic goods". This may result in new organizations or may be part of revitalizing mature organizations in response to a perceived opportunity.<ref name="ReferenceB">Shane, Scott "A General Theory of Entrepreneurship: the Individual-Opportunity Nexus", Edward Elgar</ref> American entrepreneurs are even engaged in public services delivery through [[Public-private partnerships in the United States|public-private partnerships]].<br />
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The most obvious form of entrepreneurship refers to the process and engagement of starting new businesses (referred to as [[startup company|startup companies]]); however, in recent years, the term has been extended to include social and political forms of entrepreneurial activity. When entrepreneurship is describing activities within a firm or large organization it is referred to as intra-preneurship and may include corporate venturing, when large entities spin-off organizations.<ref name="ReferenceB" /><br />
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According to Paul Reynolds, entrepreneurship scholar and creator of the [[Global Entrepreneurship Monitor]], "by the time they reach their retirement years, half of all working men in the United States probably have a period of self-employment of one or more years; one in four may have engaged in self-employment for six or more years. Participating in a new business creation is a common activity among U.S. workers over the course of their careers."<ref>Reynolds, Paul D. "Entrepreneurship in the United States", Springer, 2007, {{ISBN|978-0387456676}}</ref> And in recent years, business creation has been documented by scholars such as [[David Audretsch]] to be a major driver of economic growth in both the United States and Western Europe.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}}<br />
[[File:Survival rate of US start-ups, 1977–2012.svg|thumb|Survival rate of U.S. start-ups, 1977–2012. Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Business Dynamic Statistics, Published by Gallup, reproduced in UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, Figure 5.7, p. 143]]<br />
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==Venture capital investment==<br />
[[File:US VC funding.png|300px|right|Quarterly U.S. venture capital investments, 1995–2017]]<br />
[[Venture capital]], as an industry, originated in the United States, which it still dominates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.briskfox.com/open/years/2009_q1/do_v_c44780.php|title=Mandelson, Peter. "There is no Google, or Amazon, or Microsoft or Apple in the UK, Mandelson tells BVCA." BriskFox Financial News, March 11, 2009|publisher=Briskfox.com|access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref> According to the National Venture Capital Association 11% of private sector jobs come from venture capital backed companies and venture capital backed revenue accounts for 21% of U.S. GDP.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.nvca.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=255&Itemid=103|title=Venture Impact|publisher=IHS Global Insight|year=2009|isbn=978-0978501570|edition=5|page=2|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630170428/http://www.nvca.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=255&Itemid=103|archive-date=June 30, 2014}}</ref><br />
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Total U.S. investment in venture capital amounted to $48.3{{nbs}}billion in 2014, for 4,356 deals. This represented "an increase of 61% in dollars and a 4% increase in deals over the prior year", reported the National Venture Capital Association. The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development estimates that venture capital investment in the United States had fully recovered by 2014 to pre-recession levels. The National Venture Capital Association has reported that, in 2014, venture capital investment in the life sciences was at its highest level since 2008: in biotechnology, $6.0{{nbs}}billion was invested in 470 deals and, in life sciences overall, $8.6{{nbs}}billion in 789 deals (including biotechnology and medical devices). Two thirds (68%) of the investment in biotechnology went to first-time/early-stage development deals and the remainder to the expansion stage of development (14%), seed-stage companies (11%) and late-stage companies (7%). However, it was the software industry which invested in the greatest number of deals overall: 1,799, for an investment of $19.8{{nbs}}billion. Second came internet-specific companies, garnering US$11.9{{nbs}}billion in investment through 1,005 deals. Many of these companies are based in the state of California, which alone concentrates 28% of U.S. research.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|title=United States of America. In: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|last1=Stewart|first1=Shannon|last2=Springs|first2=Stacy|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-9231001291|location=Paris|pages=129–55}}</ref><br />
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Some new American businesses raise investments from [[angel investor]]s (venture capitalists). In 2010 healthcare/medical accounted for the largest share of angel investments, with 30% of total angel investments (vs. 17% in 2009), followed by software (16% vs. 19% in 2007), biotech (15% vs. 8% in 2009), industrial/energy (8% vs. 17% in 2009), retail (5% vs. 8% in 2009) and IT services (5%).<ref>{{cite web|last=Sohl|first=Jeffrey|title=Full Year 2009 Angel Market Trends|url=http://wsbe.unh.edu/files/2009_Angel_Market_Press_Release.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120034841/http://wsbe.unh.edu/files/2009_Angel_Market_Press_Release.pdf|archive-date=January 20, 2013|publisher=University of New Hampshire Center for Venture Research|access-date=September 27, 2011|date=March 31, 2010}}</ref> {{clarify|In this article, we really need total amount of dollars/annually|date=February 2012}}<br />
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Americans are "venturesome consumers" who are unusually willing to try new products of all sorts, and to pester manufacturers to improve their products.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.economist.com/node/13216037|newspaper=The Economist|title=The United States of Entrepreneurs|date=March 12, 2009}}</ref><br />
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==Mergers and acquisitions==<br />
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Since 1985 there have been three major waves of M&A in the U.S. (see graph "Mergers and Acquisitions in the U.S. since 1985"). 2017 has been the most active year in terms of number of deals (12,914), whereas 2015 cumulated to the biggest overall value of deals ($24{{nbs}}billion).<br />
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The biggest merger deal in U.S. history was the acquisition of Time Warner by America Online Inc. in 2000, where the bid was over $164{{nbs}}billion. Since 2000 acquisitions of U.S. companies by Chinese investors increased by 368%. The other way round—U.S. companies acquiring Chinese Companies—showed a decrease of 25%, with a short upwards trend until 2007.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://imaa-institute.org/m-and-a-us-united-states/|title=M&A US – Mergers & Acquisitions in the United States|work=IMAA-Institute|access-date=2018-02-22|language=en-US |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
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==Research and development==<br />
{{See also|Science and technology in the United States}}<br />
[[File:GERD GDP ratio in the USA, 2002–2013.svg|thumb|Gross domestic expenditure on R&D in the U.S. as a percentage of GDP, 2002–2013. Other countries are given for comparison. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030]]<br />
The U.S. invests more funds in research and development (R&D) in absolute terms than the other G7 nations combined: 17.2% more in 2012. Since 2000, gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) in the U.S. has increased by 31.2%, enabling it to maintain its share of GERD among the G7 nations at 54.0% (54.2% in 2000).<ref name=":0" /><br />
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===Impact of recession on research spending===<br />
Generally speaking, U.S. investment in R&D rose with the economy in the first years of the century before receding slightly during the economic recession then rising again as growth resumed. At its peak in 2009, GERD amounted to US$406{{nbs}}billion (2.82% of GDP). Despite the recession, it was still at 2.79% in 2012 and will slide only marginally to 2.73% in 2013, according to provisional data, and should remain at a similar level in 2014.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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The federal government is the primary funder of basic research, at 52.6% in 2012; state governments, universities and other non-profits funded 26%. Experimental development, on the other hand, is primarily funded by industry: 76.4% to the federal government's 22.1% in 2012.<ref name=":0" /><br />
[[File:World shares of GDP, GERD, researchers and publications for the G20, 2009 and 2013.svg|thumb|World shares of GDP, research spending, researchers and scientific publications, 2009 and 2013. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, Figure 1.7]]<br />
While U.S. investment in R&D is high, it failed to reach President Obama's target of 3% of GDP by the end of his presidency in 2016. Between 2009 and 2012, the United States' world share of research expenditure receded slightly from 30.5% to 28.1%. Several countries now devote more than 4% of GDP to R&D (Israel, Japan and the Republic of Korea) and others plan to raise their own GERD/GDP ratio to 4% by 2020 (Finland and Sweden).<ref name=":0" /><br />
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===Business spending on research===<br />
Business enterprises contributed 59.1 % of U.S. GERD in 2012, down from 69.0 % in 2000. Private non-profits and foreign entities each contribute a small fraction of total R&D, 3.3% and 3.8%, respectively.<ref name=":0" /> [[File:R&D budget by US agency, 1994–2014.svg|thumb|US research and development budget by government agency, 1994–2014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, Figure 5.4, based on data from American Association for the Advancement of Science]]The United States has historically been a leader in business R&D and innovation. The economic recession of 2008–2009 has had a lasting impact, however. While the major performers of R&D largely maintained their commitments, the pain of the U.S. recession was felt mainly by small businesses and start-ups. Statistics released by the U.S. Census Bureau showed that, in 2008, the number of business 'deaths' began overtaking the number of business 'births' and that the trend continued at least through 2012. From 2003 to 2008, business research spending had followed a generally upward trajectory. In 2009, the curve inverted, as expenditure fell by 4% over the previous year then again in 2010, albeit by 1–2% this time. Companies in high-opportunity industries like health care cut back less than those in more mature industries, such as fossil fuels. The largest cutbacks in R&D spending were in agriculture production: −3.5% compared to the average R&D to net sales ratio. The chemicals and allied products industry and electronic equipment industry, on the other hand, showed R&D to net sales ratios that were 3.8% and 4.8% higher than average. Although the amount of R&D spending increased in 2011, it was still below the level of 2008 expenditure. By 2012, the growth rate of business-funded R&D had recovered. Whether this continues will be contingent on the pursuit of economic recovery and growth, levels of federal research funding and the general business climate.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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===Research spending at the state level===<br />
{{See also|List of U.S. states by research and development spending}}<br />
The level of research spending varies considerably from one state to another. Six states (New Mexico, Maryland, Massachusetts, Washington, California and Michigan) each devoted 3.9% or more of their GDP to R&D in 2010, together contributing 42% of national research expenditure. In 2010, more than one quarter of R&D was concentrated in California (28.1%), ahead of Massachusetts (5.7%), New Jersey (5.6%), Washington State (5.5%), Michigan (5.4%), Texas (5.2%), Illinois (4.8%), New York (3.6%) and Pennsylvania (3.5%). Seven states (Arkansas, Nevada, Oklahoma, Louisiana, South Dakota and Wyoming) devoted less than 0.8% of GDP to R&D.<ref name=":0" /><br />
[[File:Science and engineering in the USA by state, 2010.svg|thumb|Science and engineering in the U.S. by state. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, Figure 5.6, based on data from American Association for the Advancement of Science]]<br />
California is home to Silicon Valley, the name given to the area hosting the leading corporations and start-ups in information technology. This state also hosts dynamic biotechnology clusters in the San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles and San Diego. The main biotechnology clusters outside California are the cities of Boston/Cambridge, Massachusetts, Maryland, suburban Washington, DC, New York, Seattle, Philadelphia, and Chicago. California supplies 13.7% of all jobs in science and engineering across the country, more than any other state. Some 5.7% of Californians are employed in these fields. This high share reflects a potent combination of academic excellence and a strong business focus on R&D: the prestigious Stanford University and University of California rub shoulders with Silicon Valley, for instance. In much the same way, Route 128 around Boston in the state of Massachusetts is not only home to numerous high-tech firms and corporations but also hosts the renowned Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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New Mexico's high research intensity can be explained by the fact that it hosts the Los Alamos National Laboratory. Maryland's position may reflect the concentration of federally funded research institutions there. Washington State has a high concentration of high-tech firms like Microsoft, Amazon and Boeing and the engineering functions of most automobile manufacturers are located in the state of Michigan.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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===Research spending by multinational corporations===<br />
The federal government and most of the 50 states that make up the United States offer tax credits to particular industries and companies to encourage them to engage in research and development (R&D). Congress usually renews a tax credit every few years. According to a survey by ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' in 2012, companies do not factor in these credits when making decisions about investing in R&D, since they cannot rely on these credits being renewed.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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In 2014, four U.S. multinational corporations figured in the Top 50 for the volume of expenditure on R&D: Microsoft, Intel, Johnson & Johnson and Google. Several have figured in the Top 20 for at least ten years: Intel, Microsoft, Johnson & Johnson, Pfizer and IBM. Google was included in this table for the first time in 2013.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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'''Global top 50 companies by R&D volume and intensity, 2014'''<br />
<nowiki>*</nowiki> R&D intensity is defined as R&D expenditure divided by net sales.<br />
<nowiki>**</nowiki> Although incorporated in the Netherlands, Airbus's principal manufacturing facilities are located in France, Germany, Spain and the UK.<br />
Source: ''UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030'' (2015), Table 9.3, based on Hernández ''et al.'' (2014) ''EU R&D Scoreboard: the 2014 EU Industrial R&D Investment Scoreboard''. [[European Commission]]: Brussels, Table 2.2.<br />
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===Exports of high-tech goods and patents===<br />
[[File:High-tech exports from the USA as a world share, 2008–2013.svg|thumb|High-tech exports from the U.S. as a percentage of the world share, 2008–2013. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, Figure 5.10, based on Comtrade database]]<br />
Until 2010, the United States was a net exporter of pharmaceuticals but, since 2011, it has become a net importer of these goods.<br />
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The United States is a post-industrial country. Imports of high-tech products far exceed exports. However, the United States' technologically skilled workforce produces a large volume of patents and can still profit from the license or sale of these patents. Within the United States' scientific industries active in research, 9.1% of products and services are concerned with the licensing of intellectual property rights.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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When it comes to trade in intellectual property, the United States remains unrivalled. Income from royalties and licensing amounted to $129.2{{nbs}}billion in 2013, the highest in the world. Japan comes a distant second, with receipts of $31.6{{nbs}}billion in 2013. The United States' payments for use of intellectual property amounted to $39.0{{nbs}}billion in 2013, exceeded only by Ireland ($46.4{{nbs}}billion).<ref name=":0" /><br />
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==Notable companies and markets==<br />
{{See also|Forbes 500|Fortune 500}}<br />
{{Further|List of largest companies in the United States by revenue}}<br />
[[File:Walmart exterior.jpg|thumb|right|A typical Walmart discount department store (location: [[Laredo, Texas]])]]<br />
America's largest companies are ranked every year by revenue in the ''[[Fortune 500]]''. Between 2000 and 2022's edition of the list, the top spot on the Fortune 500 was occupied by either the auto manufacturer [[General Motors]] (GM), the oil and gas giant [[ExxonMobil]], or the retailer [[Walmart]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hoover |first=Gary |date=2022-06-26 |title=2022 UPDATED Largest Companies Charts |url=https://americanbusinesshistory.org/2022-updated-largest-companies-charts/ |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=Business History - The American Business History Center |language=en-US}}</ref> The US is also home of many of the world's largest companies by [[market capitalization]]; {{As of|2023|February|9|df=US}}, the largest American companies by market cap are [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Microsoft]], [[Google]] (through holding company [[Alphabet Inc.|Alphabet]]), [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], [[Berkshire Hathaway]], [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]], [[Nvidia]], [[Visa Inc.|Visa]], ExxonMobil, and [[Meta Platforms]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Companies ranked by Market Cap - CompaniesMarketCap.com |url=https://companiesmarketcap.com/ |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=companiesmarketcap.com |language=en-us}}</ref> Moreover, many of these companies are the most valuable brands, with many of the largest companies by revenue and market cap on the annual ranking of most valuable brands by [[Forbes]] being joined by [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]], [[The Walt Disney Company]], and [[McDonald's]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The 2020 World's Most Valuable Brands |url=https://www.forbes.com/the-worlds-most-valuable-brands/ |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref><br />
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Some industries within America are defined by a few major companies, often deriving terms such as "Big Three" or "Big Four". Examples of this phenomenon include the Big Three credit reporting agencies ([[Equifax]], [[Experian]], and [[TransUnion]]), the [[Big Three (automobile manufacturers)|Big Three automobile makers]] ([[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], [[General Motors]], and [[Stellantis]]), the [[Big Four accounting firms]] ([[Deloitte]], [[Ernst & Young]], [[KPMG]], and [[PwC]]), and the Big Four communications carriers ([[Verizon Communications|Verizon]], [[AT&T]], [[T-Mobile]]/[[Sprint Corporation|Sprint]], and [[Dish Network]]).<ref>{{Cite news |title=How to protect yourself against the theft of your identity |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2017/09/14/how-to-protect-yourself-against-the-theft-of-your-identity |access-date=2023-02-10 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Big 4 wireless carriers spent $100B on 5G spectrum: Was it worth it? |url=https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/big-4-wireless-carriers-spent-100b-on-5g-spectrum-was-it-worth-it-68488095 |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=www.spglobal.com |language=en-us}}</ref><br />
The [[Energy in the United States|American energy industry]] is among the largest and consists of large companies in [[Petroleum industry|oil, natural gas]], [[Coal mining in the United States|coal]], and renewable energy sources. America's largest energy companies by market are in oil and gas, with ExxonMobil being joined by [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]], [[ConocoPhillips]], and [[Schlumberger]]; British oil companies [[BP]] and [[Shell plc|Shell]] also have significant presence in the United States and trade on both the [[London Stock Exchange]] and [[New York Stock Exchange]]. Many large American petroleum companies, as well as BP, can trace some origin back to [[Standard Oil]], a former monopoly run by [[John D. Rockefeller]]. In coal, the $30 billion industry is dominated by [[Peabody Energy]], which is the largest coal company in the world with almost $23 billion in revenue for 2021. Much of the nation's coal mining occurs in Wyoming and Appalachian states like West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The 10 Largest Coal Mining Companies In The United States – Zippia |url=https://www.zippia.com/advice/largest-coal-mining-companies/ |access-date=2023-02-10 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Desjardins |first=Jeff |date=2017-11-24 |title=Chart: The Evolution of Standard Oil |url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/chart-evolution-standard-oil/ |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=Visual Capitalist |language=en-US}}</ref><br />
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A 2012 Deloitte report published in ''STORES'' magazine indicated that of the world's top 250 largest retailers by retail sales revenue in fiscal year 2010, 32% of those retailers were based in the United States, and those 32% accounted for 41% of the total retail sales revenue of the top 250.<ref>Deloitte, ''Switching Channels: Global Powers of Retailing 2012'', ''STORES'', January 2012, G20.</ref><br />
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America is the foremost country in the world when it comes to semiconductor production. In 2011, half of the world's 20 largest semiconductor manufacturers by sales were based in America. More recently, Congress under the [[presidency of Joe Biden]] passed a bipartisan bill, the [[CHIPS and Science Act]], which bolstered semiconductor production. Some of America's largest semiconductor firms and chip companies are [[Broadcom Inc.|Broadcom]], [[Intel]], [[AMD]], and [[Qualcomm]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.isuppli.com/PublishingImages/Press%20Releases/2011-12-01_Market_Share_Table1.jpg |title=IHS iSuppli Semiconductor preliminary rankings for 2011 |access-date=April 21, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214152106/http://www.isuppli.com/PublishingImages/Press%20Releases/2011-12-01_Market_Share_Table1.jpg|archive-date=December 14, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Top 10 Semiconductor Manufacturers in the U.S. - IndustrySelect® |url=https://www.industryselect.com/blog/top-10-semiconductor-manufacturers-in-the-us |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=www.industryselect.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=House |first=The White |date=2022-08-09 |title=FACT SHEET: CHIPS and Science Act Will Lower Costs, Create Jobs, Strengthen Supply Chains, and Counter China |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/08/09/fact-sheet-chips-and-science-act-will-lower-costs-create-jobs-strengthen-supply-chains-and-counter-china/ |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref><br />
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Many of the United States' largest firms by market cap are technology companies. These companies are dominated by the [[Big Tech|Big Five tech giants]] (Apple, Amazon, Google, Microsoft, and Meta), though numerous software firms also dominate the American technology industry. These firms range from hardware manufacturers like [[Dell Technologies]], [[IBM]], [[Hewlett-Packard]], and [[Cisco]], to software and computing infrastructure programmers like [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]], [[Salesforce]], [[Adobe Inc.|Adobe]], and [[Intuit]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Girardin |first=McKayla |date=2022-09-22 |title=Top Tech Companies in 2022 |url=https://www.theforage.com/blog/companies/what-companies-in-technology-field |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=Forage |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Top 1000 Technology Companies United States 2023 |url=https://disfold.com/united-states/sector/technology/companies/ |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=Disfold Data |language=en}}</ref><br />
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In film, American producers create nearly all of [[List of highest-grossing films|the world's highest-grossing films]]. Many of [[List of best-selling music artists|the world's best-selling music artists]] are based in the United States. Some of America's largest media companies are The Walt Disney Company, [[Warner Bros. Discovery]], [[Netflix]], [[Comcast]], [[Paramount Global]], and [[Fox Corporation|Fox]].<br />
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==Finance==<br />
{{Main|Banking in the United States|Insurance in the United States}}<br />
{{Further|List of largest banks}}<br />
[[File:NYC NYSE.jpg|thumb|The [[New York Stock Exchange]] is the largest stock exchange in the world.]]<br />
Measured by [[market capitalization|value]] of its listed companies' [[Security (finance)|securities]], the [[New York Stock Exchange]] is more than three times larger than any other stock exchange in the world.<ref name="world-exchanges.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.world-exchanges.org/statistics/ytd-monthly|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106005313/http://www.world-exchanges.org/statistics/ytd-monthly|archive-date=November 6, 2011 |title=WFE – YTD Monthly |date=November 6, 2011 |access-date=June 8, 2014}}</ref> As of October 2008, the combined [[Market capitalization|capitalization]] of all domestic NYSE listed companies was US$10.1{{nbs}}trillion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyxdata.com/nysedata/default.aspx?tabid=115 |title=> Data Products > NYSE > Facts & Figures |publisher=NYXdata |access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref> [[NASDAQ]] is another American [[stock exchange]] and the world's third-largest exchange after the [[New York Stock Exchange]] and Japan's [[Tokyo Stock Exchange]]. However, NASDAQ's [[Market value|trade value]] is larger than Japan's TSE.<ref name="world-exchanges.org" /> NASDAQ is the largest [[Electronic visual display|electronic screen-based]] [[Stock|equity securities]] trading market in the U.S. With approximately 3,800 companies and corporations, it has more trading volume per hour than any other stock exchange.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasdaq.com/newsroom/stats/Performance_Report.stm#item_2 |title=NASDAQ Performance Report|access-date=February 15, 2007 |date=January 12, 2007 |work=NASDAQ Newsroom |publisher=The Nasdaq Stock Market|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210233035/http://www.nasdaq.com/newsroom/stats/Performance_Report.stm|archive-date=February 10, 2007}}</ref><br />
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Because of the influential role that the U.S. stock market plays in [[international finance]], a [[New York University]] study in late 2014 interprets that in the short run, stocks that affect the willingness to bear risk independently of macroeconomic fundamentals explain most of the variation in the U.S. stock market. In the long run, the U.S. stock market is profoundly affected by shocks that reallocate the rewards of a given level of production between workers and shareholders. Productivity shocks, however, play a small role in historical stock market fluctuations at all horizons in the U.S. stock market.<ref>[http://www.econ.nyu.edu/user/ludvigsons/osf.pdf Origins of Stock Market Fluctuations]. [[New York University]], December 16, 2014.</ref><br />
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The U.S. [[finance industry]] comprised only 10% of total non-farm business profits in 1947, but it grew to 50% by 2010. Over the same period, finance industry income as a proportion of GDP rose from 2.5% to 7.5%, and the finance industry's proportion of all corporate income rose from 10% to 20%. The mean earnings per employee hour in finance relative to all other sectors has closely mirrored the share of total U.S. income earned by the top 1% income earners since 1930. The mean salary in New York City's finance industry rose from $80,000 in 1981 to $360,000 in 2011, while average New York City salaries rose from $40,000 to $70,000. In 1988, there were about 12,500 U.S. banks with less than $300{{nbs}}million in deposits, and about 900 with more deposits, but by 2012, there were only 4,200 banks with less than $300{{nbs}}million in deposits in the U.S., and over 1,800 with more.<br />
<br />
Top ten U.S. banks by assets<ref name="money.msn.com">[http://money.msn.com/ Stock quotes, investing & personal finance, news – MSN Money] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506025118/http://money.msn.com/ |date=May 6, 2013}}. Money.msn.com (December 31, 1999).</ref><ref name="secdatabase.com">secdatabase.com</ref><ref>[http://www.goldmansachs.com/investor-relations/index.html Investor Relations]. Goldman Sachs..</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usbank.com/cgi_w/cfm/about/investor/index.cfm|title=Financial and investor information from U.S. Bank|website=usbank.com}}</ref><br />
|1|| JP Morgan Chase<br />
|2||Bank of America<br />
|3||Citigroup<br />
|4||Wells Fargo<br />
|5||Goldman Sachs<br />
|6||Morgan Stanley<br />
|7||U.S. Bancorp<br />
|8||Bank of NY Mellon<br />
|9||HSBC North American Holdings<br />
|10||Capital One Financial<br />
<br />
A 2012 [[International Monetary Fund]] study concluded that the U.S. financial sector has grown so large that it is slowing [[economic growth]]. New York University economist [[Thomas Philippon]] supported those findings, estimating that the U.S. spends $300{{nbs}}billion too much on financial services per year, and that the sector needs to shrink by 20%. Harvard University and University of Chicago economists agreed, calculating in 2014 that workers in research and development add $5 to the GDP for each dollar they earn, but finance industry workers cause the GDP to shrink by $0.60 for every dollar they are paid.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Tankersley|first1=Jim|title=A black hole for our best and brightest|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/business/2014/12/16/a-black-hole-for-our-best-and-brightest/|access-date=December 23, 2014|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=December 16, 2014}}</ref> A study by the [[Bank for International Settlements]] reached similar conclusions, saying the finance industry impedes economic growth and research and development based industries.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Cecchetti|first1=Stephen G|last2=Kharroubi|first2=Enisse|title=Why does financial sector growth crowd out real economic growth?|url=http://www.bis.org/publ/work490.pdf|website=BIS Working Papers No 490|publisher=Bank for International Settlements|access-date=September 20, 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Historical statistics==<br />
{{main|Economic history of the United States}}<br />
<br />
==List of state and territory economies==<br />
===State and federal district economies===<br />
{{Columns-list|colwidth=25em|<br />
* [[Economy of Alabama]]<br />
* [[Economy of Alaska]]<br />
* [[Economy of Arizona]]<br />
* [[Economy of Arkansas]]<br />
* [[Economy of California]]<br />
* [[Economy of Colorado]]<br />
* [[Economy of Connecticut]]<br />
* [[Economy of Delaware]]<br />
* [[Economy of the District of Columbia]]<br />
* [[Economy of Florida]]<br />
* [[Economy of Georgia (U.S. state)|Economy of Georgia]]<br />
* [[Economy of Hawaii]]<br />
* [[Economy of Idaho]]<br />
* [[Economy of Illinois]]<br />
* [[Economy of Indiana]]<br />
* [[Economy of Iowa]]<br />
* [[Economy of Kansas]]<br />
* [[Economy of Kentucky]]<br />
* [[Economy of Louisiana]]<br />
* [[Economy of Maine]]<br />
* [[Economy of Maryland]]<br />
* [[Economy of Massachusetts]]<br />
* [[Economy of Michigan]]<br />
* [[Economy of Minnesota]]<br />
* [[Economy of Mississippi]]<br />
* [[Economy of Missouri]]<br />
* [[Economy of Montana]]<br />
* [[Economy of Nebraska]]<br />
* [[Economy of Nevada]]<br />
* [[Economy of New Hampshire]]<br />
* [[Economy of New Jersey]]<br />
* [[Economy of New Mexico]]<br />
* [[Economy of New York]]<br />
* [[Economy of North Carolina]]<br />
* [[Economy of North Dakota]]<br />
* [[Economy of Ohio]]<br />
* [[Economy of Oklahoma]]<br />
* [[Economy of Oregon]]<br />
* [[Economy of Pennsylvania]]<br />
* [[Economy of Rhode Island]]<br />
* [[Economy of South Carolina]]<br />
* [[Economy of South Dakota]]<br />
* [[Economy of Tennessee]]<br />
* [[Economy of Texas]]<br />
* [[Economy of Utah]]<br />
* [[Economy of Vermont]]<br />
* [[Economy of Virginia]]<br />
* [[Economy of Washington (state)]]<br />
* [[Economy of West Virginia]]<br />
* [[Economy of Wisconsin]]<br />
* [[Economy of Wyoming]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
===Territory economies===<br />
* [[Economy of American Samoa]]<br />
* [[Economy of Guam]]<br />
* [[Economy of the Northern Mariana Islands]]<br />
* [[Economy of Puerto Rico]]<br />
* [[Economy of the United States Virgin Islands]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<!--Please maintain the list in alphabetical order.--><br />
* [[Bretton Woods system]]<br />
* [[Energy policy of the United States]]<br />
* [[Financial position of the United States]]<br />
* ''[[Historical Statistics of the United States]]''<!--italicized book title--><br />
* [[Job creation index]]<br />
* [[Labor unions in the United States]]<br />
* [[List of industry trade groups in the United States]]<br />
* [[Washington Consensus]]<br />
* [[World oil market chronology from 2003]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
===Citations===<br />
{{Reflist|25em}}<br />
<br />
===Sources===<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
{{Wikiquote}}<br />
{{Refbegin}}<br />
* {{Free-content attribution<br />
| title = UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030<br />
| author =<br />
| publisher = UNESCO Publishing<br />
| page numbers = 141–143<br />
| source =<br />
| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf<br />
| license statement URL =<br />
| license = CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Robert J. |title=The American Business Cycle: Continuity and Change |date=1986 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-30452-3 |url=https://www.nber.org/books-and-chapters/american-business-cycle-continuity-and-change}}<br />
{{Refend}}<br />
<br />
{{Economy of the United States}}<br />
{{Portal bar|United States|Economics|Business and economics}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Economy of the United States| ]]<br />
[[Category:OECD member economies|United States]]<br />
[[Category:World Trade Organization member economies|United States]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_the_United_States&diff=1145042315Economy of the United States2023-03-16T23:51:23Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|National economy of the United States}}<br />
{{redirect|Economy of America}}<br />
{{Use American English|date=September 2019}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2019}}<br />
{{Infobox economy<br />
| country = the United States<br />
| image = Lower Manhattan from Governors Island August 2017 panorama.jpg<br />
| image_size = 275px<br />
| caption = [[New York City]], the world’s principal [[financial center]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/new-york-widens-lead-over-london-top-finance-centres-index-2022-03-24/|title=New York widens lead over London in top finance centres index |website=www.reuters.com |date=March 24, 2022 |access-date=July 29, 2022|last1=Jones |first1=Huw }}{{SemiBareRefNeedsTitle|date=July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/financial-centre-futures/global-financial-centres-index/gfci-32-explore-the-data/gfci-32-rank/|title=The Global Financial Centres Index 32|date=September 22, 2022|publisher=Long Finance|access-date=September 22, 2022}}</ref> and the epicenter of the principal American metropolitan economy<ref name=NYCEpicenterUSMetroEconomy>{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/09/united-states-america-economic-output-new-york-la/|title=This 3D map shows the U.S. cities with the highest economic output|author=Iman Ghosh|publisher=World Economic Forum|date=September 24, 2020|access-date=March 5, 2023|quote=The New York metro area dwarfs all other cities for economic output by a large margin.}}</ref><br />
| currency = [[United States dollar]] (USD) <br /> {{increase}} [[US Dollar Index]]<br />
| year = October 1, 2022 – September 30, 2023<br />
| organs = [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[G-20 major economies|G-20]], [[Group of Seven|G7]], [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], [[United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement|USMCA]], [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]] and others<br />
| group = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[Developed country|Developed/Advanced]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2022 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=April 20, 2022}}</ref><br />
* [[World Bank high-income economy|High-income economy]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups |title=World Bank Country and Lending Groups |publisher=[[World Bank]] |website=datahelpdesk.worldbank.org |access-date=September 29, 2019}}</ref>}}<br />
| population = {{increase}} 336,196,037 (2023)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/popclock/?intcmp=home_pop |title=U.S. and World Population Clock |publisher=U.S.census.gov <https://www.census.gov> |access-date=2022-01-01}}</ref><br />
| gdp = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{increase}} $25.035 trillion ([[GDP (nominal)|nominal]]; 2022)<ref name="IMFWEOCN">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: October 2022|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|website=imf.org}}</ref><br />
* {{increase}} $25.035 trillion ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]; 2022)<ref name="IMFWEOCN"/>}}<br />
| gdp rank = {{plainlist| <br />
* [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|1st (nominal; 2022)]]<br />
* [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|2nd (PPP; 2022)]]}}<br />
| growth = {{plainlist| <br />
* {{Increase}} 2.1%&nbsp;(2022)<ref name="US_growth">https://www.bea.gov/sites/default/files/2023-01/gdp4q22_adv.pdf</ref> <br />
* {{Increase}} 1.4%&nbsp;{{abbr|(2023f)|2023 forecast}}<ref name="IMF_forecast">https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2023/01/31/world-economic-outlook-update-january-2023</ref> <br />
* {{Increase}} 1.0%&nbsp;{{abbr|(2024f)|2024 forecast}}<ref name="IMF_forecast"/><br />
}}<br />
| per capita = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{increase}} $75,179 (nominal; 2022)<ref name="IMFWEOCN"/><br />
* {{increase}} $75,179 (PPP; 2022)<ref name="IMFWEOCN"/><br />
}}<br />
| per capita rank = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[List of countries by GDP per capita (nominal)|7th (nominal; 2022)]]<br />
* [[List of countries by GDP per capita (PPP)|8th (PPP; 2022)]]}}<br />
| sectors = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[Primary sector of the economy|Agriculture]]: 0.9%<br />
* [[Secondary sector of the economy|Industry]]: 18.9%<br />
* [[Tertiary sector of the economy|Services]]: 80.2%<br />
* (2017 est.)<ref name="CIA_US">{{cite web|title=Field Listing: GDP – Composition, by Sector of Origin|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/|website=Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=April 3, 2018}}</ref>}}<br />
| components = {{plainlist|<br />
* Household consumption: 68.4%<br />
* Government consumption: 17.3%<br />
* Investment in fixed capital: 17.2%<br />
* Investment in inventories: 0.1%<br />
* Exports of goods and services: 12.1% <br />
* Imports of goods and services: −15% <br />
* (2017 est.)<ref name="CIA_US" />}}<br />
| inflation = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{DecreasePositive}} 6.0% (February 2023)<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/economy/2023/02/14/cpi-january-inflation-data-today-live-updates/11247836002/|title=January CPI inflation rate slows to 6.4% but monthly inflation rose by 0.5%|website=[[USA Today]] }}</ref><br />
}}<br />
| poverty = {{plainlist|<br />
*{{increaseNegative}} 11.6% (2021)<ref name="PovertyCB">{{cite web|title=Poverty in the United States: 2021 |url=https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2022/demo/p60-277.html|date=September 13, 2022|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |access-date=October 5, 2022}}</ref><br />
*{{increaseNegative}} 38 million (2021)<ref name="PovertyCB" /><br />
}}<br />
| gini = {{plainlist|<br />
*{{increaseNegative}} 48.9 {{color|red|high}} (2020, [[United States Census Bureau|USCB]])<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/visualizations/2021/demo/p60-273/figure3.pdf |title=Income Distribution Measures and Percent Change Using Money Income and Equivalence-Adjusted Income |publisher=United States Census Bureau |website=census.gov|access-date=January 15, 2021}}</ref><br />
*{{increaseNegative}} 43.4 {{color|darkorange|medium}} (2017, [[Congressional Budget Office|CBO]])<ref>{{cite web |title=The Distribution of Household Income, 2017 |url=https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2020-10/56575-Household-Income.pdf |pages=31, 32 |website=cbo.gov |publisher=[[Congressional Budget Office]] |date=October 2, 2020 |access-date=October 19, 2020}}</ref>}}<br />
| hdi = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{increase}} 0.921 {{color|darkgreen|very high}} (2021)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/indicators/137506 |title=Human Development Index (HDI) |publisher=[[Human Development Report|HDRO (Human Development Report Office)]] [[United Nations Development Programme]] |website=hdr.undp.org |access-date=November 12, 2022}}</ref> ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|21st]])<br />
* {{increase}} 0.819 {{color|darkgreen|very high}} [[List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI|(25th)]] (2021)<ref>{{cite web |title=Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI) |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/indicators/138806 |website=hdr.undp.org |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]] |access-date=November 12, 2022}}</ref>}}<br />
| labor = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{increase}} 164.409 million (March 2022)<ref name="BLS_JobsData" /><br />
* {{increase}} 62.4% employment rate (March 2022)<ref name="BLS_JobsData" />}}<br />
| unemployment = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{decreasePositive}} 3.4% (January 2023)<ref name="BLS_JobsData">{{cite web|url=https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t01.htm |title=Employment status of the civilian population by sex and age |publisher=[[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] |website=BLS.gov |access-date=October 4, 2020}}</ref><br />
* {{decreasePositive}} 10.4% youth unemployment (December 2022; 16 to 19 year-olds)<ref name="BLS_JobsData" /><br />
* {{decreasePositive}} 5.7 million unemployed (July 2022)<ref name="BLS_JobsData" />}}<br />
| average gross salary = {{IncreasePositive}} $6,738 (2021)<ref name="CPS 2015">{{cite web|url=https://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?DataSetCode=AV_AN_WAGE|title=Usual Weekly Earnings of Wage and Salary Workers First Quarter 2017|date=July 17, 2018 |website=Bureau of Labor Statistics|publisher=U.S. Department of Labor|access-date=September 13, 2018}}</ref><br />
| gross median = {{increase}} $1,041 weekly (Q2, 2022)<ref>{{cite web |title=Usual Weekly Earnings Summary |url=https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/wkyeng.pdf |website=www.bls.gov |publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics |date=January 17, 2020}}</ref><br />
| occupations = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[Primary sector of the economy|Agriculture]]: 1.0%<br />
* [[Secondary sector of the economy|Industry]]: 19%<br />
* [[Tertiary sector of the economy|Services]]: 80% <br />
* (FY 2018)<ref>{{cite web|title=Employment by major industry sector|url=https://www.bls.gov/emp/tables/employment-by-major-industry-sector.htm|publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics|access-date=July 5, 2018}}</ref>}}<br />
| industries = {{hlist| [[Petroleum]] | [[steel]] | [[motor vehicles]] | [[aerospace]] | [[telecommunications]] | [[chemicals]] | [[electronics]] | [[food processing]] | [[information technology]] | [[consumer goods]] | [[lumber]]| [[mining]] }}<br />
| exports = {{increase}} $2.528 trillion (2021)<ref name=bea>{{cite web|title=us-international-trade-goods-and-services-december-2021 |url=https://www.bea.gov/news/2022/us-international-trade-goods-and-services-december-2021|work=[[Bureau of Economic Analysis-U.S. Department of commerce]]|access-date=April 16, 2022}}</ref><br />
| export-goods = {{ublist|[[Agricultural]] products 10.7%| [[Fuels]] and [[mining]] products 9.4%| [[Manufacturers]] 74.8%| Others 5.1%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/historical/SAEXP.pdf|title=Exports of goods by principal end-use category|work=Census Bureau}}</ref>}}<br />
| export-partners = {{ublist|{{flag|European Union}}(+) 18.7%| {{flag|Canada}}(+) 18.3%| {{flag|Mexico}}(+) 15.9%| {{flag|China}}(-) 8%| {{flag|Japan}}(+) 4.4%||Others 34.8%<ref name=wto>{{cite web|title=U.S. trade in goods with World, Seasonally Adjusted |url=https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/Press-Release/current_press_release/ft900.pdf|work=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=June 1, 2021}}</ref>}}<br />
| imports = {{increase}} $3.387 trillion (2021)<ref name=bea /><br />
| import-goods = {{ublist|[[Agricultural]] products 10.5%| [[Fuels]] and [[mining]] products 10.7%| [[Manufacturers]] 78.4%| Others 4.2%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/historical/SAIMP.pdf|title=Imports of goods by principal end-use category|work=Census Bureau}}</ref>}}<br />
| import-partners = {{ublist|{{flag|China}}(-) 21.4%| {{flag|European Union}}(+) 18.9%| {{flag|Mexico}}(+) 13.2%| {{flag|Canada}}(+) 12.6%| {{flag|Japan}}(+) 6%||Others 27.9%<ref name=wto />}}<br />
| current account = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{increaseNegative}} −$985.25 billion (2022)<ref name="IMF_Finance"/> <br />
* {{increaseNegative}} −3.93% of GDP (2022)<ref name="IMF_Finance"/> <br />
}}<br />
| FDI = {{plainlist|<br />
* {{increase}} Inward: $367&nbsp;billion (2021)<ref name="UNFDI">{{cite web|title=UNCTAD 2022|url=https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/tdstat47_en.pdf|access-date=2022-01-06|website=UNCTAD}}</ref><br />
* {{increase}} Outward: $403&nbsp;billion (2021)<ref name="UNFDI"/> <br />
}}<br />
| debt = {{plainlist| <br />
* {{increaseNegative}} $30.568 trillion <br />
* {{increaseNegative}} 122.1% of GDP (2022)<ref name="IMF_Finance">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=111,&s=NID_NGDP,NGSD_NGDP,GGR,GGR_NGDP,GGX,GGX_NGDP,GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,BCA,BCA_NGDPD,&sy=2022&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: October 2022|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|website=imf.org}}</ref> <br />
}}<br />
| gross external debt = {{increaseNegative}} $24.35 trillion (September 2022)<ref>{{cite web|publisher=U.S. Department of the Treasury|url=https://ticdata.treasury.gov/Publish/debta2022q3.html|title=Treasury TIC Data|access-date=2022-01-30 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
| revenue = $8.371 trillion<ref name="IMF_Finance"/><br />33.4% of GDP (2022)<br />
| expenses = $9.379 trillion<ref name="IMF_Finance"/><br />37.4% of GDP (2022)<br />
| balance = –5.5% of GDP (2022)<ref name="CBO_Hist_20">[https://www.cbo.gov/about/products/budget-economic-data#2 CBO-Historical Budget Data-Retrieved January 28, 2020]</ref><br />
| reserves = $242.47 billion (December 2022)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://home.treasury.gov/data/us-international-reserve-position/12232022|title=U.S. International Reserve Position|website=Treasury.gov|access-date=January 18, 2019}}</ref><br />
| credit = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[Standard & Poor's]]:<ref>{{cite web |title=Sovereigns rating list |publisher=Standard & Poor's |url=http://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/eu?sectorName=null&subSectorCode=39&filter=U |access-date=August 20, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110618090608/http://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/eu?sectorName=null&subSectorCode=39&filter=U |archive-date=June 18, 2011 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name=guardian>{{cite news |title=How Fitch, Moody's and S&P rate each country's credit rating |date=April 15, 2011 |first1=Simon |last1=Rogers |first2=Ami |last2=Sedghi |work=The Guardian|location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2010/apr/30/credit-ratings-country-fitch-moodys-standard |access-date=May 28, 2011}}</ref><br />
* AA+ (Domestic)<br />
* AA+ (Foreign)<br />
* AAA (T&C Assessment)<br />
* Outlook: Stable<br />
----<br />
* [[Moody's]]:<ref name=guardian /><ref>{{cite news|last=Riley|first=Charles|title=Moody's affirms Aaa rating, lowers outlook|url=https://money.cnn.com/2011/08/02/news/economy/moodys_credit_rating/index.htm?hpt=hp_t1|publisher=CNN|date=August 2, 2017}}</ref><br />
* Aaa<br />
* Outlook: Stable<br />
----<br />
* [[Fitch Group|Fitch]]:<ref>{{cite web|title=Fitch Affirms United States at 'AAA'; Outlook Stable|url=https://www.fitchratings.com/creditdesk/press_releases/detail.cfm?pr_id=824532|website=Fitch Ratings}}</ref><br />
* AAA<br />
* Outlook: Stable<br />
----<br />
* Scope Ratings:<ref>{{cite web|title=Scope affirms the United States of America's AA ratings with Stable Outlook|url=https://www.scoperatings.com/ratings-and-research/rating/EN/172707|website=Scope Ratings}}</ref><br />
* AA<br />
* Outlook: Stable}}<br />
| aid = ''donor'': [[Official development assistance|ODA]], $35.26 billion (2017)<ref name="oecd-aid">{{cite web|title=Development aid rises again in 2016 but flows to poorest countries dip |url=http://www.oecd.org/dac/development-aid-rises-again-in-2016-but-flows-to-poorest-countries-dip.htm |website=[[OECD]] |access-date=2017-09-25 |date=2017-04-11 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
| cianame = united-states<br />
| spelling = US<br />
}}<br />
{{Economy of the United States sidebar}}<br />
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The [[United States]] is a [[developed country|highly developed]] [[Economic liberalism|liberal-capitalist economy]].<ref>[http://usa.usembassy.de/economy-conditions.htm "U.S. Economy - Basic Conditions & Resources"]. U.S. Diplomatic Mission to Germany. "The United States is said to have a mixed economy because privately owned businesses and government both play important roles." Retrieved October 24, 2011.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120114051146/http://infopedia.usembassy.or.kr/ENG/_f_030401.html (4)Outline of the U.S. Economy – (2)How the U.S. Economy Works]. U.S. Embassy Information Resource Center. "As a result, the American economy is perhaps better described as a 'mixed' economy, with the government playing an important role along with private enterprise. Although Americans often disagree about exactly where to draw the line between their beliefs in both free enterprise and government management, the mixed economy they have developed has been remarkably successful." Retrieved October 24, 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Karagiannis|editor-first1=Nikolaos|editor-last2= Madjd-Sadjadi|editor-first2=Zagros|editor-last3= Sen|editor-first3=Swapan |date=2013 |title=The US Economy and Neoliberalism: Alternative Strategies and Policies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aYKfai1RlPYC&pg=PA1|location= |publisher=[[Routledge]]|page=1–2|isbn=978-1138904910}}</ref> It is the world's largest economy by [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|nominal GDP]], and the second-largest by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|purchasing power parity]] (PPP) behind [[China]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=Report for Selected Country Groups and Subjects (PPP valuation of country GDP)|publisher=IMF|language=en-US|access-date=20 April 2022}}</ref> It has the world's seventh-highest [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|per capita GDP (nominal)]] and the eighth-highest [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|per capita GDP (PPP)]] as of 2022.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=October 20, 2022}}</ref> The U.S. accounted for 24.7% of the [[global economy]] in 2022 in nominal terms, and around 15.5% in PPP terms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pwc.com/gx/en/issues/economy/global-economy-watch/projections.html|website=PWC|title=Global Economy Watch - Projections > Real GDP / Inflation > Share of 2016 world GDP|access-date=23 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=United States' share of global gross domestic product (GDP) adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP) |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/270267/united-states-share-of-global-gross-domestic-product-gdp/#:~:text=In%202021%2C%20the%20United%20States,purchasing%20power%20parity%20(PPP). |website=Statiata}}</ref> The [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] is the currency of record most used in [[international trade|international transactions]] and is the world's foremost [[reserve currency]], backed by the nation’s massive economy, stable government and legal framework, large [[U.S. Treasury|U.S. treasuries market]], advanced [[Military of the United States|military]], its role as the reference standard for the [[petrodollar|petrodollar system]], and its linked [[eurodollar]].<ref name="federalreserve.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/pf/pdf/pf_4.pdf |title=The Implementation of Monetary Policy – The Federal Reserve in the International Sphere|access-date=August 24, 2010}}</ref> Several countries [[International use of the US dollar|use it as their official currency]] and in others it is the [[de facto currency|''de facto'' currency]].<ref name="Benjamin J. Cohen 2006, p. 17">Benjamin J. Cohen, ''The Future of Money'', Princeton University Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0691116660}}; ''cf.'' "the dollar is the de facto currency in Cambodia", Charles Agar, ''[[Frommer's]] Vietnam'', 2006, {{ISBN|0471798169}}, p. 17</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.multpl.com/us-gdp-growth-rate/table/by-year|title = US GDP Growth Rate by Year |date=March 31, 2014 |access-date=June 18, 2014 |website = multpl.com|publisher = US Bureau of Economic Analysis}}</ref> <br />
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The nation's economy is fueled by abundant [[natural resource]]s, a well-developed [[transportation infrastructure]], and high [[productivity]].<ref name="Wright, Gavin 2007 p. 185">Wright, Gavin, and Jesse Czelusta, "Resource-Based Growth Past and Present", in ''Natural Resources: Neither Curse Nor Destiny'', ed. Daniel Lederman and William Maloney (World Bank, 2007), p. 185. {{ISBN|0821365452}}.</ref> Americans have the highest average [[Household income|household]] and [[List of countries by average wage|employee]] income among [[OECD]] member states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/topics/income/|title=Income|work=Better Life Index|publisher=OECD|access-date=September 28, 2019|quote=In the United States, the average household net adjusted disposable income per capita is USD 45 284 a year, much higher than the OECD average of USD 33 604 and the highest figure in the OECD.}}</ref> In 2021, they had the highest [[median household income]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Income Distribution Database |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=IDD |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref> The U.S. has one of the world's highest [[Income inequality in the United States|income inequalities]] among the [[developed countries]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gini Index coefficient - distribution of family income - The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison |access-date=2022-08-24 |website=www.cia.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Gray |first=Sarah |date=June 4, 2018 |title=Trump Policies Highlighted in Scathing U.N. Report On U.S. Poverty|url=http://fortune.com/2018/06/04/trump-policies-u-n-report-u-s-poverty/|work=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]|access-date=September 13, 2018|quote="The United States has the highest rate of income inequality among Western countries", the report states.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://undocs.org/A/HRC/38/33/ADD.1|title=Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights on his mission to the United States of America|last=Alston|first=Philip|author-link=Philip Alston|date=2018 |website=[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|OHCHR]]|publisher= |access-date=January 16, 2023}}</ref> The [[List of the largest trading partners of the United States|largest U.S. trading partners]] are [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], China, [[Japan]], [[Germany]], [[South Korea]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Taiwan]], [[India]], and Vietnam.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/highlights/top/top1612yr.html|title = Top Trading Partners |date=December 2016 |access-date=July 8, 2017 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref> The U.S. is the world's [[List of countries by imports|largest importer]] and [[List of countries by exports|second-largest exporter]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/wts2019_e/wts2019_e.pdf |title=World Trade Statistical Review 2019 |work=[[World Trade Organization]] |page=100 |access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref> It has [[free trade agreements]] with [[United States free-trade agreements|several countries]], including the [[United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement|USMCA]], Australia, South Korea, Switzerland, Israel, and several others that are in effect or under negotiation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements |title=United States free trade agreements |work=[[Office of the United States Trade Representative]] |access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref> <br />
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By [[History of the United States (1865–1918)|1890]], the United States had overtaken the [[British Empire]] as the world's most productive economy.<ref name="Digital History">{{cite web|author1=Digital History |author2=Steven Mintz |url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=188 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040302193732/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=188 |archive-date=2004-03-02 |title=Digital History |publisher=Digitalhistory.uh.edu |access-date=April 21, 2012 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> It is the world's largest producer of [[List of countries by oil production|petroleum]] and [[List of countries by natural gas production|natural gas]].<ref name="lop">{{cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=36292|title=United States remains the world's top producer of petroleum and natural gas hydrocarbons|website=EIA}}</ref> In 2016, it was the world's largest trading country<ref>{{cite news|author1=Katsuhiko Hara|author2=Issaku Harada (staff writers) |url=http://asia.nikkei.com/Politics-Economy/Economy/US-overtook-China-as-top-trading-nation-in-2016 |title=US overtook China as top trading nation in 2016 |newspaper=Nikkei Asian Review |date=April 13, 2017|access-date=2017-06-22 |df=mdy-all |location=Tokyo}}</ref> as well as its [[Manufacturing in the United States|third-largest manufacturer]], representing a [[List of countries by manufacturing output|fifth of the global manufacturing output]].<ref name="Vargo, Frank">{{cite web |url=http://shopfloor.org/2011/03/u-s-manufacturing-remains-worlds-largest/18756 |title=U.S. Manufacturing Remains World's Largest |publisher=Shopfloor |date=March 11, 2011 |access-date=March 28, 2012 |author=Vargo, Frank |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404234310/http://shopfloor.org/2011/03/u-s-manufacturing-remains-worlds-largest/18756 | archive-date=April 4, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The U.S. not only has the largest internal market for goods, but also dominates the services trade. U.S. total trade amounted to $4.2{{nbs}}trillion in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres17_e/pr791_e.htm |title=Trade recovery expected in 2017 and 2018, amid policy uncertainty |publisher=World Trade Organization |date=April 12, 2017|access-date=2017-06-22 |df=mdy-all |location=Geneva, Switzerland}}</ref> Of the world's [[Fortune Global 500|500 largest companies]], 121 are headquartered in the U.S.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=http://fortune.com/global500/list/filtered?hqcountry=U.S.|title=Global 500 2016 |work=Fortune}} Number of companies data taken from the "Country" filter.</ref> The U.S. has the world's [[List of countries by the number of billionaires|highest number of billionaires]], with a total wealth of $3.0{{nbs}}trillion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/05/09/the-countries-with-the-largest-number-of-billionaires.html|title=The US is home to more billionaires than China, Germany and Russia combined|date=May 9, 2019|publisher=CNBC|access-date=May 9, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://hk.asiatatler.com/life/top-10-countries-with-the-most-billionaires-in-2019|title=Wealth-X's Billionaire Census 2019 report reveals insights and trends about the world's top billionaires|website=hk.asiatatler.com|access-date=May 14, 2019}}</ref> US commercial banks had $20{{nbs}}trillion in assets as of August 2020.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/TLAACBW027SBOG/ |title=Total Assets, All Commercial Banks |date=January 3, 1973}}</ref> U.S. [[global assets under management]] had more than $30{{nbs}}trillion in assets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.agefi.fr/sites/agefi.fr/files/fichiers/2016/07/bcg-doubling-down-on-data-july-2016_tcm80-2113701.pdf |title=Doubling Down on Data |website= |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/45045/1/S1900994_en.pdf |title=The asset management industry in the United States |website= |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref> During the [[Great Recession]] of 2008, the U.S. economy suffered a significant decline.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/great-recession-and-its-aftermath#:~:text=The%20decline%20in%20overall%20economic,recession%20since%20World%20War%20II. |title=The Great Recession and Its Aftermath |last=Weinberg |first=John |date=November 22, 2013 |website=federalreservehistory.org |publisher= |access-date=November 22, 2013}}</ref><ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/double-dip-or-just-one-big-economic-dive/2011/08/05/gIQANKAIxI_story.html Washington Post-Ezra Klein-Double Dip, or just one big economic dive-August 5, 2011]</ref> The [[American Reinvestment and Recovery Act]] was passed by the US administration, and in the years that followed, the U.S. experienced the longest economic expansion on record by July 2019.<ref name=CNBC_2019-07-02 > {{ cite news | url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/07/02/this-is-now-the-longest-us-economic-expansion-in-history.html | title=This is now the longest US economic expansion in history | last=Li | first=Yun | newspaper=[[CNBC]] | date=2019-07-02 | quote=This month marks the 121st month of the economic expansion arising out of the great financial crisis, making it the longest run on record going back to 1854. }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Estimated Impact of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act on Employment and Economic Output from October 2011 Through December 2011|url=http://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/02-22-ARRA.pdf|website=A CBO Report|publisher=Congressional Budget Office|access-date=February 19, 2017|date=February 2012}}</ref><ref name="Bernanke_Recovery">[https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/bernanke20121120a.htm Federal Reserve-Ben Bernanke-The Economic Recovery and Economic Policy-November 20, 2012]</ref><ref name="nyt2018"/><br />
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The [[New York Stock Exchange]] and [[Nasdaq]] are the world's [[List of stock exchanges|largest stock exchanges]] by [[market capitalization]] and [[trade volume]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics|title=Monthly Reports - World Federation of Exchanges|publisher=WFE}}</ref><ref name="sfc.hk">[http://www.sfc.hk/web/doc/EN/research/stat/a01.pdf Table A – Market Capitalization of the World's Top Stock Exchanges (As at end of June 2012)]. Securities and Exchange Commission (China).</ref> In 2014, the U.S. economy is ranked first in international ranking on [[venture capital]]<ref>[http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/Global_venture_capital_insights_and_trends_2014/$FILE/EY_Global_VC_insights_and_trends_report_2014.pdf Adapting and evolving{{snd}}Global venture capital insights and trends 2014]. EY, 2014.</ref> and global [[research and development]] funding.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.battelle.org/docs/tpp/2014_global_rd_funding_forecast.pdf?sfvrsn=4 |title=2014 Global R&D Funding Forecast |date=December 16, 2013 |website=battelle.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209171411/http://www.battelle.org/docs/tpp/2014_global_rd_funding_forecast.pdf?sfvrsn=4 |archive-date= February 9, 2014}}</ref> [[Consumer spending]] comprised 68% of the U.S. economy in 2018,<ref name=consumerecon>[https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=ntyj "Personal consumption expenditures (PCE)/gross domestic product (GDP)"] ''FRED Graph'', Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis</ref> while its [[Wage share|labor share of income]] was 43% in 2017.<ref>[https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/W270RE1A156NBEA "Shares of gross domestic income: Compensation of employees, paid: Wage and salary accruals: Disbursements: To persons"] ''FRED Graph'', Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis</ref> The U.S. has the world's largest [[List of largest consumer markets|consumer market]].<ref name="unstats.un.org">{{cite web|title=United Nations Statistics Division – National Accounts Main Aggregates Database |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/selbasicFast.asp}}</ref> The nation's labor market has attracted [[Immigration to the United States|immigrants from all over the world]] and its [[List of countries by net migration rate|net migration rate]] is among the highest in the world.<ref name="The World Factbook">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2112rank.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080709064749/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2112rank.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 9, 2008 |title=Country comparison :: net migration rate |date=2014 |access-date=June 18, 2014 |website=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=The World Factbook}}</ref> The U.S. is one of the top-performing economies in studies such as the [[Ease of Doing Business Index]], the [[Global Competitiveness Report]], and others.<ref name="World Economic Forum">{{cite web |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR2013-14/GCR_Rankings_2013-14.pdf |title=Rankings: Global Competitiveness Report 2013–2014 |publisher=World Economic Forum |access-date=June 1, 2014}}</ref><br />
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==History==<br />
{{Main|Economic history of the United States}}<br />
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===Colonial era and 18th century===<br />
{{Further|Mercantilism|American Revolution}}<br />
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The economic history of the United States began with British settlements along the [[East Coast of the United States|Eastern seaboard]] in the 17th and 18th centuries. After 1700, the United States gained population rapidly, and [[import]]s as well as [[export]]s grew along with it. Africa, Asia, and most frequently Europe, contributed to the trade of the colonies.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-24 |title=Colonial Economy |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/american-revolution/colonial-economy |access-date=2022-05-20 |website=National Museum of American History |language=en}}</ref> These [[Thirteen Colonies|13 colonies]] gained independence from the [[British Empire]] in the late 18th century<ref>{{Cite web |title=Digital History |url=https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/revolution/declaration_of_independence.cfm |access-date=2022-05-20 |website=www.digitalhistory.uh.edu}}</ref> and quickly grew from colonial economies towards an economy focused on agriculture.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-24 |title=Territory Worth Contesting |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/american-revolution/territory-worth-contesting |access-date=2022-05-20 |website=National Museum of American History |language=en}}</ref><br />
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===19th century===<br />
{{Further|Industrial Revolution in the United States}}<br />
{{See also|List of tariffs in the United States|Protectionism in the United States|Tariff in United States history|American System (economic plan)}}<br />
[[File:LOSSING(1876) p293 WASHBURN'S & MOEN MANUFACTURING CO., WORCESTER, MA.jpg|thumb|[[Washburn and Moen North Works District|Washburn and Moen Manufacturing Company]] in [[Worcester, Massachusetts]], 1876]]<br />
In 180 years, the U.S. grew to become a huge, integrated, and industrialized economy that made up around one-fifth of the [[world economy]]. As a result, the U.S. GDP per capita converged on and eventually surpassed that of the [[British Empire]], as well as other countries that it previously trailed economically. The economy maintained high wages, attracting immigrants by the millions from all over the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=19th century: Immigration Galore – Peopling of NYC: The Immigrant Experience |url=https://peopleofnyc.commons.gc.cuny.edu/19th-century-immigration-galore/ |access-date=2022-05-20 |language=en-CAC}}</ref> In the 1820s and 1830s, mass production replaced artisans with factories. New government regulations strengthened patents.<br />
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In the early 1800s, the United States was largely agricultural, with more than 80 percent of the population engaged in farming. Most of the manufacturing centered on the first stages of the transformation of raw materials, with lumber and sawmills, textiles, and boots and shoes leading the way. The rich resource endowments contributed to the rapid economic expansion of the nineteenth century. Ample land availability allowed the number of farmers to keep growing, but activity in manufacturing, services, transportation, and other sectors grew at a much faster pace. Thus, by 1860, the share of the rural population in the U.S. had fallen from over 80 percent to roughly 50 percent. <ref>{{cite book |author1=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=88ff |isbn=978-1107507180 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xYEGswEACAAJ}}</ref><br />
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In the 19th century, [[List of recessions in the United States|recessions]] frequently coincided with [[Financial crisis|financial crises]]. The 1837 Panic was followed by a five-year depression marked by bank failures and then-record-high unemployment levels.<ref>{{cite book |author1=W. J. Rorabaugh |author2=Donald T. Critchlow |author3=Paula C. Baker |title=America's Promise: A Concise History of the United States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VL_6X5zWOokC&pg=PA210 |year=2004 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0742511897 |page=210}}</ref> Because of the great changes in the economy over the centuries, it is difficult to compare the severity of modern recessions to early recessions.<ref>{{cite book |year=1986 |title=Appendix A The Development and Role of the National Bureau of Economic Research's Business Cycle Chronologies |last1=Moore |first1=Geoffrey H. |last2=Zarnowitz |url=https://www.nber.org/chapters/c10035 |first2=Victor |pages=735–780 |publisher=University of Chicago Press }} in {{Harvnb|Gordon|1986|pp=743–45}}</ref> Recessions after World War II appear to have been less severe than earlier recessions, but the reasons for this are unclear.<ref>{{cite book |title=Recessions and Depressions: Understanding Business Cycles |last=Knoop |first=Todd A. |publisher=Praeger Publishers |date=July 30, 2004 |isbn=978-0275981624 |pages=166–71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ak_PQO2NprUC}}</ref><br />
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===20th century===<br />
[[File:NIE 1905 Petroleum - oil wells at Los Angeles.jpg|thumb|[[History of oil in California through 1930|Oil wells]] in [[Los Angeles]], 1905]]<br />
[[File:B-24 Liberator Consolidated-Vultee Plant, Fort Worth Texas.jpg|thumb|[[Consolidated B-24 Liberator]]s at the Consolidated-Vultee Plant in [[Fort Worth, Texas]], 1943]]<br />
[[File:New McDonald's restaurant in Mount Pleasant, Iowa.jpg|thumb|[[McDonald's]] restaurant in [[Mount Pleasant, Iowa]], 2008]]<br />
At the beginning of the century, new [[Innovation|innovations]] and improvements in existing innovations opened the door for improvements in the standard of living among American consumers. Many firms grew large by taking advantage of economies of scale and better communication to run nationwide operations. Concentration in these industries raised fears of monopolies that would drive prices higher and output lower, but many of these firms were cutting costs so fast that trends were towards lower prices and more output in these industries. Many workers shared the success of these large firms, which typically offered the highest wages in the world.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=95|isbn=978-1107507180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xYEGswEACAAJ}}</ref><br />
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The United States has been the world's largest national economy in terms of GDP since at least the 1920s.<ref name="Digital History" /> For many years following the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, when the danger of [[recession]] appeared most serious, the government strengthened the economy by spending heavily itself or cutting taxes so that consumers would spend more and by fostering rapid growth in the money supply, which also encouraged more spending. Ideas about the best tools for stabilizing the economy changed substantially between the 1930s and the 1980s. From the [[New Deal]] era that began in 1933 to the [[Great Society]] initiatives of the 1960s, national policymakers relied principally on [[fiscal policy]] to influence the economy.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://open.lib.umn.edu/macroeconomics/chapter/17-1-the-great-depression-and-keynesian-economics/ | title=17.1 the Great Depression and Keynesian Economics | date=December 2016 }}</ref><br />
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During the world wars of the twentieth century, the United States fared better than the rest of the combatants because none of the First World War and relatively little of the Second World War were fought on American territory (and none on the then-48 states). Yet, even in the United States, the wars meant sacrifice. During the peak of Second World War activity, nearly 40 percent of U.S. GDP was devoted to war production. Decisions about large swaths of the economy were largely made for military purposes, and nearly all relevant inputs were allocated to the war effort. Many goods were rationed, prices and wages controlled, and many durable consumer goods were no longer produced. Large segments of the workforce were inducted into the military and paid half their wages; roughly half of those were sent into harm's way. <ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=97f|isbn=978-1107507180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xYEGswEACAAJ}}</ref><br />
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The approach, advanced by British economist [[John Maynard Keynes]], gave elected officials a leading role in directing the economy since spending and taxes are controlled by the [[President of the United States|U.S. president]] and [[Congress of the United States|Congress]]. The [[Post–World War II baby boom|"Baby Boom"]] saw a dramatic increase in fertility in the period 1942–1957; it was caused by delayed marriages and childbearing during the depression years, a surge in prosperity, a demand for suburban single-family homes (as opposed to inner city apartments), and new optimism about the future. The boom peaked around 1957 and then began to fade.<ref name="Susan Kellogg 1988">Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, ''Domestic Revolutions: a Social History of American Family Life'' (1988) ch 9</ref> A period of high inflation, interest rates, and unemployment after 1973 weakened confidence in fiscal policy as a tool for regulating the overall pace of economic activity.<ref name=buchanan1977>{{cite book |last=Buchanan |first=James M. |title=Democracy in Deficit: The Political Legacy of Lord Keynes |year=1977 |publisher=Academic Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0865972278 |pages=1–55|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RgARQAACAAJ}}</ref><br />
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The U.S. economy grew by an [[Annual average GDP growth|average]] of 3.8% from 1946 to 1973, while real [[median household income]] surged by 74% (or 2.1% a year).<ref name=hhes>{{cite web|url=http://www2.census.gov/prod2/popscan/p60-162.pdf|title=Current Population Reports: Money Income of Households and Persons in the United States (1987)|publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.census.gov/prod2/popscan/p60-001.pdf|title=Current Population Reports: Income of nonfarm families and individuals (1946)|publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce}}</ref><br />
<br />
The worst recession in recent decades, in terms of lost output, occurred during the [[financial crisis of 2007–2008]], when GDP fell by 5.0% from the spring of 2008 to the spring of 2009. Other significant recessions took place in 1957–1958, when GDP fell 3.7% following the [[1973 oil crisis]], with a 3.1% fall from late 1973 to early 1975, and in the 1981–1982 recession, when GDP dropped by 2.9%.<ref name=gcn>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalcrisisnews.com/usa/us-out-of-recession-as-economy-grows-by-3-5-percent/id=1238/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091103100949/http://www.globalcrisisnews.com/usa/us-out-of-recession-as-economy-grows-by-3-5-percent/id%3D1238/|title=Global Crisis News|publisher=GCN|date=October 30, 2009|archive-date=November 3, 2009|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="cnn1">{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/BUSINESS/03/21/us.recession.ap/index.html |title=Worries grow of deeper U.S. recession |publisher=CNN|access-date=November 17, 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080611130336/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/BUSINESS/03/21/us.recession.ap/index.html |archive-date=June 11, 2008}}</ref> Recent, mild recessions have included the 1990–1991 downturn, when output fell by 1.3%, and the 2001 recession, in which GDP slid by 0.3%; the 2001 downturn lasted just eight months. <ref name="cnn1" /> The most vigorous, sustained periods of growth, on the other hand, took place from early 1961 to mid-1969, with an expansion of 53% (5.1% a year), from mid-1991 to late 2000, at 43% (3.8% a year), and from late 1982 to mid-1990, at 37% (4% a year).<ref name=gcn /><br />
<br />
In the 1970s and 1980s, it was popular in the U.S. to believe that [[Economy of Japan|Japan's economy]] would surpass that of the U.S., but this did not occur.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://business.time.com/2011/02/14/is-china-facing-a-japanese-future/ |title=Is China facing a Japanese future?|magazine=Time |access-date=February 27, 2012|date=February 14, 2011|last1=Schuman|first1=Michael}}</ref><br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, several [[emerging countries]] have begun to close the economic gap with the United States. In most cases, this has been due to moving the manufacture of goods formerly made in the U.S. to countries where they could be made for sufficiently less money to cover the cost of shipping plus a higher profit. In other cases, some countries have gradually learned to produce the same products and services that previously only the U.S. and a few other countries could produce. Real income growth in the U.S. has slowed.<br />
<br />
===21st century===<br />
{{Further|Great Recession}}<br />
[[File:Donald Trump and Mike Pence meet with automobile industry leaders.jpg|thumb|President [[Donald Trump]] with [[Automotive industry in the United States|automobile industry]] leaders, 2017]]<br />
The United States economy experienced a recession in 2001 with an unusually slow jobs recovery, with the number of jobs not regaining the February 2001 level until January 2005.<ref name="Payems" /> This "jobless recovery" overlapped with the building of a [[United States housing bubble|housing bubble]] and arguably a wider debt bubble, as the ratio of household debt to GDP rose from a record level of 70% in Q1 2001 to 99% in Q1 2008. Homeowners were borrowing against their bubble-priced homes to fuel consumption, driving up their debt levels while providing an unsustainable boost to GDP. When housing prices began falling in 2006, the value of securities backed by mortgages fell dramatically, causing the equivalent of a [[bank run]] in the essentially unregulated [[shadow banking|non-depository]] banking system, which had outgrown the traditional, regulated depository banking system. Many mortgage companies and other non-depository banks (e.g., investment banks) faced a worsening crisis in 2007–2008, with the [[Subprime mortgage crisis|banking crisis]] peaking in September 2008, with the bankruptcy of [[Lehman Brothers]] and bailouts of several other financial institutions.<ref name="FCIC_1">{{cite web |url = http://fcic.law.stanford.edu/report/conclusions |title = Financial Crisis Inquiry Report-Conclusions-January 2011 |publisher = Fcic.law.stanford.edu |date=March 10, 2011 |access-date=April 22, 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
The Bush administration (2001–2009) and Obama administrations (2009–2017) applied banking [[Troubled Asset Relief Program|bailout programs]] and Keynesian [[American Reinvestment and Recovery Act|stimulus]] via high government deficits, while the Federal Reserve maintained near-zero interest rates. These measures helped the economy recover, as households paid down debts in 2009–2012, the only years since 1947 where this occurred,<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?graph_id=111185| title = FRED – Household Debt Changes| date = October 1945}}</ref> presenting a significant barrier to recovery.<ref name="FCIC_1" /> Real GDP regained its pre-crisis (late 2007) peak by 2011,<ref name="FRED – Real GDP">{{cite web |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/GDPC1 |title=FRED – Real GDP}}</ref> household net worth by Q2 2012,<ref name="FRED – Household Net Worth">{{cite web |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/TNWBSHNO |title=FRED – Household Net Worth}}</ref> non-farm payroll jobs by May 2014,<ref name="Payems">{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/PAYEMS| title = FRED – Total Non-Farm Payrolls| date = January 1939}}</ref> and the unemployment rate by September 2015.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/UNRATE| title = FRED – Civilian Unemployment Rate| date = January 1948}}</ref> Each of these variables continued into post-recession record territory following those dates, with the U.S. recovery becoming the second longest on record in April 2018.<ref name="nyt2018">[https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/20/business/economy/economy-recovery.html ''The New York Times''. Casselbaum. "Up, Up, Up Goes the Economy" March 20, 2018].</ref><br />
<br />
Debt held by the public, a measure of national debt, has risen throughout the 21st century. Rising from 31% in 2000 to 52% in 2009, and reaching 77% of GDP in 2017, the U.S. ranked 43rd highest in debt out of 207 countries. Income inequality peaked in 2007 and fell during the Great Recession, yet still ranked 41st highest among 156 countries in 2017 (i.e., 74% of countries had a more equal income distribution).<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2186rank.html#us| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070613005546/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2186rank.html#us| url-status = dead| archive-date = June 13, 2007| title = CIA World Factbook – Debt to GDP}}</ref><br />
<br />
====COVID-19 pandemic====<br />
{{Further||COVID-19 recession|Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19 recession}}<br />
{{Update section|date=October 2021}}<br />
In the first two quarters of 2020 amid [[Donald Trump]]'s presidency,<ref name="CNBC_Q3">{{cite news |last1=Pound |first1=Jesse |title=Fed's Bullard says the recession is over but rates will 'stay low for a long time' |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/08/28/feds-bullard-says-the-recession-is-over-but-rates-will-stay-low-for-a-long-time.html |access-date=September 4, 2020 |work=CNBC |date=28 August 2020}}</ref> the U.S. economy suffered major setbacks beginning in March 2020, due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic|novel coronavirus]] and having to "shut-down" major sectors of the American economy.<ref>President Trump's statements to reporters gathered at [[Joint Base Andrews]] on 5{{nbs}}May 2020, before his departure en route to Phoenix, Arizona, {{YouTube|DYZNpBhBkws|President Donald J. Trump departs from Joint Base Andrews en route to Phoenix}}, May 5, 2020, minutes 10:06–10:14.</ref> As of March 2020, US exports of automobiles and industrial machines had plummeted as a result of the worldwide pandemic.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wiseman|first=Paul|date=May 5, 2020|title=US trade gap rises to $44.4 billion as virus slams commerce|language=en|agency=Associated Press|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/us-trade-gap-rises-44-125440989.html}}</ref> Social distancing measures which took effect in March 2020, and which negatively impacted the demand for goods and services, resulted in the US [[GDP]] declining at a [[Trade-to-GDP ratio|4.8% annualized rate]] in the first quarter, the steepest pace of contraction in output since the fourth quarter of 2008.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mutikani|first=Lucia|date=May 5, 2020|title=U.S. trade deficit widens, services sector contracts amid coronavirus|language=en|publisher=Reuters|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/u-trade-deficit-widens-services-123754175.html}}</ref> US retails sales dropped a record 8.7% in March alone. The US airline industry had also been hit hard, seeing a sharp decline in its revenues.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Shepardson|first1=David|last2=Rucinski|first2=Tracy|date=May 6, 2020|title=Exclusive: U.S. airlines burn through $10 billion a month as traffic plummets|language=en|publisher=Reuters|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/exclusive-u-airlines-burn-10-212139039.html}}</ref> The [[COVID-19 recession]] has been widely described as the most severe global economic downturn since the [[Great Depression]] and "far worse" than the [[Great Recession]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloombergquint.com/business/global-great-lockdown-will-dwarf-the-great-recession |title=The Great Recession Was Bad. The 'Great Lockdown' Is Worse. |website=BloombergQuint |access-date=April 15, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nysscpa.org/news/publications/the-trusted-professional/article/imf-says-%27great-lockdown%27-worst-recession-since-depression-far-worse-than-last-crisis-041420 |title=IMF Says 'Great Lockdown' Worst Recession Since Depression, Far Worse Than Last Crisis |website=nysscpa.org |access-date=April 15, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Ben Winck |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/imf-economic-outlook-great-lockdown-worst-recession-century-coronavirus-pandemic-2020-4 |title=IMF economic outlook: 'Great Lockdown' will be worst recession in century |publisher=Business Insider |date=April 14, 2020 |access-date=April 27, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|editor=Larry Elliott Economics |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/apr/14/great-lockdown-coronavirus-to-rival-great-depression-with-3-hit-to-global-economy-says-imf |title='Great Lockdown' to rival Great Depression with 3% hit to global economy, says IMF &#124; Business |work=The Guardian |date=April 14, 2020 |access-date=April 27, 2020}}</ref><br />
<br />
In May 2020, [[CNN]] gave an analysis based on unemployment data that the US economy was perhaps the worst that it had been since the 1930s.<ref>{{cite news|last=Collinson|first=Stephen|date=May 7, 2020|title=Trump economy faces long-term disaster as jobs data looms|language=en|publisher=CNN|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/05/07/politics/donald-trump-coronavirus-economy/index.html}}</ref> By May 8, the US had reached a record 14.7 percent unemployment, with 20.5 million jobs lost in April.<ref>{{cite news|last=Ross|first=Jamie|date=May 8, 2020|title=Trump's Live Reaction to Record Unemployment: Don't Blame Me|language=en|publisher=[[Yahoo! News|Yahoo Business]]|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/trump-live-reaction-record-unemployment-133210016.html}}</ref> The Chairman of the [[US Federal Reserve]], [[Jerome Powell]], warned that it may take "an extended time" before the US economy fully recovers from weak economic growth, due to the pandemic, and that in the foreseeable future the US can expect "low productivity growth and stagnant incomes".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Schneider|first1=Howard|last2=Saphir|first2=Ann|date=May 13, 2020|title=In nod to grim U.S. outlook, Fed's Powell calls for more fiscal support|language=en|publisher=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-fed-powell/in-nod-to-grim-us-outlook-feds-powell-calls-for-more-fiscal-support-idUSKBN22P1FG}}</ref> By 31 May 2020, more than forty million Americans had filed for unemployment benefits.<ref>{{cite news|last=Fottrell|first=Quentin|date=May 31, 2020|title=Over 40 million people filed for unemployment since March – $1,200 stimulus checks are a mere Band-Aid for Americans|language=en|publisher=[[MarketWatch]] (for Yahoo! Finance)|url=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/heres-how-much-trouble-laid-off-americans-are-in-and-why-1200-stimulus-checks-are-only-a-band-aid-2020-05-19?siteid=yhoof2&yptr=yahoo,}}</ref><br />
<br />
By June 2020, the slump in US continental flights due to the coronavirus pandemic had resulted in the US government temporarily halting service of fifteen US airlines to 75 domestic airports.<ref>{{cite news|last=Shepardson|first=David|date=June 4, 2020|title=U.S. airlines gain final approval to drop services to 75 domestic airports|language=en|publisher=Reuters|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/u-finalizes-order-allowing-15-035146552.html}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported on June 10, 2020, that "the United States budget deficit grew to a record $1.88{{nbs}}trillion for the first eight months of this [[fiscal year]]."<ref>{{cite news|date=June 10, 2020|title=Fed Expects Unemployment Rate to Stay High: Live Updates|language=en|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/10/business/stock-market-today-coronavirus.html}}</ref><br />
<br />
The US economy increased 5.7% in 2021, which was its best performance since [[Ronald Reagan]]'s presidency (1981–1989).<ref>{{cite web|title=US economy grew 5.7% in 2021 in rebound from 2020 recession|url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/us-economy-grew-57-2021-rebound-2020-recession-82507751|access-date=2022-01-28|website=ABC News|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
2021–2022 marked a historical [[2021–2022 inflation surge|inflation surge]] in the United States, with the [[Consumer Price Index]] inflation rate hitting 9.1% higher in June 2022 than June 2021 constituting a 41-year high inflation rate with critics blaming the [[Federal Reserve]] among other factors.<ref>{{cite web|title=Inflation Hits 9.1 Percent, Highest Level in 41 Years|url=https://reason.com/2022/07/13/inflation-hits-9-1-percent-highest-level-in-41-years/|date=July 13, 2022}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Data==<br />
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2021 (with IMF staff estimates in 2022–2027). Inflation below 5% is in green.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PCPIPCH,LUR,GGXWDG_NGDP,&sy=1980&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 | title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects }}</ref><br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
!Year<br />
!GDP<br />
<small>(in Bil. US$PPP)</small><br />
!GDP per capita<br />
<small>(in US$ PPP)</small><br />
!GDP<br />
<small>(in Bil. US$nominal)</small><br />
!GDP per capita<br />
<small>(in US$ nominal)</small><br />
!GDP growth<br />
<small>(real)</small><br />
!Inflation rate<br />
<small>(in Percent)</small><br />
!Unemployment<br />
<small>(in Percent)</small><br />
!Government debt<br />
<small>(in % of GDP)</small><br />
|-<br />
|1980<br />
|2,857.3<br />
|12,552.9<br />
|2,857.3<br />
|12,552.9<br />
|{{Decrease}}-0.3%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}13.5%<br />
|7.2%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1981<br />
|{{Increase}}3,207.0<br />
|{{Increase}}13,948.7<br />
|{{Increase}}3,207.0<br />
|{{Increase}}13,948.7<br />
|{{Increase}}2.5%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}10.4%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}7.6%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1982<br />
|{{Increase}}3,343.8<br />
|{{Increase}}14,405.0<br />
|{{Increase}}3,343.8<br />
|{{Increase}}14,405.0<br />
|{{Decrease}}-1.8%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}6.2%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.7%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1983<br />
|{{Increase}}3,634.0<br />
|{{Increase}}15,513.7<br />
|{{Increase}}3,634.0<br />
|{{Increase}}15,513.7<br />
|{{Increase}}4.6%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.2%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}9.6%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|{{Increase}}4,037.7<br />
|{{Increase}}17,086.4<br />
|{{Increase}}4,037.7<br />
|{{Increase}}17,086.4<br />
|{{Increase}}7.2%<br />
|{{Increase}}4.4%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}7.5%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1985<br />
|{{Increase}}4,339.0<br />
|{{Increase}}18,199.3<br />
|{{Increase}}4,339.0<br />
|{{Increase}}18,199.3<br />
|{{Increase}}4.2%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.5%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}7.2%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1986<br />
|{{Increase}}4,579.6<br />
|{{Increase}}19,034.8<br />
|{{Increase}}4,579.6<br />
|{{Increase}}19,034.8<br />
|{{Increase}}3.5%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.9%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}7.0%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1987<br />
|{{Increase}}4,855.3<br />
|{{Increase}}20,001.0<br />
|{{Increase}}4,855.3<br />
|{{Increase}}20,001.0<br />
|{{Increase}}3.5%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.6%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}6.2%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1988<br />
|{{Increase}}5,236.4<br />
|{{Increase}}21,376.0<br />
|{{Increase}}5,236.4<br />
|{{Increase}}21,376.0<br />
|{{Increase}}4.2%<br />
|{{Increase}}4.1%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.5%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1989<br />
|{{Increase}}5,641.6<br />
|{{Increase}}22,814.1<br />
|{{Increase}}5,641.6<br />
|{{Increase}}22,814.1<br />
|{{Increase}}3.7%<br />
|{{Increase}}4.8%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.3%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|{{Increase}}5,963.1<br />
|{{Increase}}23,848.0<br />
|{{Increase}}5,963.1<br />
|{{Increase}}23,848.0<br />
|{{Increase}}1.9%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.4%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.6%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|{{Increase}}6,158.1<br />
|{{Increase}}24,302.8<br />
|{{Increase}}6,158.1<br />
|{{Increase}}24,302.8<br />
|{{Decrease}}-0.1%<br />
|{{Increase}}4.2%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}6.9%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|{{Increase}}6,520.3<br />
|{{Increase}}25,392.9<br />
|{{Increase}}6,520.3<br />
|{{Increase}}25,392.9<br />
|{{Increase}}3.5%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.0%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}7.5%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1993<br />
|{{Increase}}6,858.6<br />
|{{Increase}}26,364.2<br />
|{{Increase}}6,858.6<br />
|{{Increase}}26,364.2<br />
|{{Increase}}2.8%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.0%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}6.9%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1994<br />
|{{Increase}}7,287.3<br />
|{{Increase}}27,674.0<br />
|{{Increase}}7,287.3<br />
|{{Increase}}27,674.0<br />
|{{Increase}}4.0%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.6%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}6.1%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1995<br />
|{{Increase}}7,639.8<br />
|{{Increase}}28,671.5<br />
|{{Increase}}7,639.8<br />
|{{Increase}}28,671.5<br />
|{{Increase}}2.7%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.8%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.6%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1996<br />
|{{Increase}}8,073.1<br />
|{{Increase}}29,947.0<br />
|{{Increase}}8,073.1<br />
|{{Increase}}29,947.0<br />
|{{Increase}}3.8%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.9%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.4%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1997<br />
|{{Increase}}8,577.6<br />
|{{Increase}}31,440.1<br />
|{{Increase}}8,577.6<br />
|{{Increase}}31,440.1<br />
|{{Increase}}4.4%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.3%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.9%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1998<br />
|{{Increase}}9,062.8<br />
|{{Increase}}32,833.7<br />
|{{Increase}}9,062.8<br />
|{{Increase}}32,833.7<br />
|{{Increase}}4.5%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.5%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.5%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|{{Increase}}9,631.2<br />
|{{Increase}}34,496.2<br />
|{{Increase}}9,631.2<br />
|{{Increase}}34,496.2<br />
|{{Increase}}4.8%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.2%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.2%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|2000<br />
|{{Increase}}10,251.0<br />
|{{Increase}}36,312.8<br />
|{{Increase}}10,251.0<br />
|{{Increase}}36,312.8<br />
|{{Increase}}4.1%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.4%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.0%<br />
|n/a<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|{{Increase}}10,581.9<br />
|{{Increase}}37,101.5<br />
|{{Increase}}10,581.9<br />
|{{Increase}}37,101.5<br />
|{{Increase}}1.0%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.8%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}4.7%<br />
|53.1%<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|{{Increase}}10,929.1<br />
|{{Increase}}37,945.8<br />
|{{Increase}}10,929.1<br />
|{{Increase}}37,945.8<br />
|{{Increase}}1.7%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.6%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.8%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}55.5%<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|{{Increase}}11,456.5<br />
|{{Increase}}39,405.4<br />
|{{Increase}}11,456.5<br />
|{{Increase}}39,405.4<br />
|{{Increase}}2.8%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.3%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}6.0%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}58.6%<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|{{Increase}}12,217.2<br />
|{{Increase}}41,641.6<br />
|{{Increase}}12,217.2<br />
|{{Increase}}41,641.6<br />
|{{Increase}}3.9%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.7%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.5%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}66.2%<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|{{Increase}}13,039.2<br />
|{{Increase}}44,034.3<br />
|{{Increase}}13,039.2<br />
|{{Increase}}44,034.3<br />
|{{Increase}}3.5%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.4%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.1%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}65.5%<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|{{Increase}}13,815.6<br />
|{{Increase}}46,216.9<br />
|{{Increase}}13,815.6<br />
|{{Increase}}46,216.9<br />
|{{Increase}}2.8%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.2%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.6%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}64.2%<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|{{Increase}}14,474.3<br />
|{{Increase}}47,943.4<br />
|{{Increase}}14,474.3<br />
|{{Increase}}47,943.4<br />
|{{Increase}}2.0%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.9%<br />
|{{Steady}}4.6%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}64.6%<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|{{Increase}}14,769.9<br />
|{{Increase}}48,470.6<br />
|{{Increase}}14,769.9<br />
|{{Increase}}48,470.6<br />
|{{Increase}}0.1%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.8%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.8%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}73.5%<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|{{Decrease}}14,478.1<br />
|{{Decrease}}47,102.4<br />
|{{Decrease}}14,478.1<br />
|{{Decrease}}47,102.4<br />
|{{Decrease}}-2.6%<br />
|{{Increase}}-0.3%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.3%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}86.7%<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|{{Increase}}15,049.0<br />
|{{Increase}}48,586.3<br />
|{{Increase}}15,049.0<br />
|{{Increase}}48,586.3<br />
|{{Increase}}2.7%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.6%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.6%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}95.2%<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|{{Increase}}15,599.7<br />
|{{Increase}}50,008.1<br />
|{{Increase}}15,599.7<br />
|{{Increase}}50,008.1<br />
|{{Increase}}1.6%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.1%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}8.9%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}99.5%<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|{{Increase}}16,254.0<br />
|{{Increase}}51,736.7<br />
|{{Increase}}16,254.0<br />
|{{Increase}}51,736.7<br />
|{{Increase}}2.3%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.1%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}8.1%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}103.1%<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|{{Increase}}16,843.2<br />
|{{Increase}}53,245.5<br />
|{{Increase}}16,843.2<br />
|{{Increase}}53,245.5<br />
|{{Increase}}1.8%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.5%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}7.4%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}104.6%<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|{{Increase}}17,550.7<br />
|{{Increase}}55,083.5<br />
|{{Increase}}17,550.7<br />
|{{Increase}}55,083.5<br />
|{{Increase}}2.3%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.6%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}6.2%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}104.6%<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|{{Increase}}18,206.0<br />
|{{Increase}}56,729.7<br />
|{{Increase}}18,206.0<br />
|{{Increase}}56,729.7<br />
|{{Increase}}2.7%<br />
|{{Increase}}0.1%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.3%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}105.2%<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|{{Increase}}18,695.1<br />
|{{Increase}}57,840.0<br />
|{{Increase}}18,695.1<br />
|{{Increase}}57,840.0<br />
|{{Increase}}1.7%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.3%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.9%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}107.2%<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|{{Increase}}19,479.6<br />
|{{Increase}}59,885.7<br />
|{{Increase}}19,479.6<br />
|{{Increase}}59,885.7<br />
|{{Increase}}2.3%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.1%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.4%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}106.2%<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|{{Increase}}20,527.2<br />
|{{Increase}}62,769.7<br />
|{{Increase}}20,527.2<br />
|{{Increase}}62,769.7<br />
|{{Increase}}2.9%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.4%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}3.9%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}107.5%<br />
|-<br />
|2019<br />
|{{Increase}}21,372.6<br />
|{{Increase}}65,051.9<br />
|{{Increase}}21,372.6<br />
|{{Increase}}65,051.9<br />
|{{Increase}}2.3%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.8%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}3.7%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}108.8%<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|{{Decrease}}20,893.8<br />
|{{Decrease}}63,078.5<br />
|{{Decrease}}20,893.8<br />
|{{Decrease}}63,078.5<br />
|{{Decrease}}-3.4%<br />
|{{Increase}}1.2%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}8.1%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}134.5%<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|{{Increase}}22,996.1<br />
|{{Increase}}69,227.1<br />
|{{Increase}}22,996.1<br />
|{{Increase}}69,227.1<br />
|{{Increase}}5.7%<br />
|{{Increase}}4.7%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.4%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}128.1%<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|{{Increase}}25,035.2<br />
|{{Increase}}75,179.6<br />
|{{Increase}}25,035.2<br />
|{{Increase}}75,179.6<br />
|{{Increase}}1.6%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}8.1%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}3.7%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}122.1%<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|{{Increase}}26,185.2<br />
|{{Increase}}78,421.9<br />
|{{Increase}}26,185.2<br />
|{{Increase}}78,421.9<br />
|{{Increase}}1.0%<br />
|{{Increase}}3.5%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}4.6%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}122.9%<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|{{Increase}}27,057.2<br />
|{{Increase}}80,779.3<br />
|{{Increase}}27,057.2<br />
|{{Increase}}80,779.3<br />
|{{Increase}}1.2%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.2%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.4%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}126.0%<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|{{Increase}}28,045.3<br />
|{{Increase}}83,463.2<br />
|{{Increase}}28,045.3<br />
|{{Increase}}83,463.2<br />
|{{Increase}}1.8%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.0%<br />
|{{Steady}}5.4%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}129.4%<br />
|-<br />
|2026<br />
|{{Increase}}29,165.5<br />
|{{Increase}}86,521.2<br />
|{{Increase}}29,165.5<br />
|{{Increase}}86,521.2<br />
|{{Increase}}2.1%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.0%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.9%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}132.2%<br />
|-<br />
|2027<br />
|{{Increase}}30,281.5<br />
|{{Increase}}89,546.4<br />
|{{Increase}}30,281.5<br />
|{{Increase}}89,546.4<br />
|{{Increase}}1.9%<br />
|{{Increase}}2.0%<br />
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.7%<br />
|{{IncreaseNegative}}134.9%<br />
|}<br />
[[File:CPI 1914-2022.webp|thumb|center|alt=CPI 1914-2022|400px|<br />
{{legend|#0076BA |[[Inflation]]}}<br />
{{legend|#EE220C |[[Deflation]]}}<br />
{{legend-line|#1DB100 solid 3px|[[Money supply|M2 money supply]] increases Year/Year}}<br />
]]<br />
<br />
==GDP==<br />
{{Main|Economic history of the United States#1790–2006 GDP}}<br />
[[File:United States GDP.webp|thumb|300px|right|United States real quarterly GDP (annualized)]]<br />
[[File:Presidential Comparison Real GDP - v1.png|thumb|right|300px|U.S. cumulative real (inflation-adjusted) GDP growth by US president (from Reagan to Obama)<ref>[https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/GDPC1 FRED-Real GDP-Retrieved July 1, 2018].</ref>]]<br />
U.S. nominal GDP was $19.5{{nbs}}trillion in 2017. Annualized, nominal GDP reached $20.1{{nbs}}trillion in Q1 2018, the first time it exceeded $20{{nbs}}trillion. About 70% of U.S. GDP is personal consumption, with business investment 18%, government 17% (federal, state and local but excluding transfer payments such as Social Security, which is in consumption) and net exports a negative 3% due to the U.S. trade deficit.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/national/gdp/gdpnewsrelease.htm| title = BEA News Release{{snd}}GDP Second Quarter 2018{{snd}}July 27, 2018}}</ref> Real [[gross domestic product]], a measure of both production and income, grew by 2.3% in 2017, vs. 1.5% in 2016 and 2.9% in 2015. Real GDP grew at a quarterly annualized rate of 2.2% in Q1 2018, 4.2% in Q2 2018, 3.4% in Q3 2018 and 2.2% in Q4 2018; the Q2 rate was the best growth rate since Q3 2014, and the overall yearly GDP growth of 2.9% in 2018 was the best performance of the economy in a decade.<ref name="Real_GDP" /> In 2020, the growth rate of the GDP has started to drop as a result of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], resulting in the GDP shrinking at a quarterized annual growth rate of &minus;5.0% in Q1 2020{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} and &minus;32.9% in Q2 2020,{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} respectively.<br />
<br />
As of 2014, China passed the U.S. as the largest economy in GDP terms, measured at purchasing power parity conversion rates. The U.S. was the largest economy for more than a century prior to that milestone; China has more than tripled the U.S. growth rate for each of the past 40 years. As of 2017, the European Union as an aggregate had a GDP roughly 5% larger than the U.S.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003104/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html#us CIA World Factbook-United States-Retrieved July 29, 2018].</ref><br />
<br />
Real GDP per capita (measured in 2009 dollars) was $52,444 in 2017 and has been growing each year since 2010. It grew 3.0% per year on average in the 1960s, 2.1% in the 1970s, 2.4% in the 1980s, 2.2% in the 1990s, 0.7% in the 2000s, and 0.9% from 2010 to 2017.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/A939RX0Q048SBEA| title = FRED{{snd}}Real GDP per Capita{{snd}}Annual Average| date = January 1947}}</ref> Reasons for slower growth since 2000 are debated by economists and may include aging demographics, slower population and growth in labor force, slower productivity growth, reduced corporate investment, greater income inequality reducing demand, lack of major innovations, and reduced labor power.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/21/magazine/are-we-doomed-to-slow-growth.html ''The New York Times''. Adam Davidson. "Are We Doomed to Slow Growth?" February 17, 2016].</ref> The U.S. ranked 20th out of 220 countries in GDP per capita in 2017.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html#us| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004710/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html#us| url-status = dead| archive-date = June 13, 2007| title = ''CIA World Factbook''. "USA Economy".}}</ref> Among the modern U.S. Presidents, Bill Clinton had the highest cumulative percent real GDP increase during his two terms, Reagan second and Obama third.<ref name="Real_GDP">{{cite web|url=https://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/national/gdp/gdpnewsrelease.htm|title=Bureau of Economic Analysis|first=US Department of Commerce, BEA, Bureau of Economic|last=Analysis|website=bea.gov|access-date=May 7, 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
The development of the nation's GDP according to [[World Bank]]:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG/countries|title=GDP growth (annual %)|publisher=Data.worldbank.org|access-date=December 8, 2014}}</ref> U.S. real GDP grew by an average of 1.7% from 2000 to the first half of 2014, a rate around half the historical average up to 2000.<ref name="bea.gov">{{cite web|title=National Income and Product Accounts Gross Domestic Product: Second Quarter 2014 (Advance Estimate) Annual Revision: 1999 through First Quarter 2014|url=https://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/national/gdp/gdpnewsrelease.htm|website=Bureau of Economic Analysis|publisher=Bureau of Economic Analysis|access-date=July 31, 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==By economic sector==<br />
===Nominal GDP sector composition===<br />
[[File:Number of Businesses by Type (US Census Bureau 2019).png|thumb|190x190px|Number of businesses by type (US Census Bureau, 2019)]]<br />
Nominal GDP sector composition, 2015 (in millions of dollars) at [[Real gross domestic product|2005 constant prices]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=95|title=UNCTADstat – Table view|website=unctadstat.unctad.org|access-date=2017-11-26 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! style="width:2%;"|No.<br />
! style="width:95%;"|Country/Economy<br />
! style="width:15%;"|[[Real gross domestic product|Real GDP]]<br />
! style="width:10%;"|Agri.<br />
! style="width:10%;"|Indus.<br />
! style="width:10%;"|Serv.<br />
|-<br />
|–<br />
|'''{{noflag}} World'''<br />
|60,093,221<br />
<br />
|1,968,215<br />
|16,453,140<br />
|38,396,695<br />
|-<br />
|1<br />
|{{flag|United States}}<br />
|15,160,104<br />
|149,023<br />
|3,042,332<br />
|11,518,980<br />
|}<br />
Nominal GDP Sector Composition, 2016 (in millions of dollars) at current prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=57&pr.y=7&sy=2016&ey=2020&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=111&s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,PPPGDP,PPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|website=imf.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-11-26 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! style="width:2%;"|No.<br />
! style="width:25%;"|Country/Economy<br />
! style="width:15%;"|[[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|Nominal GDP]]<br />
! style="width:10%;"|Agri.<br />
! style="width:10%;"|Indus.<br />
! style="width:10%;"|Serv.<br />
|-<br />
|1<br />
|{{flag|United States}}<br />
|18,624,450<br />
<br />
|204,868.95<br />
|3,613,143.3<br />
|14,806,437.75<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" |*Percentages from [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-11-26 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Employment==<br />
{{Further|List of largest United States–based employers globally|List of U.S. states by employment rate}}<br />
{{see also|JOLTS report}}<br />
{{legend-line|#89A54E solid 3px|Total job openings}}<br />
{{legend-line|#4572A7 solid 3px|[[Turnover (employment)|Total quits]]}}<br />
[[File:Jobs and quits rate.webp|thumb|380px|right|{{legend-line|#AA4643 solid 3px|[[Unemployment in the United States|Total unemployed people]]}}]]<br />
[[File:Job Growth by U.S. President - v1.png|thumb|right|300px|Job growth by US president, measured as cumulative percentage change from month after inauguration to end of term<ref>[https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/PAYEMS Federal Reserve Economic Data-All Employees Total Non-Farm-Retrieved July 29, 2018].</ref>]]<br />
[[File:U.S. Econonomic Trends 2014-2017 Nine Panel.png|thumb|right|300px|Panel chart illustrates nine key economic variables measured annually in 2014–2017. The years 2014–2016 were during President Obama's second term, while 2017 was during President Trump's term. Refer to citations on detail page.]]<br />
There were approximately 160.4 million people in the U.S. labor force in 2017, the fourth largest labor force in the world behind China, India, and the European Union.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/| title = ''CIA World Factbook''. "United States.| date = February 16, 2022}}</ref><br />
The government (federal, state and local) employed 22 million in 2010.<ref name="Mcfeatters">{{cite news| url=http://napavalleyregister.com/news/opinion/editorial/article_43f9e712-b96a-11df-9e2d-001cc4c002e0.html | newspaper=Napa Valley Register | title=Saluting 154 million in workforce on Labor Day | first=Dale | last=McFeatters | date=September 6, 2010}}</ref> Small businesses are the nation's largest employer, representing 37% of American workers.<ref name="sba.gov" /> The second-largest share of employment belongs to large businesses employing 36% of the U.S. workforce.<ref name="sba.gov" /> [[White-collar worker|White collar workers]] comprise 44% of the workforce as of 2022, up from 34% in 2000.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-12-04 |title=Is a white-collar recession looming? |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2022/12/04/is-a-white-collar-recession-looming | newspaper=[[The Economist]] | quote=Managerial and professional occupations now make up 44% of total employment, up from 34% in 2000, according to the BLS (see chart). }}</ref><br />
<br />
The nation's [[private sector]] employs 85% of working Americans. [[Public sector|Government]] accounts for 14% of all U.S. workers. Over 99% of all private employing organizations in the U.S. are small businesses.<ref name="sba.gov" /> The 30 million small businesses in the U.S. account for 64% of newly created jobs (those created minus those lost).<ref name="sba.gov" /> Jobs in small businesses accounted for 70% of those created in the last decade.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=if9NOcUK1F0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/if9NOcUK1F0| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|title=Obama: Small Business 'Heart' of Economy – YouTube |work=Youtube |access-date=April 21, 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref><br />
<br />
The proportion of Americans employed by small business versus large business has remained relatively the same year by year as some small businesses become large businesses and just over half of small businesses survive for more than five years.<ref name="sba.gov" /> Amongst large businesses, several of the largest companies and employers in the world are American companies. Amongst them are [[Walmart]], which is both the largest company and the largest [[private sector]] employer in the world. Walmart employs 2.1 million people worldwide and 1.4 million in the U.S. alone.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2010/full_list/ |publisher=CNN | title=Global 500 2010: Global 500 1–100}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090318030352/http://walmartstores.com/download/2230.pdf Walmart Corporate and Financial Facts].</ref><br />
[[File:US Census Bureau Number of Employees per Business.png|thumb|300x300px|US Census Bureau (number of employees per business)]]<br />
There are nearly thirty million small businesses in the U.S.. Minorities such as [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanics]], African Americans, Asian Americans, and Native Americans (35% of the country's population),<ref>"[https://articles.latimes.com/2010/jun/10/nation/la-na-census-20100611 Minority population growing in the United States, census estimates show]". ''Los Angeles Times''. June 10, 2010.</ref> own 4.1 million of the nation's businesses. Minority-owned businesses generate almost $700{{nbs}}billion in revenue, and they employ almost five million workers in the U.S.<ref name="sba.gov" /><ref>{{cite web<br />
| url = http://www.bls.gov/web/laus/lauhsthl.htm<br />
| title = Current Unemployment Rates for States and Historical Highs/Lows<br />
| publisher = BLS<br />
| date = June 2012<br />
| access-date = June 15, 2012<br />
}}</ref><br />
Americans have the highest average [[List of countries by average wage|employee]] income among [[OECD]] nations.<ref name="autogenerated4">{{cite web |title=OECD Better Life Index |url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/#/11111111111 |access-date=November 25, 2012 |publisher=OECD}}</ref> The median household income in the U.S. as of 2008 is $52,029.<ref>[https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100223212411/http://www.census.gov/prod/2009pubs/acsbr08-2.pdf Median Household Income for States: 2007 and 2008], September 2009, [https://www.census.gov/ census.gov].</ref> About 284,000 working people in the U.S. have two full-time jobs and 7.6 million have part-time ones in addition to their full-time employments.<ref name="Mcfeatters" /> Out of all working individuals in the U.S., 12% belong to a labor union and most union members work for the government.<ref name="Mcfeatters" /> The decline of [[Trade unions in the United States|union membership]] in the U.S. over the last several decades parallels that of labor's share of the economy.<ref>Doree Armstrong (February 12, 2014). [http://www.washington.edu/news/2014/02/12/jake-rosenfeld-explores-the-sharp-decline-of-union-membership-influence/ Jake Rosenfeld explores the sharp decline of union membership, influence]. ''UW Today.'' See also: Jake Rosenfeld (2014) ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674725119 What Unions No Longer Do].'' [[Harvard University Press]]. {{ISBN|0674725115}}</ref><ref>Keith Naughton, Lynn Doan and Jeffrey Green (February 20, 2015). [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-02-20/unions-poised-for-comeback-as-middle-class-wages-stall As the Rich Get Richer, Unions Are Poised for Comeback]. ''Bloomberg.''<br />
* "A 2011 study drew a link between the decline in union membership since 1973 and expanding wage disparity. Those trends have since continued, said [[Bruce Western]], a professor of sociology at Harvard University who co-authored the study."</ref><ref>Michael Hiltzik (March 25, 2015). [https://www.latimes.com/business/hiltzik/la-fi-mh-imf-agrees-loss-of-union-power-20150325-column.html IMF agrees: Decline of union power has increased income inequality]. ''[[Los Angeles Times]].''</ref> The World Bank ranks the United States first in the ease of hiring and firing workers.<ref name="EDBI">{{cite web|url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/ExploreEconomies/?economyid=197|access-date=June 28, 2007|title=Doing Business in the United States (2006)|publisher=World Bank}}</ref> The United States is the only advanced economy that does not [[List of statutory minimum employment leave by country|legally guarantee its workers paid vacation]] or [[Sick leave#United States|paid sick days]], and is one of just a few countries in the world without [[paid family leave]] as a [[legal right]], with the others being [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Suriname]] and [[Liberia]].<ref>Rebecca Ray, Milla Sanes, and John Schmitt (May 2013). [http://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/no-vacation-update-2013-05.pdf No-Vacation Nation Revisited]. ''[[Center for Economic and Policy Research]].''</ref><ref>Tara Siegel Bernard (February 22, 2013). [https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/23/your-money/us-trails-much-of-the-world-in-providing-paid-family-leave.html In Paid Family Leave, U.S. Trails Most of the Globe]. ''[[The New York Times]]''</ref><ref>Maxwell Strachan, Alissa Scheller, Jan Diehm (October 29, 2013). [https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/29/american-exceptionalism_n_4170683.html?ncid=txtlnkushpmg00000029 15 Ways The United States Is The Best (At Being The Worst)]. ''[[The Huffington Post]].''</ref> In 2014 and again in 2020, the [[International Trade Union Confederation]] graded the U.S. a 4{{nbs}}out of{{nbs}}5+, its third-lowest score, on the subject of powers and [[Labor rights|rights granted to labor unions]].<ref>Ishaan Tharoor (May 20, 2014). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2014/05/20/map-the-worst-places-in-the-world-to-be-a-worker/ MAP: The worst places in the world to be a worker]. ''[[The Washington Post]].'' see also: [http://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/survey_ra_2014_eng_v2.pdf ITUC Global Rights Index].</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1= O'Brien |first1=Fergal |last2= Schneeweiss |first2=Zoe |date=June 18, 2020 |title=U.S. Ranked Worst for Workers' Rights Among Major Economies |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-06-18/u-s-ranked-worst-for-workers-rights-among-major-economies |work=Bloomberg|access-date=June 19, 2020}}</ref> Some scholars, including business theorist [[Jeffrey Pfeffer]] and political scientist Daniel Kinderman, posit that contemporary employment practices in the United States relating to the increased performance pressure from management, and the hardships imposed on employees such as toxic working environments, [[precarity]], and long hours, could be responsible for 120,000 excess deaths annually, making the workplace the fifth leading cause of death in the United States.<ref>{{cite book |last= Pfeffer|first=Jeffrey|date=2018 |title=Dying for a Paycheck: How Modern Management Harms Employee Health and Company Performance – and What We Can Do About It|publisher=HarperBusiness|page=38 |isbn=978-0062800923|author-link=Jeffrey Pfeffer}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= McGregor|first=Jena|date=March 22, 2018|title=This professor says the workplace is the fifth leading cause of death in the U.S.|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/on-leadership/wp/2018/03/22/this-professor-says-the-workplace-is-the-fifth-leading-cause-of-death-in-the-u-s/|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=July 5, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Kinderman|first=Daniel|date=2019|title=The Neoliberal Revolution in Industrial Relations|journal=Catalyst|volume=2|issue=4|pages=117–118|issn=2475-7365|quote=Neoliberal industrial relations reform and increased employer discretion has enabled employers to significantly increase the performance pressure, with serious repercussions for employees. In the United States, work-related issues including layoffs, job insecurity, toxic cultures, and long hours may be responsible for up to 120,000 deaths a year.}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Unemployment===<br />
{{Main|Unemployment in the United States|List of U.S. states and territories by unemployment rate}}<br />
[[File:U1-U6 unemployment rate.webp|thumb|450px|U1-U6 unemployment rate]]<br />
As of December 2017, the [[unemployment]] rate in the U.S. was 4.1%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/UNRATE |title=Federal Reserve Database-FRED-Data Series UNRATE |publisher=Research.stlouisfed.org |date=September 6, 2013 |access-date=October 20, 2013}}</ref> or 6.6 million people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/UNEMPLOY |title=Federal Reserve Database-FRED-Data Series Unemploy |date=January 1948 |publisher=Research.stlouisfed.org |access-date=October 20, 2013}}</ref> The government's broader U-6 unemployment rate, which includes the part-time [[underemployment|underemployed]], was 8.1%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/U6RATE |title=Federal Reserve Database-FRED-Data Series U6RATE-March 2013 |publisher=Research.stlouisfed.org |date=September 6, 2013 |access-date=October 20, 2013}}</ref> or 8.2 million people. These figures were calculated with a civilian labor force of approximately 160.6 million people,<ref name="research.stlouisfed.org">{{cite web|url=http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/CLF16OV |title=Federal Reserve Database-CLF160V Data Series|date=January 1948|publisher=Research.stlouisfed.org |access-date=October 20, 2013}}</ref> relative to a U.S. population of approximately 327 million people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/POP |title=FRED Database – POP Data Series – U.S. Population. November 2012 |date=January 1952 |publisher=Research.stlouisfed.org |access-date=October 20, 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Between 2009 and 2010, following the Great Recession, the emerging problem of [[jobless recovery|jobless recoveries]] resulted in record levels of [[long-term unemployment]] with more than six million workers looking for work for more than six months as of January 2010. This particularly affected older workers.<ref name="Goodman">[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/21/business/economy/21unemployed.html "Millions of Unemployed Face Years Without Jobs"] article by [[Peter S. Goodman]] in ''[[The New York Times]]'' February 20, 2010.</ref> A year after the recession ended in June 2009, immigrants gained 656,000 jobs in the U.S., while U.S.-born workers lost more than a million jobs, due in part to an aging country (relatively more white retirees) and demographic shifts.<ref>"[https://money.cnn.com/2010/10/29/news/economy/jobs_immigrants/ Immigrants top native born in U.S. job hunt]". [[CNNMoney.com]]. October 29, 2010.</ref> In April 2010, the official unemployment rate was 9.9%, but the government's broader [[Unemployment#United States Bureau of Labor statistics|U-6 unemployment]] rate was 17.1%.<ref>"[https://blogs.wsj.com/economics/2010/05/07/broader-u-6-unemployment-rate-increases-to-171-in-april/ Broader U-6 Unemployment Rate Increases to 17.1% in April]". ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''. May 7, 2010.</ref> Between February 2008 and February 2010, the number of people working part-time for economic reasons (i.e., would prefer to work full-time) increased by 4.0 million to 8.8 million, an 83% increase in part-time workers during the two-year period.<ref name="EconPost">{{cite web |title=Four million more people working part time than 2 years ago |publisher=EconPost.com |date=March 17, 2010 |url=http://econpost.com/unitedstateseconomy/four-million-more-people-working-part-time-2-years-ago |access-date=March 30, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100711052533/http://econpost.com/unitedstateseconomy/four-million-more-people-working-part-time-2-years-ago |archive-date=July 11, 2010 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
<br />
By 2013, although the unemployment rate had fallen below 8%, the record proportion of long term unemployed and continued decreasing household income remained indicative of a jobless recovery.<ref name=SchwartzJobless>{{cite news|last=Schwartz|first=Nelson|title=Recovery in U.S. Is Lifting Profits, but Not Adding Jobs|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/04/business/economy/corporate-profits-soar-as-worker-income-limps.html?pagewanted=all|access-date=March 18, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times |date=March 3, 2013}}</ref> However, the number of payroll jobs returned to its pre-recession (November 2007) level by May 2014 as the economy recovered.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/PAYEMS |title=FRED – All Employees Total Non-farm Payrolls |date=January 1939}}</ref><br />
<br />
After being higher in the post-war period, the U.S. unemployment rate fell below the rising [[eurozone]] unemployment rate in the mid-1980s and has remained significantly lower almost continuously since.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Constance Sorrentino|author2=Joyanna Moy|title=U.S. labor market performance in international perspective|journal=Monthly Labor Review|date=June 2002 |url=http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2002/06/art2full.pdf |access-date=August 22, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chronic Unemployment in the Euro Area: Causes and Cures|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/1999/01/0599ch4.pdf |work=World Economic Outlook|publisher=International Monetary Fund|access-date=August 22, 2013|year=1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Unemployment|url=http://www.unc.edu/depts/europe/euroeconomics/Unemployment.php|work=Euro Economics|publisher=University of North Carolina|access-date=August 22, 2013|quote=Chart}}</ref> In 1955, 55% of Americans worked in services, between 30% and 35% in industry, and between 10% and 15% in [[Agriculture in the United States|agriculture]]. By 1980, over 65% were employed in services, between 25% and 30% in industry, and less than 5% in agriculture.<ref>Time-Life Books, Library of Nations: United States, Sixth European English language printing, 1989</ref> [[Male unemployment]] continued to be significantly higher than those of females (at 9.8% vs. 7.5% in 2009). The unemployment among Caucasians continues being much lower than those for African-Americans (at 8.5% vs. 15.8% also in 2009).<ref name="CPS06052009">{{cite web |url=http://www.bls.gov/cps/ |title=Current Population Survey |publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Government |date=June 5, 2009 |access-date=June 19, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[youth unemployment]] rate was 18.5% in July 2009, the highest rate in that month since 1948.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20100327214616/http://www.bls.gov/news.release/youth.nr0.htm Employment and Unemployment Among Youth Summary]". United States Department of Labor. August 27, 2009.</ref> The unemployment rate of young African Americans was 28.2% in May 2013.<ref>"[https://www.forbes.com/sites/susanadams/2013/06/07/the-unemployment-news-is-worse-for-many/ The Unemployment News Is Worse For Many]". ''[[Forbes]]''. June 7, 2013.</ref><br />
<br />
The unemployment rate reached an all-time high of 14.7% in April 2020 before falling back to 11.1% in June 2020. Due to the effects of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19 pandemic]], Q2 GDP in the US fell 32.9% in 2020.<ref>{{cite web|title=Gross Domestic Product, 2nd Quarter 2020 (Advance Estimate) and Annual Update {{!}} U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA)|url=https://www.bea.gov/news/2020/gross-domestic-product-2nd-quarter-2020-advance-estimate-and-annual-update|access-date=2021-06-08|website=www.bea.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=The U.S. economy added 4.8 million jobs in June, but fierce new headwinds have emerged|language=en-US|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/07/02/june-2020-jobs-report/|access-date=2021-06-08|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Cox|first=Jeff|date=2020-07-30|title=Second-quarter GDP plunged by worst-ever 32.9% amid virus-induced shutdown|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/07/30/us-gdp-q2-2020-first-reading.html|access-date=2021-06-08|website=CNBC|language=en}}</ref> The unemployment rate continued its rapid decline falling to 3.9% in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-07 |title=The US labor market recovered rapidly in 2021 but still fell short even before Omicron wave |url=https://www.piie.com/blogs/realtime-economic-issues-watch/us-labor-market-recovered-rapidly-2021-still-fell-short-even |access-date=2022-04-12 |website=PIIE |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Employment by sector===<br />
{{See also|List of largest United States–based employers globally#Employment_by_major_industry_sector|l1=Employment by Major Industry Sector in United States}}<br />
<br />
U.S. employment, as estimated in 2012, is divided into 79.7% in the service sector, 19.2% in the manufacturing sector, and 1.1% in the agriculture sector.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/ |title=The World Factbook (United States) |publisher=CIA.gov |date=September 25, 2013 |access-date=October 26, 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
United States non-farm employment by industry sector February 2013.<ref name="Inflation2">{{cite web |url=http://www.bls.gov/cpi/cpid1302.pdf|title=CPI Detailed Report – Data for February 2013|publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics|access-date=June 1, 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Income and wealth==<br />
[[File:Median personal income after taxes.webp|thumb|300px|Median personal income after taxes<br />
{{legend|#FF2600|[[State income tax]]}}<br />
{{legend|#FFD932|[[Payroll tax in the United States|Payroll tax]] [[employee]] side}}<br />
{{legend|#B51700|[[Federal income tax]]}}<br />
{{legend|#1DB100|[[Median income]] after tax}}<br />
{{legend|#FF95CA|[[Payroll tax in the United States|Payroll tax]] [[employer]] side}}<br />
]]<br />
{{Main|Income in the United States|Affluence in the United States}}<br />
{{See also|Personal income in the United States|Household income in the United States|Income inequality in the United States|List of United States counties by per capita income}}<br />
[[File:US Real Household Median Income thru 2014.png|thumb|450px|U.S. real median household income (1984–2018)]]<br />
[[File:Top 1 pct share of income 1979 2007 2014.png|thumb|450px|U.S. share of income (pre-tax and after-tax) earned by top 1% households in 1979, 2007, and 2015 (CBO data). The first date (1979) reflects the more egalitarian pre-1980 period, 2007 was the peak inequality of the post-1980 period, and the 2015 number reflects the Obama tax increases on the top 1% along with residual effects of the Great Recession.<ref name="CBO_Dist2015">{{cite web| url = https://www.cbo.gov/publication/54646| title = CBO. ''The Distribution of Household Income, 2015''| date = November 8, 2018}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:U.S. Income and Net Worth Distribution.png|thumb|450px|U.S. family pre-tax income and net worth distribution for 2013 and 2016, from the Federal Reserve [[Survey of Consumer Finances]]<ref name=fed2017sept>[[Federal Reserve Bulletin]]. September 2017, Vol. 103, No. 3. See PDF: [https://www.federalreserve.gov/publications/files/scf17.pdf Changes in U.S. Family Finances from 2013 to 2016: Evidence from the Survey of Consumer Finances]. Table 1 (on the left) is taken from page 4 of the PDF. Table 2 (on the right) is taken from page 13. See: [[Survey of Consumer Finances]] and [https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/scfindex.htm more data].</ref>]]<br />
<br />
===Income measures===<br />
Real (i.e., inflation-adjusted) median household income, a good measure of middle-class income, was $59,039 in 2016, a record level. However, it was just above the previous record set in 1998, indicating the purchasing power of middle-class family income has been stagnant or down for much of the past twenty years.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/MEHOINUSA672N| title = FRED – Real Median Household Income| date = January 1984}}</ref> During 2013, employee compensation was $8.969{{nbs}}trillion, while gross private investment totals $2.781{{nbs}}trillion.<ref name="Fed Z.1">{{cite web | url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/z1/current/z1.pdf | title=Z.1: Financial Accounts of the United States | publisher=[[Federal Reserve Board of Governors]] | date=March 6, 2014 | access-date=May 31, 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527095440/http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/z1/Current/z1.pdf | archive-date=May 27, 2014 | url-status=dead | df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
<br />
Americans have the highest average [[household income]] among OECD nations, and in 2010 had the fourth-highest [[median household income]], down from second-highest in 2007.<ref name="Household Income">{{cite journal |date=March 18, 2014 |title=Household Income |url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/society-at-a-glance-2014_soc_glance-2014-en |journal=Society at a Glance 2014: OECD Social Indicators |series=Society at a Glance |publisher=OECD Publishing |doi=10.1787/soc_glance-2014-en |isbn=9789264200722 |access-date=May 29, 2014 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated4 /> According to one analysis middle-class incomes in the United States fell into a tie with those in Canada in 2010, and may have fallen behind by 2014, while several other advanced economies have closed the gap in recent years.<ref>David Leonhardt and Kevin Quealy (April 22, 2014). [https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/23/upshot/the-american-middle-class-is-no-longer-the-worlds-richest.html?_r=0 The American Middle Class Is No Longer the World's Richest]. ''[[The New York Times]].''</ref><br />
<br />
===Income inequality===<br />
Income inequality has become a hotly debated topic globally. According to the ''CIA World Factbook'', U.S. income inequality ranked 41st highest among 156 countries in 2017 (i.e., 74% of countries have a more equal income distribution).<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2172rank.html#us| title = ''CIA World Factbook''. "Distribution of Family Income"| access-date = June 17, 2018| archive-date = June 4, 2011| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110604005151/http://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2007/06/12/afx3810988.html#us| url-status = dead}}</ref> According to the [[Congressional Budget Office]], the top 1% of income households earned about a 9% share of the pre-tax income in 1979, versus 19% in 2007 and 17% in 2014. For after-tax income, these figures were 7%, 17%, and 13%, respectively. These figures indicate the share of income earned by top earners more than doubled between 1979 and 2007, then fell somewhat following the [[Great Recession]], and the higher tax rates and re-distributive policies applied by President Barack Obama in 2013 (i.e., expiration of the [[Bush Tax Cuts]] for the top 1% and subsidies for lower income persons via the [[Affordable Care Act]]).<ref name="CBO_Dist2014">{{cite web| url = https://www.cbo.gov/publication/53597| title = CBO. ''The Distribution of Household Income, 2014''| date = March 19, 2018}}</ref> Recasting the 2012 income using the 1979 income distribution (representing the more egalitarian 1950–1980 period), the bottom 99% of families would have averaged about $7,100 more income.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/13/business/rethinking-the-income-gap-and-a-college-education.html ''The New York Times''. Eduardo Porter "Rethinking the Rise of Inequality". November 13, 2013].</ref> [[Income inequality in the United States]] has grown from 2005 to 2012 in more than two out of three metropolitan areas.<ref name=Chokshi>{{cite news|last1=Chokshi|first1=Niraj|title=Income inequality seems to be rising in more than 2 in 3 metro areas|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/govbeat/wp/2014/08/11/income-inequality-seems-to-be-rising-in-more-than-2-in-3-metro-areas/|access-date=September 13, 2014|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=August 11, 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Upper class|top 1 percent of income-earners]] accounted for 52 percent of the income gains from 2009 to 2015, where income is defined as market income excluding government transfers,<ref>[[Emmanuel Saez|Saez, Emmanuel]] (June 30, 2016). [http://elsa.berkeley.edu/~saez/saez-UStopincomes-2015.pdf "Striking it Richer: The Evolution of Top Incomes in the United States"]. ''[[University of California, Berkeley]].''</ref> while their share of total income has more than doubled from nine percent in 1976 to twenty percent in 2011.<ref name="PikettySaez">Alvaredo, Facundo; [[Anthony B. Atkinson|Atkinson, Anthony B.]]; [[Thomas Piketty|Piketty, Thomas]]; [[Emmanuel Saez|Saez, Emmanuel]] (2013). [http://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.27.3.3 "The Top 1{{nbs}}Percent in International and Historical Perspective"]. ''Journal of Economic Perspectives.''</ref> According to a 2014 OECD report, 80% of total pre-tax market income growth went to the top 10% from 1975 to 2007.<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/OECD2014-FocusOnTopIncomes.pdf Focus on Top Incomes and Taxation in OECD Countries: Was the crisis a game changer?] ''[[OECD]],'' May 2014.</ref><br />
<br />
A number of economists and others have expressed growing concern about [[Income inequality in the United States|income inequality]], calling it "deeply worrying",<ref name=Noah1>[http://www.tnr.com/blog/timothy-noah/99651/white-house-heres-why-you-have-care-about-inequality White House: Here's Why You Have To Care About Inequality] Timothy Noah | tnr.com| January 13, 2012.</ref> unjust,<ref name="Richer">{{cite news|last=Krugman|first=Paul|title=For Richer|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/20/magazine/20INEQUALITY.html?pagewanted=all|newspaper=The New York Times|date=October 20, 2002}}</ref> a danger to democracy/social stability,<ref name=Oligarchy>[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/04/opinion/oligarchy-american-style.html?_r=1&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss ''The New York Times''. "Oligarchy, American Style"]. Paul Krugman. November 3, 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens |author1=Martin Gilens |author2=Benjamin I. Page |name-list-style=amp|journal=[[Perspectives on Politics]] |date=2014 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=564–581 |doi=10.1017/S1537592714001595 |url=http://scholar.princeton.edu/sites/default/files/mgilens/files/gilens_and_page_2014_-testing_theories_of_american_politics.doc.pdf|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>[[Thomas Piketty|Piketty, Thomas]] (2014). ''[[Capital in the Twenty-First Century]].'' [[Belknap Press]]. {{ISBN|067443000X}} p. 514: *"the risk of a drift towards oligarchy is real and gives little reason for optimism about where the United States is headed."</ref> or a sign of [[American decline|national decline]].<ref name=Packer>"The Broken Contract", By George Packer, ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'', November/December 2011</ref> Yale professor [[Robert Shiller]] has said, "The most important problem that we are facing now today, I think, is rising inequality in the United States and elsewhere in the world."<ref>{{cite news|last=Christoffersen|first=John|title=Rising inequality 'most important problem,' says Nobel-winning economist|url=https://www.stltoday.com/business/local/rising-inequality-most-important-problem-says-nobel-winning-economist/article_a5065957-05c3-5ac0-ba5b-dab91c22973a.html|access-date=October 19, 2013|newspaper=St. Louis Post-Dispatch|date=October 14, 2013}}</ref> [[Thomas Piketty]] of the [[Paris School of Economics]] argues that the post-1980 increase in inequality played a role in the 2008 crisis by contributing to the nation's financial instability.<ref>[[Thomas Piketty|Piketty, Thomas]] (2014). ''[[Capital in the Twenty-First Century]].'' [[Belknap Press]]. {{ISBN|067443000X}} pp. 297–98.</ref> In 2016, the economists Peter H. Lindert and [[Jeffrey G. Williamson]] claimed that inequality is the highest it has been since the nation's founding.<ref>Jeff Guo (July 1, 2016). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/07/01/income-inequality-today-may-be-the-highest-since-the-nations-founding/ Income inequality today may be higher today than in any other era]. ''[[The Washington Post]]''</ref> In 2018, income inequality was at the highest level ever recorded by the [[United States Census Bureau|Census Bureau]], with a Gini index of 0.485.<ref>{{cite news |last= Telford|first=Taylor|date=September 26, 2019|title=Income inequality in America is the highest it's been since census started tracking it, data shows|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/09/26/income-inequality-america-highest-its-been-since-census-started-tracking-it-data-show|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=September 27, 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
Others disagree, saying that the inequality issue is a political distraction from what they consider real problems like chronic unemployment and sluggish growth.<ref name=Winship>{{cite web|last1=Winship|first1=Scott|title=Overstating the Costs of Inequality|url=http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/articles/2013/03/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship.pdf|website=Brookings|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=Spring 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024141452/http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Research/Files/Articles/2013/03/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship.pdf|archive-date=October 24, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Income Inequality in America: Fact and Fiction|url=http://www.economics21.org/files/e21ib_1.pdf|website=e21|publisher=Manhattan Institute|access-date=August 14, 2014|date=May 2014}}</ref> [[George Mason University]] economics professor [[Tyler Cowen]] has called inequality a "red herring",<ref>{{cite news|last1=Porter|first1=Eduardo|title=Tyler Cowen on Inequality and What Really Ails America|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/31/upshot/tyler-cowen-on-inequality-and-what-really-ails-america.html|work=The New York Times|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=July 30, 2014}}</ref> saying that factors driving its increase within a nation can simultaneously be driving its reduction globally, and arguing that redistributive policies intended to reduce inequality can do more harm than good regarding the real problem of stagnant wages.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Cowen|first1=Tyler|title=Income Inequality Is Not Rising Globally. It's Falling|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/20/upshot/income-inequality-is-not-rising-globally-its-falling-.html|work=The New York Times|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=July 19, 2014}}</ref> [[Robert Lucas Jr.]] has argued that the salient problem American living standards face is a government that has grown too much, and that recent policy shifts in the direction of European-style taxation, welfare spending, and regulation may be indefinitely putting the U.S. on a significantly lower, European level income trajectory.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lucas|first1=Robert E. Jr.|title=The U.S. Recession of 2007–201?|url=http://econ.washington.edu/files/2013/05/millimansl.pdf|access-date=August 12, 2014|location=Lecture at the University of Washington|date=May 19, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812204022/http://econ.washington.edu/files/2013/05/millimansl.pdf|archive-date=August 12, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Henninger|first1=Daniel|title=The Disappearing Recovery: What if the weak recovery is all the recovery we are going to get?|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304911104576443953024891120?mod=djemEditorialPage_h&mg=reno64-wsj&url=http%3A%2F%2Fonline.wsj.com%2Farticle%2FSB10001424052702304911104576443953024891120.html%3Fmod%3DdjemEditorialPage_h|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=July 13, 2011}}</ref> Some researchers have disputed the accuracy of the underlying data regarding claims about inequality trends,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Stiles|first1=Andrew|title=The Full Piketty: Experts raise questions about Frenchman's data on income inequality|url=http://freebeacon.com/blog/the-full-piketty/|work=The Washington Free Beacon|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=May 28, 1014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Feldstein|first1=Martin|title=Piketty's Numbers Don't Add Up: Ignoring dramatic changes in tax rules since 1980 creates the false impression that income inequality is rising|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304081804579557664176917086|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=May 14, 2014}}</ref> and economists Michael Bordo and Christopher M. Meissner have argued that inequality cannot be blamed for the 2008 financial crisis.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Michael Bordo|author2=Christopher M. Meissner|title=Does inequality lead to a financial crisis?|url=http://www.voxeu.org/article/does-inequality-lead-financial-crisis|publisher=Vox|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=March 24, 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to a report by the [[Congressional Research Service]], decreased progressiveness in [[capital gains tax]]es was the largest contributor to the increase in overall income inequality in the U.S. from 1996 to 2006.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hungerford|first=Thomas L.|title=Changes in the Distribution of Income Among Tax Filers Between 1996 and 2006: The Role of Labor Income, Capital Income, and Tax Policy|publisher=Congressional Research Service|location=Washington, DC|url=http://taxprof.typepad.com/files/crs-1.pdf|access-date=January 1, 2014|format=Report 7-5700/R42131|date=December 29, 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
As of 2010 The U.S. had the fourth-widest income distribution among [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] nations, behind Turkey, Mexico, and Chile.<ref>{{cite web|title=Inequality and Poverty|url=http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/OECD2013-Inequality-and-Poverty-8p.pdf|publisher=OECD|access-date=July 30, 2014|date=May 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.compareyourcountry.org/inequality?cr=usa&cr1=oecd&lg=en&page=0 Compare your country: Income distribution and poverty]. [[OECD]].</ref><ref name="National Research Council" /> The [[Brookings Institution]] said in March 2013 that income inequality was increasing and becoming permanent, sharply reducing [[Socio-economic mobility in the United States|social mobility in the US]].<ref name="BrookingsPerm">{{cite web|title=Inequality Rising and Permanent Over Past Two Decades|url=http://www.brookings.edu/about/projects/bpea/latest-conference/2013-spring-permanent-inequality-panousi|work=Brookings Papers on Economic Activity|publisher=Brookings Institution|access-date=March 23, 2013|author=Vasia Panousi|author2=Ivan Vidangos|author3=Shanti Ramnath|author4=Jason DeBacker|author5=Bradley Heim|date=Spring 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408151547/http://www.brookings.edu/about/projects/bpea/latest-conference/2013-spring-permanent-inequality-panousi|archive-date=April 8, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The [[OECD]] ranks the U.S. 10th in social mobility, behind the [[Nordic countries]], Australia, Canada, Germany, Spain, and France.<ref>Dave Serchuk. [https://www.forbes.com/sites/daveserchuk/2011/12/07/happy-countrysocial-mobility/ Happy Country=Social Mobility?] ''[[Forbes]].'' July 12, 2011.</ref> Of the major developed nations, only Italy and Great Britain have lower mobility.<ref>Steve Hargreaves (December 18, 2013). [https://money.cnn.com/2013/12/09/news/economy/america-economic-mobility/index.html The myth of the American Dream]. ''[[CNN]].'' 2014.</ref> This has been partly attributed to the depth of [[Poverty in the United States|American poverty]], which leaves poor children economically disadvantaged,<ref name=DeParle>DeParle, Jason (January 4, 2012). [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/05/us/harder-for-americans-to-rise-from-lower-rungs.html?sq=mobility&st=cse&scp=1&pagewanted=all Harder for Americans to Rise From Lower Rungs]. ''[[The New York Times]]''.</ref> though others have observed that a relative rise in the U.S. is mathematically harder due to its higher and more widely distributed income range than in nations with artificial income compression, even if one enjoys more absolute mobility in the U.S., and have questioned how meaningful such international comparisons are.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Schneider|first1=Donald|title=A Guide to Understanding International Comparisons of Economic Mobility|url=http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2013/07/a-guide-to-understanding-international-comparisons-of-economic-mobility|publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]]|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=July 29, 2013}}</ref><br />
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There has been a widening gap between productivity and median incomes since the 1970s.<ref>Mishel, Lawrence (April 26, 2012). [http://www.epi.org/publication/ib330-productivity-vs-compensation/ The wedges between productivity and median compensation growth]. ''[[Economic Policy Institute]].''</ref> The primary cause for the gap between productivity and income growth is the decline in per capita hours worked.<ref name="Gordon 2013">{{cite journal |title=U.S. Productivity Growth: The Slowdown Has Returned After a Temporary Revival |journal=International Productivity Monitor, Centre for the Study of Living Standards |date=Spring 2013 |last=Gordon |first=Robert J. |volume=25 |pages=13–19 |url=http://faculty-web.at.northwestern.edu/economics/Gordon/SAN-to-NBER%20Baily-Sharpe%20as%20published_130327.pdf |access-date=2014-07-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809065612/http://faculty-web.at.northwestern.edu/economics/Gordon/SAN-to-NBER%20Baily-Sharpe%20as%20published_130327.pdf |archive-date=August 9, 2014 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Other causes include the rise in non-cash benefits as a share of worker compensation (which aren't counted in CPS income data), immigrants entering the labor force, statistical distortions including the use of different inflation adjusters by the BLS and CPS, productivity gains being skewed toward less labor-intensive sectors, income shifting from labor to capital, a skill gap-driven wage disparity, productivity being falsely inflated by hidden technology-driven depreciation increases and import price measurement problems, and/or a natural period of adjustment following an income surge during aberrational post-war circumstances.<ref name=Winship /><ref>{{cite web|last1=Rose|first1=Stephen|title=Does Productivity Growth Still Benefit Working Americans?: Unraveling the Income Growth Mystery to Determine How Much Median Incomes Trail Productivity Growth|url=http://www.itif.org/files/DoesProductivityGrowthStillBenefitWorkingAmericans.pdf|publisher=The Information Technology and Innovation Foundation|access-date=August 12, 2014|date=June 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_324645/lang--en/index.htm|title=Global wage growth stagnates, lags behind pre-crisis rates|date=December 5, 2014|access-date=August 10, 2017}}</ref><br />
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According to a 2018 study by the OECD, given that the unemployed and at-risk workers get almost no government support and are further set back by a very weak [[collective bargaining]] system, the U.S. has much higher income inequality and a larger percentage of low-income workers than almost any other developed nation.<ref>{{cite news |last=Van Dam |first=Andrew |date=July 4, 2018 |title=Is it great to be a worker in the U.S.? Not compared with the rest of the developed world|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/07/04/is-it-great-to-be-a-worker-in-the-u-s-not-compared-to-the-rest-of-the-developed-world/|newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=July 6, 2018}}</ref><br />
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===Household net worth and wealth inequality===<br />
{{Bar chart|float=right<br />
| title = Net worth in the United States, 2006–2018<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/TNWBSHNO| title = Federal Reserve Economic Data{{snd}}Households and Nonprofit Organizations{{snd}}Net Worth Level| date = October 1945}}</ref><br />
| table_width = 20<br />
| bar_width = 20<!--must be an unformatted number--><br />
| data_max = 110,000<!--upper bound on the values in the data fields--><br />
| label_type = Year<br />
| data_type = {{center|Wealth (billions in [[USD]])}}<br />
| label1 = 2006 | data1 = 67,704<br />
| label2 = 2007 | data2 = 68,156<br />
| label3 = 2008 | data3 = 58,070<br />
| label4 = 2009 | data4 = 60,409<br />
| label5 = 2010 | data5 = 64,702<br />
| label6 = 2011 | data6 = 66,457<br />
| label7 = 2012 | data7 = 72,316<br />
| label8 = 2013 | data8 = 81,542<br />
| label9 = 2014 | data9 = 86,927<br />
| label10 = 2015 | data10 = 89,614<br />
| label11 = 2016 | data11 = 95,101<br />
| label12 = 2017 | data12 = 103,484<br />
| label13 = 2018 | data13 = 104,329<br />
| caption =<br />
}}<br />
As of Q4 2017, total household net worth in the United States was a record $99{{nbs}}trillion, an increase of $5.2{{nbs}}trillion from 2016. This increase reflects both stock market and housing price gains. This measure has been setting records since Q4 2012.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?graph_id=369801| title = FRED "Household and Non-Profit net worth{{snd}}Real and Nominal"}}</ref> If divided evenly, the $99{{nbs}}trillion represents an average of $782,000 per household (for about 126.2 million households) or $302,000 per person. However, median household net worth (i.e., half of the families above and below this level) was $97,300 in 2016. The bottom 25% of families had a median net worth of zero, while the 25th to 50th percentile had a median net worth of $40,000.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/scfindex.htm| title = Federal Reserve – Survey of Consumer Finances 2016}}</ref><br />
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Wealth inequality is more unequal than income inequality, with the top 1% households owning approximately 42% of the net worth in 2012, versus 24% in 1979.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://gabriel-zucman.eu/uswealth/| title = Economist Gabriel Zucman "Wealth Inequality in the United States Since 1913"| date = October 12, 2014}}</ref> According to a September 2017 report by the Federal Reserve, wealth inequality is at record highs; the top 1% controlled 38.6% of the country's wealth in 2016.<ref>{{cite news |last=Egan|first=Matt |date=September 27, 2017|title=Record inequality: The top 1% controls 38.6% of America's wealth|url=https://money.cnn.com/2017/09/27/news/economy/inequality-record-top-1-percent-wealth/index.html|work=[[CNNMoney]]|access-date=October 12, 2017}}</ref> The [[Boston Consulting Group]] posited in June 2017 report that 1% of the Americans will control 70% of country's wealth by 2021.<ref>{{cite news |last=Steverman|first=Ben |date=June 16, 2017 |title=The U.S. Is Where the Rich Are the Richest|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-06-16/the-u-s-is-where-the-rich-are-the-richest|work=Bloomberg |access-date=October 22, 2017}}</ref><br />
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The top 10% wealthiest possess 80% of all financial assets.<ref name="hurst34">{{cite book |last=Hurst|first=Charles E.|title=Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences|year=2007|publisher=Pearson Education, Inc.|isbn=978-0205698295|page=34|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M0FVPwAACAAJ}}</ref> [[Wealth inequality in the United States|Wealth inequality in the U.S.]] is greater than in most developed countries other than Sweden.<ref name="Weissmann">{{cite news |date=June 23, 2021 |title=Global Wealth Databook 2021 |pages=115–118 |newspaper=Credit Suisse |url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/media/assets/corporate/docs/about-us/research/publications/global-wealth-databook-2021.pdf |access-date=March 4, 2022}}</ref> [[Inherited wealth]] may help explain why many Americans who have become rich may have had a "substantial head start".<ref name="Salon-20140324">{{cite web |last=Bruenig |first=Matt |title=You call this a meritocracy? How rich inheritance is poisoning the American economy |url=http://www.salon.com/2014/03/24/death_of_meritocracy_how_inheritance_is_poisoning_the_american_economy/ |date=March 24, 2014 |work=[[Salon (website)|Salon]] |access-date=August 24, 2014}}</ref><ref name="ECO-20140318">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Inequality – Inherited wealth |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/buttonwood/2014/03/inequality |date=March 18, 2014 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |access-date=August 24, 2014}}</ref> In September 2012, according to the [[Institute for Policy Studies]], "over 60 percent" of the [[Forbes 400|Forbes richest 400 Americans]] "grew up in substantial privilege".<ref name="OW-20120924">{{cite web |last=Pizzigati |first=Sam |title=The 'Self-Made' Hallucination of America's Rich |url=http://inequality.org/selfmade-myth-hallucinating-rich/ |date=September 24, 2012 |work=[[Institute for Policy Studies]] |access-date=August 24, 2014}}</ref> Median household wealth fell 35% in the U.S., from $106,591 to $68,839 between 2005 and 2011, due to the [[Great Recession]], but has since recovered as indicated above.<ref>{{cite web|title=Median Household Net Worth by Quintile|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/pdf/cb14-156_net_worth_graphic.pdf|website=United States Census|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912175408/http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/pdf/cb14-156_net_worth_graphic.pdf|archive-date=September 12, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
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About 30% of the entire world's millionaire population resides in the United States ({{as of|2009|lc=y}}).<ref name="WorldWealthReport2010">{{cite web|url=http://www.capgemini.com/insights-and-resources/by-publication/world-wealth-report-2010/|title=World Wealth Report 2010 – Resource|date=June 18, 2010|access-date=August 10, 2017}}</ref> The [[Economist Intelligence Unit]] estimated in 2008 that there were 16,600,000 millionaires in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.barclayswealth.com/files/volume5.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326020703/http://www.barclayswealth.com/files/volume5.pdf |archive-date=March 26, 2009 |title=Barclays Wealth Insights |url-status=dead |access-date=February 2, 2017}}. Volume 5: Evolving Fortunes. Barclays (2008). p. 7</ref> Furthermore, 34% of the world's billionaires are American (in 2011).<ref name="forbes.com" /><ref>{{cite news|last=Ody |first=Elizabeth |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-09/carlos-slim-tops-forbes-list-of-billionaires-for-second-year.html |title=Carlos Slim Tops Forbes List of Billionaires for Second Year |publisher=Bloomberg |date=March 10, 2011 |access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref><br />
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===Home ownership===<br />
{{Further|Home-ownership in the United States}}<br />
[[File:Aerial - Interstate 805 in San Diego, CA 01.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of [[San Diego]] suburb]]<br />
<br />
The U.S. home ownership rate in Q1 2018 was 64.2%, well below the all-time peak of 69.2% set in Q4 2004 during a [[United States housing bubble|housing bubble]]. Millions of homes were lost to foreclosure during the [[Great Recession]] of 2007–2009, bringing the ownership rate to a trough of 62.9% in Q2 2016. The average ownership rate from 1965 to 2017 was 65.3%.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/RHORUSQ156N| title = FRED "Homeownership rate for the United States"| date = January 1965}}</ref><br />
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The average home in the United States has more than 700 square feet per person (65 square meters), which is 50%–100% more than the average in other high-income countries. Similarly, ownership rates of gadgets and amenities are relatively high compared to other countries.<ref name="Rector-Johnson">{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/Research/Welfare/bg1713.cfm|title=Understanding Poverty in America|date=January 5, 2004|author1=Robert E. Rector|author2=Kirk A. Johnson|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100313053958/http://www.heritage.org/research/welfare/bg1713.cfm|archive-date=March 13, 2010|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Rector">{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/Research/Welfare/bg2064.cfm|title=How Poor Are America's Poor? Examining the "Plague" of Poverty in America|date=August 27, 2007|author=Robert Rector|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100312170900/http://www.heritage.org/Research/Welfare/bg2064.cfm|archive-date=March 12, 2010|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>W. Michael Cox and Richard Alm (1999), The myths of rich and poor: why we're better off than we think. New York: Basic Books</ref><br />
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It was reported by Pew Research Center in 2016 that, for the first time in 130 years, Americans aged 18 to 34 are more likely to live with their parents than in any other housing situation.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/money/us-money-blog/2016/may/27/housing-market-real-estate-millennials-living-at-home-with-parents Millennials aren't buying homes right now. What if they never do?] ''[[The Guardian]].'' May 27, 2016.</ref><br />
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In one study by ATTOM Data Solutions, in 70% of the counties surveyed, homes are increasingly unaffordable for the average U.S. worker.<ref>{{cite news |last=Min |first=Sarah |date=March 28, 2019|title=Average Americans can't afford a home in 70 percent of the country|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/housing-market-2019-americans-cant-afford-a-home-in-70-percent-of-the-country|work=[[CBS News]] |access-date=April 1, 2019}}</ref><br />
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As of 2018, the number of U.S. citizens residing in their vehicles because they can't find affordable housing has "exploded", particularly in cities with steep increases in the cost of housing such as [[Los Angeles]], [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] and [[San Francisco]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Berr |first=Johnathan |date=July 31, 2018 |title=More Americans are forced to "reside" in their vehicles|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/more-americans-are-living-in-their-vehicles-amid-high-housing-prices/|work=[[CBS MoneyWatch]]|access-date=August 2, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.governing.com/topics/health-human-services/gov-homeless-shelter-car.html |first=Mattie|last=Quinn|title='It's the New Form of Affordable Housing': More People Are Living in Their Cars|magazine=[[Governing (magazine)|Governing]]|date=July 24, 2018|access-date=January 19, 2019}}</ref><br />
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===Profits and wages===<br />
[[File:Wages in the United States.webp|thumb|300px|Wages in the United States<br />
{{legend-line|#5E5E5E solid 3px|[[Nominalism|Nominal]] wages}}<br />
{{legend|#0094EC|outline=#0076BA|[[Adjusted-for-inflation|Adjusted for inflation]] wages}}<br />
]]<br />
{{See also|List of U.S. states and territories by median wage and mean wage}}<br />
<br />
[[Real wages]] (wages adjusted for inflation) for most workers in the United States and median incomes have either declined or remained stagnant for the last twenty to forty years.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bergsten |first=C. Fred |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1255691875 |title=The United States vs. China : the quest for global economic leadership |date=2022 |isbn=978-1-5095-4735-7 |location=Cambridge |pages=303 |oclc=1255691875}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Nathaniel |title=Why American wages haven't grown despite increases in productivity |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/19/heres-how-labor-dynamism-affects-wage-growth-in-america.html |access-date=2022-11-25 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=DeSilver |first=Drew |title=For most U.S. workers, real wages have barely budged in decades |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/08/07/for-most-us-workers-real-wages-have-barely-budged-for-decades/ |access-date=2022-11-25 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Wage Stagnation in Nine Charts |url=https://www.epi.org/publication/charting-wage-stagnation/ |access-date=2022-11-25 |website=Economic Policy Institute |language=en-US}}</ref> A 2020 microanalysis demonstrated that in the preceding four decades labor's share of national output declined while over the same period the profit share of the same output increased.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mattei|first=Clara E.|date=2022 |title=The Capital Order: How Economists Invented Austerity and Paved the Way to Fascism|page=18|url=https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo181707138.html|location= |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|isbn=978-0226818399}}</ref><br />
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In 1970, [[wage]]s represented more than 51% of the U.S. GDP and profits were less than 5%. But by 2013, wages had fallen to 44% of the economy, while profits had more than doubled to 11%.<ref name="DThompson">{{cite news|last=Derek|first=Thompson|title=Corporate Profits Are Eating the Economy|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/03/corporate-profits-are-eating-the-economy/273687/|access-date=March 18, 2013|newspaper=The Atlantic|date=March 4, 2013}}</ref> Inflation-adjusted ("real") per capita [[Disposable and discretionary income|disposable personal income]] rose steadily in the U.S. from 1945 to 2008, but has since remained generally level.<ref>[http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/graph/?g=f3v "Real Disposable Personal Income: Per capita"] ''Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis'', 2013</ref><ref>[http://thinkprogress.org/economy/2013/01/25/1495171/the-rich-are-enjoying-the-recovery-while-wages-fall-for-everyone-else/ "The Rich Are Enjoying The Recovery While Wages Fall For Everyone Else"] ''ThinkProgress'', January 25, 2013.</ref><br />
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In 2005, median personal income for those over the age of 18 ranged from $3,317 for an unemployed, married [[Asian American]] female<ref name="US Census Bureau, females, 18 or older, unemployed, personal income, 2005">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new02_067.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205211730/http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new02_067.htm|archive-date=February 5, 2012|title=US Census Bureau, females, 18 or older, unemployed, personal income, 2005|access-date=December 8, 2006}}</ref> to $55,935 for a full-time, year-round employed Asian American male.<ref name="US Census Bureau, male, 18 or older, employed full-time year round, 2005">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new02_037.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205211741/http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new02_037.htm|archive-date=February 5, 2012|title=US Census Bureau, male, 18 or older, employed full-time year round, 2005|access-date=December 8, 2006}}</ref> According to the U.S. Census men tended to have higher income than women while Asians and [[White American|Whites]] earned more than [[African American]]s and [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanics]]. The overall median personal income for all individuals over the age of 18 was $24,062<ref name="US Census Bureau, 18+ age, 2005">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new02_001.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205211745/http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new02_001.htm|archive-date=February 5, 2012|title=US Census Bureau, 18+ age, 2005|access-date=December 8, 2006}}</ref> ($32,140 for those age 25 or above) in the year 2005.<ref name="US Census Bureau, Personal income for all sexes, races in 2005">{{cite web |url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_001.htm |title=US Census Bureau, Personal income for all sexes, races in 2005 |access-date=November 19, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070319232115/http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_001.htm |archive-date=March 19, 2007 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
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As a reference point, the minimum wage rate in 2009 and 2017 was $7.25 per hour or $15,080 for the 2080 hours in a typical work year. The minimum wage is a little more than the poverty level for a single person unit and about 50% of the [[Poverty in the United States|poverty level]] for a family of four.<br />
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According to an October 2014 report by the [[Pew Research Center]], [[real wages]] have been flat or falling for the last five decades for most U.S. workers, regardless of job growth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/10/09/for-most-workers-real-wages-have-barely-budged-for-decades/|title=For most workers, real wages have barely budged for decades|last=Desilver |first=Drew |date=October 9, 2014|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=July 20, 2018 |quote=But a look at five decades' worth of government wage data suggests that the better question might be, why should now be any different? For most U.S. workers, real wages{{snd}}that is, after inflation is taken into account{{snd}}have been flat or even falling for decades, regardless of whether the economy has been adding or subtracting jobs.}}</ref> Bloomberg reported in July 2018 that real GDP per capita has grown substantially since the Great Recession, but real compensation per hour, including benefits, hasn't increased at all.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Noah |date=July 25, 2018|title=How About a Free Market for Wages?|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2018-07-25/states-should-ban-contracts-barring-workers-from-joining-rivals |work=Bloomberg Opinion |access-date=August 31, 2018}}</ref><br />
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An August 2017 survey by [[CareerBuilder]] found that eight out of ten U.S. workers live paycheck to paycheck. CareerBuilder spokesman Mike Erwin blamed "stagnant wages and the rising cost of everything from education to many consumer goods".<ref>{{cite news |last=Picchi |first=Aimee |date=August 24, 2017 |title=Vast number of Americans live paycheck to paycheck|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/americans-living-paycheck-to-paycheck/|work=[[CBS News]] |access-date=August 25, 2017}}</ref> According to a survey by the federal [[Consumer Financial Protection Bureau]] on the financial well-being of U.S. citizens, roughly half have trouble paying bills, and more than one third have faced hardships such as not being able to afford a place to live, running out of food, or not having enough money to pay for medical care.<ref>{{cite news |last=Albrecht |first=Leslie |date=September 27, 2017 |title=One-third of American households can't afford food, shelter or medical care|url=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/one-third-of-american-households-cant-afford-food-shelter-or-medical-care-2017-09-27|work=[[Marketwatch]] |access-date=October 6, 2017}}</ref> According to journalist and author [[Alissa Quart]], the cost of living is rapidly outpacing the growth of salaries and wages, including those for traditionally secure professions such as teaching. She writes that "middle-class life is now 30% more expensive than it was 20 years ago."<ref>{{cite news |last=Getlen |first=Larry |date=July 23, 2018|title=America's middle class is slowly being 'wiped out'|url=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/americas-middle-class-is-slowly-being-wiped-out-2018-07-23|work=[[MarketWatch]]|access-date=July 29, 2018}}</ref><br />
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In February 2019, the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] reported that seven million U.S. citizens are three months or more behind on their car payments, setting a record. This is considered a red flag by economists, that Americans are struggling to pay bills in spite of a low unemployment rate.<ref>{{cite news |last= Long|first=Heather|date=February 13, 2019 |title=Record 7 million Americans are 3 months behind on car payments|url=https://www.boston.com/cars/car-news/2019/02/13/record-7-million-americans-are-3-months-behind-on-car-payments|work=boston.com |access-date=February 15, 2019}}</ref> A May 2019 poll conducted by [[NPR]] found that among rural Americans, 40% struggle to pay for healthcare, food and housing, and 49% could not pay cash for a $1,000 emergency, and would instead choose to borrow in order to pay for such an unexpected emergency expense.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Neel |first1=Joe|last2=Neighmond |first2=Patti |date=May 21, 2019|title=Poll: Many Rural Americans Struggle With Financial Insecurity, Access To Health Care|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2019/05/21/725059882/poll-many-rural-americans-struggle-with-financial-insecurity-access-to-health-ca|work=NPR |access-date=May 21, 2019}}</ref> Some experts assert that the US has experienced a "two-tier recovery", which has benefitted 60% of the population, while the other 40% on the "lower tier" have been struggling to pay bills as the result of stagnant wages, increases in the cost of housing, education and healthcare, and growing debts.<ref>{{cite news |last=Long |first=Heather|date=July 4, 2019 |title='This doesn't look like the best economy ever': 40% of Americans say they still struggle to pay bills |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/this-doesnt-look-like-the-best-economy-ever-40percent-of-americans-say-they-still-struggle-to-pay-bills/ar-AADRErK?li=BBnbcA1|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=July 5, 2019}}</ref><br />
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A 2021 study by the [[National Low Income Housing Coalition]] found that workers would have to make at least $24.90 an hour to be able to afford (meaning 30% of a person's income or less) renting a standard two-bedroom home or $20.40 for a one-bedroom home anywhere in the US. The former is 3.4 times higher than the current federal minimum wage.<ref>{{cite news |last=Romo |first=Vanessa |date=July 14, 2021 |title=Rents Are Out Of Reach For Most Americans Earning Minimum Wage, A Study Says |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/07/14/1016230724/rents-are-out-of-reach-for-most-americans-earning-minimum-wage-a-study-says |work=NPR |location= |access-date=July 15, 2021}}</ref><br />
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===Poverty===<br />
{{Main|Poverty in the United States}}<br />
[[File:Number in Poverty and Poverty Rate 1959 to 2011. United States..PNG|thumb|upright=1.8|Number in poverty and poverty rate: 1959 to 2016. United States.]]<br />
Starting in the 1980s [[relative poverty]] rates have consistently exceeded those of other wealthy nations, though analyses using a common data set for comparisons tend to find that the U.S. has a lower absolute poverty rate by market income than most other wealthy nations.<ref name="National Research Council">{{cite book |title=U.S. Health in International Perspective |url= http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=13497&page=171 |publisher=National Research Council and Institute of Medicine |access-date=April 8, 2013 |author1=Woolf, Steven |author2=Aaron, Laudon |year = 2013|pages=171–72|doi = 10.17226/13497|pmid = 24006554|isbn = 978-0-309-26414-3}}</ref> [[Extreme poverty]] in the United States, meaning households living on less than $2 per day before government benefits, doubled from 1996 levels to 1.5 million households in 2011, including 2.8 million children.<ref name=NatlPovertyCtr>[http://npc.umich.edu/publications/policy_briefs/brief28/policybrief28.pdf "Extreme Poverty in the United States, 1996 to 2011"] ''National Poverty Center'', February 2012.</ref> In 2013, [[child poverty]] reached record high levels, with 16.7 million children living in [[Famine scales#Combined intensity and magnitude scales|food insecure]] households, about 35% more than 2007 levels.<ref name=WalkerBBC>{{cite news|last=Walker|first=Duncan|title=The children going hungry in America|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-21636723|access-date=March 13, 2013|newspaper=BBC News|date=March 6, 2013}}</ref> As of 2015, 44 percent of children in the United States live with low-income families.<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/nccp-finds-44-percent-u-s-children-live-low-income-families/ Report finds 44 percent of U.S. children live in low-income families]. ''PBS Newshour''. April 6, 2015.</ref><br />
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In 2016, 12.7% of the U.S. population [[Poverty in the United States|lived in poverty]], down from 13.5% in 2015. The poverty rate rose from 12.5% in 2007 before the [[Great Recession]] to a 15.1% peak in 2010, before falling back to just above the 2007 level. In the 1959–1962 period, the poverty rate was over 20%, but declined to the all-time low of 11.1% in 1973 following the [[War on Poverty]] begun during the Lyndon Johnson presidency.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2017/demo/p60-259.html| title = U.S. Census Bureau{{snd}}Income and Poverty in the United States 2016}}</ref> In June 2016, The IMF warned the United States that its high poverty rate needs to be tackled urgently.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/business-36599316 IMF warns the US over high poverty]. BBC, June 22, 2016.</ref><br />
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[[File:US Wealth Inequality - v2.png|thumb|250px|[[Wealth inequality in the United States]] increased from 1989 to 2013.<ref>{{cite news|title=Trends in Family Wealth, 1989 to 2013|url=https://www.cbo.gov/publication/51846|date=August 18, 2016|work=[[Congressional Budget Office]]}}</ref>]]<br />
The population in extreme-poverty neighborhoods rose by one third from 2000 to 2009.<ref name="Concentrated Poverty">Kneebone, Elizabeth; Nadeau, Carey; Berube, Alan (November 3, 2011). [http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2011/11/03-poverty-kneebone-nadeau-berube "The Re-Emergence of Concentrated Poverty: Metropolitan Trends in the 2000s"]. ''[[Brookings Institution]].''</ref> People living in such neighborhoods tend to suffer from inadequate access to quality education; higher crime rates; higher rates of physical and psychological ailment; limited access to credit and wealth accumulation; higher prices for goods and services; and constrained access to job opportunities.<ref name="Concentrated Poverty" /> As of 2013, 44% of America's poor are considered to be in "deep poverty", with an income 50% or more below the government's official poverty line.<ref>Shah, Neil (October 11, 2013).[https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304500404579127603306039292 U.S. Poverty Rate Stabilizes{{snd}}For Some]. ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' (New York).</ref><br />
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According to the US [[Department of Housing and Urban Development]]'s Annual Homeless Assessment Report, {{As of|2017|lc=y}} there were around 554,000 homeless people in the United States on a given night,<ref name="bbc2017">{{cite web |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-42248999 |title = US homeless people numbers rise for first time in seven years |publisher = BBC |date=December 6, 2017}}</ref> or 0.17% of the population. Almost two thirds stayed in an emergency shelter or transitional housing program and the other third were living on the street, in an abandoned building, or another place not meant for human habitation. About 1.56 million people, or about 0.5% of the U.S. population, used an emergency shelter or a transitional housing program between October 1, 2008, and September 30, 2009.<ref name=HUDhomeless2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huduser.org/publications/pdf/5thHomelessAssessmentReport.pdf |title=HUD 5th Annual Homelessness Assessment Report to Congress, June 2010 |access-date=October 20, 2013}}</ref> Around 44% of homeless people are employed.<ref>[http://www.nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/employment.html Employment and Homelessness]. ''[[National Coalition for the Homeless]],'' July 2009.</ref><br />
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The United States has one of the least extensive social safety nets in the developed world, reducing both relative poverty and absolute poverty by [[Welfare's effect on poverty|considerably less than the mean for wealthy nations]].<ref name="Sme">{{cite journal |last1= Smeeding |first1= T.M. |year=2005 |title= Public Policy: Economic Inequality and Poverty: The United States in Comparative Perspective| journal= Social Science Quarterly |volume=86 |pages=955–83 |doi= 10.1111/j.0038-4941.2005.00331.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Kenworthy |first1= L. |year= 1999 |title= Do Social-Welfare Policies Reduce Poverty? A Cross-National Assessment| journal =Social Forces|volume = 77|issue=3|pages= 1119–39 |doi=10.1093/sf/77.3.1119|url= https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/160860/1/lis-wps-188.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bradley, D. |author2=E. Huber |author3=S. Moller |author4=F. Nielsen |author5=J.D. Stephens |name-list-style=amp|year=2003 | title = Determinants of Relative Poverty in Advanced Capitalist Democracies| journal = American Sociological Review | volume = 68 | issue = 1| pages = 22–51 | doi = 10.2307/3088901 |jstor=3088901}}</ref><ref>Kevin Drum (September 26, 2013). [https://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2013/09/we-can-reduce-poverty-if-we-want-we-just-have-want We Can Reduce Poverty If We Want To. We Just Have To Want To.] ''[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]].''</ref><ref>Gould, Elise and Wething, Hilary (July 24, 2012). [http://www.epi.org/publication/ib339-us-poverty-higher-safety-net-weaker/ "U.S. poverty rates higher, safety net weaker than in peer countries."] ''[[Economic Policy Institute]].''</ref> Some experts posit that those in poverty live in conditions rivaling the [[Developing country|developing world]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Temin|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Temin|date=2017 |title=The Vanishing Middle Class: Prejudice and Power in a Dual Economy|url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/vanishing-middle-class|publisher= [[MIT Press]]|isbn=978-0262036160}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= Alston|first=Philp|date=December 15, 2017 |title=Extreme poverty in America: read the UN special monitor's report|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/15/extreme-poverty-america-un-special-monitor-report|work=The Guardian |access-date=December 16, 2017}}</ref> A May 2018 report by the U.N. Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights found that over five million people in the United States live "in 'Third World' conditions".<ref>{{cite news |date=June 4, 2018|title="Contempt for the poor in US drives cruel policies," says UN expert|url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2018/06/contempt-poor-us-drives-cruel-policies-says-un-expert|work=OHCHR|access-date=June 6, 2018}}</ref> Over the last three decades the poor in America have been [[Incarceration in the United States|incarcerated]] at a much higher rate than their counterparts in other developed nations, with penal confinement being "commonplace for poor men of working age".<ref>Bruce Western. [https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/23042281?uid=3739896&uid=2&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=21104624536741 Poverty Politics and Crime Control in Europe and America]. ''[[Contemporary Sociology]]''<br />
Vol. 40, No. 3 (May 2011), pp. 283–86</ref> Some scholars contend that the shift to [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] social and economic policies starting in the late 1970s has expanded the penal state, retrenched the social [[welfare state]], deregulated the economy and criminalized poverty, ultimately "transforming what it means to be poor in America".<ref>Stephen Haymes, Maria Vidal de Haymes and Reuben Miller (eds), ''[http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415673440/ The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States],'' (London: [[Routledge]], 2015), {{ISBN|0415673445}}, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=qnHfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3], [https://books.google.com/books?id=qnHfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA346 346].</ref><ref>[[Loïc Wacquant]], ''[https://www.dukeupress.edu/Punishing-the-Poor/ Punishing the Poor: The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190223135712/https://www.dukeupress.edu/Punishing-the-Poor/index-viewby%3Dtitle%26sort%3D.html |date=February 23, 2019}},'' ([[Duke University Press]], 2009), {{ISBN|082234422X}}, pp. 125–16, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NkyFsGi2erEC&pg=PT336 312]</ref><ref>Marie Gottschalk. ''[http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10731.html Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics].'' [[Princeton University Press]], 2014. {{ISBN|0691164053}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=CzDFCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 p. 10]</ref><br />
<br />
==Health care==<br />
[[File:Health Insurance Coverage in the U.S. 2016 - v1.png|thumb|right|300px|U.S. health insurance coverage by source in 2016. CBO estimated ACA/Obamacare was responsible for 23 million persons covered via exchanges and Medicaid expansion.<ref name="CBO_Subsidy2016">{{cite web|url=https://www.cbo.gov/publication/51385|title=Federal Subsidies for Health Insurance Coverage for People Under Age 65|publisher=CBO|date=March 24, 2016}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:OECD life expectacy and health spending per capita 2013 v1.png|thumb|right|300px|Chart showing life expectancy at birth and health care spending per capita for OECD countries as of 2015. The U.S. is an outlier, with much higher spending but below average life expectancy.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.oecd.org/health/health-systems/health-at-a-glance-19991312.htm| title = OECD Health at a Glance 2015{{snd}}Table 3.3}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:Healthcare costs to GDP OECD 2015 v1.png|thumb|right|300px|Bar chart comparing healthcare costs as percentage of GDP across OECD countries]]<br />
[[File:U.S. healthcare coverage 2008-2026.png|thumb|right|300px|U.S. uninsured number (millions) and rate (%), including historical data through 2016 and two CBO forecasts (2016/Obama policy and 2018/Trump policy) through 2026. Two key reasons for more uninsured under President Trump include: 1) Eliminating the individual mandate to have health insurance; and 2) Stopping cost sharing reduction payments.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbo.gov/publication/53826|title=Federal Subsidies for Health Insurance Coverage for People Under Age 65: 2018 to 2028|date=May 23, 2018|access-date=June 17, 2018}}</ref>]]<br />
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{{Main|Health care in the United States}}<br />
{{POV section|talk=US Healthcare section|date=August 2015}}<br />
{{Update|uninsured statistics|date=October 2016}}<br />
<br />
===Coverage===<br />
{{Further|Health insurance coverage in the United States}}<br />
The American system is a mix of public and private insurance. The government provides insurance coverage for approximately 53 million elderly via [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]], 62 million lower-income persons via [[Medicaid]], and 15 million military veterans via the [[Veteran's Administration]]. About 178 million employed by companies receive subsidized health insurance through their employer, while 52 million other persons directly purchase insurance either via the subsidized marketplace exchanges developed as part of the [[Affordable Care Act]] or directly from insurers. The private sector delivers healthcare services, with the exception of the Veteran's Administration, where doctors are employed by the government.<ref name="Census2016">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2017/demo/p60-260.html|title=Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2016|first=US Census|last=Bureau|website=census.gov}}</ref><br />
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Multiple surveys indicate the number of uninsured fell between 2013 and 2016 due to expanded [[Medicaid]] eligibility and health insurance exchanges established due to the [[Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act]], also known as the "ACA" or "Obamacare". According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], in 2012 there were 45.6 million people in the US (14.8% of the under-65 population) who were without health insurance. This figure fell by 18.3 million (40%) to 27.3 million (8.6% of the under-65 population) by 2016.<ref name="Census_HistTable">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/health-insurance/historical-series/hic.html|title=Health Insurance Historical Tables –HIC Series|first=US Census|last=Bureau|publisher=Census}}</ref><br />
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However, under President Trump these gains in healthcare coverage have begun to reverse. The [[Commonwealth Fund]] estimated in May 2018 that the number of uninsured increased by four million from early 2016 to early 2018. The rate of those uninsured increased from 12.7% in 2016 to 15.5%. The impact was greater among lower-income adults, who had a higher uninsured rate than higher-income adults. Regionally, the South and West had higher uninsured rates than the North and East. Further, those 18 states that have not expanded Medicaid had a higher uninsured rate than those that did.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/blog/2018/apr/health-coverage-erosion |title=Commonwealth Fund – First Look at Health Insurance Coverage in 2018 Finds ACA Gains Beginning to Reverse |year=2018 |doi=10.26099/aacp-5268 |last1=Collins |first1=Sara R. |last2=Gunja |first2=Munira Z. |last3=Doty |first3=Michelle M. |last4=Bhupal |first4=Herman K. |publisher=Commonwealth Fund}}</ref><br />
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According to [[Physicians for a National Health Program]], this lack of insurance causes roughly 48,000 unnecessary deaths per year.<ref name=uninsureddeaths>{{cite web |last= Woolhandler |first= S. |date= September 12, 2012 |title= Despite slight drop in uninsured, last year's figure points to 48,000 preventable deaths |publisher= Physicians for a National Health Program |url= http://www.pnhp.org/news/2012/september/despite-slight-drop-in-uninsured-last-year%E2%80%99s-figure-points-to-48000-preventable- |access-date= September 26, 2012 |display-authors= etal |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120924021844/http://www.pnhp.org/news/2012/september/despite-slight-drop-in-uninsured-last-year%E2%80%99s-figure-points-to-48000-preventable- |archive-date=September 24, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The group's methodology has been criticized by [[John C. Goodman]] for not looking at cause of death or tracking insurance status changes over time, including the time of death.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Goodman|first=John|title=Does Lack Of Insurance Cause Premature Death?|url=https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/forefront.20090921.002196|publisher=Health Affairs|date=September 21, 2009|doi=10.1377/forefront.20090921.002196}}</ref> A 2009 study by former [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] policy adviser Richard Kronick found no increased mortality from being uninsured after certain risk factors were controlled for.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kronick|first1=Richard|title=Health Insurance Coverage and Mortality Revisited|journal=Health Services Research|date=August 2009|volume=44|issue=4|pages=1211–31|doi=10.1111/j.1475-6773.2009.00973.x|pmid=19453392|pmc=2739025}}<!--|access-date=August 15, 2014--></ref><br />
<br />
===Outcomes===<br />
The U.S. lags in overall healthcare performance but is [[Biomedical research in the United States|a global leader in medical innovation]]. America solely developed or contributed significantly to nine of the top ten most important medical innovations since 1975 as ranked by a 2001 poll of physicians, while the EU and Switzerland together contributed to five. Since 1966, Americans have received more [[List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prizes in Medicine]] than the rest of the world combined. From 1989 to 2002, four times more money was invested in private biotechnology companies in America than in Europe.<ref>{{cite news |last= Cowen |first=Tyler |title=Poor U.S. Scores in Health Care Don't Measure Nobels and Innovation |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/05/business/05scene.html?_r=1& |access-date=October 9, 2012 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=October 5, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Whitman, Glen |author2=Raad, Raymond |title=Bending the Productivity Curve: Why America Leads the World in Medical Innovation |url= http://www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/bending-productivity-curve-why-america-leads-world-medical-innovation |publisher=The Cato Institute |access-date=October 9, 2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
Of 17 high-income countries studied by the [[National Institutes of Health]] in 2013, the United States ranked at or near the top in obesity rate, frequency of automobile use and accidents, homicides, [[infant mortality]] rate, incidence of heart and lung disease, sexually transmitted infections, adolescent pregnancies, recreational drug or alcohol deaths, injuries, and rates of disability. Together, such lifestyle and societal factors place the U.S. at the bottom of that list for life expectancy. On average, a U.S. male can be expected to live almost four fewer years than those in the top-ranked country, though Americans who reach age 75 live longer than those who reach that age in peer nations.<ref name=nihbph>{{cite book|url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=13497 |title="U.S. Health in International Perspective: Shorter Lives, Poorer Health" (2013) National Institutes of Health Committee on Population, Board on Population Health and Public Health Practice |year=2013 |publisher=Books.nap.edu |doi=10.17226/13497 |pmid=24006554 |isbn=978-0-309-26414-3 |access-date=October 20, 2013|author1=National Research Council (US) |last2=Woolf |first2=S. H. |last3=Aron |first3=L. }}</ref> One consumption choice causing several of the maladies described above are cigarettes. Americans smoked 258 billion cigarettes in 2016.<ref name="CDCTobaccoFree">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/economics/econ_facts/index.htm|title=Economic Trends in Tobacco|last=CDCTobaccoFree|date=2018-05-04|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us|access-date=2019-06-03 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Cigarettes cost the United States $326{{nbs}}billion each year in direct healthcare costs ($170{{nbs}}billion) and lost productivity ($156{{nbs}}billion).<ref name="CDCTobaccoFree" /><br />
<br />
A comprehensive 2007 study by European doctors found the five-year [[cancer]] survival rate was significantly higher in the U.S. than in all 21 European nations studied, 66.3% for men versus the European mean of 47.3% and 62.9% versus 52.8% for women.<ref>{{cite news|last=Martin|first=Nicole|title=UK cancer survival rate lowest in Europe|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1560849/UK-cancer-survival-rate-lowest-in-Europe.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1560849/UK-cancer-survival-rate-lowest-in-Europe.html |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=August 19, 2013|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=August 21, 2007}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Verdecchia|first=A|author2=Francisci, S |author3=Brenner, H |author4=Gatta, G |author5=Micheli, A |author6=Mangone, L |author7=Kunkler, I |author8= EUROCARE-4 Working, Group |title=Recent cancer survival in Europe: a 2000–02 period analysis of EUROCARE-4 data|journal=The Lancet Oncology|date=September 2007|volume=8|issue=9|pages=784–96|pmid=17714993|doi=10.1016/s1470-2045(07)70246-2}}</ref> Americans undergo cancer screenings at significantly higher rates than people in other developed countries, and access [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] and [[CT scan]]s at the highest rate of any OECD nation.<ref name=Atlas>{{cite book|last=MD|first=Scott W. Atlas|title=In excellent health : setting the record straight on America's health care and charting a path for future reform|year=2011|publisher=Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University|location=Stanford, California|isbn=978-0817914448|pages=199–205|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qExi2-3m5IC}}</ref> People in the U.S. diagnosed with [[Hypercholesterolemia|high cholesterol]] or [[hypertension]] access pharmaceutical treatments at higher rates than those diagnosed in other developed nations, and are more likely to successfully control the conditions.<ref>Atlas 2011, pp. 205–07</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Wolf-Maier|first=K.|title=Hypertension Treatment and Control in Five European Countries, Canada, and the United States|journal=Hypertension|date=November 24, 2003|volume=43|issue=1|pages=10–17|doi=10.1161/01.HYP.0000103630.72812.10|pmid=14638619|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Diabetes mellitus|Diabetics]] are more likely to receive treatment and meet treatment targets in the U.S. than in Canada, England, or Scotland.<ref>Atlas 2011, pp. 150–56</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=June E. |last1=O'Neill |first2=Dave M. |last2=O'Neill |title=Health Status, Health Care and Inequality: Canada vs. the U.S |journal=Forum for Health Economics & Policy |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.2202/1558-9544.1094 |year=2008 |s2cid=73172486 |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w13429.pdf}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to a 2018 study of 2016 data by the [[Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation]], the U.S. was ranked 27th in the world for healthcare and education, down from 6th in 1990.<ref>{{cite news |last=McDonald |first=Andy |date=September 28, 2018 |title=U.S. Drops To 27th In The World For Education And Health Care|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/whelp-the-us-now-ranks-27th-in-the-world-on-education-and-healthcare_us_5bae5d02e4b0425e3c23508f|work=The Huffington Post |access-date=October 6, 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Cost===<br />
{{Further|Health care prices in the United States}}<br />
<br />
U.S. healthcare costs are considerably higher than other countries as a share of GDP, among other measures. According to the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], U.S. healthcare costs in 2015 were 16.9% GDP, over 5% GDP higher than the next most expensive OECD country.<ref name="OECD1">{{cite web| url = http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SHA| title = OECD Statistical Database{{snd}}Health expenditure and financing}}</ref> A gap of 5% GDP represents $1{{nbs}}trillion, about $3,000 per person or one-third higher relative to the next most expensive country.<ref name="CDC1">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/health-expenditures.htm|title=FastStats|date=July 18, 2017|website=cdc.gov}}</ref><br />
<br />
The high cost of health care in the United States is attributed variously to technological advance, administration costs, drug pricing, suppliers charging more for medical equipment, the receiving of more medical care than people in other countries, the high wages of doctors, government regulations, the impact of lawsuits, and third party payment systems insulating consumers from the full cost of treatments.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Conover|first1=Christopher J.|title=Health Care Regulation A $169 Billion Hidden Tax|url=http://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/pa527.pdf|publisher=Cato Institute|access-date=September 2, 2014|date=October 4, 2004}}</ref><ref name=Cutler>{{cite web|title=Why Does Health Care Cost so Much in America? Ask Harvard's David Cutler|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/making-sense/why-does-health-care-cost-so-m/|website=Public Broadcasting Service|date=November 19, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Lawler|first1=Joseph|title=Health Care Economist John Goodman on Market-Based Health Care|url=http://www.realclearpolicy.com/blog/2012/09/19/health_care_economist_john_goodman_on_health_care_markets_290.html|publisher=Real Clear Policy|access-date=September 2, 2014|date=September 19, 2012}}</ref> The lowest prices for pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and payments to physicians are in government plans. Americans tend to receive more medical care than people do in other countries, which is a notable contributor to higher costs. In the United States, a person is more likely to receive open heart surgery after a heart attack than in other countries. Medicaid pays less than Medicare for many prescription drugs due to the fact Medicaid discounts are set by law, whereas Medicare prices are negotiated by private insurers and drug companies.<ref name=Cutler /><ref>{{cite news|title=Medicaid Pays Less Than Medicare for Many Prescription Drugs, U.S. Report Finds|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/16/us/16drug.html|website=The New York Times}}</ref> Government plans often pay less than overhead, resulting in healthcare providers shifting the cost to the privately insured through higher prices.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dobson|first1=A.|last2=DaVanzo|first2=J.|last3=Sen|first3=N.|title=The Cost-Shift Payment 'Hydraulic': Foundation, History, And Implications|journal=Health Affairs|date=January 1, 2006|volume=25|issue=1|pages=22–33|doi=10.1377/hlthaff.25.1.22|pmid=16403741|doi-access=free}}<!--|access-date=September 2, 2014--></ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Pope|first1=Christopher|title=Legislating Low Prices: Cutting Costs or Care?|url=http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2013/08/legislating-low-prices-cutting-costs-or-care|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=September 2, 2014|date=August 9, 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Composition of economic sectors==<br />
{{Main|Economy of the United States by sector}}<br />
{{See also|Technological and industrial history of the United States|Manufacturing in the United States|Agriculture in the United States}}<br />
[[File:Wheat harvest.jpg|thumb|A [[wheat]] harvest in [[Idaho]]]]<br />
<br />
The United States is the world's second-largest manufacturer, with a 2013 industrial output of US$2.4{{nbs}}trillion. Its manufacturing output is greater than of Germany, France, India, and Brazil combined.<ref name="imt">{{cite web|title=Manufacturing Output by Country|url=http://news.thomasnet.com/IMT/2013/03/14/china-widens-lead-as-worlds-largest-manufacturer/|publisher=imt|access-date=April 4, 2014}}</ref><br />
Its main industries include financials, information technology, petroleum, steel, automobiles, construction machinery, aerospace, agricultural machinery, telecommunications, chemicals, electronics, food processing, consumer goods, lumber, mining and armaments.<br />
<br />
The U.S. leads the world in [[List of aircraft manufacturers|airplane manufacturing]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/aviation_worldbook.html |title=World Book at NASA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100731165241/http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/aviation_worldbook.html |archive-date=July 31, 2010 |access-date=March 5, 2022}}{{full citation needed|date=August 2010}}</ref> which represents a large portion of U.S. industrial output. American companies such as [[Boeing]], [[Cessna]] (see: [[Textron]]), [[Lockheed Martin]] (see: [[Skunk Works]]), and [[General Dynamics]] produce a majority of the world's civilian and military aircraft in factories across the United States.<br />
<br />
The manufacturing sector of the U.S. economy has experienced substantial job losses over the past several years.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/money/economy/2007-04-20-4155011268_x.htm |title=Factory jobs: 3 million lost since 2000 |author=Martin Crutsinger |date=April 20, 2007 |agency=Associated Press |work=USA Today |access-date=March 4, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://prospect.org/article/cost-free-trade |title=The Cost of Free Trade |author=Michael Lind |date=December 1, 2011 |journal=The American Prospect |access-date=March 3, 2012}}</ref> In January 2004, the number of such jobs stood at 14.3 million, down by 3.0 million jobs (17.5%) since July 2000 and about 5.2 million since the historical peak in 1979. Employment in manufacturing was its lowest since July 1950.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=5078&type=0|title=What Accounts for the Decline in Manufacturing Employment?|date=February 18, 2004|access-date=August 10, 2017}}</ref> The number of steel workers fell from 500,000 in 1980 to 224,000 in 2000.<ref>"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iOgfSDKecCcC&pg=PA4557 Congressional Record V. 148, Pt. 4, April 11, 2002 to April 24, 2002]''". [[United States Government Printing Office]].</ref><br />
[[File:Survival rate of US start-ups, 1977–2012.svg|thumb|Statistics released by the U.S. Census Bureau showed that, in 2008, the number of business 'deaths' began overtaking the number of business 'births' and that the trend continued at least through 2012.<ref>{{Cite book|title=UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|publisher=UNESCO Publishing|year=2015|isbn=978-9231001291|location=Paris|page=141|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SDHwCgAAQBAJ}}</ref>]]<br />
The U.S. produces approximately 18% of the world's manufacturing output, a share that has declined as other nations developed competitive manufacturing industries.<ref name="greyhill">{{cite web|title=Manufacturing Output by Country|url=http://greyhill.com/blog/2011/10/5/manufacturing-output-by-country.html|publisher=Greyhill Advisors|access-date=October 5, 2011}}</ref> The job loss during this continual volume growth is the result of multiple factors including increased productivity, trade, and secular economic trends.<ref>{{cite web|title=What Accounts for the Decline in Manufacturing Employment?|url=http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=5078&type=0|publisher=Congressional Budget Office|access-date=October 5, 2011}}</ref> In addition, growth in telecommunications, pharmaceuticals, aircraft, heavy machinery and other industries along with declines in low end, low skill industries such as clothing, toys, and other simple manufacturing have resulted in some U.S. jobs being more highly skilled and better paying. There has been much debate within the United States on whether the decline in manufacturing jobs are related to American unions, lower foreign wages, or both.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://prospect.org/article/back-china |title=Back from China? |author=Harold Meyerson |date=November 29, 2011 |journal=The American Prospect |access-date=March 4, 2012}}</ref><ref name="Pope_2012">{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-01-18/america-s-dirty-war-against-manufacturing-part-1-carl-pope.html |title=America's Dirty War Against Manufacturing: Part 1 |author=Carl Pope |author-link=Carl Pope (environmentalist) |date=January 18–20, 2012 |newspaper=Bloomberg |access-date=January 22, 2012}} [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-01-19/america-s-dirty-war-against-manufacturing-part-2-carl-pope.html Part 2]. [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-01-20/america-s-dirty-war-on-manufacturing-part-3-commentary-by-carl-pope.html Part 3].</ref><ref name="btb 22.01.2012">{{cite web |url=http://www.cepr.net/index.php/blogs/beat-the-press/hasnt-anyone-at-the-nyt-heard-of-exchange-rates |title=Hasn't Anyone at the NYT Heard of Exchange Rates? |author=Dean Baker |author-link=Dean Baker |date=January 22, 2012 |work=Beat the Press |publisher=Center for Economic and Policy Research |access-date=January 22, 2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
Products include [[Wheat production in the United States|wheat]], corn, other [[Food grain|grains]], fruits, vegetables, [[Cotton production in the United States|cotton]]; beef, pork, poultry, dairy products, [[forest products]], and fish.<br />
<br />
==Energy, transportation, and telecommunications==<br />
{{Main|Energy in the United States|Transportation in the United States|Internet in the United States}}<br />
[[File:Map of current Interstates.svg|thumb|The [[Interstate Highway System]] extends {{convert|46876|mi|km}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Interstate FAQ (Question #3) |publisher=Federal Highway Administration |year=2006 |url=http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/faq.htm#question3 |access-date=March 4, 2009}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:Houston Ship Channel Barbours Cut.jpg|thumb|The [[Port of Houston]], one of the largest ports in the United States]]<br />
<br />
===Transportation===<br />
====Road====<br />
The U.S. economy is heavily dependent on road transport for moving people and goods. Personal transportation is dominated by automobiles, which operate on a network of four million miles (6.4 million km) of public roads,<ref>{{cite web|title=Public Road and Street Mileage in the United States by Type of Surface|url=http://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_01_04.html|website=United States Department of Transportation|access-date=January 13, 2015|archive-date=January 2, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102141414/http://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_01_04.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> including one of the world's [[National Highway System (United States)|longest highway systems]] at 57,000 miles (91,700{{nbs}}km).<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.newgeography.com/content/002003-china-expressway-system-exceed-us-interstates |title=China Expressway System to Exceed US Interstates |work=New Geography |location =Grand Forks, ND |date=January 22, 2011 |access-date=September 16, 2011}}</ref> The world's second-largest automobile market,<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/jan/08/china-us-car-sales-overtakes |title=China overtakes US in car sales |newspaper=The Guardian |date=January 8, 2010 |access-date=July 10, 2011 |location=London}}</ref> the United States has the highest rate of per-capita vehicle ownership in the world, with 765 vehicles per 1,000 Americans.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/tra_mot_veh-transportation-motor-vehicles |title=Motor vehicles statistics – countries compared worldwide |publisher=NationMaster |access-date=July 10, 2011}}</ref> About 40% of [[Passenger vehicles in the United States|personal vehicles]] are vans, [[Sport utility vehicle|SUVs]], or light trucks.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.bts.gov/publications/highlights_of_the_2001_national_household_travel_survey/html/section_01.html|title= Household, Individual, and Vehicle Characteristics|publisher= U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics|work= 2001 National Household Travel Survey|access-date= August 15, 2007|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070929125403/http://www.bts.gov/publications/highlights_of_the_2001_national_household_travel_survey/html/section_01.html |archive-date=September 29, 2007|url-status= dead|df= mdy-all}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Rail====<br />
[[Mass transit in the United States|Mass transit accounts for 9% of total U.S. work trips]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.policy.rutgers.edu/vtc/documents/TOD.Euro-Style_Planning-Renne-Wells.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924071956/http://www.policy.rutgers.edu/vtc/documents/TOD.Euro-Style_Planning-Renne-Wells.pdf |author1=Renne, John L. |author2=Wells, Jan S. |title= Emerging European-Style Planning in the United States: Transit-Oriented Development |page=2 |year=2003 |publisher = Rutgers University |access-date=June 11, 2007|archive-date=September 24, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://switchboard.nrdc.org/blogs/kbenfield/natgeo_surveys_countries_trans.html|title=NatGeo surveys countries' transit use: guess who comes in last|last=Benfield|first=Kaid|publisher=Natural Resources Defense Council|date=May 18, 2009|access-date=January 6, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120234533/http://switchboard.nrdc.org/blogs/kbenfield/natgeo_surveys_countries_trans.html|archive-date=January 20, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref> [[Rail transportation in the United States|Transport of goods by rail]] is extensive, though relatively low numbers of passengers (approximately 31 million annually) use intercity rail to travel, partially due to the low population density throughout much of the nation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-07-15 |title= Intercity Passenger Rail: National Policy and Strategies Needed to Maximize Public Benefits from Federal Expenditures |date=November 13, 2006 |publisher=U.S. Government Accountability Office |access-date=June 20, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2013/08/economist-explains-18 |title=The Economist Explains: Why Americans Don't Ride Trains |date=August 29, 2013 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |access-date=May 12, 2015}}</ref> However, ridership on [[Amtrak]], the national intercity passenger rail system, grew by almost 37% between 2000 and 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=Amtrak Ridership Records |url= http://www.amtrak.com/servlet/BlobServer?blobcol=urldata&blobtable=MungoBlobs&blobkey=id&blobwhere=1249227805921&blobheader=application%2Fpdf&blobhead |publisher=Amtrak |date=June 8, 2011|access-date=February 29, 2012}}</ref> Also, [[Light rail in the United States|light rail development]] has increased in recent years.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.metaefficient.com/trains/master-2.html |title=3 Reasons Light Rail Is an Efficient Transportation Option for U.S. Cities |author=McGill, Tracy |work= MetaEfficient |date=January 1, 2011 |access-date=June 14, 2013}}</ref> The state of [[California]] is currently constructing the nation's first [[California High-Speed Rail|high-speed rail system]].<br />
<br />
====Airline====<br />
The [[List of airlines of the United States|civil airline industry]] is entirely privately owned and has been largely [[Airline Deregulation Act|deregulated since 1978]], while [[List of airports in the United States|most major airports]] are publicly owned.<ref>{{cite web|title=Privatization|url=http://www.downsizinggovernment.org/privatization|website=downsizinggovernment.org|publisher=Cato Institute|access-date=December 27, 2014}}</ref> The three largest airlines in the world by passengers carried are U.S.-based; [[American Airlines]] is number one after its 2013 acquisition by U.S. [[US Airways|Airways]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.iata.org/publications/pages/wats-passenger-carried.aspx|title= Scheduled Passengers Carried|publisher= International Air Transport Association (IATA)|year= 2011|access-date= February 17, 2012|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131113175503/http://www.iata.org/publications/pages/wats-passenger-carried.aspx|archive-date= November 13, 2013 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Of the world's thirty busiest passenger airports, twelve are in the United States, including the busiest, [[Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport]].<ref>{{cite web |url =http://www.aci.aero/News/Releases/Most-Recent/2014/03/31/Preliminary-World-Airport-Traffic-and-Rankings-2013--High-Growth-Dubai-Moves-Up-to-7th-Busiest-Airport- |title =Preliminary World Airport Traffic and Rankings 2013 – High Growth Dubai Moves Up to 7th Busiest Airport – March 31, 2014 |publisher=Airports Council International |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401052319/http://www.aci.aero/News/Releases/Most-Recent/2014/03/31/Preliminary-World-Airport-Traffic-and-Rankings-2013--High-Growth-Dubai-Moves-Up-to-7th-Busiest-Airport- |archive-date=April 1, 2014 |date=March 31, 2014 |access-date=May 17, 2014 |url-status= live}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Energy===<br />
[[File:Countries by Natural Gas Proven Reserves (2014).svg|thumb|Countries by [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|natural gas proven reserves]] (2014). The U.S. holds the world's fourth largest [[natural gas]] reserves.]]<br />
The US is the second-largest [[energy development|energy]] consumer in total use.<ref>{{cite web|last=Barr |first=Robert |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/43327793 |title=China surpasses US as top energy consumer – Business – Oil & energy – NBC News |work=NBC News |access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref> The U.S. ranks seventh in energy consumption per capita after Canada and a number of other countries.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061013182222/http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/tablee1c.xls World Per Capita Total Primary Energy Consumption,1980–2005] (MS Excel format)</ref><ref>World Resources Institute "[https://web.archive.org/web/20041212020102/http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/energy-resources/variable-351.html Energy Consumption: Consumption per capita]" (2001). Nations with higher per-capita consumption are: Qatar, Iceland, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Luxembourg and Canada. Except for Canada, these are small countries with a prominent energy-intensive industry such as oil refining or [[steelmaking]].</ref> The majority of this energy is derived from [[fossil fuel]]s: in 2005, it was estimated that 40% of the nation's energy came from petroleum, 23% [[Coal power in the United States|from coal]], and 23% from natural gas. [[Nuclear power]] supplied 8.4% and [[renewable energy]] supplied 6.8%, which was mainly from hydroelectric dams although other renewables are included.<ref>US Dept. of Energy, "[http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/pdf/pages/sec1_3.pdf Annual Energy Report]" (July 2006), Energy Flow diagram</ref><br />
<br />
American dependence on [[List of countries by oil imports|oil imports]] grew from 24% in 1970 to 65% by the end of 2005.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/home/energyspecial/2005/11/15/energy-oil-exxonmobil-cx_pt_1116energy_tertzakian.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060214225748/http://www.forbes.com/home/energyspecial/2005/11/15/energy-oil-exxonmobil-cx_pt_1116energy_tertzakian.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 14, 2006 |title=The U.S. Senate's Oil Spill |work=Forbes |date=November 15, 2005 |access-date=April 21, 2012 |first=Peter |last=Tertzakian}}</ref> [[Transportation in the United States|Transportation]] has the highest [[Oil consumption|consumption rates]], accounting for approximately 69% of the oil used in the United States in 2006,<ref name="btstable4-3">{{cite web |url=http://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_04_03.html |title=Domestic Demand for Refined Petroleum Products by Sector |publisher=U.S. [[Bureau of Transportation Statistics]] |access-date=August 23, 2014}}</ref> and 55% of oil use worldwide as documented in the [[Hirsch report]].<br />
<br />
In 2013, the United States imported 2.808 billion barrels of [[crude oil]], compared to 3.377 billion barrels in 2010.<ref>"[https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/historical/petr.txt U.S. Imports of Crude Oil]". U.S. Census Bureau.</ref> While the U.S. is the largest importer of fuel, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' reported in 2011 that the country was about to become a net fuel exporter for the first time in 62 years. The paper reported expectations that this would continue until 2020.<ref>{{cite news|last=Pleven |first=Liam |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203441704577068670488306242 |title=The Wall Street Journal |date=November 30, 2011 |access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref> In fact, petroleum was the major export from the country in 2011.<ref>{{Cite news | first=Chris | last=Kahn | title=In a first, gas and other fuels top U.S. exports | url=http://www.floridatoday.com/usatoday/article/52298812?odyssey=mod_sectionstories | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311011059/http://www.floridatoday.com/usatoday/article/52298812?odyssey=mod_sectionstories | archive-date=March 11, 2012| newspaper=[[Florida Today]] | location=Melbourne, FL | page= 4A | date=December 31, 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Telecommunications===<br />
<br />
The [[Internet]] was developed in the U.S. and the country hosts many of the world's largest hubs.<ref>[http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_ipto.htm "IPTO – Information Processing Techniques Office"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702210822/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_ipto.htm |date=July 2, 2014}}, ''The Living Internet'', Bill Stewart (ed), January 2000.</ref><br />
<br />
==International trade==<br />
{{Main|Foreign trade of the United States|List of tariffs in the United States|Tariff in United States history}}<br />
{{See also|List of exports of the United States|List of the largest trading partners of the United States|List of imports of the United States|List of U.S. states and territories by exports and imports}}<br />
[[File:Protectionist measures taken 2008–2013 according to Global Trade Alert.png|thumb|[[Protectionist]] measures since 2008 by country<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globaltradealert.org/|title=Global Trade Alert – Independent monitoring of policies that affect world trade|work=globaltradealert.org}}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
The United States is the world's second-largest trading nation.<ref>{{cite news|title=China overtakes US as world's largest goods trader|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7c2dbd70-79a6-11e3-b381-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2q8OrFdV3 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/vEBs4 |archive-date=December 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=Financial Times|access-date=January 10, 2014}}</ref> There is a large amount of U.S. dollars in circulation all around the planet; about 60% of funds used in international trade are U.S. dollars. The dollar is also used as the standard unit of currency in international markets for commodities such as gold and petroleum.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21553424|title=Free exchange: Petrodollar profusion |newspaper=The Economist}}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[North American Free Trade Agreement]], or [[NAFTA]], created one of the [[Trade bloc#Most active regional blocs|largest trade blocs in the world]] in 1994.<ref>{{cite web |title=North American Free Trade Agreement {{!}} History, Purpose, & Provisions |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/North-American-Free-Trade-Agreement |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=March 24, 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) {{!}} United States Trade Representative |url=https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta |website=ustr.gov |access-date=March 24, 2020}}</ref><br />
<br />
Since 1976, the U.S. has sustained merchandise trade deficits with other nations, and since 1982, [[current account deficit]]s. The nation's long-standing surplus in its [[trade in services]] was maintained, however, and reached a record US$231{{nbs}}billion in 2013.<ref name="Exports-Imports">{{cite web |url=https://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/international/trade/2015/pdf/trad1214.pdf|title=U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services|publisher=BEA|date=February 5, 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
The U.S. [[trade deficit]] increased from $502{{nbs}}billion in 2016 to $552{{nbs}}billion in 2017, an increase of $50{{nbs}}billion or 10%.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?graph_id=474908&rn=8252| title = FRED – Trade Balance, Goods and Services, Balance of Payments Basis| date = January 1992}}</ref> During 2017, total imports were $2.90{{nbs}}trillion, while exports were $2.35{{nbs}}trillion. The net deficit in goods was $807{{nbs}}billion, while the net surplus in services was $255{{nbs}}billion.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/historical/index.html| title = U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services{{snd}}Historical Series}}</ref><br />
<br />
Americas ten [[List of the largest trading partners of the United States|largest trading partners]] are China, Canada, Mexico, Japan, Germany, South Korea, United Kingdom, France, India and Taiwan.<ref name="auto" /> The goods trade deficit with China rose from $347{{nbs}}billion in 2016 to $376{{nbs}}billion in 2017, an increase of $30{{nbs}}billion or 8%. In 2017, the U.S. had a goods trade deficit of $71{{nbs}}billion with Mexico and $17{{nbs}}billion with Canada.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/index.html| title = Census – Foreign Trade – Balance by Partner Country}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to the [[globalization index|KOF index of globalization]]{{clarify|reason=What is "KOF"?|date=February 2023}} and the [[globalization index]] by A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Magazine, the U.S. has a relatively high degree of [[globalization]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2023}} U.S. workers send a third of all [[remittances]] in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.finfacts.com/irelandbusinessnews/publish/article_10001284.shtml |title=IMF: US accounts for one-third of annual remittances to Developing Countries of $100bn |publisher=Finfacts.com |access-date=April 21, 2012}}{{subst:dead link}}</ref><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!colspan="10"|<big> Balance of trade 2014 (goods only)</big><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/balance-of-goods-us-trading-partners-from-goldman-sachs-2017-5|title=This chart shows how America stacks up in trade with everyone in the world|website=Business Insider|access-date=2018-03-20 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
! !! China !! Euro area !! Japan !! Mexico !! Pacific !! Canada !! Middle East !! Latin America !! style="background: #91A3B0"| Total by product<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Computer''' || style="background: #FA6E79"| −151.9 || 3.4 || −8.0 || −11.0 ||style="background: #FA6E79"| −26.1 || style="background: #A4C639"| 20.9 || 5.8 || 12.1 || style="background: red"| {{center|'''−155.0'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Oil, gas, minerals''' || 1.9 || 6.4 || 2.4 || style="background: #FA6E79"| −20.8 || 1.1 || style="background: #FA6E79"|−79.8 || style="background: #FA6E79"|−45.1 || style="background: #FA6E79"|−15.9 || style="background: red"| {{center|'''−149.7'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Transportation''' || 10.9 || style="background: #FA6E79"|−30.9 || style="background: #FA6E79"| −46.2 || style="background: #FA6E79"| −59.5 || −0.5 || −6.1 || style="background: #A4C639"| 17.1 || 8.8 ||style="background: red"| {{center|'''−106.3'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Apparel''' || style="background: #FA6E79"| −56.3 || −4.9 || 0.6 || −4.2 || −6.3 || 2.5 || −0.3 || −1.1 ||style="background: red"| {{center|'''−69.9'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Electrical equipment''' || style="background: #FA6E79"| −35.9 || −2.4 || −4.0 || −8.5 || −3.3 || 10.0 || 1.8 || 2.0 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−40.4'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Misc. manufacturing''' || style="background: #FA6E79"| −35.3 || 4.9 || 2.7 || −2.8 || −1.4 || 5.8 || −1.5 || 1.8 || style="background: red"| {{center|'''−25.8'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Furniture''' ||style="background: #FA6E79"|−18.3 || −1.2 || 0.0 || −1.6 || −2.1 || 0.4 || 0.2 || 0.0 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−22.6'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Machinery''' ||style="background: #FA6E79"|−19.9 || style="background: #FA6E79"| −27.0 || style="background: #FA6E79"| −18.8 || 3.9 || 7.6 || style="background: #A4C639"| 18.1 || 4.5 || 9.1 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−22.4'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Primary metals''' || −3.1 || 3.1 || −1.8 || 1.0 || 1.9 || −8.9 || −0.9 || −10.4 ||style="background: red"| {{center|'''−19.1'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Fabricated metals''' || style="background: #FA6E79"|−17.9 || −5.9 || −3.5 || 2.8 || −4.3 || 7.3 || 1.2 || 1.9 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−18.5'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Plastics''' || style="background: #FA6E79"| −15.7 || −1.9 || −2.0 || 5.7 || −4.1 || 2.6 || −0.1 || 0.5 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−15.0'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Textile''' || −12.3 || −1.1 || −0.3 || 2.8 || −4.6 || 1.5 || −0.9 || 0.2 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−14.7'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Beverages, tobacco''' || 1.3 || −9.9 || 0.6 || −3.3 || 0.0 || 1.0 || 0.2 || −0.6 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−10.6'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Nonmetallic minerals''' || −6.1 || −1.9 || −0.4 || −1.2 || 0.1 || 1.9 || −0.5 || −0.8 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−8.9'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Paper''' || −2.7 || 1.2 || 1.1 || 4.3 || 1.2 || −9.8 || 0.9 || −1.9 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−5.8'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Chemical''' || −3.9 || style="background: #FA6E79"| −39.5 || −1.5 || style="background: #A4C639"| 19.1 || 3.2 || 4.6 || −2.4 ||style="background: #A4C639"| 15.8 || style="background: red"|{{center|'''−4.7'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Food''' || 0.7 || −3.6 || 6.1 || 4.9 || 0.9 || 0.1 || 1.4 || −1.1 || style="background: green"|{{center|'''9.5'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Agriculture''' || style="background: #A4C639"| 17.8 || 6.2 || 7.3 || −3.0 || 5.7 || −0.8|| 2.8 || −6.5 || style="background: green"|{{center|'''29.5'''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #91A3B0"| '''Petroleum''' || 0.6 || −1.2 || 0.1 ||style="background: #A4C639"| 16.6 || −2.0 || −0.1 || 0.6 || style="background: #A4C639"| 18.3 || style="background: green"|{{center|'''32.9'''}}<br />
|-<br />
! Total by country/area || style="background: red"| −346.1 || style="background: red"| −106.1 || style="background: red"|−65.6 || style="background: red"| −54.9 || style="background: red"| −33.0 || style="background: red"| −29.0 || style="background: red"| −15.1 ||style="background: green"| 32.3 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Financial position==<br />
<br />
{{Main|Financial position of the United States}}<br />
U.S. household and non-profit net worth exceeded $100{{nbs}}trillion for the first time in Q1 2018; it has been setting records since Q4 2012.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/TNWBSHNO| title = FRED – Household and Non-Profit Net Worth| date = October 1945}}</ref> The U.S. federal government or "national debt" was $21.1{{nbs}}trillion in May 2018, just over 100% GDP.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.treasurydirect.gov/govt/reports/pd/mspd/mspd.htm| title = Treasury Direct – Monthly Statement of the Public Debt}}</ref> Using a subset of the national debt called "debt held by the public", U.S. debt was approximately 77% GDP in 2017. By this measure, the U.S. ranked 43rd highest among 2017 nations.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/| title = CIA World Factbook – USA| date = February 16, 2022}}</ref> Debt held by the public rose considerably as a result of the [[Great Recession]] and its aftermath. It is expected to continue rising as the country ages towards 100% GDP by 2028.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cbo.gov/publication/53651| title = CBO. Budget & Economic Outlook 2018–2028| date = April 9, 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[U.S. public debt]] was $909{{nbs}}billion in 1980, an amount equal to 33% of America's gross domestic product (GDP); by 1990, that number had more than tripled to $3.2{{nbs}}trillion{{snd}}56% of GDP.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100201131532/http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/fy2010/assets/hist.pdf FY 2010 Budget Historical Tables. pp. 127–28].</ref> In 2001 the national debt was $5.7{{nbs}}trillion; however, the [[debt-to-GDP ratio]] remained at 1990 levels.<ref>"[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article742188.ece US spends its way to 28 Eiffel towers: made out of pure gold]". ''The Times''. March 17, 2006.</ref> Debt levels rose quickly in the following decade, and on January 28, 2010, the U.S. debt ceiling was raised to $14.3{{nbs}}trillion.<ref>"[https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE60R5DK20100128?type=politicsNews Senate backs increase in debt limit to $14.3{{nbs}}trillion]". Reuters. January 28, 2010.</ref> Based on the 2010 [[United States federal budget]], total national debt will grow to nearly 100% of GDP, versus a level of approximately 80% in early 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy10/pdf/summary.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010084418/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy10/pdf/summary.pdf|archive-date=October 10, 2011 |title=2010 Budget-Summary Tables S-13 and S-14 |access-date=July 21, 2014}}</ref> The White House estimates that the government's tab for servicing the debt will exceed $700{{nbs}}billion a year in 2019,<ref>"[http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/12/15/2771641.htm?site=thedrum Debt has become America's life blood]". Abc.net.au. December 15, 2009.</ref> up from $202{{nbs}}billion in 2009.<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/23/business/23rates.html?_r=1 Wave of Debt Payments Facing US Government]". ''The New York Times''. November 22, 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
The U.S. Treasury statistics indicate that, at the end of 2006, non-US citizens and institutions held 44% of federal debt held by the public.<ref>"[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy08/pdf/spec.pdf Analytical Perspectives of the FY 2008 Budget] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107153657/http://www.gpoaccess.gov//usbudget/fy08/pdf/spec.pdf |date=January 7, 2010}}".</ref> {{As of|2014}}, China, holding $1.26{{nbs}}trillion in [[treasury bond]]s, is the largest foreign financier of the U.S. public debt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.treasury.gov/ticdata/Publish/mfh.txt|title=Major Foreign Holders of Treasury Securities|date=July 2014|publisher=United States Department of the Treasury|access-date=August 23, 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017031710/http://www.treasury.gov/ticdata/Publish/mfh.txt|archive-date=October 17, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
<br />
The overall financial position of the United States as of 2014 includes $269.6{{nbs}}trillion of assets owned by households, businesses, and governments within its borders, representing more than 15.7 times the annual gross domestic product of the United States. Debts owed during this same period amounted to $145.8{{nbs}}trillion, about 8.5 times the annual gross domestic product.<ref name="2014Q1flowoffunds"><br />
{{cite web<br />
|url = http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/z1/current/z1.pdf<br />
|title = Z.1 Financial Accounts of the United States – Flow of Funds, Balance Sheets, and Integrated Macroeconomic Accounts – First Quarter 2014<br />
|author = Federal Reserve<br />
|date = 2014-06-05<br />
|access-date = July 3, 2010<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100702134328/http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/Z1/current/z1.pdf<br />
|archive-date = July 2, 2010<br />
|url-status = dead<br />
|df = mdy-all<br />
|author-link = Federal Reserve<br />
}}</ref><ref name="2005to2013flowoffunds"><br />
{{cite web<br />
|url = http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/z1/current/annuals/a2005-2013.pdf<br />
|title = Z.1 Financial Accounts of the United States – Flow of Funds, Balance Sheets, and Integrated Macroeconomic Accounts – Historical Annual Tables 2005–2013<br />
|author = Federal Reserve<br />
|date = 2014-06-05<br />
|url-status = dead<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140813015931/http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/z1/Current/annuals/a2005-2013.pdf<br />
|archive-date = August 13, 2014<br />
|df = mdy-all<br />
|author-link = Federal Reserve<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
Since 2010, the U.S. Treasury has been obtaining [[negative real interest rate]]s on government debt.<ref>Saint Louis Federal Reserve (2012) [http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/DFII5 "5-Year Treasury Inflation-Indexed Security, Constant Maturity"] FRED Economic Data chart from government debt auctions (the x-axis at y=0 represents the inflation rate over the life of the security)</ref> Such low rates, outpaced by the [[inflation]] rate, occur when the market believes that there are no alternatives with sufficiently low risk, or when popular institutional investments such as insurance companies, [[pension]]s, or bond, money market, and balanced [[mutual fund]]s are required or choose to invest sufficiently large sums in Treasury securities to hedge against risk.<ref name="liquidation" /><ref>David Wessel (August 8, 2012) [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390444900304577577192417116440 "When Interest Rates Turn Upside Down"] ''The Wall Street Journal'' ([http://www.htisec.com/en/research/shownews.jsp?newsType=DJ&newsid=c-20120808DN019794 full text] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120020448/http://www.htisec.com/en/research/shownews.jsp?newsType=DJ&newsid=c-20120808DN019794 |date=January 20, 2013}})</ref> American economist [[Lawrence Summers]] argues that at such low rates, government debt borrowing saves taxpayer money, and improves creditworthiness.<ref>Lawrence Summers (June 3, 2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20120605042224/http://blogs.reuters.com/lawrencesummers/2012/06/03/breaking-the-negative-feedback-loop/ "Breaking the negative feedback loop"] ''Reuters''</ref><br />
<br />
In the late 1940s through the early 1970s, the US and UK both reduced their debt burden by about 30% to 40% of GDP per decade by taking advantage of negative real interest rates, but there is no guarantee that government debt rates will continue to stay so low.<ref name="liquidation">Carmen M. Reinhart and M. Belen Sbrancia (March 2011) [http://www.imf.org/external/np/seminars/eng/2011/res2/pdf/crbs.pdf "The Liquidation of Government Debt"] National Bureau of Economic Research working paper No. 16893</ref><ref>William H. Gross (May 2, 2011) [http://www.pimco.com/EN/insights/pages/the-caine-mutiny-part-2.aspx "The Caine Mutiny (Part 2)"] ''PIMCO Investment Outlook''</ref> In January 2012, the U.S. Treasury Borrowing Advisory Committee of the Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association unanimously recommended that government debt be allowed to auction even lower, at negative absolute interest rates.<ref>U.S. Treasury (January 31, 2012) [http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1404.aspx "Minutes of the Meeting of the Treasury Borrowing Advisory Committee of the Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association"]</ref><br />
<br />
==Currency and central bank==<br />
{{Main|United States dollar|Federal Reserve}}<br />
[[File:Marriner S. Eccles Federal Reserve Board Building.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Federal Reserve]] is the central banking system of the United States.]]<br />
<br />
The United States dollar is the unit of currency of the United States. The U.S. dollar is the currency most used in international transactions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/pf/pdf/pf_4.pdf |title=The Implementation of Monetary Policy – The Federal Reserve in the International Sphere |access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref> Several countries [[Dollarization|use it as their official currency]], and in many others it is the [[de facto currency]].<ref>Benjamin J. Cohen, ''The Future of Money'', Princeton University Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0691116660}}; ''cf.'' "the dollar is the de facto currency in Cambodia", Charles Agar, ''Frommer's Vietnam'', 2006, {{ISBN|0471798169}}, p. 17</ref><br />
<br />
The federal government attempts to use both [[monetary policy]] (control of the money supply through mechanisms such as changes in interest rates) and [[fiscal policy]] (taxes and spending) to maintain low inflation, high economic growth, and low unemployment. A private [[central bank]], known as the [[Federal Reserve]], was formed in 1913 to provide a stable currency and [[monetary policy]]. The U.S. dollar has been regarded as one of the more stable currencies in the world and many nations back their own currency with U.S. dollar reserves.<ref name="federalreserve.gov" /><ref name="Benjamin J. Cohen 2006, p. 17" /><br />
<br />
The U.S. dollar has maintained its position as the world's primary reserve currency, although it is gradually being challenged in that role.<ref>"[https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/thereporters/stephanieflanders/2009/01/biggest_game_in_town.html Biggest game in town]". BBC News. January 29, 2009.</ref> Almost two thirds of currency reserves held around the world are held in U.S. dollars, compared to around 25% for the next most popular currency, the [[euro]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/np/sta/cofer/eng/cofer.pdf |title=Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves (COFER) – June 30, 2011 |access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref> Rising U.S. national debt and [[quantitative easing]] has caused some to predict that the U.S. dollar will lose its status as the world's reserve currency; however, these predictions have not yet come to fruition.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://money.cnn.com/2011/02/10/markets/dollar/index.htm | title=IMF calls for dollar alternative | publisher=CNN |date=February 10, 2011 |access-date=March 28, 2012 | author=Rooney, Ben}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Corruption==<br />
{{Main|Corruption in the United States}}<br />
In 2019, the United States was ranked 23rd on the [[Transparency International]] [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] with a score of 69 out of 100.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.transparency.org/cpi2019|title=2019 - Cpi}}</ref><br />
This is a decrease from its score in 2018 which was 71 out of 100.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.transparency.org/cpi2018|title=2018 - Cpi}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Law and government==<br />
The United States ranked 4th in the [[ease of doing business index]] in 2012, 18th in the [[Economic Freedom of the World]] index by the [[Fraser Institute]] in 2012, 10th in the [[Index of Economic Freedom]] by ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' and [[The Heritage Foundation]] in 2012, 15th in the 2014 [[Global Enabling Trade Report]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Enabling Trade Index 2014|url=http://widgets.weforum.org/global-enabling-trade-report-2014/|website=World Economic Forum}}</ref> and 3rd on the [[Global Competitiveness Report]].<ref>{{cite web|title=2014 Global Competitiveness Report|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2014-15.pdf}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to the 2014 [[Index of Economic Freedom]], released by ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' and [[The Heritage Foundation]], the U.S. has dropped out of the top ten most economically free countries. The U.S. has been on a steady seven-year economic freedom decline and is the only country to do so.<ref name="US economic freedom">{{cite web|title=2014 Index of Economic Freedom – United States|url=http://www.heritage.org/index/country/unitedstates|publisher=Heritage Foundation|access-date=January 14, 2014}}</ref> The index measures each nation's commitment to free enterprise on a scale of 0 to 100. Countries losing economic freedom and receiving low index scores are at risk of economic stagnation, high unemployment rates, and diminishing social conditions.<ref name="wsj miller">{{cite news|last=Terry|first=Miller|title=America's Dwindling Economic Freedom Regulation, taxes and debt knock the U.S. out of the world's top 10|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702303848104579308811265028066?mg=reno64-wsj&url=http%3A%2F%2Fonline.wsj.com%2Farticle%2FSB10001424052702303848104579308811265028066.html|access-date=January 14, 2014|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=January 13, 2014}}</ref><ref name="Index of economic freedom">{{cite web|title=2014 Index of Economic Freedom|url=http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking|publisher=Heritage Foundation|access-date=January 14, 2014}}</ref> The 2014 Index of Economic Freedom gave the United States a score of 75.5 and is listed as the twelfth-freest economy in world. It dropped two rankings and its score is half a point lower than in 2013.<ref name="US economic freedom" /><br />
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===Regulations===<br />
<br />
{{Main|United States administrative law}}<br />
[[File:BankingCrises.svg|thumb|Number of countries having a banking crisis in each year since 1800. This is based on ''This Time is Different: Eight Centuries of Financial Folly''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reinhartandrogoff.com/|title=This Time is Different |author1=Carmen M. Reinhart|author2=Kenneth S. Rogoff|publisher=Anchor Media Works|website=reinhartandrogoff.com}}</ref> which covers only seventy countries. The general upward trend might be attributed to many factors. One of these is a gradual increase in the percent of people who receive money for their labor. The dramatic feature of this graph is the virtual absence of banking crises during the period of the [[Bretton Woods agreement]], 1945 to 1971. This analysis is similar to Figure 10.1 in Reinhart and Rogoff (2009). For more details see the help file for "bankingCrises" in the Ecdat package available from the [[R (programming language)|Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN).]] ]]<br />
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The [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]] regulates private enterprise in numerous ways. Regulation falls into two general categories.<br />
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Some efforts seek, either directly or indirectly, to control prices. Traditionally, the government has sought to create state-regulated [[monopoly|monopolies]] such as electric utilities while allowing prices in the level that would ensure them normal profits. At times, the government has extended economic control to other kinds of industries as well. In the years following the Great Depression, it devised a complex system to stabilize prices for agricultural goods, which tend to fluctuate wildly in response to rapidly changing supply and demand. A number of other industries—trucking and, later, airlines—successfully sought regulation themselves to limit what they considered as harmful price-cutting, a process called [[regulatory capture]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Regulation and Control in the U.S. Economy: About.com</ref><br />
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Another form of economic regulation, [[Competition law|antitrust law]], seeks to strengthen market forces so that direct regulation is unnecessary. The government—and, sometimes, private parties—have used antitrust law to prohibit practices or mergers that would unduly limit competition.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><br />
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[[Bank regulation in the United States]] is highly fragmented compared to other [[Group of Ten (economic)|G10]] countries where most countries have only one bank regulator. In the U.S., banking is regulated at both the federal and state level. The U.S. also has one of the most highly regulated banking environments in the world; however, many of the regulations are not soundness related, but are instead focused on privacy, disclosure, fraud prevention, anti-money laundering, anti-terrorism, anti-[[usury]] lending, and promoting lending to lower-income segments.<br />
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Since the 1970s, government has also exercised control over private companies to achieve social goals, such as improving the public's health and safety or maintaining a healthy environment. For example, the [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] provides and enforces standards for workplace safety, and the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] provides standards and regulations to maintain air, water, and land resources. The U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] regulates what drugs may reach the market, and also provides standards of disclosure for food products.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><br />
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American attitudes about regulation changed substantially during the final three decades of the 20th century. Beginning in the 1970s, policy makers grew increasingly convinced that economic regulation protected companies at the expense of consumers in industries such as airlines and trucking. At the same time, technological changes spawned new competitors in some industries, such as telecommunications, that once were considered natural monopolies. Both developments led to a succession of laws easing regulation.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><br />
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While leaders of America's two most influential political parties generally favored economic [[deregulation]] during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, there was less agreement concerning regulations designed to achieve social goals. Social regulation had assumed growing importance in the years following the Depression and World War II, and again in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1980s, the government relaxed labor, consumer and [[Environmental policy of the United States|environmental rules]] based on the idea that such regulation interfered with [[free enterprise]], increased the costs of doing business, and thus contributed to inflation. The response to such changes is mixed; many Americans continued to voice concerns about specific events or trends, prompting the government to issue new regulations in some areas, including environmental protection.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><br />
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Where legislative channels have been unresponsive, some citizens have turned to the courts to address social issues more quickly. For instance, in the 1990s, individuals, and eventually the government itself, sued tobacco companies over the health risks of cigarette smoking. The 1998 [[Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement]] provided states with long-term payments to cover medical costs to treat smoking-related illnesses.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><br />
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Between 2000 and 2008, economic regulation in the United States saw the most rapid expansion since the early 1970s. The number of new pages in the Federal Registry, a proxy for economic regulation, rose from 64,438 new pages in 2001 to 78,090 in new pages in 2007, a record amount of regulation. Economically significant regulations, defined as regulations which cost more than $100{{nbs}}million a year, increased by 70%. Spending on regulation increased by 62% from $26.4{{nbs}}billion to $42.7{{nbs}}billion.<ref name="bushregulation">{{cite magazine|title=Bush's Regulatory Kiss-Off – Obama's assertions to the contrary, the 43rd president was the biggest regulator since Nixon|url=http://www.reason.com/news/show/130328.html|magazine=Reason magazine|date=January 2009|access-date=February 12, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902085717/http://www.reason.com/news/show/130328.html|archive-date=September 2, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
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===Taxation===<br />
{{Main|Taxation in the United States}}<br />
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[[Taxation in the United States]] is a complex system which may involve payment to at least four different levels of government and many methods of taxation. Taxes are levied by the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]], by the [[State governments of the United States|state governments]], and often by [[Local government in the United States|local governments]], which may include [[Counties of the United States|counties]], municipalities, [[Township (United States)|township]], [[school district]]s, and other [[Special district (United States)|special-purpose districts]], which include fire, utility, and transit districts.<ref>{{cite news |title=America's Aversion to Taxes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/15/business/economy/slipping-behind-because-of-an-aversion-to-taxes.html?_r=1&src=recg |quote=In 1965, taxes collected by federal, state and municipal governments amounted to 24.7 percent of the nation's output. In 2010, they amounted to 24.8 percent. Excluding Chile and Mexico, the United States raises less tax revenue, as a share of the economy, than every other industrial country. |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=August 14, 2012 |access-date=August 15, 2012 |first=Eduardo |last=Porter}}</ref><br />
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Forms of taxation include taxes on [[Income tax in the United States|income]], [[Property tax in the United States|property]], [[Sales tax in the United States|sales]], imports, payroll, estates and gifts, as well as various fees. When taxation by all government levels taken into consideration, the [[List of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP|total taxation as percentage of GDP]] was approximately a quarter of GDP in 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/index/country/unitedstates |title=Index of Economic Freedom: United States |publisher=Index of Economic Freedom}}</ref> Share of [[black market]] in the U.S. economy is very low compared to other countries.<ref name="Trans-Atlantic Comparisons 3-2">{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,628389-2,00.html |work=Der Spiegel |title=Is the US Really a Nation of God-Fearing Darwin-Haters? |date=June 6, 2009}}</ref><br />
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Although a federal [[wealth tax]] is prohibited by the [[United States Constitution]] unless the receipts are distributed to the States by their populations, state and local government property tax amount to a wealth tax on [[real estate]], and because [[Capital gains tax in the United States|capital gains]] are taxed on nominal instead of inflation-adjusted profits, the capital gains tax amounts to a wealth tax on the inflation rate.<ref name=YglesiasWealth>{{cite news|last=Yglesias|first=Matthew|title=America Does Tax Wealth, Just Not Very Intelligently|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/moneybox/2013/03/06/america_s_wealth_tax_it_s_called_property_taxes_and_they_re_not_very_smart.html|access-date=March 18, 2013|newspaper=Slate|date=March 6, 2013}}</ref><br />
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U.S. taxation is generally [[Progressive tax|progressive]], especially at the federal level, and is among the most progressive in the developed world.<ref name = "CBO 2010">{{cite web|url=http://cbo.gov/publication/44604|title=The Distribution of Household Income and Federal Taxes, 2010|publisher=The US Congressional Budget Office (CBO)|date=December 4, 2013|access-date=August 13, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prasad |first1=M. |last2=Deng|first2= Y. |title=Taxation and the worlds of welfare |journal= Socio-Economic Review |date=April 2, 2009 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=431–57 |doi= 10.1093/ser/mwp005 |url=http://www.lisdatacenter.org/wps/liswps/480.pdf}}</ref><ref name=Dylan47>{{cite news |last=Matthews |first=Dylan |title=Other countries don't have a "47%" |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2012/09/19/other-countries-dont-have-a-47/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=October 29, 2013 |date=September 19, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Stephen |first=Ohlemacher |title=Tax bills for rich families approach 30-year high |url= http://seattletimes.com/html/politics/2020475301_apustaxingtherich.html|access-date=April 3, 2013|newspaper=The Seattle Times |agency=Associated Press |date=March 3, 2013}}</ref> There is debate over whether taxes should be more or less progressive.<ref name=YglesiasWealth /><ref name=BairParity>{{cite news|last=Bair|first=Sheila|title=Grand Old Parity|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/27/opinion/republicans-must-bridge-the-income-gap.html|access-date=March 18, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 26, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Hodge|first1=Scott A.|title=The Case for a Single-Rate Tax: Why Our Progressive Tax Code is Inconsistent with the Changing Face of American Taxpayers|url=http://taxfoundation.org/article/case-single-rate-tax-why-our-progressive-tax-code-inconsistent-changing-face-american-taxpayers|publisher=Tax Foundation|access-date=August 13, 2014|date=April 29, 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Frank|first1=Robert|title=The Price of Taxing the Rich: The top 1% of earners fill the coffers of states like California and New York during a boom – and leave them starved for revenue in a bust|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052748704604704576220491592684626|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=August 13, 2014|date=March 26, 2011}}</ref><br />
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According to the [[Tax Justice Network]] in 2022, the US fuels more global [[Financial Secrecy Index|financial secrecy]] than [[Banking in Switzerland|Switzerland]], Cayman and Bermuda combined.<ref name="SWI swissinfo.ch 2022">{{cite web | title=Switzerland ranked second-worst global facilitator of tax avoidance | website=SWI swissinfo.ch | date=2022-05-18 | url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/business/switzerland-ranked-second-worst-global-facilitator-of-tax-avoidance/47603522 | access-date=2022-06-28}}</ref><br />
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===Expenditure===<br />
{{Main|United States federal budget|Government spending in the United States|National debt of the United States}}<br />
[[File:2021 US Federal Budget Infographic.png|thumb|400px|right|CBO: U.S. Federal spending and revenue components for fiscal year 2021. Major expenditure categories are healthcare, Social Security, and defense; income and payroll taxes are the primary revenue sources.]]<br />
[[File:CBO Deficit - Baseline Comparison - April 2018.png|thumb|right|350px|Congressional Budget Office (CBO) baseline scenario comparisons: June 2017 (essentially the deficit trajectory that President Trump inherited from President Obama), April 2018 (which reflects Trump's tax cuts and spending bills), and April 2018 alternate scenario (which assumes extension of the Trump tax cuts, among other current policy extensions).<ref name="CBO_BOE2018">{{cite web| url = https://www.cbo.gov/publication/53651| title = CBO Budget and Economic Outlook 2018–2028| date = April 9, 2018}}</ref>]]<br />
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The United States public-sector spending amounts to about 38% of GDP (federal is around 21%, state and local the remainder).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.oecd.org/gga/general-government-spending.htm|title=General Government Spending}}</ref> Each level of government provides many direct services. The federal government, for example, is responsible for national defense, research that often leads to the development of new products, conducts space exploration, and runs numerous programs designed to help workers develop workplace skills and find jobs (including higher education). Government spending has a significant effect on local and regional economies, and on the overall pace of economic activity.<br />
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[[Politics of the United States|State governments]], meanwhile, are responsible for the construction and maintenance of most highways. State, county, or city governments play the leading role in financing and operating public schools. Local governments are primarily responsible for police and fire protection. In 2016, U.S. state and local governments owed $3{{nbs}}trillion and have another $5{{nbs}}trillion in unfunded liabilities.<ref>{{cite news |title=Debt Myths, Debunked |url=https://www.usnews.com/opinion/economic-intelligence/articles/2016-12-01/myths-and-facts-about-the-us-federal-debt |work=U.S. News |date=December 1, 2016}}</ref><br />
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The [[United States welfare state|welfare system in the United States]] began in the 1930s, during the Great Depression, with the passage of the [[New Deal]]. The welfare system was later expanded in the 1960s through [[Great Society]] legislation, which included [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]], [[Medicaid]], the [[Older Americans Act]] and federal education funding.<br />
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Overall, federal, state, and local spending accounted for almost 28% of gross domestic product in 1998.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy01/guide01.html|title=U.S. Budget 2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112170429/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy01/guide01.html|archive-date=January 12, 2012}}</ref><br />
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===Federal budget and debt===<br />
{{Further|United States federal budget}}<br />
During FY2017, the federal government spent $3.98{{nbs}}trillion on a budget or cash basis, up $128{{nbs}}billion or 3.3% vs. FY2016 spending of $3.85{{nbs}}trillion. Major categories of FY 2017 spending included: Healthcare such as Medicare and Medicaid ($1,077B or 27% of spending), Social Security ($939B or 24%), non-defense discretionary spending used to run federal Departments and Agencies ($610B or 15%), Defense Department ($590B or 15%), and interest ($263B or 7%).<ref name="CBO_BOE2018" /><br />
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During FY2017, the federal government collected approximately $3.32{{nbs}}trillion in tax revenue, up $48{{nbs}}billion or 1.5% versus FY2016. Primary receipt categories included individual income taxes ($1,587{{nbs}}billion or 48% of total receipts), Social Security/Social Insurance taxes ($1,162{{nbs}}billion or 35%), and corporate taxes ($297{{nbs}}billion or 9%). Other revenue types included excise, estate and gift taxes. FY 2017 revenues were 17.3% of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP), versus 17.7% in FY 2016. Tax revenues averaged approximately 17.4% GDP over the 1980–2017 period.<ref name="CBO_BOE2018" /><br />
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The federal budget deficit (i.e., expenses greater than revenues) was $665{{nbs}}billion in FY2017, versus $585{{nbs}}billion in 2016, an increase of $80{{nbs}}billion or 14%. The budget deficit was 3.5% GDP in 2017, versus 3.2% GDP in 2016. The budget deficit is forecast to rise to $804{{nbs}}billion in FY 2018, due significantly to the [[Tax Cuts and Jobs Act]] and other spending bills. An aging country and healthcare inflation are other drivers of deficits and debt over the long-run.<ref name="CBO_BOE2018" /><br />
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Debt held by the public, a measure of national debt, was approximately $14.7{{nbs}}trillion or 77% of GDP in 2017, ranked the 43rd highest out of 207 countries.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2186rank.html#us| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070613005546/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2186rank.html#us| url-status = dead| archive-date = June 13, 2007| title = CIA World Factbook-Debt to GDP}}</ref> This debt, as a percent of GDP, is roughly equivalent to those of many western European nations.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.dailyfinance.com/story/is-rising-u-s-debt-inviting-trouble-ask-japan/19469343/|access-date=May 18, 2010|title=Is Rising U.S. Debt Inviting Trouble? Ask Japan|publisher=Daily Finance|first=Vishesh|last=Kumar}}</ref><br />
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==Business culture==<br />
A central feature of the U.S. economy is the economic freedom afforded to the private sector by allowing the private sector to make the majority of economic decisions in determining the direction and scale of what the U.S. economy produces. This is enhanced by relatively low levels of regulation and government involvement,<ref>{{cite web |first=Jack |last=Anderson |url=https://www.forbes.com/global/2006/0522/032.html |title=Tax Misery & Reform Index |work=Forbes |date=May 22, 2006 |access-date=November 17, 2008}}</ref> as well as a court system that generally protects [[Right to property|property rights]] and enforces contracts. Today, the United States is home to 29.6 million small businesses, thirty percent of the world's millionaires, forty percent of the world's billionaires, and 139 of the world's 500 largest companies.<ref name="sba.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.sba.gov/advo/stats/sbfaq.pdf |title=Office of Advocacy – Frequently Asked Questions – How important are small businesses to the U.S. economy? |publisher=SBA.gov |access-date=April 21, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202170306/http://www.sba.gov/advo/stats/sbfaq.pdf |archive-date=December 2, 2010}}</ref><ref name="forbes.com">{{cite news| url=https://www.forbes.com/wealth/billionaires | title=Forbes | date=March 14, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Global 500 2010: Countries">{{cite news| url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2010/countries/US.html |publisher=CNN | title=Global 500 2010: Countries}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://articles.moneycentral.msn.com/Investing/Extra/WhereTheMillionairesAreNow.aspx |title=Where the millionaires are now |publisher=MSN |date=October 22, 2007 |access-date=April 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927143337/http://articles.moneycentral.msn.com/Investing/Extra/WhereTheMillionairesAreNow.aspx |archive-date=September 27, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
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[[File:Boeing 787-10 rollout with President Trump (32335755473) (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Boeing]] CEO [[Dennis Muilenburg]] at the [[Boeing 787 Dreamliner|787-10 Dreamliner]] rollout ceremony]]<br />
From its emergence as an independent nation, the United States has encouraged science and innovation. In the early 20th century, the research developed through informal cooperation between U.S. industry and academia grew rapidly and by the late 1930s exceeded the size of that taking place in Britain (although the quality of U.S. research was not yet on par with British and German research at the time). After World War II, federal spending on defense R&D and antitrust policy played a significant role in U.S. innovation.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Walker, William|title=National innovation systems : a comparative analysis|date=1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195076172|editor1-last=Nelson|editor1-first=Richard R.|location=New York|pages=61–64|chapter=National Innovation Systems: Britain|ref=Walker1993|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFDGjgxc2CYC&pg=PA61}}<!--Author profile: https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/intrel/people/index.php/wbw.html--></ref><br />
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The United States is rich in mineral resources and fertile farm soil, and it is fortunate to have a moderate climate. It also has extensive coastlines on both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as well as on the Gulf of Mexico. Rivers flow from far within the continent and the [[Great Lakes]] (the five large inland lakes along the Canadian border) provide additional shipping access. These extensive waterways have helped shape the country's economic growth over the years and helped bind America's fifty individual states together in a single economic unit.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://usinfo.state.gov/infousa/government/forpolicy/chap2.html| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081114043907/http://usinfo.state.gov/infousa/government/forpolicy/chap2.html| url-status = dead| archive-date = 2008-11-14| title = U.S. Department of state: How the U.S. Economy Works}}</ref><br />
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The number of workers and, more importantly, their productivity help determine the health of the U.S. economy. [[Consumer spending]] in the U.S. rose to about 62% of GDP in 1960, where it stayed until about 1981, and has since risen to 71% in 2013.<ref name=consumerecon /> Throughout its history, the United States has experienced steady growth in the labor force, a phenomenon that is both cause and effect of almost constant economic expansion. Until shortly after World War I, most workers were immigrants from Europe, their immediate descendants, or African Americans who were mostly slaves taken from Africa, or their descendants.<ref>"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EB29BrnCMm4C&pg=PA280 Trends in International Migration 2002: Continuous Reporting System on Migration]''". Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (2003). OECD Publishing. p. 280. {{ISBN|9264199497}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Demographic shift==<br />
{{See also|Demographics of the United States}}<br />
Beginning in the late 20th century, many Latin Americans immigrated, followed by large numbers of Asians after the removal of nation-origin based [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965|immigration quotas]].<ref>{{cite web <br />
|url=https://www.boston.com:80/news/politics/2008/articles/2008/11/11/obama_victory_took_root_in_kennedy_inspired_immigration_act/?page=full<br />
|title=Obama victory took root in Kennedy-inspired Immigration Act<br />
|author=Peter S. Canellos<br />
|date=November 11, 2008<br />
|work=The Boston Globe<br />
|access-date=November 14, 2008}}</ref> The promise of high wages brings many highly skilled workers from around the world to the United States, as well as millions of [[Illegal immigration to the United States|illegal immigrants]] seeking work in the informal economy. More than 13 million people officially entered the United States during the 1990s alone.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jeanette Altarriba|author2=Roberto R. Heredia|title=An Introduction to Bilingualism: Principles and Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87snuOaE7DwC&pg=PA212|year=2007|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0203927823|page=212}}</ref><br />
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[[File:Philadelphia - panoramio - 4net (3).jpg|thumb|Restaurants and shops in [[Chinatown, Philadelphia]]]]<br />
Labor mobility has also been important to the capacity of the American economy to adapt to changing conditions. When immigrants flooded labor markets on the East Coast, many workers moved inland, often to farmland waiting to be tilled. Similarly, economic opportunities in industrial, northern cities attracted black Americans from [[Southern United States|southern]] farms in the first half of the 20th century, in what was known as the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]].<br />
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In the United States, the corporation has emerged as an association of owners, known as stockholders, who form a business enterprise governed by a complex set of rules and customs. Brought on by the process of [[mass production]], corporations, such as [[General Electric]], have been instrumental in shaping the United States. Through the [[stock market]], American banks and investors have grown their economy by investing and withdrawing capital from profitable corporations. Today in the era of [[globalization]], American investors and corporations have influence all over the world. The American government is also included among the major investors in the American economy. Government investments have been directed towards public works of scale (such as from the [[Hoover Dam]]), military-industrial contracts, and the financial industry.<br />
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===Aging===<br />
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The U.S. population is aging, which has significant economic implications for GDP growth, productivity, innovation, inequality, and national debt, according to several studies. The average worker in 2019 was aged 42, vs. 38 in 2000. By 2030, about 59% of adults over 16 will be in the labor force, vs. 62% in 2015. One study estimated that aging since 2000 has reduced productivity between 0.25% and 0.7% per year. Since GDP growth is a function of productivity (output per worker) and the number of workers, both trends slow the GDP growth rate. Older workers save more, which pushes interests rates down, offsetting some of the GDP growth reduction but reducing the Federal Reserve's ability to address a recession by lowering interest rates. Means of addressing the aging trend include immigration (which theoretically brings in younger workers) and higher fertility rates, which can be encouraged by incentives to have more children (e.g., tax breaks, subsidies, and more generous paid leave).<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/15/sunday-review/work-age-economy.html?|title=This Economy Is Not Aging Gracefully |last=Porter |first=Eduardo |date=June 15, 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=June 15, 2019}}</ref><br />
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The [[Congressional Budget Office]] estimated in May 2019 that mandatory spending (e.g., Medicare, Medicaid, and Social Security) will continue growing relative to the size of the economy (GDP) as the population ages. The population aged 65 or older is projected to rise by one-third from 2019–2029. Mandatory program spending (outlays) in 2019 were 12.7% of GDP and are projected to average 14.4% GDP from 2025–2029.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbo.gov/publication/55151|title= Updated Budget Projections: 2019 to 2029|date=May 2, 2019 |work=[[Congressional Budget Office]] |access-date=June 15, 2019}}</ref><br />
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==Entrepreneurship==<br />
{{See also|Technological and industrial history of the United States}}<br />
[[File:Government and State-Owned Enterprises to GDP for United States.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. economy from [[state-owned enterprise]]s or [[government-sponsored enterprise]]s.]]<br />
[[File:PyramidParthenon.jpg|thumb|Tennessee in 1897. The U.S. was a leader in the adoption of [[lightbulb|electric lighting]].]]<br />
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The United States has been a leader in technological innovation since the late 19th century and scientific research since the mid-20th century. In 1876, [[Alexander Graham Bell]] was awarded the first U.S. [[Invention of the telephone|patent for the telephone]]. [[Thomas Edison]]'s laboratory developed the [[phonograph]], the first [[Incandescent light bulb|long-lasting light bulb]], and the first viable [[Kinetoscope|movie camera]]. Edison's company would also pioneer ([[direct current]] based) electric power delivery and market it around the world, followed on by companies such as [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation]] which would rapidly develop [[alternating current]] power delivery. In the early 20th century, the automobile companies of [[Ransom E. Olds]] and [[Henry Ford]] popularized the [[assembly line]]. The [[Wright brothers]], in 1903, made the [[Wright Flyer|first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Benedetti, François |url=http://www.fai.org/news_archives/fai/000295.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912065254/http://www.fai.org/news_archives/fai/000295.asp |archive-date=September 12, 2007 |title=100 Years Ago, the Dream of Icarus Became Reality |publisher=Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) |date=December 17, 2003 |access-date=August 15, 2007}}</ref><br />
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[[File:Steve Jobs and Bill Gates (522695099).jpg|thumb|[[Steve Jobs]] and [[Bill Gates]] are two of the well-known American entrepreneurs.]]<br />
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American society highly emphasizes entrepreneurship and business. [[Entrepreneurship]] is the act of being an entrepreneur, which can be defined as "one who undertakes [[innovation]]s, finance and business acumen in an effort to transform innovations into economic goods". This may result in new organizations or may be part of revitalizing mature organizations in response to a perceived opportunity.<ref name="ReferenceB">Shane, Scott "A General Theory of Entrepreneurship: the Individual-Opportunity Nexus", Edward Elgar</ref> American entrepreneurs are even engaged in public services delivery through [[Public-private partnerships in the United States|public-private partnerships]].<br />
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The most obvious form of entrepreneurship refers to the process and engagement of starting new businesses (referred to as [[startup company|startup companies]]); however, in recent years, the term has been extended to include social and political forms of entrepreneurial activity. When entrepreneurship is describing activities within a firm or large organization it is referred to as intra-preneurship and may include corporate venturing, when large entities spin-off organizations.<ref name="ReferenceB" /><br />
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According to Paul Reynolds, entrepreneurship scholar and creator of the [[Global Entrepreneurship Monitor]], "by the time they reach their retirement years, half of all working men in the United States probably have a period of self-employment of one or more years; one in four may have engaged in self-employment for six or more years. Participating in a new business creation is a common activity among U.S. workers over the course of their careers."<ref>Reynolds, Paul D. "Entrepreneurship in the United States", Springer, 2007, {{ISBN|978-0387456676}}</ref> And in recent years, business creation has been documented by scholars such as [[David Audretsch]] to be a major driver of economic growth in both the United States and Western Europe.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}}<br />
[[File:Survival rate of US start-ups, 1977–2012.svg|thumb|Survival rate of U.S. start-ups, 1977–2012. Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Business Dynamic Statistics, Published by Gallup, reproduced in UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, Figure 5.7, p. 143]]<br />
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==Venture capital investment==<br />
[[File:US VC funding.png|300px|right|Quarterly U.S. venture capital investments, 1995–2017]]<br />
[[Venture capital]], as an industry, originated in the United States, which it still dominates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.briskfox.com/open/years/2009_q1/do_v_c44780.php|title=Mandelson, Peter. "There is no Google, or Amazon, or Microsoft or Apple in the UK, Mandelson tells BVCA." BriskFox Financial News, March 11, 2009|publisher=Briskfox.com|access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref> According to the National Venture Capital Association 11% of private sector jobs come from venture capital backed companies and venture capital backed revenue accounts for 21% of U.S. GDP.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.nvca.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=255&Itemid=103|title=Venture Impact|publisher=IHS Global Insight|year=2009|isbn=978-0978501570|edition=5|page=2|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630170428/http://www.nvca.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=255&Itemid=103|archive-date=June 30, 2014}}</ref><br />
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Total U.S. investment in venture capital amounted to $48.3{{nbs}}billion in 2014, for 4,356 deals. This represented "an increase of 61% in dollars and a 4% increase in deals over the prior year", reported the National Venture Capital Association. The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development estimates that venture capital investment in the United States had fully recovered by 2014 to pre-recession levels. The National Venture Capital Association has reported that, in 2014, venture capital investment in the life sciences was at its highest level since 2008: in biotechnology, $6.0{{nbs}}billion was invested in 470 deals and, in life sciences overall, $8.6{{nbs}}billion in 789 deals (including biotechnology and medical devices). Two thirds (68%) of the investment in biotechnology went to first-time/early-stage development deals and the remainder to the expansion stage of development (14%), seed-stage companies (11%) and late-stage companies (7%). However, it was the software industry which invested in the greatest number of deals overall: 1,799, for an investment of $19.8{{nbs}}billion. Second came internet-specific companies, garnering US$11.9{{nbs}}billion in investment through 1,005 deals. Many of these companies are based in the state of California, which alone concentrates 28% of U.S. research.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|title=United States of America. In: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|last1=Stewart|first1=Shannon|last2=Springs|first2=Stacy|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-9231001291|location=Paris|pages=129–55}}</ref><br />
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Some new American businesses raise investments from [[angel investor]]s (venture capitalists). In 2010 healthcare/medical accounted for the largest share of angel investments, with 30% of total angel investments (vs. 17% in 2009), followed by software (16% vs. 19% in 2007), biotech (15% vs. 8% in 2009), industrial/energy (8% vs. 17% in 2009), retail (5% vs. 8% in 2009) and IT services (5%).<ref>{{cite web|last=Sohl|first=Jeffrey|title=Full Year 2009 Angel Market Trends|url=http://wsbe.unh.edu/files/2009_Angel_Market_Press_Release.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120034841/http://wsbe.unh.edu/files/2009_Angel_Market_Press_Release.pdf|archive-date=January 20, 2013|publisher=University of New Hampshire Center for Venture Research|access-date=September 27, 2011|date=March 31, 2010}}</ref> {{clarify|In this article, we really need total amount of dollars/annually|date=February 2012}}<br />
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Americans are "venturesome consumers" who are unusually willing to try new products of all sorts, and to pester manufacturers to improve their products.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.economist.com/node/13216037|newspaper=The Economist|title=The United States of Entrepreneurs|date=March 12, 2009}}</ref><br />
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==Mergers and acquisitions==<br />
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Since 1985 there have been three major waves of M&A in the U.S. (see graph "Mergers and Acquisitions in the U.S. since 1985"). 2017 has been the most active year in terms of number of deals (12,914), whereas 2015 cumulated to the biggest overall value of deals ($24{{nbs}}billion).<br />
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The biggest merger deal in U.S. history was the acquisition of Time Warner by America Online Inc. in 2000, where the bid was over $164{{nbs}}billion. Since 2000 acquisitions of U.S. companies by Chinese investors increased by 368%. The other way round—U.S. companies acquiring Chinese Companies—showed a decrease of 25%, with a short upwards trend until 2007.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://imaa-institute.org/m-and-a-us-united-states/|title=M&A US – Mergers & Acquisitions in the United States|work=IMAA-Institute|access-date=2018-02-22|language=en-US |df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
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==Research and development==<br />
{{See also|Science and technology in the United States}}<br />
[[File:GERD GDP ratio in the USA, 2002–2013.svg|thumb|Gross domestic expenditure on R&D in the U.S. as a percentage of GDP, 2002–2013. Other countries are given for comparison. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030]]<br />
The U.S. invests more funds in research and development (R&D) in absolute terms than the other G7 nations combined: 17.2% more in 2012. Since 2000, gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) in the U.S. has increased by 31.2%, enabling it to maintain its share of GERD among the G7 nations at 54.0% (54.2% in 2000).<ref name=":0" /><br />
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===Impact of recession on research spending===<br />
Generally speaking, U.S. investment in R&D rose with the economy in the first years of the century before receding slightly during the economic recession then rising again as growth resumed. At its peak in 2009, GERD amounted to US$406{{nbs}}billion (2.82% of GDP). Despite the recession, it was still at 2.79% in 2012 and will slide only marginally to 2.73% in 2013, according to provisional data, and should remain at a similar level in 2014.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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The federal government is the primary funder of basic research, at 52.6% in 2012; state governments, universities and other non-profits funded 26%. Experimental development, on the other hand, is primarily funded by industry: 76.4% to the federal government's 22.1% in 2012.<ref name=":0" /><br />
[[File:World shares of GDP, GERD, researchers and publications for the G20, 2009 and 2013.svg|thumb|World shares of GDP, research spending, researchers and scientific publications, 2009 and 2013. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, Figure 1.7]]<br />
While U.S. investment in R&D is high, it failed to reach President Obama's target of 3% of GDP by the end of his presidency in 2016. Between 2009 and 2012, the United States' world share of research expenditure receded slightly from 30.5% to 28.1%. Several countries now devote more than 4% of GDP to R&D (Israel, Japan and the Republic of Korea) and others plan to raise their own GERD/GDP ratio to 4% by 2020 (Finland and Sweden).<ref name=":0" /><br />
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===Business spending on research===<br />
Business enterprises contributed 59.1 % of U.S. GERD in 2012, down from 69.0 % in 2000. Private non-profits and foreign entities each contribute a small fraction of total R&D, 3.3% and 3.8%, respectively.<ref name=":0" /> [[File:R&D budget by US agency, 1994–2014.svg|thumb|US research and development budget by government agency, 1994–2014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, Figure 5.4, based on data from American Association for the Advancement of Science]]The United States has historically been a leader in business R&D and innovation. The economic recession of 2008–2009 has had a lasting impact, however. While the major performers of R&D largely maintained their commitments, the pain of the U.S. recession was felt mainly by small businesses and start-ups. Statistics released by the U.S. Census Bureau showed that, in 2008, the number of business 'deaths' began overtaking the number of business 'births' and that the trend continued at least through 2012. From 2003 to 2008, business research spending had followed a generally upward trajectory. In 2009, the curve inverted, as expenditure fell by 4% over the previous year then again in 2010, albeit by 1–2% this time. Companies in high-opportunity industries like health care cut back less than those in more mature industries, such as fossil fuels. The largest cutbacks in R&D spending were in agriculture production: −3.5% compared to the average R&D to net sales ratio. The chemicals and allied products industry and electronic equipment industry, on the other hand, showed R&D to net sales ratios that were 3.8% and 4.8% higher than average. Although the amount of R&D spending increased in 2011, it was still below the level of 2008 expenditure. By 2012, the growth rate of business-funded R&D had recovered. Whether this continues will be contingent on the pursuit of economic recovery and growth, levels of federal research funding and the general business climate.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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===Research spending at the state level===<br />
{{See also|List of U.S. states by research and development spending}}<br />
The level of research spending varies considerably from one state to another. Six states (New Mexico, Maryland, Massachusetts, Washington, California and Michigan) each devoted 3.9% or more of their GDP to R&D in 2010, together contributing 42% of national research expenditure. In 2010, more than one quarter of R&D was concentrated in California (28.1%), ahead of Massachusetts (5.7%), New Jersey (5.6%), Washington State (5.5%), Michigan (5.4%), Texas (5.2%), Illinois (4.8%), New York (3.6%) and Pennsylvania (3.5%). Seven states (Arkansas, Nevada, Oklahoma, Louisiana, South Dakota and Wyoming) devoted less than 0.8% of GDP to R&D.<ref name=":0" /><br />
[[File:Science and engineering in the USA by state, 2010.svg|thumb|Science and engineering in the U.S. by state. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, Figure 5.6, based on data from American Association for the Advancement of Science]]<br />
California is home to Silicon Valley, the name given to the area hosting the leading corporations and start-ups in information technology. This state also hosts dynamic biotechnology clusters in the San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles and San Diego. The main biotechnology clusters outside California are the cities of Boston/Cambridge, Massachusetts, Maryland, suburban Washington, DC, New York, Seattle, Philadelphia, and Chicago. California supplies 13.7% of all jobs in science and engineering across the country, more than any other state. Some 5.7% of Californians are employed in these fields. This high share reflects a potent combination of academic excellence and a strong business focus on R&D: the prestigious Stanford University and University of California rub shoulders with Silicon Valley, for instance. In much the same way, Route 128 around Boston in the state of Massachusetts is not only home to numerous high-tech firms and corporations but also hosts the renowned Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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New Mexico's high research intensity can be explained by the fact that it hosts the Los Alamos National Laboratory. Maryland's position may reflect the concentration of federally funded research institutions there. Washington State has a high concentration of high-tech firms like Microsoft, Amazon and Boeing and the engineering functions of most automobile manufacturers are located in the state of Michigan.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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===Research spending by multinational corporations===<br />
The federal government and most of the 50 states that make up the United States offer tax credits to particular industries and companies to encourage them to engage in research and development (R&D). Congress usually renews a tax credit every few years. According to a survey by ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' in 2012, companies do not factor in these credits when making decisions about investing in R&D, since they cannot rely on these credits being renewed.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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In 2014, four U.S. multinational corporations figured in the Top 50 for the volume of expenditure on R&D: Microsoft, Intel, Johnson & Johnson and Google. Several have figured in the Top 20 for at least ten years: Intel, Microsoft, Johnson & Johnson, Pfizer and IBM. Google was included in this table for the first time in 2013.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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'''Global top 50 companies by R&D volume and intensity, 2014'''<br />
<nowiki>*</nowiki> R&D intensity is defined as R&D expenditure divided by net sales.<br />
<nowiki>**</nowiki> Although incorporated in the Netherlands, Airbus's principal manufacturing facilities are located in France, Germany, Spain and the UK.<br />
Source: ''UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030'' (2015), Table 9.3, based on Hernández ''et al.'' (2014) ''EU R&D Scoreboard: the 2014 EU Industrial R&D Investment Scoreboard''. [[European Commission]]: Brussels, Table 2.2.<br />
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===Exports of high-tech goods and patents===<br />
[[File:High-tech exports from the USA as a world share, 2008–2013.svg|thumb|High-tech exports from the U.S. as a percentage of the world share, 2008–2013. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, Figure 5.10, based on Comtrade database]]<br />
Until 2010, the United States was a net exporter of pharmaceuticals but, since 2011, it has become a net importer of these goods.<br />
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The United States is a post-industrial country. Imports of high-tech products far exceed exports. However, the United States' technologically skilled workforce produces a large volume of patents and can still profit from the license or sale of these patents. Within the United States' scientific industries active in research, 9.1% of products and services are concerned with the licensing of intellectual property rights.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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When it comes to trade in intellectual property, the United States remains unrivalled. Income from royalties and licensing amounted to $129.2{{nbs}}billion in 2013, the highest in the world. Japan comes a distant second, with receipts of $31.6{{nbs}}billion in 2013. The United States' payments for use of intellectual property amounted to $39.0{{nbs}}billion in 2013, exceeded only by Ireland ($46.4{{nbs}}billion).<ref name=":0" /><br />
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==Notable companies and markets==<br />
{{See also|Forbes 500|Fortune 500}}<br />
{{Further|List of largest companies in the United States by revenue}}<br />
[[File:Walmart exterior.jpg|thumb|right|A typical Walmart discount department store (location: [[Laredo, Texas]])]]<br />
America's largest companies are ranked every year by revenue in the ''[[Fortune 500]]''. Between 2000 and 2022's edition of the list, the top spot on the Fortune 500 was occupied by either the auto manufacturer [[General Motors]] (GM), the oil and gas giant [[ExxonMobil]], or the retailer [[Walmart]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hoover |first=Gary |date=2022-06-26 |title=2022 UPDATED Largest Companies Charts |url=https://americanbusinesshistory.org/2022-updated-largest-companies-charts/ |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=Business History - The American Business History Center |language=en-US}}</ref> The US is also home of many of the world's largest companies by [[market capitalization]]; {{As of|2023|February|9|df=US}}, the largest American companies by market cap are [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Microsoft]], [[Google]] (through holding company [[Alphabet Inc.|Alphabet]]), [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], [[Berkshire Hathaway]], [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]], [[Nvidia]], [[Visa Inc.|Visa]], ExxonMobil, and [[Meta Platforms]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Companies ranked by Market Cap - CompaniesMarketCap.com |url=https://companiesmarketcap.com/ |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=companiesmarketcap.com |language=en-us}}</ref> Moreover, many of these companies are the most valuable brands, with many of the largest companies by revenue and market cap on the annual ranking of most valuable brands by [[Forbes]] being joined by [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]], [[The Walt Disney Company]], and [[McDonald's]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The 2020 World's Most Valuable Brands |url=https://www.forbes.com/the-worlds-most-valuable-brands/ |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref><br />
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Some industries within America are defined by a few major companies, often deriving terms such as "Big Three" or "Big Four". Examples of this phenomenon include the Big Three credit reporting agencies ([[Equifax]], [[Experian]], and [[TransUnion]]), the [[Big Three (automobile manufacturers)|Big Three automobile makers]] ([[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], [[General Motors]], and [[Stellantis]]), the [[Big Four accounting firms]] ([[Deloitte]], [[Ernst & Young]], [[KPMG]], and [[PwC]]), and the Big Four communications carriers ([[Verizon Communications|Verizon]], [[AT&T]], [[T-Mobile]]/[[Sprint Corporation|Sprint]], and [[Dish Network]]).<ref>{{Cite news |title=How to protect yourself against the theft of your identity |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2017/09/14/how-to-protect-yourself-against-the-theft-of-your-identity |access-date=2023-02-10 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Big 4 wireless carriers spent $100B on 5G spectrum: Was it worth it? |url=https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/big-4-wireless-carriers-spent-100b-on-5g-spectrum-was-it-worth-it-68488095 |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=www.spglobal.com |language=en-us}}</ref><br />
The [[Energy in the United States|American energy industry]] is among the largest and consists of large companies in [[Petroleum industry|oil, natural gas]], [[Coal mining in the United States|coal]], and renewable energy sources. America's largest energy companies by market are in oil and gas, with ExxonMobil being joined by [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]], [[ConocoPhillips]], and [[Schlumberger]]; British oil companies [[BP]] and [[Shell plc|Shell]] also have significant presence in the United States and trade on both the [[London Stock Exchange]] and [[New York Stock Exchange]]. Many large American petroleum companies, as well as BP, can trace some origin back to [[Standard Oil]], a former monopoly run by [[John D. Rockefeller]]. In coal, the $30 billion industry is dominated by [[Peabody Energy]], which is the largest coal company in the world with almost $23 billion in revenue for 2021. Much of the nation's coal mining occurs in Wyoming and Appalachian states like West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The 10 Largest Coal Mining Companies In The United States – Zippia |url=https://www.zippia.com/advice/largest-coal-mining-companies/ |access-date=2023-02-10 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Desjardins |first=Jeff |date=2017-11-24 |title=Chart: The Evolution of Standard Oil |url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/chart-evolution-standard-oil/ |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=Visual Capitalist |language=en-US}}</ref><br />
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A 2012 Deloitte report published in ''STORES'' magazine indicated that of the world's top 250 largest retailers by retail sales revenue in fiscal year 2010, 32% of those retailers were based in the United States, and those 32% accounted for 41% of the total retail sales revenue of the top 250.<ref>Deloitte, ''Switching Channels: Global Powers of Retailing 2012'', ''STORES'', January 2012, G20.</ref><br />
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America is the foremost country in the world when it comes to semiconductor production. In 2011, half of the world's 20 largest semiconductor manufacturers by sales were based in America. More recently, Congress under the [[presidency of Joe Biden]] passed a bipartisan bill, the [[CHIPS and Science Act]], which bolstered semiconductor production. Some of America's largest semiconductor firms and chip companies are [[Broadcom Inc.|Broadcom]], [[Intel]], [[AMD]], and [[Qualcomm]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.isuppli.com/PublishingImages/Press%20Releases/2011-12-01_Market_Share_Table1.jpg |title=IHS iSuppli Semiconductor preliminary rankings for 2011 |access-date=April 21, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214152106/http://www.isuppli.com/PublishingImages/Press%20Releases/2011-12-01_Market_Share_Table1.jpg|archive-date=December 14, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Top 10 Semiconductor Manufacturers in the U.S. - IndustrySelect® |url=https://www.industryselect.com/blog/top-10-semiconductor-manufacturers-in-the-us |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=www.industryselect.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=House |first=The White |date=2022-08-09 |title=FACT SHEET: CHIPS and Science Act Will Lower Costs, Create Jobs, Strengthen Supply Chains, and Counter China |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/08/09/fact-sheet-chips-and-science-act-will-lower-costs-create-jobs-strengthen-supply-chains-and-counter-china/ |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref><br />
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Many of the United States' largest firms by market cap are technology companies. These companies are dominated by the [[Big Tech|Big Five tech giants]] (Apple, Amazon, Google, Microsoft, and Meta), though numerous software firms also dominate the American technology industry. These firms range from hardware manufacturers like [[Dell Technologies]], [[IBM]], [[Hewlett-Packard]], and [[Cisco]], to software and computing infrastructure programmers like [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]], [[Salesforce]], [[Adobe Inc.|Adobe]], and [[Intuit]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Girardin |first=McKayla |date=2022-09-22 |title=Top Tech Companies in 2022 |url=https://www.theforage.com/blog/companies/what-companies-in-technology-field |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=Forage |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Top 1000 Technology Companies United States 2023 |url=https://disfold.com/united-states/sector/technology/companies/ |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=Disfold Data |language=en}}</ref><br />
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In film, American producers create nearly all of [[List of highest-grossing films|the world's highest-grossing films]]. Many of [[List of best-selling music artists|the world's best-selling music artists]] are based in the United States. Some of America's largest media companies are The Walt Disney Company, [[Warner Bros. Discovery]], [[Netflix]], [[Comcast]], [[Paramount Global]], and [[Fox Corporation|Fox]].<br />
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==Finance==<br />
{{Main|Banking in the United States|Insurance in the United States}}<br />
{{Further|List of largest banks}}<br />
[[File:NYC NYSE.jpg|thumb|The [[New York Stock Exchange]] is the largest stock exchange in the world.]]<br />
Measured by [[market capitalization|value]] of its listed companies' [[Security (finance)|securities]], the [[New York Stock Exchange]] is more than three times larger than any other stock exchange in the world.<ref name="world-exchanges.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.world-exchanges.org/statistics/ytd-monthly|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106005313/http://www.world-exchanges.org/statistics/ytd-monthly|archive-date=November 6, 2011 |title=WFE – YTD Monthly |date=November 6, 2011 |access-date=June 8, 2014}}</ref> As of October 2008, the combined [[Market capitalization|capitalization]] of all domestic NYSE listed companies was US$10.1{{nbs}}trillion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyxdata.com/nysedata/default.aspx?tabid=115 |title=> Data Products > NYSE > Facts & Figures |publisher=NYXdata |access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref> [[NASDAQ]] is another American [[stock exchange]] and the world's third-largest exchange after the [[New York Stock Exchange]] and Japan's [[Tokyo Stock Exchange]]. However, NASDAQ's [[Market value|trade value]] is larger than Japan's TSE.<ref name="world-exchanges.org" /> NASDAQ is the largest [[Electronic visual display|electronic screen-based]] [[Stock|equity securities]] trading market in the U.S. With approximately 3,800 companies and corporations, it has more trading volume per hour than any other stock exchange.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasdaq.com/newsroom/stats/Performance_Report.stm#item_2 |title=NASDAQ Performance Report|access-date=February 15, 2007 |date=January 12, 2007 |work=NASDAQ Newsroom |publisher=The Nasdaq Stock Market|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210233035/http://www.nasdaq.com/newsroom/stats/Performance_Report.stm|archive-date=February 10, 2007}}</ref><br />
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Because of the influential role that the U.S. stock market plays in [[international finance]], a [[New York University]] study in late 2014 interprets that in the short run, stocks that affect the willingness to bear risk independently of macroeconomic fundamentals explain most of the variation in the U.S. stock market. In the long run, the U.S. stock market is profoundly affected by shocks that reallocate the rewards of a given level of production between workers and shareholders. Productivity shocks, however, play a small role in historical stock market fluctuations at all horizons in the U.S. stock market.<ref>[http://www.econ.nyu.edu/user/ludvigsons/osf.pdf Origins of Stock Market Fluctuations]. [[New York University]], December 16, 2014.</ref><br />
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The U.S. [[finance industry]] comprised only 10% of total non-farm business profits in 1947, but it grew to 50% by 2010. Over the same period, finance industry income as a proportion of GDP rose from 2.5% to 7.5%, and the finance industry's proportion of all corporate income rose from 10% to 20%. The mean earnings per employee hour in finance relative to all other sectors has closely mirrored the share of total U.S. income earned by the top 1% income earners since 1930. The mean salary in New York City's finance industry rose from $80,000 in 1981 to $360,000 in 2011, while average New York City salaries rose from $40,000 to $70,000. In 1988, there were about 12,500 U.S. banks with less than $300{{nbs}}million in deposits, and about 900 with more deposits, but by 2012, there were only 4,200 banks with less than $300{{nbs}}million in deposits in the U.S., and over 1,800 with more.<br />
<br />
Top ten U.S. banks by assets<ref name="money.msn.com">[http://money.msn.com/ Stock quotes, investing & personal finance, news – MSN Money] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506025118/http://money.msn.com/ |date=May 6, 2013}}. Money.msn.com (December 31, 1999).</ref><ref name="secdatabase.com">secdatabase.com</ref><ref>[http://www.goldmansachs.com/investor-relations/index.html Investor Relations]. Goldman Sachs..</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usbank.com/cgi_w/cfm/about/investor/index.cfm|title=Financial and investor information from U.S. Bank|website=usbank.com}}</ref><br />
|1|| JP Morgan Chase<br />
|2||Bank of America<br />
|3||Citigroup<br />
|4||Wells Fargo<br />
|5||Goldman Sachs<br />
|6||Morgan Stanley<br />
|7||U.S. Bancorp<br />
|8||Bank of NY Mellon<br />
|9||HSBC North American Holdings<br />
|10||Capital One Financial<br />
<br />
A 2012 [[International Monetary Fund]] study concluded that the U.S. financial sector has grown so large that it is slowing [[economic growth]]. New York University economist [[Thomas Philippon]] supported those findings, estimating that the U.S. spends $300{{nbs}}billion too much on financial services per year, and that the sector needs to shrink by 20%. Harvard University and University of Chicago economists agreed, calculating in 2014 that workers in research and development add $5 to the GDP for each dollar they earn, but finance industry workers cause the GDP to shrink by $0.60 for every dollar they are paid.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Tankersley|first1=Jim|title=A black hole for our best and brightest|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/business/2014/12/16/a-black-hole-for-our-best-and-brightest/|access-date=December 23, 2014|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=December 16, 2014}}</ref> A study by the [[Bank for International Settlements]] reached similar conclusions, saying the finance industry impedes economic growth and research and development based industries.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Cecchetti|first1=Stephen G|last2=Kharroubi|first2=Enisse|title=Why does financial sector growth crowd out real economic growth?|url=http://www.bis.org/publ/work490.pdf|website=BIS Working Papers No 490|publisher=Bank for International Settlements|access-date=September 20, 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Historical statistics==<br />
{{main|Economic history of the United States}}<br />
<br />
==List of state and territory economies==<br />
===State and federal district economies===<br />
{{Columns-list|colwidth=25em|<br />
* [[Economy of Alabama]]<br />
* [[Economy of Alaska]]<br />
* [[Economy of Arizona]]<br />
* [[Economy of Arkansas]]<br />
* [[Economy of California]]<br />
* [[Economy of Colorado]]<br />
* [[Economy of Connecticut]]<br />
* [[Economy of Delaware]]<br />
* [[Economy of the District of Columbia]]<br />
* [[Economy of Florida]]<br />
* [[Economy of Georgia (U.S. state)|Economy of Georgia]]<br />
* [[Economy of Hawaii]]<br />
* [[Economy of Idaho]]<br />
* [[Economy of Illinois]]<br />
* [[Economy of Indiana]]<br />
* [[Economy of Iowa]]<br />
* [[Economy of Kansas]]<br />
* [[Economy of Kentucky]]<br />
* [[Economy of Louisiana]]<br />
* [[Economy of Maine]]<br />
* [[Economy of Maryland]]<br />
* [[Economy of Massachusetts]]<br />
* [[Economy of Michigan]]<br />
* [[Economy of Minnesota]]<br />
* [[Economy of Mississippi]]<br />
* [[Economy of Missouri]]<br />
* [[Economy of Montana]]<br />
* [[Economy of Nebraska]]<br />
* [[Economy of Nevada]]<br />
* [[Economy of New Hampshire]]<br />
* [[Economy of New Jersey]]<br />
* [[Economy of New Mexico]]<br />
* [[Economy of New York]]<br />
* [[Economy of North Carolina]]<br />
* [[Economy of North Dakota]]<br />
* [[Economy of Ohio]]<br />
* [[Economy of Oklahoma]]<br />
* [[Economy of Oregon]]<br />
* [[Economy of Pennsylvania]]<br />
* [[Economy of Rhode Island]]<br />
* [[Economy of South Carolina]]<br />
* [[Economy of South Dakota]]<br />
* [[Economy of Tennessee]]<br />
* [[Economy of Texas]]<br />
* [[Economy of Utah]]<br />
* [[Economy of Vermont]]<br />
* [[Economy of Virginia]]<br />
* [[Economy of Washington (state)]]<br />
* [[Economy of West Virginia]]<br />
* [[Economy of Wisconsin]]<br />
* [[Economy of Wyoming]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
===Territory economies===<br />
* [[Economy of American Samoa]]<br />
* [[Economy of Guam]]<br />
* [[Economy of the Northern Mariana Islands]]<br />
* [[Economy of Puerto Rico]]<br />
* [[Economy of the United States Virgin Islands]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<!--Please maintain the list in alphabetical order.--><br />
* [[Bretton Woods system]]<br />
* [[Energy policy of the United States]]<br />
* [[Financial position of the United States]]<br />
* ''[[Historical Statistics of the United States]]''<!--italicized book title--><br />
* [[Job creation index]]<br />
* [[Labor unions in the United States]]<br />
* [[List of industry trade groups in the United States]]<br />
* [[Washington Consensus]]<br />
* [[World oil market chronology from 2003]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
===Citations===<br />
{{Reflist|25em}}<br />
<br />
===Sources===<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
{{Wikiquote}}<br />
{{Refbegin}}<br />
* {{Free-content attribution<br />
| title = UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030<br />
| author =<br />
| publisher = UNESCO Publishing<br />
| page numbers = 141–143<br />
| source =<br />
| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf<br />
| license statement URL =<br />
| license = CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Robert J. |title=The American Business Cycle: Continuity and Change |date=1986 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-30452-3 |url=https://www.nber.org/books-and-chapters/american-business-cycle-continuity-and-change}}<br />
{{Refend}}<br />
<br />
{{Economy of the United States}}<br />
{{Portal bar|United States|Economics|Business and economics}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Economy of the United States| ]]<br />
[[Category:OECD member economies|United States]]<br />
[[Category:World Trade Organization member economies|United States]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1145023080Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T21:19:03Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Kemalism */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
<br />
'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either [[Turkey#Demographics|national]] or [[Ethnic Turk|ethnic]] definition. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
<br />
After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a [[language reform]] with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign (mostly Arabic and Persian) influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Turkish History Thesis]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1930s. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
<br />
The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
<br />
==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), [[Turkish-Islamic nationalism|Turkish-Islamic synthesis]] (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism#Nationalism|Kemalism]] (which defines the term "[[Turkish people|Turks]]" as a [[national identity]] of the people of [[Turkey]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
<br />
In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on Atatürk's sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
<br />
Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".<br />
<br />
===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]].<br />
<br />
Pan-Turkism, as he stated in his book ''Principles of Turkism'', was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s nationalist view which he called "Turkism", as an ideal of the unity of [[Turkic peoples]].<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref><br />
<br />
===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
<br />
Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
<br />
=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
<br />
After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> [[Turkish-Islamic synthesis]], and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
<br />
===Turkish Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
<br />
Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
<br />
There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
<br />
In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1145022675Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T21:16:01Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Kemalism */ Citation isn't needed, literally the constitution states that.</p>
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<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
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'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either [[Turkey#Demographics|national]] or [[Ethnic Turk|ethnic]] definition. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
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After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a [[language reform]] with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign (mostly Arabic and Persian) influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Turkish History Thesis]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1930s. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
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The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
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==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), [[Turkish-Islamic nationalism|Turkish-Islamic synthesis]] (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism#Nationalism|Kemalism]] (which defines the term "[[Turkish people|Turks]]" as a [[national identity]] of the people of [[Turkey]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
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In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on Atatürk's sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
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Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".<br />
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===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]].<br />
<br />
Pan-Turkism, as he stated in his book ''Principles of Turkism'', was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s nationalist view which he called "Turkism", as an ideal of the unity of [[Turkic peoples]].<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref><br />
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===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
<br />
Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
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=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
<br />
After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> [[Turkish-Islamic synthesis]], and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
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===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
<br />
Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
<br />
There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
<br />
In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1145022575Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T21:15:15Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Kemalism */</p>
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<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
<br />
'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either [[Turkey#Demographics|national]] or [[Ethnic Turk|ethnic]] definition. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
<br />
After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a [[language reform]] with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign (mostly Arabic and Persian) influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Turkish History Thesis]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1930s. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
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The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
<br />
==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), [[Turkish-Islamic nationalism|Turkish-Islamic synthesis]] (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism#Nationalism|Kemalism]] (which defines the term "[[Turkish people|Turks]]" as a [[national identity]] of the people of [[Turkey]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
<br />
In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on Atatürk's sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
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Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]].<br />
<br />
Pan-Turkism, as he stated in his book ''Principles of Turkism'', was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s nationalist view which he called "Turkism", as an ideal of the unity of [[Turkic peoples]].<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref><br />
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===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
<br />
Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
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=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
<br />
After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> [[Turkish-Islamic synthesis]], and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
<br />
===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
<br />
Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
<br />
There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
<br />
In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1145017022Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T20:35:58Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Pan-Turkism */</p>
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<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
<br />
'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either [[Turkey#Demographics|national]] or [[Ethnic Turk|ethnic]] definition. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
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After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a [[language reform]] with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign (mostly Arabic and Persian) influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Turkish History Thesis]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1930s. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
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The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
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==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), [[Turkish-Islamic nationalism|Turkish-Islamic synthesis]] (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism#Nationalism|Kemalism]] (which defines the term "[[Turkish people|Turks]]" as a [[national identity]] of the people of [[Turkey]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
<br />
In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on Atatürk's sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
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Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]].<br />
<br />
Pan-Turkism, as he stated in his book ''Principles of Turkism'', was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s nationalist view which he called "Turkism", as an ideal of the unity of [[Turkic peoples]].<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref><br />
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===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
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Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
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=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
<br />
After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> Turkish-Islamic synthesis, and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
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===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
<br />
Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
<br />
There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
<br />
In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1145006368Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T19:21:17Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Pan-Turkism */ Ziya Gökalp detailed and moved up</p>
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<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
<br />
'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either [[Turkey#Demographics|national]] or [[Ethnic Turk|ethnic]] definition. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
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After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a [[language reform]] with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign (mostly Arabic and Persian) influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Turkish History Thesis]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1930s. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
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The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
<br />
==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), [[Turkish-Islamic nationalism|Turkish-Islamic synthesis]] (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism#Nationalism|Kemalism]] (which defines the term "[[Turkish people|Turks]]" as a [[national identity]] of the people of [[Turkey]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
<br />
In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on Atatürk's sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
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Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]]. Pan-Turkism, as he stated in his book ''Principles of Turkism'', was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s nationalist view which he called "Turkism", as an ideal of the unity of [[Turkic peoples]].<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref><br />
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===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
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Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
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=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
<br />
After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> Turkish-Islamic synthesis, and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
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===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
<br />
Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
<br />
There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
<br />
In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1145004931Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T19:10:30Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Kemalism */</p>
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<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
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'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either [[Turkey#Demographics|national]] or [[Ethnic Turk|ethnic]] definition. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
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After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a [[language reform]] with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign (mostly Arabic and Persian) influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Turkish History Thesis]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1930s. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
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The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
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==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), [[Turkish-Islamic nationalism|Turkish-Islamic synthesis]] (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism#Nationalism|Kemalism]] (which defines the term "[[Turkish people|Turks]]" as a [[national identity]] of the people of [[Turkey]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
<br />
In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on Atatürk's sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
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Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]]. The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref> Pan-Turkism, as an ideal and goal, was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s Turkish nationalist view which he called "Turkism".<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
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===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
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Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
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=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
<br />
After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> Turkish-Islamic synthesis, and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
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===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
<br />
Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
<br />
There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
<br />
In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1145003334Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T18:58:28Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Variants */</p>
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<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
<br />
'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either [[Turkey#Demographics|national]] or [[Ethnic Turk|ethnic]] definition. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
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After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a [[language reform]] with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign (mostly Arabic and Persian) influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Turkish History Thesis]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1930s. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
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The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
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==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), [[Turkish-Islamic nationalism|Turkish-Islamic synthesis]] (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism#Nationalism|Kemalism]] (which defines the term "[[Turkish people|Turks]]" as a [[national identity]] of the people of [[Turkey]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
<br />
In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on his sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
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Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]]. The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref> Pan-Turkism, as an ideal and goal, was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s Turkish nationalist view which he called "Turkism".<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
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===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
<br />
Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
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=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
<br />
After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> Turkish-Islamic synthesis, and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
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===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
<br />
Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
<br />
There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
<br />
In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1145002219Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T18:51:09Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Variants */</p>
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<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
<br />
'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either [[Turkey#Demographics|national]] or [[Ethnic Turk|ethnic]] definition. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
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After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a [[language reform]] with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign (mostly Arabic and Persian) influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Turkish History Thesis]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1930s. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
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The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
<br />
==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), [[Turkish-Islamic nationalism|Turkish-Islamic synthesis]] (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism#Nationalism|Kemalism]] (which defines the term "[[Turkish people|Turks]]" as a [[national identity]] of the people of Turkey).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
<br />
In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on his sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
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Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]]. The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref> Pan-Turkism, as an ideal and goal, was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s Turkish nationalist view which he called "Turkism".<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
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===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
<br />
Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
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=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
<br />
After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> Turkish-Islamic synthesis, and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
<br />
===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
<br />
Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
<br />
There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
<br />
In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1145001912Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T18:49:13Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Variants */</p>
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<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
<br />
'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either [[Turkey#Demographics|national]] or [[Ethnic Turk|ethnic]] definition. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
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After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a [[language reform]] with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign (mostly Arabic and Persian) influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Turkish History Thesis]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1930s. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
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The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
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==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), [[Turkish-Islamic nationalism|Turkish-Islamic synthesis]] (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism#Nationalism|Kemalism]] (which defines the term "Turks" as a [[national identity]] of people of Turkey).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
<br />
In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on his sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
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Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]]. The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref> Pan-Turkism, as an ideal and goal, was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s Turkish nationalist view which he called "Turkism".<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
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===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
<br />
Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
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=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
<br />
After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> Turkish-Islamic synthesis, and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
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===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
<br />
Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
<br />
There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
<br />
In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1145001834Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T18:48:38Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Variants */</p>
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<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
<br />
'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either [[Turkey#Demographics|national]] or [[Ethnic Turk|ethnic]] definition. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
<br />
After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a [[language reform]] with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign (mostly Arabic and Persian) influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Turkish History Thesis]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1930s. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
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The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
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==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), [[Turkish-Islamic nationalism|Turkish-Islamic synthesis]] (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism]] (which defines the term "Turks" as a [[national identity]] of people of Turkey).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
<br />
In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on his sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
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Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]]. The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref> Pan-Turkism, as an ideal and goal, was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s Turkish nationalist view which he called "Turkism".<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
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===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
<br />
Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
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=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
<br />
After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> Turkish-Islamic synthesis, and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
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===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
<br />
Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
<br />
There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
<br />
In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1144998985Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T18:27:31Z<p>Cehilizm: /* History */ Sun Language replaced with THT, and language reform was mostly against Arabic and Persian influences, so added it.</p>
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<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
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'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either [[Turkey#Demographics|national]] or [[Ethnic Turk|ethnic]] definition. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
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After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a [[language reform]] with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign (mostly Arabic and Persian) influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Turkish History Thesis]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1930s. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
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The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
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==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), Turkish-Islamic synthesis (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
<br />
In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on his sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
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Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]]. The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref> Pan-Turkism, as an ideal and goal, was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s Turkish nationalist view which he called "Turkism".<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
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===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
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Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
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=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
<br />
After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> Turkish-Islamic synthesis, and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
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===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
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===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
<br />
Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
<br />
There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
<br />
In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1144994852Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T17:54:17Z<p>Cehilizm: Linguistic group? What?</p>
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<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
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'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either [[Turkey#Demographics|national]] or [[Ethnic Turk|ethnic]] definition. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
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After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a language reform with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Sun Language Theory]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1935. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
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The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
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==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), Turkish-Islamic synthesis (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
<br />
In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on his sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
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Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]]. The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref> Pan-Turkism, as an ideal and goal, was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s Turkish nationalist view which he called "Turkism".<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
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===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
<br />
Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
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=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
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After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> Turkish-Islamic synthesis, and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
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===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
<br />
Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
<br />
There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
<br />
In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_people&diff=1144989548Turkish people2023-03-16T17:14:13Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Turkic ethnic group primarily living in Turkey and Northern Cyprus}}<br />
{{distinguish|Turkic peoples}}<br />
{{pp|small=yes}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox ethnic group<br />
| group = Turks<br />
| native_name = '''''Türkler'''''<br />
| native_name_lang = tr<br />
| pop = {{circa}} '''80 million'''<br />
| popplace = {{flagcountry|Turkey}}&nbsp; 60,000,000 to 65,000,000<ref name=Garibova2011>{{citation|last=Garibova|first=Jala|year=2011|chapter=A Pan-Turkic Dream: Language Unification of Turks|title=Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts|editor1-last=Fishman|editor1-first=Joshua|editor2-last=Garcia|editor-first2=Ofelia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUydX_3rG0AC&dq=60+million+ethnic+Turks+living+in+its+territories&pg=PA268|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=268|quote=Approximately 200 million people,... speak nearly 40 Turkic languages and dialects. Turkey is the largest Turkic state, with about 60 million ethnic Turks living in its territories.|isbn=9780199837991}}</ref><ref name=Hobbs2017>{{citation|last=Hobbs|first=Joseph J.|year=2017|title=Fundamentals of World Regional Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0rUaCgAAQBAJ&dq=The+greatest+are+the+65+million+Turks+of+Turkey&pg=PA223|publisher=[[Cengage]]|quote=The greatest are the 65 million Turks of Turkey, who speak Turkish, a Turkic language...|page=223|isbn=9781305854956}}</ref> <br/> {{flagcountry|Northern Cyprus}}&nbsp; 315,000{{smallsup|a}}<ref>{{cite web |title=KKTC 2011 NÜFUS VE KONUT SAYIMI |url=http://www.devplan.org/Nufus-2011/nufus%20son_.pdf |access-date=14 February 2014 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927104440/http://www.devplan.org/Nufus-2011/nufus%20son_.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref><br />
| region3 = '''Modern Turkish diaspora:'''<br />
| pop3 = &nbsp;<!-- needed to force display of the header --><br />
| region4 = {{flagcountry|Germany}}<br />
| pop4 = 3,000,000 to over 7,000,000<br />
| ref4 = <ref>{{cite book |last1=Orvis|first1=Stephen|last2=Drogus|first2=Carol Ann|year=2018|title=Introducing Comparative Politics: Concepts and Cases in Context |publisher=CQ Press|quote=Today, nearly three million ethnic Turks live in Germany, and many have raised children there.|isbn=978-1-5443-7444-4|page=305|language=en}}</ref><ref name=Engstrom2021>{{citation|last=Engstrom|first=Aineias|title=Turkish-German "dream team" behind first COVID-19 vaccine|url=https://psuvanguard.com/turkish-german-dream-team-behind-first-covid-19-vaccine/|journal=[[Portland State Vanguard]]|date=12 January 2021 |publisher=[[Portland State University]]|quote=The German census does not gather data on ethnicity, however according to estimates, somewhere between 4–7 million people with Turkish roots, or 5–9% of the population, live in Germany.|access-date=27 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210327134346/https://psuvanguard.com/turkish-german-dream-team-behind-first-covid-19-vaccine/|archive-date=27 March 2021}}</ref><ref name=Zestos&Cooke2020>{{citation|last1=Zestos|first1=George K.|last2=Cooke|first2=Rachel N.|year=2020|title=Challenges for the EU as Germany Approaches Recession |publisher=[[Levy Economics Institute]]|pages=22|url=http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp_948.pdf|quote=Presently (2020) more than seven million Turks live in Germany.}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=[[Tessa Szyszkowitz|Szyszkowitz, Tessa]]|year=2005|chapter=Germany|title=Europe Confronts Terrorism|editor-last=Von Hippel|editor-first=Karin|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|pages=53|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyx-DAAAQBAJ&q=It+is+a+little+late+to+start+the+debate+about+being+an+immigrant+country+now%2C+when+already+seven+million+Turks+live+in+Germany&pg=PA53|isbn=978-0230524590|quote=It is a little late to start the debate about being an immigrant country now, when already seven million Turks live in Germany.}}</ref><br />
| region5 = {{flagcountry|United States}}<br />
| pop5 = 1,000,000–3,000,000<br />
| ref5 = <ref name=Bryson>{{citation|author=[[John Bryson|Bryson, John]]|year=2012|title =Remarks by Commerce Secretary Bryson, April 5, 2012|journal=Foreign Policy Bulletin|volume=22|issue=3|page=137|quote=Here in the U.S., you can see our person-to-person relationships growing stronger each day. You can see it in the 13,000 Turkish students that are studying here in the U.S. You can see it in corporate leaders like Muhtar Kent, the CEO of Coca-Cola, and you can see it in more than one million Turkish-Americans who add to the rich culture and fabric of our country.|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}} The citation is also available on {{citation|year=2012|title =Remarks at Center for American Progress & Confederation of Businessmen and Industrialists of Turkey (TUSKON) Luncheon| url=https://2010-2014.commerce.gov/news/secretary-speeches/2012/04/05/remarks-center-american-progress-confederation-businessmen-and-in.html|publisher =[[U.S. Department of Commerce]]|access-date =13 November 2020}}</ref><ref name="Feldman2022">{{citation|author=[[Brian Feldman (politician)| Feldman, Brian]]|year=2022|url=https://www.facebook.com/BrianJeffreyFeldman/photos/a.205098992924823/3565112543590101/|publisher=[[Facebook]]|title=The District 15 Delegation will be making an appearance Thursday on a TV show which reaches over 2 million Turkish Americans as well as viewers in Turkey!|access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref><ref name=Şafak2009/><ref name="Lucena2022">{{citation|last=Lucena|first=Jorge|year=2022|title=MEET MURAD ISLAMOV: THE FOUNDER AND CEO OF MAYA BAGEL EXPRESS|url=https://flaunt.com/content/murad-islamov|publisher=[[Flaunt]]|quote=Over 3 million Turkish Americans live in various states across the united states. They have had a significant impact on the united states' culture, achievements, and history. |access-date=26 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326175348/https://flaunt.com/content/murad-islamov|archive-date=26 March 2022}}</ref><br />
| region6 = {{flagcountry|Netherlands}}<br />
| pop6 = 500,000 to over 2,000,000<br />
| ref6 = <ref name="Aalberseetal2019">{{citation|last1=Aalberse|first1=Suzanne|last2=Backus|first2=Ad|author3-link=:nl:Pieter Muysken|last3=Muysken, Pieter |year=2019|title=Heritage Languages: A language Contact Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ab-9DwAAQBAJ&q=the+Dutch+Turkish+community+over+the+years+must+have+numbered+half+a+million.&pg=PA90|page=90|publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]]|quote=the Dutch Turkish community... out of a population that over the years must have numbered half a million.|isbn=978-9027261762}}</ref><ref name="Tocci">{{citation|author-link=Nathalie Tocci|last=Tocci, Nathalie|year=2004|title=EU Accession Dynamics and Conflict Resolution: Catalysing Peace Or Consolidating Partition in Cyprus?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ndWzAAAAIAAJ&q=%22two+million+Turks+in+Holland%22|page=130|publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]]|quote=The Dutch government was concerned about Turkey's reaction to the European Council's conclusions on Cyprus, keeping in mind the presence of two million Turks in Holland and the strong business links with Turkey.|isbn=9780754643104}}</ref><ref name="vanVeen2007">{{citation|last=van Veen|first=Rita|year=2007|title='De koningin heeft oog voor andere culturen'|url=https://www.trouw.nl/nieuws/de-koningin-heeft-oog-voor-andere-culturen~be1cbe71/?referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F|publisher=[[Trouw]]|quote=Erol kan niet voor alle twee miljoen Turken in Nederland spreken, maar hij denkt dat Beatrix wel goed ligt bij veel van zijn landgenoten.|access-date=25 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412080206/https://www.trouw.nl/nieuws/de-koningin-heeft-oog-voor-andere-culturen~be1cbe71/?referrer=https://www.google.com/|archive-date=12 April 2021}}</ref><ref name="Baker2021">{{citation|last=Baker|first=Rauf|year=2021|title=The Netherlands: The EU's "New Britain"?|url=https://besacenter.org/netherlands-eu-gateway/|publisher=[[Begin–Sadat Center for Strategic Studies]], [[Bar-Ilan University]]|quote=The Netherlands, which has a total population of 17 million, contains around two million Turks,...}}</ref><br />
| region7 = {{flagcountry|France}}<br />
| pop7 = over 1,000,000<br />
| ref7 = <ref name=Hentz&Hasselmann2010>{{cite book|last1=Hentz|first1=Jean-Gustave|last2=Hasselmann|first2=Michel|year=2010|title=Transculturalité, religion, traditions autour de la mort en réanimation|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-2-287-99072-4_33|quote=La France d’aujourd’hui est une société multiculturelle et multiethnique riche de 4,9 millions de migrants représentant environ 8 % de la population du pays. L’immigration massive de populations du sud de l’Europe de culture catholique après la deuxième guerre mondiale a été suivie par l’arrivée de trois millions d’Africains du Nord, d’un million de Turcs et de contingents importants d’Afrique Noire et d’Asie qui ont implanté en France un islam majoritairement sunnite (Maghrébins et Africains de l’Ouest) mais aussi chiite (Pakistanais et Africains de l’Est).|publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer-Verlag France]]|doi=10.1007/978-2-287-99072-4_33|isbn=978-2-287-99072-4}}</ref><ref name=Gallard&Nguyen2020>{{citation|last1=Gallard|first1= Joseph|last2=Nguyen|first2=Julien|year=2020|title="Il est temps que la France appelle à de véritables sanctions contre le jeu d'Erdogan"|url=https://www.marianne.net/agora/tribunes-libres/il-est-temps-que-la-france-appelle-a-de-veritables-sanctions-contre-le-jeu-derdogan|publisher=[[Marianne (magazine)|Marianne]]|quote=... et ce grâce à la nombreuse diaspora turque, en particulier en France et en Allemagne. Ils seraient environ un million dans l'Hexagone, si ce n’est plus...es raisons derrière ne sont pas difficiles à deviner : l’immense population turque en Allemagne, estimée par Merkel elle-même aux alentours de sept millions et qui ne manquerait pas de se faire entendre si l’Allemagne prenait des mesures allant à l’encontre de la Turquie. |access-date=25 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214154041/https://www.marianne.net/agora/tribunes-libres/il-est-temps-que-la-france-appelle-a-de-veritables-sanctions-contre-le-jeu-derdogan|archive-date=14 February 2021}}</ref><ref name=Garriaud-Maylam2021>{{citation|year=2021|title=Contrat d'objectifs et de moyens (COM) 2020-2022 de France Médias Monde: Mme Joëlle Garriaud-Maylam, co-rapporteur|url=http://www.senat.fr/rap/r20-308/r20-3087.html|quote=Enfin, comme vous l'avez dit au sujet de la Turquie, il est essentiel que la France investisse davantage dans les langues qui sont parlées sur le territoire national. On recense plus d'un million de Turcs en France. Ils ne partagent pas toujours nos objectifs et nos valeurs, parce qu'ils subissent l'influence d'une presse qui ne nous est pas toujours très favorable. Il est donc très utile de les prendre en compte dans le développement de nos médias.|publisher=[[Senate (France)|Sénat]]|access-date=7 May 2021}}</ref><br />
| region8 = {{nowrap|{{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}}}<br />
| pop8 = 500,000{{smallsup|b}}<br />
| ref8 = <ref>{{cite news|work=The Guardian |title=UK immigration analysis needed on Turkish legal migration, say MPs|date=1 August 2011 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/aug/01/turkish-immigration-possibilities-assessed|access-date=1 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Federation of Turkish Associations UK|title=Short history of the Federation of Turkish Associations in UK |url=http://www.turkishfederationuk.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=31|date=19 June 2008|access-date=13 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110204634/http://www.turkishfederationuk.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=31|archive-date=10 January 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
| region9 = {{flagcountry|Austria}}<br />
| pop9 = 360,000–500,000<br />
| ref9 = <ref name="InitiativeMinderheiten">{{citation|year=2011|title=Warum die Türken?|url=https://homepage.univie.ac.at/sabine.strasser/stimme_78_editorial.pdf|publisher=[[:de:Initiative Minderheiten|Initiative Minderheiten]]|volume=78|quote=Was sind die Gründe für dieses massive Unbehagen angesichts von rund 360.000 Menschen türkischer Herkunft?|access-date=17 August 2021|archive-date=18 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118011455/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/sabine.strasser/stimme_78_editorial.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Mölzer">{{cite web|last=[[Andreas Mölzer|Mölzer, Andreas]]|title=In Österreich leben geschätzte 500.000 Türken, aber kaum mehr als 10–12.000 Slowenen|url=http://www.andreas-moelzer.at/index.php?id=24|access-date=30 October 2020|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225063611/http://www.andreas-moelzer.at/|archive-date=25 December 2018}}</ref><br />
| region10 = {{flagcountry|Belgium}}<br />
| pop10 = 250,000–500,000<br />
| ref10 = <ref>{{citation |last1=Manço|first1=Altay|last2=Taş|first2=Ertugrul|year=2019|title=Migrations Matrimoniales: Facteurs de Risque en Sante´ Mentale|page=444|url= |journal=[[The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry]]|volume=64|issue=6|publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]]|doi=10.1177/0706743718802800|pmid=30380909|pmc=6591757}}</ref><ref name="Debels2021">{{citation|author=[[:nl:Thierry Debels|Debels, Thierry]]|year=2021|title=Operatie Rebel: toen de Belgische heroïnehandel in Turkse handen was|url=https://pnws.be/operatie-rebel-toen-de-belgische-heroinehandel-in-turkse-handen-was/|quote=Volgens diverse bronnen zouden eerst een half miljoen Turken die toen in Belgie verbleven – Belgen van Turkse afkomst en aanverwanten – gescreend zijn.|publisher=PMagazine|access-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816145656/https://pnws.be/operatie-rebel-toen-de-belgische-heroinehandel-in-turkse-handen-was/|archive-date=16 August 2021}}</ref><br />
| region11 = {{flagcountry|Australia}}<br />
| pop11 = 320,000{{smallsup|c}}<br />
| ref11 = <ref name=Lennie>{{cite web|last=Lennie|first=Soraya|year=2017|title=Turkish diaspora in Australia vote in referendum|url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkish-diaspora-in-australia-vote-in-referendum-327290|publisher=[[TRT World]]|quote=An estimated 200,000 Turks live in Australia with most of them based in Melbourne's northern suburbs.|page=28|access-date=14 November 2020}}</ref><ref name=Vahdettinetal>{{citation|last1=Vahdettin|first1=Levent|last2=Aksoy|first2=Seçil|last3=Öz|first3=Ulaş|last4=Orhan|first4=Kaan|year=2016|title=Three-dimensional cephalometric norms of Turkish Cypriots using CBCT images reconstructed from a volumetric rendering program in vivo|publisher=[[Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey]]|quote=Recent estimates suggest that there are now 500,000 Turkish Cypriots living in Turkey, 300,000 in the United Kingdom, 120,000 in Australia, 5000 in the United States, 2000 in Germany, 1800 in Canada, and 1600 in New Zealand with a smaller community in South Africa.}}</ref><br />
| region12 = {{flagcountry|Kazakhstan}}<br />
| pop12 = 250,000{{smallsup|d}}<br />
| ref12 = <ref name="Karcı2018">{{citation|last=Karcı|first=Durmuş|year=2018|title=The Effects of Language Characters and Identity of Meskhetian Turkish in Kazakhstan|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1519899|journal=The Journal of Kesit Academy|volume=4|issue=13|pages=301–303}}</ref><br />
| region13 = {{flagcountry|Sweden}}<br />
| pop13 = 185,000{{smallsup|e}}<br />
| ref13 = <ref name="Sayıner">{{cite web|last=Sayıner|first=Arda|year=2018|title=Swedish touch in Turkey|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/history/2018/06/25/swedish-touch-in-turkey|publisher=[[Daily Sabah]]|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref><ref name="Laczko">{{citation|last1= Laczko|first1= Frank|last2=Stacher|first2=Irene|last3=Klekowski von Koppenfels|first3=Amanda|year=2002|title= New challenges for Migration Policy in Central and Eastern Europe|page=187|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-90-6704-153-9 }}</ref><ref name="Widding">{{cite web|last=Widding|first=Lars|title=Historik|url=http://www.prespabirlik.se/f%C3%B6reningen/historik|publisher=KSF Prespa Birlik|access-date=17 November 2020}}</ref><br />
| region14 = {{flagcountry|Russia}}<br />
| pop14 = 109,883–150,000<br />
| ref14 = <ref name=Russian2010census>{{cite web |author=Демоскоп Weekly |script-title=ru:Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 г. Национальный состав населения Российской Федерации |url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_10.php |access-date=30 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521170119/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_10.php |archive-date=21 May 2012}}</ref>{{sfn|Ryazantsev|2009|p=172}}<br />
| region15 = {{flagcountry|Azerbaijan}}<br />
| pop15 = 130,000{{smallsup|d}}<br />
| ref15 = <ref name="Karcı2018"/><br />
| region16 = {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}<br />
| pop16 = 120,000<br />
| ref16 = <ref>{{citation|year=2009|title=Schweizer Nein könnte Europa-Skeptiker stärken|url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/tuerkei-schweizer-nein-koennte-europa-skeptiker-staerken/1836640.html|quote=Dabei erwarten Vertreter der rund 120.000 Türken in der Schweiz nach dem Referendum keine gravierenden Änderungen in ihrem Alltag.|publisher=[[Der Tagesspiegel]]|access-date=26 May 2021}}</ref><br />
| region17 = {{flagcountry|Canada}}<br />
| pop17 = over 100,000<br />
| ref17 = <ref name="Aytac2018">{{citation|last=Aytaç|first=Seyit Ahmet|year=2018|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/life/shared-issues-stronger-ties-canadas-envoy-to-turkey/1332258#|title=Shared issues, stronger ties: Canada's envoy to Turkey|quote=Turkish diaspora of some 100,000 Turks largely in Toronto is growing, says Canadian Ambassador Chris Cooter{{nbsp}}... We have a growing Turkish diaspora and they're doing very well in Canada. We think it's 100,000, largely in Toronto. We have several thousand Turkish students in Canada as well.|publisher=[[Anadolu Agency]]|access-date=7 February 2021}}</ref><br />
| region18 = {{flagcountry|Denmark}}<br />
| pop18 = 70,000–75,000<br />
| ref18 = <ref name=Larsen2008>{{citation|last=Larsen|first=Nick Aagaard|year=2008|title=Tyrkisk afstand fra Islamisk Trossamfund|url=https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/indland/tyrkisk-afstand-fra-islamisk-trossamfund|publisher=[[DR (broadcaster)|Danish Broadcasting Corporation]]|quote=Ud af cirka 200.000 muslimer i Danmark har 70.000 tyrkiske rødder, og de udgør dermed langt den største muslimske indvandrergruppe.|access-date=1 November 2020}}</ref><ref name=Milliyet2015>{{citation|last=|first=|year=2015|title=Türk kadınının derdi Danimarka'da da aynı|url=https://www.milliyet.com.tr/gundem/turk-kadininin-derdi-danimarka-da-da-ayni-2046656|publisher=[[Milliyet]]|quote=Danimarka’da yaşayan 75 bin Türk nüfusunda,...|access-date=7 September 2021}}</ref><br />
| region19 = {{flagcountry|Kyrgyzstan}}<br />
| pop19 = 55,000{{smallsup|d}}<br />
| ref19 = <ref name="Karcı2018"/><br />
| region20 = {{flag|Italy}}<br />
| pop20 = 50,000<br />
| ref20 = <ref>{{citation|last=Seçkin|first=Barış|year=2020|title=İtalya'daki Türk vatandaşları Kovid-19 nedeniyle kayıp vermedi|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/italyadaki-turk-vatandaslari-kovid-19-nedeniyle-kayip-vermedi-/1813990|publisher=[[Anadolu Agency]]|quote=İtalya’da yaşayan 50 bin kadar Türk vatandaşının|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref><br />
| region21 = {{flagcountry|Uzbekistan}}<br />
| pop21 = 25,000{{smallsup|d}}<br />
| ref21 = <ref name="Karcı2018"/><br />
| region22 = {{flagcountry|Norway}}<br />
| pop22 = 16,500<br />
| ref22 = <ref>{{citation|year=2013|title=Norwegian-Turkish cooperation|url=https://www.royalcourt.no/nyhet.html?tid=118715|publisher=The Royal House of Norway|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref><br />
| region23 = {{flagcountry|Ukraine}}<br />
| pop23 = 8,844–15,000<br />
| ref23 = <ref name=census>{{cite web |author=State Statistics Service of Ukraine |title=Ukrainian Census (2001):The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue |url=http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/ |access-date=16 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501100907/http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/ |archive-date=1 May 2008}}</ref><ref name="Karcı2018"/><br />
| region24 = {{flagcountry|Turkmenistan}}<br />
| pop24 = 13,000<br />
| ref24 = <ref name=2012Turkmencensus>{{cite web|author=Asgabat|title=Национальный и религиозный состав населения Туркменистана сегодня|url=http://asgabat.net/stati/obschestvo/nacionalnyi-i-religioznyi-sostav-naselenija-turkmenistana-segodnja.html|access-date=27 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624062134/http://asgabat.net/stati/obschestvo/nacionalnyi-i-religioznyi-sostav-naselenija-turkmenistana-segodnja.html|archive-date=24 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
| region25 = {{flagcountry|Finland}}<br />
| pop25 = 10,000<br />
| ref25 = <ref>{{citation|last=Kütük|first=Zeki|year=2010|title=Finlandiya'da Yabancı Düşmanlığı, Sosyal Dışlanma ve Türk Diasporası|url=https://tasam.org/tr-TR/Icerik/4448/finlandiyada_yabanci_dusmanligi_sosyal_dislanma_ve_turk_diasporasi|quote=Toplam sayılarının 10 000 civarında olduğu tahmin edilen Türklerin...|publisher=[[:tr:TASAM|Türk Asya Stratejik Araştırmalar Merkezi]]|access-date=8 November 2020}}</ref><br />
| region26 = {{flagcountry|Poland}}<br />
| pop26 = 5,000<br />
| ref26 = <ref>{{citation|last=Pawłowska-Salińska|first=Katarzyna|year=2013|title=Nie pytaj Turka o kebab i język arabski|url=https://wyborcza.pl/1,75398,13642657,Nie_pytaj_Turka_o_kebab_i_jezyk_arabski.html?disableRedirects=true|publisher=[[Gazeta Wyborcza]]|quote=Turków jest w Polsce ok. 5 tys. – wynika z danych opracowanych przez Instytut Spraw Publicznych. |access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref><br />
| region27 = {{flagcountry|New Zealand}}<br />
| pop27 = 3,600–4,600{{smallsup|f}}<br />
| ref27 = <ref name=pif>{{cite web|url=http://pif.org.nz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73:question-how-many-turks-living-in-new-zealand-&catid=46:turkish-community&Itemid=79|title=How many Turks living in New Zealand?|publisher=Pearl of the Islands Foundation|access-date=29 October 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100513092537/http://pif.org.nz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73:question-how-many-turks-living-in-new-zealand-&catid=46:turkish-community&Itemid=79|archive-date=13 May 2010}}</ref><ref name=Vahdettinetal/><br />
| region28 = {{flagcountry|Ireland}}<br />
| pop28 = 2,000–3,000<br />
| ref28 = <ref>{{citation|last=Lacey|first=Jonathan|year=2007|url=http://www.translocations.ie/volume1issue2-8.pdf|title=Exploring the Transnational Engagements of a Turkic Religio-Cultural Community in Ireland|journal=Translocations: The Irish Migration, Race and Social Transformation Review|volume=1|issue=2|access-date=6 September 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721140752/http://www.translocations.ie/volume1issue2-8.pdf|archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref><br />
| region29 = {{flagcountry|Brazil}}<br />
| pop29 = 2,000-6,300<br />
| ref29 = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Imigrantes internacionais registrados no Brasil|url=https://www.nepo.unicamp.br/observatorio/bancointerativo/numeros-imigracao-internacional/sincre-sismigra/|access-date=20 August 2021|website=www.nepo.unicamp.br}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Imigrantes internacionais registrados no Brasil|url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/18274|access-date=7 July 2022}}</ref><br />
| region30 = {{flagcountry|Liechtenstein}}<br />
| pop30 = 1,000<br />
| ref30 = <ref>{{citation|year=2009|title=Bir masal ülkesinde yaşam öğretisi.|url=http://blog.milliyet.com.tr/bir-masal-ulkesinde-yasam-ogretisi/Blog/?BlogNo=166707|quote= Bu küçücük ülkede yaşayan 1000 Türk'ten...|publisher=[[Milliyet]]|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref><br />
| region31 = '''Turkish minorities in the Middle East:'''<br />
| pop31 = &nbsp;<!-- needed to force display of the header --><br />
| region32 = {{flagcountry|Iraq}}<br />
| pop32 = 3,000,000–5,000,000<br />
| ref32 = <ref name=Triana2017>{{citation |last=Triana|first=María|year=2017|title=Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VC4lDwAAQBAJ&dq=Iraqi+citizens+of+Turkish+origin&pg=PA168|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-317-42368-3|page=168 |quote=Turkmen, Iraqi citizens of Turkish origin, are the third largest ethnic group in Iraq after Arabs and Kurds and they are said to number about 3 million of Iraq's 34.7 million citizens according to the Iraqi Ministry of Planning.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Bassem|first=Wassim|year=2016|title=Iraq's Turkmens call for independent province|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/10/turkmens-iraq-mosul-tal-afar.html|publisher=[[Al-Monitor]]|quote=Turkmens are a mix of Sunnis and Shiites and are the third-largest ethnicity in Iraq after Arabs and Kurds, numbering about 3 million out of the total population of about 34.7 million, according to 2013 data from the Iraqi Ministry of Planning.|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017222707/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/10/turkmens-iraq-mosul-tal-afar.html|archive-date=17 October 2016}}</ref><ref name=Tastekin2018>{{cite web|last=Tastekin|first=Fehim|year=2018|title=Why Iraqi Turkmens are excluded from the new government|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2018/10/turkey-iraq-new-administration-excludes-turkmens.html|publisher=[[Al-Monitor]]|quote=Turkmens are said to be 10-13% of the overall Iraqi population [i.e. 4 to 5 million out of a total population of 40 million], but that ratio is not reflected in parliament.|access-date=12 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912125910/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2018/10/turkey-iraq-new-administration-excludes-turkmens.html|archive-date=12 September 2021}}</ref><br />
| region33 = {{flagcountry|Syria}}<br />
| pop33 = 1,000,000–1,700,000{{smallsup|g}}<br />
| ref33 = <ref name=Taef2005>{{cite journal |last=Taef |first=El-Azhari |year=2005 |title=The Turkmen Identity Crisis in the fifteenth-century Middle East: The Turkmen-Turkish Struggle for Supremacy |url=http://acta.bibl.u-szeged.hu/5799/1/chronica_005_097-107.pdf|quote=The Turkmen were always the forgotten minority in the area despite their large population. In the absence of official records, their numbers cannot be calculated, but it is widely accepted that they exceed three millions in Iraq, and one million in Syria and other countries.|journal=Chronica |volume=5 |access-date=9 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143728/http://acta.bibl.u-szeged.hu/5799/1/chronica_005_097-107.pdf |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Aikman">{{citation |last=Aikman|first=David|year=2014|title=The Mirage of Peace: Understand The Never-Ending Conflict in the Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIwXBQAAQBAJ&dq=There+is+also+about+1.7+million+Turks+in+Syria&pg=PT35|publisher=[[Baker Publishing Group]]|quote=There is also about 1.7 million Turks in Syria, and about 800,000 Druze,...|isbn=9781441223555}}</ref><br />
| region34 = {{flagcountry|Libya}}<br />
| pop34 = 1,000,000–1,400,000{{smallsup|h}}<br />
| ref34 = <ref>{{cite web|last=Rashad|first=Sarah|year=2020|title=Kouloughlis: Turkey's bridge to intervention in Libya|url=https://www.thereference-paris.com/9263|publisher=Centre d'Etudes Moyen-Orient (CEMO)|access-date=19 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Scipione|first=Alessandro|year=2019|title=Libia, la mappa dei combattenti stranieri|url=https://it.insideover.com/guerra/libia-la-mappa-dei-combattenti-stranieri.html|publisher=Inside Over|access-date=26 September 2019|quote=La Turchia peraltro può vantare in Livia una numerosa comunità dei “Koroglu” (i libici di discendenza turca) che conterrebbe ben 1,4 milioni di individui, concentrati soprattutto a Misurata, la “città-Stato” situata circa 180 chilometri a est di Tripoli: praticamente meno un libico su quattro in Libia ha origini turche.}}</ref><br />
| region35 = {{flagcountry|Egypt}}<br />
| pop35 = 100,000–1,500,000<br />
| ref35 = <ref>{{citation|last=Gamal|first=Gamal|title=Did the Turks sweeten Egypt's kitty? |publisher=[[Al-Ahram Weekly]]|url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/16549.aspx|quote=Today, the number of ethnic Turks in Egypt varies considerably, with estimates ranging from 100,000 to 1,500,000. Most have intermingled in Egyptian society and are almost indistinguishable from non-Turkish Egyptians, even though a considerable number of Egyptians of Turkish origin are bilingual.|access-date=1 May 2018}}</ref><br />
| region36 = {{flagcountry|Lebanon}}<br />
| pop36 = 280,000{{smallsup|i}}<br />
| ref36 = <ref name=Al-Akhbar><br />
{{cite web|author=Al-Akhbar|title=Lebanese Turks Seek Political and Social Recognition|url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/lebanese-turks-seek-political-and-social-recognition|access-date=2 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620232105/https://english.al-akhbar.com/content/lebanese-turks-seek-political-and-social-recognition|publisher=[[Al Akhbar (Lebanon)|Al Akhbar]]|quote=Erdogan's envoys were surprised to find out that Turks who immigrated 100 years ago today number nearly 80,000.|archive-date=20 June 2018|url-status=dead}}<br />
</ref><ref name=tbmm>{{cite web|year=2018|title=Suriye Türkmenlerinin sorunlarına ilişkin gündem dışı konuşması|url=https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/develop/owa/genel_kurul.cl_getir?pEid=68928|quote= Yaklaşık olarak 200 bin Türkmen'in Lübnan'da yaşadığı tahmin edilmektedir.|publisher=[[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]|access-date=17 December 2020}}</ref><br />
| region37 = {{flagcountry|Saudi Arabia}}<br />
| pop37 = 270,000–350,000<br />
| ref37 = {{sfn|Akar|1993|p=95}}{{sfn|Karpat|2004|p=12}}<br />
| region38 = {{flagcountry|Yemen}}<br />
| pop38 = 10,000-100,000<br />
| ref38 = <ref name="NGOs">{{citation|publisher= Union of NGOs of The Islamic World|year=2014|title=Yemen Raporu|page=26|quote=Bu noktadan hareketle, bölgede yaklaşık 10 bin ila 100 bin arasında Türk asıllı vatandaş bulunduğu tahmin edilmektedir.}}</ref><br />
| region39 = {{flagcountry|Jordan}}<br />
| pop39 = 50,000<br />
| ref39 = <ref>{{cite web|last=Alaca|first=Mehmet |year=2019 |title='Ürdün'de Kadim Türk Varlığı ve Akraba Topluluklar' raporu tanıtıldı|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/turkiye/urdunde-kadim-turk-varligi-ve-akraba-topluluklar-raporu-tanitildi/1515642|publisher=[[Anadolu Agency]]|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref><br />
| region40 = '''Turkish minorities in the Balkans:'''<br />
| pop40 = &nbsp;<!-- needed to force display of the header --><br />
| region41 = {{flagcountry|Bulgaria}}<br />
| pop41 = 588,318–800,000<br />
| ref41 = <ref>{{cite web|author=National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria|year=2011|title=2011 Population Census in the Republic of Bulgaria (Final data)|publisher=National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria |url=http://www.nsi.bg/census2011/PDOCS2/Census2011final_en.pdf}}</ref><ref name=Karakulaketal2018>{{citation|last1=Aydinli-Karakulak|first1=Arzu|last2=Baylar|first2=Ayben|last3=Keleş|first3=Seray Çağla|last4=Dimitrova|first4=Radosveta |year=2018|chapter=Positive Affect and School Related Outcomes: Feeling Good Facilitates School Engagement Among Turkish-Bulgarian Minority Adolescents|title=Well-Being of Youth and Emerging Adults across Cultures: Novel Approaches and Findings from Europe, Asia, Africa and America|editor1-last=Dimitrova|editor1-first=Radosveta|chapter-url=|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|page=149|quote=Turks in Bulgaria represent the largest ethnic minority group in the country, constituting almost 10% of Bulgaria's seven million total population,...|isbn=9783319683638}}</ref>{{sfn|Bokova|2010|p=170}}<br />
| region42 = {{flagcountry|North Macedonia}}<br />
| pop42 = 77,959–200,000<br />
| ref42 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.gov.mk/pdf/kniga_13.pdf|title=Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Macedonia, 2002|year=2005|publisher=Republic of Macedonia – State Statistical Office |access-date=12 December 2017}}</ref><ref name=Knowlton2020>{{citation|last1=Knowlton|first1=MaryLee|last2=Nevins|first2=Debbie|year=2020|title=North Macedonia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7j0mEAAAQBAJ&dq=turks+in+macedonia+second+largest&pg=PA63|publisher=Cavendish Square Publishing|quote=The Turks are the second largest national minority in Macedonia. Like other ethnic groups, they claim higher numbers than the census shows, somewhere between 170,000 and 200,000.|isbn=9781502655905}}</ref><br />
| region43 = {{flagcountry|Greece}}<br />
| pop43 = 49,000–130,000<br />
| ref43 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.minelres.lv/reports/greece/greece_NGO.htm|title=GREEK HELSINKI MONITOR|website=Minelres.lv|access-date=12 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eurfedling.org/Greece.htm|title=Demographics of Greece|work=European Union National Languages|access-date=19 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/g/greece/greece908.pdf|title=Destroying Ethnic Identity: The Turks of Greece|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|access-date=3 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/greece/Greec991-04.htm|title=Turks Of Western Thrace|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|access-date=3 January 2018}}</ref><br />
| region44 = {{flagcountry|Romania}}<br />
| pop44 = 28,226–80,000<br />
| ref44 = <ref>{{citation|last=National Institute of Statistics|year=2011|url=http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Comunicat_DATE_PROVIZORII_RPL_2011.pdf|title=Comunicat de presă privind rezultatele provizorii ale Recensământului Populaţiei şi Locuinţelor – 2011|publisher=Romania-National Institute of Statistics|page=10|access-date=14 May 2012|archive-date=2 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802060014/http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Comunicat_DATE_PROVIZORII_RPL_2011.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Phinnemore |first=David|year=2006|title=The EU and Romania: accession and beyond |publisher=The Federal Trust for Education & Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HU1pAAAAMAAJ&q=Today,+there+are+around+55,000+Turks+living+in+Romania|quote=Today, there are around 55,000 Turks living in Romania and they are represented as a minority in parliament.|isbn= 978-1-903403-78-5|page=157}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Constantin |first1=Daniela L.|last2=Goschin |first2=Zizi|last3=Dragusin |first3=Mariana|year=2008|title=Ethnic entrepreneurship as an integration factor in civil society and a gate to religious tolerance. A spotlight on Turkish entrepreneurs in Romania|quote=The significant Turkish population living in Romania (nearly 80,000 members, including immigrants)...|journal=Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies|volume=7 |issue=20|page=59}}</ref><br />
| region45 = {{flagcountry|Kosovo}}<br />
| pop45 = 18,738–60,000<br />
| ref45 = <ref>2011 census in the Republic of Kosovo.{{full citation needed|date=July 2021}}</ref><ref name=OSCE2010>{{citation |last=OSCE|year=2010|chapter-url=http://www.osce.org/kosovo/75450|chapter=Community Profile: Kosovo Turks|title=Kosovo Communities Profile|page=3|quote=Approximately 30,000 Kosovo Turks live in Kosovo today, while up to 250,000 people from different Kosovo communities speak or at least understand the Turkish language...The Turkish language has been granted official language status in the municipalities of Prizren and Vushtrri/ Vučitrn.|publisher=Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Kibaroğlu|first1= Mustafa|last2=Kibaroğlu|first2=Ayșegül|year=2009|title=Global Security Watch—Turkey: A Reference Handbook|url=|page=107|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|quote=Turks themselves are also an important ethnic minority in the region... In Kosovo, their number is estimated to be around 60,000... |isbn=9780313345609}}</ref><br />
| region46 = {{flagcountry|Bosnia}}<br />
| pop46 = 1,108<br />
| ref46 = <ref name="popis">"[http://www.popis.gov.ba/popis2013/knjige.php?id=2 1. Stanovništvo prema etničkoj/nacionalnoj pripadnosti – detaljna klasifikacija] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620181203/http://www.popis.gov.ba/popis2013/knjige.php?id=2 |date=20 June 2018 }}". ''Popis.gov.ba''.</ref><br />
| region47 = {{flagcountry|Albania}}<br />
| pop47 = 714<br />
| ref47 = <ref name="2011Albaniancensus">{{cite web|year=2012|title=Population and Housing Census 2011|url=http://www.instat.gov.al/media/177354/main_results__population_and_housing_census_2011.pdf|page=72|publisher=[[Institute of Statistics (Albania)]] |access-date=2 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141114073838/http://www.instat.gov.al/media/177354/main_results__population_and_housing_census_2011.pdf |archive-date=14 November 2014 }}</ref><br />
| region48 = {{flagcountry|Serbia}}<br />
| pop48 = 647<br />
| ref48 = <ref name="2011Serbiancensus">{{cite web|year=2012|title=Попис становништва, домаћинстава и станова 2011. у Републици Србији|url=https://publikacije.stat.gov.rs/G2012/Pdf/G201218001.pdf|page=2|publisher=[[Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia]]|access-date=12 September 2021}}</ref><br />
| region49 = {{flagcountry|Croatia}}<br />
| pop49 = 367<br />
| ref49 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dzs.hr/Hrv/censuses/census2011/results/htm/usp_03_HR.htm |title=Stanovništvo prema narodnosti, popisi 1971. – 2011. |language=hr |access-date=22 November 2015}}</ref><br />
| region50 = {{flagcountry|Montenegro}}<br />
| pop50 = 104<br />
| ref50 = <ref name="Monstat">{{cite web |author=Statistical Office of Montenegro|title=Population of Montenegro by sex, type of settlement, etnicity<!--sic-->, religion and mother tongue, per municipalities|url=http://www.monstat.org/userfiles/file/popis2011/saopstenje/saopstenje(1).pdf|page=7|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref><br />
| languages = [[Turkish language|Turkish]]<br />
| religions = Majority [[Islam]] (practising and [[Cultural Muslims|non-practising]]), mostly [[Sunni]], followed by [[Alevi]] or [[non-denominational Muslim|non-denominational]].<br/>Minority [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]].<br/>Many also irreligious.<br />
| footnotes = {{smallsup|a}} Approximately 200,000 are [[Turkish Cypriots]] and the remainder are [[Turkish settlers in Northern Cyprus|Turkish settlers]].<ref name=Mayer2010/><br/>{{smallsup|b}} Turkish Cypriots form 300,000<ref>{{citation|last1=Freeman|first1=Michael|last2=Ellena|first2=Katherine|last3=Kator-Mubarez|first3=Amina|year=2021|title=The Global Spread of Islamism and the Consequences for Terrorism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0uAMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83|quote=there are now around 300,000 Turkish Cypriots in the United Kingdom.|page=83|publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]]|isbn=9781640124165}}</ref> to 400,000<ref>{{citation|last=Scott-Geddes|first=Arthur|year=2019|title=London's Turkish restaurants take a hit in uncertain times|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/europe/london-s-turkish-restaurants-take-a-hit-in-uncertain-times-1.930386|quote=Almost 90 per cent of the UK's Turkish population lives in London, including as many as 400,000 Turkish Cypriots concentrated in areas of north and north-east London including Hackney, Enfield and Haringey.|publisher=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]]|access-date=10 January 2021}}</ref> of the [[British Turks|Turkish-British]] population. Mainland Turks are the next largest group, followed by [[Turkish Bulgarians]] and [[Turks in Romania|Turkish Romanians]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Home Affairs Committee|date=1 August 2011|title=Implications for the Justice and Home Affairs area of the accession of Turkey to the European Union|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201012/cmselect/cmhaff/789/789.pdf|publisher=The Stationery Office|page=Ev 34|access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref> Turkish minorities have also settled from Iraq,<ref name="International Organization for Migration loc=5">{{cite web|author=International Organization for Migration|url=http://www.iomlondon.org/doc/mapping/IOM_IRAQ.pdf|title=Iraq: Mapping exercise|location=London|date=2007|access-date=3 July 2010|publisher=International Organization for Migration|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716163637/http://www.iomlondon.org/doc/mapping/IOM_IRAQ.pdf|archive-date=16 July 2011|page=5}}</ref> Greece,<ref name="ABTTF">{{citation|title=Avrupa'da Batı Trakya Batı Trakya Türkleri Gerçeği ve Avrupa Batı Trakya Türk Federasyonu|url=https://www.abttf.org/about.php?id=79|quote=Avustralya ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri, Kanada gibi uzak ülkelerin dışında aralarında Hollanda, İngiltere, İsveç, Fransa, Belçika ve Avusturya gibi ülkelerde de sayısı yadsınamayacak bir Batı Trakyalı Türk kitlesi yaşamaktadır.|publisher=Avrupa Batı Trakya Türk Federasyonu|access-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511122835/https://www.abttf.org/about.php?id=79|archive-date=11 May 2021}}</ref> etc.<br/>{{smallsup|c}} [[Turkish Australians]] include 200,000 mainland Turks,<ref name=Lennie/> 120,000 Turkish Cypriots,<ref name=Vahdettinetal /> and smaller Turkish groups from Bulgaria,<ref name="Maeva2008">{{citation|last=Maeva|first=Mila|year=2008|chapter=Modern Migration Waves of Bulgarian Turks|title=Dynamics of National Identity and Transnational Identities in the Process of European Integration|editor-last=Marushiakova|editor-first=Elena|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|pages=227–229|isbn=9781847184719}}</ref> Greece,<ref name="Inglisetal">{{citation |last=Inglis|first=K. S.|year=2008|title=Sacred Places: War Memorials in the Australian Landscape|page=108|publisher=The Miegunyah Press|isbn=978-0-522-85479-4}}</ref> North Macedonia,<ref name="Inglisetal" /> Syria,<ref name="Crowe 2015">{{cite news |last=Crowe |first=David |year=2015 |title=First Syrian refugees here for Christmas: Tony Abbott |url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/in-depth/europes-migrant-crisis/first-syrian-refugees-here-for-christmas-tony-abbott/news-story/ea0107b2fe83cb96c9f8367457c99ffd |publisher=[[The Australian]] |access-date=15 July 2018}}</ref> and Western Europe.<ref name="Inglisetal" /><br/>{{smallsup|d}} These figures only include [[Meskhetian Turks|Turkish Meskhetians]]. Official censuses are considered unreliable because many Turks have incorrectly been registered as "Azeri",<ref>{{citation |mode=cs1 |title=Meskhetian Turks: Solutions and Human Security |chapter=Chapter Two: Contemporary Conditions and Dilemmas |chapter-url=http://www.osi.hu/fmp/html/mesktwo.html |first=Arthur C. |last=Helton |publisher=Open Society Institute |year=1998 |access-date=17 January 2012|quote=An estimated 20,000 to 25,000 Meskhetian Turks settled in Azerbaijan between 1958 and 1962. The inflow continued over the years, although pinpointing precise numbers is difficult because many were officially registered as Azerbaijani. Vatan leaders in Azerbaijan asserted that close to 40,000 Meskhetian Turks were living in the republic in 1989, the time of the last Soviet census. Those numbers were then augmented by the more than 45,000 who arrived in Azerbaijan to escape the Uzbekistan troubles. Up to 5,000 more have come to Azerbaijan from Russia during the 1990s, according to some estimates.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070415043834/http://www.osi.hu/fmp/html/mesktwo.html |archive-date=15 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=UNHCR|year=1999|title=Background Paper on Refugees and Asylum Seekers from Azerbaijan|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/3ae6a6504.pdf|publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|page=14}}</ref> "Kazakh",<ref name="Khazanov202">{{citation |last=Khazanov|first=Anatoly Michailovich|year=1995|title=After the USSR: Ethnicity, Nationalism and Politics in the Commonwealth of Independent States|quote=Because of the high birthrates their number is constantly increasing and, according to sources, has already reached 400,000. ... It is true that the last Soviet census of 1989 gives a lower figure – 207,369; however, one should take into account that far from all Meskhetian Turks have been registered as such. For years many were even denied the right to register their nationality in legal documents. Thus, by 1988 in Kazakhstan, only one third of them were recorded as Turks on their passports. The rest had been arbitrarily declared members of other ethnic groups.|page=202|publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]]|isbn=978-0-299-14894-2}}</ref> "Kyrgyz",<ref name="Aydıngün1">{{harvnb|Aydıngün|Harding|Hoover|Kuznetsov|2006}}: This figure, however, does not reflect the real population of Meskhetian Turks, because Soviet authorities recorded many of them as belonging to other nationalities such as Azeri, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, and Uzbek."</ref> and "Uzbek".<ref name="Aydıngün1" /><br/>{{smallsup|e}} The [[Turks in Sweden|Turkish Swedish]] community includes 150,000 mainland Turks,<ref name="Sayıner" /> 30,000 Turkish Bulgarians,<ref name="Laczko" /> 5,000 Turkish Macedonians,<ref name="Widding" /> and smaller groups from Iraq and Syria.<br/>{{smallsup|f}} Including 2,000–3,000 mainland Turks<ref name=pif /> and 1,600 Turkish Cypriots.<ref name=Vahdettinetal/><br/>{{smallsup|g}} This includes the Turkish-speaking minority only (i.e. 30% of [[Syrian Turkmen|Syrian Turks]]).<ref name=Khalifa2013 /> Estimates including the [[Arabized]] Turks range between 3.5 to 6 million.<ref name="Piccinin">{{citation |author=[[:fr:Pierre Piccinin da Prata|Piccinin, Pierre]]|year=2011|title=Après avoir été sur le terrain|publisher=[[La Libre Belgique]]|quote=Les Turcomans pratiquant exclusivement leur dialecte turc sont 1 500 000. L'ensemble des Turcomans de Syrie (y compris ceux qui ont adopté l'arabe comme langue usuelle), sont estimés entre 3,5 et 6 millions, soit de 15 à 20 % de la population. C'est le troisième groupe de population en importance.}}</ref><br/>{{smallsup|h}} Includes the [[Kouloughlis]] who are descendants of the old Turkish ruling class.<ref name=Ahmida2011>{{citation|last=Ahmida|first= Ali Abdullatif|year=2011|title=The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance, Second Edition|quote=The majority of the population came from Turkish, Arab Berber, or black backgrounds, in addition to the religious minorities... Some inhabitants, like the Cologhli, were descendants of the old Turkish ruling class...|page=44|publisher=[[State University of New York]]|isbn=9781438428932}}</ref><br/>{{smallsup|i}} Includes 80,000 [[Turks in Lebanon|Turkish Lebanese]]<ref name=Al-Akhbar/> and 200,000 recent refugees from Syria.<ref name=tbmm /><br />
| related = [[Azerbaijanis]],<ref name=barthold>{{harvp|Barthold|1962}}""The book of my grandfather Korkut" ("Kitab-i dedem Korkut") is an outstanding monument of the medieval Oghuz heroic epic. Three modern Turkic-speaking peoples - Turkmens, Azerbaijanis and Turks - are ethnically and linguistically related to the medieval Oghuzes. For all these peoples, the epic legends deposited in the "Book of Korkut" represent an artistic reflection of their historical past."</ref> [[Turkmens]]<ref name="barthold"/>}}<br />
<br />
'''Turkish people''' or '''Turks''' ({{lang-tr|Türkler}}) are a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic people]] native to [[Anatolia]] who speak [[Turkish dialects|various dialects]] of the [[Turkish language]] and form a majority in [[Turkey]] and [[Northern Cyprus]]. In addition, centuries-old [[Turkish communities and minorities in the former Ottoman Empire|ethnic Turkish communities]] still live across other former territories of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Article 66 of the [[Turkish Constitution]] defines a "Turk" as: "Anyone who is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship." While the legal use of the term "Turkish" as it pertains to a [[citizenship|citizen]] of Turkey is different from the term's ethnic definition,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Akgönül|first1=Samim|translator=Sila Okur|title=The minority concept in the Turkish context: practices and perceptions in Turkey, Greece, and France |date=2013|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden |isbn=978-9004222113|page=136|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a87kwv3fzicC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bayir|first1=Derya|title=Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law|isbn=978-1317095798 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_skFDAAAQBAJ|date=22 April 2016}}</ref> the majority of the Turkish population (an estimated 70 to 75 percent) are of Turkish ethnicity.<ref name="CIATurkey">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey/|title=Turkey|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=12 December 2017|archive-date=10 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110073821/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Turkey Demographics |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/turkey-population |website=World Population Review |access-date=26 September 2022}}</ref> The vast majority of Turks are [[Muslims]] and follow the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and [[Alevism|Alevi]] faith.<ref name="Mayer2010" /><br />
<br />
The ethnic Turks can therefore be distinguished by a number of cultural and regional variants, but do not function as separate ethnic groups.<ref name="Nyropetal1973">{{citation|last1=Nyrop|first1=Richard F.|last2=Benderly|first2=Beryl Lieff |last3=Cover|first3=Willian W.|last4=Cutter|first4=Melissa J.|last5=Evin|first5=Ahmet Ö.|last6=Parker|first6=Newton B.|last7=Teleki|first7=Suzanne|year=1973|title=Area Handbook for the Republic of Turkey|journal=Pamphlet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qHUsAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22Anatolian+Turks%22+%22Rumelian+Turks%22+%22Black+Sea+Turks%22&pg=PA102|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office]]|quote=Among the Turks may be distinguished a number of regional variants that do not function as ethnic groups but merely reflect differing historical and ecological circumstances. To some extent, differences of accent, customs, and outlook distinguish the regions and are popularly expressed in regional stereotypes. Three of the most important of these variants are Anatolian Turks, the peasantry of central core of Asiatic Turkey, whose culture is said to underlie Turkish nationalism; Rumelian Turks, primarily immigrants from Balkan territories of the empire of their descendants; and central Asian Turks, the assorted Turkic tibesmen from Asia who have come to Turkey. Others, such as the Black Sea Turks, whose speech largely lacks the vowel harmony valued elsewhere and whose natural predilections are thought to be toward extremely devout religion and the sea, are also distinguished.|volume=550|issue=80|issn=0892-8541}}</ref><ref name="Mayer2010">{{citation|author=[[Ann Elizabeth Mayer|Mayer, Ann Elizabeth]]|year=2010|chapter=Turks|title=The Contemporary Middle East: A Westview Reader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KHM7AQAAIAAJ&q=%22Turkish+Cypriots%22+%22rumelian+turks%22|publisher=[[Westview Press]]|quote=Generally, they speak Turkish as a primary language, are Muslims (90% are Sunni), claim a Turkish heritage... Four groups of Turks can be identified through cultural and geographic differences. First, the Anatolian Turks in Asia Minor...Second, the Rumelian Turks (from Rum, meaning "Roman", or European) are European Turks who remained in Europe after the Ottoman days... Third are descendants of Turks who stayed in various parts of the Middle East separated from the Ottoman Empire after World War I. Fourth are some 200,000 Turkish Cypriots...|page=27|isbn=9780813344652}}</ref> In particular, the culture of the Anatolian Turks in [[Asia Minor]] has underlain and influenced the [[Turkish nationalism|Turkish nationalist]] ideology.<ref name="Nyropetal1973" /> Other Turkish groups include the [[Balkan Turks|Rumelian Turks]] (also referred to as "Balkan Turks") historically located in the [[Balkans]];<ref name="Mayer2010" /><ref name="Şimşir1989">{{citation|last=Şimşir|first=Bilal|year=1989|title=The Turks of Bulgaria, 1878–1985|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QJM_wkv41icC&q=%22Balkan+Turks%22+%22Anatolian+Turks%22|journal=Turkish Quarterly Review Digest|volume=3|issue=15|quote=The Balkan Turks and the Anatolian Turks together constituted the core of the Ottoman Empire and its founding element.|page=6|publisher=[[:tr:Basın-Yayın ve Enformasyon Genel Müdürlüğü|Directorate General of Press and Information]]}}</ref> [[Turkish Cypriots]] on the island of Cyprus, [[Turkish Meskhetians|Meskhetian Turks]] originally based in [[Meskheti]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]];<ref name="Cornell2005">{{citation|last=Cornell|first=Svante E.|year=2005|title=Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_qQAgAAQBAJ&dq=Rather%2C+Turkey+wants+these+minority+groups%2C+perhaps+for+strategic+reasons%2C+to+remain+in+or+return+to+their+ancestral+lands.&pg=PA171|page=171|publisher=[[Routledge]]|quote=Many Georgians have advocated that the Meskhetian Turks should be sent to Turkey, 'where they belong'. The Turkish authorities have, nevertheless, been reluctant to accept them, probably as they are afraid of experiencing a massive migration of ethnic Turks from different parts of the Balkans, the Middle East and the CIS. Other examples are that Turks in Western Thrace and Bulgaria, as well as Turkish Cypriots, face difficulties in obtaining Turkish citizenship. Rather, Turkey wants these minority groups, perhaps for strategic reasons, to remain in or return to their ancestral lands.|isbn=9781135796693}}</ref> and ethnic Turkish people across the [[Middle East]],<ref name="Mayer2010" /> where they are also called "Turkmen" or "Turkoman" in the [[Levant]] (e.g., [[Iraqi Turkmen]], [[Syrian Turkmen]], [[Lebanese Turkmen]], etc.).<ref name="Saatçi 2018 loc=331">{{citation|last=Saatçi|first=Suphi|year=2018|chapter=The Turkman of Iraq|title=Linguistic Minorities in Turkey and Turkic-Speaking Minorities of the Periphery|editor1-last=Bulut|editor1-first=Christiane|page=331|publisher=[[Harrassowitz Verlag]]|isbn=978-3447107235}}</ref> Consequently, the Turks form the largest minority group in [[Bulgaria]],<ref name="Karakulaketal2018" /> the second largest minority group in [[Iraq]],<ref name=Triana2017>{{citation |last=Triana|first=María|year=2017|title=Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VC4lDwAAQBAJ&dq=Iraqi+citizens+of+Turkish+origin&pg=PA168|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-317-42368-3|page=168 |quote=Turkmen, Iraqi citizens of Turkish origin, are the third largest ethnic group in Iraq after Arabs and Kurds and they are said to number about 3 million of Iraq's 34.7 million citizens according to the Iraqi Ministry of Planning.}}</ref> [[Libya]],<ref name="Pan 1949">{{citation |last=Pan|first=Chia-Lin|year=1949|title=The Population of Libya|journal=Population Studies|volume=3|issue=1|pages=100–125|doi=10.1080/00324728.1949.10416359}}</ref> [[North Macedonia]],<ref name="Knowlton2020" /> and [[Syria]],<ref name="Khalifa2013">{{citation|last=Khalifa|first=Mustafa|year=2013|title=The impossible partition of Syria|url=https://www.arab-reform.net/en/node/510|pages=3–5|journal=[[Arab Reform Initiative]]|quote=Turkmen are the third largest ethnic group in Syria, making up around 4–5% of the population. Some estimations indicate that they are the second biggest group, outnumbering Kurds, drawing on the fact that Turkmen are divided into two groups: the rural Turkmen who make up 30% of the Turkmen in Syria and who have kept their mother tongue, and the urban Turkmen who have become Arabized and no longer speak their mother language.|access-date=27 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091448/https://www.arab-reform.net/en/node/510|archive-date=27 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and the third largest minority group in [[Kosovo]].<ref name="OSCE2010" /> They also form substantial communities in the [[Western Thrace]] region of [[Greece]], the [[Dobruja]] region of [[Romania]], the [[Akkar]] region in [[Lebanon]], as well as minority groups in other post-Ottoman Balkan and Middle Eastern countries. Mass immigration due to fleeing ethnic cleansing after the [[Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction|persecution of Muslims during Ottoman contraction]] has led to mass migrations from the 19th century onward; these Turkish communities have all contributed to the formation of a [[Turkish diaspora]] outside the former Ottoman lands. Approximately 2 million Turks were massacred between 1870–1923 and those who escaped it settled in Turkey as [[muhacir]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Biondich |first=Mark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gt8SDAAAQBAJ&q=Muslims+casualties+millions+Balkans&pg=PA93 |title=The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence Since 1878 |date=2011-02-17 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-929905-8 |language=en |quote=In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gibney |first1=Matthew J. |url=http://archive.org/details/immigrationasylu00matt |title=Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present |last2=Hansen |first2=Randall |date=2005 |publisher=Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-1-57607-796-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Howard |first=Douglas A. (Douglas Arthur) |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofturkey00doug |title=The history of Turkey |date=2001 |publisher=Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-313-30708-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KttAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Turks+were+massacred%22 |title=The Middle East, Abstracts and Index |date=1999 |publisher=Northumberland Press |language=en}}</ref> The mass immigration of Turks also led to them forming the largest ethnic minority group in [[Austria]],<ref>{{citation|year=2008|chapter=Austria|title=Annual Report on International Religious Freedom 2007, February 2008, 110–2 Report|page=253|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office]]|quote=By far the largest ethnic group is Turkish, of which 123,000 have Turkish citizenship, Many more ethnic Turks are Austrian citizens.}}</ref> [[Denmark]],<ref name="Liversage2013">{{citation|last=Liversage|first=Anika|year=2013|chapter=Transnational Families Breaking Up: Divorce among Turkish Immigrants in Denmark|editor-last=Charsley|editor-first=Katharine|title=Transnational Marriage: New Perspectives from Europe and Beyond|page=146|publisher=[[Routledge]]|quote=Turkish immigrants began arriving in Denmark in the late 1960s. After subsequent family migration, people of Turkish descent now make up the largest ethnic minority group in Denmark.|isbn=9781136279744}}</ref> [[Germany]],<ref name="Friedrichsetal2012">{{citation|last1=Friedrichs|first1=Jürgen|last2=Klöckner|first2=Jennifer|last3=Şen|first3=Mustafa|last4=de Witte|first4=Nynke|year=2012|chapter=Turkish Islamic Organisations: A Comparative Study in Germany, the Netherlands and Turkey|title=Faith-based Organisations and Exclusion in European Cities|editor1-last=Beaumon|editor1-first=Justin|editor2-last=Cloke|editor-first2=Paul J.|page=219|quote=Turks are the largest immigrant group in both Germany and the Netherlands.|publisher=[[Policy Press]]|isbn=9781847428349}}</ref> and the [[Netherlands]].<ref name="Friedrichsetal2012" /> There are also [[Turks in Europe|Turkish communities in other parts of Europe]] as well as in [[North America]], [[Australia]] and the [[Post-Soviet states]]. Turks are the 13th largest ethnic group in the world.<br />
<br />
Turks from [[Central Asia]] settled in [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century, through the conquests of the [[Seljuk Turks]]. This began the transformation of the region, which had been a largely Greek-speaking region after previously being Hellenized, into a Turkish Muslim one.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davison |first1=Roderic H. |title=Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774–1923: The Impact of the West |date=2013 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0292758940 |pages=3–4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQvUAAAAQBAJ |access-date=22 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806173413/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQvUAAAAQBAJ |archive-date=6 August 2018 |url-status=live |quote=So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek.}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Turkey |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Developing World, Volume 3 |year=2006 |last=Leonard |first=Thomas M. |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781579583880 |page=1576 |quote=Subsequently, Hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Sahadeo|first1=Jeff|last2=Zanca|first2=Russell|title=Everyday life in Central Asia : past and present|date=2007|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington |isbn=978-0253013538|pages=22–23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AbnwAAAAQBAJ}}</ref> The Ottoman Empire came to rule much of the [[Balkans]], the [[South Caucasus]], the [[Middle East]] (excluding Iran, even though they controlled parts of it), and [[North Africa]] over the course of several centuries. The empire lasted until the end of the First World War, when it was defeated by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] and [[Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire|partitioned]]. Following the [[Turkish War of Independence]] that ended with the [[Turkish National Movement]] retaking much of the territory lost to the Allies, the Movement [[Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate|ended the Ottoman Empire]] on 1 November 1922 and proclaimed the [[Republic of Turkey]] on 29 October 1923.<br />
<br />
==Etymology and definition==<br />
{{see also|Turkic peoples#Etymology}}<br />
<br />
===Etymology===<br />
The first definite references to the "Turks" mainly come from [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] sources which date back to the sixth century. In these sources, "Turk" appears as "Tujue" ({{zh|c={{linktext|突|厥}}|w=T’u-chüe|mc=*duət̚ kɨut̚}}), which referred to the [[Göktürks]].{{sfn|Stokes|Gorman|2010a|p=707}}{{sfn|Findley|2005|p=21}}<br />
<br />
There are several theories regarding the origin of the ethnonym "Turk". There is a claim that it may be connected to [[Herodotus]]'s (c. 484–425 BC) reference to Targitaos, a king of the [[Scythians]];{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} however, [[Mayrhofer]] (apud Lincoln) assigned Iranian etymology for Ταργιτάος ''Targitaos'' from [[Proto-Iranian language|Old Iranian]] *''darga-tavah-'', meaning "he whose strength is long-lasting".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lincoln |first1=Bruce |title=Once again 'the Scythian' myth of origins (Herodotus 4.5–10) |journal=Nordlit |date=2014 |volume=33 |issue=33 |pages=19–34 |doi=10.7557/13.3188|doi-access=free}}</ref> During the first century AD., [[Pomponius Mela]] refers to the "Turcae" in the forests north of the [[Sea of Azov]], and [[Pliny the Elder]] lists the "Tyrcae" among the people of the same area.;{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} yet English archaeologist [[Ellis Minns]] contended that ''Tyrcae'' Τῦρκαι is "a false correction" for Ἱύρκαι ''Iyrcae''/''Iyrkai'', a people who dwelt beyond the [[Thyssagetae]], according to [[Herodotus]] ([[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]], iv. 22)<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Iyrcae |page= 102 |volume= 15 |last= Minns|first= Ellis Hovell}}</ref> There are references to certain groups in antiquity whose names might have been foreign transcriptions of ''Tür(ü)k'' such as [[Togarmah#Turkic history|''Togarma'']], ''Turukha''/''Turuška'', [[Turukkaeans|''Turukku'']] and so on; but according to American historian [[Peter Benjamin Golden|Peter B. Golden]], while any connection of some of these ancient peoples to Turks is possible, it is rather unlikely.<ref>{{cite book|title=An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples:Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East|page=116|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|location=Wiesbaden, Germany|year=1992}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Definition===<br />
In the 19th century, the word ''Türk'' referred to [[Anatolia]]n peasants. The Ottoman ruling class identified themselves as [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]], not as Turks.{{sfn|Kushner|1997|p=219}}{{sfn|Meeker|1971|p=322}} In the late 19th century, as the Ottoman upper classes adopted European ideas of [[nationalism]], the term ''Türk'' took on a more positive connotation.{{sfn|Kushner|1997|pp=220–221}}<br />
<br />
During Ottoman times, the ''[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]]'' system defined communities on a religious basis, and today some regard only those who profess the [[Sunni]] faith as true Turks. [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|Turkish Jews]], [[Christianity in the Ottoman Empire|Christians]], and [[Alevis]] are not considered Turks by some.{{sfn|Meeker|1971|p=322}} In the early 20th century, the [[Young Turks]] abandoned [[Ottoman nationalism]] in favor of [[Turkish nationalism]], while adopting the name ''Turks'', which was finally used in the name of the new Turkish Republic.<br />
<br />
[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] defined the Turkish nation as the "people (''halk'') who established the Turkish republic". Further, "the natural and historical facts which effected the establishment (''teessüs'') of the Turkish nation" were "(a) unity in political existence, (b) unity in language, (c) unity in homeland, (d) unity in race and origin (''menşe''), (e) to be historically related and (f) to be morally related".<ref>{{cite book|title=Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law|page=110|author=Derya Bayir|year=2013}}</ref><br />
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[[s:Constitution of the Republic of Turkey|Article 66]] of the [[Turkish Constitution]] defines a "''Turk''" as anyone who is "bound to the Turkish state through the bond of [[citizenship]]."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/4a9d204d2.pdf |title=Turkish Citizenship Law |date=29 May 2009 |access-date=17 June 2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
{{see also|History of Turkey|Anatolian peoples}}<br />
<br />
===Prehistory, Ancient era, and Early Middle Ages===<br />
{{further|Turkic peoples|Oghuz Turks}} <br />
[[Anatolia]] was first inhabited by hunter-gatherers during the [[Paleolithic]] era, and in antiquity was inhabited by various [[Anatolian peoples|ancient Anatolian peoples]].{{sfn|Stokes|Gorman|2010b|p=721}}{{Cref|a}} After [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquest in 334 BC, the area was [[Hellenization|Hellenized]], and by the first century BC it is generally thought that the native [[Anatolian languages]], themselves earlier newcomers to the area, following the [[Indo-European migrations]], became extinct.<ref>{{cite book|author=Theo van den Hout|title=The Elements of Hittite|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PA1|access-date=24 March 2013 |date=27 October 2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-50178-1|page=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Sharon R. Steadman|author2=Gregory McMahon |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000–323 BCE) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ND_CE9If3kC|access-date=23 March 2013|date=15 September 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-537614-2}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:An Jia brokering an alliance with Turks. Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Xi’an.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Sogdia]]n trader [[Tomb of An Jia|An Jia]] (right) brokering an alliance with Turks (left). 579 CE, [[Tomb of An Jia]], [[Xi’an]], China.]]<br />
The early [[Turkic peoples]] descended from agricultural communities in [[Northeast Asia]] who moved westwards into the [[Mongolian Plateau]] in the late 3rd millennium BC, where they adopted a pastoral lifestyle.{{sfn|Robbeets|2017|pp=216-218}}{{sfn|Robbeets|2020}}{{sfn|Nelson et al.|2020}}{{sfn|Li et al.|2020}}{{sfn|Uchiyama et al.|2020}} By the early 1st millennium BC, these peoples had become [[Eurasian nomads|equestrian nomads]].{{sfn|Robbeets|2017|pp=216–218}} In subsequent centuries, the steppe populations of [[Central Asia]] appear to have been progressively replaced and [[Turkification|Turkified]] by [[East Asian people|East Asian]] nomadic Turks, moving out of the Mongolian Plateau.<ref>{{harvnb|Damgaard et al.|2018|pp=4–5}}. "These results suggest that Turkic cultural customs were imposed by an East Asian minority elite onto central steppe nomad populations... The wide distribution of the Turkic languages from Northwest China, Mongolia and Siberia in the east to Turkey and Bulgaria in the west implies large-scale migrations out of the homeland in Mongolia.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lee|Kuang|2017|p=197}}. "Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations. The Turkicization of central and western Eurasia was not the product of migrations involving a homogeneous entity, but that of language diffusion."</ref> In Central Asia, the earliest surviving [[Turkic languages|Turkic language]] texts, found on the eighth-century [[Orkhon inscriptions|Orkhon inscription monuments]], were erected by the [[Göktürks]] in the sixth century CE, and include words not common to Turkic but found in unrelated Inner Asian languages.{{sfn|Findley|2005|p=39}} Although the ancient Turks were [[nomad]]ic, they traded wool, leather, carpets, and horses for grain, silk, wood, and vegetables, and also had large ironworking stations in the south of the [[Altai Mountains]] during the 600s CE. Most of the Turkic peoples were followers of [[Tengrism]], sharing the cult of the sky god [[Tengri]], although there were also adherents of [[Manichaeism]], [[Nestorianism|Nestorian Christianity]], and [[Buddhism]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Frederik |last=Coene |title=The Caucasus-An Introduction |page=77 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2009}}</ref>{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} However, during the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]], the Turks entered the [[Muslim world]] proper as [[slavery|slaves]], the booty of Arab raids and conquests.{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} The Turks began converting to [[Islam]] after the [[Muslim conquest of Transoxiana]] through the efforts of [[missionaries]], [[Sufis]], and merchants. Although initiated by the [[Arabs]], the [[Conversion to Islam#Islamic missionary activities|conversion]] of the Turks to Islam was filtered through [[Persian people|Persian]] and Central Asian culture. Under the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]], most were domestic servants, whilst under the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], increasing numbers were trained as soldiers.{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} By the ninth century, Turkish commanders were leading the [[caliphs]]’ Turkish troops into battle. As the Abbasid Caliphate declined, Turkish officers assumed more military and political power by taking over or establishing provincial dynasties with their own corps of Turkish troops.{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}}<br />
<br />
===Seljuk era===<br />
{{Main|Seljuk dynasty}}<br />
{{See also|Seljuk Empire|Sultanate of Rum}}<br />
{{Main|Alp Arslan}}<br />
[[File:Ruler in Turkic dress (long braids, fur hat, boots, fitting coat), in the Maqamat of al-Hariri, 1237 CE, probably Baghdad.jpg|thumb|A dignitary in Turkic dress: long braids, fur hat, boots, close-fitting coat. He may be an ''[[amir]]''.<ref name="FB232"/> Illustrations from the ''[[Maqama]]t'', authored by [[Al-Hariri of Basra]] (1054–1122 CE), a high government official of the [[Seljuk Empire]]. Published in Baghdad (1237 CE edition).<ref name="FB232">{{cite journal |last1=Flood |first1=Finbarr Barry |title=A Turk in the Dukhang? Comparative Perspectives on Elite Dress in Medieval Ladakh and the Caucasus |journal=Interaction in the Himalayas and Central Asia |year=2017 |publisher=Austrian Academy of Science Press |page=232 |url=https://www.academia.edu/35061254}}</ref>]]<br />
During the 11th century, the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk Turks]], who were influenced by Persian civilization in many ways, grew in strength and succeeded in taking the eastern province of the [[Abbasid Empire]]. By 1055, the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuks]] captured [[Baghdad]] and began to make their first incursions into [[Anatolia]].{{sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2012|p=192}} When they won the [[Battle of Manzikert]] against the [[Byzantine Empire]] in 1071, it opened the gates of Anatolia to them.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}} Although ethnically Turkish, the Seljuk Turks appreciated and became carriers of [[Persian culture]] rather than [[Turkish culture]].{{sfn|Chaurasia|2005|p=181}}{{sfn|Bainbridge|2009|p=33}} Nonetheless, the [[Turkish language]] and [[Islam]] were introduced and gradually spread over the region and the slow transition from a predominantly [[Christians|Christian]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking Anatolia to a predominantly [[Muslim]] and Turkish-speaking one was underway.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}}<br />
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In dire straits, the Byzantine Empire turned to the West for help, setting in motion the pleas that led to the [[First Crusade]].{{sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2012|p=193}} Once the [[Crusaders]] took [[Iznik]], the Seljuk Turks established the [[Sultanate of Rum]] from their new capital, [[Konya]], in 1097.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}} By the 12th century, Europeans had begun to call the Anatolian region "Turchia" or "Turkey", the land of the Turks.{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=574}} The Turkish society in Anatolia was divided into urban, rural and nomadic populations;{{sfn|Delibaşı|1994|p=7}} other [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] (Turkmen) tribes who had arrived into Anatolia at the same time as the Seljuks kept their nomadic ways.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}} These tribes were more numerous than the Seljuks, and rejecting the sedentary lifestyle, adhered to an Islam impregnated with [[animism]] and [[shamanism]] from their [[Central Asia]]n steppeland origins, which then mixed with new Christian influences. From this popular and syncretist Islam, with its mystical and revolutionary aspects, sects such as the [[Alevis]] and [[Bektashis]] emerged.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}} Furthermore, [[Transnational marriage|intermarriage]] between the Turks and local inhabitants, as well as the [[Religious conversion#Islam|conversion]] of many to Islam, also increased the Turkish-speaking Muslim population in Anatolia.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}}<ref>{{cite book|year=2004|title=Turkey Foreign Policy And Government Guide|publisher=International Business Publications|isbn=978-0739762820 |page=64}}</ref><br />
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By 1243, at the [[Battle of Köse Dağ]], the [[Mongols]] defeated the Seljuk Turks and became the new rulers of Anatolia, and in 1256, the second Mongol invasion of Anatolia caused widespread destruction. Particularly after 1277, political stability within the Seljuk territories rapidly disintegrated, leading to the strengthening of Turkoman principalities in the western and southern parts of Anatolia called the "[[beyliks]]".{{sfn|Somel|2003|p=266}}<br />
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===Beyliks era===<br />
{{Main|Anatolian beyliks}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Anadolu Beylikleri.png|thumb|upright=1.35|A map of the independent [[beyliks]] in Anatolia during the early 1300s.]]<br />
When the Mongols defeated the Seljuk Turks and [[Mongol conquest of Anatolia|conquered Anatolia]], the Turks became the [[vassal]]s of the [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhans]] who established their own empire in the vast area which stretched from present-day [[Afghanistan]] to present-day [[Turkey]].{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} As the Mongols occupied more lands in Asia Minor, the Turks moved further into western Anatolia and settled in the Seljuk-Byzantine frontier.{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} By the last decades of the 13th century, the Ilkhans and their Seljuk vassals lost control over much of Anatolia to these [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman peoples]].{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} A number of Turkish lords managed to establish themselves as rulers of various [[principalities]], known as "[[Beyliks]]" or [[emirate]]s. Amongst these beyliks, along the [[Aegean Region|Aegean]] coast, from north to south, stretched the beyliks of [[Karasids|Karasi]], [[Sarukhanids|Saruhan]], [[Aydinids|Aydin]], [[Beylik of Menteşe|Menteşe]], and [[Beylik of Teke|Teke]]. Inland from Teke was [[Hamidids|Hamid]] and east of Karasi was the beylik of [[Germiyanids|Germiyan]].<br />
<br />
To the northwest of Anatolia, around [[Söğüt]], was the small and, at this stage, insignificant, Ottoman beylik. It was hemmed into the east by other more substantial powers like [[Karamanids|Karaman]] on [[Iconium]], which ruled from the [[Kızılırmak River]] to the [[Mediterranean]]. Although the [[Ottomans]] was only a small principality among the numerous Turkish beyliks, and thus posed the smallest threat to the Byzantine authority, their location in north-western Anatolia, in the former Byzantine province of [[Bithynia]], became a fortunate position for their future conquests. The [[Italic peoples|Latins]], who had conquered the city of [[Constantinople]] in 1204 during the [[Fourth Crusade]], established a [[Latin Empire]] (1204–1261), divided the former Byzantine territories in the [[Balkans]] and the [[Aegean Region|Aegean]] among themselves, and forced the Byzantine Emperors into exile at [[Nicaea]] (present-day [[Iznik]]). From 1261 onwards, the Byzantines were largely preoccupied with regaining their control in the Balkans.{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} Toward the end of the 13th century, as Mongol power began to decline, the Turkoman chiefs assumed greater independence.{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=1}}<br />
<br />
===Ottoman Empire===<br />
{{Main|Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks}}<br />
<br />
[[File:OttomanEmpireIn1683.png|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Ottoman Empire]] was a Turkish empire that lasted from 1299 to 1922.]]<br />
[[File:West Thrace Republic, Turks in Kardzali.jpg|thumb|West Thrace Republic, Turks in Kardzali]]<br />
Under its founder, [[Osman I]], the nomadic Ottoman beylik expanded along the [[Sakarya River]] and westward towards the [[Sea of Marmara]]. Thus, the population of western [[Asia Minor]] had largely become [[Turkish language|Turkish]]-speaking and [[Muslim]] in religion.{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} It was under his son, [[Orhan I]], who had attacked and conquered the important urban center of [[Bursa]] in 1326, proclaiming it as the Ottoman capital, that the [[Ottoman Empire]] developed considerably. In 1354, the Ottomans crossed into [[Europe]] and established a foothold on the [[Gallipoli Peninsula]] while at the same time pushing east and taking [[Ankara]].{{sfn|Fleet|1999|p=5}}{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=2}} Many Turks from Anatolia began to settle in the region which had been abandoned by the inhabitants who had fled [[Thrace]] before the Ottoman invasion.{{sfn|Köprülü|1992|p=110}} However, the Byzantines were not the only ones to suffer from the Ottoman advance for, in the mid-1330s, Orhan annexed the Turkish beylik of [[Karasids|Karasi]]. This advancement was maintained by [[Murad I]] who more than tripled the territories under his direct rule, reaching some {{convert|100,000|sqmi}}, evenly distributed in [[Europe]] and [[Asia Minor]].{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxvi}} Gains in Anatolia were matched by those in Europe; once the Ottoman forces took [[Edirne]] ([[Adrianople]]), which became the capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1365, they opened their way into [[Bulgaria]] and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] in 1371 at the [[Battle of Maritsa]].{{sfn|Fleet|1999|p=6}} With the conquests of [[Thrace]], Macedonia, and Bulgaria, significant numbers of Turkish emigrants settled in these regions.{{sfn|Köprülü|1992|p=110}} This form of Ottoman-Turkish [[colonization]] became a very effective method to consolidate their position and power in the [[Balkans]]. The settlers consisted of soldiers, nomads, farmers, artisans and [[merchants]], [[dervishes]], [[preachers]] and other religious functionaries, and administrative personnel.{{sfn|Eminov|1997|p=27}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Muhajir.jpg|thumb|left|The loss of almost all [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] territories during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the establishment of the [[Republic of Turkey]], in 1923, produced waves of Turkish refugees, who were known as "[[Muhacir]]s", who fled from hostile regions of the [[Balkans]], the [[Black Sea]], the [[Aegean islands]], the island of [[Cyprus]], the [[Sanjak of Alexandretta]], the [[Middle East]], and the [[Soviet Union]] to migrate to [[Anatolia]] and [[Eastern Thrace]].]]<br />
In 1453, Ottoman armies, under Sultan [[Mehmed II]], conquered [[Constantinople]].{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxvi}} Mehmed reconstructed and repopulated the city, and made it the new Ottoman capital.{{sfn|Kermeli|2010|p=111}} After the [[Fall of Constantinople]], the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of [[Growth of the Ottoman Empire|conquest and expansion]] with its borders eventually going deep into [[Europe]], the [[Middle East]], and [[North Africa]].{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=5}} [[Selim I]] dramatically expanded the empire's eastern and southern frontiers in the [[Battle of Chaldiran]] and gained recognition as the guardian of the holy cities of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].{{sfn|Quataert|2000|p=21}} His successor, [[Suleiman the Magnificent]], further expanded the conquests after capturing [[Belgrade]] in 1521 and using its territorial base to conquer [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], and other Central European territories, after his victory in the [[Battle of Mohács]] as well as also pushing the frontiers of the empire to the east.{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=6}} Following Suleiman's death, Ottoman victories continued, albeit less frequently than before. The island of [[Cyprus]] was conquered, in 1571, bolstering Ottoman dominance over the sea routes of the eastern [[Mediterranean]].{{sfn|Quataert|2000|p=24}} However, after its defeat at the [[Battle of Vienna]], in 1683, the Ottoman army was met by ambushes and further defeats; the 1699 [[Treaty of Karlowitz]], which granted Austria the provinces of Hungary and [[Transylvania]], marked the first time in history that the Ottoman Empire actually relinquished territory.{{sfn|Levine|2010|p=28}}<br />
<br />
By the 19th century, the empire began to [[Decline of the Ottoman Empire|decline]] when [[Ethnic nationalism|ethno-nationalist]] uprisings occurred across the empire. Thus, the last quarter of the 19th and the early part of the 20th century saw some 7–9 million Muslim refugees (Turks and some [[Circassians]], [[Bosnians]], [[Georgians]], etc.) from the lost territories of the [[Caucasus]], [[Crimea]], [[Balkans]], and the [[Mediterranean]] islands migrate to [[Anatolia]] and [[Eastern Thrace]].{{sfn|Karpat|2004|pp=5–6}} By 1913, the government of the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] started a program of forcible [[Turkification]] of non-Turkish minorities.<ref>{{cite book |title=Century of Genocide|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135245504|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EDZa0zZ-XCAC|editor=Samuel Totten, William S. Parsons|pages=118–124|quote=By 1913 the advocates of [[liberalism]] had lost out to radicals in the party who promoted a program of forcible Turkification.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Jwaideh|first=Wadie|title=The Kurdish national movement: its origins and development|year=2006 |publisher=Syracuse Univ. Press|location=Syracuse, NY|isbn=978-0815630937|page=104|edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FCbspX-dGPYC|quote=With the crushing of opposition elements, the Young Turks simultaneously launched their program of forcible Turkification and the creation of a highly centralized administrative system."}}</ref> By 1914, the [[World War I]] broke out, and the Turks scored some success in [[Gallipoli]] during the [[Naval operations in the Dardanelles Campaign|Battle of the Dardanelles]] in 1915. During World War I, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress continued to implement its Turkification policies, which affected non-Turkish minorities, such as the [[Armenians]] during the [[Armenian genocide]] and the [[Greeks]] during [[Greek genocide|various campaigns of ethnic cleansing and expulsion]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Akçam|first=Taner|title=The Young Turks' crime against humanity: the Armenian genocide and ethnic cleansing in the Ottoman Empire|year=2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, N.J.|isbn=978-0691153339|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdBKN1j-QhMC|page=29}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Bjornlund|first=Matthias|s2cid=72975930|title=The 1914 cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a case of violent Turkification|journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=March 2008|volume=10|issue=1|pages=41–57 |issn=1462-3528|quote=In 1914, the aim of Turkification was not to exterminate but to expel as many Greeks of the Aegean region as possible as not only a "security measure," but as an extension of the policy of economic and cultural boycott, while at the same time creating living space for the muhadjirs that had been driven out of their homes under equally brutal circumstances.|doi=10.1080/14623520701850286}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Akçam |first=Taner|title=From Empire to Republic: Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian Genocide|year=2005|publisher=Zed Books |location=London|isbn=9781842775271|page=115|author-link=Taner Akçam|quote=...the initial stages of the Turkification of the Empire, which affected by attacks on its very heterogeneous structure, thereby ushering in a relentless process of ethnic cleansing that eventually, through the exigencies and opportunities of the First World War, culminated in the Armenian Genocide.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rummel|first=Rudolph J.|title=Death By Government|year=1996|publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=9781412821292|page=235|author-link=Rudolph Rummel |quote=Through this genocide and the forced deportation of the Greeks, the nationalists completed the Young Turk's program-the Turkification of Turkey and the elimination of a pretext for Great Power meddling.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=America and the Armenian Genocide of 1915|editor=J.M. Winter|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York|isbn=9780511163821|page=60|quote=The devising of a scheme of a correlative Turkification of the Empire, or what was left of it, included the cardinal goal of the liquidation of that Empire's residual non-Turkish elements. Given their numbers, their concentration in geo-strategic locations, and the troublesome legacy of the Armenian Question, the Armenians were targeted as the prime object for such a liquidation.}}</ref> In 1918, the Ottoman Government agreed to the [[Mudros Armistice]] with the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]].<br />
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In addition to non-Turkish minorities experiencing ethnic cleansing under the Young Turks, Turkish populations in Balkans, Caucasus and Anatolia were ethnically cleansed in what is known as the [[Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction|Persecution of Muslims during Ottoman contraction]], where an estimated 2 million Turkish people were killed or deported.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Biondich|first=Mark|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gt8SDAAAQBAJ&q=Muslims+casualties+millions+Balkans&pg=PA93|title=The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence Since 1878|date=17 February 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-929905-8|pages=93|language=en|quote="In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gibney|first1=Matthew J.|url=http://archive.org/details/immigrationasylu00matt|title=Immigration and asylum : from 1900 to the present|last2=Hansen|first2=Randall|date=2005|publisher=Santa Barbara, Calif. : ABC-CLIO|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-1-57607-796-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Howard|first=Douglas A. (Douglas Arthur)|url=http://archive.org/details/historyofturkey00doug|title=The history of Turkey|date=2001|publisher=Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-313-30708-9}}</ref> Paul Mojzes has called the Balkan Wars an <nowiki>''unrecognized genocide''</nowiki>.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mojzes|first=Paul|date=November 2013|title=Ethnic cleansing in the Balkans, why did it happen and could it happen again|url=https://www.cicerofoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Paul_Mojzes_Ethnic_Cleansing_In_The_Balkans.pdf|journal=Cicero Foundation|pages=3}}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Treaty of Sèvres]] —signed in 1920 by the government of [[Mehmet VI]]— dismantled the Ottoman Empire. The Turks, under Mustafa Kemal Pasha, rejected the treaty and fought the [[Turkish War of Independence]], resulting in the abortion of that text, never ratified,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lEFSI-qJHSEC&q=Treaty+S%C3%A8vres+was+never+ratified&pg=PA91|title=The Turkish Straits|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=978-9024734641 |last1=Rozakēs|first1=Chrēstos L|date=31 August 1987}}</ref> and the [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate|abolition of the Sultanate]]. Thus, the 623-year-old Ottoman Empire ended.{{sfn|Levine|2010|p=29}}<br />
<br />
===Modern era===<br />
{{See also|History of the Republic of Turkey}}<br />
[[File:Anafartalar Boulevard, Köklü Office Building and shops, 1950s (16645159247).jpg|thumb|People on the Anafartalar Boulevard, [[Ankara]] in the 1950s]]<br />
Once Mustafa Kemal led the [[Turkish War of Independence]] against the [[Allies of World War I|Allied forces]] that occupied the former [[Ottoman Empire]], he united the Turkish Muslim majority and successfully led them from 1919 to 1922 in overthrowing the occupying forces out of what the [[Turkish National Movement]] considered the Turkish homeland.{{sfn|Göcek|2011|p=22}} The Turkish identity became the unifying force when, in 1923, the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] was signed and the newly founded [[Republic of Turkey]] was formally established. Atatürk's presidency was marked by a series of [[Atatürk's Reforms|radical political and social reforms]] that transformed Turkey into a [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], modern republic with civil and political equality for sectarian minorities and women.{{sfn|Göcek|2011|p=23}}<br />
<br />
Throughout the 1920s and the 1930s, Turks, as well as other [[Muslims]], from the [[Balkans]], the [[Black Sea]], the [[Aegean islands]], the island of [[Cyprus]], the [[Sanjak of Alexandretta]] ([[Hatay Province|Hatay]]), the [[Middle East]], and the [[Soviet Union]] continued to arrive in [[Turkey]], most of whom settled in urban north-western Anatolia.{{sfn|Çaǧaptay|2006|p=82}}{{sfn|Bosma|Lucassen|Oostindie|2012|p=17}} The bulk of these immigrants, known as "[[Muhacir]]s", were the Balkan Turks who faced harassment and discrimination in their homelands.{{sfn|Çaǧaptay|2006|p=82}} However, there were still remnants of a Turkish population in many of these countries because the Turkish government wanted to preserve these communities so that the Turkish character of these neighbouring territories could be maintained.{{sfn|Çaǧaptay|2006|p=84}} One of the last stages of ethnic Turks immigrating to Turkey was between 1940 and 1990 when about 700,000 Turks arrived from Bulgaria. Today, between a third and a quarter of Turkey's population are the descendants of these immigrants.{{sfn|Bosma|Lucassen|Oostindie|2012|p=17}}<br />
<br />
==Geographic distribution==<br />
{{main|Turkish population}}<br />
<br />
===Traditional areas of Turkish settlement===<br />
<br />
====Turkey====<br />
[[File:Protect Your Republic Protest - 1 (2007-04-14).jpg|thumb|Turkish people at the 2007 [[Republic Protests]] in the capital city of [[Ankara]] supporting the principle of [[state secularism]].]]<br />
The ethnic Turks are the largest ethnic group in [[Turkey]] and number approximately 60 million<ref name=Garibova2011/> to 65 million.<ref name=Hobbs2017/> Due to differing historical Turkish migrations to the region, dating from the Seljuk conquests in the 11th century to the continuous Turkish migrations which have persisted to the present day (especially Turkish refugees from neighboring countries), there are various accents and customs which can distinguish the ethnic Turks by geographic sub-groups.<ref name=Nyropetal1973/> For example, the most significant are the Anatolian Turks in the central core of [[Anatolia|Asiatic Turkey]] whose culture was influential in underlining the roots of the Turkish nationalist ideology.<ref name=Nyropetal1973 /> There are also nomadic Turkic tribes who descend directly from [[Central Asia]], such as the [[Yörüks]];<ref name=Nyropetal1973/> the [[Black Sea]] Turks in the north whose "speech largely lacks the vowel harmony valued elsewhere";<ref name=Nyropetal1973/> the descendants of ''[[muhacir]]s'' (Turkish refugees) who fled persecution from former Ottoman territories in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries;<ref name=Nyropetal1973/> and more recent refugees who have continued to flee discrimination and persecution since the mid-1900s.<br />
<br />
Initially, ''muhacirs'' who arrived in [[Eastern Thrace]] and [[Anatolia]] came fleeing from former Ottoman territories which had been annexed by [[History of colonialism|European colonial powers]] (such as [[French colonial empire|France]] in [[Algeria]] or [[Russian Empire|Russia]] in [[Crimea]]); however, the largest waves of ethnic Turkish migration came from the [[Balkans]] during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the [[Balkan Wars]] led to most of the region becoming independent from Ottoman control.{{sfn|Bosma|Lucassen|Oostindie|2012}} The largest waves of ''muhacirs'' came from the Balkans (especially [[Bulgaria]], [[Greece]], [[Romania]] and [[Yugoslavia]]); however, substantial numbers also came from Cyprus,<ref name=Cagaptay200682 /> the [[Sanjak of Alexandretta]],<ref name=Cagaptay200682 /> the [[Middle East]] (including [[Transjordan (region)|Trans-Jordan]]<ref name=Cagaptay200682 /> and [[Yemen]]<ref name=Cagaptay200682 />) [[North African]] (such as [[Algeria]]<ref name="Kateb 2001 loc=50-51">{{citation |last=Kateb|first=Kamel |year=2001 |title=Européens: "Indigènes" et juifs en Algérie (1830-1962) : Représentations et Réalités des Populations|publisher=[[INED]] |isbn=273320145X |pages=50–53}}</ref> and [[Libya]]<ref name=Tastekin>{{cite web|last=Tastekin|first=Fehim|year=2019|title=Are Libyan Turks Ankara's Trojan horse?|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/08/turkey-libya-are-libyan-turks-ankaras-trojan-horse.html|publisher=[[Al-Monitor]]|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref>) and the [[Soviet Union]] (especially from [[Meskheti]]).<ref name=Cagaptay200682>{{citation |last=Cagaptay|first=Soner|year=2011|title=Islam, Secularism and Nationalism in Modern Turkey: Who is a Turk?|page=82 |publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781134174485}}</ref><br />
<br />
The Turks who remained in the former Ottoman territories continued to face discrimination and persecution thereafter leading many to seek refuge in Turkey, especially [[Turkish Meskhetians]] deported by [[Joseph Stalin]] in 1944; Turkish minorities in [[Yugoslavia]] (i.e., [[Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Turkish Bosnians]], [[Turks in Croatia|Turkish Croatians]], [[Turks in Kosovo|Turkish Kosovars]], [[Turks in North Macedonia|Turkish Macedonians]], [[Turks in Montenegro|Turkish Montenegrins]] and [[Turks in Serbia|Turkish Serbians]]) fleeing [[Josip Broz Tito]]'s regime in the 1950s;<ref>{{citation |last=Cohen|first=Robin|year=1995|title=The Cambridge Survey of World Migration|quote=During the 1950s some 300,000 ethnic Turks left Bosnia, Macedonia and other south-eastern parts of Yugoslavia for Turkey.|page=476|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521444057}}</ref> [[Turkish Cypriots]] fleeing the [[Cypriot intercommunal violence]] of 1955–74;<ref>{{citation |last=Bilge|first=Ali Suat|year=1961|title= Le Conflit de Chypre et les Chypriotes Turcs|page=5|publisher=Ajans Türk}}</ref> [[Iraqi Turkmen|Turkish Iraqis]] fleeing discrimination during the rise of Arab nationalism in the 1950s and 1970s followed by the [[Iran–Iraq War]] of 1980–88;<ref name="Çataloğlu&Bulut">{{citation|last1=Çataloğlu|first1=Seher|last2=Bulut|first2=Meryem|year=2016|chapter=Artificial Borders and Nationalism: Turkmen Migration from Iraq to Istanbul |title=Anthropological Perspectives on Transnational Encounters in Turkey: War, Migration and Experiences of Coexistence|editor1-last=Bulut|editor1-first=Meryem|editor2-last=Şahin|editor2-first=Kadriye|publisher=Transnational Press London|pages=21|isbn=9781912997268}}</ref> [[Turkish Bulgarians]] fleeing the [[Bulgarisation]] policies of the so-called "[[Revival Process]]" under the communist ruler [[Todor Zivkov]] in the 1980s;<ref name="Maeva2008">{{citation|last=Maeva|first=Mila|year=2008|chapter=Modern Migration Waves of Bulgarian Turks|title=Dynamics of National Identity and Transnational Identities in the Process of European Integration|editor-last=Marushiakova|editor-first=Elena|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|pages=227–229|isbn=9781847184719}}</ref> and [[Turks in Kosovo|Turkish Kosovars]] fleeing the [[Kosovo War]] of 1998–99.<ref>{{citation|last=Binet|first=Laurence|year=2014|title=Violence against Kosovar Albanians, NATO's intervention 1998-1999|url=https://www.msf.org/sites/msf.org/files/2019-04/SOCSKosovoEnglish.pdf|quote=UNHCR notes that a number of members of the Turkish Kosovar community – around 60,000 people before the war - left for Turkey. This community is under increasing pressure, notably from the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), who seek to ‘Albanianise’ them, and make them relinquish their language, stated the AFP.|publisher=[[Médecins Sans Frontières]]|pages=261}}</ref><br />
<br />
Today, approximately 15–20 million Turks living in Turkey are the descendants of refugees from the Balkans;<ref name=Reinkowski>{{citation |last=Reinkowski|first=Maurus|year=2011 |chapter=The Ottoman Empire and South Eastern Europe from a Turkish perspective|title=Images of Imperial Legacy: Modern Discourses on the Social and Cultural Impact of Ottoman and Habsburg Rule in Southeast Europe|page=27|publisher=[[LIT Verlag]]|isbn=978-3643108500|quote=Given the strong demographic growth in Turkey, today 15-20 million Turks could be descendants of immigrants from South East Europe.}}</ref> there are also 1.5 million descendants from [[Meskheti]]<ref>{{citation|year=2018|title=Bursa'da Ahıskalıların vatandaşlık kuyruğu!|url=https://www.bursadabugun.com/haber/bursa-da-ahiskalilarin-vatandaslik-kuyrugu-934666.html|publisher=Bursada Bugün|access-date=30 August 2021}}</ref> and over 600,000 descendants from [[Cyprus]].<ref name=Kanlı>{{cite web |last=Kanlı|first=Yusuf|year=2018|title=Bridging the population gap in Cyprus|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/opinion/yusuf-kanli/bridging-the-population-gap-in-cyprus-128756|work=[[Hurriyet Daily News]]|access-date=8 April 2018|quote=It is often said that if the descendants of those who migrated from Cyprus to Turkey back in 1931 are included, the number of Turkish Cypriots living in the "motherland" might exceed 600,000.}}</ref> The Republic of Turkey continues to be a land of migration for ethnic Turkish people fleeing persecution and wars. For example, there are approximately 1 million [[Syrian Turkmen]] living in Turkey due to the current [[Syrian civil war]].<ref name="VOA">{{Cite web |last=Erkılıç |first=Orhan |year=2020 |title=Türkiye'deki Suriyeli Türkmenler de Vatandaşlık İstiyor |url=https://www.amerikaninsesi.com/a/turkiyedeki-suriyeli-turkmenler-de-vatandaslik-istiyor/5536622.html |access-date=17 December 2020 |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |quote=1 Milyon Suriyeli Türkmen Vatandaşlık Hakkından Yararlanmak İstiyor.}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Cyprus====<br />
{{see also|Turkish Cypriots|List of Turkish Cypriots}}<br />
The [[Turkish Cypriots]] are the ethnic Turks whose Ottoman Turkish forebears colonized the island of [[Cyprus]] in 1571. About 30,000 Turkish soldiers were given land once they settled in Cyprus, which bequeathed a significant Turkish community. In 1960, a census by the new Republic's government revealed that the Turkish Cypriots formed 18.2% of the island's population.{{sfn|Hatay|2007|p=22}} However, once inter-communal fighting and ethnic tensions between 1963 and 1974 occurred between the Turkish and [[Greek Cypriots]], known as the "[[Cyprus conflict]]", the Greek Cypriot government conducted a census in 1973, albeit without the Turkish Cypriot populace. A year later, in 1974, the Cypriot government's Department of Statistics and Research estimated the Turkish Cypriot population was 118,000 (or 18.4%).{{sfn|Hatay|2007|p=23}} A [[coup d'état]] in Cyprus on [[1974 Cypriot coup d'état|15 July 1974]] by Greeks and Greek Cypriots favoring union with [[Greece]] (also known as "[[Enosis]]") was followed by [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus|military intervention]] by [[Turkey]] whose troops established Turkish Cypriot control over the northern part of the island.<ref>{{cite web |work=United Nations|title=UNFICYP: United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unficyp/background.shtml}}</ref> Hence, census's conducted by the Republic of Cyprus have excluded the Turkish Cypriot population that had settled in the unrecognized [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]].{{sfn|Hatay|2007|p=23}} Between 1975 and 1981, [[Turkey]] encouraged its own citizens to settle in Northern Cyprus; a report by [[CIA]] suggests that 200,000 of the residents of Cyprus are Turkish.<br />
<br />
====Balkans====<br />
Ethnic Turks continue to inhabit certain regions of [[Greece]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Kosovo]], [[Romania]], and [[Bulgaria]] since they first settled there during the Ottoman period. As of 2019, the Turkish population in the Balkans is over 1 million.<ref name="Dursun-Özkanca">{{citation |last=Dursun-Özkanca|first=Oya|year=2019|title=Turkey–West Relations: The Politics of Intra-alliance Opposition|page=40|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1108488624|quote=One-fifth of the Turkish population is estimated to have Balkan origins. Additionally, more than one million Turks live in Balkan countries, constituting a bridge between these countries and Turkey.}}</ref> Majority of Balkan Turks were killed or deported in the [[Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction|Muslim Persecution during Ottoman Contraction]] and arrived to Turkey as [[Muhacir]]s.<ref name="Northumberland Press">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KttAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Turks+were+massacred%22|title=The Middle East, Abstracts and Index|date=1999|publisher=Northumberland Press|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Biondich|first=Mark|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gt8SDAAAQBAJ&q=Muslims+casualties+millions+Balkans&pg=PA93|title=The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence Since 1878|date=17 February 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-929905-8|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
The majority of the Rumelian/Balkan Turks are the descendants of Ottoman settlers. However, the first significant wave of Anatolian Turkish settlement to the Balkans dates back to the mass migration of sedentary and nomadic subjects of the Seljuk sultan [[Kaykaus II]] (b. 1237 – d. 1279/80) who had fled to the court of [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]] in 1262.<ref>{{citation |last=Shukurov|first=Rustam |year=2016|title=The Byzantine Turks, 1204-1461|page=99|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|isbn=9789004307759}}</ref><br />
<br />
=====Albania=====<br />
The Turkish Albanians are one of the smallest Turkish communities in the Balkans. Once [[Albania under the Ottoman Empire|Albania came under Ottoman rule]], Turkish colonization was scarce there; however, some Anatolian Turkish settlers did arrive in 1415–30 and were given ''[[timar]]'' estates.<ref>{{citation |last=Madgearu|first=Alexandru|year=2008|title=The Wars of the Balkan Peninsula: Their Medieval Origins|page=38|publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]]|isbn=9780810858466}}</ref> According to the 2011 census, the [[Turkish language]] was the sixth most spoken language in the country (after [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Romani language|Romani]], and [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]]).<ref name="2011Albaniancensus"/><br />
<br />
=====Bosnia and Herzegovina=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}<br />
The [[Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Turkish Bosnians]] have lived in the region since the [[Ottoman Bosnia and Herzegovina|Ottoman rule of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. Thus, the Turks form the oldest [[Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina|ethnic minority]] in the country.<ref name=coe>{{cite web|author=Council of Europe|title=European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages: Bosnia and HerzegovinaLANGUAGES|url=http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/minlang/report/PeriodicalReports/Bosnia%20and%20HerzegovinaPR1_en.pdf|access-date=16 October 2011}}</ref> The Turkish Bosnian community decreased dramatically due to mass emigration to [[Turkey]] when Bosnia and Herzegovina came under [[Austro-Hungarian]] rule.<ref name=coe/><br />
<br />
In 2003 the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina adopted the "Law on the Protection of Rights of Members of National Minorities" which officially protected the Turkish minority's cultural, religious, educational, social, economic, and political freedoms.<ref>{{cite web|author=OSCE|title=National Minorities in BiH|url=http://www.oscebih.org/default.aspx?id=53&lang=EN|access-date=29 December 2013|archive-date=11 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711214038/http://www.oscebih.org/Default.aspx?id=53&lang=EN|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
<br />
=====Bulgaria=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Bulgaria|List of Bulgarian Turks}}<br />
[[File:Percentage of Ethnic Turks in Bulgaria by Province (2011).png|thumb|Percentage of ethnic Turks in Bulgaria by province (2011)]]<br />
The [[Bulgarian Turks|Turks of Bulgaria]] form the largest Turkish community in the Balkans as well as the largest ethnic minority group in [[Bulgaria]]. According to the 2011 census, they form a majority in the [[Kardzhali Province]] (66.2%) and the [[Razgrad Province]] (50.02%), as well as substantial communities in the [[Silistra Province]] (36.09%), the [[Targovishte Province]] (35.80%), and the [[Shumen Province]] (30.29%). They were ethnically cleansed during the [[Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction|Muslim Persecution during Ottoman Contraction]] and subsequently targeted during the [[Revival Process]] that aimed to assimilate them into a Bulgarian identity.<ref name="Northumberland Press"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Biondich|first=Mark|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gt8SDAAAQBAJ&q=Muslims+casualties+millions+Balkans&pg=PA93|title=The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence Since 1878|date=17 February 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-929905-8|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
=====Croatia=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Croatia|Turkish Croatia}}<br />
The [[Turks in Croatia|Turkish Croatians]] began to settle in the region during the various [[Croatian–Ottoman wars]]. Despite being a small minority, the Turks are among the 22 officially recognized national minorities in Croatia.<ref>{{citation |last=Farley|first=Brigit|year=2013|chapter=Croatia|title=Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities|editor-last=Skutsch|editor-first=Carl|volume=1|page=344|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781135193881}}</ref><br />
<br />
=====Greece=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Greece|Turks of Western Thrace|Turks of the Dodecanese|Cretan Turks}}<br />
<br />
=====Kosovo=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Kosovo}}<br />
The [[Turks in Kosovo|Turkish Kosovars]] are the third largest ethnic minority in Kosovo (after the [[Kosovo Serbs|Serbs]] and [[Bosniaks in Kosovo|Bosniaks]]). They form a majority in the town and municipality of [[Mamuša]].<br />
<br />
=====Montenegro=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Montenegro}}<br />
The [[Turks in Montenegro|Turkish Montenegrins]] form the smallest Turkish minority group in the Balkans. They began to settle in the region following the [[Ottoman Montenegro|Ottoman rule of Montenegro]]. A historical event took place in 1707 which involved the killing of the Turks in Montenegro as well as the murder of all Muslims. This early example of ethnic cleaning features in the epic poem ''[[The Mountain Wreath]]'' (1846).<ref>{{citation |last=Larsen|first=Mogens Trolle|year=2014|title=The Conquest of Assyria: Excavations in an Antique Land|page=42|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781317949954}}</ref> After the Ottoman withdrawal, the majority of the remaining Turks emigrated to [[Istanbul]] and [[Izmir]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2011|title=Adriyatik'te unutulan Türkler|url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/adriyatik-te-unutulan-turkler-gundem-1441439/|publisher=[[Milliyet]]|access-date=25 November 2017}}</ref> Today, the remaining Turkish Montenegrins predominately live in the coastal town of [[Bar, Montenegro|Bar]].<br />
<br />
=====North Macedonia=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in North Macedonia|List of Macedonian Turks}}<br />
The [[Turks in North Macedonia|Turkish Macedonians]] form the second largest Turkish community in the Balkans as well as the second largest minority ethnic group in [[North Macedonia]]. They form a majority in the [[Centar Župa Municipality]] and the [[Plasnica Municipality]] as well as substantial communities in the [[Mavrovo and Rostuša Municipality]], the [[Studeničani Municipality]], the [[Dolneni Municipality]], the [[Karbinci Municipality]], and the [[Vasilevo Municipality]].<br />
<br />
=====Romania=====<br />
{{see also|Turks of Romania|Ada Kaleh}}<br />
The [[Turks of Romania|Turkish Romanians]] are centered in the [[Northern Dobruja]] region. The only settlement which still has a Turkish majority population is in [[Dobromir, Constanța|Dobromir]] located in the [[Constanța County]]. Historically, Turkish Romanians also formed a majority in other regions, such as the island of [[Ada Kaleh]] which was destroyed and flooded by the Romanian government for the construction of the [[Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station]].<br />
<br />
=====Serbia=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Serbia}}<br />
The [[Turks in Serbia|Turkish Serbians]] have lived in Serbia since the [[Ottoman Serbia|Ottoman conquests in the region]]. They have traditionally lived in the urban areas of Serbia. In 1830, when the [[Principality of Serbia]] was granted autonomy, most Turks emigrated as "[[muhacir]]s" (refugees) to [[Ottoman Turkey]], and by 1862 almost all of the remaining Turks left [[Central Serbia]], including 3,000 from [[Belgrade]].<ref name="Vuletić">{{citation |last=Vuletić|first=Aleksandra|year=2012|url=http://www.demogr.mpg.de/papers/working/wp-2012-018.pdf|title=Censuses in 19th century Serbia: inventory of preserved microdata|publisher=Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research|page=7}}</ref> Today, the remaining community mostly live in [[Belgrade]] and [[Sandžak]].<br />
<br />
====Caucasus====<br />
=====Azerbaijan=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Azerbaijan}}<br />
The [[Turks in Azerbaijan|Turkish Azerbaijanis]] began to settle in the region during the Ottoman rule, which lasted between 1578 and 1603. By 1615, the Safavid ruler, [[Shah Abbas I]], solidified control of the region and then deported thousands of people from Azerbaijan.<ref name="Kaeter">{{citation|last=Kaeter|first=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Caucasian Republics|publisher=Infobase Publishing|page=15|isbn=9780816052684}}</ref> In 1998, there was still approximately 19,000 Turks living in Azerbaijan who descended from the original Ottoman settlers; they are distinguishable from the rest of Azeri society because they practice Sunni Islam (rather than the dominant Shia sect in the country).<ref name="Minahan">{{citation |last=Minahan|first=James|year=1998|title=Miniature Empires: A Historical Dictionary of the Newly Independent States|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0313306109|page=19}}</ref><br />
<br />
Since the [[Second World War]], the Turkish Azerbaijani community has increased significantly due to the mass wave of [[Meskhetian Turks|Turkish Meskhetian]] refugees who arrived during the [[Soviet Union|Soviet rule]].<br />
<br />
=====Georgia=====<br />
<br />
======Abkhazia======<br />
{{see also|Turks in Abkhazia}}<br />
The Turkish Abkhazians began to live in [[Abkhazia]] during the sixteenth century under Ottoman rule.<ref name=TodaysZaman>{{cite web|author=Today's Zaman|title=Abkhazian President Bagapsh in Ankara|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/columnist-240558-abkhazian-president-bagapsh-in-ankara.html|access-date=6 March 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110410205847/http://www.todayszaman.com/columnist-240558-abkhazian-president-bagapsh-in-ankara.html|archive-date=10 April 2011}}</ref> Today, there are still Turks who continue to live in the region.<ref name="Gogia2011">{{cite book|last=Gogia|first=Giorgi|url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/georgia0711LR.pdf|title=Georgia/Abkhazia: Living in Limbo – The Rights of Ethnic Georgian Returnees to the Gali District of Abkhazia|publisher=Human Rights Watch|location=New York, NY|year=2011|access-date=29 November 2016|isbn=978-1-56432-790-1|page=9|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017202339/https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/georgia0711LR.pdf|archive-date=17 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
======Meskheti======<br />
{{see also|Meskhetian Turks}}<br />
[[File:Young Meskhetian Turks.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Meskhetian Turks|Turkish Meskhetians]] wearing T-shirts that read: 14 November 1944, We have not forgotten the deportation.]]<br />
Prior to the Ottoman conquest of [[Meskheti]] in Georgia, hundreds of thousands of Turkic invaders had settled in the region from the thirteenth century.<ref name=Tomlinson2005p110>{{citation|last=Tomlinson|first=Kathryn|year=2005|chapter=Living Yesterday in Today and Tomorrow: Meskhetian Turks in Southern Russia|title=Writing History, Constructing Religion|editor1-last=Crossley|editor1-first=James G.|editor2-last=Karner|editor2-first=Christian |pages=110–111|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781351142748}}</ref> At this time, the main town, [[Akhaltsikhe]], was mentioned in sources by the Turkish name "Ak-sika", or "White Fortress". Thus, this accounts for the present day Turkish designation of the region as "Ahıska".<ref name=Tomlinson2005p110/> Local leaders were given the Turkish title "Atabek" from which came the fifteenth century name of one of the four kingdoms of what had been Georgia, [[Samtskhe-Saatabago]], "the land of the Atabek called Samtskhe [Meskhetia]".<ref name=Tomlinson2005p110/> In 1555 the Ottomans gained the western part of Meskheti after the [[Peace of Amasya]] treaty, whilst the [[Safavids]] took the eastern part.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mikaberidze|first1=Alexander|title=Historical Dictionary of Georgia|date=2015|page=|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1442241466|edition=2}}</ref> Then in 1578 the Ottomans attacked the Safavid controlled area which initiated the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–1590)]]. Meskheti was fully secured into the Ottoman Empire in 1639 after a treaty signed with Iran brought an end to Iranian attempts to take the region. With the arrival of more Turkish colonizers, the [[Meskhetian Turks|Turkish Meskhetian]] community increased significantly.<ref name=Pirtskhalava2019>{{citation|last=Pirtskhalava|first=Ekaterine|year=2019|chapter=The Reshaping Identity of Deported people in a New Environment|title=Bridging Differences: Understanding Cultural Interaction in Our Globalized World|editor1-last=Johnson|editor1-first=Newtona (Tina) |editor2-last=Simpson|editor2-first=Shawn|page=|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9781848883680}}</ref><br />
<br />
However, once the Ottomans lost control of the region in 1883, many Turkish Meskhetians migrated from Georgia to Turkey. Migrations to Turkey continued after the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]] followed by the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] (1917), and then after Georgia was incorporated into the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name=Pirtskhalava2019/> During this period, some members of the community also relocated to other Soviet borders, and those who remained in Georgia were targeted by the [[Sovietisation]] campaigns.<ref name=Pirtskhalava2019/> Thereafter, during [[World War II]], the Soviet administration initiated a mass deportation of the remaining 115,000 Turkish Meskhetians in 1944,{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} forcing them to resettle in the Caucasus and the Central Asian Soviet republics.<ref name=Pirtskhalava2019/><br />
<br />
Thus, today hundreds of thousands of Turkish Meskhetians are scattered throughout the [[Post Soviet states]] (especially in [[Kazakhstan]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Russia]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Ukraine]]). Moreover, many have settled in Turkey and the [[United States]]. Attempts to repatriate them back to Georgia saw Georgian authorities receive applications covering 9,350 individuals within the a two-year application period (up until 1 January 2010).<ref>{{citation|last=|first=|year=2015|title=The repatriation question of the Meskhetian Turks to their homeland in Georgia|url=https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1236549/1930_1443084042_g1520228.pdf|page=2|publisher=[[United Nations Human Rights Council]]|access-date=8 September 2021}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Levant====<br />
<br />
=====Iraq=====<br />
{{see also|Iraqi Turkmen|Turkmeneli}}<br />
[[File:Iraqi Turkmen girl in traditional Turkish costume.jpg|thumb|200px|right|An [[Iraqi Turkmen]] girl in traditional Turkish costume.]]<br />
Commonly referred to as the [[Iraqi Turkmens]], the Turks are the second largest ethnic minority group in [[Iraq]] (i.e. after the [[Kurds]]). The majority are the descendants of Ottoman settlers (e.g. soldiers, traders and civil servants) who were brought into Iraq from [[Anatolia]].<ref name="Taylor 2004">{{citation |last=Taylor|first=Scott|year=2004|title=Among the Others: Encounters with the Forgotten Turkmen of Iraq|publisher=[[Esprit de Corps (magazine)|Esprit de Corps]]|isbn=1-895896-26-6|pages=31–32}}</ref> Today, most Iraqi Turkmen live in a region they refer to as "[[Turkmeneli]]" which stretches from the northwest to the east at the middle of Iraq with [[Kirkuk]] placed as their cultural capital.<br />
<br />
Historically, Turkic migrations to Iraq date back to the 7th century when Turks were recruited in the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] armies of [[Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad]] followed by thousands more Turkmen warriors arriving under the [[Abbasid]] rule. However, most of these Turks became assimilated into the local Arab population.<ref name="Taylor 2004"/> The next large scale migration occurred under the [[Great Seljuq Empire]] after Sultan [[Toğrül|Tuğrul Bey]]'s invasion in 1055.<ref name="Taylor 2004"/> For the next 150 years, the Seljuk Turks placed large Turkmen communities along the most valuable routes of northern Iraq.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009">{{citation |last1=Anderson|first1=Liam D.|last2=Stansfield|first2=Gareth R. V.|year=2009|title=Crisis in Kirkuk: The Ethnopolitics of Conflict and Compromise|pages=16–17|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-4176-1}}</ref> Yet, the largest wave of Turkish migrations occurred under the four centuries of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule (1535–1919).<ref name="Taylor 2004"/><ref name="Stansfield 2007">{{citation|last=Stansfield|first=Gareth R. V.|year=2007|title=Iraq: People, History, Politics|pages=70–72|publisher=Polity|isbn=978-0-7456-3227-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/iraqpeoplehistor0000stan}}</ref> In 1534, [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] secured [[Mosul]] within the Ottoman Empire and it became the chief province ([[eyalet]]) responsible for administrative districts in the region. The Ottomans encouraged migration from Anatolia and the settlement of Turks along northern Iraq.<ref>{{citation|last1=Fattah|first1=Hala|last2=Caso|first2=Frank|year=2009|chapter=Turkish Tribal Migrations and the Early Ottoman State|title=A Brief History of Iraq|page=116|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-5767-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofir0000fatt}}</ref> After 89 years of peace, the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639)]] saw [[Murad IV]] recapturing [[Baghdad]] and taking permanent control over Iraq which resulted in the influx of continuous Turkish settlers until Ottoman rule came to an end in 1919.<ref name="Stansfield 2007"/><ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009"/><ref>{{citation |last=Talabany|first=Nouri|year=2007|title=Who Owns Kirkuk? The Kurdish Case|journal=Middle East Quarterly|url=http://www.meforum.org/1075/who-owns-kirkuk-the-kurdish-case|publisher=Middle East Quarterly, Winter 2007|page=75}}</ref><br />
<br />
After the establishment of the [[Republic of Turkey]] in 1923, the Iraqi Turkmens initially sought for Turkey to annex the [[Mosul Vilayet]].<ref name="Stansfield 2007" /> However, they participated in elections for the [[Constituent Assembly]] with the condition of preserving the Turkish character in Kirkuk's administration and the recognition of [[Turkish language|Turkish]] as the liwa's official language.<ref>{{citation |last=Lukitz|first=Liora|year=1995|title=Iraq: The Search for National Identity|page=41|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-7146-4550-8}}</ref> Although they were recognized as a constitutive entity of Iraq, alongside the [[Arabs]] and [[Kurds]], in the constitution of 1925, the Iraqi Turkmen were later denied this status.<ref name="Stansfield 2007" /> Thereafter, the Iraqi Turkmen found themselves increasingly discriminated against from the policies of successive regimes, such as the Kirkuk Massacre of 1923, 1947, 1959 and in 1979 when the [[Ba'th Party]] discriminated against the community.<ref name="Stansfield 2007" /><br />
<br />
Thus, the position of the Iraqi Turkmens has changed from historically being administrative and business classes of the Ottoman Empire to an increasingly discriminated minority.<ref name="Stansfield 2007" /> [[Arabization]] and [[Kurdification]] policies have seen Iraqi Turkmens pushed out of their homeland and thus various degrees of suppression and assimilation have ranged from political persecution and exile to terror and [[ethnic cleansing]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=62}}.</ref> Many Iraqi Turkmen have consequently sought refuge in Turkey whilst there has also been increasing migration to Western Europe (especially [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Sweden]] and the [[United Kingdom]]) as well as [[Canada]], the [[United States]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].<br />
<br />
=====Egypt=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Egypt}}<br />
The [[Turks in Egypt|Turkish Egyptians]] are mostly the descendants of Turkish settlers who arrived during the Ottoman rule of Egypt (1517–1867 and 1867–1914). However, with the exception of the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] rule of Egypt, the region was ruled from the [[Tulunid]] period (868–905) until 1952 by a succession of individuals who were either of Turkish origin or who had been raised according to the traditions of the Turkish state.<ref name="İhsanoğlu 2012">{{citation|last=İhsanoğlu|first=Ekmeleddin|year=2012|title=The Turks in Egypt and Their Cultural Legacy|translator-last=Davies|translator-first=Humphrey|page=1|publisher=[[American University in Cairo Press]]|isbn=9789774163975}}</ref> Hence, during the [[Mamluk Sultanate]], Arabic sources show that the [[Bahri dynasty|Bahri]] period referred to its dynasty as the '''State of the Turks''' ({{lang-ar|دولة الاتراك}}, ''Dawlat al-Atrāk''; {{lang|ar|دولة الترك}}, ''Dawlat al-Turk'') or the '''State of Turkey''' ({{lang|ar|الدولة التركية}}, ''al-Dawla al-Turkiyya'').<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nicolle|first1=David|year=2014|title=Mamluk 'Askari 1250–1517|page=4|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=9781782009290}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Petry|first1=Carl F.|editor1-last=Petry|editor1-first=Carl F.|title=The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt, 640-1517|date=1998|page=250|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521068857|chapter=The Military Institution and Innovation in the Late Mamluk Period}}</ref> Nonetheless, the Ottoman legacy has been the most significance in the preservation of the Turkish culture in Egypt which still remains visible today.<ref name="Eren 2012">{{citation|last=Eren|first=Halit|year=2012|chapter=Foreword|title=The Turks in Egypt and Their Cultural Legacy|translator-last=Davies|translator-first=Humphrey|page=xv|publisher=[[American University in Cairo Press]]|isbn=9789774163975}}</ref><br />
<br />
=====Jordan=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Jordan}}<br />
<br />
=====Lebanon=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Lebanon}}<br />
The [[Turks in Lebanon|Lebanese Turkmen]] are the ethnic Turks who constitute one of the ethnic groups in [[Lebanon]]. The historic rule of several Turkic dynasties in the region saw continuous Turkish migration waves to Lebanon during the [[Tulunids|Tulunid]] rule (868–905), [[Ikhshidid dynasty|Ikhshidid]] rule (935–969), [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] rule (1037–1194), [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] rule (1291–1515), and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule (1516–1918). Today, most of the Turkish Lebanese community are the descendants of the Ottoman Turkish settlers to Lebanon from [[Anatolia]]. However, with the declining territories of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, ethnic [[Turkish minorities]] from other parts of the former Ottoman territories found refuge in Ottoman Lebanon, especially [[Algerian Turks]] after the [[French North Africa|French colonization of North Africa]] in 1830,<ref name="Kateb 2001 loc=50-51" /> and [[Cretan Turks]] in 1897 due to unrest in Greece.<br />
<br />
=====Palestine=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Palestine}}<br />
Palestine was under Ottoman rule for over four centuries, from 1517 until 1922. Consequently, many Palestinian families have Turkish origins.<ref name="Al Gherbawi 2022">{{citation |last=Al Gherbawi|first=Hadeel|year=2022|title=Palestinian, Turkish ethnic mixture persists over times|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2022/01/palestinian-turkish-ethnic-mixture-persists-over-times|publisher=[[Al-Monitor]]|access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref> However, Turkish migration did not simply come to a halt after the Ottoman period. Rather, during the British rule of Cyprus (1878-1960), many [[Turkish Cypriot]] families struggling during the [[Great Depression]] and its aftermath were forced to marry off their daughters to [[Arabs]] in [[Mandatory Palestine|British Palestine]] with hopes that they would have a better life there.<ref name="Andreou 2018">{{cite web|last1=Andreou|first1=Evie|access-date=2019-09-10|title=Searching for the missing brides of Cyprus|url=https://cyprus-mail.com/2018/07/29/searching-for-the-missing-brides-of-cyprus/|date=29 July 2018}}</ref> Thousands of Turkish Cypriot women and girls were thus sent to Palestine until the late 1950s.<ref name="Sabah">{{cite web |author=Sabah|title=Küçük adanın talihsiz kızları|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/fotohaber/yasam/kucuk_adanin_talihsiz_kizlari/28151|access-date=26 October 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
Turkish family surnames in Palestine often end with the letter's "ji" (e.g, al-Batniji and al-Shorbaji) whilst other common names include al-Gharbawi, Tarzi, Turk, Birkdar, Jukmadar, Radwan, Jasir and al-Jamasi.<ref name="Al Gherbawi 2022"/> <br />
<br />
As of 2022, there are still thousands of Palestinian families in [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]] who are of Turkish origin.<ref name="Al Gherbawi 2022"/><br />
<br />
=====Syria=====<br />
{{see also|Syrian Turkmen|Turkmen Mountain}}<br />
The Turkish-speaking [[Syrian Turkmen]] form the second largest ethnic minority group in Syria (i.e., after the [[Kurds]]);<ref name=Khalifa2013 /> however, some estimates indicated that if [[Arabized]] Turks who no longer speaking Turkish are taken into account then they collectively form the largest ethnic minority in the country.<ref name=Khalifa2013 /> The majority of Syrian Turkmen are the descendants of Anatolian Turkish settlers who arrived in the region during the Ottoman rule (1516–1918). Today, they mostly live near the [[Syria–Turkey border]], stretching from the northwestern governorates of [[Idlib]] and [[Aleppo]] to the [[Raqqa Governorate]]. Many also reside in the [[Turkmen Mountain]] near [[Latakia]], the city of [[Homs]] and its vicinity until [[Hama]], [[Damascus]], and the southwestern governorates of [[Dera'a]] (bordering [[Jordan]]) and [[Quneitra]] (bordering [[Israel]]).<ref name=Khalifa2013 /><br />
<br />
Turkic migrations to Syria began in the 11th century, especially after the [[Seljuk Turks]] opened the way for mass migration of Turkish nomads once they entered northern Syria in 1071 and after they took [[Damascus]] in 1078 and Aleppo in 1086.<ref>{{cite book |last=Commins |first=David Dean |year=2004 |title=Historical Dictionary of Syria|page=231 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-0-8108-4934-1}}</ref> By the 12th century the Turkic [[Zengid dynasty]] continued to settle Turkmes in [[Aleppo]] to confront attacks from the [[Crusades|Crusaders]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ziadeh |first=Nicola A. |year=1953 |title=Urban life in Syria under the early Mamlūks|page=45|publisher=[[American University of Beirut]] |isbn=978-0-8371-3162-7}}</ref> Further migrations occurred once the Mamluks entered Syria in 1260. However, the largest Turkmen migrations occurred after the Ottoman sultan [[Selim I]] conquered Syria in 1516. Turkish migration from [[Anatolia]] to [[Ottoman Syria]] was continuous for almost 400 years, until Ottoman rule ended in 1918.<ref>{{citation|last1=Öztürkmen|first1=Ali|last2=Duman|first2=Bilgay|last3=Orhan|first3=Oytun|year=2015|title=Suriye'de Değişimin Ortaya Çıkardığı Toplum: Suriye Türkmenleri|url=http://suriyeturkmenmeclisi.org/files/file1.pdf|journal=Ortadoğu Stratejik Araştırmalar Merkezi (ORSAM)|page=5|volume=83|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616202939/http://suriyeturkmenmeclisi.org/files/file1.pdf|archive-date=16 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 1921 the [[Treaty of Ankara (1921)|Treaty of Ankara]] established [[Alexandretta]] (present-day [[Hatay]]) under an autonomous regime under [[French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French Mandate of Syria]]. Article 7 declared that the [[Turkish language]] would be an officially recognized language.<ref>{{citation|year=1921|title=Franco-Turkish Agreement signed at Angora on October 20, 1921|url=http://www.hri.org/docs/FT1921/Franco-Turkish_Pact_1921.pdf|pages=6–7|publisher=[[The Stationery Office]]|access-date=16 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116200547/http://www.hri.org/docs/FT1921/Franco-Turkish_Pact_1921.pdf|archive-date=16 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> However, once France announced that it would grant full independence to Syria, Mustafa Kemal demanded that Alexandretta be given its independence. Consequently, the [[Hatay State]] was established in 1938 and then petitioned for [[Ankara]] to unify Hatay with the Republic of Turkey. France agreed to the Turkish annexation on 23 July 1939.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Stanford J. |last2=Shaw |first2=Ezel Kural |year=1977 |title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 2, Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808–1975|page=377 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-29166-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan}}</ref><br />
<br />
Thereafter, [[Arabization]] policies saw the names of Turkish villages in Syria renamed with Arabic names and some Turkmen lands were nationalized and resettled with Arabs near the Turkish border.<ref name="Y2015">{{citation|last=Yılmaz|first=Meşküre|year=2015|title=Suriye Türkleri|url=https://21yyte.org/tr/suriye/suriye-turkleri-2|publisher=21. Yüzyıl Türkiye Enstitüsü}}</ref> A mass exodus of Syrian Turkmen took place between 1945 and 1953, many of which settled in southern Turkey.<ref name="enabbaladi2019">{{citation|year=2019|title=Complex nationalities: the stories of Syria's Turkmen|url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2019/11/complex-nationalities-the-stories-of-syrias-turkmen/|publisher=[[Enab Baladi]]}}</ref> Since the [[Syrian Civil War]] (2011–present), many Syrian Turkmen have been internally displaced and many have sought asylum in [[Turkey]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]] and northern [[Iraq]],<ref>{{citation|last1=Wahby|first1=Sarah |last2=Ahmadzadeh|first2=Hashem|last3=Çorabatır|first3=Metin|last4=Hashem|first4=Leen|last5=Al Husseini|first5=Jalal|year=2014 |title=Ensuring quality education for you refugees from Syria (12-25 year): a mapping exercise|url=https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/publications/ensuring-quality-education-for-young-refugees-from-syria-12-25-years-a-mapping-exercise-executive-summary|publisher=[[Refugee Studies Centre]], [[University of Oxford]] |access-date=25 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180425184330/https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/publications/ensuring-quality-education-for-young-refugees-from-syria-12-25-years-a-mapping-exercise-executive-summary|archive-date=25 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> as well as several [[Western Europe]]an countries<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hatahet |first1=Sinan |last2=Aldassouky |first2=Ayman |year=2017 |title=Forced Demographic Changes in Syria |url=http://www.sharqforum.org/2017/09/26/forced-demographic-changes-in-syria/ |publisher=[[Al Sharq Forum]] |access-date=7 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141648/http://www.sharqforum.org/2017/09/26/forced-demographic-changes-in-syria/ |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Australia]].<ref name="Crowe 2015" /><br />
<br />
====Maghreb====<br />
{{see also|Ottoman Algeria|Ottoman Tunisia|Ottoman Tripolitania|Kouloughlis}}<br />
The Ottomans took control of Algeria in 1515 and Tunisia in 1534 (but took full control of the latter in 1574) which lead to the settlement of Turks in the region, particularly around the coastal towns. Once these regions came under [[French colonialism]], the French classified the populations under their rule as either "Arab" or "Berber", despite the fact that these countries had diverse populations, which were also composed of ethnic Turks and [[Kouloughlis]] (i.e., people of partial Turkish origin). Jane E Goodman has said that:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|From early on, the French viewed North Africa through a Manichean lens. Arab and Berber became the primary ethnic categories through which the French classified the population (Lorcin 1995: 2). This occurred despite the fact that a diverse and fragmented populace comprised not only various Arab and Berber tribal groups but also Turks, Andalusians (descended from Moors exiled from Spain during the Crusades), Kouloughlis (offspring of Turkish men and North African women), blacks (mostly slaves or former slaves), and Jews.<ref>{{citation |last=Goodman|first=Jane E.|year=2005|title=Berber Culture on the World Stage: From Village to Video|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|isbn=0253111455|page=7}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
=====Algeria=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Algeria}}<br />
According to the [[U.S. Department of State]] "Algeria's population, [is] a mixture of Arab, Berber, and Turkish in origin";<ref name=US>{{citation |year=1984|title=Algeria: Post Report, Foreign Service Series 256|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sslkr1dMV78C&pg=PA1|publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]] (9209)|page=1|quote=Algeria's population, a mixture of Arab, Berber, and Turkish in origin, numbers nearly 21 million and is almost totally Moslem.}}</ref> meanwhile, [[Department of Foreign Affairs (Australia)|Australia's Department of Foreign Affairs]] has reported that the demographics of Algeria (as well as that of [[Tunisia]]) includes a "strong Turkish admixture".<ref name=Australia>{{citation |year=1954|title=Current Notes on International Affairs|publisher=[[Department of Foreign Affairs (Australia)]]|volume=25|issue=7–12|page=613|quote=In Algeria and Tunisia, however, the Arab and Berber elements have become thoroughly mixed, with an added strong Turkish admixture.}}</ref><br />
<br />
Today, Turkish descended families in Algeria continue to practice the [[Hanafi school]] of [[Islam]] (in contrast to the ethnic [[Arabs]] and [[Berbers]] who practice the [[Maliki school]]); moreover, many retain their [[Turks in Algeria#Common surnames used by the Turkish minority|Turkish-origin surnames]] — which mostly expresses a provenance or ethnic Turkish origin from Anatolia.<ref name=Parzymies1985>{{citation |last=Parzymies|first=Anna|year=1985|title=Anthroponymie Algérienne: Noms de Famille Modernes d'origine Turque|publisher=Éditions scientifiques de Pologne|page=109|isbn=83-01-03434-3|quote=Parmi les noms de famille d'origine turque, les plus nombreux sont ceux qui expriment une provenance ou une origine ethnique, c.-à-d., les noms qui sont dérivés de toponymes ou d'ethnonymes turcs.}}</ref><ref name=Amari2012>{{citation|last=Amari|first=Chawki|year=2012|title=Que reste-t-il des Turcs et des Français en Algérie?|url=http://www.slateafrique.com/81641/turcs-francais-algerie-colonisation-histoire|publisher=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate Afrique]]|quote=Les Turcs ou leurs descendants en Algérie sont bien considérés, ont même une association (Association des Turcs algériens), sont souvent des lettrés se fondant naturellement dans la société...Les Kouloughlis (kulughlis en Turc) sont des descendants de Turcs ayant épousé des autochtones pendant la colonisation (la régence) au XVIème et XVIIème siècle...Ce qu'il reste des Turcs en Algérie? De nombreux éléments culturels, culinaires ou architecturaux, de la musique,... Des mots et du vocabulaire, des noms patronymiques comme Othmani ou Osmane (de l'empire Ottoman), Stambouli (d'Istambul), Torki (Turc) ou des noms de métiers ou de fonctions, qui sont devenus des noms de famille avec le temps.}}</ref><br />
<br />
=====Libya=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Libya}}<br />
The [[Turks in Libya|Turkish Libyans]] form the second largest ethnic minority group in [[Libya]] (i.e. after the [[Berbers]]) and mostly live in [[Misrata]], [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], [[Zawiya, Libya|Zawiya]], [[Benghazi]] and [[Derna, Libya|Derna]].<ref name="Pan 1949"/> Some Turkish Libyans also live in more remote areas of the country, such as the Turkish neighborhood of Hay al-Atrak in the town of [[Awbari]].<ref>{{cite web|year=2015|title=REPORT ON THE HUMAN RIGHTS SITUATION IN LIBYA|url=https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/LY/UNSMIL_OHCHRJointly_report_Libya_16.11.15.pdf|publisher=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|access-date=27 September 2019|page=13}}</ref> They are the descendants of Turkish settlers who were encouraged to migrate from Anatolia to Libya during the Ottoman rule which lasted between 1555 and 1911.<ref>{{citation |last1=Malcolm|first1=Peter|last2=Losleben|first2=Elizabeth|year=2004|title=Libya|page=62|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=0-7614-1702-8}}</ref><br />
<br />
Today, the city of [[Misrata]] is considered to be the "main center of the Turkish-origin community in Libya";<ref>{{cite web|last=De Giovannangeli|first= Umberto|year=2019|title=Al-Sarraj vola a Milano per incontrare Salvini, l'uomo forte d'Italia|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.it/entry/al-sarraj-vola-a-milano-per-incontrare-salvini-luomo-forte-in-italia_it_5d19fac3e4b082e5536cafc1|publisher=Huffington Post|access-date=26 September 2019|quote= ... Misurata (centro principale della comunità di origine turca in Libia e città-chiave nella determinazione dei nuovi equilibri di potere nel Paese)}}</ref> in total, the Turks form approximately two-thirds (est. 270,000<ref name=Rossi/>) of Misrata's 400,000 inhabitants.<ref name=Rossi>{{cite web|last=Rossi|first= David |year=2019|title=PERCHÉ NESSUNO PARLA DELLA LIBIA?|url=http://www.difesaonline.it/evidenza/editoriale/perché-nessuno-parla-della-libia|publisher=Difesa Online|access-date=26 September 2019|quote=Chi conosce appena la situazione demografica di quella parte di Libia sa che Misurata con i suoi 270.000 abitanti (su 400.000) di origine turca e tuttora turcofoni non perderà mai il sostegno di Ankara e non cesserà un attimo di resistere, con o senza Sarraj.}}</ref> Consequently, since the [[Libyan Civil War (2011)|Libyan Civil War]] erupted in 2011, Misrata became "the bastion of resistance" and Turkish Libyans figured prominently in the war.<ref name=Tastekin /> In 2014 a former [[Muammar Gaddafi|Gaddafi]] officer reported to the ''[[New York Times]]'' that the civil war was now an "ethnic struggle" between Arab tribes (like the [[Zintan Brigades|Zintanis]]) against those of Turkish ancestry (like the Misuratis), as well as against the Berbers and Circassians.<ref name=Kirkpatrick>{{cite web|last=Kirkpatrick|first=David D.|year=2014 |title=Strife in Libya Could Presage Long Civil War|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/25/world/africa/libyan-unrest.html|work=[[New York Times]]|access-date=18 September 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
=====Tunisia=====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Tunisia}}<br />
Tunisia's population is made up "mostly of people of Arab, Berber, and Turkish descent".<ref name="Rotarian">{{citation|last=|first=|year=1969|title=Focus on Tunisia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TTUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA56|page=56|quote=The population of more than 4.6 million is made up mostly of people of Arab, Berber, and Turkish descent.|volume=December (1969)|work=[[The Rotarian]]}}</ref> The [[Turks in Tunisia|Turkish Tunisians]] began to settle in the region in 1534, with about 10,000 Turkish soldiers, when the [[Ottoman Empire]] answered the calls of Tunisia's inhabitants who sought the help of the Turks due to fears that the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] would invade the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|UNESCO|2009|loc=12}}.</ref> During the Ottoman rule, the Turkish community dominated the political life of the region for centuries; as a result, the ethnic mix of Tunisia changed considerably with the continuous migration of Turks from [[Anatolia]], as well as other parts of the Ottoman territories, for over 300 years. In addition, some Turks intermarried with the local population and their male offspring were called "[[Kouloughlis]]".<ref>{{cite web|author=Tunisia Today|title=Vient de paraître "Tribus : des origines à la dislocation"|url=http://www.tunisia-today.com/archives/21374|access-date=18 April 2012|archive-date=7 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407192019/http://www.tunisia-today.com/archives/21374|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Modern diaspora===<br />
{{main|Turkish diaspora}}<br />
<br />
====Europe====<br />
{{see also|Turks in Europe}}<br />
[[File:Turkisch-day-in-Berlin.jpg|thumb|right|As of 2020, the [[Turks in Germany]] number between 4 million and 7 million (i.e. 5–9% of Germany's population).<ref name=Engstrom2021/>{{sfn|Kötter|Vonthein|Günaydin|Müller|2003|p=55}}{{sfn|Haviland|Prins|Walrath|McBride|2010|p=675}} The German capital is the largest Turkish populated city outside Turkey<ref name=Nickl>{{citation|last=Nickl|first=Benjamin|year=2020|title=Turkish German Muslims and Comedy Entertainment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LgACEAAAQBAJ&dq=Ickstadt+points+out+that+Germany+now+has+its+third+generation+of+immigrants+with+Turkish+heritage+and+that+Berlin+is+the+largest+Turkish+city+outside+Turkey.&pg=PA34|quote=Ickstadt points out that Germany now has its third generation of immigrants with Turkish heritage and that Berlin is the largest Turkish city outside Turkey.|page=34|publisher=[[Leuven University Press]]|isbn=9789462702387}}</ref>]]<br />
Modern immigration of Turks to [[Western Europe]] began with [[Turkish Cypriots]] migrating to the [[United Kingdom]] in the early 1920s when the [[British Empire]] annexed [[Cyprus]] in 1914 and the residents of Cyprus became subjects of the Crown. However, Turkish Cypriot migration increased significantly in the 1940s and 1950s due to the [[Cyprus conflict]]. Conversely, in 1944, Turks who were forcefully deported from [[Meskheti]] in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] during the [[Second World War]], known as the [[Meskhetian Turks]], settled in [[Eastern Europe]] (especially in [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]]). By the early 1960s, migration to Western and [[Northern Europe]] increased significantly from [[Turkey]] when Turkish "[[guest workers]]" arrived under a "Labour Export Agreement" with [[Germany]] in 1961, followed by a similar agreement with the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]] and [[Austria]] in 1964; [[France]] in 1965; and [[Sweden]] in 1967.{{sfn|Akgündüz|2008|p=61}}{{sfn|Kasaba|2008|p=192}}{{sfn|Twigg|Schaefer|Austin|Parker|2005|p=33}} More recently, [[Bulgarian Turks]], [[Romanian Turks]], and [[Western Thrace Turks]] have also migrated to [[Western Europe]].<br />
<br />
In 1997 Professor Servet Bayram and Professor Barbara Seels said that there was 10 million Turks living in Western Europe and the Balkans (excluding Cyprus and Turkey).<ref>{{citation|last1=Bayram|first1=Servet|last2=Seels|first2=Barbara|year=1997|title=The Utilization of Instructional Technology in Turkey|journal=Educational Technology Research and Development|volume=45|issue=1|page=112|publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]]|doi=10.1007/BF02299617|s2cid=62176630|quote=There are about 10 million Turks living in the Balkan area of southeastern Europe and in western Europe at present.}}</ref> By 2010, Boris Kharkovsky from the Center for Ethnic and Political Science Studies said that there was up to 15 million Turks living in the [[European Union]].<ref>{{citation|year=2010|title=52% of Europeans say no to Turkey's EU membership|url=https://www.aysor.am/en/news/2010/02/02/turkey-europe/106730?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=5cadc325e9d6de274da7044b445bd172c7b2029e-1604753955-0-AVhYEz2aOybvH-qEPBsvvTpaib38A35FbqAgn6teGWuWeh48U9WebMfgeB7pDyti835gLNeS-jECj7JcmXfoYgHhsVqp5x66C2BKTSFGiVGxiw5PqhftOHz7nsSSjTFeaTP0PCXi7AWAmZmQvPS_UAXOWa5sA89tJ0mQObkZjZs3YvMe4mPkL3GRVgW7lkY67Wbd2ObEVwY8WkH8mjSEmlh2nN0XPKt9uF4ez2dmVArsQ-OEeET6EbYl19R6K6OB_o1zllMxypQhTFvwELlCScPf432jttv_ho4iUHZPKOqyXiG_TqKXWttoh6QAbveQgyOmNvsevk84nDkqw_NQhUo|publisher=[[Aysor]]|quote=This is not all of a sudden, says expert at the Center for Ethnic and Political Science Studies, Boris Kharkovsky. “These days, up to 15 million Turks live in the EU countries...|access-date=7 November 2020}}</ref> According to Dr Araks Pashayan 10 million "Euro-Turks" alone were living in [[Germany]], [[France]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] in 2012.<ref name=Pashayan>{{citation |last=Pashayan|first=Araks|year=2012|chapter=Integration of Muslims in Europe and the Gülen|title=European Muslims, Civility and Public Life: Perspectives On and From the Gülen Movement|editor1-last=Weller|editor1-first=Paul|editor2-last=Ihsan|editor2-first=Yilmaz|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BtMmIs4NmqIC&q=There+are+around+10+million+Euro-Turks+living+in+the+European+Union+countries+of+Germany%2C+France%2C+the+Netherlands+and+Belgium.&pg=PA82|publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]]|isbn=978-1-4411-0207-2|quote=There are around 10 million Euro-Turks living in the European Union countries of Germany, France, the Netherlands and Belgium.}}</ref> Yet, there are also significant Turkish communities living in [[Austria]], the [[UK]], [[Switzerland]], [[Italy]], [[Liechtenstein]], the [[Scandinavia]]n countries, and the [[Post-Soviet states]].<br />
<br />
====North America====<br />
{{Main|Turkish Americans|Turkish Canadians}}<br />
<br />
In the [[2000 United States Census]] 117,575 Americans voluntarily declared their ethnicity as Turkish.<ref>{{cite web|author=United States Census Bureau|title=Ancestry: 2000|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf|access-date=16 May 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040920132346/http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf|archive-date=20 September 2004}}</ref> However, the actual number of [[Turkish Americans]] is considerably larger with most choosing not to declare their ethnicity. Thus, Turkish Americans have been considered to be a "hard to count" community.<ref name=WashingtonDiplomat>{{cite web |author=The Washington Diplomat|title=Census Takes Aim to Tally'Hard to Count' Populations|url=http://www.washdiplomat.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6036:census-takes-aim-to-tallyhard-to-count-populations-&catid=205:april-2010&Itemid=239|access-date=5 May 2011}}</ref> In 1996 Professor John J. Grabowski had estimated the number of Turks to be 500,000.<ref name=Grabowski1996>{{citation|first=John J.|last=Grabowski|year=1996|editor-last1=Van Tassel|editor-first1=David Dirck|editor-last2=Grabowski|editor-first2=John J.|chapter=Turks in Cleveland|title=Encyclopedia of Cleveland History|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|quote=Currently, the Turkish population of northeast Ohio is estimated at about 1,000 (an estimated 500,000 Turks live in the United States).|isbn=0253330564}}</ref> By 2009, official institutions placed the number between 850,000 and 900,000; however, Turkish non-governmental organizations in the USA had claimed at least 3 million Turks in the USA.<ref name=Şafak2009>{{citation|first=Şafak|last=Erdal|year=2009|title=ABD'de kaç Türk var?|url=https://www.sabah.com.tr/yazarlar/safak/2009/05/08/abdde_kac_turk_var|publisher=[[Sabah (newspaper)|Sabah]]|quote=Biraz bilmece gibi mi oldu; açalım. Resmi kurumlarımıza göre ABD'de "Tahmini" 850 ile 900 bin arası Türk yaşıyor. Bu sayı öğrenci trafiğine göre her yıl ya biriki bin kişi artıyor veya bir o kadar eksiliyor. Buna karşılık ABD'deki Türk sivil toplum örgütlerinin Yeni Dünya'daki varlığımız üstüne yaptıkları araştırmalardan elde ettikleri sonuçlar, resmi kurumların verilerinin çok ama çok üstünde. Onlara göre, ABD'de halen en az 3 milyon Türk var. Okuyan, çalışan veya yaşayan.|access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> More recently, in 2012, the [[United States Secretary of Commerce|US Commerce Secretary]], [[John Bryson]], stated that the Turkish American community was over 1,000,000.<ref name=Bryson/> Meanwhile, in 2021, Senator [[Brian Feldman (politician)|Brian Feldman]] said that there was "over 2 million Turkish Americans".<ref name="Feldman2022"/> The largest concentration of Turkish Americans are in [[New York City]], and [[Rochester, New York]]; [[Washington, D.C.]]; and [[Detroit, Michigan]]. In addition, the [[Turks of South Carolina]], are an Anglicized and isolated community identifying as Turkish in [[Sumter County, South Carolina|Sumter County]] were they have lived for over 200 years.<ref>{{citation|last1=Ognibene|first1=Terri Ann|last2=Browder|first2=Glen|year=2018|title=South Carolina's Turkish People: A History and Ethnology|publisher=[[University of South Carolina]]|page=103|isbn=9781611178593}}</ref><br />
<br />
Regarding the [[Turkish Canadian]] community, [[Statistics Canada]] reports that 63,955 Canadians in the 2016 census listed "Turk" as an ethnic origin, including those who listed more than one origin.<ref name="statcan1">{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/imm/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=31&Geo=01&SO=4D|title=Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables |date=25 October 2017 |publisher=statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> However, the Canadian Ambassador to Turkey, Chris Cooter, said that there was over 100,000 Turkish Canadians in 2018.<ref name="Aytac2018" /> The majority live in [[Ontario]], mostly in [[Toronto]], and there is also a sizable Turkish community in [[Montreal, Quebec]].<br />
<br />
====Oceania====<br />
{{See also|Turkish Australian}}<br />
A notable scale of Turkish migration to [[Australia]] began in the late 1940s when [[Turkish Cypriots]] began to leave the island of [[Cyprus]] for economic reasons, and then, during the [[Cyprus conflict]], for political reasons, marking the beginning of a Turkish Cypriot immigration trend to Australia.{{sfn|Hüssein|2007|p=17}} The Turkish Cypriot community were the only [[Muslims]] acceptable under the [[White Australia Policy]];{{sfn|Cleland|2001|p=24}} many of these early immigrants found jobs working in factories, out in the fields, or building national infrastructure.{{sfn|Hüssein|2007|p=19}} In 1967, the governments of Australia and Turkey signed an agreement to allow Turkish citizens to immigrate to Australia.{{sfn|Hüssein|2007|p=196}} Prior to this recruitment agreement, there were fewer than 3,000 people of Turkish origin in Australia.{{sfn|Hopkins|2011|p=116}} According to the [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]], nearly 19,000 Turkish immigrants arrived from 1968 to 1974.{{sfn|Hüssein|2007|p=196}} They came largely from [[rural]] areas of Turkey, approximately 30% were skilled and 70% were unskilled workers.{{sfn|Saeed|2003|p=9}} However, this changed in the 1980s when the number of skilled Turks applying to enter Australia had increased considerably.{{sfn|Saeed|2003|p=9}} Over the next 35 years the Turkish population rose to almost 100,000.{{sfn|Hopkins|2011|p=116}} More than half of the Turkish community settled in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], mostly in the north-western suburbs of [[Melbourne]].{{sfn|Hopkins|2011|p=116}} According to the [[2006 Australian Census]], 59,402 people claimed Turkish ancestry;<ref>{{cite web|author=Australian Bureau of Statistics |title=20680-Ancestry (full classification list) by Sex Australia |url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ViewData?breadcrumb=POLTD&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&subaction=-1&issue=2006&producttype=Census%20Tables&documentproductno=0&textversion=false&documenttype=Details&collection=Census&javascript=true&topic=Ancestry&action=404&productlabel=Ancestry%20(full%20classification%20list)%20by%20Sex&order=1&period=2006&tabname=Details&areacode=0&navmapdisplayed=true&|access-date=13 July 2011}}</ref> however, this does not show a true reflection of the [[Turkish Australian]] community as it is estimated that between 40,000 and 120,000 Turkish Cypriots<ref>{{cite web|author=TRNC Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=Briefing Notes on the Cyprus Issue |url=http://www.trncinfo.com/tanitma/en/index.asp?sayfa=cms&dmid=0&cmsid=214&ssid=556095671|access-date=3 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Kibris Gazetesi|title=Avustralya'daki Kıbrıslı Türkler ve Temsilcilik... |url=http://www.kibrisgazetesi.com/printa.php?col=119&art=9711|access-date=31 May 2011|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721144320/http://www.kibrisgazetesi.com/printa.php?col=119&art=9711 |archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |work=BRT|title=AVUSTURALYA'DA KIBRS TÜRKÜNÜN SESİ |url=http://www.brtk.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=31316:avusturalyada-kibrs-tuerkuenuen-ses&catid=1:kktc&Itemid=3 |access-date=18 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |work=Star Kıbrıs|title=Sözünüzü Tutun |url=http://www.starkibris.net/index.asp?haberID=125704|access-date=10 September 2012}}</ref> and 150,000 to 200,000 mainland Turks<ref>{{cite news|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|title=Old foes, new friends|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/World/Old-foes-new-friends/2005/04/22/1114152326767.html |access-date=26 December 2008 |date=23 April 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |work=Milliyet |title=Avustralyalı Türkler'den, TRT Türk'e tepki |url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/Dunya/SonDakika.aspx?aType=SonDakika&ArticleID=1094744&Date=14.05.2009&Kategori=dunya&b=Avustralyali%20Turklerden,%20TRT%20Turke%20tepki|access-date=16 May 2012}}</ref> live in Australia. Furthermore, there has also been ethnic Turks who have migrated to Australia from [[Bulgaria]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Department of Immigration and Citizenship|year=2006|title=Community Information Summary:Bulgaria|publisher=Australian Government|page=2|url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/comm-summ/_pdf/bulgaria.pdf|access-date=16 May 2012|archive-date=16 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110316054847/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/comm-summ/_pdf/bulgaria.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Greece]],<ref name=2006AustralianCensusEMP>{{cite web|author=Australian Bureau of Statistics|title=2006 Census Ethnic Media Package |date=27 June 2007 |url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/2914.0.55.0022006?OpenDocument|access-date=13 July 2011}}</ref> [[Iraq]],<ref>{{cite web |author=Department of Immigration and Citizenship |year=2006 |title=Community Information Summary:Iraq |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/comm-summ/_pdf/iraq.pdf |publisher=Australian Government |page=1 |access-date=16 May 2012 |archive-date=13 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213070534/https://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/comm-summ/_pdf/iraq.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[North Macedonia]].<ref name=2006AustralianCensusEMP /><br />
<br />
====Post-Soviet states====<br />
Due to the ordered deportation of over 115,000 [[Meskhetian Turks]] from their homeland in 1944, during the [[Second World War]], the majority were settled in the [[Post-Soviet states]] in the [[Caucasus]] and [[Central Asia]].{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} According to the [[Soviet Census (1989)|1989 Soviet Census]], which was the last Soviet Census, 106,000 Meskhetian Turks lived in [[Uzbekistan]], 50,000 in [[Kazakhstan]], and 21,000 in [[Kyrgyzstan]].{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} However, in 1989, the Meshetian Turks who had settled in Uzbekistan became the target of a [[pogrom]] in the [[Fergana valley]], which was the principal destination for Meskhetian Turkish deportees, after an uprising of nationalism by the [[Uzbeks]].{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} The riots had left hundreds of Turks dead or injured and nearly 1,000 properties were destroyed; thus, thousands of Meskhetian Turks were forced into renewed [[exile]].{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} Soviet authorities recorded many Meskhetian Turks as belonging to other nationalities such as "[[Azerbaijani people|Azeri]]", "[[Kazakhs|Kazakh]]", "[[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]]", and "[[Uzbeks|Uzbek]]".{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}}{{sfn|Aydıngün|Harding|Hoover|Kuznetsov|2006|p=1}}<br />
<br />
==Culture==<br />
{{Further|Culture of Turkey|Turkey#Culture}}<br />
<br />
===Language===<br />
{{Main|Turkish language}}<br />
[[File:Ataturk-September 20, 1928.jpg|thumb|left|140px|upright|Mustafa Kemal introducing the modern [[Turkish alphabet]] to the people of [[Kayseri]] in 1928.]]<br />
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Ela speaking Turkish.webm|thumb|right|A [[Turks in Kosovo|Turkish Kosovar]] speaking standard Turkish.]]<br />
<br />
Based on geographic variants, the ethnic Turks speak [[Turkish dialects|various dialects]] of the [[Turkish language]]. As of 2021, Turkish remains "the largest and most vigorous [[Turkic language]], spoken by over 80 million people".<ref name=Johanson2021>{{citation|author=[[Lars Johanson|Johanson, Lars]]|year=2021|title=Turkic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=huk9EAAAQBAJ&dq=Turkish+is+the+largest+and+most+vigorous+Turkic+language%2C+spoken+by+over+80+million+people&pg=PT134 |quote=Turkish is the largest and most vigorous Turkic language, spoken by over 80 million people, a third of the total number of Turkic-speakers... Turkish is a recognized regional minority language in North Macedonia, Kosovo, Romania, and Iraq.|pages=98–99|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781009038218}}</ref><br />
<br />
Historically, [[Ottoman Turkish]] was the official language and ''[[lingua franca]]'' throughout the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] territories and the [[Ottoman Turkish alphabet]] used the Perso-Arabic script. However, Turkish intellectuals sought to simplify the written language during the rise of Turkish nationalism in the nineteenth century.<ref>{{citation|last=Kushner|first=David|year=1977|title=The Rise of Turkish Nationalism, 1876–1908|publisher=Cass|isbn=9780714630755}}</ref><br />
<br />
By the twentieth century, intensive language reforms were thoroughly practiced; most importantly, Mustafa Kemal changed the written script to a [[Latin alphabet|Latin]]-based modern [[Turkish alphabet]] in 1928.<ref>{{citation|last=Lewis|first=Geoffrey|year=1999|title=The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780191583223}}</ref> Since then, the regulatory body leading the reform activities has been the [[Turkish Language Association]] which was founded in 1932.<ref name=Johanson2021/><br />
<br />
The modern standard Turkish is based on the dialect of [[Istanbul]].<ref>{{cite book|author=George L. Campbell|title=Concise Compendium of the World's Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A_BIVmjpzmYC&pg=PA547|access-date=28 July 2013|date=1 September 2003 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-11392-2|pages=547–}}</ref> However, dialectal variation persists, in spite of the [[Dialect levelling|levelling]] influence of the standard used in mass media and the [[Education in Turkey|Turkish education system]] since the 1930s.{{sfn|Johanson|2001|p=16}} The terms ''ağız'' or ''şive'' often refer to the different types of Turkish dialects.<br />
<br />
[[File:Map of Turkish Language.svg|thumb|{{legend|#004DFF|Countries where Turkish is an official language}}{{legend|#88C4FF|Countries where it is recognised as a minority language}}{{legend|#AFEEEE|Countries where it is recognised as a minority language and co-official in at least one municipality}}]]<br />
<br />
====Official status====<br />
Today, the modern Turkish language is used as the official language of [[Turkey]] and [[Northern Cyprus]]. It is also an official language in the [[Republic of Cyprus]] (alongside [[Greek language|Greek]]).<ref>{{cite web|author=Presidency of the Republic of Cyprus|title=The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus|url=http://www.presidency.gov.cy/presidency/presidency.nsf/all/1003AEDD83EED9C7C225756F0023C6AD/$file/CY_Constitution.pdf|access-date=26 April 2016|quote=Article 1...the Greek and the Turkish Communities of Cyprus respectively...Article 3 (4) Judicial proceedings shall be conducted or made and judgements shall be drawn up in the Greek language if the parties are Greek, in the Turkish language if the parties are Turkish, and in both the Greek and the Turkish languages if the parties are Greek and Turkish. The official language or languages to be used for such purposes in all other cases shall be specified by the Rules of Court made by the High Court under Article 163.|archive-date=3 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203001544/http://www.presidency.gov.cy/presidency/presidency.nsf/all/1003AEDD83EED9C7C225756F0023C6AD/$file/CY_Constitution.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In [[Kosovo]], Turkish is recognized as an official language in the municipalities of [[Prizren]], [[Mamuša]], [[Gjilan]], [[Mitrovica, Kosovo|Mitrovica]], [[Pristina]], and [[Vučitrn]],<ref>{{citation|year=2014|title=Municipal language compliance in Kosovo|page=10|quote=The Turkish language is currently official in Prizren and Mamuşa/Mamushë/Mamuša municipalities. In 2007 and 2008, the municipalities of Gjilan/Gnjilane, southern Mitrovicë/Mitrovica, Prishtinë/Priština and Vushtrri/Vučitrn also recognized Turkish asa language in official use. |publisher=[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]]}}</ref> whilst elsewhere in the country it is recognized as a [[minority language]].<ref name=Johanson2021/> Similarly, in [[North Macedonia]] Turkish is an official language where they form at least 20% of the population (which includes the [[Plasnica Municipality]], the [[Centar Župa Municipality]], and the [[Mavrovo and Rostuša Municipality]]),<ref>{{citation |last=Dzankic|first=Jelena|year=2016|title=Citizenship in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Montenegro: Effects of Statehood and Identity Challenges|page=81|quote=With the 2001 amendments, in those municipalities where minorities constituted 20 per cent of the overall population, minority languages became official|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1317165798}}</ref> whilst elsewhere in the country it remains a minority language only.<ref name=Johanson2021/> [[Iraq]] recognizes Turkish as an official language in all regions where Turks constitute the majority of the population,<ref>{{citation|year=2017|title=History and Legal Dimension of Turkish Education in Iraq|url=https://www.orsam.org.tr/en/history-and-legal-dimension-of-turkish-education-in-iraq/|publisher=[[Center for Middle Eastern Strategic Studies]]|access-date=25 August 2021}}</ref> and as a minority language elsewhere.<ref name=Johanson2021/> In several countries, Turkish is officially recognized as a [[minority language]] only, including in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]],<ref>{{citation|year=2010|chapter=Bosnia and Herzegovina|title=The European Charter for Regional Or Minority Languages: Collected Texts|pages=107–108|publisher=[[Council of Europe]]|isbn=9789287166715}}</ref> [[Croatia]],<ref>{{citation|year=2012|chapter=The Croatian Language in the European Information Society|title=The Croatian Language in the Digital Age|editor1-last=Rehm|editor1-first=Georg|editor2-last=Uszkoreit|editor2-first=Hans|page=51|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|isbn=9783642308826}}</ref><ref name="Franceschini546">{{cite book|last=Franceschini|first=Rita|chapter=Italy and the Italian-Speaking Regions|editor-last=Fäcke|editor-first=Christiane|title=Manual of Language Acquisition|year=2014|quote=In Croatia, Albanian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Czech, German, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Macedonian, Polish, Romanian, Romany, Rusyn, Russian, Montenegrin, Slovak, Slovenian, Serbian, Turkish, and Ukrainian are recognized (EACEA 2012, 18, 50s) |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH|isbn=9783110394146|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zM_mBQAAQBAJ&q=Croatia+Albanian&pg=PA1|pages=546}}</ref> and [[Romania]].<ref name=Johanson2021/><ref>{{citation|year=2010|chapter=Romania|title=The European Charter for Regional Or Minority Languages: Collected Texts|pages=135–136|publisher=[[Council of Europe]]|isbn=9789287166715}}</ref> However, in [[Greece]] the right to use the Turkish language is only recognized in [[Western Thrace]]; the sizable and longstanding minorities elsewhere in the country (i.e. [[Rhodes]] and [[Kos]]) do not benefit from this same recognition.<ref>{{citation |last1=Trudgill|first1=Peter|last2=Schreier|first2=Daniel|year=2006|chapter=Greece and Cyprus / Griechenland und Zypern|title=Sociolinguistics / Soziolinguistik|editor-last=Ulrich|editor-first=Ammon|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|quote=Hundreds of thousands of Turkish speakers left Greece in the period 1821–1923. In the Peloponnese, they had constituted more than 10 % of the population in 1820 (Clogg 1979, 35). Today most Turkish speakers in Greece are in western (Greek) Thrace (SellaMazi 1992). Here, alone of all Greek minorities, they have protected status, with rights to practise their religion and to use their language, including in the education system, as a result of the Treaty of Lausanne. They also elect members to the national parliament in Athens. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between Turks and the Slavic-speaking Pomaks, who tend to be able to speak Turkish as well. Census returns give figures for native Turkish speakers of 190000 in 1928, 230000 in 1940, and 180000 in 1951. They look to Istanbul rather than Athens for many purposes, and young people go there to study rather than to universities in Greece. There are also sizeable and longstanding but officially unrecognised communities of Moslem Turkish-speakers on the islands of Rhodes and Kos.|isbn=3110199874|pages=1885–1886}}</ref><br />
<br />
There are also several post-Ottoman nations which do not officially recognize the Turkish language but give rights to Turkish minorities to study in their own language (alongside the compulsory study of the official language of the country); this is practiced in [[Bulgaria]]<ref>{{citation |last=Schwartz|first=Herman|year=2002|title=The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=0226741966|page=184}}</ref> and [[Tunisia]].<ref>{{citation |last=Benrabah|first=Mohamed|year=2013 |title=Language Conflict in Algeria: From Colonialism to Post-Independence|quote=As a result of this, the Tunisian authorities decreed in June 2012 the introduction of the Turkish language in all Tunisian secondary schools, as of September 2012. |page=186|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=978-1847699664}}</ref><br />
<br />
Various variants of Turkish are also used by millions of Turkish immigrants and their descendants in [[Western Europe]], however, there is no official recognition in these countries.<ref name=Johanson2021 /><br />
<br />
====Turkish dialects====<br />
{{see also|Turkish dialects|Cypriot Turkish}}<br />
[[File:Flag of Centar Župa Municipality, North Macedonia.svg|thumb|upright|The flag of the [[Centar Župa Municipality]] in [[North Macedonia]] is labelled with [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] and Turkish writing in its central banner.]]<br />
<br />
There are three major Anatolian Turkish dialect groups spoken in [[Turkey]]: the West Anatolian dialect (roughly to the west of the [[Euphrates]]), the East Anatolian dialect (to the east of the Euphrates), and the North East Anatolian group, which comprises the dialects of the Eastern Black Sea coast, such as [[Trabzon]], [[Rize]], and the littoral districts of [[Artvin]].{{sfn|Brendemoen|2002|p=27}}{{sfn|Brendemoen|2006|p=227}}<br />
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The Balkan Turkish dialects, also called the Rumelian Turkish dialects, are divided into two main groups: "Western Rumelian Turkish" and "Eastern Rumelian Turkish".<ref name=Johanson2021dialects>{{citation|author=[[Lars Johanson|Johanson, Lars]]|year=2021|chapter=4.3.1.1 Turkish Dialect Areas|title=Turkic|pages=44–49|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781009038218}}</ref> The Western dialects are spoken in [[North Macedonia]], [[Kosovo]], western [[Bulgaria]], northern [[Romania]], [[Bosnia]] and [[Albania]]. The Eastern dialects are spoken in [[Greece]], northeastern/southern Bulgaria and southeastern Romania.<ref name=Johanson2021dialects /> This division roughly follows through a borderline between west and east Bulgaria, which starts east of [[Lom, Bulgaria|Lom]] and proceeds southwards to the east of [[Vratsa]], [[Sofia]] and [[Samokov]], and turns west reaching south of [[Kyustendil]] close to the borders with Serbia and North Macedonia.<ref name=Johanson2021dialects /> The eastern dialects lacks some of the phonetic peculiarities found in the western area; thus, its dialects are close to the central Anatolian dialects. The Turkish dialects spoken near the western [[Black Sea]] region (e.g., [[Ludogorie]], [[Dobruja]], and [[Bessarabia]]) show analogies with northeastern Anatolian Black Sea dialects.<ref name=Johanson2021dialects /><br />
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{{listen <br />
| filename = Kibrisim-cropped.ogg<br />
| title = Kıbrısım <br />
| description = An example of folk music in the Cypriot Turkish dialect.<br />
| format = [[Ogg]]<br />
}}<br />
The [[Cypriot Turkish|Cypriot Turkish dialect]] maintained features of the respective local varieties of the Ottoman settlers who mostly came from the Konya-Antalya-Adana region;<ref name=Johanson2021dialects/> furthermore, Cypriot Turkish was also influenced by [[Cypriot Greek]].<ref name=Johanson2021dialects /> Today, the varieties spoken in Northern Cyprus are increasingly influenced by standard Turkish.The Cypriot Turkish dialect is being exposed to increasing standard Turkish through immigration from [[Turkey]], new mass media, and new educational institutions.{{sfn|Johanson|2011|p=738}}<br />
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[[File:Welcome sign to the village of Çardağlı.jpg|thumb|150px|A bilingual road sign (Turkish and Arabic) in [[Iraq]].]]<br />
The [[Iraqi Turkmen#Language|Iraqi Turkish dialects]] have similarities with certain [[Southeastern Anatolia]]n dialects around the region of [[Urfa]] and [[Diyarbakır]].<ref>{{citation|last=Bulut|first=Christiane|year=1999|title=Klassifikatorische Merkmale des Iraktürkischen|pages=5–27|journal=Orientalia Suecana|volume=48}}</ref> Some linguists have described the Iraqi Turkish dialects as an "[[Anatolia]]n"<ref name="Gülensoy 1981 loc=7">{{citation|last=Gülensoy|first=Tuncer|year=1981|title=Anadolu ve Rumeli Ağızları Bibliyografyası: Anadolu, Kıbrıs, Suriye, Irak, Bulgaristan, Yunanistan, ve Romanya Türk Ağızları|page=7|publisher=Kültür Bakanlığı}}</ref> or an "[[Eastern Anatolia]]n dialect".<ref>{{citation|last=Brendemon|first=Bernt|year=2005|chapter=Consonant Assimilations: A possible Parameter for the Classification of Turkish dialects|title=Turkic Languages|editor1-last=Johanson|editor1-first=Lars|page=178|volume=9|publisher=[[Harrassowitz Verlag]]|title-link=Turkic Languages (journal)}}</ref> Historically, Iraqi Turkish was influenced by [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] and neighboring [[Azeri Turkic|Azerbaijani Turkic]].<ref name="Bulut 2007 loc=167">{{citation|last=Bulut|first=Christiane|year=2007|chapter=Iraqi Turkman|title=Languages of Iraq: Ancient and Modern|chapter-url=http://www.bisi.ac.uk/sites/bisi.localhost/files/languages_of_iraq.pdf|editor1-last=Postgate|editor1-first=J.N.|page=167|publisher=[[British School of Archaeology in Iraq]]|isbn=978-0903472210}}</ref> However, [[Turkish language|Istanbul Turkish]] is now a [[prestige language]] which exerts a profound influence on their dialects.{{sfn|Johanson|2001}} The [[syntax]] in Iraqi Turkish therefore ''differs sharply'' from neighboring Irano-Turkic varieties,{{sfn|Johanson|2001}} and shares characteristics which are similar with Turkish dialects in Turkey.<ref>{{citation|last=Stein|first=Heidi|year=2010|chapter=Optativ versus Voluntativ-Imperativ in irantürkischen Texten |title=Turcology in Mainz|editor1-last=Boeschoten|editor1-first=Hendrik|author-link1=Hendrik Boeschoten|editor2-last=Rentzsch|editor2-first=Julian |author-link2=Julian Rentzsch|page=244|publisher=[[Otto Harrassowitz Verlag]]|isbn=978-3447061131|quote=Damit weist das Iraktürkische hier - wie auch bei einigen anderen Merkmalen - eine großere Nähe zum Türkeitürkischen auf.}}</ref> Collectively, the Iraqi Turkish dialects also show similarities with [[Cypriot Turkish]] and Balkan Turkish regarding [[Linguistic modality|modality]].<ref>{{citation|last=Johanson|first=Lars|year=2009|chapter=Modals in Turkic|title=Modals in the Languages of Europe: A Reference Work|editor1-last=Hansen|editor1-first=Björn|editor2-last=de Haan|editor2-first= Ferdinand|pages=502–504|publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]]|isbn=978-3110219203}}</ref> The written language of the Iraqi Turkmen is based on Istanbul Turkish using the modern [[Turkish alphabet]].<ref>{{citation|last=Bulut|first=Christiane|year=2018|chapter=Iraq-Turkic|title=The Languages and Linguistics of Western Asia: An Areal Perspective|editor1-last=Haig|editor1-first=Geoffrey|editor2-last=Khan|editor2-first=Geoffrey|page=357|publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]]|isbn=978-3110421682}}</ref><br />
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The Meskhetian Turkish dialect was originally spoken in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] until the [[Meskhetian Turks|Turkish Meskhetian]] community were forcefully deported and then dispersed throughout Turkey, [[Russia]], [[Central Asia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Ukraine]], and the [[United States]].<ref>{{citation|last1=Dobrushina|first1=Nina|last2=Daniel|first2=Michael|last3=Koryakov|first3=Yuri|year=2020|chapter=Language and Sociolinguistics of the Caucasus |title=The Oxford Handbook of Languages of the Caucasus|editor-last=Polinsky|editor-first=Maria|page=33|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780190690694}}</ref> They speak an [[Eastern Anatolia Region|Eastern Anatolian]] dialect of Turkish, which hails from the regions of [[Kars Province|Kars]], [[Ardahan]], and [[Artvin]].{{sfn|Aydıngün|Harding|Hoover|Kuznetsov|2006|p=23}} The Meskhetian Turkish dialect has also borrowed from other languages (including [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]], [[Russian language|Russian]], and [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]), which the Meskhetian Turks have been in contact with during the [[Russian Empire|Russian]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] rule.{{sfn|Aydıngün|Harding|Hoover|Kuznetsov|2006|p=23}}<br />
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The [[Syrian Turkmen#Language|Syrian Turkish dialects]] are spoken throughout the country. In [[Aleppo]], [[Tell Abyad]], [[Raqqa]] and [[Bayırbucak]] they speak Southeastern Anatolian dialects (comparable to [[Kilis]], [[Antep]], [[Urfa]], [[Hatay]] and [[Yayladağı]]).<ref name="ORSAMpage3">{{citation|year=2015|title=Abdurrahman Mustafa: Turkmens' Survival Can Be Ensured by Syria's Territorial Integrity|url=http://www.orsam.org.tr/files/Soylesiler/16/16eng.pdf|page=3|publisher=ORSAM|access-date=10 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010215636/http://www.orsam.org.tr/files/Soylesiler/16/16eng.pdf|archive-date=10 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Damascus]] they speak Turkish language with a [[Yörük]] dialect.<ref name="ORSAMpage3" /> Currently, Turkish is the third most widely used language in Syria (after [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Behnstedt |first=Peter |year=2008 |chapter=Syria |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-last=Versteegh |editor1-first=Kees |editor2-last=Eid |editor2-first=Mushira |editor3-last=Elgibali |editor3-first=Alaa |editor4-last=Woidich |editor4-first=Manfred |editor5-last=Zaborski |editor5-first=Andrzej |volume=4|page=402|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=978-90-04-14476-7}}</ref><br />
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===Religion===<br />
[[File:Sultan Ahmed Mosque Istanbul Turkey retouched.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque|Blue Mosque]] in [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]], is an example of Ottoman imperial architecture.]]<br />
[[File:Larnaca 01-2017 img30 Salt Lake.jpg|thumb|The [[Hala Sultan Tekke]] in [[Larnaca]], [[Cyprus]], is an example of Ottoman provincial architecture. As the resting place of [[Umm Haram]], it is one of the holiest sites in Islam and an important pilgrimage site for the largely secular [[Turkish Cypriots|Turkish Cypriot]] community.]]<br />
Most ethnic Turkish people are either practicing or non-practicing Muslims who follow the teachings of the [[Hanafi school]] of [[Sunni Islam]].<ref name=Mayer2010/> They form the largest Muslim community in [[Turkey]] and [[Northern Cyprus]] as well as the largest Muslim groups in [[Austria]],<ref name=Rabasa&Benard>{{citation|last1=Rabasa|first1=Angel|last2=Benard|first2=Cheryl|year=2015|title=Eurojihad|pages=20–21|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781107078932}}</ref> [[Bulgaria]],<ref>{{citation|last=Zhelyazkova|first=Antonina|year=2015|chapter=Bulgaria|title=The Oxford Handbook of European Islam|editor-last=Cesari|editor-first=Jocelyne|page=574|quote=Turks are the largest Muslim community. They are furthermore the most strongly consolidated community in the state with a very clear and unambiguous understanding of its ethnic identity. The only differences stem from affiliation to various Islamic movements. Some of in-group competition exist between Sunni Turks and Alevi/Kızılbashi/Bektashi. The Kızılbashi, a minority within a minority, have freely practiced their specific rituals with no visible confrontation with the Sunni Turks. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780199607976}}</ref> [[Czech Republic]],<ref name=Lucie2020>{{citation|last=Tungul|first=Lucie|year=2020|title=Turkish Community in the Czech Republic: A Diaspora in the Making? |page=499|journal=Politics in Central Europe|volume=16|issue=2|doi=10.2478/pce-2020-0025|s2cid=229051057|quote=...the position of Turkish migrants, the single largest Muslim community in the Czech Republic, in the specific context of the Czech Republic.|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Denmark]],<ref>{{citation|last=Jacobsen|first=Brian Arly|year=2012|chapter=Muslims in Denmark: A Critical Evaluation of Estimations|title=Islam in Denmark: The Challenge of Diversity|editor-last=Nielsen|editor-first=Jørgen S.|page=47|publisher=[[Lexington Books]]|isbn=9780739150924}}</ref> [[Germany]],<ref name=Arab2021>{{citation|last=Arab|first=Pooyan Tamimi |year=2021|chapter=Strict Neutrality Reconsidered: Religion and Political Belonging in the Netherlands |title=Religion, Secularism, and Political Belonging|editor1-last=Medovoi|editor1-first=Leerom|editor2-last=Bentley|editor2-first=Elizabeth|page=56|quote=The construction of mosques by citizens with a Turkish migration background, the larges Muslim constituents in the Netherlands and in Germany, is well suited to clarify the idea of disentangling political and cultural or religious belonging|publisher=[[Duke University Press]]|isbn=9781478012986}}</ref> [[Liechtenstein]],<ref>{{citation|last=Schmidinger|first=Thomas|year=2010|chapter=Liechtenstein|title=Yearbook of Muslims in Europe|editor1-last=Nielsen|editor1-first=Jørgen|editor2-last=Akgönül|editor-first2=Samim|editor3-last=Alibašić|editor3-first=Ahmet|editor4-last=Maréchal|editor4-first=Brigitte|editor5-last=Moe|editor5-first=Christian|volume=2|pages=311–17|quote=|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|isbn=9789004184763}}</ref> the [[Netherlands]],<ref name=Arab2021/> [[Romania]]<ref>{{citation|last=Cupcea|first=Adriana|chapter=The Turkish Diyanet and its Activities in the Muslim Community in Dobruja (Romania)|title=Religious Education: Between Radicalism and Tolerance|date=6 June 2018|editor-last1=Aslan|editor-first1=Ednan|editor-last2=Rausch|editor-first2=Margaret|page=292|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=9783658216771}}</ref> and [[Switzerland]].<ref name=Rabasa&Benard/> In addition to Sunni Turks, there are [[Alevism|Alevi]] Turks whose local Islamic traditions have been based in [[Anatolia]], as well as the [[Bektashi Order|Bektashis]] traditionally centered in Anatolia and the [[Balkans]].<ref>{{citation|last=Poulton|first=Hugh |year=1997 |title=Muslim Identity and the Balkan State|publisher=[[C. Hurst & Co.]]|isbn=9781850652762}}</ref><br />
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In general, "Turkish Islam" is considered to be "more moderate and pluralistic" than in other Middle Eastern-Islamic societies.<ref name=Rabasa&Larrabee/> Historically, Turkish Sufi movements promoted liberal forms of Islam;<ref name=Cagaptay2014>{{citation|last=Cagaptay|first=Soner|year=2014|title=The Rise of Turkey: The Twenty-First Century's First Muslim Power|page=85|publisher=[[Potomac Books]]|isbn=9781612346519}}</ref> for example, Turkish humanist groups and thinkers, such as the [[Mevlevi Order|Mevlevis]] ([[whirling dervishes]] who follow [[Rumi]]), the Bektashis, and [[Yunus Emre]] emphasized faith over practicing Islam.<ref name=Cagaptay2014 /> During this tolerant environment under the Seljuk Turks, more Turkish tribes arriving in Anatolia during the 13th century found the liberal Sufi version of Islam closer to their [[Shamanism|shamanists]] traditions and chose to preserve some of their culture (such as dance and music).<ref name=Cagaptay2014 /> During the late Ottoman period, the [[Tanzimat]] policies introduced by the Ottoman intelligentsia fused Islam with modernization reforms; this was followed by [[Atatürk's reforms|Atatürk's secularist reforms]] in the 20th century.<ref name=Rabasa&Larrabee>{{citation|last1=Rabasa|first1=Angel|last2=Larrabee|first2=F. Stephen|year=2008|title=The Rise of Political Islam in Turkey|publisher=[[RAND Corporation]]|page=96|isbn=9780833044570}}</ref><br />
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Consequently, there are also many non-practicing Turkish Muslims who tend to be politically [[secular]]. For example, in Cyprus, the [[Turkish Cypriots]] are generally very secular and only attend mosques on special occasions (such as for weddings, funerals, and community gatherings).<ref>{{citation|last=Henry Dodd|first=Clement|year=1993|title=The Political, Social and Economic Development of Northern Cyprus|publisher=Eothen Press|page=266|isbn=9780906719183}}</ref> Even so, the [[Hala Sultan Tekke]] in [[Larnaca]], which is the resting place of [[Umm Haram]], is considered to be one of the holiest sites in Islam and remains an important pilgrimage site for the secular Turkish Cypriot community too.<ref>{{citation|year=1991|title=Muslim Places of Worship in Cyprus|page=7|publisher=Association of Cypriot Archaeologists|isbn=9789963380565}}</ref> Similarly, in other urban areas of the [[Levant]], such as in [[Iraq]], the [[Iraqi Turkmen|Turkish minority]] are mainly secular, having internalized the secularist interpretation of state–religion affairs practiced in the [[Republic of Turkey]] since its foundation in 1923.<ref name="Oğuzlu313">{{citation|last=Oğuzlu|first=Tarik H.|year=2004|title=Endangered community:The Turkoman identity in Iraq|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24 |issue=2|publisher=[[Routledge]]|page=313|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296681|hdl=11693/49129|s2cid=56385519 |url=http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/bitstream/11693/49129/1/Endangered_community_the_Turkoman_identity_in_Iraq.pdf|hdl-access=free}}</ref><br />
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[[File:DITIB-Zentralmoschee Köln - April 2015-7489.jpg|thumb|left|The neo-Ottoman [[Cologne Central Mosque]] in [[Cologne]] is the largest mosque in [[Germany]], and mostly serves the [[Turks in Germany|Turkish German]] community.]]<br />
[[File:Westermoskee - Amsterdam (26579109769).jpg|thumb|right|The neo-Ottoman [[Westermoskee]] in [[Amsterdam]] is the largest mosque in the [[Netherlands]], and mostly serves the [[Turks in the Netherlands|Turkish Dutch]] community.]]<br />
In [[North Africa]], the Turkish minorities have traditionally differentiated themselves from the Arab-Berber population who follow the [[Maliki school]]; this is because the Turks have continued to follow the teaching of the Hanafi school which was brought to the region by their ancestors during the Ottoman rule.<ref name=Gordon>{{citation |last1=Gordon|first1=Louis A.|last2=Oxnevad|first2=Ian|year=2016|title=Middle East Politics for the New Millennium: A Constructivist Approach|page=72|publisher=[[Lexington Books]]|quote=An Ottoman military class that separated itself from the general Algerian population through language, dress and religious affiliation... Unlike the Maliki Algerian masses, the Ottoman-Algerians remained affiliated with the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence, and went to great lengths to replenish their ranks with Ottoman Turks from Anatolia...|isbn=978-0739196984}}</ref> Indeed, the Ottoman-Turkish mosques in the region are often distinguishable by pencil-like and octagonal minarets which were built in accordance with the traditions of the Hanafi rite.<ref>{{citation |last1=Cantone|first1=Cleo|year=2002|title=Making and Remaking Mosques in Senegal|quote=Octagonal minarets are generally an anomaly in the Maliki world associated with the square tower. Algeria, on other hand had Ottoman influence...|page=174|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]]|isbn=9004203370}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Migeon|first1=Gaston |last2=Saladin|first2=Henri|year=2012|title=Art of Islam|quote=It was not until the 16th century, when the protectorate of the Grand Master appointed Turkish governors to the regencies of Algiers and Tunis, that some of them constructed mosques according to the Hanefit example. The resulting structures had octagonal minarets... |page=28|publisher=Parkstone International|isbn=978-1780429939}}</ref><br />
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The tradition of building mosques in the Ottoman-style (i.e. either in the imperial style based on [[Istanbul]] mosques or the provincial styles) has continued into the present day, both in traditional areas of settlement (e.g. in Turkey, the Balkans, Cyprus, and other parts of the Levant) as well as in [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]] where there are substantial immigrant communities.<ref>{{citation|last=Rizvi|first=Kishwar|year=2015|title=The Transnational Mosque: Architecture and Historical Memory in the Contemporary Middle East|publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]]|pages=33–68|isbn=9781469621173}}</ref><br />
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Since the 1960s, "Turkish" was even seen as synonymous with "[[Muslim]]" in countries like Germany because Islam was considered to have a specific "Turkish character" and visual architectural style.<ref>{{citation |last1=Byrnes|first1=Timothy|last2=Katzenstein|first2=Peter|year=2006|title=Religion in an Expanding Europe|page=211|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85926-4}}</ref><br />
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===Arts and architecture===<br />
[[File:20180107_Safranbolu_1943_(39779017602).jpg|thumb|left|[[Safranbolu]] was added to the list of [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Sites]] in 1994 due to its well-preserved Ottoman era houses and architecture.]]<br />
{{Further|Turkish arts|Turkish literature|Poetry of Turkey|Music of Turkey|Turkish folk music|Architecture of Turkey}}<br />
{{See also|Ottoman architecture}}<br />
{{listen<br />
| filename = KatibimUskudaraGiderIken-SafiyeAyla.ogg<br />
| title = "Kâtibim (Üsküdar'a Gider iken)"<br />
| description = An example of Turkish classical music.<br />
| format = [[Ogg]]<br />
}}<br />
Turkish architecture reached its peak during the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] period. [[Ottoman architecture]], influenced by [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuk]], [[Byzantine]] and [[Islamic architecture]], came to develop a style all of its own.<ref name=muqarnas12>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RtbeBrAHhxgC&q=Ottoman+Architecture&pg=PA60|title=Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume 12|last=Necipoğlu|first=Gülru|oclc=33228759|year=1995|publisher=Leiden: E.J. Brill|access-date= 7 July 2008|page=60|isbn=9789004103146}}</ref> Overall, Ottoman architecture has been described as a synthesis of the architectural traditions of the Mediterranean and the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xu_L_FJRvUIC&q=Ottoman+Architecture&pg=PA92 |title=Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume 3|last=Grabar |first=Oleg |isbn=978-9004076112| year=1985 |publisher=Leiden : E.J. Brill|access-date=7 July 2008}}</ref><br />
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As Turkey successfully transformed from the religion-based former Ottoman Empire into a modern nation-state with a very strong separation of state and religion, an increase in the modes of artistic expression followed. During the first years of the republic, the government invested a large amount of resources into fine arts; such as museums, theatres, opera houses and architecture. Diverse historical factors play important roles in defining the modern Turkish identity. Turkish culture is a product of efforts to be a "modern" Western state, while maintaining traditional religious and historical values.<ref name="TR_culture">{{cite book|author=Ibrahim Kaya|title=Social Theory and Later Modernities: The Turkish Experience|url=https://archive.org/details/socialtheorylate0000kaya|url-access=registration|access-date=12 June 2013|year=2004|publisher=Liverpool University Press|isbn=978-0-85323-898-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/socialtheorylate0000kaya/page/57 57]–58}}</ref> The mix of cultural influences is dramatized, for example, in the form of the "new symbols of the clash and interlacing of cultures" enacted in the works of [[Orhan Pamuk]], recipient of the 2006 [[Nobel Prize in Literature]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/6044192.stm|title=Pamuk wins Nobel Literature prize|publisher=BBC|access-date=12 December 2006|date=12 October 2006}}</ref><br />
Traditional Turkish music include [[Turkish folk music]] (Halk müziği), [[Fasıl]] and [[Ottoman classical music]] (Sanat müziği) that originates from the Ottoman court.<ref name="DunfordRichardson2013">{{cite book|author1=Martin Dunford|author2=Terry Richardson|title=The Rough Guide to Turkey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dPAPeby7JTgC&pg=PA647|access-date=25 July 2013|date=3 June 2013|publisher=Rough Guides|isbn=978-1-4093-4005-8|pages=647–}}</ref> [[Turkish music#Popular music|Contemporary Turkish music]] include [[Turkish pop music]], rock, and [[Turkish hip hop]] genres.<ref name="DunfordRichardson2013" /><br />
<br />
== Notable people ==<br />
[[Namık Kemal]], [[İbrahim Şinasi]], [[Hüseyin Avni Lifij]], [[Faik Ali Ozansoy]], [[Mimar Kemaleddin]], [[Hüseyin Hilmi|İştirakçi Hilmi]], [[Mustafa Suphi]], [[Ethem Nejat]], [[Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil]], [[Rıza Tevfik Bölükbaşı]], [[Latife Uşşaki]], [[Feriha Tevfik]], [[Fatma Aliye Topuz]], [[Keriman Halis Ece]], [[Zeki Rıza Sporel]], [[Cahide Sonku]], [[Süleyman Seyyid]], [[Abdülhak Hâmid Tarhan]], [[Besim Ömer Akalın]], [[Orhan Veli Kanık]], [[Abidin Dino]], [[Ahmet Ziya Akbulut]], [[Nazmi Ziya Güran]], [[Tanburi Büyük Osman Bey]], [[Vecihi Hürkuş]], [[Bedriye Tahir]], [[Halide Edib Adıvar]], Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, [[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], [[Tevfik Fikret]], [[Nâzım Hikmet]], [[Hulusi Behçet]], [[Nuri Demirağ]], [[Princess Fahrelnissa Zeid|Fahrelnissa Zeid]], [[Leyla Gencer]], [[Ahmet Ertegün]], [[Metin Oktay]], [[Fikri Alican]], [[Feza Gürsey]], [[Ismail Akbay]], [[Oktay Sinanoğlu]], [[Gazi Yaşargil]], [[Behram Kurşunoğlu]], [[Fethullah Gülen]], [[Mehmet Oz|Mehmet Öz]], [[Tansu Çiller]], [[Cahit Arf]], [[Muhtar Kent]], [[Efe Aydan]], [[Neslihan Demir]], [[Orhan Pamuk]] and [[Aziz Sancar]].<br />
<br />
==Genetics==<br />
{{further|Genetic studies on Turkish people}}<br />
<br />
Turkish genomic variation, along with several other [[Western Asian]] populations, looks most similar to genomic variation of [[South Europe]]an populations such as southern Italians.<ref name="Taskent_et_al_2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Taskent RO, Gokcumen O |title=The Multiple Histories of Western Asia: Perspectives from Ancient and Modern Genomes |journal=Hum Biol |year=2017 |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=107–117 |pmid=29299965 |doi=10.13110/humanbiology.89.2.01 |s2cid=6871226 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29299965}}</ref> Data from ancient DNA – covering the [[Paleolithic]], the [[Neolithic]], and the [[Bronze Age]] periods – showed that Western Asian genomes, including Turkish ones, have been greatly influenced by early agricultural populations in the area; later population movements, such as those of Turkic speakers, also contributed.<ref name="Taskent_et_al_2017" /><br />
<br />
The only [[whole genome sequencing]] study of Turkish genetics (on 16 individuals) concluded that the Turkish population forms a cluster with Southern European/Mediterranean populations, and the predicted contribution from ancestral [[East Asian]] populations (presumably [[Central Asian]]) is 21.7%.<ref name=Alkan>{{cite journal|doi=10.1186/1471-2164-15-963|pmid=25376095|pmc=4236450|title=Whole genome sequencing of Turkish genomes reveals functional private alleles and impact of genetic interactions with Europe, Asia and Africa|journal=BMC Genomics|volume=15|pages=963|year=2014|last1=Alkan |first1=Can |last2=Kavak|first2=Pinar|last3=Somel|first3=Mehmet|last4=Gokcumen |first4=Omer|last5=Ugurlu |first5=Serkan |last6=Saygi|first6=Ceren |last7=Dal|first7=Elif|last8=Bugra|first8=Kuyas|last9=Güngör|first9=Tunga |last10=Sahinalp|first10=S. |last11=Özören|first11=Nesrin |last12=Bekpen|first12=Cemalettin|issue=1 }}</ref> However, that is not a direct estimate of a migration rate, due to reasons such as unknown original contributing populations.<ref name=Alkan /> Moreover, the genetic variation of various populations in Central Asia "has been poorly characterized"; Western Asian populations may also be "closely related to populations in the east".<ref name="Taskent_et_al_2017" /> Meanwhile, Central Asia is home to numerous populations that “demonstrate an array of mixed anthropological features of East Eurasians (EEA) and West Eurasians (WEA)”; two studies showed [[Uyghurs]] have 40-53% ancestry classified as East Asian, with the rest being classified as European.<ref name="pmid23166524">{{cite journal| author=Xu S| title=Human population admixture in Asia. | journal=Genomics Inform | year= 2012 | volume= 10 | issue= 3 | pages= 133–44 | pmid=23166524 | doi=10.5808/GI.2012.10.3.133 | pmc=3492649 }} </ref> A 2006 study suggested that the true Central Asian contributions to Anatolia was 13% for males and 22% for females (with wide ranges of [[confidence interval]]s), and the language replacement in Turkey and Azerbaijan might not have been in accordance with the elite dominance model.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Berkman |first=Ceren Caner |date=September 2006 |title=Comparative Analyses For The Central Asian Contribution To Anatolian Gene Pool With Reference To Balkans |type=PhD |url=http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12607764/index.pdf |access-date=30 October 2020}}</ref><br />
<br />
Another study in 2021, which looked at whole-genomes and [[Exome sequencing|whole-exomes]] of 3,362 unrelated Turkish samples, found "extensive admixture between Balkan, Caucasus, Middle Eastern, and European populations" in line with history of Turkey.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Kars |first1=M. Ece |last2=Başak |first2=A. Nazlı |last3=Onat |first3=O. Emre |last4=Bilguvar |first4=Kaya |last5=Choi |first5=Jungmin |last6=Itan |first6=Yuval |last7=Çağlar |first7=Caner |last8=Palvadeau |first8=Robin |last9=Casanova |first9=Jean-Laurent |last10=Cooper |first10=David N. |last11=Stenson |first11=Peter D. |last12=Yavuz |first12=Alper |last13=Buluş |first13=Hakan |last14=Günel |first14=Murat |last15=Friedman |first15=Jeffrey M. |date=2021-09-07 |title=The genetic structure of the Turkish population reveals high levels of variation and admixture |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=118 |issue=36 |pages=e2026076118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2026076118 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=8433500 |pmid=34426522 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11826076K |doi-access=free }}</ref> Moreover, significant number of rare genome and exome variants were unique to modern-day Turkish population.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/> Neighbouring populations in East and West, and Tuscan people in Italy were closest to Turkish population in terms of genetic similarity.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/> Central Asian contribution to maternal, paternal, and autosomal genes were detected, consistent with the historical migration and expansion of [[Oghuz Turks]] from Central Asia.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/> The authors speculated that the genetic similarity of the modern-day Turkish population with modern-day European populations might be due to [[Early European Farmers|spread of neolithic Anatolian farmers into Europe]], which impacted the genetic makeup of modern-day European populations.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/> Moreover, the study found no clear genetic separation between different regions of Turkey, leading authors to suggest that recent migration events within Turkey resulted in genetic homogenization.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Turkey}}<br />
* [[Tahtacı]]<br />
*[[Yörüks]]<br />
*[[Turkophilia]]<br />
*[[Anti-Turkish sentiment]]<br />
*[[Turquerie]]<br />
*[[Demographics of Turkey]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{refbegin|30em}}<br />
{{Cnote|a|"The history of Turkey encompasses, first, the history of Anatolia before the coming of the Turks and of the civilizations—Hittite, Thracian, Hellenistic, and Byzantine—of which the Turkish nation is the heir by assimilation or example. Second, it includes the history of the Turkish peoples, including the Seljuks, who brought Islam and the Turkish language to Anatolia. Third, it is the history of the Ottoman Empire, a vast, cosmopolitan, pan-Islamic state that developed from a small Turkish amirate in Anatolia and that for centuries was a world power."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/turkey/2.htm |title=Turkey: Country Studies |author=Steven A. Glazer |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=15 June 2013}}</ref>}}<br />
{{Cnote|b|The Turks are also defined by the country of origin. Turkey, once Asia Minor or Anatolia, has a very long and complex history. It was one of the major regions of agricultural development in the early Neolithic and may have been the place of origin and spread of lndo-European languages at that time. The Turkish language was imposed on a predominantly lndo-European-speaking population (Greek being the official language of the Byzantine empire), and genetically there is very little difference between Turkey and the neighboring countries. The number of Turkish invaders was probably rather small and was genetically diluted by the large number of aborigines."<br /><br />
"The consideration of demographic quantities suggests that the present genetic picture of the aboriginal world is determined largely by the history of Paleolithic and Neolithic people, when the greatest relative changes in population numbers took place."<ref name="Cavalli-SforzaMenozzi1994">{{cite book|author1=L. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza|author2=Paolo, Menozzi|author3=Alberto, Piazza|title=The history and geography of human genes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FrwNcwKaUKoC&pg=PA102|access-date=14 May 2013|year=1994|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-08750-4|pages=243, 299}}</ref>}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
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{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
* {{citation |title=Cezayir Ülke Raporu 2008 |publisher=Algeria Embassy Trade Consultancy |url=http://www.musavirlikler.gov.tr/altdetay.cfm?AltAlanID=368&dil=TR&ulke=DZ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929205227/http://www.musavirlikler.gov.tr/altdetay.cfm?AltAlanID=368&dil=TR&ulke=DZ |archive-date=29 September 2013 }}.<br />
* {{citation|date=8 February 2011|chapter=Community Profile: Kosovo Turks|title=Kosovo Communities Profile 2010|publisher=Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|chapter-url=http://www.osce.org/kosovo/75450}}.<br />
* {{cite press release |title=COMUNICAT DE PRESĂ – privind rezultatele provizorii ale Recensământului Populaţiei şi Locuinţelor – 2011 |language=ro |trans-title=PRESS RELEASE – on the provisional results of the Population and Housing Census – 2011 |date=2 February 2012 |place=Romania |publisher=Central Commission for the Census of Population and Housing |url=http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Comunicat_DATE_PROVIZORII_RPL_2011.pdf |access-date=14 May 2012 |archive-date=2 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802060014/http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Comunicat_DATE_PROVIZORII_RPL_2011.pdf |url-status=dead }}<br />
* {{cite report |title=Cyprus: Bridging the Property Divide |series=Europe Report N°210 |date=9 December 2010 |publisher=International Crisis Group |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/turkey-cyprus/cyprus/210%20Cyprus%20-%20Bridging%20the%20Property%20Divide.ashx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103083632/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/turkey-cyprus/cyprus/210%20Cyprus%20-%20Bridging%20the%20Property%20Divide.ashx |archive-date=3 November 2011 }}<br />
* {{cite report |title=Turkey and the Iraqi Kurds: Conflict or Cooperation? |series=Middle East Report N°81 |date=13 November 2008 |publisher=International Crisis Group |url-status=dead |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Iraq/81Turkey%20and%20Iraqi%20Kurds%20Conflict%20or%20Cooperation.ashx |archive-date=12 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110112131324/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Iraq/81Turkey%20and%20Iraqi%20Kurds%20Conflict%20or%20Cooperation.ashx }}<br />
* {{citation|year=2002|title=Population by ethnic groups, regions, counties and areas|place=Romania|publisher=National Institute of Statistics|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/RPL2002INS/vol5/tables/t16.pdf}}<br />
* {{citation |year=2008|title=The Report: Algeria 2008|publisher=Oxford Business Group|isbn=978-1-902339-09-2}}.<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* {{commons category-inline|People of Turkey}}<br />
<br />
{{Demographics of Turkey}}<br />
{{European Muslims}}<br />
{{Turkish people by country}}<br />
{{Turkic peoples}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish People}}<br />
[[Category:Turkish people| ]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Cyprus]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Balkans]]<br />
[[Category:Peoples of the Caucasus]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kemalism&diff=1144984580Kemalism2023-03-16T16:37:36Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Nationalism */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Founding ideology of the Republic of Turkey, proclaimed in 1923}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Republican People's Party (Turkey).svg|thumb|261x261px|[[The Six Arrows]]]]<br />
{{Atatürk sidebar}}<br />
{{Populism sidebar|expanded=Related}}<br />
{{Nationalism sidebar}}<br />
'''Kemalism''' ({{lang-tr|Kemalizm}}, also archaically ''Kamâlizm''<ref>''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kam%C3%A2lizm.pdf Kamâlizm]'' (1936) by [[Mehmet Şeref Aykut]]</ref>), also known as '''Ataturkism''' ({{lang-tr|Atatürkçülük, Atatürkçü düşünce}}), or '''The Six Arrows''' ({{lang-tr|Altı Ok}}), is the founding official ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]].<ref name="EricPage181">Eric J. Zurcher, Turkey: A Modern History. New York, J.B. Tauris & Co ltd. page 181</ref> Kemalism, as it was implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] after the [[Republic Day (Turkey)|declaration of Republic in 1923]], was defined by sweeping political, social, cultural and religious reforms designed to separate the new Turkish state from its [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] predecessor and embrace a Western-style modernized lifestyle,<ref name=cleveland13>Cleveland, William L., and Martin P. Bunton. ''A History of the Modern Middle East''. Boulder: Westview, 2013.</ref> including the establishment of [[Secularism in Turkey|secularism/laicism]] ({{lang-fr|laïcité}}), state support of the sciences, free education, and many more. Most of those were first introduced to and implemented in Turkey during Atatürk's presidency through [[Atatürk's reforms|his reforms]].<br />
<br />
Many of the root ideas of Kemalism began during the late [[Ottoman Empire]] under various reforms to avoid the imminent [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|collapse of the Empire]], beginning chiefly in the early 19th-century [[Tanzimat]] reforms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cleveland |first1=William L |first2=Martin |last2=Bunton |title=A History of the Modern Middle East |edition=4th |publisher=Westview Press |year=2009 |pages=82}}</ref> The mid-century [[Young Ottomans]] attempted to create the ideology of Ottoman nationalism, or [[Ottomanism]], to quell the [[Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|rising ethnic nationalism]] in the Empire and introduce limited democracy for the first time while maintaining Islamist influences. In the early 20th century, the [[Young Turks]] abandoned Ottoman nationalism in favor of early [[Turkish nationalism]], while adopting a secular political outlook. After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, Atatürk, influenced by both the Young Ottomans and the Young Turks,<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Cuthell |first=David Cameron Jr. |year=2009 |editor1-last=Ágoston |editor1-first=Gábor |editor2-first=Bruce |editor2-last=Masters |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |chapter=Atatürk, Kemal (Mustafa Kemal) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA56 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Facts On File]] |pages=56–60 |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |lccn=2008020716 |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref> as well as by their successes and failures, led the declaration of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, borrowing from the earlier movements' ideas of secularism and Turkish nationalism, while bringing about, for the first time, free education<ref name=mango164>{{cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |author-link= Andrew Mango |title=Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey |publisher=[[The Overlook Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-58567-334-6 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nu68vd_AmuYC |page=164}}</ref> and other reforms that have been enshrined by later leaders into guidelines for governing Turkey.<br />
<br />
==Philosophy==<br />
Kemalism is a modernization philosophy that guided the transition between the multi-religious, multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire to the [[Secular humanism|secular]], [[Democracy|democratic]], and [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[Republicanism|Republic of Turkey]]. Kemalism sets the boundaries of the social process in the [[Atatürk's reforms|Turkish Reformation]]. Atatürk was the founder of Kemalism, and his doctrine was implemented as [[Ideology|state ideology]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Webster |first=Donald Everett |title=The Turkey of Atatürk; Social Process in the Turkish Reformation |year=1973 |publisher=AMS Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-404-56333-2 |page=245}}</ref> but Atatürk refrained from being dogmatic and described his and his spiritual heirs' guide to be science and reason:<br />
{{blockquote|I do not leave any verses, any dogmas, nor any frozen and moulded principles as spritual heritage. My spritual heritage is science and reason.<ref name="Giritli">{{lang-tr|"Ben, manevî miras olarak hiçbir nass-ı katı, hiçbir dogma, hiçbir donmuş ve kalıplaşmış kural bırakmıyorum. Benim manevî mirasım, ilim ve akıldır."}} İsmet Giritli, Kemalist Devrim ve İdeolojisi, İstanbul, 1980</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
<br />
==Principles==<br />
There are six principles (''ilke'') of the ideology: [[Republicanism]] ({{lang-tr|cumhuriyetçilik}}), [[Populism]] ({{lang-tr|halkçılık}}), [[Nationalism]] ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}), [[Laicism]] ({{lang-tr|laiklik}}), [[Statism]] ({{lang-tr|devletçilik}}), and [[Reform movement|Reformism]] ({{lang-tr|inkılapçılık}}). Together, they represent a kind of [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobinism]], defined by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] himself as a method of employing political despotism to break down the social despotism prevalent among the traditionally-minded Turkish-Muslim population, caused by, he believed, the bigotry of the ''[[Ulama|ulema]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0440|title=Kemalism - Oxford Islamic Studies Online|website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com|access-date=2019-05-01}}</ref><br />
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===Republicanism===<br />
[[Republicanism]] ({{lang-tr|cumhuriyetçilik}}) in the Kemalist framework replaced the [[absolute monarchy]] of the [[Ottoman dynasty]] with the [[rule of law]], [[popular sovereignty]] and [[civic virtue]], including an emphasis on liberty practiced by citizens. Kemalist republicanism defines a type of constitutional republic, in which representatives of the people are elected, and must govern in accordance with existing constitutional law limiting governmental power over citizens. The head of state and other officials are chosen by election rather than inheriting their positions, and their decisions are subject to judicial review. In defending the change from the Ottoman State, Kemalism asserts that all laws of the Republic of Turkey should be inspired by actual needs here on Earth as a basic tenet of national life.<ref>Mustafa Kemal as quoted in "A World View of Criminal Justice (2005)" by Richard K. Vogler, p. 116</ref> Kemalism advocates a republican system as the best representative of the wishes of the people.<br />
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Among the many types of [[republic]], the Kemalist republic is a [[representative democracy|representative]], [[Liberal democracy|liberal]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Soyak |first=Hasan Rıza |title=Atatürk'ten Hatıralar |pages=58 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=İlhan |first=Atilla |title=Hangi Atatürk |pages=111 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kili |first=Suna |title=Türk Devrim Tarihi |pages=240 |language=tr}}</ref> [[Parliamentary republic|parliamentary democracy]] with a Parliament chosen in general elections, a [[President (government title)|president]] as head of state elected by Parliament and serving for a limited term, a [[prime minister]] appointed by the president, and other ministers appointed by Parliament. The Kemalist president does not have direct executive powers, but has limited veto powers, and the right to contest with referendum. The day-to-day operation of government is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers formed by the prime minister and the other ministers. There is a [[separation of powers]] between the executive (president and Council of Ministers), the legislative (Parliament) and the judiciary, in which no one branch of government has authority over another—although parliament is charged with the supervision of the Council of Ministers, which can be compelled to resign by a vote of no-confidence.<br />
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The Kemalist republic is a [[unitary state]] in which three [[Separation of powers|organs of state]] govern the nation as a single unit, with one [[constitution]]ally created [[legislature]]. On some issues, the [[Power (social and political)|political power]] of [[government]] is transferred to lower levels, to local elected assemblies represented by mayors, but the [[central government]] retains the principal governing role.<br />
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===Populism===<br />
{{multiple image<br />
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| header = Dimensions of Populism<br />
| width = 150<br />
| image1 = GNAT speakers.jpg<br />
| caption1 = "[[Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the People|Sovereignty belongs, without any restrictions or conditions, to the nation]]" is embossed behind the speaker's seat at the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|GNA]]<br />
| image2 = Nicosia 01-2017 img17 View from Shacolas Tower.jpg<br />
| caption2 = The motto, "[[How happy is the one who says I am a Turk|Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]]", embossed on the [[Kyrenia Mountains]] in [[Northern Cyprus]].<br />
}}<br />
[[Populism]] ({{lang-tr|halkçılık}}) is defined as a social revolution aimed to transfer the political power to [[citizenship]]. Kemalist populism intends not only to establish [[popular sovereignty]] but also the transfer of the social-economic transformation{{clarify|date=May 2021}} to realize a true populist state. However, Kemalists reject [[class conflict]] and [[Collective farming|collectivism]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler (Örgün Yayınları)|publisher=Afet İnan|year=1930s|pages=212}}</ref> Kemalist populism believes [[national identity]] is above all else. Kemalist populism envisions a sociality that emphasizes [[class collaboration]] and national unity like [[Solidarity|solidarism]]. Populism in Turkey is to create a unifying force that brings a sense of the Turkish state and the power of the people to bring in that new unity.<ref name="jstor.org">Kili, Suna. “Kemalism in Contemporary Turkey.” International Political Science Review, vol. 1, no. 3, 1980, pp. 381–404. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1601123.</ref><br />
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Kemalist populism is an extension of the Kemalist modernization movement, aiming to make Islam compatible with the modern nation-state. This included state supervision of religious schools and organizations. Mustafa Kemal himself said "everyone needs a place to learn religion and faith; that place is a ''[[Wiktionary:mektep#Turkish|mektep]]'', not a ''[[madrasa]]''". This was intended to combat the "corruption" of Islam by the ''ulema''. Kemal believed that during the Ottoman period, the ''ulema'' had come to exploit the power of their office and manipulate religious practices to their own benefit. It was also feared that, were education not brought under state control, unsupervised ''madrasa''s could exacerbate the rising problem of ''[[tariqa|tarikat]]'' insularity that threatened to undermine the unity of the Turkish state.<ref name="AKMAK, DİREN 2009, pp. 825">ÇAKMAK, DİREN. “Pro-Islamic Public Education in Turkey: The Imam-Hatip Schools.” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 45, no. 5, 2009, pp. 825–846. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40647155.</ref><br />
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====Sovereignty====<br />
Kemalist social theory (populism) does not accept any adjectives placed before the definition of a nation [a nation of ...] Sovereignty must belong solely to people without any term, condition, etc.:<br />
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{{Blockquote|[[Sovereignty]] belongs to the nation unrestrictedly and unconditionally.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DC. |first=Embassy of the Republic of Turkey, Washington |url=http://www.turkishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188&Itemid=165 |title=Constitution and Foundations of the State System |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070115010917/http://www.turkishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188&Itemid=165 |archive-date=January 15, 2007 }}</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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====Motto====<br />
Populism was used against the political domination of sheiks, tribal leaders, and [[Islamism]] (Islam as a political system) of the Ottoman Empire. Initially, the declaration of the republic was perceived as ''"Returning to the days of the [[Rashidun|first caliphs]]"''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Mango |title=Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey |orig-year=1999 |edition=Paperback |year=2002 |publisher=Overlook Press, Peter Mayer Publishers, Inc |location=Woodstock, NY |isbn=1-58567-334-X |page=[https://archive.org/details/ataturk00andr/page/394 394] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ataturk00andr/page/394 }}</ref> However, Atatürk's nationalism aimed to shift the political legitimacy from [[autocracy]] (by the [[Ottoman dynasty]]), [[theocracy]] (based in the [[Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman caliphate]]), and [[feudalism]] (tribal leaders) to the active participation of its citizenry, the Turks. Kemalist social theory wanted to establish the value of Turkish citizenship. A sense of pride associated with this citizenship would give the needed psychological spur for people to work harder and achieve a sense of unity and national identity. Active participation, or the "will of the people", was established with the republican regime and Turkishness replacing the other forms of affiliations that had been promoted in the Ottoman Empire (such as the allegiance to the different millets that eventually led to divisiveness in the empire). The shift in affiliation was symbolized with:<br />
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{{Blockquote|{{lang-tr|links=no|[[Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]].}}<br />
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({{lang-en|How happy is the one who calls themself a [[Turkish people|Turk]].}})|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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The motto "[[How happy is the one who says I am a Turk|Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]]" was promoted against such mottoes as "long live the Sultan," "long live the Sheikh", or "long live the Caliph."<br />
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===Laicism===<br />
{{Main|Secularism in Turkey|Islam in Turkey}}<br />
{{See also|Freedom of religion in Turkey}}<br />
[[Laicism]] ({{lang-tr|laiklik}}) in Kemalist ideology aims to banish religious interference in government affairs, and vice versa. It differs from the passive Anglo-American concept of secularism,<ref name="Kösebalaban2011">{{cite book |last=Kösebalaban |first=Hasan |title=Turkish Foreign Policy: Islam, Nationalism, and Globalization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3dnGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |date=12 April 2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-11869-0 |page=9}}</ref> but is similar to the concept of [[Secularism in France|laïcité]] in France.<br />
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The roots of Kemalist secularism lie in the reform efforts in the late Ottoman Empire, especially the [[Tanzimat]] period and the later [[Second Constitutional Era]]. The Ottoman Empire was an [[Islamic state]] in which the head of the Ottoman state held the position of the Caliph. The social system was organized according to various systems, including the religiously organized Millet system and [[Sharia|Shari'ah law]], allowing religious ideology to be incorporated into the Ottoman administrative, economic, and political system. This way of life is today defined as [[Islamism]] (political Islam): "the belief that Islam should guide social and political as well as personal life".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Berman |first=Sheri| author-link=Sheri Berman |title=Islamism, Revolution, and Civil Society |journal=Perspectives on Politics |volume=1 |issue=2 |year=2003 |page=258 |doi=10.1017/S1537592703000197|s2cid=145201910}}</ref> In the Second Constitutional Era, the [[General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Parliament]] pursued largely secular policies, although techniques of religious populism and attacks on other candidates' piety still occurred between [[List of political parties in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman political parties]] during [[Elections in the Ottoman Empire|elections]]. These policies were stated as the reason for the [[31 March Incident|countercoup of 1909]] by Islamists and absolute monarchists. The secular policies of the Ottoman parliament also factored in the [[Arab Revolt]] during World War I.<br />
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When secularism was implemented in the fledgling Turkish state, it was initiated by the abolition of the centuries-old [[caliphate]] in March 1924. The office of [[Shaykh al-Islām]] was replaced with the [[Directorate of Religious Affairs|Presidency of Religious Affairs]] ({{lang-tr|Diyanet}}). In 1926, the ''[[Mecelle|mejelle]]'' and shari'ah law codes were abandoned in favor of an adapted [[Swiss Civil Code]] and a penal code modeled on the German and Italian codes. Other religious practices were done away with, resulting in the dissolution of [[Sufism|Sufi]] orders and the penalization of wearing a ''[[Fez (hat)|fez]]'', which was viewed by Atatürk as a tie to the Ottoman past.<ref name=cleveland13/><br />
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====State and religion (Laïcité)====<br />
Atatürk was profoundly influenced by the triumph of ''[[Secularism in France|laïcité]]'' in France.<ref name=page153>{{cite book |authorlink=M. Şükrü Hanioğlu|last=Hanioglu |first=Sükrü |title=Ataturk: An Intellectual Biography |year=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=153}}</ref> Atatürk perceived the French model as the authentic form of secularism. Kemalism strove to control religion and transform it into a private affair rather than an institution interfering with politics, as well as scientific and social progress.<ref name=page153/> "Sane reason," and "the liberty of [one's] fellow man," as Atatürk once put it.<ref>Ruşen Eşref Ünaydin, 1954, "Atatürk -Tarih ve Dil Kurumları Hatıraları" Türk Tarih Kurumu. pp. 28–31.</ref> It is more than merely creating a separation between state and religion. Atatürk has been described as working as if he were [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo the Isaurian]], [[Martin Luther]], the [[Baron d'Holbach]], [[Ludwig Büchner]], [[Émile Combes]], and [[Jules Ferry]] rolled into one in creating Kemalist secularism.<ref name=page153/> Kemalist secularism does not imply nor advocate [[agnosticism]] or [[nihilism]]; it means freedom of thought and independence of the institutions of the state from the dominance of religious thought and religious institutions. The Kemalist principle of laicism is not against moderate and apolitical religion, but against religious forces opposed to and fighting modernization and democracy.<br />
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According to the Kemalist perception, the Turkish state is to stand at an equal distance from every religion, neither promoting nor condemning any set of religious beliefs. Kemalists, however, have called for not only separation of church and state but also a call for the state control of the Turkish Muslim religious establishment{{fact|date=November 2022}}. For some Kemalists{{who|date=November 2022}}, this means that the state must be at the helm of religious affairs, and all religious activities are under the supervision of the state. This, in turn, drew criticism from the religious conservatives. Religious conservatives were vocal in rejecting this idea, saying that to have a secular state, the state can't control the activities of religious institutions. Despite their protest, this policy was officially adopted by the 1961 constitution.<ref name="jstor.org"/><br />
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Kemalism must stamp out the religious element within society. After Turkish independence from the Western powers, all education was under the control of the state in both secular and religious schools. It centralized the education system, with one curriculum in both religious and secular public schools, in the hope this would eliminate or lessen the appeal of religious schools. The laws were meant to abolish the [[Sufism|Sufi]] religious schools or orders ''([[Tariqa|tarikats]])'' and their lodges ''([[khanqah|tekke]]s)''. Titles like ''[[sheikh]]'' and ''[[dervish]]'' were abolished, and their activities were banned by the government. The day of rest was changed by the government from Friday to Sunday. But the restrictions on personal choice extended to both religious duty and naming. Turks had to adopt a surname and were not allowed to perform the [[hajj]] (pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]).<ref name="jstor.org"/><ref name="AKMAK, DİREN 2009, pp. 825"/><br />
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====Politics and religion (Secularism)====<br />
The Kemalist form of [[Separation of church and state#Turkey|separation of state and religion]] sought the reform of a complete set of institutions, interest groups (such as [[List of political parties in Turkey|political parties]], unions, and lobbies), the relationships between those institutions, and the political norms and rules that governed their functions (constitution, election law). The biggest change in this perspective was the abolishment of the [[Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman caliphate]] on March 3, 1924, followed by the removal of its political mechanisms. The article stating that "the established religion of Turkey is Islam" was removed from the constitution on April 10, 1928.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.atam.gov.tr/index.php?Page=DergiIcerik&IcerikNo=560 |title=Atatürk ve Laiklik |access-date=2017-07-28 |publisher=Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, Issue: 24, Volume: VIII}}</ref><br />
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From a political perspective, Kemalism is anti-clerical, in that it seeks to prevent religious influence on the democratic process, which was a problem even in the largely secular politics of the [[Second Constitutional Era]] of the Ottoman Empire, when even non-religiously affiliated political parties like the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] and the [[Freedom and Accord Party]] feuded over matters such as the Islamic piety of their candidates in the [[1912 Ottoman general election|Ottoman elections of 1912]].<ref name=HK>Hasan Kayalı (1995) [http://psi203.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Kayali,%20Elections%20in%20the%20Ott%20Empire%20(1995).pdf "Elections and the Electoral Process in the Ottoman Empire, 1876-1919"] ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'', Vol. 27, No. 3, pp 273–274. "The prominent leaders of the Entente [Freedom and Accord Party] were Turkish-speaking and no different from the Unionists as far as their basic attitudes toward Islam were concerned. Nevertheless, they sought to frustrate the CUP by encouraging non-Turkish groups to attack it for pursuing a policy of Turkification and by pointing out to the conservatives its alleged disregard for Islamic principles and values. The overall effect of this propaganda was to instill ethnic and sectarian-religious discord, which survived the Entente's defeat at the polls ... The Unionists proved to be less vulnerable to accusations of disregard for Islamic precepts and values. Some of the Entente members were known for their cosmopolitan attitudes and close relations with foreign interests. But this did not keep the Entente from accusing the CUP of violating Islamic principles and attempting to restrict the prerogatives of the sultan-caliph in its pamphlets. One such pamphlet, ''Afiksoz'' (Candid Words), appealed to the religious-national sentiments of Arabs and claimed that Zionist intrigue was responsible for the abandonment of [[Libya]] to the Italians. Such propaganda forced the CUP to seize the role of the champion of Islam. After all, the secular integrationist Ottomanism that it had preached was failing, and the latest manifestation of this failure was the Entente's appeal to segments of Christian communities. The Unionists used Islamic symbols effectively in their election propaganda in 1912. They accused the Entente of trying to separate the offices of the caliphate and the sultanate and thus weakening Islam and the Muslims. There seemed no end to the capital to be gained from the exploitation and manipulation of religious rhetoric. In Izmir, the Entente attacked the CUP's intention to amend Article 35 of the constitution by arguing that the Unionists were thus denouncing the "thirty" days of fasting and "five" daily prayers. This led the town's mufti to plead that "for the sake of Islam and the welfare of the country" religion not be used to achieve political objectives. As with the rhetoric on Turkification, Islam too remained in political discourse long after the elections were over."</ref> Thus, in the Kemalist political perspective, politicians cannot claim to be the protector of any religion or religious sect, and such claims constitute sufficient legal grounds for the permanent banning of political parties.<br />
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====Insignia====<br />
The Ottoman social system was based on religious affiliation. Religious insignia extended to every social function. Clothing identified citizens with their own particular religious grouping; headgear distinguished rank and profession. [[Turban]]s, [[Fez (hat)|fez]]es, [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnet]]s, and head-dresses denoted the sex, rank, and profession — both civil and military — of the wearer. Religious insignia outside of worship areas became banned.<br />
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While Atatürk considered women's religious coverings as antithetical to progress and equality, he also recognized that headscarves were not such a danger to the separation of church and state to warrant an outright ban.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/jlg/vol332/661-686.pdf|title=Politics of the Headscarf in Turkey: Masculinities, Feminism, and the Construction of Collective Identities|first=Valorie K.|last=Vojdik|journal=Harvard Journal of Law & Gender|volume= 33|pages=661–686|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416012819/http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/jlg/vol332/661-686.pdf|archive-date=16 April 2012}}</ref> But the Constitution was amended in 1982, following the 1980 coup by the Kemalist-leaning military, to prohibit women's use of Islamic coverings such as the ''[[hijab]]'' at higher education institutions.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Journal of Political Inquiry |url=http://www.jpinyu.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/roots-of-the-headscarf-debate-laicism-and-secularism-in-france-and-turkey.pdf |title=Roots of the Headscarf Debate: Laicism and Secularism in France and Turkey |first=Gulce |last=Tarhan |year=2011 |issue=4 |pages=1–32 |access-date=2014-10-04 }}</ref> [[Joost Lagendijk]], a [[member of the European Parliament]] and chair of the Joint Parliamentary Committee with Turkey, has publicly criticized these [[dress code|clothing restrictions]] for Muslim women,<ref>Lagendijk, Joost (2006-03-22). [http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2006/03/22/siy113.html Başörtüsü yasağı savunulamaz]. ''Sabah''.</ref> whereas the [[European Court of Human Rights]] has ruled in numerous cases that such restrictions in public buildings and educational institutions do not constitute a violation of human rights.<ref>[http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=9958 ECHR Rules for Turkish Headscarf Ban] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604102452/http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=9958 |date=2009-06-04 }}: The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled in favor of Turkey's policy of banning headscarves at universities. (Today's Zaman, 30 June 2004)</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131226050047/http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=40196 ECHR Insists on Headscarf Ban], [[Journal of Turkish Weekly]], 2006-10-17</ref><br />
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===Reformism===<br />
[[Reform movement|Reformism]] ({{lang-tr|inkılapçılık}}) is a principle which calls for the country to replace the traditional institutions and concepts with modern institutions and concepts. This principle advocated the need for fundamental social change through [[reform]] as a strategy to achieve a modern society. The core of the reform, in the Kemalist sense, was an accomplished fact.<ref name="durkiem">{{Cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Peter |title=Emile Durkheim: Critical Assessments |year=1995 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-11046-7 |page=69}}</ref> In a Kemalist sense, there is no possibility of return to the old systems because they were deemed backward.<br />
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The principle of reformism went beyond the recognition of the reforms made during Atatürk's lifetime. Atatürk's reforms in the social and political spheres are accepted as irreversible. Atatürk never entertained the possibility of a pause or transition phase during the course of the progressive unfolding or implementation of the reform. The current understanding of this concept can be described as "active modification".<ref name="durkiem" /> Turkey and its society, taking over institutions from Western Europe, must add Turkish traits and patterns to them and adapt them to Turkish culture, according to Kemalism.<ref name="durkiem" /> The implementation of the Turkish traits and patterns of these reforms takes generations of cultural and social experience, which results in the collective memory of the Turkish nation.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}<br />
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===Nationalism===<br />
[[Nationalism]] ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}): The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire. Atatürk's nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his [[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]. The Kemalist perception of social contract was facilitated by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]], which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Atatürk's nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakup, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".<br />
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{{Blockquote|In the administration and defense of the Turkish Nation; national unity, national awareness and national culture are the highest ideals that we fix our eyes upon.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Forces |first=Republic Of Turkey Turkish Armed |url=http://www.tsk.mil.tr/eng/Anitkabir/milli.html |title=Ataturks Principles |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government }}{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish Nation" ({{lang-tr|Türk Ulusu}}) as a nation of [[Turkish people]] who always love and seek to exalt their family, country and nation, who know their duties and responsibilities towards the democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law, founded on [[human rights]], and on the tenets laid down in the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Turkey.<ref name="TurkishNational" /> Atatürk defines the Turkish Nation by saying<br />
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{{blockquote|The folk which constitutes the Republic of Turkey is called the Turkish Nation.|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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Similar to its CUP predecessors, it can be said that Kemalism endorsed [[social Darwinism]] in some way by desiring the Turkish youth to be healthy and physically strong.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ter-Matevosyan |first1=Vahram |title=Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation |date=2019 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-97403-3 |page=163|quote=Both the Young Turks and the Kemalists had an elitist conception of society; they saw themselves as the nation’s “social physicians,” the only ones capable of enlightening the “masses.”78 Other defnitions and fashionable currents of thought that defned different facets of fascism—biological materialism, positivism, social Darwinism, and the quest for magic formulas—were also incorporated by both regimes in Turkey.7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Zurcher |first1=Erik-Jan |title=Late Ottoman Society |chapter=Ottoman sources of Kemalist thought |year=2013 |pages=36–49 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203481387-10 |isbn=978-0-203-48138-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/ottoman-sources-kemalist-thought-erik-jan-zurcher/e/10.4324/9780203481387-10 |language=en}}</ref><br />
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====Criteria====<br />
{{See also|Turkish nationality law}}<br />
Kemalist criteria for national ''identity'' or simply being Turkish ({{lang-tr|Türk}}) refers to a shared [[language]], and/or shared [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] defined as a common history, and the will to share a future. Kemalist ideology defines the "[[Turkish people]]" as:<br />
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{{blockquote|Those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation.<ref name="TurkishNational">{{Cite web |last=Education |first=Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of National |url=http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm |title=Turkish National Education System |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020612122337/http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm|archive-date=12 June 2002}}</ref>|author=|title=|source=}}<br />
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Membership is usually gained through birth within the borders of the state and also the principle of [[jus sanguinis]]. The Kemalist notion of nationality is integrated into the [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Every citizen is recognized as a Turk, regardless of ethnicity, belief, and gender, etc. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>Citizenship is defined in the {{Ws|[[s:Constitution of the Republic of Turkey#66|1982 constitution, Article 66]]}} (amended on October 17, 2001).</ref><br />
<br />
Kemalists saw non-Muslims as only nominal citizens, and they have often been treated as [[Second-class citizen|second-class citizens]] in the Republic of Turkey.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dağı |first1=İhsan |title=Why Turkey Needs a Post-Kemalist Order |journal=Insight Turkey |date=1 January 2012 |url=https://www.insightturkey.com/commentaries/why-turkey-needs-a-post-kemalist-order |language=tr|quote= Non-Muslims, whose citizenship was only nominal in the eyes of the Kemalists, faced [[pogrom]]s. This relationship of the Kemalist regime with the people of different ethnicity, religion, and life-style positioned the state with its loyal Kemalist elite as a hegemonic power vis-à-vis the society.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=İçduygu |first1=Ahmet |last2=Toktaş |first2=Şule |last3=Soner |first3=B. Ali |title=The politics of population in a nation-building process: emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |date=1 February 2008 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=358–389 |doi=10.1080/01419870701491937|s2cid=143541451 }}</ref> The identity of [[Kurds in Turkey]] was [[Denial of Kurds by Turkey|denied for decades]] with Kurds described as "[[Denial of Kurds by Turkey|Mountain Turks]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ataman |first1=M. |title=Özal Leadership and Restructuring of Turkish Ethnic Policy in the 1980s |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |date=1 October 2002 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=123–142 |doi=10.1080/714004493|s2cid=144430188 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moustakis |first1=Fotios |last2=Chaudhuri |first2=Rudra |title=Turkish-Kurdish Relations and the European Union: An Unprecedented Shift in the Kemalist Paradigm? |journal=Mediterranean Quarterly |date=28 November 2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=77–89 |doi=10.1215/10474552-16-4-77 |s2cid=153382746 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/190579/summary |language=en |issn=1527-1935}}</ref> Kemal stated in 1930:<br />
{{blockquote|Within the political and social unity of today's Turkish nation, there are citizens and co-nationals who have been incited to think of themselves as [[Kurds]], [[Circassians]], [[Laz people|Laz]] or [[Bosniaks|Bosnians]]. But these erroneous appellations - the product of past periods of tyranny - have brought nothing but sorrow to individual members of the nation, with the exception of a few brainless reactionaries, who became the enemy's instruments.<ref name=mangokurds20>[[Andrew Mango]], ''Atatürk and the Kurds'', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.35, No.4, 1999, 20</ref>}}<br />
<br />
In 2005, the [[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal code made it a crime to insult Turkishness ({{lang-tr|Türklük}}), but under pressure of the EU, this was changed in 2008 to protect the "Turkish nation" instead of Turkish ethnicity in 2008, an 'imagined' nationhood of people living within the [[Misak-ı Millî|National Pact]] ({{lang-tr|Misak-ı Milli}}) borders.<ref name="osmansdream">{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire |year=2006 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |pages=549–550 |isbn=0-465-02396-7}}</ref><br />
<br />
=====Pan-Turkism=====<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
Kemalism focused on the nation-state's narrower interests, renouncing the concern for the "Outside Turks".<ref name="Pan-Turkism">{{Cite book |authorlink=Jacob M. Landau|last=Landau |first=Jacob M. |title=Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1995 |page=275 |isbn=0-253-20960-9}} Page 186-187</ref><br />
<br />
Pan-Turkism was an [[Ethnocentrism|ethnocentric]] ideology [to unite all ethnically Turkic nations] while Kemalism is polycentric [united under a " common will"] in character.<ref name="Pan-Turkism" /> Kemalism wants to have an equal footing among the mainstream world civilizations. Pan-Turkists have consistently emphasized the special attributes of the [[Turkic peoples]], and wanted to unite all of the Turkic peoples. Kemalism wants an equal footing (based on respect) and does not aim to unite the people of Turkey with all the other Turkic nations. Most Kemalists were not interested in Pan-Turkism and from 1923 to 1950 (the single state period) reacted with particular firmness.<ref name="Pan-Turkism"/> Further more, Atatürk opposed Pan-Turkism in his book [[Nutuk]] as following:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|Gathering various nations under a common and general title and establishing a strong state by keeping these various groups of elements under the same law and conditions is a bright and attractive political view; but it is deceptive. In fact, it is an impossible goal to unite all the Turks in the world into a state, without any borders. This is a truth that centuries and people who have lived for centuries brought about through very painful and bloody events.<br />
<br />
It cannot be seen in history that panislamism and panturanism were successful and were practiced in the world. Though, the results of the ambitions for the establishment of a state, covering all humanity, regardless of race, are written in history.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Atatürk |first=Mustafa Kemal |title=Nutuk |publisher=Kaynak Yayınları |pages=336–337 |language=tr}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
However, Atatürk owned the idea of taking Turkicness as one of the identities of Turkish nation. [[Turkish History Thesis]] started under Atatürk's order and administration, which contained ethno-racial ideas based on Turkish origins coming from [[Central Asia]]. Also Atatürk era high school books contained education of [[Old Turkic script|Orkhon alphabet]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic Of Turkey|year=1931|pages=79–80}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}} and a unit under the title of "Greater Turkic history and Civilization".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic of Turkey|year=1931|pages=25–53}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}} The book also gave detailed information about empires which are Turkic such as [[Göktürks]] or "claimed to be Turkic" such as [[Scythians]], [[Xiongnu]], and so on.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic of Turkey|year=1931}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}}<br />
<br />
With the supports of newly founded Turkish Republic, [[Pan-Turkism|Pan-Turkist]] organization known as "[[Turkish Hearths]]", re-established in Atatürk's era to get Turkists' support during the [[Atatürk's reforms|revolutions]]. Atatürk was frequently giving speeches on Turkish Hearths after important events occurred in Turkey.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Akçiçek|first=Eren|title=Atatürk'ün Türk Ocakları'nı Ziyaretleri ve Yaptığı Konuşmalar|publisher=Turkish Hearths Ankara Branch|year=2008|location=Ankara, Turkey|language=Turkish}}</ref> Also reopening of Turkish magazine "[[Türk Yurdu]]" which was an organ of Turkish Hearts, was supported.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Georgeon|first=François|title=Aux origines du nationalisme Turc|publisher=Éditions A.D.P.F|year=1980|isbn=2865380084|location=Paris|pages=44}}</ref> Later, in 1931, Turkish Hearts were closed by Atatürk after they lost their non-political stance, because of their Pan-Turkist views and movements; and with all of its premises, it merged to the ruling party [[Republican People's Party|CHP]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Emine|last=Merdim|date=2011-07-13|title=Türk Ocakları Merkez Binası'ndan Ankara Devlet Resim ve Heykel Müzesi'ne|url=https://www.arkitera.com/haber/turk-ocaklari-merkez-binasindan-ankara-devlet-resim-ve-heykel-muzesine/|access-date=2021-06-21|website=Arkitera|language=tr-TR}}</ref><br />
<br />
Atatürk also described his opinions about [[Timur]], a [[Central Asia]]n [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] military commander as "If I lived in Timur's timeline, I wouldn't be able to accomplish his work but if he lived in my timeline, he would do greater than I did".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bozkurt|first=Mahmut Esat|title=Aksak Demir'in Devlet Politikası - Timurlenk Üzerine İnceleme|publisher=Yeni Sabah Neşriyatı|year=1943|isbn=975-343-413-8|location=Galatasaray - Istanbul|pages=84|language=Turkish}}</ref><br />
[[File:Atatürk looking into Central asia.jpg|thumb|Atatürk analyzing [[First Turkic Khaganate|Turkic Khaganate]] map.]]<br />
<br />
=====Turanism=====<br />
{{Main|Turanism}}<br />
Kemalist center of view focused on the Turkish people, within both living and historical cultures and peoples of [[Anatolia]], especially [[Hittites]],<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal|last=Erimtan|first=Can|title=Hittites, Ottomans and Turks: Ağaoğlu Ahmed Bey and the Kemalist Construction of Turkish Nationhood in Anatolia|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20455417|journal= Anatolian Studies|year=2008|volume=58|pages=158|doi=10.1017/S0066154600008711 |jstor=20455417|s2cid=163040610 }}</ref> and the culture and civilization of [[Turkic peoples]].<br />
<br />
Turanism centered the nation as the union of all [[Turan|Turanian]] peoples ([[Tungusic peoples|Tungus]], [[Hungarians]], [[Finns]], [[Mongols]], [[Estonians]] and [[Koreans]]) stretching from the [[Altai Mountains]] in [[East Asia|Eastern Asia]] to the [[Bosporus|Bosphorus]].<ref>Paksoy, H.B., [http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-6/cae12.html ‘Basmachi’: Turkestan National Liberation Movement 1916-1930s], ''Modern Encyclopedia of Religions in Russia and the Soviet Union'', Florida: Academic International Press, 1991, Vol. 4</ref> Kemalism had a narrower definition of language, which sought to remove (purify) the Persian, Arabic, Greek, Latin, etc. words from the Turkish language and replace them with either Turkic originated words or derive new words with Turkic roots. Turanist leaders, such as [[Enver Pasha]], wanted an evolving language common to all Turanian peoples, minimizing differences and maximizing similarities between them.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}<br />
<br />
==== Kemalism and the Hittites ====<br />
{{Main|Turkish History Thesis}}<br />
[[File:Turkije3 2014 010 (15080445834).jpg|thumb|One of the lions at "[[Anıtkabir#Road of Lions|Road of Lions]]" in [[Anıtkabir]], which are replicas of ancient [[Hittites|Hittite]] lion statues.]]<br />
Kemalism gave an important place to [[Hittites]] and the Hittite symbolism to construct the Turkish identity and nationhood. Kemalist researchers, such as [[Ahmet Ağaoğlu]] (who was an advisor to Atatürk and a politician who played an important role on creating [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|Turkey's constitution of 1924]]), believed in that the nation has to portray Hittites as a world-domineering Turkish race with firm roots in Anatolia.<ref name=":04"/><br />
Modern genetic researches on Turkish samples show that [[Turkish people|Anatolian Turks]] are mixage of [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkic tribes]] and Anatolian natives, however, unlike [[Turkish History Thesis|Kemalist thoughts]], these two admixtures aren't originated from same ethnicity, race or identity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The genetic structure of the Turkish population - Ethnicity Prediction|url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1pHvOMVZPtNDuwVabSXD7OxdFMTYQGvfjq7Z-L6IiII0/edit#gid=450884960|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Statism===<br />
{{Main|Social market economy}}<br />
<br />
[[Statism]] ({{lang-tr|devletçilik}}): Atatürk made clear in his statements and policies that Turkey's complete [[Modernization theory|modernization]] was very much dependent on economic and technological development. The principle of Kemalist statism is generally interpreted to mean that the state was to regulate the country's general economic activities and engage in areas where private enterprises are not willing to do so. This was the result of post-revolutionary Turkey needing to redefine the relationship between societal and international capitalism. The revolution left Turkey in ruins, as the Ottoman Empire was focused on raw materials and was an [[open market]] in the international capitalist system. Post-revolutionary Turkey has been largely defined by its agricultural society, which includes many landlords and merchants. The control of people in the Turkish economy is quite evident from 1923 to the 1930s, but they still managed, through foreign joint investment, to establish a state economic enterprise. However, after the 1930s depression, there was a shift to more inward-looking development strategies during an era generally referred to as "etatism". During this era, the state had an active involvement in both capital accumulation and investment as well as in taking the interest of private businesses into consideration. The state often stepped into economic areas that the private sector did not cover, either due to not being strong enough or having simply failed to do so. These were often infrastructure projects and power stations, but also iron and steel industries, while the masses shouldered the burden of the capital accumulation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Aydın|first=Zülküf|title=The Political Economy of Turkey|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2005|pages=25–56|doi=10.2307/j.ctt18dzt8j}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Analysis==<br />
{{See also|White Turks}}<br />
<br />
===Kemalism and Turkey's political parties===<br />
[[File:Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi Logo.svg|thumb|200px|"''Six Arrows''" as depicted by the [[Republican People's Party|CHP]]'s logo]]<br />
The [[Republican People's Party]] (CHP) was established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk on September 9, 1923, not long before the declaration of the Republic of Turkey on October 29. The Republican People's Party did not attempt to update or define the philosophical roots of it party Kemalism from the 1940s to the 1960s. However, since the 1960s, there has been a move to the left-of-center. The supporter of the left-of-center accepts the tented of the Kemalism also entrained the idea that structural changes brought forth by the government are necessary for modernization. Later in the 1970s, the CHP had to make fundamental changes to its party platform as the country Abandonment of Kemalism. The party thought several programs as being labeled the democratic left. Most still believe in the six principles of Kemalism while others seek to reduce the role of statism in Turkish society.<ref>İrem, Nazım. “Undercurrents of European Modernity and the Foundations of Modern Turkish Conservatism: Bergsonism in Retrospect.” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 40, no. 4, 2004, pp. 79–112. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4289929</ref> The Turkish Justice Minister [[Mahmut Esat Bozkurt]] equated the Kemalist policies to the [[Italian fascism]] of [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kieser|first=Hans-Lukas|author-link=Hans-Lukas Kieser|date=2016-01-19|title=Dersim Massacre, 1937-1938 {{!}} Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network|url=http://dersim-massacre-1937-1938.html/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-22|website=dersim-massacre-1937-1938.html|language=en}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Bozkurt is also mentioned together with [[Ahmet Cevat Emre]] and [[Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu]] as one of the few who introduced the term Kemalism with its political aspects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ter-Matevosyan|first=Vahram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XtaIDwAAQBAJ&dq=Muhit+kemalist+magazine&pg=PA48|title=Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation|date=2019-02-19|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-97403-3|pages=48|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Kemalism and Turkey's constitutional law===<br />
The six principles were solidified on 5 February 1937, 14 years after establishment of the Republic of Turkey.<br />
<br />
In the [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|1924 Constitutional Law]] Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|Turkey is republican, nationalist, attached to the people, interventionist, secular, and revolutionary.}}<br />
<br />
Both the [[1960 Turkish coup d'état|military coup of 1960]] and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état|military coup of 1980]] were followed by fundamental revisions of the Turkish Constitution. The texts of the new constitutions were approved by popular referendum in each case.<br />
<br />
In the [[Turkish Constitution of 1961|1961 Constitutional Law]] Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|The Turkish Republic is a nationalistic, democratic, secular and social state, governed by the rule of law, based on human rights and fundamental tenets set forth in the preamble.}}<br />
<br />
In the [[Constitution of Turkey|1982 Constitutional Law]] Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
[[File:Turkse_arbeiders_met_het_bronzen_hoofd_van_Atatürk_-_Turkish_workers_carrying_the_bronze_head_of_Atatürk_(6941436439).jpg|thumb|Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of a statue of Atatürk. Turkey, 1933. Atatürk' statues placed in all public buildings in the nation and his values are coded in the constitution.]]<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|The Republic of Turkey is a democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law; bearing in mind the concepts of public peace, national solidarity and justice; respecting human rights; loyal to the nationalism of Atatürk, and based on the fundamental tenets set forth in the Preamble.}}<br />
<br />
Only the principles of [[Secularism in Turkey|secularism]], [[Turkish nationalism|nationalism]] and democracy were maintained in each change to the constitution. The 1961 Constitution more strongly emphasized human rights, the rule of law, and the welfare state than the original 1924 constitution, while the 1982 constitution focused on the peace of the community and national solidarity, but also explicitly referenced some of Atatürk's principles and included them as well.<br />
<br />
===External interpretations of Kemalism===<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, Turkey's domestic transformations and the evolution of the Kemalist system of ideological and political principles were closely observed in Germany, France, Britain, the US, and beyond, including several nations farther East. In recent years, scholarly interest in the transnational history of Kemalism has expanded. Some scholars have focused on the interwar period in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Albania, Yugoslavia, and Egypt to reveal how, as a practical tool, Kemalism was relocated as a global movement, whose influence is still felt today.<ref>"Kemalism: Transnational Politics in the Post Ottoman World.", eds. N. Clayer, F. Giomi, E. Szurek. London. I.B. Tauris. 2018.</ref> Some scholars have examined the impact of Atatürk's reforms and his image on the Jewish community in British-ruled Palestine before the establishment of Israel,<ref>Jacob Landau. "A Note on Kemalizm in the Hebrew Press of<br />
Palestine." 2018. Middle Eastern Studies 54 (4): 723–728</ref> some went farther East—to Persia, Afghanistan, China, India,<ref>Amin Saikal. "Kemalism: Its Influences on Iran and Afghanistan." 1982. International Journal of Turkish Studies 2 (2): 25–32</ref> and other parts of the Muslim world—to assess the influence wielded by Mustafa Kemal and his modernization project. These works explore perceptions of Kemalism that are mostly positive in their respective countries providing few critical insights into Kemalism's evolution and its reception as an ideological project. <br />
Against this background, one of the critical partners of Turkey in the interwar period – the Soviet Union, its leaders, party bureaucrats, journalists and scholars initially interpreted Kemalism as an ideological ally in the struggle against the West. Since the late 1920s until the 1950s, Kemalism was viewed negatively by the Communists. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Soviet position returned to normalization. Views and analyses of Soviet leaders, diplomats, party functionaries, and scholars helps us grasp the underlying dynamics behind these changing attitudes. Placing them in the larger context of republican history—delineating phases in the Kemalist paradigm of development and discerning its various rises and falls—will enrich our knowledge of the transnational history of Kemalism.<ref>Vahram Ter-Matevosyan. "Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation." London & New York, Palgrave Macmillan. 2019.</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] viewed Kemalist Turkey as a "postgenocidal paradise" worthy of emulation.<ref name=Avedian>{{cite journal |last1=Avedian |first1=Vahagn |title=Justifying genocide: Germany and the Armenians from Bismarck to Hitler, by Stefan Ihrig, Cambridge, MA, Harvard, 460 pp., $35.00 (HC), ISBN 978-0674504790 |orig-year=2016 |journal=Nationalities Papers |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=532–535 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=20 November 2018|doi=10.1080/00905992.2017.1390980|s2cid=159627934 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |authorlink=Margaret L. Anderson|last1=Anderson |first1=Margaret Lavinia |title=Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination. By Stefan Ihrig. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014. Pp. 311. Cloth $29.95. ISBN 978-0674368378. |journal=Central European History |date=March 2016 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=138–139 |doi=10.1017/S0008938916000236|s2cid=148167017 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4qt900k7 }}</ref> Nazis often stated that [[Nazism]] and Kemalism were very similar.<ref>{{cite book |authorlink=Stefan Ihrig|last1=Ihrig |first1=Stefan |title=Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination |date=2014 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-36837-8 |pages=114, ''passim'' |language=en}}</ref> In 1933, Nazis openly admired Kemalist Turkey. Hitler described Mustafa Kemal as the "star in the darkness".{{sfn|Ihrig|2014|pp=113–117}}<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title="Nazilere göre Atatürk'ün başarısının en önemli nedeni Ermenilerin yok edilmesiydi"|url=http://www.agos.com.tr/tr/yazi/9998/nazilere-gore-ataturkun-basarisinin-en-onemli-nedeni-ermenilerin-yok-edilmesiydi|access-date=2021-06-16|website=Agos|language=tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
Although Kemalist secularism has deep roots in Enlightenment era thought, the [[Postmodernism|postmodernist]] movement in Western philosophy has, since the 1960s and 1970s, cast the Enlightenment in a negative light. Postmodernist thinkers like [[Jacques Derrida]] have assaulted the Western hegemony and imperialism associated with European colonialism. The declining appeal of secularism, perceived as a Western value, has given occasion to postmodernist [[cultural relativism]] emphasizing the populist appeal of collective religious identities like the [[political Islam]] espoused by [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]]'s AKP.<ref>Alaranta, T. (2014). [https://www.google.com/books/edition/Contemporary_Kemalism/eE_IAgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 Contemporary Kemalism: From Universal Secular-Humanism to Extreme Turkish Nationalism]. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Bourguibism]]<br />
*[[Liberal Kemalism]]<br />
*[[Peronism]]<br />
*[[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]]<br />
*[[Post-Kemalism]]<br />
*[[Three Principles of the People]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for guidance on adding references using<ref>tags--><br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Alaranta |first=Toni |title=Contemporary Kemalism: From Universal Secular-Humanism to Extreme Turkish Nationalism |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-91676-5 |language=en |ref=none}}<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Ciddi |first=Sinan |title=Kemalism in Turkish Politics: The Republican People's Party, Secularism and Nationalism |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-02559-6 |language=en |ref=none}}<br />
*{{Cite journal |last=Gürpınar |first=Doğan |date=2013 |title=The Reinvention of Kemalism: Between Elitism, Anti-Elitism and Anti-Intellectualism |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=454–476 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2013.783822 |s2cid=144626059 |ref=none |authorlink=Doğan Gürpınar}}<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Plaggenborg |first=Stefan |title=Ordnung und Gewalt: Kemalismus - Faschismus - Sozialismus |date=2012 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-486-71409-8 |language=de |ref=none}}<br />
*{{cite web|url=https://newsaboutturkey.com/2020/05/13/the-myth-of-new-turkey-kemalism-and-erdoganism-as-two-sides-of-the-same-coin/|title=The Myth of 'New Turkey': Kemalism and Erdoganism as Two Sides of the Same Coin|work=Dr. Ceren Şengül|publisher=News About Turkey}}<br />
{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Kemalism}}<br />
<!--Categories--><br />
[[Category:Kemalism| ]]<br />
[[Category:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]<br />
[[Category:Political ideologies]]<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Eponymous political ideologies]]<br />
[[Category:Republican People's Party (Turkey)]]<br />
[[Category:Republicanism in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Progressivism]]<br />
[[Category:Secularism in Turkey]]<br />
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[[Category:State ideologies]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kemalism&diff=1144984485Kemalism2023-03-16T16:36:51Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Nationalism */</p>
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<div>{{short description|Founding ideology of the Republic of Turkey, proclaimed in 1923}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Republican People's Party (Turkey).svg|thumb|261x261px|[[The Six Arrows]]]]<br />
{{Atatürk sidebar}}<br />
{{Populism sidebar|expanded=Related}}<br />
{{Nationalism sidebar}}<br />
'''Kemalism''' ({{lang-tr|Kemalizm}}, also archaically ''Kamâlizm''<ref>''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kam%C3%A2lizm.pdf Kamâlizm]'' (1936) by [[Mehmet Şeref Aykut]]</ref>), also known as '''Ataturkism''' ({{lang-tr|Atatürkçülük, Atatürkçü düşünce}}), or '''The Six Arrows''' ({{lang-tr|Altı Ok}}), is the founding official ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]].<ref name="EricPage181">Eric J. Zurcher, Turkey: A Modern History. New York, J.B. Tauris & Co ltd. page 181</ref> Kemalism, as it was implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] after the [[Republic Day (Turkey)|declaration of Republic in 1923]], was defined by sweeping political, social, cultural and religious reforms designed to separate the new Turkish state from its [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] predecessor and embrace a Western-style modernized lifestyle,<ref name=cleveland13>Cleveland, William L., and Martin P. Bunton. ''A History of the Modern Middle East''. Boulder: Westview, 2013.</ref> including the establishment of [[Secularism in Turkey|secularism/laicism]] ({{lang-fr|laïcité}}), state support of the sciences, free education, and many more. Most of those were first introduced to and implemented in Turkey during Atatürk's presidency through [[Atatürk's reforms|his reforms]].<br />
<br />
Many of the root ideas of Kemalism began during the late [[Ottoman Empire]] under various reforms to avoid the imminent [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|collapse of the Empire]], beginning chiefly in the early 19th-century [[Tanzimat]] reforms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cleveland |first1=William L |first2=Martin |last2=Bunton |title=A History of the Modern Middle East |edition=4th |publisher=Westview Press |year=2009 |pages=82}}</ref> The mid-century [[Young Ottomans]] attempted to create the ideology of Ottoman nationalism, or [[Ottomanism]], to quell the [[Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|rising ethnic nationalism]] in the Empire and introduce limited democracy for the first time while maintaining Islamist influences. In the early 20th century, the [[Young Turks]] abandoned Ottoman nationalism in favor of early [[Turkish nationalism]], while adopting a secular political outlook. After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, Atatürk, influenced by both the Young Ottomans and the Young Turks,<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Cuthell |first=David Cameron Jr. |year=2009 |editor1-last=Ágoston |editor1-first=Gábor |editor2-first=Bruce |editor2-last=Masters |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |chapter=Atatürk, Kemal (Mustafa Kemal) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA56 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Facts On File]] |pages=56–60 |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |lccn=2008020716 |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref> as well as by their successes and failures, led the declaration of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, borrowing from the earlier movements' ideas of secularism and Turkish nationalism, while bringing about, for the first time, free education<ref name=mango164>{{cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |author-link= Andrew Mango |title=Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey |publisher=[[The Overlook Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-58567-334-6 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nu68vd_AmuYC |page=164}}</ref> and other reforms that have been enshrined by later leaders into guidelines for governing Turkey.<br />
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==Philosophy==<br />
Kemalism is a modernization philosophy that guided the transition between the multi-religious, multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire to the [[Secular humanism|secular]], [[Democracy|democratic]], and [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[Republicanism|Republic of Turkey]]. Kemalism sets the boundaries of the social process in the [[Atatürk's reforms|Turkish Reformation]]. Atatürk was the founder of Kemalism, and his doctrine was implemented as [[Ideology|state ideology]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Webster |first=Donald Everett |title=The Turkey of Atatürk; Social Process in the Turkish Reformation |year=1973 |publisher=AMS Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-404-56333-2 |page=245}}</ref> but Atatürk refrained from being dogmatic and described his and his spiritual heirs' guide to be science and reason:<br />
{{blockquote|I do not leave any verses, any dogmas, nor any frozen and moulded principles as spritual heritage. My spritual heritage is science and reason.<ref name="Giritli">{{lang-tr|"Ben, manevî miras olarak hiçbir nass-ı katı, hiçbir dogma, hiçbir donmuş ve kalıplaşmış kural bırakmıyorum. Benim manevî mirasım, ilim ve akıldır."}} İsmet Giritli, Kemalist Devrim ve İdeolojisi, İstanbul, 1980</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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==Principles==<br />
There are six principles (''ilke'') of the ideology: [[Republicanism]] ({{lang-tr|cumhuriyetçilik}}), [[Populism]] ({{lang-tr|halkçılık}}), [[Nationalism]] ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}), [[Laicism]] ({{lang-tr|laiklik}}), [[Statism]] ({{lang-tr|devletçilik}}), and [[Reform movement|Reformism]] ({{lang-tr|inkılapçılık}}). Together, they represent a kind of [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobinism]], defined by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] himself as a method of employing political despotism to break down the social despotism prevalent among the traditionally-minded Turkish-Muslim population, caused by, he believed, the bigotry of the ''[[Ulama|ulema]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0440|title=Kemalism - Oxford Islamic Studies Online|website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com|access-date=2019-05-01}}</ref><br />
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===Republicanism===<br />
[[Republicanism]] ({{lang-tr|cumhuriyetçilik}}) in the Kemalist framework replaced the [[absolute monarchy]] of the [[Ottoman dynasty]] with the [[rule of law]], [[popular sovereignty]] and [[civic virtue]], including an emphasis on liberty practiced by citizens. Kemalist republicanism defines a type of constitutional republic, in which representatives of the people are elected, and must govern in accordance with existing constitutional law limiting governmental power over citizens. The head of state and other officials are chosen by election rather than inheriting their positions, and their decisions are subject to judicial review. In defending the change from the Ottoman State, Kemalism asserts that all laws of the Republic of Turkey should be inspired by actual needs here on Earth as a basic tenet of national life.<ref>Mustafa Kemal as quoted in "A World View of Criminal Justice (2005)" by Richard K. Vogler, p. 116</ref> Kemalism advocates a republican system as the best representative of the wishes of the people.<br />
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Among the many types of [[republic]], the Kemalist republic is a [[representative democracy|representative]], [[Liberal democracy|liberal]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Soyak |first=Hasan Rıza |title=Atatürk'ten Hatıralar |pages=58 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=İlhan |first=Atilla |title=Hangi Atatürk |pages=111 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kili |first=Suna |title=Türk Devrim Tarihi |pages=240 |language=tr}}</ref> [[Parliamentary republic|parliamentary democracy]] with a Parliament chosen in general elections, a [[President (government title)|president]] as head of state elected by Parliament and serving for a limited term, a [[prime minister]] appointed by the president, and other ministers appointed by Parliament. The Kemalist president does not have direct executive powers, but has limited veto powers, and the right to contest with referendum. The day-to-day operation of government is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers formed by the prime minister and the other ministers. There is a [[separation of powers]] between the executive (president and Council of Ministers), the legislative (Parliament) and the judiciary, in which no one branch of government has authority over another—although parliament is charged with the supervision of the Council of Ministers, which can be compelled to resign by a vote of no-confidence.<br />
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The Kemalist republic is a [[unitary state]] in which three [[Separation of powers|organs of state]] govern the nation as a single unit, with one [[constitution]]ally created [[legislature]]. On some issues, the [[Power (social and political)|political power]] of [[government]] is transferred to lower levels, to local elected assemblies represented by mayors, but the [[central government]] retains the principal governing role.<br />
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===Populism===<br />
{{multiple image<br />
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| header = Dimensions of Populism<br />
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| image1 = GNAT speakers.jpg<br />
| caption1 = "[[Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the People|Sovereignty belongs, without any restrictions or conditions, to the nation]]" is embossed behind the speaker's seat at the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|GNA]]<br />
| image2 = Nicosia 01-2017 img17 View from Shacolas Tower.jpg<br />
| caption2 = The motto, "[[How happy is the one who says I am a Turk|Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]]", embossed on the [[Kyrenia Mountains]] in [[Northern Cyprus]].<br />
}}<br />
[[Populism]] ({{lang-tr|halkçılık}}) is defined as a social revolution aimed to transfer the political power to [[citizenship]]. Kemalist populism intends not only to establish [[popular sovereignty]] but also the transfer of the social-economic transformation{{clarify|date=May 2021}} to realize a true populist state. However, Kemalists reject [[class conflict]] and [[Collective farming|collectivism]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler (Örgün Yayınları)|publisher=Afet İnan|year=1930s|pages=212}}</ref> Kemalist populism believes [[national identity]] is above all else. Kemalist populism envisions a sociality that emphasizes [[class collaboration]] and national unity like [[Solidarity|solidarism]]. Populism in Turkey is to create a unifying force that brings a sense of the Turkish state and the power of the people to bring in that new unity.<ref name="jstor.org">Kili, Suna. “Kemalism in Contemporary Turkey.” International Political Science Review, vol. 1, no. 3, 1980, pp. 381–404. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1601123.</ref><br />
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Kemalist populism is an extension of the Kemalist modernization movement, aiming to make Islam compatible with the modern nation-state. This included state supervision of religious schools and organizations. Mustafa Kemal himself said "everyone needs a place to learn religion and faith; that place is a ''[[Wiktionary:mektep#Turkish|mektep]]'', not a ''[[madrasa]]''". This was intended to combat the "corruption" of Islam by the ''ulema''. Kemal believed that during the Ottoman period, the ''ulema'' had come to exploit the power of their office and manipulate religious practices to their own benefit. It was also feared that, were education not brought under state control, unsupervised ''madrasa''s could exacerbate the rising problem of ''[[tariqa|tarikat]]'' insularity that threatened to undermine the unity of the Turkish state.<ref name="AKMAK, DİREN 2009, pp. 825">ÇAKMAK, DİREN. “Pro-Islamic Public Education in Turkey: The Imam-Hatip Schools.” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 45, no. 5, 2009, pp. 825–846. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40647155.</ref><br />
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====Sovereignty====<br />
Kemalist social theory (populism) does not accept any adjectives placed before the definition of a nation [a nation of ...] Sovereignty must belong solely to people without any term, condition, etc.:<br />
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{{Blockquote|[[Sovereignty]] belongs to the nation unrestrictedly and unconditionally.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DC. |first=Embassy of the Republic of Turkey, Washington |url=http://www.turkishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188&Itemid=165 |title=Constitution and Foundations of the State System |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070115010917/http://www.turkishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188&Itemid=165 |archive-date=January 15, 2007 }}</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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====Motto====<br />
Populism was used against the political domination of sheiks, tribal leaders, and [[Islamism]] (Islam as a political system) of the Ottoman Empire. Initially, the declaration of the republic was perceived as ''"Returning to the days of the [[Rashidun|first caliphs]]"''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Mango |title=Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey |orig-year=1999 |edition=Paperback |year=2002 |publisher=Overlook Press, Peter Mayer Publishers, Inc |location=Woodstock, NY |isbn=1-58567-334-X |page=[https://archive.org/details/ataturk00andr/page/394 394] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ataturk00andr/page/394 }}</ref> However, Atatürk's nationalism aimed to shift the political legitimacy from [[autocracy]] (by the [[Ottoman dynasty]]), [[theocracy]] (based in the [[Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman caliphate]]), and [[feudalism]] (tribal leaders) to the active participation of its citizenry, the Turks. Kemalist social theory wanted to establish the value of Turkish citizenship. A sense of pride associated with this citizenship would give the needed psychological spur for people to work harder and achieve a sense of unity and national identity. Active participation, or the "will of the people", was established with the republican regime and Turkishness replacing the other forms of affiliations that had been promoted in the Ottoman Empire (such as the allegiance to the different millets that eventually led to divisiveness in the empire). The shift in affiliation was symbolized with:<br />
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{{Blockquote|{{lang-tr|links=no|[[Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]].}}<br />
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({{lang-en|How happy is the one who calls themself a [[Turkish people|Turk]].}})|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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The motto "[[How happy is the one who says I am a Turk|Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]]" was promoted against such mottoes as "long live the Sultan," "long live the Sheikh", or "long live the Caliph."<br />
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===Laicism===<br />
{{Main|Secularism in Turkey|Islam in Turkey}}<br />
{{See also|Freedom of religion in Turkey}}<br />
[[Laicism]] ({{lang-tr|laiklik}}) in Kemalist ideology aims to banish religious interference in government affairs, and vice versa. It differs from the passive Anglo-American concept of secularism,<ref name="Kösebalaban2011">{{cite book |last=Kösebalaban |first=Hasan |title=Turkish Foreign Policy: Islam, Nationalism, and Globalization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3dnGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |date=12 April 2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-11869-0 |page=9}}</ref> but is similar to the concept of [[Secularism in France|laïcité]] in France.<br />
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The roots of Kemalist secularism lie in the reform efforts in the late Ottoman Empire, especially the [[Tanzimat]] period and the later [[Second Constitutional Era]]. The Ottoman Empire was an [[Islamic state]] in which the head of the Ottoman state held the position of the Caliph. The social system was organized according to various systems, including the religiously organized Millet system and [[Sharia|Shari'ah law]], allowing religious ideology to be incorporated into the Ottoman administrative, economic, and political system. This way of life is today defined as [[Islamism]] (political Islam): "the belief that Islam should guide social and political as well as personal life".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Berman |first=Sheri| author-link=Sheri Berman |title=Islamism, Revolution, and Civil Society |journal=Perspectives on Politics |volume=1 |issue=2 |year=2003 |page=258 |doi=10.1017/S1537592703000197|s2cid=145201910}}</ref> In the Second Constitutional Era, the [[General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Parliament]] pursued largely secular policies, although techniques of religious populism and attacks on other candidates' piety still occurred between [[List of political parties in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman political parties]] during [[Elections in the Ottoman Empire|elections]]. These policies were stated as the reason for the [[31 March Incident|countercoup of 1909]] by Islamists and absolute monarchists. The secular policies of the Ottoman parliament also factored in the [[Arab Revolt]] during World War I.<br />
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When secularism was implemented in the fledgling Turkish state, it was initiated by the abolition of the centuries-old [[caliphate]] in March 1924. The office of [[Shaykh al-Islām]] was replaced with the [[Directorate of Religious Affairs|Presidency of Religious Affairs]] ({{lang-tr|Diyanet}}). In 1926, the ''[[Mecelle|mejelle]]'' and shari'ah law codes were abandoned in favor of an adapted [[Swiss Civil Code]] and a penal code modeled on the German and Italian codes. Other religious practices were done away with, resulting in the dissolution of [[Sufism|Sufi]] orders and the penalization of wearing a ''[[Fez (hat)|fez]]'', which was viewed by Atatürk as a tie to the Ottoman past.<ref name=cleveland13/><br />
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====State and religion (Laïcité)====<br />
Atatürk was profoundly influenced by the triumph of ''[[Secularism in France|laïcité]]'' in France.<ref name=page153>{{cite book |authorlink=M. Şükrü Hanioğlu|last=Hanioglu |first=Sükrü |title=Ataturk: An Intellectual Biography |year=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=153}}</ref> Atatürk perceived the French model as the authentic form of secularism. Kemalism strove to control religion and transform it into a private affair rather than an institution interfering with politics, as well as scientific and social progress.<ref name=page153/> "Sane reason," and "the liberty of [one's] fellow man," as Atatürk once put it.<ref>Ruşen Eşref Ünaydin, 1954, "Atatürk -Tarih ve Dil Kurumları Hatıraları" Türk Tarih Kurumu. pp. 28–31.</ref> It is more than merely creating a separation between state and religion. Atatürk has been described as working as if he were [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo the Isaurian]], [[Martin Luther]], the [[Baron d'Holbach]], [[Ludwig Büchner]], [[Émile Combes]], and [[Jules Ferry]] rolled into one in creating Kemalist secularism.<ref name=page153/> Kemalist secularism does not imply nor advocate [[agnosticism]] or [[nihilism]]; it means freedom of thought and independence of the institutions of the state from the dominance of religious thought and religious institutions. The Kemalist principle of laicism is not against moderate and apolitical religion, but against religious forces opposed to and fighting modernization and democracy.<br />
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According to the Kemalist perception, the Turkish state is to stand at an equal distance from every religion, neither promoting nor condemning any set of religious beliefs. Kemalists, however, have called for not only separation of church and state but also a call for the state control of the Turkish Muslim religious establishment{{fact|date=November 2022}}. For some Kemalists{{who|date=November 2022}}, this means that the state must be at the helm of religious affairs, and all religious activities are under the supervision of the state. This, in turn, drew criticism from the religious conservatives. Religious conservatives were vocal in rejecting this idea, saying that to have a secular state, the state can't control the activities of religious institutions. Despite their protest, this policy was officially adopted by the 1961 constitution.<ref name="jstor.org"/><br />
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Kemalism must stamp out the religious element within society. After Turkish independence from the Western powers, all education was under the control of the state in both secular and religious schools. It centralized the education system, with one curriculum in both religious and secular public schools, in the hope this would eliminate or lessen the appeal of religious schools. The laws were meant to abolish the [[Sufism|Sufi]] religious schools or orders ''([[Tariqa|tarikats]])'' and their lodges ''([[khanqah|tekke]]s)''. Titles like ''[[sheikh]]'' and ''[[dervish]]'' were abolished, and their activities were banned by the government. The day of rest was changed by the government from Friday to Sunday. But the restrictions on personal choice extended to both religious duty and naming. Turks had to adopt a surname and were not allowed to perform the [[hajj]] (pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]).<ref name="jstor.org"/><ref name="AKMAK, DİREN 2009, pp. 825"/><br />
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====Politics and religion (Secularism)====<br />
The Kemalist form of [[Separation of church and state#Turkey|separation of state and religion]] sought the reform of a complete set of institutions, interest groups (such as [[List of political parties in Turkey|political parties]], unions, and lobbies), the relationships between those institutions, and the political norms and rules that governed their functions (constitution, election law). The biggest change in this perspective was the abolishment of the [[Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman caliphate]] on March 3, 1924, followed by the removal of its political mechanisms. The article stating that "the established religion of Turkey is Islam" was removed from the constitution on April 10, 1928.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.atam.gov.tr/index.php?Page=DergiIcerik&IcerikNo=560 |title=Atatürk ve Laiklik |access-date=2017-07-28 |publisher=Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, Issue: 24, Volume: VIII}}</ref><br />
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From a political perspective, Kemalism is anti-clerical, in that it seeks to prevent religious influence on the democratic process, which was a problem even in the largely secular politics of the [[Second Constitutional Era]] of the Ottoman Empire, when even non-religiously affiliated political parties like the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] and the [[Freedom and Accord Party]] feuded over matters such as the Islamic piety of their candidates in the [[1912 Ottoman general election|Ottoman elections of 1912]].<ref name=HK>Hasan Kayalı (1995) [http://psi203.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Kayali,%20Elections%20in%20the%20Ott%20Empire%20(1995).pdf "Elections and the Electoral Process in the Ottoman Empire, 1876-1919"] ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'', Vol. 27, No. 3, pp 273–274. "The prominent leaders of the Entente [Freedom and Accord Party] were Turkish-speaking and no different from the Unionists as far as their basic attitudes toward Islam were concerned. Nevertheless, they sought to frustrate the CUP by encouraging non-Turkish groups to attack it for pursuing a policy of Turkification and by pointing out to the conservatives its alleged disregard for Islamic principles and values. The overall effect of this propaganda was to instill ethnic and sectarian-religious discord, which survived the Entente's defeat at the polls ... The Unionists proved to be less vulnerable to accusations of disregard for Islamic precepts and values. Some of the Entente members were known for their cosmopolitan attitudes and close relations with foreign interests. But this did not keep the Entente from accusing the CUP of violating Islamic principles and attempting to restrict the prerogatives of the sultan-caliph in its pamphlets. One such pamphlet, ''Afiksoz'' (Candid Words), appealed to the religious-national sentiments of Arabs and claimed that Zionist intrigue was responsible for the abandonment of [[Libya]] to the Italians. Such propaganda forced the CUP to seize the role of the champion of Islam. After all, the secular integrationist Ottomanism that it had preached was failing, and the latest manifestation of this failure was the Entente's appeal to segments of Christian communities. The Unionists used Islamic symbols effectively in their election propaganda in 1912. They accused the Entente of trying to separate the offices of the caliphate and the sultanate and thus weakening Islam and the Muslims. There seemed no end to the capital to be gained from the exploitation and manipulation of religious rhetoric. In Izmir, the Entente attacked the CUP's intention to amend Article 35 of the constitution by arguing that the Unionists were thus denouncing the "thirty" days of fasting and "five" daily prayers. This led the town's mufti to plead that "for the sake of Islam and the welfare of the country" religion not be used to achieve political objectives. As with the rhetoric on Turkification, Islam too remained in political discourse long after the elections were over."</ref> Thus, in the Kemalist political perspective, politicians cannot claim to be the protector of any religion or religious sect, and such claims constitute sufficient legal grounds for the permanent banning of political parties.<br />
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====Insignia====<br />
The Ottoman social system was based on religious affiliation. Religious insignia extended to every social function. Clothing identified citizens with their own particular religious grouping; headgear distinguished rank and profession. [[Turban]]s, [[Fez (hat)|fez]]es, [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnet]]s, and head-dresses denoted the sex, rank, and profession — both civil and military — of the wearer. Religious insignia outside of worship areas became banned.<br />
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While Atatürk considered women's religious coverings as antithetical to progress and equality, he also recognized that headscarves were not such a danger to the separation of church and state to warrant an outright ban.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/jlg/vol332/661-686.pdf|title=Politics of the Headscarf in Turkey: Masculinities, Feminism, and the Construction of Collective Identities|first=Valorie K.|last=Vojdik|journal=Harvard Journal of Law & Gender|volume= 33|pages=661–686|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416012819/http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/jlg/vol332/661-686.pdf|archive-date=16 April 2012}}</ref> But the Constitution was amended in 1982, following the 1980 coup by the Kemalist-leaning military, to prohibit women's use of Islamic coverings such as the ''[[hijab]]'' at higher education institutions.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Journal of Political Inquiry |url=http://www.jpinyu.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/roots-of-the-headscarf-debate-laicism-and-secularism-in-france-and-turkey.pdf |title=Roots of the Headscarf Debate: Laicism and Secularism in France and Turkey |first=Gulce |last=Tarhan |year=2011 |issue=4 |pages=1–32 |access-date=2014-10-04 }}</ref> [[Joost Lagendijk]], a [[member of the European Parliament]] and chair of the Joint Parliamentary Committee with Turkey, has publicly criticized these [[dress code|clothing restrictions]] for Muslim women,<ref>Lagendijk, Joost (2006-03-22). [http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2006/03/22/siy113.html Başörtüsü yasağı savunulamaz]. ''Sabah''.</ref> whereas the [[European Court of Human Rights]] has ruled in numerous cases that such restrictions in public buildings and educational institutions do not constitute a violation of human rights.<ref>[http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=9958 ECHR Rules for Turkish Headscarf Ban] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604102452/http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=9958 |date=2009-06-04 }}: The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled in favor of Turkey's policy of banning headscarves at universities. (Today's Zaman, 30 June 2004)</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131226050047/http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=40196 ECHR Insists on Headscarf Ban], [[Journal of Turkish Weekly]], 2006-10-17</ref><br />
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===Reformism===<br />
[[Reform movement|Reformism]] ({{lang-tr|inkılapçılık}}) is a principle which calls for the country to replace the traditional institutions and concepts with modern institutions and concepts. This principle advocated the need for fundamental social change through [[reform]] as a strategy to achieve a modern society. The core of the reform, in the Kemalist sense, was an accomplished fact.<ref name="durkiem">{{Cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Peter |title=Emile Durkheim: Critical Assessments |year=1995 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-11046-7 |page=69}}</ref> In a Kemalist sense, there is no possibility of return to the old systems because they were deemed backward.<br />
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The principle of reformism went beyond the recognition of the reforms made during Atatürk's lifetime. Atatürk's reforms in the social and political spheres are accepted as irreversible. Atatürk never entertained the possibility of a pause or transition phase during the course of the progressive unfolding or implementation of the reform. The current understanding of this concept can be described as "active modification".<ref name="durkiem" /> Turkey and its society, taking over institutions from Western Europe, must add Turkish traits and patterns to them and adapt them to Turkish culture, according to Kemalism.<ref name="durkiem" /> The implementation of the Turkish traits and patterns of these reforms takes generations of cultural and social experience, which results in the collective memory of the Turkish nation.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}<br />
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===Nationalism===<br />
[[Nationalism]] ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}): The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire. Atatürk's nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his [[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]. The Kemalist perception of social contract was facilitated by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]], which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]]. Atatürk's nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakup, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".<br />
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{{Blockquote|In the administration and defense of the Turkish Nation; national unity, national awareness and national culture are the highest ideals that we fix our eyes upon.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Forces |first=Republic Of Turkey Turkish Armed |url=http://www.tsk.mil.tr/eng/Anitkabir/milli.html |title=Ataturks Principles |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government }}{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish Nation" ({{lang-tr|Türk Ulusu}}) as a nation of [[Turkish people]] who always love and seek to exalt their family, country and nation, who know their duties and responsibilities towards the democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law, founded on [[human rights]], and on the tenets laid down in the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Turkey.<ref name="TurkishNational" /> Atatürk defines the Turkish Nation by saying<br />
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{{blockquote|The folk which constitutes the Republic of Turkey is called the Turkish Nation.|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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Similar to its CUP predecessors, it can be said that Kemalism endorsed [[social Darwinism]] in some way by desiring the Turkish youth to be healthy and physically strong.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ter-Matevosyan |first1=Vahram |title=Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation |date=2019 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-97403-3 |page=163|quote=Both the Young Turks and the Kemalists had an elitist conception of society; they saw themselves as the nation’s “social physicians,” the only ones capable of enlightening the “masses.”78 Other defnitions and fashionable currents of thought that defned different facets of fascism—biological materialism, positivism, social Darwinism, and the quest for magic formulas—were also incorporated by both regimes in Turkey.7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Zurcher |first1=Erik-Jan |title=Late Ottoman Society |chapter=Ottoman sources of Kemalist thought |year=2013 |pages=36–49 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203481387-10 |isbn=978-0-203-48138-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/ottoman-sources-kemalist-thought-erik-jan-zurcher/e/10.4324/9780203481387-10 |language=en}}</ref><br />
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====Criteria====<br />
{{See also|Turkish nationality law}}<br />
Kemalist criteria for national ''identity'' or simply being Turkish ({{lang-tr|Türk}}) refers to a shared [[language]], and/or shared [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] defined as a common history, and the will to share a future. Kemalist ideology defines the "[[Turkish people]]" as:<br />
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{{blockquote|Those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation.<ref name="TurkishNational">{{Cite web |last=Education |first=Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of National |url=http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm |title=Turkish National Education System |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020612122337/http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm|archive-date=12 June 2002}}</ref>|author=|title=|source=}}<br />
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Membership is usually gained through birth within the borders of the state and also the principle of [[jus sanguinis]]. The Kemalist notion of nationality is integrated into the [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Every citizen is recognized as a Turk, regardless of ethnicity, belief, and gender, etc. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>Citizenship is defined in the {{Ws|[[s:Constitution of the Republic of Turkey#66|1982 constitution, Article 66]]}} (amended on October 17, 2001).</ref><br />
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Kemalists saw non-Muslims as only nominal citizens, and they have often been treated as [[Second-class citizen|second-class citizens]] in the Republic of Turkey.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dağı |first1=İhsan |title=Why Turkey Needs a Post-Kemalist Order |journal=Insight Turkey |date=1 January 2012 |url=https://www.insightturkey.com/commentaries/why-turkey-needs-a-post-kemalist-order |language=tr|quote= Non-Muslims, whose citizenship was only nominal in the eyes of the Kemalists, faced [[pogrom]]s. This relationship of the Kemalist regime with the people of different ethnicity, religion, and life-style positioned the state with its loyal Kemalist elite as a hegemonic power vis-à-vis the society.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=İçduygu |first1=Ahmet |last2=Toktaş |first2=Şule |last3=Soner |first3=B. Ali |title=The politics of population in a nation-building process: emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |date=1 February 2008 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=358–389 |doi=10.1080/01419870701491937|s2cid=143541451 }}</ref> The identity of [[Kurds in Turkey]] was [[Denial of Kurds by Turkey|denied for decades]] with Kurds described as "[[Denial of Kurds by Turkey|Mountain Turks]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ataman |first1=M. |title=Özal Leadership and Restructuring of Turkish Ethnic Policy in the 1980s |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |date=1 October 2002 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=123–142 |doi=10.1080/714004493|s2cid=144430188 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moustakis |first1=Fotios |last2=Chaudhuri |first2=Rudra |title=Turkish-Kurdish Relations and the European Union: An Unprecedented Shift in the Kemalist Paradigm? |journal=Mediterranean Quarterly |date=28 November 2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=77–89 |doi=10.1215/10474552-16-4-77 |s2cid=153382746 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/190579/summary |language=en |issn=1527-1935}}</ref> Kemal stated in 1930:<br />
{{blockquote|Within the political and social unity of today's Turkish nation, there are citizens and co-nationals who have been incited to think of themselves as [[Kurds]], [[Circassians]], [[Laz people|Laz]] or [[Bosniaks|Bosnians]]. But these erroneous appellations - the product of past periods of tyranny - have brought nothing but sorrow to individual members of the nation, with the exception of a few brainless reactionaries, who became the enemy's instruments.<ref name=mangokurds20>[[Andrew Mango]], ''Atatürk and the Kurds'', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.35, No.4, 1999, 20</ref>}}<br />
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In 2005, the [[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal code made it a crime to insult Turkishness ({{lang-tr|Türklük}}), but under pressure of the EU, this was changed in 2008 to protect the "Turkish nation" instead of Turkish ethnicity in 2008, an 'imagined' nationhood of people living within the [[Misak-ı Millî|National Pact]] ({{lang-tr|Misak-ı Milli}}) borders.<ref name="osmansdream">{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire |year=2006 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |pages=549–550 |isbn=0-465-02396-7}}</ref><br />
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=====Pan-Turkism=====<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
Kemalism focused on the nation-state's narrower interests, renouncing the concern for the "Outside Turks".<ref name="Pan-Turkism">{{Cite book |authorlink=Jacob M. Landau|last=Landau |first=Jacob M. |title=Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1995 |page=275 |isbn=0-253-20960-9}} Page 186-187</ref><br />
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Pan-Turkism was an [[Ethnocentrism|ethnocentric]] ideology [to unite all ethnically Turkic nations] while Kemalism is polycentric [united under a " common will"] in character.<ref name="Pan-Turkism" /> Kemalism wants to have an equal footing among the mainstream world civilizations. Pan-Turkists have consistently emphasized the special attributes of the [[Turkic peoples]], and wanted to unite all of the Turkic peoples. Kemalism wants an equal footing (based on respect) and does not aim to unite the people of Turkey with all the other Turkic nations. Most Kemalists were not interested in Pan-Turkism and from 1923 to 1950 (the single state period) reacted with particular firmness.<ref name="Pan-Turkism"/> Further more, Atatürk opposed Pan-Turkism in his book [[Nutuk]] as following:<br />
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{{blockquote|Gathering various nations under a common and general title and establishing a strong state by keeping these various groups of elements under the same law and conditions is a bright and attractive political view; but it is deceptive. In fact, it is an impossible goal to unite all the Turks in the world into a state, without any borders. This is a truth that centuries and people who have lived for centuries brought about through very painful and bloody events.<br />
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It cannot be seen in history that panislamism and panturanism were successful and were practiced in the world. Though, the results of the ambitions for the establishment of a state, covering all humanity, regardless of race, are written in history.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Atatürk |first=Mustafa Kemal |title=Nutuk |publisher=Kaynak Yayınları |pages=336–337 |language=tr}}</ref>}}<br />
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However, Atatürk owned the idea of taking Turkicness as one of the identities of Turkish nation. [[Turkish History Thesis]] started under Atatürk's order and administration, which contained ethno-racial ideas based on Turkish origins coming from [[Central Asia]]. Also Atatürk era high school books contained education of [[Old Turkic script|Orkhon alphabet]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic Of Turkey|year=1931|pages=79–80}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}} and a unit under the title of "Greater Turkic history and Civilization".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic of Turkey|year=1931|pages=25–53}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}} The book also gave detailed information about empires which are Turkic such as [[Göktürks]] or "claimed to be Turkic" such as [[Scythians]], [[Xiongnu]], and so on.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic of Turkey|year=1931}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}}<br />
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With the supports of newly founded Turkish Republic, [[Pan-Turkism|Pan-Turkist]] organization known as "[[Turkish Hearths]]", re-established in Atatürk's era to get Turkists' support during the [[Atatürk's reforms|revolutions]]. Atatürk was frequently giving speeches on Turkish Hearths after important events occurred in Turkey.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Akçiçek|first=Eren|title=Atatürk'ün Türk Ocakları'nı Ziyaretleri ve Yaptığı Konuşmalar|publisher=Turkish Hearths Ankara Branch|year=2008|location=Ankara, Turkey|language=Turkish}}</ref> Also reopening of Turkish magazine "[[Türk Yurdu]]" which was an organ of Turkish Hearts, was supported.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Georgeon|first=François|title=Aux origines du nationalisme Turc|publisher=Éditions A.D.P.F|year=1980|isbn=2865380084|location=Paris|pages=44}}</ref> Later, in 1931, Turkish Hearts were closed by Atatürk after they lost their non-political stance, because of their Pan-Turkist views and movements; and with all of its premises, it merged to the ruling party [[Republican People's Party|CHP]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Emine|last=Merdim|date=2011-07-13|title=Türk Ocakları Merkez Binası'ndan Ankara Devlet Resim ve Heykel Müzesi'ne|url=https://www.arkitera.com/haber/turk-ocaklari-merkez-binasindan-ankara-devlet-resim-ve-heykel-muzesine/|access-date=2021-06-21|website=Arkitera|language=tr-TR}}</ref><br />
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Atatürk also described his opinions about [[Timur]], a [[Central Asia]]n [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] military commander as "If I lived in Timur's timeline, I wouldn't be able to accomplish his work but if he lived in my timeline, he would do greater than I did".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bozkurt|first=Mahmut Esat|title=Aksak Demir'in Devlet Politikası - Timurlenk Üzerine İnceleme|publisher=Yeni Sabah Neşriyatı|year=1943|isbn=975-343-413-8|location=Galatasaray - Istanbul|pages=84|language=Turkish}}</ref><br />
[[File:Atatürk looking into Central asia.jpg|thumb|Atatürk analyzing [[First Turkic Khaganate|Turkic Khaganate]] map.]]<br />
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=====Turanism=====<br />
{{Main|Turanism}}<br />
Kemalist center of view focused on the Turkish people, within both living and historical cultures and peoples of [[Anatolia]], especially [[Hittites]],<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal|last=Erimtan|first=Can|title=Hittites, Ottomans and Turks: Ağaoğlu Ahmed Bey and the Kemalist Construction of Turkish Nationhood in Anatolia|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20455417|journal= Anatolian Studies|year=2008|volume=58|pages=158|doi=10.1017/S0066154600008711 |jstor=20455417|s2cid=163040610 }}</ref> and the culture and civilization of [[Turkic peoples]].<br />
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Turanism centered the nation as the union of all [[Turan|Turanian]] peoples ([[Tungusic peoples|Tungus]], [[Hungarians]], [[Finns]], [[Mongols]], [[Estonians]] and [[Koreans]]) stretching from the [[Altai Mountains]] in [[East Asia|Eastern Asia]] to the [[Bosporus|Bosphorus]].<ref>Paksoy, H.B., [http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-6/cae12.html ‘Basmachi’: Turkestan National Liberation Movement 1916-1930s], ''Modern Encyclopedia of Religions in Russia and the Soviet Union'', Florida: Academic International Press, 1991, Vol. 4</ref> Kemalism had a narrower definition of language, which sought to remove (purify) the Persian, Arabic, Greek, Latin, etc. words from the Turkish language and replace them with either Turkic originated words or derive new words with Turkic roots. Turanist leaders, such as [[Enver Pasha]], wanted an evolving language common to all Turanian peoples, minimizing differences and maximizing similarities between them.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}<br />
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==== Kemalism and the Hittites ====<br />
{{Main|Turkish History Thesis}}<br />
[[File:Turkije3 2014 010 (15080445834).jpg|thumb|One of the lions at "[[Anıtkabir#Road of Lions|Road of Lions]]" in [[Anıtkabir]], which are replicas of ancient [[Hittites|Hittite]] lion statues.]]<br />
Kemalism gave an important place to [[Hittites]] and the Hittite symbolism to construct the Turkish identity and nationhood. Kemalist researchers, such as [[Ahmet Ağaoğlu]] (who was an advisor to Atatürk and a politician who played an important role on creating [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|Turkey's constitution of 1924]]), believed in that the nation has to portray Hittites as a world-domineering Turkish race with firm roots in Anatolia.<ref name=":04"/><br />
Modern genetic researches on Turkish samples show that [[Turkish people|Anatolian Turks]] are mixage of [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkic tribes]] and Anatolian natives, however, unlike [[Turkish History Thesis|Kemalist thoughts]], these two admixtures aren't originated from same ethnicity, race or identity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The genetic structure of the Turkish population - Ethnicity Prediction|url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1pHvOMVZPtNDuwVabSXD7OxdFMTYQGvfjq7Z-L6IiII0/edit#gid=450884960|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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===Statism===<br />
{{Main|Social market economy}}<br />
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[[Statism]] ({{lang-tr|devletçilik}}): Atatürk made clear in his statements and policies that Turkey's complete [[Modernization theory|modernization]] was very much dependent on economic and technological development. The principle of Kemalist statism is generally interpreted to mean that the state was to regulate the country's general economic activities and engage in areas where private enterprises are not willing to do so. This was the result of post-revolutionary Turkey needing to redefine the relationship between societal and international capitalism. The revolution left Turkey in ruins, as the Ottoman Empire was focused on raw materials and was an [[open market]] in the international capitalist system. Post-revolutionary Turkey has been largely defined by its agricultural society, which includes many landlords and merchants. The control of people in the Turkish economy is quite evident from 1923 to the 1930s, but they still managed, through foreign joint investment, to establish a state economic enterprise. However, after the 1930s depression, there was a shift to more inward-looking development strategies during an era generally referred to as "etatism". During this era, the state had an active involvement in both capital accumulation and investment as well as in taking the interest of private businesses into consideration. The state often stepped into economic areas that the private sector did not cover, either due to not being strong enough or having simply failed to do so. These were often infrastructure projects and power stations, but also iron and steel industries, while the masses shouldered the burden of the capital accumulation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Aydın|first=Zülküf|title=The Political Economy of Turkey|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2005|pages=25–56|doi=10.2307/j.ctt18dzt8j}}</ref><br />
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==Analysis==<br />
{{See also|White Turks}}<br />
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===Kemalism and Turkey's political parties===<br />
[[File:Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi Logo.svg|thumb|200px|"''Six Arrows''" as depicted by the [[Republican People's Party|CHP]]'s logo]]<br />
The [[Republican People's Party]] (CHP) was established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk on September 9, 1923, not long before the declaration of the Republic of Turkey on October 29. The Republican People's Party did not attempt to update or define the philosophical roots of it party Kemalism from the 1940s to the 1960s. However, since the 1960s, there has been a move to the left-of-center. The supporter of the left-of-center accepts the tented of the Kemalism also entrained the idea that structural changes brought forth by the government are necessary for modernization. Later in the 1970s, the CHP had to make fundamental changes to its party platform as the country Abandonment of Kemalism. The party thought several programs as being labeled the democratic left. Most still believe in the six principles of Kemalism while others seek to reduce the role of statism in Turkish society.<ref>İrem, Nazım. “Undercurrents of European Modernity and the Foundations of Modern Turkish Conservatism: Bergsonism in Retrospect.” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 40, no. 4, 2004, pp. 79–112. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4289929</ref> The Turkish Justice Minister [[Mahmut Esat Bozkurt]] equated the Kemalist policies to the [[Italian fascism]] of [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kieser|first=Hans-Lukas|author-link=Hans-Lukas Kieser|date=2016-01-19|title=Dersim Massacre, 1937-1938 {{!}} Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network|url=http://dersim-massacre-1937-1938.html/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-22|website=dersim-massacre-1937-1938.html|language=en}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Bozkurt is also mentioned together with [[Ahmet Cevat Emre]] and [[Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu]] as one of the few who introduced the term Kemalism with its political aspects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ter-Matevosyan|first=Vahram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XtaIDwAAQBAJ&dq=Muhit+kemalist+magazine&pg=PA48|title=Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation|date=2019-02-19|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-97403-3|pages=48|language=en}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism and Turkey's constitutional law===<br />
The six principles were solidified on 5 February 1937, 14 years after establishment of the Republic of Turkey.<br />
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In the [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|1924 Constitutional Law]] Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
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{{blockquote|Turkey is republican, nationalist, attached to the people, interventionist, secular, and revolutionary.}}<br />
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Both the [[1960 Turkish coup d'état|military coup of 1960]] and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état|military coup of 1980]] were followed by fundamental revisions of the Turkish Constitution. The texts of the new constitutions were approved by popular referendum in each case.<br />
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In the [[Turkish Constitution of 1961|1961 Constitutional Law]] Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
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{{blockquote|The Turkish Republic is a nationalistic, democratic, secular and social state, governed by the rule of law, based on human rights and fundamental tenets set forth in the preamble.}}<br />
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In the [[Constitution of Turkey|1982 Constitutional Law]] Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
[[File:Turkse_arbeiders_met_het_bronzen_hoofd_van_Atatürk_-_Turkish_workers_carrying_the_bronze_head_of_Atatürk_(6941436439).jpg|thumb|Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of a statue of Atatürk. Turkey, 1933. Atatürk' statues placed in all public buildings in the nation and his values are coded in the constitution.]]<br />
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{{blockquote|The Republic of Turkey is a democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law; bearing in mind the concepts of public peace, national solidarity and justice; respecting human rights; loyal to the nationalism of Atatürk, and based on the fundamental tenets set forth in the Preamble.}}<br />
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Only the principles of [[Secularism in Turkey|secularism]], [[Turkish nationalism|nationalism]] and democracy were maintained in each change to the constitution. The 1961 Constitution more strongly emphasized human rights, the rule of law, and the welfare state than the original 1924 constitution, while the 1982 constitution focused on the peace of the community and national solidarity, but also explicitly referenced some of Atatürk's principles and included them as well.<br />
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===External interpretations of Kemalism===<br />
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In the 1920s and 1930s, Turkey's domestic transformations and the evolution of the Kemalist system of ideological and political principles were closely observed in Germany, France, Britain, the US, and beyond, including several nations farther East. In recent years, scholarly interest in the transnational history of Kemalism has expanded. Some scholars have focused on the interwar period in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Albania, Yugoslavia, and Egypt to reveal how, as a practical tool, Kemalism was relocated as a global movement, whose influence is still felt today.<ref>"Kemalism: Transnational Politics in the Post Ottoman World.", eds. N. Clayer, F. Giomi, E. Szurek. London. I.B. Tauris. 2018.</ref> Some scholars have examined the impact of Atatürk's reforms and his image on the Jewish community in British-ruled Palestine before the establishment of Israel,<ref>Jacob Landau. "A Note on Kemalizm in the Hebrew Press of<br />
Palestine." 2018. Middle Eastern Studies 54 (4): 723–728</ref> some went farther East—to Persia, Afghanistan, China, India,<ref>Amin Saikal. "Kemalism: Its Influences on Iran and Afghanistan." 1982. International Journal of Turkish Studies 2 (2): 25–32</ref> and other parts of the Muslim world—to assess the influence wielded by Mustafa Kemal and his modernization project. These works explore perceptions of Kemalism that are mostly positive in their respective countries providing few critical insights into Kemalism's evolution and its reception as an ideological project. <br />
Against this background, one of the critical partners of Turkey in the interwar period – the Soviet Union, its leaders, party bureaucrats, journalists and scholars initially interpreted Kemalism as an ideological ally in the struggle against the West. Since the late 1920s until the 1950s, Kemalism was viewed negatively by the Communists. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Soviet position returned to normalization. Views and analyses of Soviet leaders, diplomats, party functionaries, and scholars helps us grasp the underlying dynamics behind these changing attitudes. Placing them in the larger context of republican history—delineating phases in the Kemalist paradigm of development and discerning its various rises and falls—will enrich our knowledge of the transnational history of Kemalism.<ref>Vahram Ter-Matevosyan. "Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation." London & New York, Palgrave Macmillan. 2019.</ref><br />
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The [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] viewed Kemalist Turkey as a "postgenocidal paradise" worthy of emulation.<ref name=Avedian>{{cite journal |last1=Avedian |first1=Vahagn |title=Justifying genocide: Germany and the Armenians from Bismarck to Hitler, by Stefan Ihrig, Cambridge, MA, Harvard, 460 pp., $35.00 (HC), ISBN 978-0674504790 |orig-year=2016 |journal=Nationalities Papers |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=532–535 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=20 November 2018|doi=10.1080/00905992.2017.1390980|s2cid=159627934 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |authorlink=Margaret L. Anderson|last1=Anderson |first1=Margaret Lavinia |title=Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination. By Stefan Ihrig. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014. Pp. 311. Cloth $29.95. ISBN 978-0674368378. |journal=Central European History |date=March 2016 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=138–139 |doi=10.1017/S0008938916000236|s2cid=148167017 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4qt900k7 }}</ref> Nazis often stated that [[Nazism]] and Kemalism were very similar.<ref>{{cite book |authorlink=Stefan Ihrig|last1=Ihrig |first1=Stefan |title=Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination |date=2014 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-36837-8 |pages=114, ''passim'' |language=en}}</ref> In 1933, Nazis openly admired Kemalist Turkey. Hitler described Mustafa Kemal as the "star in the darkness".{{sfn|Ihrig|2014|pp=113–117}}<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title="Nazilere göre Atatürk'ün başarısının en önemli nedeni Ermenilerin yok edilmesiydi"|url=http://www.agos.com.tr/tr/yazi/9998/nazilere-gore-ataturkun-basarisinin-en-onemli-nedeni-ermenilerin-yok-edilmesiydi|access-date=2021-06-16|website=Agos|language=tr}}</ref><br />
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Although Kemalist secularism has deep roots in Enlightenment era thought, the [[Postmodernism|postmodernist]] movement in Western philosophy has, since the 1960s and 1970s, cast the Enlightenment in a negative light. Postmodernist thinkers like [[Jacques Derrida]] have assaulted the Western hegemony and imperialism associated with European colonialism. The declining appeal of secularism, perceived as a Western value, has given occasion to postmodernist [[cultural relativism]] emphasizing the populist appeal of collective religious identities like the [[political Islam]] espoused by [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]]'s AKP.<ref>Alaranta, T. (2014). [https://www.google.com/books/edition/Contemporary_Kemalism/eE_IAgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 Contemporary Kemalism: From Universal Secular-Humanism to Extreme Turkish Nationalism]. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.</ref><br />
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==See also==<br />
*[[Bourguibism]]<br />
*[[Liberal Kemalism]]<br />
*[[Peronism]]<br />
*[[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]]<br />
*[[Post-Kemalism]]<br />
*[[Three Principles of the People]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for guidance on adding references using<ref>tags--><br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Alaranta |first=Toni |title=Contemporary Kemalism: From Universal Secular-Humanism to Extreme Turkish Nationalism |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-91676-5 |language=en |ref=none}}<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Ciddi |first=Sinan |title=Kemalism in Turkish Politics: The Republican People's Party, Secularism and Nationalism |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-02559-6 |language=en |ref=none}}<br />
*{{Cite journal |last=Gürpınar |first=Doğan |date=2013 |title=The Reinvention of Kemalism: Between Elitism, Anti-Elitism and Anti-Intellectualism |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=454–476 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2013.783822 |s2cid=144626059 |ref=none |authorlink=Doğan Gürpınar}}<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Plaggenborg |first=Stefan |title=Ordnung und Gewalt: Kemalismus - Faschismus - Sozialismus |date=2012 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-486-71409-8 |language=de |ref=none}}<br />
*{{cite web|url=https://newsaboutturkey.com/2020/05/13/the-myth-of-new-turkey-kemalism-and-erdoganism-as-two-sides-of-the-same-coin/|title=The Myth of 'New Turkey': Kemalism and Erdoganism as Two Sides of the Same Coin|work=Dr. Ceren Şengül|publisher=News About Turkey}}<br />
{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kemalism}}<br />
<!--Categories--><br />
[[Category:Kemalism| ]]<br />
[[Category:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]<br />
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[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
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[[Category:Republican People's Party (Turkey)]]<br />
[[Category:Republicanism in Turkey]]<br />
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[[Category:Turkish nationalism]]<br />
[[Category:State ideologies]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1144983488Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T16:28:52Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Variants */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
<br />
'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either a [[Turkey#Demographics|national]], [[Turkish people|ethnic]], or [[Turkish language|linguistic group]]. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
<br />
After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a language reform with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Sun Language Theory]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1935. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
<br />
The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
<br />
==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), Turkish-Islamic synthesis (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]], the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six principles.<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
<br />
In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on his sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
<br />
Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]]. The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref> Pan-Turkism, as an ideal and goal, was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s Turkish nationalist view which he called "Turkism".<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
<br />
===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
<br />
Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
<br />
=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
<br />
After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> Turkish-Islamic synthesis, and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
<br />
===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
<br />
Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
<br />
There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
<br />
In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1144979448Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T16:02:40Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Pan-Turkism */</p>
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<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
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'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either a [[Turkey#Demographics|national]], [[Turkish people|ethnic]], or [[Turkish language|linguistic group]]. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
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==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
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After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a language reform with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Sun Language Theory]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1935. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
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The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
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==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), Turkish-Islamic synthesis (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by Atatürk, the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six fundamental pillars.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
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In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on his sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
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Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]]. The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref> Pan-Turkism, as an ideal and goal, was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s Turkish nationalist view which he called "Turkism".<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
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===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
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Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
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=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
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The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
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After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> Turkish-Islamic synthesis, and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
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===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
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===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
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Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
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==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
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There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
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In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
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==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pan-Turkism&diff=1144977497Pan-Turkism2023-03-16T15:49:58Z<p>Cehilizm: /* History */</p>
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<div>{{dablink|Not to be confused with [[Turanism]].}}<br />
{{Short description|Political ideology emphasising unity of Turkic peoples}}[[File:Flag of the Organization of Turkic States.svg|thumb|alt=Sun, crescent moon and star against a light-blue background|Flag of the [[Organization of Turkic States]]]]<br />
[[File:Grey Wolves Gokturk Flag.svg|thumb|Flag misattributed to [[Turkic Kaganate|Turkic Khaganate]]{{efn|According to [[Book of Zhou]] and [[Book of Sui]] (later repeated by [[History of the Northern Dynasties]]), Göktürks erected a [[Tug (banner)|tuğ banner]] decorated with a wolf's head made of gold to show that they had not forgotten their origin from a she-wolf ancestress.<ref>''Zhoushu'' [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%91%A8%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B750 vol. 50]. quote: "旗纛之上，施金狼頭。…… 蓋本狼生，志不忘舊。"</ref><ref>''Suishu'' [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%9A%8B%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B784 Vol. 84] text: "故牙門建'''狼頭纛'''，示不忘本也。"</ref><ref>''Beishi'' [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E5%8F%B2/%E5%8D%B7099#%E7%AA%81%E5%8E%A5 vol. 99: section Tujue] text: "故牙門建'''狼頭纛'''，示不忘本也。"</ref> A [[Tug (banner)|tuğ]] is a banner made of horse-hairs and based on Chinese banners made of [[yak]]-hairs (纛 [[standard Chinese]] ''dú'' < [[Middle Chinese]] *''dok'')<ref>Clauson, Gerard (1972). An Etymological Dictionary of Pre-13th Century Turkish. Oxford University Press. p. 464</ref>}}<br />
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{{anchor|Ideologue views on pan-Turkism}}<br />
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'''Pan-Turkism''' ({{lang-tr|Pan-Türkizm}}) or '''Turkism''' ({{lang-tr|Türkçülük or Türkizm}}) is a [[political movement]] that emerged during the 1880s among Turkic intellectuals who lived in the Russian region of [[Kazan]] ([[Tatarstan]]), [[Caucasus Viceroyalty (1801–1917)|Caucasus]] (modern-day [[Azerbaijan]]) and the [[Ottoman Empire]] (modern-day [[Turkey]]), with its aim being the cultural and political unification of all [[Turkic peoples]].<ref name="fishman">{{cite book|title=Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts|last=Fishman|first=Joshua |author2=Garcia, Ofelia|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|volume=2|isbn=978-0-19-539245-6|page=269|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUydX_3rG0AC&pg=PA269|quote=''It is commonly acknowledged that pan-Turkism, the movement which aimed to politically and/or culturally unify all Turkic peoples, emerged among Turkic intellectuals who lived in Russia as a liberal-cultural movement in the 1880s.''}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|title=Pan-Turkism|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/440700/Pan-Turkism|access-date=19 Jul 2009|year=2009|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|quote=Political movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which had as its goal the political union of all Turkish-speaking peoples in the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Russia]], [[China]], [[Iran]], and [[Afghanistan]].}}</ref><ref name="landau">{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob|year=1995|title=Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism To Cooperation|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-20960-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uy6Sa0E3HbcC}}</ref><ref name="LandauRadicalPolitics">Jacob M. Landau, "Radical Politics in Modern Turkey", BRILL, 1974.</ref><ref>[[Robert F. Melson]], "The Armenian Genocide" in Kevin Reilly (Editor), Stephen Kaufman (Editor), Angela Bodino (Editor) "Racism: A Global Reader (Sources and Studies in World History)", M.E. Sharpe (January 2003). pg 278:"Concluding that their liberal experiment had been a failure, CUP leaders turned to Pan-Turkism, a [[Xenophobia|xenophobic]] and [[Chauvinism|chauvinistic]] brand of [[nationalism]] that sought to create a new empire which would have been based on [[Islam]] and Turkish ethnicity."</ref> [[Turanism]] is a closely-related movement but it is a more general term, because Turkism only applies to Turkic peoples. However, researchers and politicians who are steeped in the Pan-Turkic ideology have used these terms interchangeably in many sources and works of literature.<ref name="Gilyazov">Iskander Gilyazov, "[http://beznen-yul.narod.ru/by-kyzyk/panturk.htm Пантюрκизм, Пантуранизм и Германия] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004230533/http://beznen-yul.narod.ru/by-kyzyk/panturk.htm |date=2006-10-04 }}", magazine "Татарстан" No 5-6, 1995. {{in lang|ru}}</ref><br />
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Although many of the Turkic peoples share historical, cultural and linguistic roots, the rise of a pan-Turkic political movement is a phenomenon of the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058213/Pan-Turkism|title=Pan-Turkism|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2 April 2016}}</ref> Ottoman poet [[Ziya Gökalp]] defined pan-Turkism as a cultural, academic, and philosophical<ref name="gökalp">{{Cite book<br />
| last = Gökalp<br />
| first = Ziya<br />
|author2=Devereaux, Robert<br />
| year = 1968<br />
| title = The Principles of Turkism<br />
| publisher = E. J. Brill<br />
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lShkAAAAMAAJ<br />
| pages = 125<br />
| isbn = 9789004007314<br />
| quote = ''Turkism is not a political party but a scientific, philosophic and aesthetic school of thought.''<br />
}}</ref> and political<ref>{{Cite book<br />
| last = Kieser<br />
| first = Hans-Lukas<br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities<br />
| publisher = I. B. Tauris<br />
| isbn = 978-1-84511-141-0<br />
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VKVSHjjUT2UC&pg=PA19<br />
| pages = 19<br />
}}</ref> concept advocating the unity of Turkic peoples. Ideologically, it was premised on [[social Darwinism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Doğan |first=Attila |date=2006 |title=Osmanlı Aydınları ve Sosyal Darwinizm |location=Istanbul |publisher=Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları |isbn=978-9756176504}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hovannisian |first=Richard G. |year=2011 |title=The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K3monyE4CVQC&pg=PA298 |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey |publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] |page=298 |isbn=978-0-7658-0367-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oranlı |first1=Imge |title=Epistemic Injustice from Afar : Rethinking the Denial of Armenian Genocide |journal=Social Epistemology |date=2020 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=120–132 |doi=10.1080/02691728.2020.1839593|s2cid=229463301 }}</ref> Pan-Turkism has been characterized by pseudoscientific theories known as [[Pan-Turkism#Pseudoscientific_theories|Pseudo-Turkology]].<br />
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==Name==<br />
In research literature, "pan-Turkism" is used to describe the political, cultural and ethnic unity of all [[Turkic people]]. "Turkism" began to be used with the prefix "pan-" (from the Greek πᾶν, pan = all).<ref>Mansur Hasanov, Academician of Academy of Sciences of Tatarstan Republic, "[http://www.rt-online.ru/numbers/public/?ID=25970 Великий реформатор]", in magazine "Республика Татарстан" № 96–97 (24393-24394), 17 May 2001. {{in lang|ru}}</ref><br />
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Proponents use the latter as a point of comparison, since "Turkic" is a linguistic, ethnic and cultural distinction rather than a citizenship description. This differentiates it from "Turkish", which is the term which is officially used in reference to citizens of Turkey. Pan-Turkic ideas and reunification movements have become popular since the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapse of the Soviet Union]] in [[Soviet Central Asia|Central Asian]] and other [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] countries.<br />
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==History==<br />
[[Image:PanTurkishRally.JPG|thumb|alt=Demonstration with flags|Pan-Turkic rally in [[Istanbul]], March 2009]]<br />
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=== Development and spread ===<br />
In 1804, the [[Tatars|Tatar]] theologian [[Ghabdennasir Qursawi]] wrote a [[treatise]] calling for the modernization of Islam. Qursawi was a [[Jadid]] (from the Arabic word ''jadid'', "new"). The Jadids encouraged critical thinking, supported education and advocated the equality of the sexes, advocated tolerance of other faiths, advocated Turkic cultural unity, and advocated openness to Europe’s cultural legacy.<ref name="Khakimov">Rafael Khakimov, "[http://eng.globalaffairs.ru/region-ecology/numbers/5/504.html Taklid and Ijtihad] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210221350/http://eng.globalaffairs.ru/region-ecology/numbers/5/504.html |date=2007-02-10 }}", ''Russia in Global Affairs'', Dec. 2003.</ref> The Jadid movement was founded in 1843 in [[Kazan]]. Its aim was the implementation of a semi-secular modernization program and the implementation of an educational reform program, both programs would emphasize the national (rather than the religious) identity of the Turks. Before they founded their movement in 1843, the Jadids considered themselves [[Muslim]] subjects of the [[Russian Empire]], a belief which they held until the Jadid movement disbanded.<ref name="NN">N.N., "[http://www.panorama.ru/gazeta/p35_turk.html Полтора Века Пантюрκизма в Турции]", magazine "Панорама". {{in lang|ru}}</ref><br />
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After they joined the [[Wäisi movement]], the Jadids advocated national liberation. After 1907, many supporters of Turkic unity immigrated to the Ottoman Empire.<br />
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The newspaper ''Türk'' in Cairo was published by exiles from the Ottoman Empire after the suspension of the [[Ottoman constitution of 1876]] and the persecution of liberal intellectuals. It was the first publication to use the ethnic designation as its title.<ref name="Modernism: The Creation of Nation States" /> [[Yusuf Akçura]] published "Three Types of Policy" (''Üç tarz-ı siyaset'') anonymously in 1904, the earliest manifesto of a pan-Turkic nationalism.<ref name="Modernism: The Creation of Nation States" /> Akçura argued that the [[supra-ethnic]] union espoused by the Ottomans was unrealistic. The [[Pan-Islamic model]] had advantages, but Muslim populations were under colonial rule which would oppose unification. He concluded that an ethnic Turkish nation would require the cultivation of a national identity; a pan-Turkish empire would abandon the [[Balkans]] and [[Eastern Europe]] in favor of [[Central Asia]]. The first publication of "Three Types of Policy" had a negative reaction, but it became more influential by its third publication in 1911 in Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire had lost its African territory to the [[Kingdom of Italy]] and it would soon lose the Balkans. Pan-Turkish nationalism consequently became a more feasible (and popular) political strategy.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}<br />
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In 1908, the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] came to power in Ottoman Turkey, and the empire adopted a nationalistic ideology. This contrasted with its largely Muslim ideology which dated back to the 16th century, when the sultan was the [[Ottoman Caliphate|caliph]] of his Muslim lands. Leaders who espoused Pan-Turkism fled from Russia and moved to [[Istanbul]], where a strong pan-Turkic movement arose; the Turkish pan-Turkic movement grew and transformed itself into a nationalistic, ethnically oriented movement which sought to replace the [[caliphate]] with a state. After the [[fall of the Ottoman Empire]], some of them tried to replace the multi-cultural and multi-ethnic empire with a Turkish commonwealth, the advocates of this idea were influenced by the nationalism of the [[Young Turks]]. Leaders like [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] acknowledged that such a goal was impossible, replacing pan-Turkic idealism with a form of nationalism which aimed to preserve the existence of an [[Anatolia]]n nucleus.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}<br />
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The ''[[Türk Yurdu]] Dergisi'' (''Journal of the Turkish Homeland'') was founded in 1911 by [[Yusuf Akçura|Akçura]]. This was the most important Turkist publication of the time, "in which, along with other Turkic exiles from Russia, [Akçura] attempted to instill a consciousness about the cultural unity of all Turkic peoples of the world."<ref name="Modernism: The Creation of Nation States">{{cite book|title=Modernism: The Creation of Nation States|page=218|isbn=9789637326615|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8j-Uemo6SfoC&q=yurdu&pg=PA218|access-date=13 August 2014|last1=Ersoy|first1=Ahmet|last2=g¢Rny|first2=Maciej|last3=Kechriotis|first3=Vangelis|date=January 2010}}</ref><br />
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In 1923, [[Ziya Gökalp]], famous poet and theorician of Turkism ideology, wrote his book ''The Principles of Turkism'' and idealized the unity of [[Turkic peoples]] by calling [[Turanism|Turan]] as a goal of Turkism.<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
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A significant early exponent of pan-Turkism was [[Enver Pasha]] (1881–1922), the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Minister of War and [[acting (law)|acting]] [[commander-in-chief]] during [[World War I]]. He later became a leader of the [[Basmachi movement]] (1916–1934) against Russian and Soviet rule in [[Central Asia]]. During [[World War II]], the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] founded a [[Turkestan Legion]] which was primarily composed of soldiers who hoped to establish an independent [[Central Asia]]n state after the war. The German intrigue bore no fruit.<ref name="Gilyazov" /><br />
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When the Turkish Republic was established under the leadership of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] in 1923, interest in Pan-Turkism declined, because Atatürk generally favored [[Ziya Gökalp]] rather than Enver Pasha.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Turkism Pan Turkism], Encyclopedia Britannica.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Eligur |first=Banu |title=The Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6eFzRgxCkhQC&pg=PA41|date=2010|page=41|isbn=9781139486583 }}</ref> The Pan-Turkist movements gained some momentum in the 1940s, due to the support which it received from [[Nazi Germany]], which sought to use Pan-Turkism as leverage in order to undermine Russian influence in an effort to acquire the resources of Central Asia during the course of [[World War II]].<ref name="LandauN"/> The development of pan-Turkist and anti-Soviet ideology, in some circles, was influenced by [[Nazi]] propaganda during this period.<ref>Jacob M. Landau, "Radical Politics in Modern Turkey", BRILL, 1974. pg 194: "In the course of the [[World War II|Second World War]], various circles in Turkey absorbed [[Propaganda in Nazi Germany|Nazi propaganda]]; these were pro-German and admired [[Nazism]], which they grasped as a doctrine of warlike dynamism and a source of national inspiration, on which they could base their pan-Turkic and anti-Soviet ideology'''"</ref><ref>John M. VanderLippe , "The politics of Turkish democracy", SUNY Press, 2005. "A third group was led by Nihal Atsiz, who favored a Hitler style haircut and mustache, and advocated [[Nazi racial theories|racist Nazi doctrines]]"</ref> Some sources claim that [[Nihal Atsız]] advocated Nazi doctrines and adopted a [[Hitler]]-style haircut.<ref>John M. VanderLippe, ''The Politics of Turkish Democracy: Ismet Inonu and the Formation of the Multi-Party System, 1938-1950'', (State University of New York Press, 2005), 108;"A third group was led by Nihal Atsiz, who favored a Hitler style haircut and moustache, and advocated Nazi racist doctrines."</ref> [[Alparslan Türkeş]], a leading pan-Turkist, took a pro-Hitler position during the war<ref>Peter Davies, Derek Lynch, "The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right", Routledge, 2002. pg 244: "Alparslan Türkeş: Leader of a Turkish neo-fascist movement, Nationalist Action Party(MHP). During the war, he adopted a pro-Hitler position and was imprisoned after a 1960 coup attempt against his country's ruler.</ref> and developed close connections with Nazi leaders in Germany.<ref>Berch Berberoglu, " Turkey in crisis: from state capitalism to neocolonialism", Zed, 1982. 2nd edition. pg 125: "Turkes established close ties with Nazi leaders in Germany in 1945 "</ref> Several pan-Turkic groups in Europe apparently had ties to Nazi Germany (or its supporters) at the start of the war, if not earlier.<ref name="LandauN">Jacob M. Landau. Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation. India University Press, 1995. 2nd Edition. pp 112–114.</ref> The Turco-Tatars in Romania cooperated with the [[Iron Guard]], a Romanian fascist organisation.<ref name="LandauN"/> Although the Turkish government's archives which date back to the World War II years have not been declassified, the level of contact can be ascertained from German archives.<ref name="LandauN"/> A ten-year [[German–Turkish Treaty of Friendship|Turco-German treaty of friendship]] was signed in Ankara on 18 January 1941.<ref name="LandauN"/> Official and semi-official meetings between German ambassador [[Franz von Papen]] and other German officials and Turkish officials, including General H. E. Erkilet (of Tatar origin and a frequent contributor to pan-Turkic journals) took place in the second half of 1941 and the early months of 1942.<ref name="LandauN"/> The Turkish officials included General Ali Fuad Erdem and [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] (Killigil), brother of Enver Pasha.<ref name="LandauN"/><br />
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Pan-Turkists were not supported by the Turkish government during this time and on 19 May 1944, [[İsmet İnönü]] made a speech in which he condemned Pan-Turkism as "a dangerous and sick demonstration of the latest times" going on to say that the Turkish Republic was "facing efforts hostile to the existence of the Republic" and those who advocate these ideas "will only bring trouble and disaster". Nihal Atsız and other prominent pan-Turkist leaders were tried and sentenced to imprisonment for conspiring against the government. [[Zeki Velidi Togan]] was sentenced to ten years imprisonment and four years in internal exile, Reha Oğuz Türkkan was sentenced to five years and ten months in prison and two years in exile, Nihal Atsız was sentenced to six years, six months and 15 days in prison and 3 years in exile. Others were sentenced to prison terms which only ranged from a few months to four years in length.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Politics of Turkish Democracy, The: Ismet Inonu and the Formation of the Multi-Party System, 1938-1950|last=VanderLippe|first=John M.|date=2012-02-01|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=9780791483374|pages=109|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ercilasun |first1=Ahmet Bican |title=Atsız, Türkçülüğün Mistik Önderi |date=2018 |pages=94|isbn=9786052221068|language=tr}}</ref> But the defendants appealed the convictions and in October 1945, the sentences of all the convicted were abolished by the Military Court of Cassation.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation|last1=Landau|first1=Jacob M.|last2=Landau|first2=Gersten Professor of Political Science Jacob M.|last3=Landau|first3=Yaʻaqov M.|date=1995|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-32869-4|pages=117–118|language=en}}</ref><br />
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While Erkilet discussed military contingencies, Nuri Pasha told the Germans about his plan to establish independent states which would be allies (not [[Satellite state|satellites]]) of Turkey. These states would be formed by the Turkic-speaking populations which lived in [[Crimea]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Central Asia]], northwestern [[Iran]], and northern [[Iraq]]. Nuri Pasha offered to assist Nazi Germany's propaganda efforts on behalf of this cause. However, Turkey's government also feared for the survival of the Turkic minorities in the [[USSR]] and it told von Papen that it could not join [[Germany]] until the USSR was crushed. The Turkish government may have been apprehensive about Soviet might, which kept the country out of the war. On a less-official level, Turkic emigrants from the Soviet Union played a crucial role in negotiations and contacts between Turkey and Germany; among them were prominent pan-Turkic activists like [[Zeki Velidi Togan]], [[Mammed Amin Rasulzade]], Mirza Bala, Ahmet Caferoĝlu, Sayid Shamil and [[Ayaz İshaki]]. Several Tatar military units which consisted of Turkic speakers from the Turco-Tatar and Caucasian regions of the USSR who had previously been prisoners of war of the Germans joined them and fought against the Soviets, the members of these Tatar military units generally fought as guerrillas in the hope that they would be able to secure the independence of their homelands and establish a pan-Turkic union. The units, which were reinforced, numbered several hundred thousand. Turkey took a cautious approach at the government level, but pan-Turkists were angered by the Turkish government's inaction because they believed that it was wasting a golden opportunity to achieve the goals of pan-Turkism.<ref name="LandauN"/><br />
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==Criticism==<br />
Pan-Turkism is often perceived as being a new form of Turkish imperial ambition. Some view the young Turk leaders who believed that they could reclaim the prestige of the Ottoman Empire by espousing the pan-Turkist ideology as [[Racism|racist]] and [[Chauvinism|chauvinistic]].<ref>Jacob M. Landau. Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation. India University Press, 1995. 2nd Edition.<br />
pg 45: "Pan-Turkism's historic chance arrived both shortly before and during the First World War, when it was adopted as a guiding principle of state policy by an influential group among the Young Turks"</ref><ref>Robert F. Melson, "The Armenian Genocide" in Kevin Reilly (Editor), Stephen Kaufman (Editor), Angela Bodino (Editor) "Racism: A Global Reader (Sources and Studies in World History)", M.E. Sharpe (January 2003). pg 278: "Concluding that their liberal experiment had been a failure, CUP leaders turned to Pan-Turkism, a xenophobic and chauvinistic brand of nationalism that sought to create a new empire based on Islam and Turkish ethnicity ... It was in this context of revolutionary and ideological transformation and war that the fateful decision to destroy the Armenians was taken."</ref><br />
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=== {{anchor|Viewpoint on Armenian history}}Pan-Turkist views on Armenian history ===<br />
{{See also|Anti-Armenian sentiment|Armenian Genocide|History of Armenia}}<br />
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Clive Foss, professor of [[ancient history]] at the [[University of Massachusetts Boston]], critically notes that in ''1982: The Armenian File in the Light of History'', Cemal Anadol writes that the [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] [[Scythians]] and [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] are Turks. According to Anadol, the Armenians welcomed the Turks into the region; their language is a mixture with no roots and their alphabet is mixed, with 11 characters which were borrowed from the ancient Turkic alphabet. Foss calls this view [[historical revisionism]]: "Turkish writings have been tendentious: history has been viewed as performing a useful service, proving or supporting a point of view, and so it is treated as something flexible which can be manipulated at will".<ref>Clive Foss, “The Turkish View of Armenian History: A Vanishing Nation,” in ''The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics'', ed. by Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martins Press, 1992), pp. 261–268.</ref> He concludes, "The notion, which seems well established in Turkey, that the Armenians were a wandering tribe without a home, who never had a state of their own, is of course entirely without any foundation in fact. The logical consequence of the commonly expressed view of the Armenians is that they have no place in Turkey, and they never did. The result would be the same if the viewpoint were expressed first, and the history were written to order. In a sense, something like this seems to have happened, for most Turks who grew up under the Republic were educated to believe in the ultimate priority of Turks in all parts of history, and ignore the Armenians all together; they had been clearly consigned to oblivion."<ref>Clive Foss, “The Turkish View of Armenian History: A Vanishing Nation,” in ''The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics'', ed. by Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martins Press, 1992), p. 276.</ref><br />
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==={{anchor|Pan-Turkist views in Azerbaijan}}Pan-Turkist views in Azerbaijan===<br />
[[Kâzım Karabekir]] said {{Quote|The aim of all Turks is to unite with the Turkic borders. History is affording us today the last opportunity. In order for the [[Islamic world]] not to be forever fragmented it is necessary that the campaign against [[Nagorno-Karabakh|Karabagh]] be not allowed to abate. As a matter of fact drive the point home in [[Azeri]] circles that the campaign should be pursued with greater determination and severity.<ref>[[Kâzım Karabekir|Karabekir]], Istiklâl Harbimiz/n.2/, p. 631</ref>}}<br />
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[[Western Azerbaijan (political concept)|Western Azerbaijan]] is a term used in the Republic of [[Azerbaijan]] to refer to [[Armenia]]. According to the [[Whole Azerbaijan]] theory, modern Armenia and [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] were once inhabited by the [[Origin of the Azerbaijanis|Azerbaijanis]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Present-day Armenia located in ancient Azerbaijani lands – Ilham Aliyev |agency=News.Az |date=October 16, 2010 |url=http://www.news.az/articles/24723 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721150915/http://www.news.az/articles/24723 |archive-date=July 21, 2015 }}</ref> Its claims are based on the belief that current Armenia was ruled by Turkic tribes and states from the [[Late Middle Ages]] to the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] which was signed after the 1826–1828 [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Russo-Persian War]]. The concept has been sanctioned by the government of [[Azerbaijan]] and its current president, [[Ilham Aliyev]], who has said that Armenia is part of ancient Turkic, Azerbaijani land. Turkish and Azerbaijani historians have said that Armenians are alien, not indigenous, in the [[Caucasus]] and Anatolia.<ref>[[Tofig Kocharli]], "Armenian Deception"</ref><ref>Ohannes Geukjian, "Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Nagorno-Karabakh and the Legacy of Soviet Nationalities Policy"</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cilicia.com/History.htm|title=Nagorno Karabakh: History|access-date=2 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.day.az/society/375134.html|title=Рауф Гусейн-заде: 'Мы показали, что армяне на Кавказе - некоренные жители'|date=27 December 2012|work=Day.Az|access-date=2 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://azerinfo.eu/en/27-how-hays-became-armenians.html |title=Professor Firidun Agasyoglu Jalilov 'How Hays became Armenians' |access-date=2014-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215061112/http://azerinfo.eu/en/27-how-hays-became-armenians.html |archive-date=2015-02-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
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During the existence of the [[Azerbaijan SSR]] of the [[Soviet Union]], pan-Turkist political elites of [[Baku]] who were loyal to the Communist cause invented a national history based on the existence of an Azeri nation-state that dominated the areas to the north and south of the [[Aras (river)|Aras river]], which was supposedly torn apart by an [[Qajar Iran|Iranian]]-[[Russian Empire|Russian]] conspiracy in the Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828.<ref name="Kamrava">{{cite book |last1=Ahmadi |first1=Hamid |editor1-last=Kamrava |editor1-first=Mehran |title=The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0190869663 |pages=109–110 |chapter=The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku's irredentism}}</ref> This "imagined community" was cherished, promoted and institutionalized in formal history books of the educational system of the Azerbaijan SSR and the post-Soviet [[Azerbaijan Republic]].<ref name="Kamrava"/> As the Soviet Union was a closed society, and its people were unaware of the actual realities regarding Iran and its Azeri citizens, the elites in Soviet Azerbaijan kept cherishing and promoting the idea of a "united Azerbaijan" in their activities.<ref name="Kamrava2">{{cite book |last1=Ahmadi |first1=Hamid |editor1-last=Kamrava |editor1-first=Mehran |title=The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0190869663 |page=110 |chapter=The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku's irredentism}}</ref> This romantic thought led to the founding of nostalgic literary works, known as the "literature of longing"; examples amongst this genre are, for instance, ''Foggy Tabriz'' by [[Mammed Said Ordubadi]], and ''The Coming Day'' by [[Mirza Ibrahimov]].<ref name="Kamrava2"/> As a rule, works belonging to the "literature of longing" genre were characterized by depicting the life of [[Iranian Azerbaijanis|Iranian Azeris]] as a misery due to suppression by the "Fars" (Persians), and by narrating fictional stories about Iranian Azeris waiting for the day when their "brothers" from the "north" would come and liberate them.<ref name="Kamrava2"/> Works that belonged to this genre, as the historian and political scientist Zaur Gasimov explains, "were examples of blatant [[Azerbaijani nationalism]] stigmatizing the “division” of the nation along the river Araxes, as well as denunciations of economic and cultural exploitation of Iranian Azerbaijanis, etc."<ref name="Gasimov"/> Gasimov adds: "an important by-product of this literary genre was strongly articulated [[anti-Iranian sentiment|anti-Iranian]] rhetoric. Tolerance and even support of this anti-Iranian rhetoric by the communist authorities were obvious."<ref name="Gasimov">{{cite journal |last1=Gasimov |first1=Zaur |title=Observing Iran from Baku: Iranian Studies in Soviet and Post-Soviet Azerbaijan |journal=Iranian Studies |date=2022|page=49|volume=55|issue=1|doi=10.1080/00210862.2020.1865136|s2cid=233889871 }}</ref> <br />
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Nationalist political elites in post-Soviet Azerbaijan, being the inheritors of this mentality created during the Soviet rule, forwarded this "mission" for achieving a "united Azerbaijan" as a political goal of utmost importance.<ref name="Kamrava2"/> Azerbaijani president [[Abulfaz Elchibey]] (1992–93) devoted his life to carrying out this mission, and he, in tandem with other pan-Turkist elites, went on a campaign for the ethnic awakening of Iranian Azeris.<ref name="Kamrava2"/> It may be due to these ideas that Elchibey was elected president in the new country's first presidential election in 1992.<ref name="Kamrava2"/> He and his government has been widely described as pursuing Pan-Turkic and anti-Iranian policies.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cornell|first1=Svante|author-link1=Svante Cornell|title=Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus|date=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135796693|page=87|quote=Elchibey's anti-Iranian rhetoric and the subsequent deterioration of Azerbaijani-Iranian relations to below freezing point...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Peimani|first1=Hooman|title=Iran and the United States: The Rise of the West Asian Regional Grouping|date=1999|publisher=Praeger|isbn=9780275964542|page=35|quote=Characterized by its anti-Iranian, anti-Russian, pro-Turkish outlook, the Elchibey government's pursuit of pan-Turkism...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Grogan|first1=Michael S.|title=National security imperatives and the neorealist state: Iran and realpolitik|date=2000|publisher=Naval Postgraduate School|pages=68–69|quote=Elchibey was anti-Iranian, pan-Azeri}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Eichensehr|editor1-first=Kristen E.|editor2-last=Reisman|editor2-first=William Michael|title=Stopping Wars and Making Peace: Studies in International Intervention|date=2009|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=9789004178557|page=57|quote=radically pro-Turkish and anti-Iranian President Elchibey in June made Iran unacceptable to Azerbaijan as a mediator.}}</ref> Other than the pan-Turkist leadership, nationalist intellectuals and Azerbaijani media also stipulated the question of "[[Southern Azerbaijan]]" in their main political agenda's.<ref name="Kamrava2"/> In 1995-1996, according to one survey of the Azerbaijani press, the question of Iranian Azeris was covered more than any other topic by state-controlled and independent outlets in the young republic of Azerbaijan.<ref name="Kamrava2"/> Since 1918, political elites with Pan-Turkist-oriented sentiments in the area that comprises the present-day Azerbaijan Republic have depended on the concept of [[ethnic nationalism]] in order to create an anti-Iranian sense of ethnicity amongst Iranian Azeris.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ahmadi |first1=Hamid |editor1-last=Kamrava |editor1-first=Mehran |title=The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0190869663 |page=106 |chapter=The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku's irredentism}}</ref> Iranian Azerbaijani intellectuals who have promoted Iranian cultural and national identity and put forth a reaction to early pan-Turkist claims over Iran's Azerbaijan region have been dubbed traitors to the "Azerbaijani nation" within the pan-Turkist media of the Republic of Azerbaijan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ahmadi |first1=Hamid |editor1-last=Kamrava |editor1-first=Mehran |title=The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0190869663 |page=121 |chapter=The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku's irredentism}}</ref><br />
<br />
Ahmad Kazemi, the author of the book ''Security in South Caucasus'', told Iran's Strategic Council on Foreign Relations in a 2021 interview that "Azerbaijan is seeking to establish the so-called pan-Turkish illusionary [[Zangezur corridor]] in south of Armenia under the pretext of creating connectivity in the region", arguing that "this corridor is not compatible with any of the present geopolitical and historical realities of the region".<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.scfr.ir/en/politics/135725/strategic-dimensions-of-the-recent-tension-in-relations-between-armenia-and-azerbaijan/ | title=Strategic dimensions of the recent tension in relations between Armenia and Azerbaijan | date=27 August 2021 }}</ref><br />
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==={{anchor|Tsarist Russia and Soviet viewpoint on pan-Turkism}}Russian views on Pan-Turkism===<br />
In [[Tsardom of Russia|Tsarist Russian circles]], pan-Turkism was considered a political, [[irredentist]] and aggressive idea.<ref>{{cite book |title=Window on the East: National and Imperial Identities in Late Tsarist Russia |last=Geraci |first=Robert P. |year=2001 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn= 978-0-8014-3422-8 |page=278 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Yxqf_28nHwC&pg=PA278 }}</ref> Turkic peoples in Russia were threatened by Turkish expansion,{{Clarify|reason=Turkish expansion in late 19th-early 20-th centuries? What?|date=August 2018}} and I. Gasprinsky and his followers were accused of being Turkish spies. After the [[October Revolution]], the [[Bolshevik|Bolsheviks’]] attitude to Türkism did not differ from the Russian Empire’s. At the 10th Congress of Bolshevik Communist Party in 1921, the party "condemned pan-Turkism as a slope to bourgeois-democratic nationalism". The emergence of a pan-Turkism scare in Soviet propaganda made it one of the most frightening political labels in the USSR. The most widespread accusation used in the lethal repression of educated Tatars and other Turkic peoples during the 1930s was that of pan-Turkism.<ref>Mansur Hasanov, Academician of Academy of Sciences of Tatarstan republic, in "People's Political Newspaper" № 96–97 (24393-24394) 17 May 2001 http://www.rt-online.ru/numbers/public/?ID=25970</ref><br />
<br />
===In the United States and the rest of the New World===<br />
Pan-Turkists like [[Reha Oğuz Türkkan]] have openly claimed that [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian civilizations]] were Turkic civilizations and they have also claimed that modern-day [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] are Turkic peoples, and activities which Turkish lobbying groups have conducted in order to draw Native Americans into the service of the wider Turkic world agenda have drawn criticism and triggered accusations that the Turkish government is falsifying the history of Native Americans in the service of Turkish imperialist ambitions.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-06-23|title=The Turkish Apaches mysteries part 1|url=https://www.mashallahnews.com/the-turkish-apaches-mysteries-part-1/|access-date=2021-05-24|website=Mashallah News|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-07-13|title=The Turkish Apaches mysteries part 2|url=https://www.mashallahnews.com/the-turkish-apaches-mysteries-part-2/|access-date=2021-05-24|website=Mashallah News|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Kamen|first=Al|date=2012-07-25|title=Turkey and the Indians|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/turkey-and-the-indians/2012/07/24/gJQAbNuj8W_story.html|access-date=2021-07-01|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Fink|first=Marc J.|title=Stunner: Turkey Infiltrating Native American Tribes – and May Get Congressional Help|url=https://www.meforum.org/islamist-watch/37715/stunner-turkey-infiltrating-native-american|access-date=2021-05-24|website=Islamist Watch|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sassounian|first=Harut|date=24 July 2012|title=DNA Study Busts Myth that One Million Appalachians are of Turkish Descent|url=https://asbarez.com/dna-study-busts-myth-that-one-million-appalachians-are-of-turkish-descent/?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=2426b43716ef034a54f53bb5ddc815579a276f5d-1605594767-0-ARRyK1bFihzDCtfyyGCkJboYe4KTcJjWeOYdbSsQbUe26XNHWqFYH4Ob0ejTVMaGGgS0o0kSXx9-sn-6TwsT5Lauijdg904MyycDeEqhnlQZdn-DXo-K7KNJ5wpoZbTqXzZl5PIKe9mlWXg7VQBgtq5bGF1SI2ZW9mHHVaj4LsNodEbgCzpWSPWqXFnJAAgnJrVCezByQKMbTljykzGNJ-qLwyxzbueNWWnNEQ0E6pvzrUQ0iztZiPuQKuf-oCXTlLxEGI1SA9sZglges9xLP8SMcT-FbQhK746SOSk-Fnx_SIuXLrw_NpEznZ6OBhPwduCqaGI4e4O_UHptZRZgxVcrGbyGgSvLpEnGV9-i_qpZYvEvJ5P6Oeonq6URDHswJvjxbVgN6Qs6113GXYd9Lnu5n1i2w7KPVQkQpN3-nEBm|url-status=live|website=[[Asbarez]]}}</ref> According to an article by Polat Kaya which was published by the [[Turkish Cultural Foundation]], the exact origins of Native Americans remain unclear and while they are widely believed to have migrated from Asia, the exact connection between Native Americans and other Turkic peoples remains disputed, although linguistic coincidences between Turks and Native Americans are noticeable.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Turkish Language and the Native Americans|url=http://www.turkishculture.org/literature/language/turkish-language-americans-459.htm|access-date=2021-07-01|website=www.turkishculture.org}}</ref><br />
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The idea has also been discussed in the francophone world, noting that as victors in the First World War, England and France "dismembered the Arab portion" of the Ottoman Empire and shared it amongst themselves, further alienating Turkey. The loss of the Arabian oil fields limited Turkey becoming a petroleum power on the world stage; called "le panturquisme" in French, authors argue that it arose as a way of reclaiming some of the lost glory after the Ottoman defeat in the war and the loss of prestige in the region. <ref> {{cite journal|language=French |last1=Thual |first1=François |date=2007 |title=International: Le Corridor Des Turcs L'aire Des Turcs Ou l'ère Des Turcs |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41941814 |journal=La Revue Administrative |volume=60 |issue=357 |pages=281–83 |doi= |jstor=41941814 |access-date=July 21, 2022}}</ref><br />
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==Pseudoscientific theories==<br />
{{See also|Turanism|Turkology|Historical negationism#Azerbaijan}}<br />
{{Quote box<br />
|quote = There is no such thing as the [[Kurds|Kurdish]] people or nation. They are merely carriers of Turkish culture and habits. The imagined region proposed as the new [[Kurdistan]] is the region that was settled by the proto-Turks. The [[Sumer]]ians and [[Scythians]] come immediately to mind.<ref name="GZ">{{cite book |last1=Gunes |first1=Cengiz |last2=Zeydanlioglu |first2=Welat |year=2013 |title=The Kurdish Question in Turkey: New Perspectives on Violence, Representation and Reconciliation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVn7AAAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=11 |isbn=978-1135140632 }}</ref><br />
|author = — Orhan Türkdoğan - Professor of Sociology at [[Gebze Technical University]]<br />
|source =<br />
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|width = 21%<br />
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Pan-Turkism has been characterized by pseudoscientific theories known as '''Pseudo-Turkology'''.<ref name="Frankle"/><ref name="AKOK">{{cite book |last1=Aktar |first1=A. |last2=Kizilyürek |first2=N |last3=Ozkirimli |first3=U. |last4=K?z?lyürek |first4=Niyazi |year=2010 |title=Nationalism in the Troubled Triangle: Cyprus, Greece and Turkey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHWGDAAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |page=50 |isbn=978-0230297326 }}</ref> Though dismissed in serious scholarship, scholars promoting such theories, often known as Pseudo-Turkologists,<ref name="Frankle">{{cite book |last=Frankle |first=Elanor |year=1948 |title=Word formation in the Turkic languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-JMAAAAMAAJ |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |page=2 }}</ref> have in recent times emerged among every Turkic nationality.<ref name="SB">{{cite book |last1=Sheiko |first1=Konstantin |last2=Brown |first2=Stephen |year=2014 |title=History as Therapy: Alternative History and Nationalist Imaginings in Russia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vY00DwAAQBAJ |publisher=ibidem Press |pages=61–62 |isbn=978-3838265650 |quote=According to Adzhi, Alans, Goths, Burgundians, Saxons, Alemans, Angles, Langobards and many of the Russians were ethnic Turks.161 The list of non-Turks is relatively short and seems to comprise only Jews, Chinese, Armenians, Greeks, Persians, and Scandinavians... Mirfatykh Zakiev, a Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Tatar ASSR and a professor of [[philology]] who has published hundreds of scientific works, argues that proto-Turkish is the starting point of the [[Indo-European languages]]. Zakiev and his colleagues claim to have discovered the Tatar roots of the Sumerian, ancient Greek and Icelandic languages and deciphered Etruscan and Minoan writings. }}</ref><ref name="Khazanov">{{cite book |last1=Khazanov |first1=Anatoly M. |author-link1=Anatoly Khazanov |year=1996 |title=Post-Soviet Eurasia: Anthropological Perspectives on a World in Transition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCYYAQAAMAAJ |publisher=Department of Anthropology, [[University of Michigan]] |page=84 |isbn=1889480002 |quote=Discredited hypotheses – widespread in the 1920s and 1930s – about the Turkic origin of Sumerians, Scythians, Sakhas, and many other ancient peoples are nowadays popular }}</ref> A leading light among them is [[:ru:Аджиев, Мурад Эскендерович|Murad Adzhi]], who insists that two hundred thousand years ago, "an advanced people of Turkic blood" were living in the [[Altai Mountains]]. These tall and blonde Turks are supposed to have founded the world's first state, [[Idel-Ural State|Idel-Ural]], 35,000 years ago, and to have migrated as far as the [[Americas]].<ref name="SB"/> According to theories like the [[Turkish History Thesis]], promoted by pseudo-scholars, the Turkic peoples are supposed to have migrated from [[Central Asia]] to the Middle East in the [[Neolithic]]. The [[Hittites]], [[Sumer]]ians, [[Babylonians]], and [[ancient Egypt]]ians are here classified as being of Turkic origin.<ref name="AKOK"/><ref name="SB"/><ref name="Khazanov"/><ref name="HTM">{{cite book |last1=Hunter |first1=Shireen |author-link1=Shireen Hunter |last2=Thomas |first2=Jeffrey L. |last3=Melikishvili |first3=Alexander |year=2004 |title=Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hVhHGJkfZDoC |publisher=[[M.E. Sharpe]] |page=159 |isbn=0765612828 |quote=M. Zakiev claims that the Scythians and Sarmatians were all Turkic. He even considers the Sumerians as Turkic }}</ref> The [[Kurgan culture]]s of the early Bronze Age up to more recent times are also typically ascribed to Turkic peoples by pan-Turkic pseudoscholars, such as [[:ru:Мизиев, Исмаил Мусаевич|Ismail Miziev]].<ref name="KF">{{cite book |last1=Kohl |first1=Philip L. |author-link1=Philip L. Kohl |last2=Fawcett |first2=Clare |year=1995 |title=Nationalism, Politics and the Practice of Archaeology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZGyuVXFvssC |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=143, 154 |isbn=0521558395 |quote=Apparently innocuous were other contradictory and/or incredible myths related by professional archaeologists that claimed that the Scythians were Turkic-speaking }}</ref> Non-Turkic peoples typically classified as Turkic, Turkish, Proto-Turkish or [[Turanid race|Turanian]] include [[Huns]], [[Scythians]], [[Saka]]s, [[Cimmerians]], [[Medes]], [[Parthia]]ns, [[Pannonian Avars]], [[Caucasian Albania]]ns, and various ethnic minorities in Turkic countries, such as [[Kurds]].<ref name="KF"/><ref name="Simonian">{{cite book |last=Simonian |first=Hovann |author-link=Hovann Simonian |year=2007 |title=The Hemshin: History, Society and Identity in the Highlands of Northeast Turkey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cl6QAgAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=354 |isbn=978-0230297326 |quote=Thus, ethnic groups or populations of the past (Huns, Scythians, Sakas, Cimmerians, Parthians, Hittites, Avars and others) who have disappeared long ago, as well as non-Turkic ethnic groups living in present-day Turkey, have come to be labeled Turkish, Proto-Turkish or Turanian }}</ref><ref name="SD">{{cite book |last1=Lornjad |first1=Siavash |last2=Doostzadeh |first2=Ali |year=2012 |title=On The Modern Politization of the Persian Poet Nezami Ganjavi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LhTqtSxN4ikC |publisher=CCIS |page=85 |isbn=978-9993069744 |quote=Claims that many Iranian figures and societies starting from the Medes, Scythians and Parthians were Turks), are still prevalent in countries that adhere to Pan—Turkist nationalism such as Turkey and the republic of Azerbaijan. These falsifications, which are backed by state and state backed non—governmental organizational bodies, range from elementary school all the way to the highest level of universities in these countries. }}</ref><ref name="Khazanov"/><ref name="HTM"/> Adzhi also considers [[Alans]], [[Goths]], [[Burgundians]], [[Saxons]], [[Alemanni]], [[Angles]], [[Lombards]], and many [[Russians]] as Turks.<ref name="SB"/> Only a few prominent peoples in history, such as [[Jews]], [[Chinese people]], [[Armenians]], [[Greeks]], [[Persians]], and [[Scandinavians]] are considered non-Turkic by Adzhi.<ref name="SB"/> Philologist [[Mirfatyh Zakiev]], former Chairman of the [[Supreme Soviet]] of the [[Tatar ASSR]], has published hundreds of "scientific" works on the subject, suggesting Turkic origins of the [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] and [[Minoan language|Minoan]] languages. Zakiev contends that "proto-Turkish is the starting point of the [[Indo-European languages]]".<ref name="SB"/> Not only peoples and cultures, but also prominent individuals, such as [[Saint George]], [[Peter the Great]], [[Mikhail Kutuzov]] and [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], are proclaimed to have been "of Turkic origin".<ref name="SB"/> As such the Turkic peoples are supposed to have once been the "benevolent conquerors" of the peoples of most of Eurasia, who thus owe them "a huge cultural debt".<ref name="SB"/><ref>Lynn Meskell, ''Archaeology Under Fire: Nationalism, Politics and Heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East'', Routledge, 1998.</ref> The [[Pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] [[Sun Language Theory]] states that all human languages are descendants of a [[proto-Turkic language]] and was developed by the Turkish president [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] during the 1930s.<ref name="peoples.ru">{{cite web|url=http://www.peoples.ru/state/king/turkey/ataturk/history.html|title=Мустафа (Кемаль) Ататюрк Мустафа Ататюрк|access-date=2 April 2016}}</ref> Kairat Zakiryanov considers the [[Japanese people|Japanese]] and [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] [[gene pool]]s to be identical.<ref name="zak">[http://zonakz.net/articles/25509?mode=default К.Закирьянов. Я вполне допускаю мысль, что в жилах Обамы течет тюркская кровь] (Russian)</ref> Several Turkish academics (Şevket Koçsoy, Özkan İzgi, Emel Esin) claim that [[Zhou dynasty]] were of Turkic origins.<ref>Esin, Emel (1986). [https://erdem.gov.tr/tam-metin-pdf/997/eng "The Culture of the Turks: The Initial Inner Asian Phase"] Publisher, Atatürk Culture Centre. p. 435, 439.</ref><ref>Koçsoy, Şevket (2002). "Türk Tarihi Kronojojisi", ''Türkler'', C. I., Yeni Türkiye, Ankara, p. 73.</ref><ref>İzgi, Özkan (2002). "Orta Asya'nın En Eski Kültürleri ve Çin Medeniyeti ile İlişkileri", ''Türkler'', C. I., Yeni Türkiye, Ankara, pp. 685-687.</ref><ref>Esin, Emel (2002). "İç Asya'da Milattan Önceki Bin Yılda Türklerin Atalarına Atfedilen Kültürler", ''Türkler'', C. I., Yeni Türkiye, Ankara, p. 733-734.</ref><br />
<br />
[[Philip L. Kohl]] notes that the above-mentioned theories are nothing more than "incredible myths".<ref name="KF"/> Nevertheless, the promotion of these theories have "taken on large-scale proportions" in countries such as [[Turkey]] and [[Azerbaijan]].<ref name="Simonian"/> Often associated with [[Greek genocide#Reasons for limited recognition|Greek]], [[Sayfo#Denial and justification|Assyrian]] and [[Armenian genocide denial]], pan-Turkic pseudoscience has received extensive state and state-backed non-governmental support, and is taught all the way from elementary school to the highest level of universities in such countries.<ref name="SD"/> Turkish and Azerbaijani students are imbued with textbooks which make "absurdly inflated" claims which state that all [[Eurasian nomads]], including the [[Scythians]], and all [[civilization]]s on the territory of the [[Ottoman Empire]], such as [[Sumer]], [[ancient Egypt]], [[ancient Greece]], and the [[Byzantine Empire]], were of Turkic origin.<ref name="Boldt">{{cite book |last1=Boldt |first1=Andreas |year=2017 |title=Historical Mechanisms: An Experimental Approach to Applying Scientific Theories to the Study of History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rzslDwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |pages=107–108 |isbn=978-1351816489 |quote=Violent flirtation with PanTuranism had a lasting effect on kemalist Turkey and its historical ideology: Turkish pupils are imbued by history textbooks even today with a dogma of absurdly inflated PanTurkish history—Turkish history comprises all Eurasian nomads, Indo-European (Scythian) and Turk-Mongol, plus their conquests in Persia, India China, all civilizations on the soil of the Ottoman Empire, from Sumer and Ancient Egypt via Greeks, Alexander the Great to Byzantium. }}</ref> Konstantin Sheiko and Stephen Brown explain the reemergence of such pseudo-history as a form of national therapy, helping its proponents cope with the failures of the past.<ref name="SB"/><br />
<br />
==Notable pan-Turkists==<br />
{{Div col}}<br />
*[[Abulfaz Elchibey]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Balci|first1=Bayram|editor1-last=Agadjanian|editor1-first=Alexander|editor2-last=Jödicke|editor2-first=Ansgar|editor3-last=van der Zweerde|editor3-first=Evert|title=Religion, Nation and Democracy in the South Caucasus|contribution=Between ambition and realism: Turkey's engagement in the South Caucasus|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=axTEBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA258&lpg=PA258&dq=Abulfaz+Elchibey 258]|quote=...the second president of independent Azerbaijan, Abulfaz Elchibey, was a prominent pan-Turkist nationalist...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Murinson|first1=Alexander|title=Turkey's Entente with Israel and Azerbaijan: State Identity and Security in the Middle East and Caucasus|date=2009|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135182441|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RWWLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=Abulfaz+Elchibey+pan-turkist 35]|quote=Naturally, they were associated with Elchibey's pan-Turkist aspirations...}}</ref><br />
*[[Ahmet Ağaoğlu]]<br />
*[[Alimardan Topchubashov]]<br />
*[[Alparslan Türkeş]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hale|first1=William M.|author-link1=William Hale (professor)|title=Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774-2000|date=2000|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780714650715|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_xLgtpBsovwC&pg=PA292&lpg=PA292&dq=Alparslan+Türkeş 292]|quote=Within Turkey, the pan- Turkist movement led by Alparslan Türkeş...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Larrabee|first1=F. Stephen|last2=Lesser|first2=Ian O.|title=Turkish Foreign Policy in an Age of Uncertainty|date=2003|publisher=Rand Corporation|isbn=9780833034045|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ETDGafGb0usC&pg=PA123&dq=Alparslan+Türkeş 123]|quote=The late Alparslan Turkes, the former head of the MHP, actively promoted a Pan-Turkic agenda.}}</ref><br />
*[[Ali Suavi]]<br />
*[[Askar Akayev]]<br />
*[[Djemal Pasha]]<br />
*[[Enver Pasha]]<br />
*[[Fuat Köprülü]]<br />
*[[Isa Alptekin]]<br />
*[[Ismail Gaspirali]]<br />
*[[Mammad Amin Rasulzade]]<br />
*[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]]<br />
*[[Mirsaid Sultan-Galiev]]<br />
*[[Mustafa Shokay]]<br />
*[[Munis Tekinalp]]<br />
*[[Nejdet Sançar]]<br />
*[[Nihal Atsız]]<br />
*[[Nuri Killigil]]<br />
*[[Ömer Seyfettin]]<br />
*[[Rıza Nur]]<br />
*[[Sadri Maksudi Arsal]]<br />
*[[Talaat Pasha]]<br />
*[[Reha Oğuz Türkkan]]<br />
*[[Yusuf Akçura]]<br />
*[[Zeki Velidi Togan]] <br />
*[[Ziya Gökalp]]<br />
{{Div col end}}<br />
<br />
==Pan-Turkist organizations==<br />
'''Azerbaijan'''<br />
*[[Azerbaijan National Democrat Party]]<br />
'''Iran'''<br />
*[[Southern Azerbaijan National Awakening Movement]] (SANAM)<br />
*[[Azerbaijan National Resistance Organization]] (ANRO)<br />
'''Kazakhstan'''<br />
*[[National Patriotic Party (Kazakhstan)|National Patriotic Party]]<br />
'''Turkey'''<br />
*[[National Party (Turkey)|National Party]]<br />
*[[Nationalist Movement Party]] (MHP)<br />
**[[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]]<br />
*[[Atsız Youth]]<br />
'''Uzbekistan'''<br />
*[[Unity (Uzbekistan)|Birlik]]<br />
<br />
==Quotations==<br />
*{{lang|tr|Dilde, fikirde, işte birlik}} ("Unity of language, thought and action")—[[Ismail Gasprinski]], a [[Crimean Tatars|Crimean Tatar]] member of the [[Turanian Society]]<br />
*{{lang|tr|Bu yürüyüş devam ediyor. Türk orduları ata ruhlarının dolaştığı Altay ve Tanrı Dağları eteklerinde geçit resmi yapıncaya kadar devam edecektir.}} ("This march is going on. It will continue until the Turkic Armies' parade on the foothills of Altai and Tien-Shan mountains where the souls of their ancestors stroll.")—[[Hüseyin Nihâl Atsız]], pan-Turkist author, philosopher and poet<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Div col}}<br />
*[[Altaic languages]]<br />
*[[Chauvinism]]<br />
*[[Ethnic nationalism]]<br />
*[[Eurasianism]]<br />
*[[Division of the Mongol Empire]]<br />
*[[Historic states represented in Turkish presidential seal]]<br />
*[[Hungarian Turanism]]<br />
*[[Idel-Ural]]<br />
*[[Inner Asia]]<br />
*[[Jobbik]]<br />
*[[Nationalist Movement Party]]<br />
*[[Neo-Ottomanism]]<br />
*[[Pan-nationalism]]<br />
*[[Turanid]]<br />
*[[Turanism]]<br />
*[[Turkic Council]]<br />
*[[Turkism Day]]<br />
*[[Turkic languages]]<br />
*[[Turco-Mongol]]s<br />
*[[Tartary]]<br />
*[[Ural–Altaic languages]]<br />
{{Div col end}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Notelist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
* Jacob M. Landau. ''Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation''. Hurst, 1995. {{ISBN|1-85065-269-4}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
*[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Turkism Encyclopædia Britannica Pan-Turkism]<br />
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041118082359/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3955/is_n7_v48/ai_19226505 Ildiko Beller Hann – Article on Pan-Turkism]<br />
*[http://www.iccrimea.org/gaspirali/fisher.html Alan W. Fisher – 'A Model Leader for Asia, Ismail Gaspirali']<br />
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070613031203/http://www.benadorassociates.com/pf.php?id=17178 Amir Taheri – Book Review of ''Sons of the Conquerors: Rise of the Turkic World'']<br />
*[http://tatar.yuldash.com/eng_099.html Article on Pan-Turkism in The Tatar Gazette]<br />
<br />
{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Turkic topics}}<br />
{{Turkey topics}}<br />
{{Irredentism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Pan-nationalist concepts}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1880s introductions]]<br />
[[Category:Pan-Turkism| ]]<br />
[[Category:Far-right politics in Asia]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish irredentism]]<br />
[[Category:Pan-nationalism|Turkism]]<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Asia]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pan-Turkism&diff=1144977354Pan-Turkism2023-03-16T15:49:09Z<p>Cehilizm: /* History */ Ziya Gökalp added</p>
<hr />
<div>{{dablink|Not to be confused with [[Turanism]].}}<br />
{{Short description|Political ideology emphasising unity of Turkic peoples}}[[File:Flag of the Organization of Turkic States.svg|thumb|alt=Sun, crescent moon and star against a light-blue background|Flag of the [[Organization of Turkic States]]]]<br />
[[File:Grey Wolves Gokturk Flag.svg|thumb|Flag misattributed to [[Turkic Kaganate|Turkic Khaganate]]{{efn|According to [[Book of Zhou]] and [[Book of Sui]] (later repeated by [[History of the Northern Dynasties]]), Göktürks erected a [[Tug (banner)|tuğ banner]] decorated with a wolf's head made of gold to show that they had not forgotten their origin from a she-wolf ancestress.<ref>''Zhoushu'' [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%91%A8%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B750 vol. 50]. quote: "旗纛之上，施金狼頭。…… 蓋本狼生，志不忘舊。"</ref><ref>''Suishu'' [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%9A%8B%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B784 Vol. 84] text: "故牙門建'''狼頭纛'''，示不忘本也。"</ref><ref>''Beishi'' [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E5%8F%B2/%E5%8D%B7099#%E7%AA%81%E5%8E%A5 vol. 99: section Tujue] text: "故牙門建'''狼頭纛'''，示不忘本也。"</ref> A [[Tug (banner)|tuğ]] is a banner made of horse-hairs and based on Chinese banners made of [[yak]]-hairs (纛 [[standard Chinese]] ''dú'' < [[Middle Chinese]] *''dok'')<ref>Clauson, Gerard (1972). An Etymological Dictionary of Pre-13th Century Turkish. Oxford University Press. p. 464</ref>}}<br />
<br />
]]<br />
{{anchor|Ideologue views on pan-Turkism}}<br />
<br />
'''Pan-Turkism''' ({{lang-tr|Pan-Türkizm}}) or '''Turkism''' ({{lang-tr|Türkçülük or Türkizm}}) is a [[political movement]] that emerged during the 1880s among Turkic intellectuals who lived in the Russian region of [[Kazan]] ([[Tatarstan]]), [[Caucasus Viceroyalty (1801–1917)|Caucasus]] (modern-day [[Azerbaijan]]) and the [[Ottoman Empire]] (modern-day [[Turkey]]), with its aim being the cultural and political unification of all [[Turkic peoples]].<ref name="fishman">{{cite book|title=Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts|last=Fishman|first=Joshua |author2=Garcia, Ofelia|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|volume=2|isbn=978-0-19-539245-6|page=269|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUydX_3rG0AC&pg=PA269|quote=''It is commonly acknowledged that pan-Turkism, the movement which aimed to politically and/or culturally unify all Turkic peoples, emerged among Turkic intellectuals who lived in Russia as a liberal-cultural movement in the 1880s.''}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|title=Pan-Turkism|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/440700/Pan-Turkism|access-date=19 Jul 2009|year=2009|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|quote=Political movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which had as its goal the political union of all Turkish-speaking peoples in the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Russia]], [[China]], [[Iran]], and [[Afghanistan]].}}</ref><ref name="landau">{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob|year=1995|title=Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism To Cooperation|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-20960-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uy6Sa0E3HbcC}}</ref><ref name="LandauRadicalPolitics">Jacob M. Landau, "Radical Politics in Modern Turkey", BRILL, 1974.</ref><ref>[[Robert F. Melson]], "The Armenian Genocide" in Kevin Reilly (Editor), Stephen Kaufman (Editor), Angela Bodino (Editor) "Racism: A Global Reader (Sources and Studies in World History)", M.E. Sharpe (January 2003). pg 278:"Concluding that their liberal experiment had been a failure, CUP leaders turned to Pan-Turkism, a [[Xenophobia|xenophobic]] and [[Chauvinism|chauvinistic]] brand of [[nationalism]] that sought to create a new empire which would have been based on [[Islam]] and Turkish ethnicity."</ref> [[Turanism]] is a closely-related movement but it is a more general term, because Turkism only applies to Turkic peoples. However, researchers and politicians who are steeped in the Pan-Turkic ideology have used these terms interchangeably in many sources and works of literature.<ref name="Gilyazov">Iskander Gilyazov, "[http://beznen-yul.narod.ru/by-kyzyk/panturk.htm Пантюрκизм, Пантуранизм и Германия] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004230533/http://beznen-yul.narod.ru/by-kyzyk/panturk.htm |date=2006-10-04 }}", magazine "Татарстан" No 5-6, 1995. {{in lang|ru}}</ref><br />
<br />
Although many of the Turkic peoples share historical, cultural and linguistic roots, the rise of a pan-Turkic political movement is a phenomenon of the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058213/Pan-Turkism|title=Pan-Turkism|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2 April 2016}}</ref> Ottoman poet [[Ziya Gökalp]] defined pan-Turkism as a cultural, academic, and philosophical<ref name="gökalp">{{Cite book<br />
| last = Gökalp<br />
| first = Ziya<br />
|author2=Devereaux, Robert<br />
| year = 1968<br />
| title = The Principles of Turkism<br />
| publisher = E. J. Brill<br />
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lShkAAAAMAAJ<br />
| pages = 125<br />
| isbn = 9789004007314<br />
| quote = ''Turkism is not a political party but a scientific, philosophic and aesthetic school of thought.''<br />
}}</ref> and political<ref>{{Cite book<br />
| last = Kieser<br />
| first = Hans-Lukas<br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities<br />
| publisher = I. B. Tauris<br />
| isbn = 978-1-84511-141-0<br />
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VKVSHjjUT2UC&pg=PA19<br />
| pages = 19<br />
}}</ref> concept advocating the unity of Turkic peoples. Ideologically, it was premised on [[social Darwinism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Doğan |first=Attila |date=2006 |title=Osmanlı Aydınları ve Sosyal Darwinizm |location=Istanbul |publisher=Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları |isbn=978-9756176504}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hovannisian |first=Richard G. |year=2011 |title=The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K3monyE4CVQC&pg=PA298 |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey |publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] |page=298 |isbn=978-0-7658-0367-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oranlı |first1=Imge |title=Epistemic Injustice from Afar : Rethinking the Denial of Armenian Genocide |journal=Social Epistemology |date=2020 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=120–132 |doi=10.1080/02691728.2020.1839593|s2cid=229463301 }}</ref> Pan-Turkism has been characterized by pseudoscientific theories known as [[Pan-Turkism#Pseudoscientific_theories|Pseudo-Turkology]].<br />
<br />
==Name==<br />
In research literature, "pan-Turkism" is used to describe the political, cultural and ethnic unity of all [[Turkic people]]. "Turkism" began to be used with the prefix "pan-" (from the Greek πᾶν, pan = all).<ref>Mansur Hasanov, Academician of Academy of Sciences of Tatarstan Republic, "[http://www.rt-online.ru/numbers/public/?ID=25970 Великий реформатор]", in magazine "Республика Татарстан" № 96–97 (24393-24394), 17 May 2001. {{in lang|ru}}</ref><br />
<br />
Proponents use the latter as a point of comparison, since "Turkic" is a linguistic, ethnic and cultural distinction rather than a citizenship description. This differentiates it from "Turkish", which is the term which is officially used in reference to citizens of Turkey. Pan-Turkic ideas and reunification movements have become popular since the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapse of the Soviet Union]] in [[Soviet Central Asia|Central Asian]] and other [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] countries.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[Image:PanTurkishRally.JPG|thumb|alt=Demonstration with flags|Pan-Turkic rally in [[Istanbul]], March 2009]]<br />
<br />
=== Development and spread ===<br />
In 1804, the [[Tatars|Tatar]] theologian [[Ghabdennasir Qursawi]] wrote a [[treatise]] calling for the modernization of Islam. Qursawi was a [[Jadid]] (from the Arabic word ''jadid'', "new"). The Jadids encouraged critical thinking, supported education and advocated the equality of the sexes, advocated tolerance of other faiths, advocated Turkic cultural unity, and advocated openness to Europe’s cultural legacy.<ref name="Khakimov">Rafael Khakimov, "[http://eng.globalaffairs.ru/region-ecology/numbers/5/504.html Taklid and Ijtihad] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210221350/http://eng.globalaffairs.ru/region-ecology/numbers/5/504.html |date=2007-02-10 }}", ''Russia in Global Affairs'', Dec. 2003.</ref> The Jadid movement was founded in 1843 in [[Kazan]]. Its aim was the implementation of a semi-secular modernization program and the implementation of an educational reform program, both programs would emphasize the national (rather than the religious) identity of the Turks. Before they founded their movement in 1843, the Jadids considered themselves [[Muslim]] subjects of the [[Russian Empire]], a belief which they held until the Jadid movement disbanded.<ref name="NN">N.N., "[http://www.panorama.ru/gazeta/p35_turk.html Полтора Века Пантюрκизма в Турции]", magazine "Панорама". {{in lang|ru}}</ref><br />
<br />
After they joined the [[Wäisi movement]], the Jadids advocated national liberation. After 1907, many supporters of Turkic unity immigrated to the Ottoman Empire.<br />
<br />
The newspaper ''Türk'' in Cairo was published by exiles from the Ottoman Empire after the suspension of the [[Ottoman constitution of 1876]] and the persecution of liberal intellectuals. It was the first publication to use the ethnic designation as its title.<ref name="Modernism: The Creation of Nation States" /> [[Yusuf Akçura]] published "Three Types of Policy" (''Üç tarz-ı siyaset'') anonymously in 1904, the earliest manifesto of a pan-Turkic nationalism.<ref name="Modernism: The Creation of Nation States" /> Akçura argued that the [[supra-ethnic]] union espoused by the Ottomans was unrealistic. The [[Pan-Islamic model]] had advantages, but Muslim populations were under colonial rule which would oppose unification. He concluded that an ethnic Turkish nation would require the cultivation of a national identity; a pan-Turkish empire would abandon the [[Balkans]] and [[Eastern Europe]] in favor of [[Central Asia]]. The first publication of "Three Types of Policy" had a negative reaction, but it became more influential by its third publication in 1911 in Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire had lost its African territory to the [[Kingdom of Italy]] and it would soon lose the Balkans. Pan-Turkish nationalism consequently became a more feasible (and popular) political strategy.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}<br />
<br />
In 1908, the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] came to power in Ottoman Turkey, and the empire adopted a nationalistic ideology. This contrasted with its largely Muslim ideology which dated back to the 16th century, when the sultan was the [[Ottoman Caliphate|caliph]] of his Muslim lands. Leaders who espoused Pan-Turkism fled from Russia and moved to [[Istanbul]], where a strong pan-Turkic movement arose; the Turkish pan-Turkic movement grew and transformed itself into a nationalistic, ethnically oriented movement which sought to replace the [[caliphate]] with a state. After the [[fall of the Ottoman Empire]], some of them tried to replace the multi-cultural and multi-ethnic empire with a Turkish commonwealth, the advocates of this idea were influenced by the nationalism of the [[Young Turks]]. Leaders like [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] acknowledged that such a goal was impossible, replacing pan-Turkic idealism with a form of nationalism which aimed to preserve the existence of an [[Anatolia]]n nucleus.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}<br />
<br />
The ''[[Türk Yurdu]] Dergisi'' (''Journal of the Turkish Homeland'') was founded in 1911 by Akçura. This was the most important Turkist publication of the time, "in which, along with other Turkic exiles from Russia, [Akçura] attempted to instill a consciousness about the cultural unity of all Turkic peoples of the world."<ref name="Modernism: The Creation of Nation States">{{cite book|title=Modernism: The Creation of Nation States|page=218|isbn=9789637326615|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8j-Uemo6SfoC&q=yurdu&pg=PA218|access-date=13 August 2014|last1=Ersoy|first1=Ahmet|last2=g¢Rny|first2=Maciej|last3=Kechriotis|first3=Vangelis|date=January 2010}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 1923, [[Ziya Gökalp]], famous poet and theorician of Turkism ideology, wrote his book ''The Principles of Turkism'' and idealized the unity of [[Turkic peoples]] by calling [[Turanism|Turan]] as a goal of Turkism.<ref>Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)</ref><br />
<br />
A significant early exponent of pan-Turkism was [[Enver Pasha]] (1881–1922), the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Minister of War and [[acting (law)|acting]] [[commander-in-chief]] during [[World War I]]. He later became a leader of the [[Basmachi movement]] (1916–1934) against Russian and Soviet rule in [[Central Asia]]. During [[World War II]], the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] founded a [[Turkestan Legion]] which was primarily composed of soldiers who hoped to establish an independent [[Central Asia]]n state after the war. The German intrigue bore no fruit.<ref name="Gilyazov" /><br />
<br />
When the Turkish Republic was established under the leadership of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] in 1923, interest in Pan-Turkism declined, because Atatürk generally favored [[Ziya Gökalp]] rather than Enver Pasha.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Turkism Pan Turkism], Encyclopedia Britannica.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Eligur |first=Banu |title=The Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6eFzRgxCkhQC&pg=PA41|date=2010|page=41|isbn=9781139486583 }}</ref> The Pan-Turkist movements gained some momentum in the 1940s, due to the support which it received from [[Nazi Germany]], which sought to use Pan-Turkism as leverage in order to undermine Russian influence in an effort to acquire the resources of Central Asia during the course of [[World War II]].<ref name="LandauN"/> The development of pan-Turkist and anti-Soviet ideology, in some circles, was influenced by [[Nazi]] propaganda during this period.<ref>Jacob M. Landau, "Radical Politics in Modern Turkey", BRILL, 1974. pg 194: "In the course of the [[World War II|Second World War]], various circles in Turkey absorbed [[Propaganda in Nazi Germany|Nazi propaganda]]; these were pro-German and admired [[Nazism]], which they grasped as a doctrine of warlike dynamism and a source of national inspiration, on which they could base their pan-Turkic and anti-Soviet ideology'''"</ref><ref>John M. VanderLippe , "The politics of Turkish democracy", SUNY Press, 2005. "A third group was led by Nihal Atsiz, who favored a Hitler style haircut and mustache, and advocated [[Nazi racial theories|racist Nazi doctrines]]"</ref> Some sources claim that [[Nihal Atsız]] advocated Nazi doctrines and adopted a [[Hitler]]-style haircut.<ref>John M. VanderLippe, ''The Politics of Turkish Democracy: Ismet Inonu and the Formation of the Multi-Party System, 1938-1950'', (State University of New York Press, 2005), 108;"A third group was led by Nihal Atsiz, who favored a Hitler style haircut and moustache, and advocated Nazi racist doctrines."</ref> [[Alparslan Türkeş]], a leading pan-Turkist, took a pro-Hitler position during the war<ref>Peter Davies, Derek Lynch, "The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right", Routledge, 2002. pg 244: "Alparslan Türkeş: Leader of a Turkish neo-fascist movement, Nationalist Action Party(MHP). During the war, he adopted a pro-Hitler position and was imprisoned after a 1960 coup attempt against his country's ruler.</ref> and developed close connections with Nazi leaders in Germany.<ref>Berch Berberoglu, " Turkey in crisis: from state capitalism to neocolonialism", Zed, 1982. 2nd edition. pg 125: "Turkes established close ties with Nazi leaders in Germany in 1945 "</ref> Several pan-Turkic groups in Europe apparently had ties to Nazi Germany (or its supporters) at the start of the war, if not earlier.<ref name="LandauN">Jacob M. Landau. Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation. India University Press, 1995. 2nd Edition. pp 112–114.</ref> The Turco-Tatars in Romania cooperated with the [[Iron Guard]], a Romanian fascist organisation.<ref name="LandauN"/> Although the Turkish government's archives which date back to the World War II years have not been declassified, the level of contact can be ascertained from German archives.<ref name="LandauN"/> A ten-year [[German–Turkish Treaty of Friendship|Turco-German treaty of friendship]] was signed in Ankara on 18 January 1941.<ref name="LandauN"/> Official and semi-official meetings between German ambassador [[Franz von Papen]] and other German officials and Turkish officials, including General H. E. Erkilet (of Tatar origin and a frequent contributor to pan-Turkic journals) took place in the second half of 1941 and the early months of 1942.<ref name="LandauN"/> The Turkish officials included General Ali Fuad Erdem and [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]] (Killigil), brother of Enver Pasha.<ref name="LandauN"/><br />
<br />
Pan-Turkists were not supported by the Turkish government during this time and on 19 May 1944, [[İsmet İnönü]] made a speech in which he condemned Pan-Turkism as "a dangerous and sick demonstration of the latest times" going on to say that the Turkish Republic was "facing efforts hostile to the existence of the Republic" and those who advocate these ideas "will only bring trouble and disaster". Nihal Atsız and other prominent pan-Turkist leaders were tried and sentenced to imprisonment for conspiring against the government. [[Zeki Velidi Togan]] was sentenced to ten years imprisonment and four years in internal exile, Reha Oğuz Türkkan was sentenced to five years and ten months in prison and two years in exile, Nihal Atsız was sentenced to six years, six months and 15 days in prison and 3 years in exile. Others were sentenced to prison terms which only ranged from a few months to four years in length.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Politics of Turkish Democracy, The: Ismet Inonu and the Formation of the Multi-Party System, 1938-1950|last=VanderLippe|first=John M.|date=2012-02-01|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=9780791483374|pages=109|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ercilasun |first1=Ahmet Bican |title=Atsız, Türkçülüğün Mistik Önderi |date=2018 |pages=94|isbn=9786052221068|language=tr}}</ref> But the defendants appealed the convictions and in October 1945, the sentences of all the convicted were abolished by the Military Court of Cassation.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation|last1=Landau|first1=Jacob M.|last2=Landau|first2=Gersten Professor of Political Science Jacob M.|last3=Landau|first3=Yaʻaqov M.|date=1995|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-32869-4|pages=117–118|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
While Erkilet discussed military contingencies, Nuri Pasha told the Germans about his plan to establish independent states which would be allies (not [[Satellite state|satellites]]) of Turkey. These states would be formed by the Turkic-speaking populations which lived in [[Crimea]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Central Asia]], northwestern [[Iran]], and northern [[Iraq]]. Nuri Pasha offered to assist Nazi Germany's propaganda efforts on behalf of this cause. However, Turkey's government also feared for the survival of the Turkic minorities in the [[USSR]] and it told von Papen that it could not join [[Germany]] until the USSR was crushed. The Turkish government may have been apprehensive about Soviet might, which kept the country out of the war. On a less-official level, Turkic emigrants from the Soviet Union played a crucial role in negotiations and contacts between Turkey and Germany; among them were prominent pan-Turkic activists like [[Zeki Velidi Togan]], [[Mammed Amin Rasulzade]], Mirza Bala, Ahmet Caferoĝlu, Sayid Shamil and [[Ayaz İshaki]]. Several Tatar military units which consisted of Turkic speakers from the Turco-Tatar and Caucasian regions of the USSR who had previously been prisoners of war of the Germans joined them and fought against the Soviets, the members of these Tatar military units generally fought as guerrillas in the hope that they would be able to secure the independence of their homelands and establish a pan-Turkic union. The units, which were reinforced, numbered several hundred thousand. Turkey took a cautious approach at the government level, but pan-Turkists were angered by the Turkish government's inaction because they believed that it was wasting a golden opportunity to achieve the goals of pan-Turkism.<ref name="LandauN"/><br />
<br />
==Criticism==<br />
Pan-Turkism is often perceived as being a new form of Turkish imperial ambition. Some view the young Turk leaders who believed that they could reclaim the prestige of the Ottoman Empire by espousing the pan-Turkist ideology as [[Racism|racist]] and [[Chauvinism|chauvinistic]].<ref>Jacob M. Landau. Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation. India University Press, 1995. 2nd Edition.<br />
pg 45: "Pan-Turkism's historic chance arrived both shortly before and during the First World War, when it was adopted as a guiding principle of state policy by an influential group among the Young Turks"</ref><ref>Robert F. Melson, "The Armenian Genocide" in Kevin Reilly (Editor), Stephen Kaufman (Editor), Angela Bodino (Editor) "Racism: A Global Reader (Sources and Studies in World History)", M.E. Sharpe (January 2003). pg 278: "Concluding that their liberal experiment had been a failure, CUP leaders turned to Pan-Turkism, a xenophobic and chauvinistic brand of nationalism that sought to create a new empire based on Islam and Turkish ethnicity ... It was in this context of revolutionary and ideological transformation and war that the fateful decision to destroy the Armenians was taken."</ref><br />
<br />
=== {{anchor|Viewpoint on Armenian history}}Pan-Turkist views on Armenian history ===<br />
{{See also|Anti-Armenian sentiment|Armenian Genocide|History of Armenia}}<br />
<br />
Clive Foss, professor of [[ancient history]] at the [[University of Massachusetts Boston]], critically notes that in ''1982: The Armenian File in the Light of History'', Cemal Anadol writes that the [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] [[Scythians]] and [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] are Turks. According to Anadol, the Armenians welcomed the Turks into the region; their language is a mixture with no roots and their alphabet is mixed, with 11 characters which were borrowed from the ancient Turkic alphabet. Foss calls this view [[historical revisionism]]: "Turkish writings have been tendentious: history has been viewed as performing a useful service, proving or supporting a point of view, and so it is treated as something flexible which can be manipulated at will".<ref>Clive Foss, “The Turkish View of Armenian History: A Vanishing Nation,” in ''The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics'', ed. by Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martins Press, 1992), pp. 261–268.</ref> He concludes, "The notion, which seems well established in Turkey, that the Armenians were a wandering tribe without a home, who never had a state of their own, is of course entirely without any foundation in fact. The logical consequence of the commonly expressed view of the Armenians is that they have no place in Turkey, and they never did. The result would be the same if the viewpoint were expressed first, and the history were written to order. In a sense, something like this seems to have happened, for most Turks who grew up under the Republic were educated to believe in the ultimate priority of Turks in all parts of history, and ignore the Armenians all together; they had been clearly consigned to oblivion."<ref>Clive Foss, “The Turkish View of Armenian History: A Vanishing Nation,” in ''The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics'', ed. by Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martins Press, 1992), p. 276.</ref><br />
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==={{anchor|Pan-Turkist views in Azerbaijan}}Pan-Turkist views in Azerbaijan===<br />
[[Kâzım Karabekir]] said {{Quote|The aim of all Turks is to unite with the Turkic borders. History is affording us today the last opportunity. In order for the [[Islamic world]] not to be forever fragmented it is necessary that the campaign against [[Nagorno-Karabakh|Karabagh]] be not allowed to abate. As a matter of fact drive the point home in [[Azeri]] circles that the campaign should be pursued with greater determination and severity.<ref>[[Kâzım Karabekir|Karabekir]], Istiklâl Harbimiz/n.2/, p. 631</ref>}}<br />
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[[Western Azerbaijan (political concept)|Western Azerbaijan]] is a term used in the Republic of [[Azerbaijan]] to refer to [[Armenia]]. According to the [[Whole Azerbaijan]] theory, modern Armenia and [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] were once inhabited by the [[Origin of the Azerbaijanis|Azerbaijanis]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Present-day Armenia located in ancient Azerbaijani lands – Ilham Aliyev |agency=News.Az |date=October 16, 2010 |url=http://www.news.az/articles/24723 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721150915/http://www.news.az/articles/24723 |archive-date=July 21, 2015 }}</ref> Its claims are based on the belief that current Armenia was ruled by Turkic tribes and states from the [[Late Middle Ages]] to the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] which was signed after the 1826–1828 [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Russo-Persian War]]. The concept has been sanctioned by the government of [[Azerbaijan]] and its current president, [[Ilham Aliyev]], who has said that Armenia is part of ancient Turkic, Azerbaijani land. Turkish and Azerbaijani historians have said that Armenians are alien, not indigenous, in the [[Caucasus]] and Anatolia.<ref>[[Tofig Kocharli]], "Armenian Deception"</ref><ref>Ohannes Geukjian, "Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Nagorno-Karabakh and the Legacy of Soviet Nationalities Policy"</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cilicia.com/History.htm|title=Nagorno Karabakh: History|access-date=2 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.day.az/society/375134.html|title=Рауф Гусейн-заде: 'Мы показали, что армяне на Кавказе - некоренные жители'|date=27 December 2012|work=Day.Az|access-date=2 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://azerinfo.eu/en/27-how-hays-became-armenians.html |title=Professor Firidun Agasyoglu Jalilov 'How Hays became Armenians' |access-date=2014-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215061112/http://azerinfo.eu/en/27-how-hays-became-armenians.html |archive-date=2015-02-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
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During the existence of the [[Azerbaijan SSR]] of the [[Soviet Union]], pan-Turkist political elites of [[Baku]] who were loyal to the Communist cause invented a national history based on the existence of an Azeri nation-state that dominated the areas to the north and south of the [[Aras (river)|Aras river]], which was supposedly torn apart by an [[Qajar Iran|Iranian]]-[[Russian Empire|Russian]] conspiracy in the Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828.<ref name="Kamrava">{{cite book |last1=Ahmadi |first1=Hamid |editor1-last=Kamrava |editor1-first=Mehran |title=The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0190869663 |pages=109–110 |chapter=The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku's irredentism}}</ref> This "imagined community" was cherished, promoted and institutionalized in formal history books of the educational system of the Azerbaijan SSR and the post-Soviet [[Azerbaijan Republic]].<ref name="Kamrava"/> As the Soviet Union was a closed society, and its people were unaware of the actual realities regarding Iran and its Azeri citizens, the elites in Soviet Azerbaijan kept cherishing and promoting the idea of a "united Azerbaijan" in their activities.<ref name="Kamrava2">{{cite book |last1=Ahmadi |first1=Hamid |editor1-last=Kamrava |editor1-first=Mehran |title=The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0190869663 |page=110 |chapter=The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku's irredentism}}</ref> This romantic thought led to the founding of nostalgic literary works, known as the "literature of longing"; examples amongst this genre are, for instance, ''Foggy Tabriz'' by [[Mammed Said Ordubadi]], and ''The Coming Day'' by [[Mirza Ibrahimov]].<ref name="Kamrava2"/> As a rule, works belonging to the "literature of longing" genre were characterized by depicting the life of [[Iranian Azerbaijanis|Iranian Azeris]] as a misery due to suppression by the "Fars" (Persians), and by narrating fictional stories about Iranian Azeris waiting for the day when their "brothers" from the "north" would come and liberate them.<ref name="Kamrava2"/> Works that belonged to this genre, as the historian and political scientist Zaur Gasimov explains, "were examples of blatant [[Azerbaijani nationalism]] stigmatizing the “division” of the nation along the river Araxes, as well as denunciations of economic and cultural exploitation of Iranian Azerbaijanis, etc."<ref name="Gasimov"/> Gasimov adds: "an important by-product of this literary genre was strongly articulated [[anti-Iranian sentiment|anti-Iranian]] rhetoric. Tolerance and even support of this anti-Iranian rhetoric by the communist authorities were obvious."<ref name="Gasimov">{{cite journal |last1=Gasimov |first1=Zaur |title=Observing Iran from Baku: Iranian Studies in Soviet and Post-Soviet Azerbaijan |journal=Iranian Studies |date=2022|page=49|volume=55|issue=1|doi=10.1080/00210862.2020.1865136|s2cid=233889871 }}</ref> <br />
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Nationalist political elites in post-Soviet Azerbaijan, being the inheritors of this mentality created during the Soviet rule, forwarded this "mission" for achieving a "united Azerbaijan" as a political goal of utmost importance.<ref name="Kamrava2"/> Azerbaijani president [[Abulfaz Elchibey]] (1992–93) devoted his life to carrying out this mission, and he, in tandem with other pan-Turkist elites, went on a campaign for the ethnic awakening of Iranian Azeris.<ref name="Kamrava2"/> It may be due to these ideas that Elchibey was elected president in the new country's first presidential election in 1992.<ref name="Kamrava2"/> He and his government has been widely described as pursuing Pan-Turkic and anti-Iranian policies.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cornell|first1=Svante|author-link1=Svante Cornell|title=Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus|date=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135796693|page=87|quote=Elchibey's anti-Iranian rhetoric and the subsequent deterioration of Azerbaijani-Iranian relations to below freezing point...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Peimani|first1=Hooman|title=Iran and the United States: The Rise of the West Asian Regional Grouping|date=1999|publisher=Praeger|isbn=9780275964542|page=35|quote=Characterized by its anti-Iranian, anti-Russian, pro-Turkish outlook, the Elchibey government's pursuit of pan-Turkism...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Grogan|first1=Michael S.|title=National security imperatives and the neorealist state: Iran and realpolitik|date=2000|publisher=Naval Postgraduate School|pages=68–69|quote=Elchibey was anti-Iranian, pan-Azeri}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Eichensehr|editor1-first=Kristen E.|editor2-last=Reisman|editor2-first=William Michael|title=Stopping Wars and Making Peace: Studies in International Intervention|date=2009|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=9789004178557|page=57|quote=radically pro-Turkish and anti-Iranian President Elchibey in June made Iran unacceptable to Azerbaijan as a mediator.}}</ref> Other than the pan-Turkist leadership, nationalist intellectuals and Azerbaijani media also stipulated the question of "[[Southern Azerbaijan]]" in their main political agenda's.<ref name="Kamrava2"/> In 1995-1996, according to one survey of the Azerbaijani press, the question of Iranian Azeris was covered more than any other topic by state-controlled and independent outlets in the young republic of Azerbaijan.<ref name="Kamrava2"/> Since 1918, political elites with Pan-Turkist-oriented sentiments in the area that comprises the present-day Azerbaijan Republic have depended on the concept of [[ethnic nationalism]] in order to create an anti-Iranian sense of ethnicity amongst Iranian Azeris.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ahmadi |first1=Hamid |editor1-last=Kamrava |editor1-first=Mehran |title=The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0190869663 |page=106 |chapter=The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku's irredentism}}</ref> Iranian Azerbaijani intellectuals who have promoted Iranian cultural and national identity and put forth a reaction to early pan-Turkist claims over Iran's Azerbaijan region have been dubbed traitors to the "Azerbaijani nation" within the pan-Turkist media of the Republic of Azerbaijan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ahmadi |first1=Hamid |editor1-last=Kamrava |editor1-first=Mehran |title=The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0190869663 |page=121 |chapter=The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku's irredentism}}</ref><br />
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Ahmad Kazemi, the author of the book ''Security in South Caucasus'', told Iran's Strategic Council on Foreign Relations in a 2021 interview that "Azerbaijan is seeking to establish the so-called pan-Turkish illusionary [[Zangezur corridor]] in south of Armenia under the pretext of creating connectivity in the region", arguing that "this corridor is not compatible with any of the present geopolitical and historical realities of the region".<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.scfr.ir/en/politics/135725/strategic-dimensions-of-the-recent-tension-in-relations-between-armenia-and-azerbaijan/ | title=Strategic dimensions of the recent tension in relations between Armenia and Azerbaijan | date=27 August 2021 }}</ref><br />
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==={{anchor|Tsarist Russia and Soviet viewpoint on pan-Turkism}}Russian views on Pan-Turkism===<br />
In [[Tsardom of Russia|Tsarist Russian circles]], pan-Turkism was considered a political, [[irredentist]] and aggressive idea.<ref>{{cite book |title=Window on the East: National and Imperial Identities in Late Tsarist Russia |last=Geraci |first=Robert P. |year=2001 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn= 978-0-8014-3422-8 |page=278 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Yxqf_28nHwC&pg=PA278 }}</ref> Turkic peoples in Russia were threatened by Turkish expansion,{{Clarify|reason=Turkish expansion in late 19th-early 20-th centuries? What?|date=August 2018}} and I. Gasprinsky and his followers were accused of being Turkish spies. After the [[October Revolution]], the [[Bolshevik|Bolsheviks’]] attitude to Türkism did not differ from the Russian Empire’s. At the 10th Congress of Bolshevik Communist Party in 1921, the party "condemned pan-Turkism as a slope to bourgeois-democratic nationalism". The emergence of a pan-Turkism scare in Soviet propaganda made it one of the most frightening political labels in the USSR. The most widespread accusation used in the lethal repression of educated Tatars and other Turkic peoples during the 1930s was that of pan-Turkism.<ref>Mansur Hasanov, Academician of Academy of Sciences of Tatarstan republic, in "People's Political Newspaper" № 96–97 (24393-24394) 17 May 2001 http://www.rt-online.ru/numbers/public/?ID=25970</ref><br />
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===In the United States and the rest of the New World===<br />
Pan-Turkists like [[Reha Oğuz Türkkan]] have openly claimed that [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian civilizations]] were Turkic civilizations and they have also claimed that modern-day [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] are Turkic peoples, and activities which Turkish lobbying groups have conducted in order to draw Native Americans into the service of the wider Turkic world agenda have drawn criticism and triggered accusations that the Turkish government is falsifying the history of Native Americans in the service of Turkish imperialist ambitions.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-06-23|title=The Turkish Apaches mysteries part 1|url=https://www.mashallahnews.com/the-turkish-apaches-mysteries-part-1/|access-date=2021-05-24|website=Mashallah News|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-07-13|title=The Turkish Apaches mysteries part 2|url=https://www.mashallahnews.com/the-turkish-apaches-mysteries-part-2/|access-date=2021-05-24|website=Mashallah News|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Kamen|first=Al|date=2012-07-25|title=Turkey and the Indians|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/turkey-and-the-indians/2012/07/24/gJQAbNuj8W_story.html|access-date=2021-07-01|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Fink|first=Marc J.|title=Stunner: Turkey Infiltrating Native American Tribes – and May Get Congressional Help|url=https://www.meforum.org/islamist-watch/37715/stunner-turkey-infiltrating-native-american|access-date=2021-05-24|website=Islamist Watch|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sassounian|first=Harut|date=24 July 2012|title=DNA Study Busts Myth that One Million Appalachians are of Turkish Descent|url=https://asbarez.com/dna-study-busts-myth-that-one-million-appalachians-are-of-turkish-descent/?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=2426b43716ef034a54f53bb5ddc815579a276f5d-1605594767-0-ARRyK1bFihzDCtfyyGCkJboYe4KTcJjWeOYdbSsQbUe26XNHWqFYH4Ob0ejTVMaGGgS0o0kSXx9-sn-6TwsT5Lauijdg904MyycDeEqhnlQZdn-DXo-K7KNJ5wpoZbTqXzZl5PIKe9mlWXg7VQBgtq5bGF1SI2ZW9mHHVaj4LsNodEbgCzpWSPWqXFnJAAgnJrVCezByQKMbTljykzGNJ-qLwyxzbueNWWnNEQ0E6pvzrUQ0iztZiPuQKuf-oCXTlLxEGI1SA9sZglges9xLP8SMcT-FbQhK746SOSk-Fnx_SIuXLrw_NpEznZ6OBhPwduCqaGI4e4O_UHptZRZgxVcrGbyGgSvLpEnGV9-i_qpZYvEvJ5P6Oeonq6URDHswJvjxbVgN6Qs6113GXYd9Lnu5n1i2w7KPVQkQpN3-nEBm|url-status=live|website=[[Asbarez]]}}</ref> According to an article by Polat Kaya which was published by the [[Turkish Cultural Foundation]], the exact origins of Native Americans remain unclear and while they are widely believed to have migrated from Asia, the exact connection between Native Americans and other Turkic peoples remains disputed, although linguistic coincidences between Turks and Native Americans are noticeable.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Turkish Language and the Native Americans|url=http://www.turkishculture.org/literature/language/turkish-language-americans-459.htm|access-date=2021-07-01|website=www.turkishculture.org}}</ref><br />
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The idea has also been discussed in the francophone world, noting that as victors in the First World War, England and France "dismembered the Arab portion" of the Ottoman Empire and shared it amongst themselves, further alienating Turkey. The loss of the Arabian oil fields limited Turkey becoming a petroleum power on the world stage; called "le panturquisme" in French, authors argue that it arose as a way of reclaiming some of the lost glory after the Ottoman defeat in the war and the loss of prestige in the region. <ref> {{cite journal|language=French |last1=Thual |first1=François |date=2007 |title=International: Le Corridor Des Turcs L'aire Des Turcs Ou l'ère Des Turcs |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41941814 |journal=La Revue Administrative |volume=60 |issue=357 |pages=281–83 |doi= |jstor=41941814 |access-date=July 21, 2022}}</ref><br />
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==Pseudoscientific theories==<br />
{{See also|Turanism|Turkology|Historical negationism#Azerbaijan}}<br />
{{Quote box<br />
|quote = There is no such thing as the [[Kurds|Kurdish]] people or nation. They are merely carriers of Turkish culture and habits. The imagined region proposed as the new [[Kurdistan]] is the region that was settled by the proto-Turks. The [[Sumer]]ians and [[Scythians]] come immediately to mind.<ref name="GZ">{{cite book |last1=Gunes |first1=Cengiz |last2=Zeydanlioglu |first2=Welat |year=2013 |title=The Kurdish Question in Turkey: New Perspectives on Violence, Representation and Reconciliation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVn7AAAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=11 |isbn=978-1135140632 }}</ref><br />
|author = — Orhan Türkdoğan - Professor of Sociology at [[Gebze Technical University]]<br />
|source =<br />
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Pan-Turkism has been characterized by pseudoscientific theories known as '''Pseudo-Turkology'''.<ref name="Frankle"/><ref name="AKOK">{{cite book |last1=Aktar |first1=A. |last2=Kizilyürek |first2=N |last3=Ozkirimli |first3=U. |last4=K?z?lyürek |first4=Niyazi |year=2010 |title=Nationalism in the Troubled Triangle: Cyprus, Greece and Turkey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHWGDAAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |page=50 |isbn=978-0230297326 }}</ref> Though dismissed in serious scholarship, scholars promoting such theories, often known as Pseudo-Turkologists,<ref name="Frankle">{{cite book |last=Frankle |first=Elanor |year=1948 |title=Word formation in the Turkic languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-JMAAAAMAAJ |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |page=2 }}</ref> have in recent times emerged among every Turkic nationality.<ref name="SB">{{cite book |last1=Sheiko |first1=Konstantin |last2=Brown |first2=Stephen |year=2014 |title=History as Therapy: Alternative History and Nationalist Imaginings in Russia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vY00DwAAQBAJ |publisher=ibidem Press |pages=61–62 |isbn=978-3838265650 |quote=According to Adzhi, Alans, Goths, Burgundians, Saxons, Alemans, Angles, Langobards and many of the Russians were ethnic Turks.161 The list of non-Turks is relatively short and seems to comprise only Jews, Chinese, Armenians, Greeks, Persians, and Scandinavians... Mirfatykh Zakiev, a Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Tatar ASSR and a professor of [[philology]] who has published hundreds of scientific works, argues that proto-Turkish is the starting point of the [[Indo-European languages]]. Zakiev and his colleagues claim to have discovered the Tatar roots of the Sumerian, ancient Greek and Icelandic languages and deciphered Etruscan and Minoan writings. }}</ref><ref name="Khazanov">{{cite book |last1=Khazanov |first1=Anatoly M. |author-link1=Anatoly Khazanov |year=1996 |title=Post-Soviet Eurasia: Anthropological Perspectives on a World in Transition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCYYAQAAMAAJ |publisher=Department of Anthropology, [[University of Michigan]] |page=84 |isbn=1889480002 |quote=Discredited hypotheses – widespread in the 1920s and 1930s – about the Turkic origin of Sumerians, Scythians, Sakhas, and many other ancient peoples are nowadays popular }}</ref> A leading light among them is [[:ru:Аджиев, Мурад Эскендерович|Murad Adzhi]], who insists that two hundred thousand years ago, "an advanced people of Turkic blood" were living in the [[Altai Mountains]]. These tall and blonde Turks are supposed to have founded the world's first state, [[Idel-Ural State|Idel-Ural]], 35,000 years ago, and to have migrated as far as the [[Americas]].<ref name="SB"/> According to theories like the [[Turkish History Thesis]], promoted by pseudo-scholars, the Turkic peoples are supposed to have migrated from [[Central Asia]] to the Middle East in the [[Neolithic]]. The [[Hittites]], [[Sumer]]ians, [[Babylonians]], and [[ancient Egypt]]ians are here classified as being of Turkic origin.<ref name="AKOK"/><ref name="SB"/><ref name="Khazanov"/><ref name="HTM">{{cite book |last1=Hunter |first1=Shireen |author-link1=Shireen Hunter |last2=Thomas |first2=Jeffrey L. |last3=Melikishvili |first3=Alexander |year=2004 |title=Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hVhHGJkfZDoC |publisher=[[M.E. Sharpe]] |page=159 |isbn=0765612828 |quote=M. Zakiev claims that the Scythians and Sarmatians were all Turkic. He even considers the Sumerians as Turkic }}</ref> The [[Kurgan culture]]s of the early Bronze Age up to more recent times are also typically ascribed to Turkic peoples by pan-Turkic pseudoscholars, such as [[:ru:Мизиев, Исмаил Мусаевич|Ismail Miziev]].<ref name="KF">{{cite book |last1=Kohl |first1=Philip L. |author-link1=Philip L. Kohl |last2=Fawcett |first2=Clare |year=1995 |title=Nationalism, Politics and the Practice of Archaeology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZGyuVXFvssC |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=143, 154 |isbn=0521558395 |quote=Apparently innocuous were other contradictory and/or incredible myths related by professional archaeologists that claimed that the Scythians were Turkic-speaking }}</ref> Non-Turkic peoples typically classified as Turkic, Turkish, Proto-Turkish or [[Turanid race|Turanian]] include [[Huns]], [[Scythians]], [[Saka]]s, [[Cimmerians]], [[Medes]], [[Parthia]]ns, [[Pannonian Avars]], [[Caucasian Albania]]ns, and various ethnic minorities in Turkic countries, such as [[Kurds]].<ref name="KF"/><ref name="Simonian">{{cite book |last=Simonian |first=Hovann |author-link=Hovann Simonian |year=2007 |title=The Hemshin: History, Society and Identity in the Highlands of Northeast Turkey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cl6QAgAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=354 |isbn=978-0230297326 |quote=Thus, ethnic groups or populations of the past (Huns, Scythians, Sakas, Cimmerians, Parthians, Hittites, Avars and others) who have disappeared long ago, as well as non-Turkic ethnic groups living in present-day Turkey, have come to be labeled Turkish, Proto-Turkish or Turanian }}</ref><ref name="SD">{{cite book |last1=Lornjad |first1=Siavash |last2=Doostzadeh |first2=Ali |year=2012 |title=On The Modern Politization of the Persian Poet Nezami Ganjavi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LhTqtSxN4ikC |publisher=CCIS |page=85 |isbn=978-9993069744 |quote=Claims that many Iranian figures and societies starting from the Medes, Scythians and Parthians were Turks), are still prevalent in countries that adhere to Pan—Turkist nationalism such as Turkey and the republic of Azerbaijan. These falsifications, which are backed by state and state backed non—governmental organizational bodies, range from elementary school all the way to the highest level of universities in these countries. }}</ref><ref name="Khazanov"/><ref name="HTM"/> Adzhi also considers [[Alans]], [[Goths]], [[Burgundians]], [[Saxons]], [[Alemanni]], [[Angles]], [[Lombards]], and many [[Russians]] as Turks.<ref name="SB"/> Only a few prominent peoples in history, such as [[Jews]], [[Chinese people]], [[Armenians]], [[Greeks]], [[Persians]], and [[Scandinavians]] are considered non-Turkic by Adzhi.<ref name="SB"/> Philologist [[Mirfatyh Zakiev]], former Chairman of the [[Supreme Soviet]] of the [[Tatar ASSR]], has published hundreds of "scientific" works on the subject, suggesting Turkic origins of the [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] and [[Minoan language|Minoan]] languages. Zakiev contends that "proto-Turkish is the starting point of the [[Indo-European languages]]".<ref name="SB"/> Not only peoples and cultures, but also prominent individuals, such as [[Saint George]], [[Peter the Great]], [[Mikhail Kutuzov]] and [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], are proclaimed to have been "of Turkic origin".<ref name="SB"/> As such the Turkic peoples are supposed to have once been the "benevolent conquerors" of the peoples of most of Eurasia, who thus owe them "a huge cultural debt".<ref name="SB"/><ref>Lynn Meskell, ''Archaeology Under Fire: Nationalism, Politics and Heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East'', Routledge, 1998.</ref> The [[Pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] [[Sun Language Theory]] states that all human languages are descendants of a [[proto-Turkic language]] and was developed by the Turkish president [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] during the 1930s.<ref name="peoples.ru">{{cite web|url=http://www.peoples.ru/state/king/turkey/ataturk/history.html|title=Мустафа (Кемаль) Ататюрк Мустафа Ататюрк|access-date=2 April 2016}}</ref> Kairat Zakiryanov considers the [[Japanese people|Japanese]] and [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] [[gene pool]]s to be identical.<ref name="zak">[http://zonakz.net/articles/25509?mode=default К.Закирьянов. Я вполне допускаю мысль, что в жилах Обамы течет тюркская кровь] (Russian)</ref> Several Turkish academics (Şevket Koçsoy, Özkan İzgi, Emel Esin) claim that [[Zhou dynasty]] were of Turkic origins.<ref>Esin, Emel (1986). [https://erdem.gov.tr/tam-metin-pdf/997/eng "The Culture of the Turks: The Initial Inner Asian Phase"] Publisher, Atatürk Culture Centre. p. 435, 439.</ref><ref>Koçsoy, Şevket (2002). "Türk Tarihi Kronojojisi", ''Türkler'', C. I., Yeni Türkiye, Ankara, p. 73.</ref><ref>İzgi, Özkan (2002). "Orta Asya'nın En Eski Kültürleri ve Çin Medeniyeti ile İlişkileri", ''Türkler'', C. I., Yeni Türkiye, Ankara, pp. 685-687.</ref><ref>Esin, Emel (2002). "İç Asya'da Milattan Önceki Bin Yılda Türklerin Atalarına Atfedilen Kültürler", ''Türkler'', C. I., Yeni Türkiye, Ankara, p. 733-734.</ref><br />
<br />
[[Philip L. Kohl]] notes that the above-mentioned theories are nothing more than "incredible myths".<ref name="KF"/> Nevertheless, the promotion of these theories have "taken on large-scale proportions" in countries such as [[Turkey]] and [[Azerbaijan]].<ref name="Simonian"/> Often associated with [[Greek genocide#Reasons for limited recognition|Greek]], [[Sayfo#Denial and justification|Assyrian]] and [[Armenian genocide denial]], pan-Turkic pseudoscience has received extensive state and state-backed non-governmental support, and is taught all the way from elementary school to the highest level of universities in such countries.<ref name="SD"/> Turkish and Azerbaijani students are imbued with textbooks which make "absurdly inflated" claims which state that all [[Eurasian nomads]], including the [[Scythians]], and all [[civilization]]s on the territory of the [[Ottoman Empire]], such as [[Sumer]], [[ancient Egypt]], [[ancient Greece]], and the [[Byzantine Empire]], were of Turkic origin.<ref name="Boldt">{{cite book |last1=Boldt |first1=Andreas |year=2017 |title=Historical Mechanisms: An Experimental Approach to Applying Scientific Theories to the Study of History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rzslDwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |pages=107–108 |isbn=978-1351816489 |quote=Violent flirtation with PanTuranism had a lasting effect on kemalist Turkey and its historical ideology: Turkish pupils are imbued by history textbooks even today with a dogma of absurdly inflated PanTurkish history—Turkish history comprises all Eurasian nomads, Indo-European (Scythian) and Turk-Mongol, plus their conquests in Persia, India China, all civilizations on the soil of the Ottoman Empire, from Sumer and Ancient Egypt via Greeks, Alexander the Great to Byzantium. }}</ref> Konstantin Sheiko and Stephen Brown explain the reemergence of such pseudo-history as a form of national therapy, helping its proponents cope with the failures of the past.<ref name="SB"/><br />
<br />
==Notable pan-Turkists==<br />
{{Div col}}<br />
*[[Abulfaz Elchibey]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Balci|first1=Bayram|editor1-last=Agadjanian|editor1-first=Alexander|editor2-last=Jödicke|editor2-first=Ansgar|editor3-last=van der Zweerde|editor3-first=Evert|title=Religion, Nation and Democracy in the South Caucasus|contribution=Between ambition and realism: Turkey's engagement in the South Caucasus|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=axTEBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA258&lpg=PA258&dq=Abulfaz+Elchibey 258]|quote=...the second president of independent Azerbaijan, Abulfaz Elchibey, was a prominent pan-Turkist nationalist...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Murinson|first1=Alexander|title=Turkey's Entente with Israel and Azerbaijan: State Identity and Security in the Middle East and Caucasus|date=2009|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135182441|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RWWLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=Abulfaz+Elchibey+pan-turkist 35]|quote=Naturally, they were associated with Elchibey's pan-Turkist aspirations...}}</ref><br />
*[[Ahmet Ağaoğlu]]<br />
*[[Alimardan Topchubashov]]<br />
*[[Alparslan Türkeş]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hale|first1=William M.|author-link1=William Hale (professor)|title=Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774-2000|date=2000|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780714650715|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_xLgtpBsovwC&pg=PA292&lpg=PA292&dq=Alparslan+Türkeş 292]|quote=Within Turkey, the pan- Turkist movement led by Alparslan Türkeş...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Larrabee|first1=F. Stephen|last2=Lesser|first2=Ian O.|title=Turkish Foreign Policy in an Age of Uncertainty|date=2003|publisher=Rand Corporation|isbn=9780833034045|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ETDGafGb0usC&pg=PA123&dq=Alparslan+Türkeş 123]|quote=The late Alparslan Turkes, the former head of the MHP, actively promoted a Pan-Turkic agenda.}}</ref><br />
*[[Ali Suavi]]<br />
*[[Askar Akayev]]<br />
*[[Djemal Pasha]]<br />
*[[Enver Pasha]]<br />
*[[Fuat Köprülü]]<br />
*[[Isa Alptekin]]<br />
*[[Ismail Gaspirali]]<br />
*[[Mammad Amin Rasulzade]]<br />
*[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]]<br />
*[[Mirsaid Sultan-Galiev]]<br />
*[[Mustafa Shokay]]<br />
*[[Munis Tekinalp]]<br />
*[[Nejdet Sançar]]<br />
*[[Nihal Atsız]]<br />
*[[Nuri Killigil]]<br />
*[[Ömer Seyfettin]]<br />
*[[Rıza Nur]]<br />
*[[Sadri Maksudi Arsal]]<br />
*[[Talaat Pasha]]<br />
*[[Reha Oğuz Türkkan]]<br />
*[[Yusuf Akçura]]<br />
*[[Zeki Velidi Togan]] <br />
*[[Ziya Gökalp]]<br />
{{Div col end}}<br />
<br />
==Pan-Turkist organizations==<br />
'''Azerbaijan'''<br />
*[[Azerbaijan National Democrat Party]]<br />
'''Iran'''<br />
*[[Southern Azerbaijan National Awakening Movement]] (SANAM)<br />
*[[Azerbaijan National Resistance Organization]] (ANRO)<br />
'''Kazakhstan'''<br />
*[[National Patriotic Party (Kazakhstan)|National Patriotic Party]]<br />
'''Turkey'''<br />
*[[National Party (Turkey)|National Party]]<br />
*[[Nationalist Movement Party]] (MHP)<br />
**[[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]]<br />
*[[Atsız Youth]]<br />
'''Uzbekistan'''<br />
*[[Unity (Uzbekistan)|Birlik]]<br />
<br />
==Quotations==<br />
*{{lang|tr|Dilde, fikirde, işte birlik}} ("Unity of language, thought and action")—[[Ismail Gasprinski]], a [[Crimean Tatars|Crimean Tatar]] member of the [[Turanian Society]]<br />
*{{lang|tr|Bu yürüyüş devam ediyor. Türk orduları ata ruhlarının dolaştığı Altay ve Tanrı Dağları eteklerinde geçit resmi yapıncaya kadar devam edecektir.}} ("This march is going on. It will continue until the Turkic Armies' parade on the foothills of Altai and Tien-Shan mountains where the souls of their ancestors stroll.")—[[Hüseyin Nihâl Atsız]], pan-Turkist author, philosopher and poet<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Div col}}<br />
*[[Altaic languages]]<br />
*[[Chauvinism]]<br />
*[[Ethnic nationalism]]<br />
*[[Eurasianism]]<br />
*[[Division of the Mongol Empire]]<br />
*[[Historic states represented in Turkish presidential seal]]<br />
*[[Hungarian Turanism]]<br />
*[[Idel-Ural]]<br />
*[[Inner Asia]]<br />
*[[Jobbik]]<br />
*[[Nationalist Movement Party]]<br />
*[[Neo-Ottomanism]]<br />
*[[Pan-nationalism]]<br />
*[[Turanid]]<br />
*[[Turanism]]<br />
*[[Turkic Council]]<br />
*[[Turkism Day]]<br />
*[[Turkic languages]]<br />
*[[Turco-Mongol]]s<br />
*[[Tartary]]<br />
*[[Ural–Altaic languages]]<br />
{{Div col end}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Notelist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
* Jacob M. Landau. ''Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation''. Hurst, 1995. {{ISBN|1-85065-269-4}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
*[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Turkism Encyclopædia Britannica Pan-Turkism]<br />
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041118082359/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3955/is_n7_v48/ai_19226505 Ildiko Beller Hann – Article on Pan-Turkism]<br />
*[http://www.iccrimea.org/gaspirali/fisher.html Alan W. Fisher – 'A Model Leader for Asia, Ismail Gaspirali']<br />
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070613031203/http://www.benadorassociates.com/pf.php?id=17178 Amir Taheri – Book Review of ''Sons of the Conquerors: Rise of the Turkic World'']<br />
*[http://tatar.yuldash.com/eng_099.html Article on Pan-Turkism in The Tatar Gazette]<br />
<br />
{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Turkic topics}}<br />
{{Turkey topics}}<br />
{{Irredentism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Pan-nationalist concepts}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1880s introductions]]<br />
[[Category:Pan-Turkism| ]]<br />
[[Category:Far-right politics in Asia]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish irredentism]]<br />
[[Category:Pan-nationalism|Turkism]]<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Asia]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1144972325Turkish nationalism2023-03-16T15:18:11Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Pan-Turkism */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
<br />
'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either a [[Turkey#Demographics|national]], [[Turkish people|ethnic]], or [[Turkish language|linguistic group]]. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
<br />
After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a language reform with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Sun Language Theory]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1935. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref> <br />
<br />
The early Turkish nationalists were typically [[Secularity|secular]] and often influenced by [[Ziya Gökalp]] (1876–1924).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Aytürk |first=İlker |date=2014 |title=Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24585883 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=693–694 |issn=0026-3206 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}</ref> Gökalp aimed for the [[Turkification]] of Islam; that the [[Quran]] should be translated from Arabic into Turkish, and that the [[adhan]] should be shouted in Turkish instead of Arabic from the [[Minaret|Minarets]].<ref name=":0" /> During the early years of the republic, religious traditions were not important and Turkish nationalists were much more open to the westernization of the Turkish society.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
<br />
==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), Turkish-Islamic synthesis (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by Atatürk, the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six fundamental pillars.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
<br />
In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on his sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
<br />
Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]]. The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref> Pan-Turkism, as an ideal and goal, was also a part of [[Ziya Gökalp]]'s Turkish nationalist view.<br />
<br />
===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
<br />
In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
<br />
Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
<br />
=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
<br />
The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
<br />
After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> Turkish-Islamic synthesis, and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
<br />
===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
<br />
Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
<br />
There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
<br />
In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civic_nationalism&diff=1144873308Civic nationalism2023-03-16T01:30:19Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
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<div>{{Short description|Form of nationalism espousing freedom, tolerance, equality and individual rights}}<br />
{{distinguish|Constitutional patriotism|national liberalism}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}<br />
{{nationalism sidebar|types}}<br />
{{Liberalism sidebar}}<br />
<br />
'''Civic nationalism''', also known as '''liberal nationalism''', is a form of [[nationalism]] that adheres to traditional liberal values of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]], [[Toleration|tolerance]], [[Egalitarianism|equality]], [[individual rights]] and is not based on [[ethnocentrism]].<ref name=Auer>{{cite book|last1=Auer|first1=Stefan|title=Liberal Nationalism in Central Europe|date=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1134378602|page=5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BhNsM_ttOb4C&pg=PA5|access-date=13 May 2017}}</ref><ref>Tamir, Yael. 1993. ''Liberal Nationalism.'' Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-07893-9}}{{Page needed |date=June 2016}}; [[Will Kymlicka]]. 1995. ''Multicultural Citizenship.'' Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-827949-3}}{{Page needed |date=June 2016}}; David Miller. 1995. [http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-829356-9 ''On Nationality.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000601183631/http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-829356-9 |date=1 June 2000 }} Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-828047-5}}.</ref> Civic nationalists often defend the value of [[national identity]] by saying that individuals need it as an upper identity in order to lead meaningful, autonomous lives<ref>Kymlicka, Will. 1995. ''Multicultural Citizenship''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-827949-3}}. For criticism, see: Patten, Alan. 1999. [https://www.doi.org/10.1111/j.1354-5078.1999.00001.x "The Autonomy Argument for Liberal Nationalism."] ''[[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]].'' 5(1): 1-17.</ref> and that [[Democracy|democratic]] [[Polity|polities]] need [[national identity]] to function properly.<ref>Miller, David. 1995. On Nationality. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-828047-5}}. For criticism, see: [[Arash Abizadeh|Abizadeh, Arash]]. 2002. [http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Does-Liberal-Democracy-Presuppose-a-Cultural-Nation/c22zv/558da7580cf298ff2bcbdc82 "Does Liberal Democracy Presuppose a Cultural Nation? Four Arguments."] ''American Political Science Review'' 96 (3): 495-509; Abizadeh, Arash. 2004. "[http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Liberal-Nationalist-vs-Postnational-Social-Integration/c22zv/558eaf0b0cf20d45521f9542 Liberal Nationalist versus Postnational Social Integration]." ''[[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]]'' 10(3): 231-250.</ref> <br />
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Civic nationalism is frequently contrasted with [[ethnic nationalism]]. Historically, civic nationalism was a determining factor in the development of modern [[Constitution|constitutional]] and democratic forms of government, whereas ethnic nationalism has been more associated with [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] rule and even [[dictatorship]].<ref>DONALD IPPERCIEL (2007): Constitutional democracy and civic nationalism [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8129.2007.00293.x]</ref><br />
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Civic nationhood is a political identity built around shared citizenship within the state. Thus, a "[[Civic nationalities|civic nation]]" is defined not by culture but by political institutions and liberal principles, which its citizens pledge to uphold. Membership in the civic nation is open to every [[Citizenship|citizen]] by [[citizenship]], regardless of culture or ethnicity; those who share these values are considered members of the nation.<ref name= definition>{{cite journal|journal=Philosophy & Public Affairs|author=ANNA STILZ|title=Civic Nationalism and Language Policy|page=257|volume=37|issue=3}}</ref> For example, according to the Article 66 of the [[Turkish Constitution]], those who receive [[Turkish nationality law|Turkish citizenship]] are considered as a "[[Turkish people|Turk]]" even if their ethnicity is not Turkish.<br />
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In theory, a civic nation or state does not aim to promote one culture over another.<ref name="definition" /> German philosopher [[Jürgen Habermas]] argued that immigrants to a [[Liberal democracy|liberal-democratic]] state need not assimilate into the host culture but only accept the principles of the country's constitution ([[constitutional patriotism]]).<ref name="definition" /><br />
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==History==<br />
{{or-section|date=January 2017}}<br />
Civic nationalism lies within the traditions of [[rationalism]] and [[liberalism]], but as a form of nationalism it is contrasted with [[ethnic nationalism]]. [[Ernest Renan]] is often thought to be an early civic nationalist.<ref>Ernest Renan. "[[What is a Nation?]]", 1882; cf. Chaim Gans, ''The Limits of Nationalism'', Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 11.</ref> Philosopher [[Hans Kohn]] was one of the first to differentiate civic nationalism from [[ethnic nationalism]] in his 1944 publication ''[[The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tamir|first=Yael (Yuli)|date=2019-05-11|title=Not So Civic: Is There a Difference Between Ethnic and Civic Nationalism?|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|language=en|volume=22|issue=1|pages=419–434|doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-022018-024059|issn=1094-2939|doi-access=free}}</ref> Membership of the civic [[nation]] is considered voluntary, as in Renan's classical definition in "[[Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?]]" of the nation as a "daily referendum" characterized by the "will to live together".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Renan |first=Ernest |date=March 11, 1882 |title=What Is A Nation |url=http://ucparis.fr/files/9313/6549/9943/What_is_a_Nation.pdf |access-date=November 29, 2022 |website=UCParis}}</ref> Civic-national ideals influenced the development of [[representative democracy]] in countries such as the [[United States]] and [[France]] (see the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] of 1776, and the ''[[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]]'' of 1789).<br />
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The [[Corsican nationalism|Corsican nationalist]] movement organized around the [[FLNC]] is giving a civic definition of the Corsican nation ("destiny community") in the continuity of [[Pasquale Paoli]] and the ideas of the [[Lumières]].<br />
<br />
The [[Scottish National Party]]<ref name="O'Neill2004">{{cite book|author=Michael O'Neill|title=Devolution and British Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tuzpsTYEZ28C&pg=PA92|year=2004|publisher=Pearson/Longman|isbn=978-0-582-47274-7|pages=92–}}</ref><ref name="SalmonImber2008">{{cite book|author1=Trevor C. Salmon|author2=Mark F. Imber|title=Issues In International Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ayz0kWKhKacC&pg=PA50|date=6 June 2008|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-203-92659-8|pages=50–}}</ref><ref name="ethnicitywithoutgroups"/> and [[Plaid Cymru]],<ref name="ethnicitywithoutgroups">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZrV9fnIkgjcC&q=plaid+cymru+%22civic+nationalism%22&pg=PA134 |title=Ethnicity Without Groups |first=Rogers |last=Brubaker |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=2004 |isbn=0674015398 |page=134}}</ref> which advocate independence of their respective nations from the United Kingdom, proclaim themselves to be civic nationalist parties, in which they advocate the independence and popular sovereignty of the people living in their nation's society, not individual ethnic groups.<br />
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The [[Republican Left of Catalonia]] supports a civic [[Catalan independentism]] and defends a [[Catalan Republic]] based on [[republicanism]] and civic values within a diverse society.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Els valors republicans com a pilar de la nostra societat|url=https://www.esquerra.cat/ca/els-valors-republicans-com-a-pilar-de-la-nostra-societat|language=ca}}</ref><br />
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The [[Union of Cypriots]] define its ideology as [[Cypriot nationalism]],<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Aldrich |first=Alan |date=17 August 2018 |title=Cypriotism in the Twenty-First Century |url=https://bellacaledonia.org.uk/2018/08/17/cypriotism-in-the-twenty-first-century/ |magazine=[[Bella Caledonia]] |location=Scotland |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821064324/https://bellacaledonia.org.uk/2018/08/17/cypriotism-in-the-twenty-first-century/ |archive-date=21 August 2018 |access-date=21 August 2018 }}</ref> a civic nationalism that focuses on the shared identity of [[Greek Cypriots]] and [[Turkish Cypriots]]. It highlights both communities' common culture, heritage and traditions as well as economic, political, and social rights. It also supports the reunification of Cyprus and the end of foreign interference by [[Greece]], [[Turkey]], and the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="HayMenon2007">{{cite book|author1=Colin Hay|author2=Anand Menon|title=European Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XUecAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA125|date=18 January 2007|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-928428-3|pages=125}}</ref><br />
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Outside Europe, it has also been used to describe the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] in the United States during the Civil War Era.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YJ3CrOiJ6wYC&q=conservative+%22civic+nationalism%22&pg=PA140|title=Fenians, Freedmen, and Southern Whites: Race and Nationality in the Era of Reconstruction|author=Snay, Mitchell|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|year=2007|isbn=9780807132739}}</ref><br />
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Civic nationalism shares elements of the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] concept of ''Willensnation'', which is German for "nation by will", coined by [[Carl Hilty]], understood as shared experience and dedication by citizens.<br />
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==Critique==<br />
The main criticism to civic nationalism comes from [[ethnic nationalism]], which considers that the former was invented solely to act against the latter.<br />
<br />
[[Yael Tamir]] has argued that the differences between ethnic and civic nationalism are blurred.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tamir|first=Yael (Yuli)|date=2019|title=Not So Civic: Is There a Difference Between Ethnic and Civic Nationalism?|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|language=en|volume=22|issue=1|pages=419–434|doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-022018-024059|issn=1094-2939|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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==See also==<br />
* [[National liberalism]]<br />
* [[Americanism (ideology)]]<br />
* [[Civic virtue]]<br />
* [[Composite nationalism]]<br />
* [[Cultural nationalism]]<br />
* [[Imagined community]]<br />
* [[Liberal Nationalism (Tamir)|''Liberal Nationalism'' (book)]]<br />
* [[Nation-building]]<br />
* [[Postcolonial anarchism]]<br />
* [[Plurinationalism]]<br />
<br />
== Citations ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
* {{cite journal|last=Tournier-Sol|first=Karine|year=2015|title=Reworking the Eurosceptic and Conservative Traditions into a Populist Narrative: UKIP's Winning Formula?|journal=Journal of Common Market Studies|volume=53|number=1|pages=140–56|doi=10.1111/jcms.12208|s2cid=142738345}}<br />
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== External links ==<br />
* {{wiktionary-inline|when in Rome, do as the Romans do}}<br />
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{{Nationalism}}<br />
{{Liberalism}}<br />
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[[Category:Civic nationalism| ]]<br />
[[Category:Anti-racism]]<br />
[[Category:Communitarianism]]<br />
[[Category:Cosmopolitanism]]<br />
[[Category:Cultural politics]]<br />
[[Category:Immigration activism]]<br />
[[Category:Liberalism]]<br />
[[Category:National liberalism]]<br />
[[Category:Pluralism (philosophy)]]<br />
[[Category:Political philosophy]]<br />
[[Category:Political science terminology]]<br />
[[Category:Rationalism]]<br />
[[Category:Social ideologies]]<br />
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[[de:Willensnation]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kemalism&diff=1144269694Kemalism2023-03-12T19:54:16Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Populism */</p>
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<div>{{short description|Founding ideology of the Republic of Turkey, proclaimed in 1923}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Republican People's Party (Turkey).svg|thumb|261x261px|[[The Six Arrows]]]]<br />
{{Atatürk sidebar}}<br />
{{Populism sidebar|expanded=Related}}<br />
{{Nationalism sidebar}}<br />
'''Kemalism''' ({{lang-tr|Kemalizm}}, also archaically ''Kamâlizm''<ref>''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kam%C3%A2lizm.pdf Kamâlizm]'' (1936) by [[Mehmet Şeref Aykut]]</ref>), also known as '''Ataturkism''' ({{lang-tr|Atatürkçülük, Atatürkçü düşünce}}), or '''The Six Arrows''' ({{lang-tr|Altı Ok}}), is the founding official ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]].<ref name="EricPage181">Eric J. Zurcher, Turkey: A Modern History. New York, J.B. Tauris & Co ltd. page 181</ref> Kemalism, as it was implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] after the [[Republic Day (Turkey)|declaration of Republic in 1923]], was defined by sweeping political, social, cultural and religious reforms designed to separate the new Turkish state from its [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] predecessor and embrace a Western-style modernized lifestyle,<ref name=cleveland13>Cleveland, William L., and Martin P. Bunton. ''A History of the Modern Middle East''. Boulder: Westview, 2013.</ref> including the establishment of [[Secularism in Turkey|secularism/laicism]] ({{lang-fr|laïcité}}), state support of the sciences, free education, and many more. Most of those were first introduced to and implemented in Turkey during Atatürk's presidency through [[Atatürk's reforms|his reforms]].<br />
<br />
Many of the root ideas of Kemalism began during the late [[Ottoman Empire]] under various reforms to avoid the imminent [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|collapse of the Empire]], beginning chiefly in the early 19th-century [[Tanzimat]] reforms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cleveland |first1=William L |first2=Martin |last2=Bunton |title=A History of the Modern Middle East |edition=4th |publisher=Westview Press |year=2009 |pages=82}}</ref> The mid-century [[Young Ottomans]] attempted to create the ideology of Ottoman nationalism, or [[Ottomanism]], to quell the [[Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|rising ethnic nationalism]] in the Empire and introduce limited democracy for the first time while maintaining Islamist influences. In the early 20th century, the [[Young Turks]] abandoned Ottoman nationalism in favor of early [[Turkish nationalism]], while adopting a secular political outlook. After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, Atatürk, influenced by both the Young Ottomans and the Young Turks,<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Cuthell |first=David Cameron Jr. |year=2009 |editor1-last=Ágoston |editor1-first=Gábor |editor2-first=Bruce |editor2-last=Masters |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |chapter=Atatürk, Kemal (Mustafa Kemal) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA56 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Facts On File]] |pages=56–60 |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |lccn=2008020716 |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref> as well as by their successes and failures, led the declaration of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, borrowing from the earlier movements' ideas of secularism and Turkish nationalism, while bringing about, for the first time, free education<ref name=mango164>{{cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |author-link= Andrew Mango |title=Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey |publisher=[[The Overlook Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-58567-334-6 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nu68vd_AmuYC |page=164}}</ref> and other reforms that have been enshrined by later leaders into guidelines for governing Turkey.<br />
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==Philosophy==<br />
Kemalism is a modernization philosophy that guided the transition between the multi-religious, multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire to the [[Secular humanism|secular]], [[Democracy|democratic]], and [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[Republicanism|Republic of Turkey]]. Kemalism sets the boundaries of the social process in the [[Atatürk's reforms|Turkish Reformation]]. Atatürk was the founder of Kemalism, and his doctrine was implemented as [[Ideology|state ideology]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Webster |first=Donald Everett |title=The Turkey of Atatürk; Social Process in the Turkish Reformation |year=1973 |publisher=AMS Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-404-56333-2 |page=245}}</ref> but Atatürk refrained from being dogmatic and described his and his spiritual heirs' guide to be science and reason:<br />
{{blockquote|I do not leave any verses, any dogmas, nor any frozen and moulded principles as spritual heritage. My spritual heritage is science and reason.<ref name="Giritli">{{lang-tr|"Ben, manevî miras olarak hiçbir nass-ı katı, hiçbir dogma, hiçbir donmuş ve kalıplaşmış kural bırakmıyorum. Benim manevî mirasım, ilim ve akıldır."}} İsmet Giritli, Kemalist Devrim ve İdeolojisi, İstanbul, 1980</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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==Principles==<br />
There are six principles (''ilke'') of the ideology: [[Republicanism]] ({{lang-tr|cumhuriyetçilik}}), [[Populism]] ({{lang-tr|halkçılık}}), [[Nationalism]] ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}), [[Laicism]] ({{lang-tr|laiklik}}), [[Statism]] ({{lang-tr|devletçilik}}), and [[Reform movement|Reformism]] ({{lang-tr|inkılapçılık}}). Together, they represent a kind of [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobinism]], defined by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] himself as a method of employing political despotism to break down the social despotism prevalent among the traditionally-minded Turkish-Muslim population, caused by, he believed, the bigotry of the ''[[Ulama|ulema]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0440|title=Kemalism - Oxford Islamic Studies Online|website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com|access-date=2019-05-01}}</ref><br />
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===Republicanism===<br />
[[Republicanism]] ({{lang-tr|cumhuriyetçilik}}) in the Kemalist framework replaced the [[absolute monarchy]] of the [[Ottoman dynasty]] with the [[rule of law]], [[popular sovereignty]] and [[civic virtue]], including an emphasis on liberty practiced by citizens. Kemalist republicanism defines a type of constitutional republic, in which representatives of the people are elected, and must govern in accordance with existing constitutional law limiting governmental power over citizens. The head of state and other officials are chosen by election rather than inheriting their positions, and their decisions are subject to judicial review. In defending the change from the Ottoman State, Kemalism asserts that all laws of the Republic of Turkey should be inspired by actual needs here on Earth as a basic tenet of national life.<ref>Mustafa Kemal as quoted in "A World View of Criminal Justice (2005)" by Richard K. Vogler, p. 116</ref> Kemalism advocates a republican system as the best representative of the wishes of the people.<br />
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Among the many types of [[republic]], the Kemalist republic is a [[representative democracy|representative]], [[Liberal democracy|liberal]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Soyak |first=Hasan Rıza |title=Atatürk'ten Hatıralar |pages=58 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=İlhan |first=Atilla |title=Hangi Atatürk |pages=111 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kili |first=Suna |title=Türk Devrim Tarihi |pages=240 |language=tr}}</ref> [[Parliamentary republic|parliamentary democracy]] with a Parliament chosen in general elections, a [[President (government title)|president]] as head of state elected by Parliament and serving for a limited term, a [[prime minister]] appointed by the president, and other ministers appointed by Parliament. The Kemalist president does not have direct executive powers, but has limited veto powers, and the right to contest with referendum. The day-to-day operation of government is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers formed by the prime minister and the other ministers. There is a [[separation of powers]] between the executive (president and Council of Ministers), the legislative (Parliament) and the judiciary, in which no one branch of government has authority over another—although parliament is charged with the supervision of the Council of Ministers, which can be compelled to resign by a vote of no-confidence.<br />
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The Kemalist republic is a [[unitary state]] in which three [[Separation of powers|organs of state]] govern the nation as a single unit, with one [[constitution]]ally created [[legislature]]. On some issues, the [[Power (social and political)|political power]] of [[government]] is transferred to lower levels, to local elected assemblies represented by mayors, but the [[central government]] retains the principal governing role.<br />
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===Populism===<br />
{{multiple image<br />
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| header = Dimensions of Populism<br />
| width = 150<br />
| image1 = GNAT speakers.jpg<br />
| caption1 = "[[Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the People|Sovereignty belongs, without any restrictions or conditions, to the nation]]" is embossed behind the speaker's seat at the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|GNA]]<br />
| image2 = Nicosia 01-2017 img17 View from Shacolas Tower.jpg<br />
| caption2 = The motto, "[[How happy is the one who says I am a Turk|Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]]", embossed on the [[Kyrenia Mountains]] in [[Northern Cyprus]].<br />
}}<br />
[[Populism]] ({{lang-tr|halkçılık}}) is defined as a social revolution aimed to transfer the political power to [[citizenship]]. Kemalist populism intends not only to establish [[popular sovereignty]] but also the transfer of the social-economic transformation{{clarify|date=May 2021}} to realize a true populist state. However, Kemalists reject [[class conflict]] and [[Collective farming|collectivism]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler (Örgün Yayınları)|publisher=Afet İnan|year=1930s|pages=212}}</ref> Kemalist populism believes [[national identity]] is above all else. Kemalist populism envisions a sociality that emphasizes [[class collaboration]] and national unity like [[Solidarity|solidarism]]. Populism in Turkey is to create a unifying force that brings a sense of the Turkish state and the power of the people to bring in that new unity.<ref name="jstor.org">Kili, Suna. “Kemalism in Contemporary Turkey.” International Political Science Review, vol. 1, no. 3, 1980, pp. 381–404. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1601123.</ref><br />
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Kemalist populism is an extension of the Kemalist modernization movement, aiming to make Islam compatible with the modern nation-state. This included state supervision of religious schools and organizations. Mustafa Kemal himself said "everyone needs a place to learn religion and faith; that place is a ''[[Wiktionary:mektep#Turkish|mektep]]'', not a ''[[madrasa]]''". This was intended to combat the "corruption" of Islam by the ''ulema''. Kemal believed that during the Ottoman period, the ''ulema'' had come to exploit the power of their office and manipulate religious practices to their own benefit. It was also feared that, were education not brought under state control, unsupervised ''madrasa''s could exacerbate the rising problem of ''[[tariqa|tarikat]]'' insularity that threatened to undermine the unity of the Turkish state.<ref name="AKMAK, DİREN 2009, pp. 825">ÇAKMAK, DİREN. “Pro-Islamic Public Education in Turkey: The Imam-Hatip Schools.” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 45, no. 5, 2009, pp. 825–846. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40647155.</ref><br />
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====Sovereignty====<br />
Kemalist social theory (populism) does not accept any adjectives placed before the definition of a nation [a nation of ...] Sovereignty must belong solely to people without any term, condition, etc.:<br />
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{{Blockquote|[[Sovereignty]] belongs to the nation unrestrictedly and unconditionally.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DC. |first=Embassy of the Republic of Turkey, Washington |url=http://www.turkishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188&Itemid=165 |title=Constitution and Foundations of the State System |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070115010917/http://www.turkishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188&Itemid=165 |archive-date=January 15, 2007 }}</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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====Motto====<br />
Populism was used against the political domination of sheiks, tribal leaders, and [[Islamism]] (Islam as a political system) of the Ottoman Empire. Initially, the declaration of the republic was perceived as ''"Returning to the days of the [[Rashidun|first caliphs]]"''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Mango |title=Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey |orig-year=1999 |edition=Paperback |year=2002 |publisher=Overlook Press, Peter Mayer Publishers, Inc |location=Woodstock, NY |isbn=1-58567-334-X |page=[https://archive.org/details/ataturk00andr/page/394 394] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ataturk00andr/page/394 }}</ref> However, Atatürk's nationalism aimed to shift the political legitimacy from [[autocracy]] (by the [[Ottoman dynasty]]), [[theocracy]] (based in the [[Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman caliphate]]), and [[feudalism]] (tribal leaders) to the active participation of its citizenry, the Turks. Kemalist social theory wanted to establish the value of Turkish citizenship. A sense of pride associated with this citizenship would give the needed psychological spur for people to work harder and achieve a sense of unity and national identity. Active participation, or the "will of the people", was established with the republican regime and Turkishness replacing the other forms of affiliations that had been promoted in the Ottoman Empire (such as the allegiance to the different millets that eventually led to divisiveness in the empire). The shift in affiliation was symbolized with:<br />
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{{Blockquote|{{lang-tr|links=no|[[Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]].}}<br />
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({{lang-en|How happy is the one who calls themself a [[Turkish people|Turk]].}})|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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The motto "[[How happy is the one who says I am a Turk|Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]]" was promoted against such mottoes as "long live the Sultan," "long live the Sheikh", or "long live the Caliph."<br />
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===Laicism===<br />
{{Main|Secularism in Turkey|Islam in Turkey}}<br />
{{See also|Freedom of religion in Turkey}}<br />
[[Laicism]] ({{lang-tr|laiklik}}) in Kemalist ideology aims to banish religious interference in government affairs, and vice versa. It differs from the passive Anglo-American concept of secularism,<ref name="Kösebalaban2011">{{cite book |last=Kösebalaban |first=Hasan |title=Turkish Foreign Policy: Islam, Nationalism, and Globalization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3dnGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |date=12 April 2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-11869-0 |page=9}}</ref> but is similar to the concept of [[Secularism in France|laïcité]] in France.<br />
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The roots of Kemalist secularism lie in the reform efforts in the late Ottoman Empire, especially the [[Tanzimat]] period and the later [[Second Constitutional Era]]. The Ottoman Empire was an [[Islamic state]] in which the head of the Ottoman state held the position of the Caliph. The social system was organized according to various systems, including the religiously organized Millet system and [[Sharia|Shari'ah law]], allowing religious ideology to be incorporated into the Ottoman administrative, economic, and political system. This way of life is today defined as [[Islamism]] (political Islam): "the belief that Islam should guide social and political as well as personal life".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Berman |first=Sheri| author-link=Sheri Berman |title=Islamism, Revolution, and Civil Society |journal=Perspectives on Politics |volume=1 |issue=2 |year=2003 |page=258 |doi=10.1017/S1537592703000197|s2cid=145201910}}</ref> In the Second Constitutional Era, the [[General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Parliament]] pursued largely secular policies, although techniques of religious populism and attacks on other candidates' piety still occurred between [[List of political parties in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman political parties]] during [[Elections in the Ottoman Empire|elections]]. These policies were stated as the reason for the [[31 March Incident|countercoup of 1909]] by Islamists and absolute monarchists. The secular policies of the Ottoman parliament also factored in the [[Arab Revolt]] during World War I.<br />
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When secularism was implemented in the fledgling Turkish state, it was initiated by the abolition of the centuries-old [[caliphate]] in March 1924. The office of [[Shaykh al-Islām]] was replaced with the [[Directorate of Religious Affairs|Presidency of Religious Affairs]] ({{lang-tr|Diyanet}}). In 1926, the ''[[Mecelle|mejelle]]'' and shari'ah law codes were abandoned in favor of an adapted [[Swiss Civil Code]] and a penal code modeled on the German and Italian codes. Other religious practices were done away with, resulting in the dissolution of [[Sufism|Sufi]] orders and the penalization of wearing a ''[[Fez (hat)|fez]]'', which was viewed by Atatürk as a tie to the Ottoman past.<ref name=cleveland13/><br />
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====State and religion (Laïcité)====<br />
Atatürk was profoundly influenced by the triumph of ''[[Secularism in France|laïcité]]'' in France.<ref name=page153>{{cite book |authorlink=M. Şükrü Hanioğlu|last=Hanioglu |first=Sükrü |title=Ataturk: An Intellectual Biography |year=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=153}}</ref> Atatürk perceived the French model as the authentic form of secularism. Kemalism strove to control religion and transform it into a private affair rather than an institution interfering with politics, as well as scientific and social progress.<ref name=page153/> "Sane reason," and "the liberty of [one's] fellow man," as Atatürk once put it.<ref>Ruşen Eşref Ünaydin, 1954, "Atatürk -Tarih ve Dil Kurumları Hatıraları" Türk Tarih Kurumu. pp. 28–31.</ref> It is more than merely creating a separation between state and religion. Atatürk has been described as working as if he were [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo the Isaurian]], [[Martin Luther]], the [[Baron d'Holbach]], [[Ludwig Büchner]], [[Émile Combes]], and [[Jules Ferry]] rolled into one in creating Kemalist secularism.<ref name=page153/> Kemalist secularism does not imply nor advocate [[agnosticism]] or [[nihilism]]; it means freedom of thought and independence of the institutions of the state from the dominance of religious thought and religious institutions. The Kemalist principle of laicism is not against moderate and apolitical religion, but against religious forces opposed to and fighting modernization and democracy.<br />
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According to the Kemalist perception, the Turkish state is to stand at an equal distance from every religion, neither promoting nor condemning any set of religious beliefs. Kemalists, however, have called for not only separation of church and state but also a call for the state control of the Turkish Muslim religious establishment{{fact|date=November 2022}}. For some Kemalists{{who|date=November 2022}}, this means that the state must be at the helm of religious affairs, and all religious activities are under the supervision of the state. This, in turn, drew criticism from the religious conservatives. Religious conservatives were vocal in rejecting this idea, saying that to have a secular state, the state can't control the activities of religious institutions. Despite their protest, this policy was officially adopted by the 1961 constitution.<ref name="jstor.org"/><br />
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Kemalism must stamp out the religious element within society. After Turkish independence from the Western powers, all education was under the control of the state in both secular and religious schools. It centralized the education system, with one curriculum in both religious and secular public schools, in the hope this would eliminate or lessen the appeal of religious schools. The laws were meant to abolish the [[Sufism|Sufi]] religious schools or orders ''([[Tariqa|tarikats]])'' and their lodges ''([[khanqah|tekke]]s)''. Titles like ''[[sheikh]]'' and ''[[dervish]]'' were abolished, and their activities were banned by the government. The day of rest was changed by the government from Friday to Sunday. But the restrictions on personal choice extended to both religious duty and naming. Turks had to adopt a surname and were not allowed to perform the [[hajj]] (pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]).<ref name="jstor.org"/><ref name="AKMAK, DİREN 2009, pp. 825"/><br />
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====Politics and religion (Secularism)====<br />
The Kemalist form of [[Separation of church and state#Turkey|separation of state and religion]] sought the reform of a complete set of institutions, interest groups (such as [[List of political parties in Turkey|political parties]], unions, and lobbies), the relationships between those institutions, and the political norms and rules that governed their functions (constitution, election law). The biggest change in this perspective was the abolishment of the [[Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman caliphate]] on March 3, 1924, followed by the removal of its political mechanisms. The article stating that "the established religion of Turkey is Islam" was removed from the constitution on April 10, 1928.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.atam.gov.tr/index.php?Page=DergiIcerik&IcerikNo=560 |title=Atatürk ve Laiklik |access-date=2017-07-28 |publisher=Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, Issue: 24, Volume: VIII}}</ref><br />
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From a political perspective, Kemalism is anti-clerical, in that it seeks to prevent religious influence on the democratic process, which was a problem even in the largely secular politics of the [[Second Constitutional Era]] of the Ottoman Empire, when even non-religiously affiliated political parties like the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] and the [[Freedom and Accord Party]] feuded over matters such as the Islamic piety of their candidates in the [[1912 Ottoman general election|Ottoman elections of 1912]].<ref name=HK>Hasan Kayalı (1995) [http://psi203.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Kayali,%20Elections%20in%20the%20Ott%20Empire%20(1995).pdf "Elections and the Electoral Process in the Ottoman Empire, 1876-1919"] ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'', Vol. 27, No. 3, pp 273–274. "The prominent leaders of the Entente [Freedom and Accord Party] were Turkish-speaking and no different from the Unionists as far as their basic attitudes toward Islam were concerned. Nevertheless, they sought to frustrate the CUP by encouraging non-Turkish groups to attack it for pursuing a policy of Turkification and by pointing out to the conservatives its alleged disregard for Islamic principles and values. The overall effect of this propaganda was to instill ethnic and sectarian-religious discord, which survived the Entente's defeat at the polls ... The Unionists proved to be less vulnerable to accusations of disregard for Islamic precepts and values. Some of the Entente members were known for their cosmopolitan attitudes and close relations with foreign interests. But this did not keep the Entente from accusing the CUP of violating Islamic principles and attempting to restrict the prerogatives of the sultan-caliph in its pamphlets. One such pamphlet, ''Afiksoz'' (Candid Words), appealed to the religious-national sentiments of Arabs and claimed that Zionist intrigue was responsible for the abandonment of [[Libya]] to the Italians. Such propaganda forced the CUP to seize the role of the champion of Islam. After all, the secular integrationist Ottomanism that it had preached was failing, and the latest manifestation of this failure was the Entente's appeal to segments of Christian communities. The Unionists used Islamic symbols effectively in their election propaganda in 1912. They accused the Entente of trying to separate the offices of the caliphate and the sultanate and thus weakening Islam and the Muslims. There seemed no end to the capital to be gained from the exploitation and manipulation of religious rhetoric. In Izmir, the Entente attacked the CUP's intention to amend Article 35 of the constitution by arguing that the Unionists were thus denouncing the "thirty" days of fasting and "five" daily prayers. This led the town's mufti to plead that "for the sake of Islam and the welfare of the country" religion not be used to achieve political objectives. As with the rhetoric on Turkification, Islam too remained in political discourse long after the elections were over."</ref> Thus, in the Kemalist political perspective, politicians cannot claim to be the protector of any religion or religious sect, and such claims constitute sufficient legal grounds for the permanent banning of political parties.<br />
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====Insignia====<br />
The Ottoman social system was based on religious affiliation. Religious insignia extended to every social function. Clothing identified citizens with their own particular religious grouping; headgear distinguished rank and profession. [[Turban]]s, [[Fez (hat)|fez]]es, [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnet]]s, and head-dresses denoted the sex, rank, and profession — both civil and military — of the wearer. Religious insignia outside of worship areas became banned.<br />
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While Atatürk considered women's religious coverings as antithetical to progress and equality, he also recognized that headscarves were not such a danger to the separation of church and state to warrant an outright ban.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/jlg/vol332/661-686.pdf|title=Politics of the Headscarf in Turkey: Masculinities, Feminism, and the Construction of Collective Identities|first=Valorie K.|last=Vojdik|journal=Harvard Journal of Law & Gender|volume= 33|pages=661–686|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416012819/http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/jlg/vol332/661-686.pdf|archive-date=16 April 2012}}</ref> But the Constitution was amended in 1982, following the 1980 coup by the Kemalist-leaning military, to prohibit women's use of Islamic coverings such as the ''[[hijab]]'' at higher education institutions.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Journal of Political Inquiry |url=http://www.jpinyu.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/roots-of-the-headscarf-debate-laicism-and-secularism-in-france-and-turkey.pdf |title=Roots of the Headscarf Debate: Laicism and Secularism in France and Turkey |first=Gulce |last=Tarhan |year=2011 |issue=4 |pages=1–32 |access-date=2014-10-04 }}</ref> [[Joost Lagendijk]], a [[member of the European Parliament]] and chair of the Joint Parliamentary Committee with Turkey, has publicly criticized these [[dress code|clothing restrictions]] for Muslim women,<ref>Lagendijk, Joost (2006-03-22). [http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2006/03/22/siy113.html Başörtüsü yasağı savunulamaz]. ''Sabah''.</ref> whereas the [[European Court of Human Rights]] has ruled in numerous cases that such restrictions in public buildings and educational institutions do not constitute a violation of human rights.<ref>[http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=9958 ECHR Rules for Turkish Headscarf Ban] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604102452/http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=9958 |date=2009-06-04 }}: The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled in favor of Turkey's policy of banning headscarves at universities. (Today's Zaman, 30 June 2004)</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131226050047/http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=40196 ECHR Insists on Headscarf Ban], [[Journal of Turkish Weekly]], 2006-10-17</ref><br />
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===Reformism===<br />
[[Reform movement|Reformism]] ({{lang-tr|inkılapçılık}}) is a principle which calls for the country to replace the traditional institutions and concepts with modern institutions and concepts. This principle advocated the need for fundamental social change through [[reform]] as a strategy to achieve a modern society. The core of the reform, in the Kemalist sense, was an accomplished fact.<ref name="durkiem">{{Cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Peter |title=Emile Durkheim: Critical Assessments |year=1995 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-11046-7 |page=69}}</ref> In a Kemalist sense, there is no possibility of return to the old systems because they were deemed backward.<br />
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The principle of reformism went beyond the recognition of the reforms made during Atatürk's lifetime. Atatürk's reforms in the social and political spheres are accepted as irreversible. Atatürk never entertained the possibility of a pause or transition phase during the course of the progressive unfolding or implementation of the reform. The current understanding of this concept can be described as "active modification".<ref name="durkiem" /> Turkey and its society, taking over institutions from Western Europe, must add Turkish traits and patterns to them and adapt them to Turkish culture, according to Kemalism.<ref name="durkiem" /> The implementation of the Turkish traits and patterns of these reforms takes generations of cultural and social experience, which results in the collective memory of the Turkish nation.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}<br />
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===Nationalism===<br />
[[Nationalism]] ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}): The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire. Atatürk's nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his [[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]. The Kemalist perception of social contract was facilitated by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]], which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "millet" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]]. Atatürk's nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakup, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".<br />
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{{Blockquote|In the administration and defense of the Turkish Nation; national unity, national awareness and national culture are the highest ideals that we fix our eyes upon.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Forces |first=Republic Of Turkey Turkish Armed |url=http://www.tsk.mil.tr/eng/Anitkabir/milli.html |title=Ataturks Principles |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government }}{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish Nation" ({{lang-tr|Türk Ulusu}}) as a nation of [[Turkish people]] who always love and seek to exalt their family, country and nation, who know their duties and responsibilities towards the democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law, founded on [[human rights]], and on the tenets laid down in the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Turkey.<ref name="TurkishNational" /> Atatürk defines the Turkish Nation by saying<br />
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{{blockquote|The folk which constitutes the Republic of Turkey is called the Turkish Nation.|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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Similar to its CUP predecessors, it can be said that Kemalism endorsed [[social Darwinism]] in some way by desiring the Turkish youth to be healthy and physically strong.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ter-Matevosyan |first1=Vahram |title=Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation |date=2019 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-97403-3 |page=163|quote=Both the Young Turks and the Kemalists had an elitist conception of society; they saw themselves as the nation’s “social physicians,” the only ones capable of enlightening the “masses.”78 Other defnitions and fashionable currents of thought that defned different facets of fascism—biological materialism, positivism, social Darwinism, and the quest for magic formulas—were also incorporated by both regimes in Turkey.7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Zurcher |first1=Erik-Jan |title=Late Ottoman Society |chapter=Ottoman sources of Kemalist thought |year=2013 |pages=36–49 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203481387-10 |isbn=978-0-203-48138-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/ottoman-sources-kemalist-thought-erik-jan-zurcher/e/10.4324/9780203481387-10 |language=en}}</ref><br />
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====Criteria====<br />
{{See also|Turkish nationality law}}<br />
Kemalist criteria for national ''identity'' or simply being Turkish ({{lang-tr|Türk}}) refers to a shared [[language]], and/or shared [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] defined as a common history, and the will to share a future. Kemalist ideology defines the "[[Turkish people]]" as:<br />
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{{blockquote|Those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation.<ref name="TurkishNational">{{Cite web |last=Education |first=Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of National |url=http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm |title=Turkish National Education System |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020612122337/http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm|archive-date=12 June 2002}}</ref>|author=|title=|source=}}<br />
<br />
Membership is usually gained through birth within the borders of the state and also the principle of [[jus sanguinis]]. The Kemalist notion of nationality is integrated into the [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Every citizen is recognized as a Turk, regardless of ethnicity, belief, and gender, etc. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>Citizenship is defined in the {{Ws|[[s:Constitution of the Republic of Turkey#66|1982 constitution, Article 66]]}} (amended on October 17, 2001).</ref><br />
<br />
Kemalists saw non-Muslims as only nominal citizens, and they have often been treated as [[Second-class citizen|second-class citizens]] in the Republic of Turkey.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dağı |first1=İhsan |title=Why Turkey Needs a Post-Kemalist Order |journal=Insight Turkey |date=1 January 2012 |url=https://www.insightturkey.com/commentaries/why-turkey-needs-a-post-kemalist-order |language=tr|quote= Non-Muslims, whose citizenship was only nominal in the eyes of the Kemalists, faced [[pogrom]]s. This relationship of the Kemalist regime with the people of different ethnicity, religion, and life-style positioned the state with its loyal Kemalist elite as a hegemonic power vis-à-vis the society.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=İçduygu |first1=Ahmet |last2=Toktaş |first2=Şule |last3=Soner |first3=B. Ali |title=The politics of population in a nation-building process: emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |date=1 February 2008 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=358–389 |doi=10.1080/01419870701491937|s2cid=143541451 }}</ref> The identity of [[Kurds in Turkey]] was [[Denial of Kurds by Turkey|denied for decades]] with Kurds described as "[[Denial of Kurds by Turkey|Mountain Turks]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ataman |first1=M. |title=Özal Leadership and Restructuring of Turkish Ethnic Policy in the 1980s |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |date=1 October 2002 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=123–142 |doi=10.1080/714004493|s2cid=144430188 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moustakis |first1=Fotios |last2=Chaudhuri |first2=Rudra |title=Turkish-Kurdish Relations and the European Union: An Unprecedented Shift in the Kemalist Paradigm? |journal=Mediterranean Quarterly |date=28 November 2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=77–89 |doi=10.1215/10474552-16-4-77 |s2cid=153382746 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/190579/summary |language=en |issn=1527-1935}}</ref> Kemal stated in 1930:<br />
{{blockquote|Within the political and social unity of today's Turkish nation, there are citizens and co-nationals who have been incited to think of themselves as [[Kurds]], [[Circassians]], [[Laz people|Laz]] or [[Bosniaks|Bosnians]]. But these erroneous appellations - the product of past periods of tyranny - have brought nothing but sorrow to individual members of the nation, with the exception of a few brainless reactionaries, who became the enemy's instruments.<ref name=mangokurds20>[[Andrew Mango]], ''Atatürk and the Kurds'', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.35, No.4, 1999, 20</ref>}}<br />
<br />
In 2005, the [[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal code made it a crime to insult Turkishness ({{lang-tr|Türklük}}), but under pressure of the EU, this was changed in 2008 to protect the "Turkish nation" instead of Turkish ethnicity in 2008, an 'imagined' nationhood of people living within the [[Misak-ı Millî|National Pact]] ({{lang-tr|Misak-ı Milli}}) borders.<ref name="osmansdream">{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire |year=2006 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |pages=549–550 |isbn=0-465-02396-7}}</ref><br />
<br />
=====Pan-Turkism=====<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
Kemalism focused on the nation-state's narrower interests, renouncing the concern for the "Outside Turks".<ref name="Pan-Turkism">{{Cite book |authorlink=Jacob M. Landau|last=Landau |first=Jacob M. |title=Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1995 |page=275 |isbn=0-253-20960-9}} Page 186-187</ref><br />
<br />
Pan-Turkism was an [[Ethnocentrism|ethnocentric]] ideology [to unite all ethnically Turkic nations] while Kemalism is polycentric [united under a " common will"] in character.<ref name="Pan-Turkism" /> Kemalism wants to have an equal footing among the mainstream world civilizations. Pan-Turkists have consistently emphasized the special attributes of the [[Turkic peoples]], and wanted to unite all of the Turkic peoples. Kemalism wants an equal footing (based on respect) and does not aim to unite the people of Turkey with all the other Turkic nations. Most Kemalists were not interested in Pan-Turkism and from 1923 to 1950 (the single state period) reacted with particular firmness.<ref name="Pan-Turkism"/> Further more, Atatürk opposed Pan-Turkism in his book [[Nutuk]] as following:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|Gathering various nations under a common and general title and establishing a strong state by keeping these various groups of elements under the same law and conditions is a bright and attractive political view; but it is deceptive. In fact, it is an impossible goal to unite all the Turks in the world into a state, without any borders. This is a truth that centuries and people who have lived for centuries brought about through very painful and bloody events.<br />
<br />
It cannot be seen in history that panislamism and panturanism were successful and were practiced in the world. Though, the results of the ambitions for the establishment of a state, covering all humanity, regardless of race, are written in history.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Atatürk |first=Mustafa Kemal |title=Nutuk |publisher=Kaynak Yayınları |pages=336–337 |language=tr}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
However, Atatürk owned the idea of taking Turkicness as one of the identities of Turkish nation. [[Turkish History Thesis]] started under Atatürk's order and administration, which contained ethno-racial ideas based on Turkish origins coming from [[Central Asia]]. Also Atatürk era high school books contained education of [[Old Turkic script|Orkhon alphabet]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic Of Turkey|year=1931|pages=79–80}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}} and a unit under the title of "Greater Turkic history and Civilization".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic of Turkey|year=1931|pages=25–53}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}} The book also gave detailed information about empires which are Turkic such as [[Göktürks]] or "claimed to be Turkic" such as [[Scythians]], [[Xiongnu]], and so on.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic of Turkey|year=1931}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}}<br />
<br />
With the supports of newly founded Turkish Republic, [[Pan-Turkism|Pan-Turkist]] organization known as "[[Turkish Hearths]]", re-established in Atatürk's era to get Turkists' support during the [[Atatürk's reforms|revolutions]]. Atatürk was frequently giving speeches on Turkish Hearths after important events occurred in Turkey.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Akçiçek|first=Eren|title=Atatürk'ün Türk Ocakları'nı Ziyaretleri ve Yaptığı Konuşmalar|publisher=Turkish Hearths Ankara Branch|year=2008|location=Ankara, Turkey|language=Turkish}}</ref> Also reopening of Turkish magazine "[[Türk Yurdu]]" which was an organ of Turkish Hearts, was supported.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Georgeon|first=François|title=Aux origines du nationalisme Turc|publisher=Éditions A.D.P.F|year=1980|isbn=2865380084|location=Paris|pages=44}}</ref> Later, in 1931, Turkish Hearts were closed by Atatürk after they lost their non-political stance, because of their Pan-Turkist views and movements; and with all of its premises, it merged to the ruling party [[Republican People's Party|CHP]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Emine|last=Merdim|date=2011-07-13|title=Türk Ocakları Merkez Binası'ndan Ankara Devlet Resim ve Heykel Müzesi'ne|url=https://www.arkitera.com/haber/turk-ocaklari-merkez-binasindan-ankara-devlet-resim-ve-heykel-muzesine/|access-date=2021-06-21|website=Arkitera|language=tr-TR}}</ref><br />
<br />
Atatürk also described his opinions about [[Timur]], a [[Central Asia]]n [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] military commander as "If I lived in Timur's timeline, I wouldn't be able to accomplish his work but if he lived in my timeline, he would do greater than I did".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bozkurt|first=Mahmut Esat|title=Aksak Demir'in Devlet Politikası - Timurlenk Üzerine İnceleme|publisher=Yeni Sabah Neşriyatı|year=1943|isbn=975-343-413-8|location=Galatasaray - Istanbul|pages=84|language=Turkish}}</ref><br />
[[File:Atatürk looking into Central asia.jpg|thumb|Atatürk analyzing [[First Turkic Khaganate|Turkic Khaganate]] map.]]<br />
<br />
=====Turanism=====<br />
{{Main|Turanism}}<br />
Kemalist center of view focused on the Turkish people, within both living and historical cultures and peoples of [[Anatolia]], especially [[Hittites]],<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal|last=Erimtan|first=Can|title=Hittites, Ottomans and Turks: Ağaoğlu Ahmed Bey and the Kemalist Construction of Turkish Nationhood in Anatolia|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20455417|journal= Anatolian Studies|year=2008|volume=58|pages=158|doi=10.1017/S0066154600008711 |jstor=20455417|s2cid=163040610 }}</ref> and the culture and civilization of [[Turkic peoples]].<br />
<br />
Turanism centered the nation as the union of all [[Turan|Turanian]] peoples ([[Tungusic peoples|Tungus]], [[Hungarians]], [[Finns]], [[Mongols]], [[Estonians]] and [[Koreans]]) stretching from the [[Altai Mountains]] in [[East Asia|Eastern Asia]] to the [[Bosporus|Bosphorus]].<ref>Paksoy, H.B., [http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-6/cae12.html ‘Basmachi’: Turkestan National Liberation Movement 1916-1930s], ''Modern Encyclopedia of Religions in Russia and the Soviet Union'', Florida: Academic International Press, 1991, Vol. 4</ref> Kemalism had a narrower definition of language, which sought to remove (purify) the Persian, Arabic, Greek, Latin, etc. words from the Turkish language and replace them with either Turkic originated words or derive new words with Turkic roots. Turanist leaders, such as [[Enver Pasha]], wanted an evolving language common to all Turanian peoples, minimizing differences and maximizing similarities between them.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}<br />
<br />
==== Kemalism and the Hittites ====<br />
{{Main|Turkish History Thesis}}<br />
[[File:Turkije3 2014 010 (15080445834).jpg|thumb|One of the lions at "[[Anıtkabir#Road of Lions|Road of Lions]]" in [[Anıtkabir]], which are replicas of ancient [[Hittites|Hittite]] lion statues.]]<br />
Kemalism gave an important place to [[Hittites]] and the Hittite symbolism to construct the Turkish identity and nationhood. Kemalist researchers, such as [[Ahmet Ağaoğlu]] (who was an advisor to Atatürk and a politician who played an important role on creating [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|Turkey's constitution of 1924]]), believed in that the nation has to portray Hittites as a world-domineering Turkish race with firm roots in Anatolia.<ref name=":04"/><br />
Modern genetic researches on Turkish samples show that [[Turkish people|Anatolian Turks]] are mixage of [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkic tribes]] and Anatolian natives, however, unlike [[Turkish History Thesis|Kemalist thoughts]], these two admixtures aren't originated from same ethnicity, race or identity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The genetic structure of the Turkish population - Ethnicity Prediction|url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1pHvOMVZPtNDuwVabSXD7OxdFMTYQGvfjq7Z-L6IiII0/edit#gid=450884960|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Statism===<br />
{{Main|Social market economy}}<br />
<br />
[[Statism]] ({{lang-tr|devletçilik}}): Atatürk made clear in his statements and policies that Turkey's complete [[Modernization theory|modernization]] was very much dependent on economic and technological development. The principle of Kemalist statism is generally interpreted to mean that the state was to regulate the country's general economic activities and engage in areas where private enterprises are not willing to do so. This was the result of post-revolutionary Turkey needing to redefine the relationship between societal and international capitalism. The revolution left Turkey in ruins, as the Ottoman Empire was focused on raw materials and was an [[open market]] in the international capitalist system. Post-revolutionary Turkey has been largely defined by its agricultural society, which includes many landlords and merchants. The control of people in the Turkish economy is quite evident from 1923 to the 1930s, but they still managed, through foreign joint investment, to establish a state economic enterprise. However, after the 1930s depression, there was a shift to more inward-looking development strategies during an era generally referred to as "etatism". During this era, the state had an active involvement in both capital accumulation and investment as well as in taking the interest of private businesses into consideration. The state often stepped into economic areas that the private sector did not cover, either due to not being strong enough or having simply failed to do so. These were often infrastructure projects and power stations, but also iron and steel industries, while the masses shouldered the burden of the capital accumulation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Aydın|first=Zülküf|title=The Political Economy of Turkey|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2005|pages=25–56|doi=10.2307/j.ctt18dzt8j}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Analysis==<br />
{{See also|White Turks}}<br />
<br />
===Kemalism and Turkey's political parties===<br />
[[File:Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi Logo.svg|thumb|200px|"''Six Arrows''" as depicted by the [[Republican People's Party|CHP]]'s logo]]<br />
The [[Republican People's Party]] (CHP) was established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk on September 9, 1923, not long before the declaration of the Republic of Turkey on October 29. The Republican People's Party did not attempt to update or define the philosophical roots of it party Kemalism from the 1940s to the 1960s. However, since the 1960s, there has been a move to the left-of-center. The supporter of the left-of-center accepts the tented of the Kemalism also entrained the idea that structural changes brought forth by the government are necessary for modernization. Later in the 1970s, the CHP had to make fundamental changes to its party platform as the country Abandonment of Kemalism. The party thought several programs as being labeled the democratic left. Most still believe in the six principles of Kemalism while others seek to reduce the role of statism in Turkish society.<ref>İrem, Nazım. “Undercurrents of European Modernity and the Foundations of Modern Turkish Conservatism: Bergsonism in Retrospect.” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 40, no. 4, 2004, pp. 79–112. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4289929</ref> The Turkish Justice Minister [[Mahmut Esat Bozkurt]] equated the Kemalist policies to the [[Italian fascism]] of [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kieser|first=Hans-Lukas|author-link=Hans-Lukas Kieser|date=2016-01-19|title=Dersim Massacre, 1937-1938 {{!}} Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network|url=http://dersim-massacre-1937-1938.html/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-22|website=dersim-massacre-1937-1938.html|language=en}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Bozkurt is also mentioned together with [[Ahmet Cevat Emre]] and [[Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu]] as one of the few who introduced the term Kemalism with its political aspects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ter-Matevosyan|first=Vahram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XtaIDwAAQBAJ&dq=Muhit+kemalist+magazine&pg=PA48|title=Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation|date=2019-02-19|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-97403-3|pages=48|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Kemalism and Turkey's constitutional law===<br />
The six principles were solidified on 5 February 1937, 14 years after establishment of the Republic of Turkey.<br />
<br />
In the [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|1924 Constitutional Law]] Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|Turkey is republican, nationalist, attached to the people, interventionist, secular, and revolutionary.}}<br />
<br />
Both the [[1960 Turkish coup d'état|military coup of 1960]] and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état|military coup of 1980]] were followed by fundamental revisions of the Turkish Constitution. The texts of the new constitutions were approved by popular referendum in each case.<br />
<br />
In the [[Turkish Constitution of 1961|1961 Constitutional Law]] Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|The Turkish Republic is a nationalistic, democratic, secular and social state, governed by the rule of law, based on human rights and fundamental tenets set forth in the preamble.}}<br />
<br />
In the [[Constitution of Turkey|1982 Constitutional Law]] Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
[[File:Turkse_arbeiders_met_het_bronzen_hoofd_van_Atatürk_-_Turkish_workers_carrying_the_bronze_head_of_Atatürk_(6941436439).jpg|thumb|Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of a statue of Atatürk. Turkey, 1933. Atatürk' statues placed in all public buildings in the nation and his values are coded in the constitution.]]<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|The Republic of Turkey is a democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law; bearing in mind the concepts of public peace, national solidarity and justice; respecting human rights; loyal to the nationalism of Atatürk, and based on the fundamental tenets set forth in the Preamble.}}<br />
<br />
Only the principles of [[Secularism in Turkey|secularism]], [[Turkish nationalism|nationalism]] and democracy were maintained in each change to the constitution. The 1961 Constitution more strongly emphasized human rights, the rule of law, and the welfare state than the original 1924 constitution, while the 1982 constitution focused on the peace of the community and national solidarity, but also explicitly referenced some of Atatürk's principles and included them as well.<br />
<br />
===External interpretations of Kemalism===<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, Turkey's domestic transformations and the evolution of the Kemalist system of ideological and political principles were closely observed in Germany, France, Britain, the US, and beyond, including several nations farther East. In recent years, scholarly interest in the transnational history of Kemalism has expanded. Some scholars have focused on the interwar period in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Albania, Yugoslavia, and Egypt to reveal how, as a practical tool, Kemalism was relocated as a global movement, whose influence is still felt today.<ref>"Kemalism: Transnational Politics in the Post Ottoman World.", eds. N. Clayer, F. Giomi, E. Szurek. London. I.B. Tauris. 2018.</ref> Some scholars have examined the impact of Atatürk's reforms and his image on the Jewish community in British-ruled Palestine before the establishment of Israel,<ref>Jacob Landau. "A Note on Kemalizm in the Hebrew Press of<br />
Palestine." 2018. Middle Eastern Studies 54 (4): 723–728</ref> some went farther East—to Persia, Afghanistan, China, India,<ref>Amin Saikal. "Kemalism: Its Influences on Iran and Afghanistan." 1982. International Journal of Turkish Studies 2 (2): 25–32</ref> and other parts of the Muslim world—to assess the influence wielded by Mustafa Kemal and his modernization project. These works explore perceptions of Kemalism that are mostly positive in their respective countries providing few critical insights into Kemalism's evolution and its reception as an ideological project. <br />
Against this background, one of the critical partners of Turkey in the interwar period – the Soviet Union, its leaders, party bureaucrats, journalists and scholars initially interpreted Kemalism as an ideological ally in the struggle against the West. Since the late 1920s until the 1950s, Kemalism was viewed negatively by the Communists. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Soviet position returned to normalization. Views and analyses of Soviet leaders, diplomats, party functionaries, and scholars helps us grasp the underlying dynamics behind these changing attitudes. Placing them in the larger context of republican history—delineating phases in the Kemalist paradigm of development and discerning its various rises and falls—will enrich our knowledge of the transnational history of Kemalism.<ref>Vahram Ter-Matevosyan. "Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation." London & New York, Palgrave Macmillan. 2019.</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] viewed Kemalist Turkey as a "postgenocidal paradise" worthy of emulation.<ref name=Avedian>{{cite journal |last1=Avedian |first1=Vahagn |title=Justifying genocide: Germany and the Armenians from Bismarck to Hitler, by Stefan Ihrig, Cambridge, MA, Harvard, 460 pp., $35.00 (HC), ISBN 978-0674504790 |orig-year=2016 |journal=Nationalities Papers |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=532–535 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=20 November 2018|doi=10.1080/00905992.2017.1390980|s2cid=159627934 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |authorlink=Margaret L. Anderson|last1=Anderson |first1=Margaret Lavinia |title=Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination. By Stefan Ihrig. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014. Pp. 311. Cloth $29.95. ISBN 978-0674368378. |journal=Central European History |date=March 2016 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=138–139 |doi=10.1017/S0008938916000236|s2cid=148167017 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4qt900k7 }}</ref> Nazis often stated that [[Nazism]] and Kemalism were very similar.<ref>{{cite book |authorlink=Stefan Ihrig|last1=Ihrig |first1=Stefan |title=Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination |date=2014 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-36837-8 |pages=114, ''passim'' |language=en}}</ref> In 1933, Nazis openly admired Kemalist Turkey. Hitler described Mustafa Kemal as the "star in the darkness".{{sfn|Ihrig|2014|pp=113–117}}<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title="Nazilere göre Atatürk'ün başarısının en önemli nedeni Ermenilerin yok edilmesiydi"|url=http://www.agos.com.tr/tr/yazi/9998/nazilere-gore-ataturkun-basarisinin-en-onemli-nedeni-ermenilerin-yok-edilmesiydi|access-date=2021-06-16|website=Agos|language=tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
Although Kemalist secularism has deep roots in Enlightenment era thought, the [[Postmodernism|postmodernist]] movement in Western philosophy has, since the 1960s and 1970s, cast the Enlightenment in a negative light. Postmodernist thinkers like [[Jacques Derrida]] have assaulted the Western hegemony and imperialism associated with European colonialism. The declining appeal of secularism, perceived as a Western value, has given occasion to postmodernist [[cultural relativism]] emphasizing the populist appeal of collective religious identities like the [[political Islam]] espoused by [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]]'s AKP.<ref>Alaranta, T. (2014). [https://www.google.com/books/edition/Contemporary_Kemalism/eE_IAgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 Contemporary Kemalism: From Universal Secular-Humanism to Extreme Turkish Nationalism]. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Bourguibism]]<br />
*[[Liberal Kemalism]]<br />
*[[Peronism]]<br />
*[[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]]<br />
*[[Post-Kemalism]]<br />
*[[Three Principles of the People]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for guidance on adding references using<ref>tags--><br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Alaranta |first=Toni |title=Contemporary Kemalism: From Universal Secular-Humanism to Extreme Turkish Nationalism |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-91676-5 |language=en |ref=none}}<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Ciddi |first=Sinan |title=Kemalism in Turkish Politics: The Republican People's Party, Secularism and Nationalism |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-02559-6 |language=en |ref=none}}<br />
*{{Cite journal |last=Gürpınar |first=Doğan |date=2013 |title=The Reinvention of Kemalism: Between Elitism, Anti-Elitism and Anti-Intellectualism |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=454–476 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2013.783822 |s2cid=144626059 |ref=none |authorlink=Doğan Gürpınar}}<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Plaggenborg |first=Stefan |title=Ordnung und Gewalt: Kemalismus - Faschismus - Sozialismus |date=2012 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-486-71409-8 |language=de |ref=none}}<br />
*{{cite web|url=https://newsaboutturkey.com/2020/05/13/the-myth-of-new-turkey-kemalism-and-erdoganism-as-two-sides-of-the-same-coin/|title=The Myth of 'New Turkey': Kemalism and Erdoganism as Two Sides of the Same Coin|work=Dr. Ceren Şengül|publisher=News About Turkey}}<br />
{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kemalism}}<br />
<!--Categories--><br />
[[Category:Kemalism| ]]<br />
[[Category:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]<br />
[[Category:Political ideologies]]<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Eponymous political ideologies]]<br />
[[Category:Republican People's Party (Turkey)]]<br />
[[Category:Republicanism in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Progressivism]]<br />
[[Category:Secularism in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Statism]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism]]<br />
[[Category:State ideologies]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Left_Party_(Turkey)&diff=1144123541Democratic Left Party (Turkey)2023-03-11T23:49:45Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Political view */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Expand Turkish|Demokratik Sol Parti|date=October 2017}}<br />
{{More citations needed|date=July 2016}}<br />
<br />
{{Infobox political party<br />
| country = Turkey<br />
| native_name = Demokratik Sol Parti<br />
| name = Democratic Left Party<br />
| logo = Demokratik Sol Parti (logo).png<br />
| logo_size = 120px<br />
| colorcode = #1E90FF<br />
| founders = [[Rahşan Ecevit]]<br/>[[Bülent Ecevit]]<br />
| leader = {{ill|Önder Aksakal|tr}}<br />
| foundation = 14 November 1985<br />
| split = <br />
| ideology = [[Kemalism]]<ref name="Nordsieck"/><br />[[Social democracy]]<ref name="Nordsieck">{{cite web|url=http://www.parties-and-elections.de/turkey.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429101001/http://www.parties-and-elections.de/turkey.html|archive-date=29 April 2010|url-status=dead|title=Turkey|website=Parties and Elections in Europe|last=Nordsieck|first=Wolfram|year=2009|access-date=19 April 2019}}</ref><br />[[Turkish nationalism]]<ref>https://twitter.com/siyasiposting/status/1244927779138875392 {{Bare URL inline|date=October 2022}}</ref><br />[[Left-wing nationalism]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/politika/dsp-genel-baskani-aksakal-dsp-sol-kavramini-turkiyede-millilestiren-tek-partidir/1650538 | title='DSP, sol kavramını Türkiye'de millileştiren tek partidir' }}</ref><br />[[Ecevitism]]<br />[[Parliamentarism]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gazeteduvar.com.tr/aksakal-ak-parti-ve-mhpyle-ittifak-konusulabilir-hdpyle-asla-haber-1558247 | title=Aksakal: AK Parti ve MHP'yle ittifak konuşulabilir, HDP'yle asla | date=28 March 2022 }}</ref><br />[[Pro-Europeanism]]<ref>http://ataum.ankara.edu.tr/wp-content/uploads/sites/209/2017/02/Siyasi-Partilerin-Avrupa-Birligine-Bakisi.pdf</ref><br />
| membership = {{decrease}} 27,925<ref>{{cite web|title=Demokratik Sol Parti|url=https://www.yargitaycb.gov.tr/icerik/1115|publisher=[[Court of Cassation (Turkey)|Court of Cassation]]|access-date=11 March 2023|language=tr|df=mdy-all}}</ref><br />
| membership_year = 2023<br />
| position = [[Centre-left]]<br />
| colours = White and light blue<br />
| headquarters = Mareşal Fevzi Çakmak Cad.17, Beşevler - Ankara, Turkey<br />
| seats1_title = [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]<br />
| seats1 = {{Composition bar|0|600|hex=#00A6EF}}<br />
| seats2_title = [[Metropolitan municipalities in Turkey|Metropolitan municipalities]]<br />
| seats2 = {{Composition bar|0|30|hex=#00A6EF}}<br />
| seats3_title = [[List of municipalities in Turkey|District municipalities]]<br />
| seats3 = {{Composition bar|7|1351|hex=#00A6EF}}<br />
| seats5_title = [[2014 Turkish local elections|Provincial councillors]]<br />
| seats5 = {{Composition bar|0|1251|hex=#00A6EF}}<br />
| seats6_title = [[2014 Turkish local elections|Municipal Assemblies]]<br />
| seats6 = {{Composition bar|98|20498|hex=#00A6EF}}<br />
| website = http://www.dsp.org.tr/<br />
}}<br />
The '''Democratic Left Party''' ({{lang-tr|Demokratik Sol Parti}}, abbreviated DSP) is a Turkish [[List of political parties in Turkey|political party]], founded on 14 November 1985 by [[Rahşan Ecevit]] and [[Bülent Ecevit]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===1985&ndash;1999===<br />
The DSP, a social-democratic oriented party, was registered on 14 November 1985 by [[Rahşan Ecevit]], wife of [[Bülent Ecevit]], as he was banned from political life after the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état|1980 coup d'état]].<br />
<br />
In 1986 Bülent Ecevit addressed the DSP convention in [[Ankara]], declaring his support for the party. The address landed him in court for allegedly violating the political bans. The DSP was unable, however, to achieve a substantial showing in the 1986 by-elections even though Ecevit, despite his ban, continued to campaign at the party's rallies as a "guest speaker".<br />
<br />
The political ban on Ecevit was lifted following a referendum in 1987. Later that year, Rahşan Ecevit handed over the rule of the party to her spouse. But the party failed to pass the 10% national threshold needed for a political party to have a seat in [[Turkish Grand National Assembly|Parliament]] in the 1987 elections, prompting the Ecevits to step down from their positions in the party.<br />
<br />
In 1988, Necdet Karababa was elected as the new party leader. However, the next year, Ecevit was reelected as party chairman in the party convention. Two years later in 1991, the DSP received 10.75% of the votes in the elections allowing the party to have seven seats in the Parliament. This also meant the return of Ecevit to the Parliament after 11 years.<br />
<br />
It was a minor party until it won 76 parliamentary seats in the December 1995 elections. Again in 1995, the party started to suffer from inner conflicts after years of serenity. The inner conflicts in the party ended with the dismissal of Erdal Kesebir, MP for Edirne and three other DSP members.<br />
<br />
In 1997, the DSP became a partner of [[55th government of Turkey|a three-way coalition government]] led by [[Mesut Yılmaz]] who at the time was the leader of the [[Motherland Party (Turkey)|Motherland Party]] (Turkish: Anavatan Partisi). Ecevit became the deputy prime minister.<br />
<br />
In 1998, the 55th government of Turkey was toppled by a [[censure]] motion. Ecevit received the mandate to form a new government. He founded [[56th government of Turkey|a minority government of DSP]] in 1999 to carry the country to general elections.<br />
<br />
===1999&ndash;2002===<br />
Boosted by the capture of the leader of the PKK, [[Abdullah Öcalan]], during his premiership, Ecevit and the DSP won 22,19% of the votes in the [[1999 Turkish local elections|elections of April 1999]] and took 136 of the 550 seats in the Turkish Parliament becoming the leading party in [[57th government of Turkey|a coalition with ANAP and MHP]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Şafak |first=Yeni |date=2023-07-03 |title=Türkiye uçurumda: 1999 genel seçimi |url=https://www.yenisafak.com/secim-1999 |access-date=2023-03-07 |website=Yeni Şafak |language=tr-TR}}</ref> Its leader Bülent Ecevit became the [[Prime Minister of Turkey]] for the fifth time.<br />
<br />
This government passed many important laws, including banking reform, [[unemployment insurance]], a law to ensure the autonomy of the [[Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey|Central Bank]], qualified industrial zones, tender law, employment incentive law, to name a few. The government also changed 34 articles of the Constitution to widen fundamental rights and freedoms, and did this with the approval of all the parties in parliament. Turkey became a candidate country to the [[European Union]] (without any political preconditions and with equal treatment as all other candidate countries). Three major EU harmonisation packages were passed during this government, including the most comprehensive package of 3 August 2002, which included the removal of the [[Capital punishment in Turkey|death penalty]] and many changes in fundamental rights and freedoms. An economic crisis which resulted from long overdue problems from previous governments caused a drop in the currency in February 2001. But 2 months later, the government passed a series of very comprehensive economic reforms which included changes to the tender law, economic social council law, unemployment insurance, the restructuring of state banks, accreditation law, law on capital markets, and a law on industrial zones which enabled the high growth of 2002–2007.<ref>{{Cite news|date=9 January 2004|title=Turkey agrees death penalty ban|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3384667.stm}}</ref><br />
<br />
The party staunchly opposed the [[Iraq War|invasion of Iraq by the US]]. Ecevit himself was a vocal critic of the invasion, arguing that it would destabilize the region and cause harm to innocent civilians.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vick |first=Karl |date=8 September 2002 |title=Turks Would Be Reluctant Ally Against Iraq |work=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2002/09/08/turks-would-be-reluctant-ally-against-iraq/25bce378-8937-4b02-be67-2520d173ba2f/}}</ref> Ecevit said he favors lifting some economic sanctions against Iraq, the first such statement by a Turkish leader since the sanctions were imposed following [[Iraqi invasion of Kuwait]] in 1990.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Smith |first=R. Jeffrey |date=15 January 1999 |title=Turkish Premier Criticizes U.S. Iraq Policy |work=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1999/01/15/turkish-premier-criticizes-us-iraq-policy/2b7c42dc-0c58-4421-96e8-7782570877ff/}}</ref><br />
<br />
The DSP was weakened by internal divisions in 2001, when Deputy Prime Minister [[Hüsamettin Özkan]] and several other leading DSP politicians and MPs founded the [[New Turkey Party (2002)|New Turkey Party]]. The year after, its government coalition partner MHP called for early elections, which were held [[2002 Turkish general election|on 3 November 2002]]. None of the three coalition parties were able to pass the 10% national threshold in those elections.<br />
<br />
===After 2002===<br />
{{update section|date=October 2019}}<br />
Before the 6th Party Congress on 25 July 2004, Bülent Ecevit announced that he would step down as party leader and leave active politics. During the congress, [[Zeki Sezer]], deputy chairman since 2001, was elected as the new Chairman of the party.<br />
<br />
DSP entered the [[2007 Turkish general election|2007 elections]] together with the [[Republican People's Party]] ( Turkish: Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi, CHP). The DSP-CHP alliance won 20.85% of the votes with the DSP getting 13 seats in Parliament.<br />
<br />
In 2008, together with many other politicians joining the DSP before the local elections of 2009, [[Mustafa Sarıgül]], the Mayor of the [[Istanbul]] district of [[Şişli]] officially joined the party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/10432081.asp?gid=229|title=Mustafa Sarıgül, resmen DSP'de}}</ref><br />
<br />
DSP got only 2.75% of votes in the local elections of 2009. Zeki Sezer resigned and Masum Türker succeeded him. After Türker's succession, both Mustafa Sarıgül, the deputy of Şişli, and [[Rahşan Ecevit]], the widow of [[Bülent Ecevit]], resigned from the party and created short lived [[Democratic Left People's Party]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnnturk.com/2009/turkiye/11/23/dshp.kuruldu.genel.baskan.hulki.cevizoglu/552828.0/index.html|title = DSHP kuruldu, genel başkan Hulki Cevizoğlu}}</ref> Democratic Left People's Party dissolved itself after six months. After 2011 general elections, DSP received a major decline in Turkish politics, getting less than 0.25% votes in subsequent elections in 2011 and 2015. In 2015, Önder Aksakal succeeded Türker as party leader.<ref>{{cite web |title=Önder AKSAKAL |url=https://www.dsp.org.tr/staff-members/mehmet-onder-aksakal/ |website=DSP - Demokratik Sol Parti Resmi Web Sitesi |access-date=9 October 2019 |language=tr-TR}}</ref> The party lost eligibility to contest in 2018 elections, and they supported [[Nation Alliance (Turkey)|Nation Alliance]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-05-18|title=DSP'den Millet İttifakı'na destek|url=https://www.yenicaggazetesi.com.tr/dspden-millet-ittifakina-destek-192747h.htm|access-date=2020-11-28|website=Yeni Çağ Gazetesi|language=tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
In February 2023, [[Muharrem İnce]], the leader of the [[Homeland Party (Turkey, 2021)|Homeland Party]] announced that the his party is discussing an [[electoral alliance]] with the Democratic Left Party, the [[Victory Party (Turkey)|Victory Party]], [[True Party (Turkey)|True Party]] and the [[Justice Party (Turkey)|Justice Party]] for the [[2023 Turkish general election]].<ref>https://www.muhalif.com.tr/amp/memleket-partisi-demokratik-sol-parti-zafer-partisi-adalet-partisi-ve-dogru-partiden-4-ittifak-geliyor-108335</ref> On 8 March 2023, the party announced that it will not support the candidacy of CHP's [[Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu]] for the [[2023 Turkish presidential election]].<ref>https://www.yenisafak.com/gundem/dspden-altili-masaya-rest-ulkenin-bekasini-sikintiya-sokacak-girisimlere-dahil-olmayiz-4513890</ref> Furthermore, on 9 March 2023, a pro-Erdoğan journalist, [[Mahmut Övür]] claimed that DSP will join the [[People's Alliance (Turkey)|People's Alliance]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2023-09-03 |title=Sabah yazarı duyurdu: Cumhur İttifakı'na iki sürpriz parti katılıyor |url=https://www.gazeteduvar.com.tr/sabah-yazari-duyurdu-cumhur-ittifakina-iki-surpriz-parti-katiliyor-galeri-1607359 |access-date=2023-03-09 |website=Gazete DuvaR |language=tr-TR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cumhur İttifakı'na iki parti daha katılıyor iddiası |url=https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/turkiye/cumhur-ittifakina-iki-parti-daha-katiliyor-iddiasi-2059221 |access-date=2023-03-09 |website=Cumhuriyet |language=tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Leaders==<br />
* [[Rahşan Ecevit]] (1985–1987)<br />
* [[Bülent Ecevit]] (1987–1988)<br />
* [[Necdet Karababa]] (1988–1989)<br />
* [[Bülent Ecevit]] (1989–2004)<br />
* [[Zeki Sezer]] (2004–2009)<br />
* [[Masum Türker]] (2009-2015)<br />
* {{ill|Önder Aksakal|tr}} (2015–)<br />
<br />
Rahşan Ecevit and Bülent Ecevit were ''honorary'' presidents of DSP.<br />
<br />
==Notable members==<br />
Notable members and former members include:<br />
* [[Bülent Ecevit]], Founder<br />
* [[Necdet Karababa]], Former Party Leader<br />
* [[Rahşan Ecevit]], Founder<br />
* [[Zeki Sezer]], Former Party Leader<br />
* [[Masum Türker]], Current Party Leader<br />
* [[Yılmaz Büyükerşen]], Mayor of the City of [[Eskişehir]]<br />
* [[Mustafa Sarıgül]], Mayor of the [[Istanbul]] district of [[Şişli]]<br />
* [[Seyit Torun]], Mayor of the city of [[Ordu]]<br />
* {{ill|Saffet Başaran|tr}}, interim Party Leader<br />
<br />
==Political view==<br />
The term ''Demokratik Sol'' (Democratic Left) was created by Bülent Ecevit in his late CHP period with the [[Left of Center (Turkey)|left of center]] movement, as a mix of [[social democracy]], [[social liberalism]], [[democratic socialism]], [[secularism]] and [[Kemalism]]. With this term, the party established a link between universal values of the left and national-cultural heritage which makes the ideology "domestic". In other words, contemporary social democracy is made compatible with the conditions of Turkey. With Democratic Left, Ecevit made up a new synthesis by articulating new dimensions such as democratic socialism and social democracy to the national independence movement or Kemalism. The symbol of the white dove (''Ak Güvercin'') was selected to symbolize the [[pacifism]] and social accordance.<br />
<br />
DSP approves of Turkish adhesion to the [[European Union]], although it criticized the content of the [[European Union Customs Union]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2001-08-16 |title=DSP`de Gümrük Birliği rahatsızlığı |url=https://bigpara.hurriyet.com.tr/haberler/genel-haberler/dsp-de-gumruk-birligi-rahatsizligi_ID374999/ |access-date=2023-03-07 |website=Hürriyet |language=tr}}</ref> During the premiership of Ecevit in 1999, Turkey became a candidate for the EU.<br />
<br />
DSP is against the idea of a united [[Cyprus]] state.<br />
<br />
==Election results==<br />
{{see also|Elections in Turkey}}<br />
<br />
===General Elections===<br />
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Election<br />
! scope="col" | Share<br />
! scope="col" | Seats<br />
! scope="col" | Leader<br />
|-<br />
| [[1986 Turkish parliamentary by-elections|1986]]{{cref|A}} || 8.5% || {{Percentage bar|0|0 / 11|hex=00A6EF}}<br />
|rowspan="1"| Rahşan Ecevit<br />
|-<br />
| [[1987 Turkish general election|1987]] || 8.53% || {{Percentage bar|0|0 / 450|hex=00A6EF}}<br />
|rowspan="5"| Bülent Ecevit<br />
|-<br />
| [[1991 Turkish general election|1991]] || 10.8% || {{Percentage bar|1.55|7 / 450|hex=00A6EF}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[1995 Turkish general election|1995]] || 14.64% || {{Percentage bar|13.81|76 / 550|hex=00A6EF}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[1999 Turkish general election|1999]] || 22.19% || {{Percentage bar|24.72|136 / 550|hex=00A6EF}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[2002 Turkish general election|2002]] || 1.22% || {{Percentage bar|0|0 / 550|hex=00A6EF}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[2007 Turkish general election|2007]] || 20.85%{{cref|B}} || {{Percentage bar|2.36|13 / 550|hex=00A6EF}}<br />
| Zeki Sezer<br />
|-<br />
| [[2011 Turkish general election|2011]] || 0.25% ||rowspan="3"| {{Percentage bar|0|0 / 550|hex=00A6EF}}<br />
|rowspan="3"| Masum Türker<br />
|-<br />
| [[June 2015 Turkish general election|2015 Jun]] || 0.19% <br />
|-<br />
| [[November 2015 Turkish general election|2015 Nov]] || 0.07% <br />
|-<br />
| [[2018 Turkish general election|2018]] ||colspan="3"| ''Not eligible to contest''<br />
|}<br />
{{cnote|A|By-elections}}<br />
{{cnote|B|DSP formed an alliance with [[Republican People's Party|CHP]] in 2007 and the alliance got 20.85% of total vote.}}<br />
<br />
===Local Elections===<br />
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Election<br />
! scope="col" | Share<br />
! scope="col" | Municipalities<br />
! scope="col" | Leader<br />
|-<br />
| [[1989 Turkish local elections|1989]] || 9.09% || 37 municipalities ||rowspan="4"| Bülent Ecevit<br />
|-<br />
| [[1994 Turkish local elections|1994]] || 8.93% || 23 municipalities<br />
|-<br />
| [[1999 Turkish local elections|1999]] || 19.28% || 189 municipalities<br />
|-<br />
| [[2004 Turkish local elections|2004]] || 2.18% || 32 municipalities<br />
|-<br />
| [[2009 Turkish local elections|2009]] || 2.75% || 12 municipalities || Zeki Sezer<br />
|-<br />
| [[2014 Turkish local elections|2014]] || 0.33% || 5 municipalities || Masum Türker<br />
|-<br />
| [[2019 Turkish local elections|2019]] || 0.98% || 3 municipalities || Önder Aksakal<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[2015 Democratic Left Party Extraordinary Convention]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.dsp.org.tr/ Official website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319181137/http://dsp.org.tr/ |date=2016-03-19 }}<br />
{{DSP Leaders}}<br />
{{Political parties of Turkey}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Democratic Left Party (Turkey)| ]]<br />
[[Category:Nationalist parties in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Political parties in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Secularism in Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Social democratic parties]]<br />
[[Category:1985 establishments in Turkey]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecevitism&diff=1144123274Ecevitism2023-03-11T23:47:57Z<p>Cehilizm: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Turkish political term}}<br />
{{Orphan|date=January 2023}}<br />
<br />
'''Ecevitism''' is a term used for the political ideals of [[Bülent Ecevit]], who served as the [[Prime Minister of Turkey|Prime Minister of the Republic of Turkey]] for four terms between 1974 and 2002.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Necmi|archive-date=24 January 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124051312/https://open.metu.edu.tr/handle/11511/9908|title=A specific form of populism: Ecevit's political discourse(1965-1980)|language=en|access-date=13 June 2022|last=Erdoğan|date=1992|url=https://open.metu.edu.tr/handle/11511/9908|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> It is highly related to the [[Democratic Left Party (Turkey)|Democratic Left Party]] and [[Left-wing nationalism]].<ref name=":0">{{cite news|archive-date=19 December 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219060027/https://t24.com.tr/yazarlar/fikret-bila/ecevit-in-sol-anlayisi,24391|title=Ecevit'in Sol Anlayışı|access-date=19 September 2021|url=https://t24.com.tr/yazarlar/fikret-bila/ecevit-in-sol-anlayisi,24391|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Gözde|archive-date=23 June 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623004052/https://open.metu.edu.tr/handle/11511/17240|title=Trade unionism in Turkey: the self-understanding of türk-iş and its role in society and politics (1950-1982)|language=en|access-date=13 June 2022|last=Yirmibeşoğlu|date=2007|url=https://open.metu.edu.tr/handle/11511/17240|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
This ideology, which was very dominant in [[Turkey]] especially in the 70s, still has many supporters today. The political side of this concept, whose ideological roots come from [[social democracy]], is said to be the most dominant, and this ideology reached its peak with the [[Left of Center (Turkey)|left of center]] slogan when Ecevit was elected as the Chairman of the [[Republican People's Party]] in the 70s.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
[[Category:Politics of Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Eponymous political ideologies]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=16_Great_Turkic_Empires&diff=114388971316 Great Turkic Empires2023-03-10T14:38:57Z<p>Cehilizm: According to the cite, the beyliks that represented on the seal are seperated from anatolian seljuqs</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Concept in Turkish ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{italic title}}<br />
[[File:Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Mahmoud Abbas.jpg|thumb|upright|Erdoğan and Abbas with actors representing the ''16 Great Turkic Empires'' (2015)<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/12/abbas-erdogan-16-warriors-turkish-presidential-palace|title=Abbas welcomed at Turkish presidential palace by Erdoğan – and 16 warriors|last=France-Presse|first=Agence|date=2015-01-12|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-12-12|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>|alt=]]<br />
[[File:Flags_of_the_Sixteen_Great_Turkish_Empires.JPG|thumb|267x267px|Flags of the ''16 Great Turkish Empires'' displayed in the [[Istanbul Military Museum]]]]<br />
<br />
The '''''16 Great Turkic Empires''''' ({{lang-tr|{{italics correction|16 Büyük Türk Devleti}}}}, which translates as "16 Great ''[[Name of Turkey#Etymology|Turkic]]'' States") is a concept in [[Turkish nationalism|Turkish]] [[ethnic nationalism]], introduced in 1969 by [[Akib Özbek]], map officer<ref>H. Feridun Demokan, ''Contemporary Turkey: Geography, History, Economy, Art, Tourism'', Demokan, 1978, p. 4. Necdet Evliyagil, Sami Güner, Basın-Yayın Genel Müdürlüğü, Ajans-Türk, ''Türkiye: Cumhuriyetin 50. Yıl Kitabı'', Ajans-Türk Matbaacılık Sanayii, 1973.</ref> and widely invoked by Turkish authorities during the 1980s, under the government of [[Kenan Evren]]. Prior to this assertion, the 16 stars on the [[Presidential Seal of Turkey]] had been taken as representing sixteen [[Anatolian beyliks]] which succeeded the [[Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate|Anatolian Seljuks]].<ref>X. Türk Tarih Kongresi'', Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1994, [https://books.google.com/books?id=MTlpAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Bu+nedenle+Yeni+T%C3%BCrkiye+Cumhuriyeti%27ni+kuran+T%C3%BCrk+Ulusu%27nun+k%C3%B6keni+16+T%C3%BCrk+Beyli%C4%9Fine+dayan%C4%B1r+diyoruz.%22&dq=%22Bu+nedenle+Yeni+T%C3%BCrkiye+Cumhuriyeti%27ni+kuran+T%C3%BCrk+Ulusu%27nun+k%C3%B6keni+16+T%C3%BCrk+Beyli%C4%9Fine+dayan%C4%B1r+diyoruz.%22&hl=en&ei=CmEyTpS6CcaDmQXwk4HxCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA p. 2947.] {{in lang|tr}})</ref><br />
<br />
== The list ==<br />
The "16 Great Turkic Empires" are the following:<br />
<!---DO NOT REPLACE WITH "HISTORICAL FLAGS". THE FLAGS HERE ARE THOSE INVENTED BY ÖZBEK IN 1969--><br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"<br />
|-<br />
!Flag<br /><small>(fictional)</small><ref name="flags"/><br />
!Name<br />
!Turkish name<br />
!Leader<ref name="statues"/><br />
!Dates ([[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]])<ref>Dates as shown in the original document{{clarify|date=April 2016}}<!--what document? how about citing it explicitly?-->{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| <br />
[[File:Flag_of_Xiongnu.png|220px]]<br />
|[[Xiongnu]]<br />
|''Büyük Hun İmparatorluğu''<br />
|[[Modu Chanyu|Mete Han]]<br />
|220 BC–46 BC<br />
|-<br />
| [[File:Flag_of_South_Xiongnu.png|220px]]<br />
|[[South Xiongnu]]<br />
|''Batı Hun İmparatorluğu''<br />
|[[Punu Chanyu|Panu]]<br />
|48–216 <br />
|-<br />
| <br />
[[File:Flag_of_Hunnic_Empire.png|220px]]<br />
|[[Hunnic Empire]]<br />
|''Avrupa Hun İmparatorluğu''<br />
|[[Attila]]<br />
|375–469<br />
|-<br />
|[[File:Flag _of_Hephthalite_Empire.png|220px]]<br />
|[[Hephthalite Empire]]<br />
|''Akhun İmparatorluğu''<br />
|Aksunvar<br />
| 390–577<br />
|-<br />
|[[File:Flag_of_Turkic_Khaghanate.png|220px]]<br />
|[[Turkic Khaganate]]<br />
|''Göktürk İmparatorluğu''<br />
|[[Bumin Qaghan|Bumin Kağan]]<br />
|551–744<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
[[File:Flag_of_Avar_Khaghanate.png|220px]]<br />
|[[Avar Khaganate]]<br />
|''Avar İmparatorluğu''<br />
|Bayan Kağan<br />
| 565–835<br />
|-<br />
| [[File:Flag_of_Khazar_Khaghanate.png|220px]]<br />
|[[Khazar Khaganate]]<br />
|''Hazar İmparatorluğu''<br />
|[[Tong Yabghu Qaghan|Tong Yabgu Kağan]]<br />
|651–983<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
[[File:Flag_of_Toquz_ Oghuz.png|220px]]<br />
|[[Uyghur Khaganate]]<br />
|''Uygur Devleti''<br />
|[[Kutlug I Bilge Kagan|Kutluğ Kül Bilge Kağan]]<br />
|744–840<br />
|-<br />
|[[File:Flag_of_Karakhanid_Khanate.png|220px]]<br />
|[[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanid Khanate]]<br />
|''Karahanlılar''<br />
|[[Bilge Kul Qadir Khan|Kül Bilge Kadir Han]]<br />
|840–1212<br />
|-<br />
| [[File:Flag_of_Ghaznavids.png|GhaznavidFlag attributed.svg|220px]]<br />
|[[Ghaznavids]]<br />
|''Gazneliler''<br />
|[[Sabuktigin]]<br />
|977–1186<br />
|-<br />
|[[File:Flag_of_Seljuk_Empire.png|220px]]<br />
|[[Seljuk Empire]]<br />
|''Büyük Selçuklu İmparatorluğu''<br />
|[[Chagri Bey]]<br />
|1040–1157<br />
|-<br />
|[[File:Flag_of_the_Khwarazmshahids.png|220px]]<br />
|[[Khwarazmian dynasty]]<br />
|''Harzemşahlar''<br />
|[[Muhammad II of Khwarezm]]<br />
|1097–1231<br />
|-<br />
|[[File:Flag_of_Golden_Horde.png|220px]]<br />
|[[Golden Horde]]<br />
|''Altınordu Devleti''<br />
|[[Batu Khan]]<br />
|1236–1502<br />
|-<br />
|[[File:Flag_of_Timurid_Empire.png|220px]]<br />
|[[Timurid Empire]]<br />
|''Büyük Timur İmparatorluğu''<br />
|[[Timur]]<br />
|1368–1501<br />
|-<br />
|[[File:Flag_of_Mughal_Empire.png|220px]]<br />
|[[Mughal Empire]]<br />
|''Babür İmparatorluğu''<br />
|[[Babur]]<br />
|1526–1858<br />
|-<br />
|[[File:Flag_of_Ottoman_Empire.png|220px]]<br />
|[[Ottoman Empire]]<br />
|''Osmanlı İmparatorluğu''<br />
|[[Osman I]]<br />
|1299–1922<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Reception ==<br />
[[File:Emblem of the Presidency of Turkey.svg|alt=|thumb|150x150px|16 stars in the [[Presidential Seal of Turkey]] represents each empire.{{efn|Although this view was first time proposed in 1969<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tccb.gov.tr/cumhurbaskanligi/resmi-simgeler/fors/|title=Fors|publisher=Presidency of Türkiye}}</ref>}}]]<br />
Turkish nationalist writer, novelist, poet and philosopher, [[Hüseyin Nihâl Atsız]], supporter of the pan-Turkist or [[Turanism]] ideology, had noted that while some states with questionable Turkic identity were included in the list (like the [[Mughal Empire]], some ostensibly Turkic states (such as [[Aq Qoyunlu]]) were left out, and labeled the list a "fabrication."<ref>[http://tarihgazetesi.net/index.php/yazilar/makaleler/1592-16-tuerk-devleti-ve-nihal-ats-z On line history newspaper ({{in lang|tr}})] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321225542/http://tarihgazetesi.net/index.php/yazilar/makaleler/1592-16-tuerk-devleti-ve-nihal-ats-z |date=2016-03-21 }} [[Nihal Atsız]] {{in lang|tr}} {{Dead link|date=October 2021}}</ref>{{verification needed|date=July 2022}}<br />
<br />
In spite of Atsız' criticism, the concept was made a mainstream topos in Turkish national symbolism in the wake of the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], under the presidency of [[Kenan Evren]]. The [[Turkish PTT|Turkish Postal]] administration issued a series of stamps dedicated to the ''16 Empires'' in 1984, showing portraits of their respective founders as well as [[Attributed arms|attributed]] flags.<ref name="flags">Ivan Sache, [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/tr_imp.html Presentation of the Sixteen Great Turkish Empires and their alleged flags], [[Flags of the World (website)|Flags of the World]], 4 July 2004; c.f. [https://galeri7.uludagsozluk.com/248/tarihteki-16-b%C3%BCy%C3%BCk-t%C3%BCrk-devleti_438933.jpg jpeg of the 1984 stamp series]. The flags were designed by Özbek in 1969. They are mostly imaginary, with the exception of the 1844 [[Ottoman flag]], and arguably the wolf's head and the bow-and-arrow used as emblems for the Göktürk and the Seljuk states, respectively. Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.</ref> In 1985, Özbek's ''16 Empires'' were invoked as a retrospective explanation of the 16 [[Star (heraldry)|stars]] in the [[Presidential Seal of Turkey|presidential seal of Turkey]] (introduced in 1936).<ref name="CESR">''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23]</ref><br />
<br />
Several municipal buildings and public parks in Turkey have collections of busts or statues of the founders of the "16 Empires" alongside a statue of [[Kemal Atatürk]], including the municipal buildings of [[Keçiören]] (Ankara), [[Mamak, Ankara]], [[Etimesgut]], [[Niğde]], [[Nevşehir]], [[Pınarbaşı, Kayseri]], etc.<ref name="statues">[https://web.archive.org/web/20160814032941/http://www.fotokritik.com/arama/ankara%20ke%C3%A7i%C3%B6ren/2 Keçiören] {{coord|39|58|41|N|32|52|3|E|}}. [http://sanatdeposu.blogspot.ch/2012/08/16-turk-buyugu-heykelleri.html Etimesgut Belediyesi kent meydanı için hazırlanan 16 Türk Büyüğü heykelleri.] [http://www.borhaber.net/siyaset/nigdenin-simgesi-turk-buyukleri-heykelleri-kaldiriliyor-mu-h9623.html Niğde’nin simgesi Türk Büyükleri heykelleri kaldırılıyor mu?] [http://www.cayyolu.com.tr/haber/turk-devlet-buyukleri-mamakta-43213.html Türk devlet büyükleri Mamak'ta] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805231205/http://www.cayyolu.com.tr/haber/turk-devlet-buyukleri-mamakta-43213.html |date=2016-08-05 }} [http://haberciniz.biz/turk-buyukleri-anitlari-yenilendi-1152677h.htm Türk Büyükleri Anıtları Yenilendi (Nevşehir)]. "Pınarbaşı Turkishness Monument" (''[[c:Category:Pınarbaşı Türklük Anıtı|Pınarbaşı Türklük Anıtı]]'', opened in 2000).</ref><br />
<br />
In 2000, [[Türk Telekom]] produced a series of [[smart card]]s dedicated to the topic.<ref>[http://www.turkcards.com/c/chip2001.html Büyük Türk Devletleri] [http://colnect.com/tr/phonecards/list/country/217-T%C3%BCrkiye/company/6-Turk_Telekom/series/43-B%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_T%C3%BCrk_Devletleri]</ref><br />
<br />
In January 2015, Turkish president [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] received Palestinian president [[Mahmoud Abbas]] in the [[Presidential Complex|Turkish Presidential Palace]] with a guard of 16 "warriors", actors wearing loosely historical armour and costume, intended to symbolise the 16 empires.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/spear-carriers-chainmail-warriors-erdogans-palace-welcome-195654554.html|title=Spear-carriers and chainmail warriors: Erdogan's palace welcome|publisher=[[Yahoo! News]]|accessdate=14 January 2015}}</ref> The costumes were ridiculed in secular Turkish media outlets, and one of the costumes in particular was mocked as a "bathrobe", becoming a trend on social media under the name of ''Duşakabinoğulları'' (as it were "[[wiktionary:oğul|son]]s of the [[wiktionary:duş|shower]] cabin" or "showercabinds).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.diken.com.tr/dusakabinogullari-istifa-getirdi-o-kiyafete-bornoz-diyen-dekan-gorevinden-ayrildi/|title=‘Duşakabinoğulları’ istifa getirdi: O kıyafete ‘bornoz’ diyen dekan görevinden ayrıldı|publisher=Diken|language=tr|accessdate=29 May 2016}} {{cite web|url=http://www.sozcu.com.tr/2015/gundem/dusakabinogullari-3-ay-surmus-712029/|title=Duşakabinoğulları 3 ay sürmüş!|publisher=[[Sözcü]]|language=tr|accessdate=29 May 2016}} {{cite web|url=http://www.birgun.net/haber-detay/dusakabinogullarini-dolmabahce-sarayi-na-getirdi-113348.html|title=Duşakabinoğullarını Dolmabahçe Sarayı'na getirdi|publisher=[[Birgün]]|language=tr|accessdate=29 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527032843/http://www.birgun.net/haber-detay/dusakabinogullarini-dolmabahce-sarayi-na-getirdi-113348.html|archive-date=2016-05-27|url-status=dead|df=}} The ''[[Takvim]]'' daily newspaper omitted a label for this particular costume (Western Hunnic Empire) by mistake; [http://www.diken.com.tr/16-turk-devletinin-askerlerini-konusturan-takvim-dusakabinogullarinin-devletini-unuttu/ diken.com.tr].</ref><br />
<br />
{{commons category}}<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Pan-Turkism]]<br />
* [[Turanism]]<br />
*[[Neo-Ottomanism]]<br />
<br />
== References==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:National symbols of Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism]]<br />
[[Category:Pan-Turkism]]<br />
[[Category:Turanism]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atat%C3%BCrk%27s_Main_Principles&diff=1143023682Atatürk's Main Principles2023-03-05T14:35:29Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Etatism */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Main views of the founding father of the Republic of Turkey, Atatürk}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Atatürk CHP'nin 4. Kurultay'ında (9 Mayıs 1935).jpg|thumb|375x375px|[[The Six Arrows]] which represent [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]]'s principles.]]<br />
'''Atatürk's Principles''' consist of [[Kemalism|six principles]] that determine the pragmatic policies of [[Turkey]]'s first [[President of Turkey|president]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], which he put into effect under his administration.<ref>{{Cite web|date=|title=TTK|url=https://www.ttk.gov.tr/tarihveegitim/ataturk-ilkeleri-belleten-makale/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301125246/https://www.ttk.gov.tr/tarihveegitim/ataturk-ilkeleri-belleten-makale/|archive-date=1 March 2017|access-date=|website=|publisher=}}</ref> These principles came to be the fundamental pillars of the [[Republican People's Party]], the founding and sole party of the country, on 13 May 1935.<ref name="kemalizm">{{Cite web|title=Kemalizm|url=https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2020/yazarlar/sinan-meydan/kemalizm-5563892/|access-date=27 September 2021|website=Sözcü Gazetesi|language=tr}}</ref> Later, the principles were added to the [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|1924 Constitution]] with a law enacted in 1937 and thus became the national ideology of Turkey with this practice.<ref name="kemalizm" /><br />
<br />
== Basic Principles ==<br />
<br />
=== Republicanism ===<br />
[[Republic]]: A government in which the sovereignty belongs to the people. A republic is a form of democracy, and it is a regime in which the people have a say in the administration. [[Republicanism]] (Turkish: Cumhuriyetçilik), on the other hand, means the presence of the Republic in the state administration. It comes from the word "cumhur", which means people in [[Arabic]].<br />
<br />
Atatürk's view on Republicanism: "The administration most suitable for the character and customs of the Turkish nation".<ref name="Atatürk İlke ve İnkılâpları">{{Cite web|date=2017-01-13|title=Atatürk İlke ve İnkılâpları|url=https://www.mevkoleji.k12.tr/tr/kurumsal/ataturk-kosesi/ataturk-ilke-ve-inkilaplari/|access-date=2021-11-13|website=MEV Koleji|language=tr-TR}}</ref><br />
<br />
The republican administration has been added to the [[Turkish constitution]] since 1923 and is the first article of the constitution. In the second article of the constitution, the characteristics of the republic are stated and are: "Turkey is a democratic, [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]] and social [[state of law]], respectful of [[Human rights in Turkey|human rights]], loyal to [[Atatürk's nationalism]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://global.tbmm.gov.tr/docs/constitution_en.pdf| title = Reference at global.tbmm.gov.tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
Atatürk adopted a [[democratic republic]] in Turkey. Regarding this, he said, "The full and most obvious form of democracy is the republic".<ref>{{cite web| url = https://eodev.com/gorev/8675843| title = Reference at eodev.com}}</ref> At the same time, Atatürk entrusted the republic to the Turkish youth and tried to ensure that the country was in constant renewal, [[industrialization]], and modernization.<br />
<br />
==== Development of the principles ====<br />
[[Ali Suavi]], [[Namık Kemal]] and other [[Young Ottomans]] demanded a regime that would limit the [[sultan]]'s authority, especially with the influence of the [[American Revolution|American]] and [[French Revolution of 1848|French revolutions]]. Especially during the reign of [[Abdul Hamid II]], in which the views of [[French philosophy|French philosophers]] spread widely among the [[Young Turks]]. Atatürk was also a part of this formation. However, the idea of reform did not go beyond the idea of a [[constitutional monarchy]] until Atatürk.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}<br />
<br />
It was especially possible for the idea of a republic to find the opportunity to develop in the period following the First World War. After the war, empires such as [[Russian Empire|Russia]], [[German Empire|Germany]] and [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] were replaced by [[Republicanism|republican]] regimes. In 1918, [[Azerbaijan]] was established as the first [[Muslims|Muslim]]-majority republic. Other [[Muslims|Muslim]] peoples in [[Russia]] also declared themselves republics. The idea of a republic thus spread throughout the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}<br />
<br />
It is not known exactly when Atatürk started to plan the project of establishing a republic. On the other hand, looking at the reports of the nationalist meetings in 1919, it can be said that the [[Turkish War of Independence|independence struggle]] was influenced by Atatürk's republican ideas from the very beginning.<ref>Paul Dumont (1999). ''Kemalist İdeolojinin Kökenleri.'' Jacob M. Landau (Yay. Haz.) (1999). Atatürk ve Türkiye'nin Modernleşmesi, İstanbul: Sarmal, ISBN 975-8304-18-6 (s. 49-72) içinde. s.53.</ref> However, due to the strong loyalty to the [[Ottoman Empire|sultanate]] and [[Ottoman Caliphate|caliphate]], Atatürk and those who thought like him had to wait to bring their ideas to life. The republic was proclaimed almost a year after the [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate|abolition of the sultanate]].<br />
<br />
=== Nationalism ===<br />
According to Atatürk, the nation is: A community of people who have lived together in the past, who have the belief and decision to live together in the future, who have the same homeland, and who have a unity of language, culture and emotion. Atatürk's view on [[Nationalism]] is a [[Patriotism|patriotist]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cemal Avcı, ''Atatürk'ün Milliyetçilik Anlayışı'', Çukurova Üniversitesi, Türkoloji Araştırmaları Merkezi |url=http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/ATATURK/arastirmalar/avci.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200722104726/http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/ATATURK/arastirmalar/avci.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2020 |access-date=24 December 2016}}</ref> [[civic nationalist|civic nationalism]] which bases the definition of nation on citizenship and upper identity values, regardless of religion and race.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler|date=1930|publisher=Toplumsal Dönüşüm Yayınları|page=48|language=tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
In the 66th article of the [[Turkish constitution of 1982|1982 Constitution]], which reflects Atatürk's nationalism, "Everyone who is bound to the Turkish State by [[citizenship]] is a Turk."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Anayasası|url=https://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/#anayasa|access-date=17 October 2021|website=www.mevzuat.gov.tr}}</ref> In his book Civil Information for Citizens, Atatürk defined the nation as "The people of Turkey who founded the [[Turkish Republic]] are called the [[Turkish people|Turkish nation]]."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medenî Bilgiler|work=|publisher=Toplumsal Dönüşüm Yayınları|page=40|language=tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Populism ===<br />
The principle of [[populism]], first of all, is aimed at the realization and establishment of a [[Progressivism|progressive]], [[western democracy]], which means "the administration of the people, by the people for the people".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Atatürk ilkeleri|url=https://www.ttk.gov.tr/belgelerle-tarih/ataturk-ilkeleri-belleten-makale/|publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu}}</ref> It also prioritizes [[Westphalian sovereignty|national sovereignty]]. The state aims at the [[welfare]] and happiness of the citizens. It envisages the division of labor and solidarity among citizens. It ensures that the nation enjoys equal access to government services. It is understood from Atatürk's populism principle that: No privilege is given to any person, group or any class in society. Everyone is equal before the law.<ref name="Atatürk İlke ve İnkılâpları"/> According to the principle of populism, no one can gain superiority over others in terms of religion, language, race, sect or money when judged before the law.<br />
<br />
Populism is defined in the [[The Six Arrows|six pillars]] of the [[Republican People's Party]] founded by Mustafa Kemal as follows: "For us, people must be treated equally before the law. No distinction should be made between class, family and individuals. We believe that the people of Turkey are not as a whole made up of various classes, but as a whole; as one. We see Turkish society as having various professions according to the needs of social life." However, this should not be confused with [[Collective farming|collectivism]]. The "populism" that Atatürk refers to here is not a socialist ideology used by [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] countries and is also not incompatible with [[individualism]]. Atatürk's populism, as mentioned in the 1935 [[Republican People's Party|CHP]] program and Atatürk's Medeni Bilgiler book, is [[solidarist]] based on the [[Class collaboration|solidarity of the classes]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler PDF|date=1930|publisher=Toplumsal Dönüşüm Yayınları|page=107|language=tr}}</ref> and also [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler PDF|date=1930|publisher=Toplumsal Dönüşüm Yayınları|pages=101–102|language=tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
Necessary measures have been taken for equality between women and men, the end of [[sex segregation]] in schools, the measures taken to prepare a new [[Turkish alphabet]] that every citizen can learn and to treat every citizen equally before state organs support the principle of populism.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}<br />
<br />
According to [[Ahmet Taner Kışlalı]], [[Kemalist]] populism wanted to strengthen the poorest and most uneducated segment of the society and to ensure social solidarity.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Kemalizm, Laiklik ve Demokrasi|publisher=İmge Kitabevi|page=49|language=tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== History ====<br />
During the reign of [[Abdulaziz|Sultan Abdulaziz]], some [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] intellectuals, especially [[Ali Suavi]], were influenced by the [[Narodniks|Narodnik movement]] in [[Russia]] and began to deal with the problems of the people. At the end of the 19th century, many literary figures, especially [[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], were affected by populism. After the [[Young Turk Revolution]], the word 'folk' found wide usage. For a long time, populism was thought of as the act of benevolent intellectuals for the benefit of the masses.<br />
<br />
This understanding began to change after [[World War I]]. [[Ziya Gökalp]] concluded, under the influence of [[Émile Durkheim|Durkheim]], that [[class conflict]] was bad, and shortly after the [[Russian Revolution|Soviet Revolution in 1918]], opposed it and defended populism against it. Gökalp defined populism as follows:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|If a society consists of several strata or classes, then it is not an [[egalitarian]] society. The aim of populism is to suppress stratification or class differences and instead to create a social structure of professional groups in [[solidarity]] with each other. In other words, we can summarize populism as follows: there are no [[social class]]es, there are [[profession]]s!<ref>Zafer Toprak (1977). Meşrutiyette Solidarist Düşünce: Halkçılık. ''Toplum ve Bilim'', 1, s. 92.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
This approach largely lends itself to [[solidarism]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ziya Gökalp'te "Solidarizm" ve "Milli İktisat"|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/326817|publisher=Dergipark}}</ref> This understanding greatly influenced [[Nationalism|nationalists]], especially the [[Kemalism|Kemalists]], during the [[Turkish War of Independence]]. Although the corporations proposed by Gökalp were not realized, the principle of no classes was accepted by the Kemalist leaders. Kemalist leaders, especially Atatürk, insisted that classes were not yet developed in Turkey. They adopted the idea of solidarity in order to fight [[communism]] and the idea of class struggle. They also saw this as the justification for the [[one-party system]].<ref>Paul Dumont (1999). Kemalist İdeolojinin Kökenleri. Jacob M. Landau (Yay. Haz.) (1999). Atatürk ve Türkiye'nin Modernleşmesi, İstanbul: Sarmal, ISBN 975-8304-18-6 (s. 49-72) içinde. s.60.</ref><br />
<br />
Although populism is a principle that is quickly adopted, after [[World War II]], it remained largely in the background during the rapid industrialization and [[Capitalism|capitalistization]] process.<br />
<br />
=== Secularism ===<br />
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2022}}<br />
[[Secularism]] means that the state does not discriminate on the basis of beliefs in its relations with its citizens, especially the dominant belief in a society. In other words, it is the principle that advocates the non-reference of any religion in state administration and the [[impartiality]] of the state against religions, which aims to base the state order, [[educational institution]]s and legal rules on [[reason]] and science, not on religion. In addition, it enables the individual to protect his/her [[freedom of religion]] by leaving the religious affairs to one's conscience.<br />
<br />
According to secularism, religion is part of one's private life and thus the state has no say in religious matters. Secularism is the [[separation of religion and state]].<br />
<br />
Secularism is included in the preconditions of all other principles except [[Kemalism#Statism|etatism]]: It is the precondition of democracy: because without secularism there can be no real [[freedom of thought]]. It is the precondition of [[Revolutionary movement|revolutionism]]: because in a society that has not accepted secularism, even the discussion of changing institutions that are behind the requirements of science and the age cannot be made. It is the precondition of populism: because in a religious state, the opinions of the religious "elites" are important, not the wishes of the people. In his book "Civil Information", which he wrote in his own handwriting, Atatürk attributes his understanding of [[secularism]] to the principles of separating not only religion and state affairs but also religion from politics, and making laws according to the needs of society, not religion.<br />
<br />
The stages of secularization in Turkey are as follows:<br />
<br />
* [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate]] (1922)<br />
* [[Abolition of the Caliphate|Abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate]] (1924)<br />
* Enactment of the Law of Tevhîd-i Tedrisât (End of sex segregation in school) (1924)<br />
* Closure of dervish lodges, zawiyas and [[shrine]]s (1925)<br />
* Adoption of the [[Turkish civil code (1926)|Turkish Civil Code]] (1926)<br />
* The clause "The religion of the state is Islam." removed from the [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|constitution]] (1928)<br />
* The adoption of Atatürk's Principles ([[The Six Arrows|Six Arrows]]) into the Constitution (1937)<br />
<br />
=== Etatism ===<br />
[[Kemalism#Statism|Etatism]] envisages the regulation of the general economic activities of the country, and the entry of the state into areas necessitated by national interests. Atatürk's etatism principle: What is necessary for a contemporary and modern order that Turkish society wants to achieve is the strengthening and nationalization of the economy. The principle of [[Kemalism#Statism|etatism]] in Turkey is moderate etatism, as Atatürk called it.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler|page=212}}</ref> According to Moderate Etatism, although the Kemalist economy is based on the [[free market]] and the individual, the state can take over the places that the free market cannot or does not want to enter, but the state should never get ahead of the individual.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler|page=209}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Anadolu|date=3-4 November 1932|publisher=Mahmut Esat Bozkurt|language=tr}}</ref> As Atatürk said, this moderate etatism should never be confused with [[Socialism|socialist statism]], because it is not in a [[Collective farming|collectivist]] structure like socialist statism.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> The fact that Atatürk also supports foreign funding into the economy, makes the Kemalist economic model equivalent to the [[social liberal]] economy. He said the following:<br />
<br />
"''State can't take the place of individuals, but, it must take into consideration the individuals to make them improve and develop theirselves. Etatism includes the work that individuals won't do because they can't make profit or the work which are necessary for national interests. Just as it is the duty of the state to protect the freedom and independence of the country and to regulate internal affairs, the state must take care of the education and health of its citizens. The state must take care of the roads, railways, telegraphs, telephones, animals of the country, all kinds of vehicles and the general wealth of the nation to protect the peace and security of the country. During the administration and protection of the country, the things we just counted are more important than cannons, rifles and all kinds of weapons. (...) Private interests are generally the opposite of the general interests. Also, private interests are based on rivalries. But, you can't create a stable economy only with this. People who think like that are delusional and they will be a failure. (...) And, work of an individual must stay as the main basis of economic growth. Not preventing an individual's work and not obstructing the individual's freedom and enterprise with the state's own activities is the main basis of the principle of democracy''"<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler ve M. Kemal Atatürk'ün El Yazıları|date=1930|pages=46–47|language=tr}}</ref><br />
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Atatürk, who advocates that the state fulfills [[social justice]] with social aids, mentions that he has adopted the [[social state]] model as follows:<br />
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"''Democracy leaves the citizen the freedom and opportunity to realize his life and fulfill all kinds of individual and social duties. However, on the other hand, it has to provide a life for some citizens, such as the sick, the weak, the disabled, who cannot fully enjoy their freedoms. Social assistance sees such tasks. (...)'' ''An institution established for social welfare is necessary. This institution is very developed everywhere. This service is sometimes managed by the state, and sometimes left to local governments. The second form is the most common. This institution provides doctors and medicines free of charge to those in need. It helps poor elderly, disabled and incurable patients, postpartum women, large families, and children in need.''<br />
<br />
The official social assistance institution cannot meet the need. Private institutions in the same position, such as the [[Red Crescent]], [[child protection]], charity associations for the poor, also help. The opening of hospitals by the state and the acceptance of some of them free of charge by the decision of the local government are among the services provided by the social aid institution. In addition, civil servants and servants also must have social institutions, such as workers' and peasants' pension funds and insurance boxes for accident and death. In many states, "[[social insurance]]" is applied to everyone against conditions such as old age, unemployment and death."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler|publisher=Toplumsal Dönüşüm Yayınları|pages=102–103|language=tr}}</ref><br />
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Atatürk stated the purpose of this principle as: "In summary, while keeping the etatism, individual labor and work that we follow as the basis, it is to keep the state personally concerned, especially in the economic field, in the affairs required by the general and high interests of the nation, in order to bring the nation to wealth and the country to public works in as little time as possible."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler PDF|date=1930|publisher=Toplumsal Dönüşüm Yayınları|page=78|language=tr}}</ref><br />
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==== Content and development ====<br />
Atatürk evaluates the principle of Etatism in connection with the principle of Populism.<ref>Büyük LAROUSSE Ansiklopedisi Cilt 10</ref> Between 1923 and 1930, private entrepreneurs were expected to make the necessary investments for the development of poor people, who had been neglected for centuries, and to reach the modern level of life. But the people specializing in this function did not have enough money, sufficient experience and sufficient technological backgrounds. Atatürk adopted the principle of "Etatism" in order to develop the country and bring the people to the level of contemporary civilization. Thus, both domestic production and industrialization would be increased, and the state would intervene in the economy until the free market in the country recovered.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}<br />
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This principle was aimed at Atatürk's goal of putting the national economy on solid foundations: "An economically weak nation cannot get rid of poverty and misery. It cannot avoid social and political disaster."—based on his philosophy.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}<br />
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=== Reformism ===<br />
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2022}}<br />
[[Reformism]] is the adoption, development and protection of [[Atatürk's reforms|Atatürk's Radical Reformations]] made for the modernization of the Turkish nation against all kinds of dangers.<br />
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This principle is a Turkish [[nationalist]] understanding of [[Revolutionary movement|revolutionism]] that clearly denies [[elitism]] and attaches great importance to integrating with the people and thus democratic methods. There are two sides to the [[Kemalism|Kemalist]] Reformist approach. The first aspect is about destroying the outdated institutions of the old order and replacing them with institutions that will meet the needs of the age. But [[Kemalism]] is not satisfied with this, it also constantly describes [[reformism]] as openness to [[innovation]]s and changes and opposes [[stereotype]]s.<br />
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Atatürk regarded the protection of what his reforms brought to the country as a necessity of the reformist principle. But for him, the problem did not end there. He was aware that the conditions would change, that changing conditions would require new institutions and new breakthroughs. For this reason, he was against the stereotypes of [[Kemalism]] and, in a sense, the freezing of reforms. He knew that in line with the circumstances, not only institutions but also ideas had to change. This is why [[Kemalism]]'s [[Reformism|Reformist]] principle also reflects a "[[Permanent revolution|Permanent Revolutionary]]" understanding. Even the most [[Progressivism|progressive]] institutions wear out in circumstances. Those who are content with the watchdog of a most advanced revolution cannot escape from being behind the changing conditions and becoming [[Conservatism|conservative]] one day. This is the main reason for [[Kemalism]]'s understanding of [[permanent revolution]].<br />
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== Integrative principles ==<br />
<br />
=== National independence ===<br />
Atatürk, who said "[[Freedom]] and [[independence]] are my character", took strength from this thought in the foundation of modern Turkey. Being independent means not being under the control of other powers, and being able to act in the communities formed together with other states as required by Turkey's national interests. For Atatürk, full [[independence]] should be realized in "[[Politics|political]], [[Finance|financial]], [[Economy|economic]], [[Judiciary|judicial]], [[military]], [[Culture|cultural]] and other matters".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bağımsızlık|url=http://www.ktb.gov.tr/|access-date=17 October 2021|website=www.ktb.gov.tr|language=tr}}</ref> Because of this, many [[revolution]]s were carried out and this prompted Atatürk to adopt the motto of the [[Turkish War of Independence]], "Either independence or death!".<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1081172824|title=Nutuk|isbn=978-975-445-157-3|page=13|language=tr|oclc=1081172824|last1=Atatürk|first1=Mustafa Kemal|year=2018}}</ref><br />
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=== National unity ===<br />
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2022}}<br />
The principle of National Unity and Togetherness is a necessary result of Atatürk's [[nationalism]]. According to this view and understanding, the people, together with its country, is an indivisible whole.<br />
<br />
Atatürk had not started the [[Turkish War of Independence]] before the Turkish people had become a whole. However, after suppressing the divisive and damaging currents and uprisings, the paths of success were opened to him. In his speeches, Atatürk stated that both victory and revolution took place with national unity. He has never considered the homeland separate from the people.<br />
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Since the nation is a union of people who adhere to the same ideal, then the piece of homeland on which people live is a whole, sacred. It cannot be divided, it cannot be demolished. To think the opposite of this, not to adopt Atatürk's Principles, namely the principles of [[Revolutionary movement|Revolutionism]] and [[Secularism]] means to oppose them. And if Atatürk's Principles are denied, the existence of the [[Turkey|Turkish Republic]] and the [[Secularity|secular]] Turkish nation will come to an end.<br />
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=== Modernity ===<br />
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2022}}<br />
[[Modernity]], in terms of [[political science]], is defined as the political and social changes accompanying industrialization.<br />
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Atatürk defines [[civilization]] as the result of a nation's progress in state life, intellectual life and economic life. The Turkish modernization initiated under the leadership of Atatürk is not caused by any external pressure. The basis of Kemalist modernization is full independence as a state, sovereignty as a nation, and rights and freedoms as individuals. The principle of modernization is a necessary result of the understanding of [[Westphalian sovereignty|National Sovereignty]] and Populism.<br />
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=== Rationalism ===<br />
Atatürk said, "As a spiritual heritage, I do not leave any verse, any dogma, or any stereotyped rule. My spiritual heritage is science and reason." In his words, he clearly reveals the importance he gives to science and reason.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}<br />
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The adoption of Law No. 2252 on May 31, 1933, which included higher schools, was an important step in the development of [[Science and technology in Turkey|science in Turkey]] in the first years of the Republic. Pursuant to this law, the old [[Istanbul University]] was closed on 31 June 1933, and a modern university in line with the [[western Europe]]an model was planned to be opened on 1 August 1933 instead. This university was followed by the opening or modernization of many new schools or departments in Turkey. For example, Department of Architecture in Istanbul Technical School, Agriculture and Veterinary School in [[Ankara]], State Conservatory and some other schools can be counted.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}<br />
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The university revolution carried out by Atatürk primarily envisaged that universities in the fields of [[natural science]]s and [[humanities]] should keep up with the research traditions in line with [[Western world|western]] examples. In the fields of history and language, Atatürk strongly supported this movement, which he wanted to revive, by establishing the History and Language Institutions.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.atam.gov.tr/index.php?Page=DergiIcerik&IcerikNo=648| title = Reference at www.atam.gov.tr}}</ref><br />
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=== National sovereignty ===<br />
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2022}}<br />
National sovereignty: The sovereignty, which is the supreme power that establishes and manages the state, belongs directly to the people, not to individuals or certain groups.<br />
<br />
On the first day the [[Turkish Grand National Assembly]] began to convene, Atatürk stated that all power is in the people's hands. According to him, the people of the nation have the power to fulfill any request. There is no force that can prevent the will of the people.<br />
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== See also ==<br />
<br />
* [[The Six Arrows]]<br />
* [[Three Principles of the People]]<br />
* [[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]]<br />
* [[Republican People's Party]]<br />
* [[Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the People]]<br />
* [[How happy is the one who says I am a Turk]]<br />
<br />
== References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ataturk's Main Principles}}<br />
[[Category:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish%E2%80%93Islamic_synthesis&diff=1143009578Turkish–Islamic synthesis2023-03-05T12:58:36Z<p>Cehilizm: Ülkücüs added</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Ideology involving Turkish nationalism and Islamism}}<br />
'''Turkish-Islamic nationalism''' ({{Lang-tr|Türk-İslam milliyetçiliği}}), commonly referred to as '''Turkish-Islamic synthesis''' ({{Lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}), is a type of [[Muslims|Muslim]] [[religious nationalism]] which mixes [[Turkish nationalism]].<ref>Mobilization of political Islam in Turkey (2010), Banu Eligür, s. 65</ref> It's often embraced by [[Idealism (Turkey)|Idealists]] (''Ülkücüler'').<br />
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== History == <br />
Historian Gökhan Çetinsaya explained that there is three opinions on the topic of [[Turkish nationalism]] and [[Islam]]. First are the nationalists who reject Islam, second are Islamists who reject nationalism, and third are the ones who mix them both together. Turkish Islamonationalism was originally created by right-wing intellectuals who were concerned of increasing leftist influence in the country. They wanted to make a religion-inspired nationalism. İbrahim Kafesoğlu is seen as the founder of the ideology. According to the synthesis, you have to be a Muslim in order to be a Turk, and that Islam is the most suitable religion for Turks. In the late 1970s, the Turkish political scene was full of ideological conflicts between far-right ultranationalists ([[Idealism (Turkey)|Idealists]]) and far-left groups, along with little-to-no governmental effort to stop it. Under the [[Motherland Party (Turkey)|Motherland Party]] rule, Turkish Islamonationalism became the [[de facto]] official ideology of Turkey (and until today it is accused of being so under [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|AKP]] rule, although the AKP strongly denies it). In 1982, religion was strengthened in schools and education as a way to strengthen Turkish Islamonationalism, which intended to weaken mainstream [[Islamism]] and [[secularism|secular]] [[nationalism]].<ref>{{Citation |title=The Turkish-Islamic Synthesis and the Islamist Social Movement |date=2010 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/mobilization-of-political-islam-in-turkey/turkishislamic-synthesis-and-the-islamist-social-movement/224C3B79BAA70A11CC989C8D60E66272 |work=The Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey |pages=85–135 |editor-last=Eligür |editor-first=Banu |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76021-8 |access-date=2022-08-11}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><br />
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== Views on non-Turks ==<br />
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=== Arabs ===<br />
There were few cases of [[anti-Arabism]] among Turkish Islamonationalists before the [[Turkey's migrant crisis|Syrian refugee crisis in Turkey]]. After the refugee crisis, anti-Arabism increased. In [[Gaziantep]], approximately 2 dozen [[Syrians|Syrian]] [[Arabs]] had to leave the city after angry Turkish crowds belonging to the [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] ransacked their homes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yalçın |first=Zübeyde |date=2014-07-22 |title=Anti-Syrian protests sign of growing tensions in southern Turkey |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/2014/07/22/antisyrian-protests-sign-of-growing-tensions-in-southern-turkey |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=Daily Sabah |language=en-US}}</ref> Another time a group of about 1,000 Grey Wolves, which organized on social media, blocked various roads in [[Kahramanmaraş]] and refused to leave even after police warnings. The protestors also removed [[Arabic]] signs from many Syrian-owned stores, and many store owners closed their shops in fear. They also attacked a Syrian in a car and broke his windows, however they ran away after the Turkish police fired a warning gunshot into the air.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hundreds march against Syrian refugees - Türkiye News |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/hundreds-march-against-syrian-refugees-69122 |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=Hürriyet Daily News |language=en}}</ref> Many Turkish Islamonationalist organizations volunteer to fight in [[Syria]] in favor of [[Syrian Turkmen]] to strengthen Turkmen interests and weaken Arab rule.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tashjian |first=Yeghia |date=2020-10-16 |title=Erdogan’s Enver Pasha Dream: The Revival of the “Army of Islam" |url=https://armenianweekly.com/2020/10/16/erdogans-enver-pasha-dream-the-revival-of-the-army-of-islam/ |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=The Armenian Weekly |language=en-US}}</ref> The [[Alperen Hearths]] sent 250 fighters in 2015 to "fight against Russia, Iran, and Assad. And to help Turkmen".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Alperen Ocakları'ndan 'savaş' ilanı |url=https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/alperen-ocaklarindan-savas-ilani-427371 |access-date=2022-11-03 |website=www.cumhuriyet.com.tr |language=tr}}</ref><br />
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=== Kurds ===<br />
Although the Grey Wolves are known to be openly [[Anti-Kurdish sentiment|anti-Kurdish]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Bildung |first=Bundeszentrale für politische |title=Einführung: Graue Wölfe und türkischer Ultranationalismus in Deutschland {{!}} bpb |url=https://www.bpb.de/politik/extremismus/rechtsextremismus/252855/einfuehrung-graue-woelfe-und-tuerkischer-ultranationalismus-in-deutschland |access-date=2020-11-21 |website=bpb.de |language=de}}</ref> most of the Turkish Islamonationalists and groups have stated that they do not hate ethnic [[Kurds]], but only hate the [[Kurdistan Workers' Party|PKK]], [[Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)|HDP]], [[People's Defense Units|YPG]], [[Separatism|separatist Kurds]], and the idea of an independent [[Kurdistan]]. Some have also blamed secular-nationalism for being one of the causes of the [[Kurdish–Turkish conflict]], stating that Islam was the only link between Kurds and Turks, and secular-nationalists, on both sides, destroyed it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Karakas |first=Cemal |date=2007 |title=The Turkish-Islamic Synthesis (TIS) and the Re-Politicization of Religion “from above” |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep14537.7 |pages=16–19}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=MONEY TALKS: TURKISH-ISLAMIC SYNTHESIS ON BANKNOTES OF TURKEY |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/447694}}</ref> <br />
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After the [[Republican People's Party|CHP]] said that "a legitimate body is needed for the Kurdish problem, we can solve the issue with [[Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)|HDP]]", the [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]] leader [[Devlet Bahçeli]] stated that "There is no Kurdish problem in Turkey. The CHP, [[Good Party|IYI]], and HDP see my Kurdish brothers as a problem".<ref>{{Cite web |title=MHP objects to debate on Kurdish issue |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/amp/mhp-objects-to-debate-on-kurdish-issue-168403}}</ref> <br />
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In an [[Iftar]] speech, [[Mustafa Destici]], leader of the [[Great Unity Party|BBP]], who previously ripped a picture of a [[Kurdistan]] map, said that "The Kurds are our brothers. Unfortunately, some political structures and groups within both of us either can't see the bigger picture, or it doesn't work for them to see it. They are chasing small calculations for the sake of political interest. The basis for Turkey's ability to continue on its way as a whole passes through unity."<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBP’nin iftarından: Kürtler… |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/tr/story/26102-BBP’nin-iftarından:-Kürtler}}</ref> In a 2021 speech, Destici said that the "[[Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)|HDP]] does not represent the [[Kurds]], it represents the [[Kurdistan Workers' Party|PKK]] and [[People's Defense Units|YPG]]".<ref>{{Cite web |last=adilcan |title=Mustafa Destici: HDP Kürtlerin değil, PKK ve YPG’nin temsilcisi - Son dakika haberleri – Sözcü |url=https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2021/gundem/mustafa-destici-hdp-kurtlerin-degil-pkk-ve-ypgnin-temsilcisi-6520016/ |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=Sözcü Gazetesi |language=tr}}</ref><br />
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=== Greeks ===<br />
Turkish Islamonationalists are known to hate [[Greeks]] due to their conflicts in history as well as Greeks being [[Christianity|Christian]]. The Grey Wolves were once accused of storming an [[Istanbul pogrom]] memorial exhibition and throwing eggs and taking down pictures, although the Grey Wolves denied any involvement.<ref>{{cite news |date=18 September 2008 |title=Eleven Taken Into Custody For Ergenekon Investigation |agency=[[Bianet]] |url=http://bianet.org/english/politics/109807-eleven-taken-into-custody-for-ergenekon-investigation}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Vick |first1=Karl |date=30 September 2005 |title=In Turkey, a Clash of Nationalism and History |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/09/29/AR2005092902240.html}}</ref> In 2005 many Turkish Islamonationalists organized a rally and marched to the gate of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]] and chanted "Patriarch Leave" and "Patriarchate to Greece".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Alexopoulos |first1=Dimitris |date=28 October 2005 |title=By the Grey Wolves Tension at the Patriarchate |agency=The Hellenic Radio (ERA) |url=http://www.hri.org/news/greek/eraen/2005/05-10-28_1.eraen.html#08}}</ref> [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]] leader also once held a map showing [[Turkey]] claiming all of the islands controlled by [[Greece]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=English |first=Duvar |date=2022-11-07 |title=Greek PM slams ultranationalist MHP leader for posing with map showing Greek islands as Turkish |url=https://www.duvarenglish.com/greek-pm-mitsotakis-slams-ultranationalist-mhp-leader-bahceli-for-posing-with-map-showing-greek-islands-as-turkish-news-61017 |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=Duvar English |language=en-EN}}</ref><br />
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=== Armenians ===<br />
Similar to Greeks, Turkish Islamonationalists are also known to hate [[Armenians]] due to their conflicting history and due to Armenians practicing Christianity. [[Murder of Sevag Balıkçı|Sevag Balıkçı]], an Armenian in the [[Turkish Land Forces|Turkish Army]], was murdered by Kıvanç Ağaoglu, who was a supporter of [[Abdullah Çatlı]], the former Grey Wolves leader.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Türker |first1=Yıldırım |date=9 May 2011 |title=Asker Sevag'a ne oldu? |language=tr |work=[[Radikal]] |url=http://www.radikal.com.tr/yazarlar/yildirim_turker/asker_sevaga_ne_oldu-1048713 |quote=Yoğun şekilde milliyetçi temalarla karşılaştık. Mesela Muhsin Yazıcıoğlu’nun videoları ve Abdullah Çatlı’nın resimleri geniş yer tutuyordu.}}</ref> On [[Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day]] in 2012, various nationalist and Turkish Islamonationalist groups protested against the remembrance of the Armenian genocide in [[Taksim Square]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Moral |first1=Efe |date=25 April 2012 |title=April 24th |work=The Globe Times |url=http://www.theglobetimes.com/2012/04/25/april-24th/ }}; Translated from the original {{cite news |last=Perrier |first=Guillaume |date=25 April 2012 |title=24 avril |language=fr |work=[[Le Monde|istanbul.blog.lemonde.fr]] |url=http://istanbul.blog.lemonde.fr/2012/04/25/24-avril/ |access-date=11 August 2022 |archive-date=18 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518143218/http://istanbul.blog.lemonde.fr/2012/04/25/24-avril/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> When Armenian pianist [[Tigran Hamasyan]] visited the city of [[Ani]] in [[Kars Province]], the local Grey Wolves leader suggested that his anyone who supports him should "go on an Armenian hunt."<ref>{{cite news |date=24 June 2015 |title=Ülkücü başkandan tehdit: 'Sokaklarda Ermeni avına mı çıkalım' ! |language=tr |work=[[Taraf]] |url=http://www.taraf.com.tr/guncel-haber/ulkucu-baskandan-tehdit-sokaklarda-ermeni-avina-mi-cikalim/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150807092051/http://www.taraf.com.tr/guncel-haber/ulkucu-baskandan-tehdit-sokaklarda-ermeni-avina-mi-cikalim/ |archive-date=2015-08-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=25 June 2015 |title=Turkish Radical Threatens to 'Hunt for Armenians' In Streets of Kars |work=[[Asbarez]] |url=http://asbarez.com/137259/turkish-radical-threatens-to-hunt-for-armenians-in-streets-of-kars/ |access-date=11 August 2022 |archive-date=23 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723171657/http://asbarez.com/137259/turkish-radical-threatens-to-hunt-for-armenians-in-streets-of-kars/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
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== Criticism ==<br />
Turkish Islamonationalism is often criticized by Islamists who view nationalism as a sin, by secular Turkish nationalists who view religion as unimportant, and by various minority rights organizations and activists in Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Affairs |first=Berkley Center for Religion, Peace and World |title=AKP’s Radicalization of Turkish Islam Among Minorities at Home and the Turkish Diaspora |url=https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/responses/akp-s-radicalization-of-turkish-islam-among-minorities-at-home-and-the-turkish-diaspora |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=berkleycenter.georgetown.edu |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
Islamic scholar Ihsan Senocak once said "Neither Turkish-Islamic nationalism, nor [[Kurdish-Islamic nationalism]]. Only Islam."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-05-05 |title=Ne Türk-İslam, Ne Kürt-İslam Sentezi SADECE İSLAM |url=https://www.ihsansenocak.com/sadece-islam/ |access-date=2022-11-03 |website=İhsan Şenocak |language=tr}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Notable Turkish Islamonationalists == <br />
<br />
*[[Ziya Gökalp]]<br />
*[[Alparslan Türkeş]]<br />
*[[Mustafa Destici]]<br />
*[[Devlet Bahçeli]]<br />
*[[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]]<br />
<br />
== Turkish Islamonationalist Groups ==<br />
* [[Great Unity Party]]<br />
* [[Nationalist Movement Party]] <br />
* [[Alperen Hearths]]<br />
* [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] <br />
* [[Sultan Murad Division]]<br />
* [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)]]<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Nine Lights Doctrine]]<br />
* [[Iranian Islamonationalism]]<br />
* [[Kurdish Islamonationalism]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[[Category:Islamic nationalism]]<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism]] <br />
[[Category:Opposition to Arab nationalism]]<br />
[[Category:Syncretic political movements]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkish_nationalism&diff=1143008976Turkish nationalism2023-03-05T12:53:29Z<p>Cehilizm: Added "Civic nationalist" which is already mentioned in the main Kemalism page</p>
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<div>[[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Turkey]]]]<br />
{{Short description|Nationalism of the country of Turkey or Turks}}<br />
[[File:Turkse arbeiders met het bronzen hoofd van Atatürk - Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of Atatürk (6941436439).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish workers carrying a bronze head of Atatürk, 1933]]<br />
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'''Turkish nationalism''' ({{lang-tr|Türk milliyetçiliği}}) is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either a [[Turkey#Demographics|national]], [[Turkish people|ethnic]], or [[Turkish language|linguistic group]]. The term "[[ultranationalism]]" is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rayner |first1=Jeremy |url= |title=Back to the '30s?: Recurring Crises of Capitalism, Liberalism, and Democracy |last2=Falls |first2=Susan |last3=Souvlis |first3=George |last4=Nelms |first4=Taylor C. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41586-0 |pages=161 |language=en |quote=In the prevailing literature, the term ultra-nationalism is often used to describe Turkish nationalism.}}</ref><br />
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==History==<br />
[[File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]], the [[mausoleum]] for [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], leader of the [[Turkish War of Independence]] and founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]]]<br />
[[File:Ataturk Poster.jpg|thumb|right|Propaganda poster of the [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party regime]], depicts [[Atatürk's reforms]]]]<br />
[[File:5 Liras 1927.jpg|thumb|A 5-lira banknote from the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] era in Turkey.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/TR/TCMB+TR/Main+Menu/Banknotlar/Cumhuriyet+Donemi+Banknotlari/Emisyon+Gruplari/1.+Emisyon+Grubu/Emisyon2 tcmb.gov.tr]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kağıt Paraları |access-date=2007-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085028/http://www.turkishbanknotes.info/pick_list.htm |archive-date=2007-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[grey wolf]] is a symbol of Turkish nationalism, as well as of Pan-Turkism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |title=ATATÜRK VE BOZKURT |access-date=2007-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111122819/http://www.bozkurtataturk.com/ataturk_bozkurt.htm |archive-date=2007-01-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]<br />
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{{See also|Pan-Turkism#History}}<br />
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After the [[Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire|fall]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] came to power. He introduced a language reform with the aim to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=Westview Press|year=1984|isbn=0865319863|location=Boulder|pages=133|language=en}}</ref> He also promoted the [[Sun Language Theory]] in Turkish political and educational circles from 1935. Turkish researchers at the time like [[Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın]] and [[Rıfat Osman Bey]] also came up with the idea that Early [[Sumer]]ians were proto-Turks.<ref name=Shay2002>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dc8ij9DULgwC&q=Choreographic+Politics&pg=PA210|author=Shay, Anthony|year=2002|page=210|isbn=0-8195-6521-0|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|title=Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power}}</ref><br />
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==Variants==<br />
[[File:Mehmet emin y.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Mehmet Emin Yurdakul]], Turkish nationalist writer and politician, his writings and poems had a major impact on defining the term vatan (Fatherland)]]<br />
[[File:Ziya Gykalp Malta 1920 1921.jpg|thumb|185px|[[Ziya Gökalp]], ideologue of Turkish nationalism and later member of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]]]<br />
Ideologies associated with Turkish nationalism include [[Pan-Turkism]] or [[Turanism]] (a form of ethnic or racial essentialism or [[national mysticism]]), Turkish-Islamic synthesis (which combines Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity), Anatolianism (which considers the Turkish nation as a separate entity which developed after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] conquest of [[Anatolia]] in the 11th century), and [[Secularism in Turkey|secular]], [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] [[Kemalism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xypolia |first1=Ilia |title=British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939 : divide, define and rule. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism===<br />
{{Main|Kemalism}}<br />
Implemented by Atatürk, the founding ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] features nationalism ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}) as one of its six fundamental pillars.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic [[Ottoman Empire]]. Kemalist nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]''. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}<br />
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In the 1930s Kemalism became an all-encompassing [[state ideology]] based on his sayings and writings. The Kemalist definition of nationality was integrated to [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Legally, every citizen is defined as a Turk, regardless of [[Minorities in Turkey|ethnicity]] or religion. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001/upso-9780691175829-chapter-008|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.001.0001|year=2018|last1=Hanioglu|first1=M. Sükrü|title=Nationalism and Kemalism|volume=1|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691175829}}</ref><br />
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Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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===Pan-Turkism===<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
"Turanist" nationalism began with the [[Turanian Society]] founded in 1839, followed in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later became the [[Turkish Hearths]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610080/Turkish-Society|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Turkish Society|encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as [[Turanism|Pan-Turanism]] and [[Pan-Turkism]]. The [[Young Turk Revolution]] which overthrew Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], brought Turkish nationalists to power in the [[Ottoman Empire]], eventually leading to the [[Three Pashas]]' control of the late Ottoman government.<ref>Ayşe Hür, [http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=213286 Mustafa Kemal ve muhalifleri (1)], ''[[Radikal]]'', February 18, 2007.</ref><ref>Guy E. Métraux, International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind, ''The new Asia'', New American Library, 1965, p. 73.</ref><br />
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===Anatolianism===<br />
Anatolianism ({{lang-tr|Anadoluculuk}}) takes as its starting point that the main source of [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]] should be [[Anatolia]] (''Anadolu''), and the main base of this thought is that the [[Turkish people]] had built a new civilization in Anatolia after 1071 when they won at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<br />
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In the early Republican era, some intellectuals like Hilmi Ziya Ülken,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ulken-hilmi-ziya|title = ÜLKEN, Hilmi Ziya - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> Mehmet Râif Ogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ogan-mehmet-raif|title = OGAN, Mehmet Râif - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> and Nurettin Topçu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/topcu-nurettin|title=TOPÇU, Nurettin - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref> proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia, not in "[[Turan]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_LaVMC5YjcC&pg=PA182&dq=anatolianism&sig=ACfU3U1-_leeRDbhZSF6EGWFd4U3W_4VPQ#PPA182,M1 Identity, Culture and Globalization - Annals of the International Institute of Sociology], {{ISBN|9004128735}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12873-6}}, pg. 182 - 183.</ref><br />
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Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was opposed to [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and [[Pan-Islamism]], as well as to Turanism. In 1919, Ülken wrote a book titled ''Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri'' (Present Duties of Anatolia), but it was not published. Ülken and friends published the periodical ''Anadolu''. They worked to form an alternative philosophy to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism.<br />
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=== Turkish-Islamic nationalism ===<br />
{{main|Turkish-Islamic nationalism}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party.svg|thumb|185px|The [[Nationalist Movement Party]] is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] party in the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]]]<br />
Turkish-Islamic nationalism, also known as the Turkish-Islamic synthesis ({{lang-tr|Türk-İslam sentezi}}) is a [[Far-right politics|far-right]] Islamic-conservative ideology that combines Turkish nationalism and [[Islam]].<br />
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The term was coined in 1972 by the conservative historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu, who traced the Turkish-Islamic synthesis back to the first Muslim Turkic dynasty, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanids]], in the 11th century. Kafesoğlu viewed the contact between the ancient steppe culture of the Turks and Islam as a process of refinement. The "synthesis" was represented in the 1970s in the intellectual club ''Aydınlar Ocağı'' (literally "The Hearth of Intellectuals") whose founder was Kafesoğlu.<ref>Werner Ende und Udo Steinbach: Der Islam in der Gegenwart. München 1996, S. 236</ref> Representatives of the intellectual club explicitly formulated their thoughts and in particular their understanding of history in 1973 in the text ''Aydınlar Ocağı'nın Görüşü'' (literally "The View of the Hearth of Intellectuals"). The starting point was [[anti-communism]] and an endeavor to counter the [[Marxism|Marxist ideology]], which was perceived as a threat to Turkish values.<br />
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After the turmoil of the 1970s with bloody clashes between political camps and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état]], the junta tried, despite reservations about religious fundamentalism ({{lang-tr|irtica}}), to use Islamic-conservative ideas and values to restore order and unity.<ref>Judith Hoffmann: Aufstieg und Wandel des politischen Islam in der Türkei. Berlin 2003, S. 25f.</ref> Following the 1980 coup d'état, the military dictatorship made a combination of [[Pan-Turkism]],<ref>''Central Eurasian Studies Review'', Vol. 3, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=a_TpTcLKDoX6vwO9hsXqDw&ct=result&id=FcQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22+Central+Eurasian&q=%22Great+Turkish+Empires%22 p. 23].<br />
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, [http://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/makale.asp?id=562 16 TÜRK DEVLETİ Cumhurbaşkanlığı forsundaki 16 yıldız neyi ifade ediyor?], 2 February 2015.<br />
</ref> Turkish-Islamic synthesis, and [[Kemalism]] as the official state ideology.<ref>[http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php?ek=r2&haberno=5895 Newspaper ''Radikal'' on 28 May 2006]</ref> Thought leaders of the Turkish-Islamic synthesis assumed that the Turks played a prominent role in the spread of Islam and thereby developed their national identity as part of the Islamic [[ummah]]. According to this conception, being Turkish is only possible in connection with Islam. The idea of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis is still very popular in circles of the [[Idealism (Turkey)|Ülkücü movement]].<br />
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===Turkish-Cypriot nationalism===<br />
{{main|Turkish Cypriot nationalism}}<br />
Turkish Cypriot nationalism emphasizes the support for the independence of the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC) and desires that the TRNC stay independent from Turkey while opposing the idea of a united Cyprus with the Greek-dominated [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRNC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330621076}}</ref><br />
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===Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism===<br />
A [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] group existed in 1969 in [[İzmir]], when a group of former [[Republican Villagers Nation Party]] members (precursor party of the [[Nationalist Movement Party]]) founded the association "[[Nasyonal Aktivitede Zinde İnkişaf]]" (''Vigorous Development in National Activity''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] uniforms and used the [[Nazi salute|Hitler salute]]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref><br />
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Today, apart from [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]{{refn|<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web |author=Martin A. Lee |url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html |title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves |publisher=The Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century |magazine=The Weekly Standard}}</ref>}} [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] and the Turkish [[ultranationalist]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 435–447 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Çınar|first=Alev|author2=Burak Arıkan|title=Political Parties in Turkey|editor=Barry Rubin |editor2=Metin Heper|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2002|pages=25|chapter=The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?|isbn=978-0714652740|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B71dAgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise |last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Celep|first=Ödül|date=2010|title=Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"|journal=Insight Turkey|volume=12|issue=2|pages=125–142|url=https://www.academia.edu/966707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-election-nationalists-idUSTRE74K1J320110521|title=Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right |last=Butler|first=Daren|date=21 May 2011|work=Reuters|access-date=21 May 2014}}</ref>}} [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Ataman Brotherhood,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media - Turkish Minute |url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> or the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/http://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> and the National Socialist Party of Turkey which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news |title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=http://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><br />
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==The "Insulting Turkishness" laws==<br />
[[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal Code, which is perceived as being contrary to the notion of [[freedom of speech]], states "''The person who publicly denigrates the Turkish Nation, the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the judicial organs of the State, shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years.'' But also it can be only with permission of the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|minister of justice]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5759.html|access-date=2008-07-01|title=Kanun No. 5759|publisher=Turkish Grand National Assembly, official Web site|date=2008-04-30|language=tr}}</ref> However, it also states that "''Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime.''"<br />
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There have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4565466.stm|title=Turkey insult law 'may be dumped'|access-date=2008-07-01|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-28}}</ref> Nationalists within the judicial system, intent on derailing [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey's full admission into the European Union]], have used Article 301 to initiate trials against people like Nobel Prize–winning Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]], the Turkish novelist [[Elif Shafak]], and the late [[Hrant Dink]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav121605.shtml|title=Freedom-of-Expression Court Cases in Turkey Could Hamper Ankara's EU Membership Bid|first=Yigal|last= Schleifer|date=2005-12-16|access-date=2007-04-13}}</ref> for acknowledging the existence of the [[Armenian genocide]].<br />
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In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block websites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72465|access-date=2008-07-01|date=2007-05-07|work=AFP|title=Turkey adopts law to block 'insulting' websites|publisher=[[Turkish Daily News]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no }}</ref><br />
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==See also==<br />
*[[Pan-Turkism]]<br />
*[[Kemalism]]<br />
*[[Ottomanism]]<br />
*[[Neo-Ottomanism]]<br />
*[[Turanism]]<br />
*[[Turkification]]<br />
*[[Racism and discrimination in Turkey]]<br />
*[[Anti-Armenian sentiment in Turkey]]<br />
*[[Anti-Turkish sentiment]]<br />
*[[Sun Language Theory]]<br />
*''[[16 Great Turkic Empires]]''<br />
*[[Nationalist Movement Party]]<br />
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==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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==References==<br />
*Arman, Murat Necip. [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_II_2.pdf#page=34 "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism"]. ''CEU Political Science Journal'', issue: 02 / 2007, pp.&nbsp;133–151.<br />
*Eissenstat, Howard. "Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism". Paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D.C., November 2002.<br />
*Tachau, Frank. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1570234 "The Search for National Identity among the Turks"]. ''Die Welt des Islams'', New Series, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (1963), pp.&nbsp;165–176.]<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Çetin|first=Zafer M.|date=October 2004|title=Tales of past, present, and future: mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24|issue=2|pages=347–365|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296708|s2cid=143320570}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|date=May 1999|title=The struggle for hegemony in Turkey: Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force|journal=Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans|volume=1|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1080/14613199908413984}}<br />
*{{Cite journal|last=Uslu|first=Emrullah|date=March 2008|title=Ulusalcılık: The Neo-nationalist Resurgence in Turkey|journal=Turkish Studies|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1080/14683840701814018|s2cid=145194000}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{Commons category-inline}}<br />
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{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Ethnic nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Turkish Nationalism}}<br />
[[Category:Turkish nationalism| ]]<br />
[[Category:Anti-Armenianism]]<br />
[[Category:Antisemitism in Turkey]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kemalism&diff=1142911014Kemalism2023-03-05T00:13:14Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Philosophy */</p>
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<div>{{short description|Founding ideology of the Republic of Turkey, proclaimed in 1923}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Republican People's Party (Turkey).svg|thumb|261x261px|[[The Six Arrows]]]]<br />
{{Atatürk sidebar}}<br />
{{Populism sidebar|expanded=Related}}<br />
{{Nationalism sidebar}}<br />
'''Kemalism''' ({{lang-tr|Kemalizm}}, also archaically ''Kamâlizm''<ref>''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kam%C3%A2lizm.pdf Kamâlizm]'' (1936) by [[Mehmet Şeref Aykut]]</ref>), also known as '''Ataturkism''' ({{lang-tr|Atatürkçülük, Atatürkçü düşünce}}), or '''The Six Arrows''' ({{lang-tr|Altı Ok}}), is the founding official ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]].<ref name="EricPage181">Eric J. Zurcher, Turkey: A Modern History. New York, J.B. Tauris & Co ltd. page 181</ref> Kemalism, as it was implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] after the [[Republic Day (Turkey)|declaration of Republic in 1923]], was defined by sweeping political, social, cultural and religious reforms designed to separate the new Turkish state from its [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] predecessor and embrace a Western-style modernized lifestyle,<ref name=cleveland13>Cleveland, William L., and Martin P. Bunton. ''A History of the Modern Middle East''. Boulder: Westview, 2013.</ref> including the establishment of [[Secularism in Turkey|secularism/laicism]] ({{lang-fr|laïcité}}), state support of the sciences, free education, and many more. Most of those were first introduced to and implemented in Turkey during Atatürk's presidency through [[Atatürk's reforms|his reforms]].<br />
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Many of the root ideas of Kemalism began during the late [[Ottoman Empire]] under various reforms to avoid the imminent [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|collapse of the Empire]], beginning chiefly in the early 19th-century [[Tanzimat]] reforms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cleveland |first1=William L |first2=Martin |last2=Bunton |title=A History of the Modern Middle East |edition=4th |publisher=Westview Press |year=2009 |pages=82}}</ref> The mid-century [[Young Ottomans]] attempted to create the ideology of Ottoman nationalism, or [[Ottomanism]], to quell the [[Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|rising ethnic nationalism]] in the Empire and introduce limited democracy for the first time while maintaining Islamist influences. In the early 20th century, the [[Young Turks]] abandoned Ottoman nationalism in favor of early [[Turkish nationalism]], while adopting a secular political outlook. After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, Atatürk, influenced by both the Young Ottomans and the Young Turks,<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Cuthell |first=David Cameron Jr. |year=2009 |editor1-last=Ágoston |editor1-first=Gábor |editor2-first=Bruce |editor2-last=Masters |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |chapter=Atatürk, Kemal (Mustafa Kemal) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA56 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Facts On File]] |pages=56–60 |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |lccn=2008020716 |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref> as well as by their successes and failures, led the declaration of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, borrowing from the earlier movements' ideas of secularism and Turkish nationalism, while bringing about, for the first time, free education<ref name=mango164>{{cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |author-link= Andrew Mango |title=Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey |publisher=[[The Overlook Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-58567-334-6 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nu68vd_AmuYC |page=164}}</ref> and other reforms that have been enshrined by later leaders into guidelines for governing Turkey.<br />
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==Philosophy==<br />
Kemalism is a modernization philosophy that guided the transition between the multi-religious, multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire to the [[Secular humanism|secular]], [[Democracy|democratic]], and [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[Republicanism|Republic of Turkey]]. Kemalism sets the boundaries of the social process in the [[Atatürk's reforms|Turkish Reformation]]. Atatürk was the founder of Kemalism, and his doctrine was implemented as [[Ideology|state ideology]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Webster |first=Donald Everett |title=The Turkey of Atatürk; Social Process in the Turkish Reformation |year=1973 |publisher=AMS Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-404-56333-2 |page=245}}</ref> but Atatürk refrained from being dogmatic and described his and his spiritual heirs' guide to be science and reason:<br />
{{blockquote|I do not leave any verses, any dogmas, nor any frozen and moulded principles as spritual heritage. My spritual heritage is science and reason.<ref name="Giritli">{{lang-tr|"Ben, manevî miras olarak hiçbir nass-ı katı, hiçbir dogma, hiçbir donmuş ve kalıplaşmış kural bırakmıyorum. Benim manevî mirasım, ilim ve akıldır."}} İsmet Giritli, Kemalist Devrim ve İdeolojisi, İstanbul, 1980</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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==Principles==<br />
There are six principles (''ilke'') of the ideology: [[Republicanism]] ({{lang-tr|cumhuriyetçilik}}), [[Populism]] ({{lang-tr|halkçılık}}), [[Nationalism]] ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}), [[Laicism]] ({{lang-tr|laiklik}}), [[Statism]] ({{lang-tr|devletçilik}}), and [[Reform movement|Reformism]] ({{lang-tr|inkılapçılık}}). Together, they represent a kind of [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobinism]], defined by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] himself as a method of employing political despotism to break down the social despotism prevalent among the traditionally-minded Turkish-Muslim population, caused by, he believed, the bigotry of the ''[[Ulama|ulema]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0440|title=Kemalism - Oxford Islamic Studies Online|website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com|access-date=2019-05-01}}</ref><br />
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===Republicanism===<br />
[[Republicanism]] ({{lang-tr|cumhuriyetçilik}}) in the Kemalist framework replaced the [[absolute monarchy]] of the [[Ottoman dynasty]] with the [[rule of law]], [[popular sovereignty]] and [[civic virtue]], including an emphasis on liberty practiced by citizens. Kemalist republicanism defines a type of constitutional republic, in which representatives of the people are elected, and must govern in accordance with existing constitutional law limiting governmental power over citizens. The head of state and other officials are chosen by election rather than inheriting their positions, and their decisions are subject to judicial review. In defending the change from the Ottoman State, Kemalism asserts that all laws of the Republic of Turkey should be inspired by actual needs here on Earth as a basic tenet of national life.<ref>Mustafa Kemal as quoted in "A World View of Criminal Justice (2005)" by Richard K. Vogler, p. 116</ref> Kemalism advocates a republican system as the best representative of the wishes of the people.<br />
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Among the many types of [[republic]], the Kemalist republic is a [[representative democracy|representative]], [[Liberal democracy|liberal]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Soyak |first=Hasan Rıza |title=Atatürk'ten Hatıralar |pages=58 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=İlhan |first=Atilla |title=Hangi Atatürk |pages=111 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kili |first=Suna |title=Türk Devrim Tarihi |pages=240 |language=tr}}</ref> [[Parliamentary republic|parliamentary democracy]] with a Parliament chosen in general elections, a [[President (government title)|president]] as head of state elected by Parliament and serving for a limited term, a [[prime minister]] appointed by the president, and other ministers appointed by Parliament. The Kemalist president does not have direct executive powers, but has limited veto powers, and the right to contest with referendum. The day-to-day operation of government is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers formed by the prime minister and the other ministers. There is a [[separation of powers]] between the executive (president and Council of Ministers), the legislative (Parliament) and the judiciary, in which no one branch of government has authority over another—although parliament is charged with the supervision of the Council of Ministers, which can be compelled to resign by a vote of no-confidence.<br />
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The Kemalist republic is a [[unitary state]] in which three [[Separation of powers|organs of state]] govern the nation as a single unit, with one [[constitution]]ally created [[legislature]]. On some issues, the [[Power (social and political)|political power]] of [[government]] is transferred to lower levels, to local elected assemblies represented by mayors, but the [[central government]] retains the principal governing role.<br />
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===Populism===<br />
{{multiple image<br />
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| header = Dimensions of Populism<br />
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| image1 = GNAT speakers.jpg<br />
| caption1 = "[[Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the People|Sovereignty belongs, without any restrictions or conditions, to the nation]]" is embossed behind the speaker's seat at the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|GNA]]<br />
| image2 = Nicosia 01-2017 img17 View from Shacolas Tower.jpg<br />
| caption2 = The motto, "[[How happy is the one who says I am a Turk|Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]]", embossed on the [[Kyrenia Mountains]] in [[Northern Cyprus]].<br />
}}<br />
[[Populism]] ({{lang-tr|halkçılık}}) is defined as a social revolution aimed to transfer the political power to [[citizenship]]. Kemalist populism intends not only to establish popular sovereignty but also the transfer of the social-economic transformation{{clarify|date=May 2021}} to realize a true populist state. However, Kemalists reject [[class conflict]] and [[Collective farming|collectivism]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler (Örgün Yayınları)|publisher=Afet İnan|year=1930s|pages=212}}</ref> Kemalist populism believes [[national identity]] is above all else. Kemalist populism envisions a sociality that emphasizes [[class collaboration]] and national unity like [[Solidarity|solidarism]]. Populism in Turkey is to create a unifying force that brings a sense of the Turkish state and the power of the people to bring in that new unity.<ref name="jstor.org">Kili, Suna. “Kemalism in Contemporary Turkey.” International Political Science Review, vol. 1, no. 3, 1980, pp. 381–404. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1601123.</ref><br />
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Kemalist populism is an extension of the Kemalist modernization movement, aiming to make Islam compatible with the modern nation-state. This included state supervision of religious schools and organizations. Mustafa Kemal himself said "everyone needs a place to learn religion and faith; that place is a ''[[Wiktionary:mektep#Turkish|mektep]]'', not a ''[[madrasa]]''". This was intended to combat the "corruption" of Islam by the ''ulema''. Kemal believed that during the Ottoman period, the ''ulema'' had come to exploit the power of their office and manipulate religious practices to their own benefit. It was also feared that, were education not brought under state control, unsupervised ''madrasa''s could exacerbate the rising problem of ''[[tariqa|tarikat]]'' insularity that threatened to undermine the unity of the Turkish state.<ref name="AKMAK, DİREN 2009, pp. 825">ÇAKMAK, DİREN. “Pro-Islamic Public Education in Turkey: The Imam-Hatip Schools.” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 45, no. 5, 2009, pp. 825–846. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40647155.</ref><br />
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====Sovereignty====<br />
Kemalist social theory (populism) does not accept any adjectives placed before the definition of a nation [a nation of ...] Sovereignty must belong solely to people without any term, condition, etc.:<br />
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{{Blockquote|[[Sovereignty]] belongs to the nation unrestrictedly and unconditionally.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DC. |first=Embassy of the Republic of Turkey, Washington |url=http://www.turkishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188&Itemid=165 |title=Constitution and Foundations of the State System |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070115010917/http://www.turkishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188&Itemid=165 |archive-date=January 15, 2007 }}</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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====Motto====<br />
Populism was used against the political domination of sheiks, tribal leaders, and [[Islamism]] (Islam as a political system) of the Ottoman Empire. Initially, the declaration of the republic was perceived as ''"Returning to the days of the [[Rashidun|first caliphs]]"''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Mango |title=Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey |orig-year=1999 |edition=Paperback |year=2002 |publisher=Overlook Press, Peter Mayer Publishers, Inc |location=Woodstock, NY |isbn=1-58567-334-X |page=[https://archive.org/details/ataturk00andr/page/394 394] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ataturk00andr/page/394 }}</ref> However, Atatürk's nationalism aimed to shift the political legitimacy from [[autocracy]] (by the [[Ottoman dynasty]]), [[theocracy]] (based in the [[Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman caliphate]]), and [[feudalism]] (tribal leaders) to the active participation of its citizenry, the Turks. Kemalist social theory wanted to establish the value of Turkish citizenship. A sense of pride associated with this citizenship would give the needed psychological spur for people to work harder and achieve a sense of unity and national identity. Active participation, or the "will of the people", was established with the republican regime and Turkishness replacing the other forms of affiliations that had been promoted in the Ottoman Empire (such as the allegiance to the different millets that eventually led to divisiveness in the empire). The shift in affiliation was symbolized with:<br />
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{{Blockquote|{{lang-tr|links=no|[[Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]].}}<br />
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({{lang-en|How happy is the one who calls themself a [[Turkish people|Turk]].}})|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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The motto "[[How happy is the one who says I am a Turk|Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]]" was promoted against such mottoes as "long live the Sultan," "long live the Sheikh", or "long live the Caliph."<br />
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===Laicism===<br />
{{Main|Secularism in Turkey|Islam in Turkey}}<br />
{{See also|Freedom of religion in Turkey}}<br />
[[Laicism]] ({{lang-tr|laiklik}}) in Kemalist ideology aims to banish religious interference in government affairs, and vice versa. It differs from the passive Anglo-American concept of secularism,<ref name="Kösebalaban2011">{{cite book |last=Kösebalaban |first=Hasan |title=Turkish Foreign Policy: Islam, Nationalism, and Globalization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3dnGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |date=12 April 2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-11869-0 |page=9}}</ref> but is similar to the concept of [[Secularism in France|laïcité]] in France.<br />
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The roots of Kemalist secularism lie in the reform efforts in the late Ottoman Empire, especially the [[Tanzimat]] period and the later [[Second Constitutional Era]]. The Ottoman Empire was an [[Islamic state]] in which the head of the Ottoman state held the position of the Caliph. The social system was organized according to various systems, including the religiously organized Millet system and [[Sharia|Shari'ah law]], allowing religious ideology to be incorporated into the Ottoman administrative, economic, and political system. This way of life is today defined as [[Islamism]] (political Islam): "the belief that Islam should guide social and political as well as personal life".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Berman |first=Sheri| author-link=Sheri Berman |title=Islamism, Revolution, and Civil Society |journal=Perspectives on Politics |volume=1 |issue=2 |year=2003 |page=258 |doi=10.1017/S1537592703000197|s2cid=145201910}}</ref> In the Second Constitutional Era, the [[General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Parliament]] pursued largely secular policies, although techniques of religious populism and attacks on other candidates' piety still occurred between [[List of political parties in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman political parties]] during [[Elections in the Ottoman Empire|elections]]. These policies were stated as the reason for the [[31 March Incident|countercoup of 1909]] by Islamists and absolute monarchists. The secular policies of the Ottoman parliament also factored in the [[Arab Revolt]] during World War I.<br />
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When secularism was implemented in the fledgling Turkish state, it was initiated by the abolition of the centuries-old [[caliphate]] in March 1924. The office of [[Shaykh al-Islām]] was replaced with the [[Directorate of Religious Affairs|Presidency of Religious Affairs]] ({{lang-tr|Diyanet}}). In 1926, the ''[[Mecelle|mejelle]]'' and shari'ah law codes were abandoned in favor of an adapted [[Swiss Civil Code]] and a penal code modeled on the German and Italian codes. Other religious practices were done away with, resulting in the dissolution of [[Sufism|Sufi]] orders and the penalization of wearing a ''[[Fez (hat)|fez]]'', which was viewed by Atatürk as a tie to the Ottoman past.<ref name=cleveland13/><br />
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====State and religion (Laïcité)====<br />
Atatürk was profoundly influenced by the triumph of ''[[Secularism in France|laïcité]]'' in France.<ref name=page153>{{cite book |authorlink=M. Şükrü Hanioğlu|last=Hanioglu |first=Sükrü |title=Ataturk: An Intellectual Biography |year=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=153}}</ref> Atatürk perceived the French model as the authentic form of secularism. Kemalism strove to control religion and transform it into a private affair rather than an institution interfering with politics, as well as scientific and social progress.<ref name=page153/> "Sane reason," and "the liberty of [one's] fellow man," as Atatürk once put it.<ref>Ruşen Eşref Ünaydin, 1954, "Atatürk -Tarih ve Dil Kurumları Hatıraları" Türk Tarih Kurumu. pp. 28–31.</ref> It is more than merely creating a separation between state and religion. Atatürk has been described as working as if he were [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo the Isaurian]], [[Martin Luther]], the [[Baron d'Holbach]], [[Ludwig Büchner]], [[Émile Combes]], and [[Jules Ferry]] rolled into one in creating Kemalist secularism.<ref name=page153/> Kemalist secularism does not imply nor advocate [[agnosticism]] or [[nihilism]]; it means freedom of thought and independence of the institutions of the state from the dominance of religious thought and religious institutions. The Kemalist principle of laicism is not against moderate and apolitical religion, but against religious forces opposed to and fighting modernization and democracy.<br />
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According to the Kemalist perception, the Turkish state is to stand at an equal distance from every religion, neither promoting nor condemning any set of religious beliefs. Kemalists, however, have called for not only separation of church and state but also a call for the state control of the Turkish Muslim religious establishment{{fact|date=November 2022}}. For some Kemalists{{who|date=November 2022}}, this means that the state must be at the helm of religious affairs, and all religious activities are under the supervision of the state. This, in turn, drew criticism from the religious conservatives. Religious conservatives were vocal in rejecting this idea, saying that to have a secular state, the state can't control the activities of religious institutions. Despite their protest, this policy was officially adopted by the 1961 constitution.<ref name="jstor.org"/><br />
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Kemalism must stamp out the religious element within society. After Turkish independence from the Western powers, all education was under the control of the state in both secular and religious schools. It centralized the education system, with one curriculum in both religious and secular public schools, in the hope this would eliminate or lessen the appeal of religious schools. The laws were meant to abolish the [[Sufism|Sufi]] religious schools or orders ''([[Tariqa|tarikats]])'' and their lodges ''([[khanqah|tekke]]s)''. Titles like ''[[sheikh]]'' and ''[[dervish]]'' were abolished, and their activities were banned by the government. The day of rest was changed by the government from Friday to Sunday. But the restrictions on personal choice extended to both religious duty and naming. Turks had to adopt a surname and were not allowed to perform the [[hajj]] (pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]).<ref name="jstor.org"/><ref name="AKMAK, DİREN 2009, pp. 825"/><br />
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====Politics and religion (Secularism)====<br />
The Kemalist form of [[Separation of church and state#Turkey|separation of state and religion]] sought the reform of a complete set of institutions, interest groups (such as [[List of political parties in Turkey|political parties]], unions, and lobbies), the relationships between those institutions, and the political norms and rules that governed their functions (constitution, election law). The biggest change in this perspective was the abolishment of the [[Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman caliphate]] on March 3, 1924, followed by the removal of its political mechanisms. The article stating that "the established religion of Turkey is Islam" was removed from the constitution on April 10, 1928.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.atam.gov.tr/index.php?Page=DergiIcerik&IcerikNo=560 |title=Atatürk ve Laiklik |access-date=2017-07-28 |publisher=Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, Issue: 24, Volume: VIII}}</ref><br />
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From a political perspective, Kemalism is anti-clerical, in that it seeks to prevent religious influence on the democratic process, which was a problem even in the largely secular politics of the [[Second Constitutional Era]] of the Ottoman Empire, when even non-religiously affiliated political parties like the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] and the [[Freedom and Accord Party]] feuded over matters such as the Islamic piety of their candidates in the [[1912 Ottoman general election|Ottoman elections of 1912]].<ref name=HK>Hasan Kayalı (1995) [http://psi203.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Kayali,%20Elections%20in%20the%20Ott%20Empire%20(1995).pdf "Elections and the Electoral Process in the Ottoman Empire, 1876-1919"] ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'', Vol. 27, No. 3, pp 273–274. "The prominent leaders of the Entente [Freedom and Accord Party] were Turkish-speaking and no different from the Unionists as far as their basic attitudes toward Islam were concerned. Nevertheless, they sought to frustrate the CUP by encouraging non-Turkish groups to attack it for pursuing a policy of Turkification and by pointing out to the conservatives its alleged disregard for Islamic principles and values. The overall effect of this propaganda was to instill ethnic and sectarian-religious discord, which survived the Entente's defeat at the polls ... The Unionists proved to be less vulnerable to accusations of disregard for Islamic precepts and values. Some of the Entente members were known for their cosmopolitan attitudes and close relations with foreign interests. But this did not keep the Entente from accusing the CUP of violating Islamic principles and attempting to restrict the prerogatives of the sultan-caliph in its pamphlets. One such pamphlet, ''Afiksoz'' (Candid Words), appealed to the religious-national sentiments of Arabs and claimed that Zionist intrigue was responsible for the abandonment of [[Libya]] to the Italians. Such propaganda forced the CUP to seize the role of the champion of Islam. After all, the secular integrationist Ottomanism that it had preached was failing, and the latest manifestation of this failure was the Entente's appeal to segments of Christian communities. The Unionists used Islamic symbols effectively in their election propaganda in 1912. They accused the Entente of trying to separate the offices of the caliphate and the sultanate and thus weakening Islam and the Muslims. There seemed no end to the capital to be gained from the exploitation and manipulation of religious rhetoric. In Izmir, the Entente attacked the CUP's intention to amend Article 35 of the constitution by arguing that the Unionists were thus denouncing the "thirty" days of fasting and "five" daily prayers. This led the town's mufti to plead that "for the sake of Islam and the welfare of the country" religion not be used to achieve political objectives. As with the rhetoric on Turkification, Islam too remained in political discourse long after the elections were over."</ref> Thus, in the Kemalist political perspective, politicians cannot claim to be the protector of any religion or religious sect, and such claims constitute sufficient legal grounds for the permanent banning of political parties.<br />
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====Insignia====<br />
The Ottoman social system was based on religious affiliation. Religious insignia extended to every social function. Clothing identified citizens with their own particular religious grouping; headgear distinguished rank and profession. [[Turban]]s, [[Fez (hat)|fez]]es, [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnet]]s, and head-dresses denoted the sex, rank, and profession — both civil and military — of the wearer. Religious insignia outside of worship areas became banned.<br />
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While Atatürk considered women's religious coverings as antithetical to progress and equality, he also recognized that headscarves were not such a danger to the separation of church and state to warrant an outright ban.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/jlg/vol332/661-686.pdf|title=Politics of the Headscarf in Turkey: Masculinities, Feminism, and the Construction of Collective Identities|first=Valorie K.|last=Vojdik|journal=Harvard Journal of Law & Gender|volume= 33|pages=661–686|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416012819/http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/jlg/vol332/661-686.pdf|archive-date=16 April 2012}}</ref> But the Constitution was amended in 1982, following the 1980 coup by the Kemalist-leaning military, to prohibit women's use of Islamic coverings such as the ''[[hijab]]'' at higher education institutions.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Journal of Political Inquiry |url=http://www.jpinyu.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/roots-of-the-headscarf-debate-laicism-and-secularism-in-france-and-turkey.pdf |title=Roots of the Headscarf Debate: Laicism and Secularism in France and Turkey |first=Gulce |last=Tarhan |year=2011 |issue=4 |pages=1–32 |access-date=2014-10-04 }}</ref> [[Joost Lagendijk]], a [[member of the European Parliament]] and chair of the Joint Parliamentary Committee with Turkey, has publicly criticized these [[dress code|clothing restrictions]] for Muslim women,<ref>Lagendijk, Joost (2006-03-22). [http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2006/03/22/siy113.html Başörtüsü yasağı savunulamaz]. ''Sabah''.</ref> whereas the [[European Court of Human Rights]] has ruled in numerous cases that such restrictions in public buildings and educational institutions do not constitute a violation of human rights.<ref>[http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=9958 ECHR Rules for Turkish Headscarf Ban] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604102452/http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=9958 |date=2009-06-04 }}: The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled in favor of Turkey's policy of banning headscarves at universities. (Today's Zaman, 30 June 2004)</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131226050047/http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=40196 ECHR Insists on Headscarf Ban], [[Journal of Turkish Weekly]], 2006-10-17</ref><br />
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===Reformism===<br />
[[Reform movement|Reformism]] ({{lang-tr|inkılapçılık}}) is a principle which calls for the country to replace the traditional institutions and concepts with modern institutions and concepts. This principle advocated the need for fundamental social change through [[reform]] as a strategy to achieve a modern society. The core of the reform, in the Kemalist sense, was an accomplished fact.<ref name="durkiem">{{Cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Peter |title=Emile Durkheim: Critical Assessments |year=1995 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-11046-7 |page=69}}</ref> In a Kemalist sense, there is no possibility of return to the old systems because they were deemed backward.<br />
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The principle of reformism went beyond the recognition of the reforms made during Atatürk's lifetime. Atatürk's reforms in the social and political spheres are accepted as irreversible. Atatürk never entertained the possibility of a pause or transition phase during the course of the progressive unfolding or implementation of the reform. The current understanding of this concept can be described as "active modification".<ref name="durkiem" /> Turkey and its society, taking over institutions from Western Europe, must add Turkish traits and patterns to them and adapt them to Turkish culture, according to Kemalism.<ref name="durkiem" /> The implementation of the Turkish traits and patterns of these reforms takes generations of cultural and social experience, which results in the collective memory of the Turkish nation.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}<br />
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===Nationalism===<br />
[[Nationalism]] ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}): The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire. Atatürk's nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his [[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]. The Kemalist perception of social contract was facilitated by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]], which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "millet" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]]. Atatürk's nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakup, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".<br />
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{{Blockquote|In the administration and defense of the Turkish Nation; national unity, national awareness and national culture are the highest ideals that we fix our eyes upon.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Forces |first=Republic Of Turkey Turkish Armed |url=http://www.tsk.mil.tr/eng/Anitkabir/milli.html |title=Ataturks Principles |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government }}{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish Nation" ({{lang-tr|Türk Ulusu}}) as a nation of [[Turkish people]] who always love and seek to exalt their family, country and nation, who know their duties and responsibilities towards the democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law, founded on [[human rights]], and on the tenets laid down in the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Turkey.<ref name="TurkishNational" /> Atatürk defines the Turkish Nation by saying<br />
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{{blockquote|The folk which constitutes the Republic of Turkey is called the Turkish Nation.|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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Similar to its CUP predecessors, it can be said that Kemalism endorsed [[social Darwinism]] in some way by desiring the Turkish youth to be healthy and physically strong.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ter-Matevosyan |first1=Vahram |title=Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation |date=2019 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-97403-3 |page=163|quote=Both the Young Turks and the Kemalists had an elitist conception of society; they saw themselves as the nation’s “social physicians,” the only ones capable of enlightening the “masses.”78 Other defnitions and fashionable currents of thought that defned different facets of fascism—biological materialism, positivism, social Darwinism, and the quest for magic formulas—were also incorporated by both regimes in Turkey.7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Zurcher |first1=Erik-Jan |title=Late Ottoman Society |chapter=Ottoman sources of Kemalist thought |year=2013 |pages=36–49 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203481387-10 |isbn=978-0-203-48138-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/ottoman-sources-kemalist-thought-erik-jan-zurcher/e/10.4324/9780203481387-10 |language=en}}</ref><br />
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====Criteria====<br />
{{See also|Turkish nationality law}}<br />
Kemalist criteria for national ''identity'' or simply being Turkish ({{lang-tr|Türk}}) refers to a shared [[language]], and/or shared [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] defined as a common history, and the will to share a future. Kemalist ideology defines the "[[Turkish people]]" as:<br />
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{{blockquote|Those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation.<ref name="TurkishNational">{{Cite web |last=Education |first=Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of National |url=http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm |title=Turkish National Education System |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020612122337/http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm|archive-date=12 June 2002}}</ref>|author=|title=|source=}}<br />
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Membership is usually gained through birth within the borders of the state and also the principle of [[jus sanguinis]]. The Kemalist notion of nationality is integrated into the [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Every citizen is recognized as a Turk, regardless of ethnicity, belief, and gender, etc. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>Citizenship is defined in the {{Ws|[[s:Constitution of the Republic of Turkey#66|1982 constitution, Article 66]]}} (amended on October 17, 2001).</ref><br />
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Kemalists saw non-Muslims as only nominal citizens, and they have often been treated as [[Second-class citizen|second-class citizens]] in the Republic of Turkey.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dağı |first1=İhsan |title=Why Turkey Needs a Post-Kemalist Order |journal=Insight Turkey |date=1 January 2012 |url=https://www.insightturkey.com/commentaries/why-turkey-needs-a-post-kemalist-order |language=tr|quote= Non-Muslims, whose citizenship was only nominal in the eyes of the Kemalists, faced [[pogrom]]s. This relationship of the Kemalist regime with the people of different ethnicity, religion, and life-style positioned the state with its loyal Kemalist elite as a hegemonic power vis-à-vis the society.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=İçduygu |first1=Ahmet |last2=Toktaş |first2=Şule |last3=Soner |first3=B. Ali |title=The politics of population in a nation-building process: emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |date=1 February 2008 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=358–389 |doi=10.1080/01419870701491937|s2cid=143541451 }}</ref> The identity of [[Kurds in Turkey]] was [[Denial of Kurds by Turkey|denied for decades]] with Kurds described as "[[Denial of Kurds by Turkey|Mountain Turks]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ataman |first1=M. |title=Özal Leadership and Restructuring of Turkish Ethnic Policy in the 1980s |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |date=1 October 2002 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=123–142 |doi=10.1080/714004493|s2cid=144430188 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moustakis |first1=Fotios |last2=Chaudhuri |first2=Rudra |title=Turkish-Kurdish Relations and the European Union: An Unprecedented Shift in the Kemalist Paradigm? |journal=Mediterranean Quarterly |date=28 November 2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=77–89 |doi=10.1215/10474552-16-4-77 |s2cid=153382746 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/190579/summary |language=en |issn=1527-1935}}</ref> Kemal stated in 1930:<br />
{{blockquote|Within the political and social unity of today's Turkish nation, there are citizens and co-nationals who have been incited to think of themselves as [[Kurds]], [[Circassians]], [[Laz people|Laz]] or [[Bosniaks|Bosnians]]. But these erroneous appellations - the product of past periods of tyranny - have brought nothing but sorrow to individual members of the nation, with the exception of a few brainless reactionaries, who became the enemy's instruments.<ref name=mangokurds20>[[Andrew Mango]], ''Atatürk and the Kurds'', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.35, No.4, 1999, 20</ref>}}<br />
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In 2005, the [[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal code made it a crime to insult Turkishness ({{lang-tr|Türklük}}), but under pressure of the EU, this was changed in 2008 to protect the "Turkish nation" instead of Turkish ethnicity in 2008, an 'imagined' nationhood of people living within the [[Misak-ı Millî|National Pact]] ({{lang-tr|Misak-ı Milli}}) borders.<ref name="osmansdream">{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire |year=2006 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |pages=549–550 |isbn=0-465-02396-7}}</ref><br />
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=====Pan-Turkism=====<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
Kemalism focused on the nation-state's narrower interests, renouncing the concern for the "Outside Turks".<ref name="Pan-Turkism">{{Cite book |authorlink=Jacob M. Landau|last=Landau |first=Jacob M. |title=Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1995 |page=275 |isbn=0-253-20960-9}} Page 186-187</ref><br />
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Pan-Turkism was an [[Ethnocentrism|ethnocentric]] ideology [to unite all ethnically Turkic nations] while Kemalism is polycentric [united under a " common will"] in character.<ref name="Pan-Turkism" /> Kemalism wants to have an equal footing among the mainstream world civilizations. Pan-Turkists have consistently emphasized the special attributes of the [[Turkic peoples]], and wanted to unite all of the Turkic peoples. Kemalism wants an equal footing (based on respect) and does not aim to unite the people of Turkey with all the other Turkic nations. Most Kemalists were not interested in Pan-Turkism and from 1923 to 1950 (the single state period) reacted with particular firmness.<ref name="Pan-Turkism"/> Further more, Atatürk opposed Pan-Turkism in his book [[Nutuk]] as following:<br />
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{{blockquote|Gathering various nations under a common and general title and establishing a strong state by keeping these various groups of elements under the same law and conditions is a bright and attractive political view; but it is deceptive. In fact, it is an impossible goal to unite all the Turks in the world into a state, without any borders. This is a truth that centuries and people who have lived for centuries brought about through very painful and bloody events.<br />
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It cannot be seen in history that panislamism and panturanism were successful and were practiced in the world. Though, the results of the ambitions for the establishment of a state, covering all humanity, regardless of race, are written in history.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Atatürk |first=Mustafa Kemal |title=Nutuk |publisher=Kaynak Yayınları |pages=336–337 |language=tr}}</ref>}}<br />
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However, Atatürk owned the idea of taking Turkicness as one of the identities of Turkish nation. [[Turkish History Thesis]] started under Atatürk's order and administration, which contained ethno-racial ideas based on Turkish origins coming from [[Central Asia]]. Also Atatürk era high school books contained education of [[Old Turkic script|Orkhon alphabet]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic Of Turkey|year=1931|pages=79–80}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}} and a unit under the title of "Greater Turkic history and Civilization".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic of Turkey|year=1931|pages=25–53}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}} The book also gave detailed information about empires which are Turkic such as [[Göktürks]] or "claimed to be Turkic" such as [[Scythians]], [[Xiongnu]], and so on.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic of Turkey|year=1931}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}}<br />
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With the supports of newly founded Turkish Republic, [[Pan-Turkism|Pan-Turkist]] organization known as "[[Turkish Hearths]]", re-established in Atatürk's era to get Turkists' support during the [[Atatürk's reforms|revolutions]]. Atatürk was frequently giving speeches on Turkish Hearths after important events occurred in Turkey.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Akçiçek|first=Eren|title=Atatürk'ün Türk Ocakları'nı Ziyaretleri ve Yaptığı Konuşmalar|publisher=Turkish Hearths Ankara Branch|year=2008|location=Ankara, Turkey|language=Turkish}}</ref> Also reopening of Turkish magazine "[[Türk Yurdu]]" which was an organ of Turkish Hearts, was supported.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Georgeon|first=François|title=Aux origines du nationalisme Turc|publisher=Éditions A.D.P.F|year=1980|isbn=2865380084|location=Paris|pages=44}}</ref> Later, in 1931, Turkish Hearts were closed by Atatürk after they lost their non-political stance, because of their Pan-Turkist views and movements; and with all of its premises, it merged to the ruling party [[Republican People's Party|CHP]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Emine|last=Merdim|date=2011-07-13|title=Türk Ocakları Merkez Binası'ndan Ankara Devlet Resim ve Heykel Müzesi'ne|url=https://www.arkitera.com/haber/turk-ocaklari-merkez-binasindan-ankara-devlet-resim-ve-heykel-muzesine/|access-date=2021-06-21|website=Arkitera|language=tr-TR}}</ref><br />
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Atatürk also described his opinions about [[Timur]], a [[Central Asia]]n [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] military commander as "If I lived in Timur's timeline, I wouldn't be able to accomplish his work but if he lived in my timeline, he would do greater than I did".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bozkurt|first=Mahmut Esat|title=Aksak Demir'in Devlet Politikası - Timurlenk Üzerine İnceleme|publisher=Yeni Sabah Neşriyatı|year=1943|isbn=975-343-413-8|location=Galatasaray - Istanbul|pages=84|language=Turkish}}</ref><br />
[[File:Atatürk looking into Central asia.jpg|thumb|Atatürk analyzing [[First Turkic Khaganate|Turkic Khaganate]] map.]]<br />
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=====Turanism=====<br />
{{Main|Turanism}}<br />
Kemalist center of view focused on the Turkish people, within both living and historical cultures and peoples of [[Anatolia]], especially [[Hittites]],<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal|last=Erimtan|first=Can|title=Hittites, Ottomans and Turks: Ağaoğlu Ahmed Bey and the Kemalist Construction of Turkish Nationhood in Anatolia|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20455417|journal= Anatolian Studies|year=2008|volume=58|pages=158|doi=10.1017/S0066154600008711 |jstor=20455417|s2cid=163040610 }}</ref> and the culture and civilization of [[Turkic peoples]].<br />
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Turanism centered the nation as the union of all [[Turan|Turanian]] peoples ([[Tungusic peoples|Tungus]], [[Hungarians]], [[Finns]], [[Mongols]], [[Estonians]] and [[Koreans]]) stretching from the [[Altai Mountains]] in [[East Asia|Eastern Asia]] to the [[Bosporus|Bosphorus]].<ref>Paksoy, H.B., [http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-6/cae12.html ‘Basmachi’: Turkestan National Liberation Movement 1916-1930s], ''Modern Encyclopedia of Religions in Russia and the Soviet Union'', Florida: Academic International Press, 1991, Vol. 4</ref> Kemalism had a narrower definition of language, which sought to remove (purify) the Persian, Arabic, Greek, Latin, etc. words from the Turkish language and replace them with either Turkic originated words or derive new words with Turkic roots. Turanist leaders, such as [[Enver Pasha]], wanted an evolving language common to all Turanian peoples, minimizing differences and maximizing similarities between them.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}<br />
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==== Kemalism and the Hittites ====<br />
{{Main|Turkish History Thesis}}<br />
[[File:Turkije3 2014 010 (15080445834).jpg|thumb|One of the lions at "[[Anıtkabir#Road of Lions|Road of Lions]]" in [[Anıtkabir]], which are replicas of ancient [[Hittites|Hittite]] lion statues.]]<br />
Kemalism gave an important place to [[Hittites]] and the Hittite symbolism to construct the Turkish identity and nationhood. Kemalist researchers, such as [[Ahmet Ağaoğlu]] (who was an advisor to Atatürk and a politician who played an important role on creating [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|Turkey's constitution of 1924]]), believed in that the nation has to portray Hittites as a world-domineering Turkish race with firm roots in Anatolia.<ref name=":04"/><br />
Modern genetic researches on Turkish samples show that [[Turkish people|Anatolian Turks]] are mixage of [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkic tribes]] and Anatolian natives, however, unlike [[Turkish History Thesis|Kemalist thoughts]], these two admixtures aren't originated from same ethnicity, race or identity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The genetic structure of the Turkish population - Ethnicity Prediction|url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1pHvOMVZPtNDuwVabSXD7OxdFMTYQGvfjq7Z-L6IiII0/edit#gid=450884960|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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===Statism===<br />
{{Main|Social market economy}}<br />
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[[Statism]] ({{lang-tr|devletçilik}}): Atatürk made clear in his statements and policies that Turkey's complete [[Modernization theory|modernization]] was very much dependent on economic and technological development. The principle of Kemalist statism is generally interpreted to mean that the state was to regulate the country's general economic activities and engage in areas where private enterprises are not willing to do so. This was the result of post-revolutionary Turkey needing to redefine the relationship between societal and international capitalism. The revolution left Turkey in ruins, as the Ottoman Empire was focused on raw materials and was an [[open market]] in the international capitalist system. Post-revolutionary Turkey has been largely defined by its agricultural society, which includes many landlords and merchants. The control of people in the Turkish economy is quite evident from 1923 to the 1930s, but they still managed, through foreign joint investment, to establish a state economic enterprise. However, after the 1930s depression, there was a shift to more inward-looking development strategies during an era generally referred to as "etatism". During this era, the state had an active involvement in both capital accumulation and investment as well as in taking the interest of private businesses into consideration. The state often stepped into economic areas that the private sector did not cover, either due to not being strong enough or having simply failed to do so. These were often infrastructure projects and power stations, but also iron and steel industries, while the masses shouldered the burden of the capital accumulation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Aydın|first=Zülküf|title=The Political Economy of Turkey|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2005|pages=25–56|doi=10.2307/j.ctt18dzt8j}}</ref><br />
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==Analysis==<br />
{{See also|White Turks}}<br />
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===Kemalism and Turkey's political parties===<br />
[[File:Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi Logo.svg|thumb|200px|"''Six Arrows''" as depicted by the [[Republican People's Party|CHP]]'s logo]]<br />
The [[Republican People's Party]] (CHP) was established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk on September 9, 1923, not long before the declaration of the Republic of Turkey on October 29. The Republican People's Party did not attempt to update or define the philosophical roots of it party Kemalism from the 1940s to the 1960s. However, since the 1960s, there has been a move to the left-of-center. The supporter of the left-of-center accepts the tented of the Kemalism also entrained the idea that structural changes brought forth by the government are necessary for modernization. Later in the 1970s, the CHP had to make fundamental changes to its party platform as the country Abandonment of Kemalism. The party thought several programs as being labeled the democratic left. Most still believe in the six principles of Kemalism while others seek to reduce the role of statism in Turkish society.<ref>İrem, Nazım. “Undercurrents of European Modernity and the Foundations of Modern Turkish Conservatism: Bergsonism in Retrospect.” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 40, no. 4, 2004, pp. 79–112. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4289929</ref> The Turkish Justice Minister [[Mahmut Esat Bozkurt]] equated the Kemalist policies to the [[Italian fascism]] of [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kieser|first=Hans-Lukas|author-link=Hans-Lukas Kieser|date=2016-01-19|title=Dersim Massacre, 1937-1938 {{!}} Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network|url=http://dersim-massacre-1937-1938.html/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-22|website=dersim-massacre-1937-1938.html|language=en}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Bozkurt is also mentioned together with [[Ahmet Cevat Emre]] and [[Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu]] as one of the few who introduced the term Kemalism with its political aspects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ter-Matevosyan|first=Vahram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XtaIDwAAQBAJ&dq=Muhit+kemalist+magazine&pg=PA48|title=Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation|date=2019-02-19|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-97403-3|pages=48|language=en}}</ref><br />
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===Kemalism and Turkey's constitutional law===<br />
The six principles were solidified on 5 February 1937, 14 years after establishment of the Republic of Turkey.<br />
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In the [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|1924 Constitutional Law]] Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
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{{blockquote|Turkey is republican, nationalist, attached to the people, interventionist, secular, and revolutionary.}}<br />
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Both the [[1960 Turkish coup d'état|military coup of 1960]] and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état|military coup of 1980]] were followed by fundamental revisions of the Turkish Constitution. The texts of the new constitutions were approved by popular referendum in each case.<br />
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In the [[Turkish Constitution of 1961|1961 Constitutional Law]] Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
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{{blockquote|The Turkish Republic is a nationalistic, democratic, secular and social state, governed by the rule of law, based on human rights and fundamental tenets set forth in the preamble.}}<br />
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In the [[Constitution of Turkey|1982 Constitutional Law]] Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
[[File:Turkse_arbeiders_met_het_bronzen_hoofd_van_Atatürk_-_Turkish_workers_carrying_the_bronze_head_of_Atatürk_(6941436439).jpg|thumb|Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of a statue of Atatürk. Turkey, 1933. Atatürk' statues placed in all public buildings in the nation and his values are coded in the constitution.]]<br />
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{{blockquote|The Republic of Turkey is a democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law; bearing in mind the concepts of public peace, national solidarity and justice; respecting human rights; loyal to the nationalism of Atatürk, and based on the fundamental tenets set forth in the Preamble.}}<br />
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Only the principles of [[Secularism in Turkey|secularism]], [[Turkish nationalism|nationalism]] and democracy were maintained in each change to the constitution. The 1961 Constitution more strongly emphasized human rights, the rule of law, and the welfare state than the original 1924 constitution, while the 1982 constitution focused on the peace of the community and national solidarity, but also explicitly referenced some of Atatürk's principles and included them as well.<br />
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===External interpretations of Kemalism===<br />
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In the 1920s and 1930s, Turkey's domestic transformations and the evolution of the Kemalist system of ideological and political principles were closely observed in Germany, France, Britain, the US, and beyond, including several nations farther East. In recent years, scholarly interest in the transnational history of Kemalism has expanded. Some scholars have focused on the interwar period in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Albania, Yugoslavia, and Egypt to reveal how, as a practical tool, Kemalism was relocated as a global movement, whose influence is still felt today.<ref>"Kemalism: Transnational Politics in the Post Ottoman World.", eds. N. Clayer, F. Giomi, E. Szurek. London. I.B. Tauris. 2018.</ref> Some scholars have examined the impact of Atatürk's reforms and his image on the Jewish community in British-ruled Palestine before the establishment of Israel,<ref>Jacob Landau. "A Note on Kemalizm in the Hebrew Press of<br />
Palestine." 2018. Middle Eastern Studies 54 (4): 723–728</ref> some went farther East—to Persia, Afghanistan, China, India,<ref>Amin Saikal. "Kemalism: Its Influences on Iran and Afghanistan." 1982. International Journal of Turkish Studies 2 (2): 25–32</ref> and other parts of the Muslim world—to assess the influence wielded by Mustafa Kemal and his modernization project. These works explore perceptions of Kemalism that are mostly positive in their respective countries providing few critical insights into Kemalism's evolution and its reception as an ideological project. <br />
Against this background, one of the critical partners of Turkey in the interwar period – the Soviet Union, its leaders, party bureaucrats, journalists and scholars initially interpreted Kemalism as an ideological ally in the struggle against the West. Since the late 1920s until the 1950s, Kemalism was viewed negatively by the Communists. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Soviet position returned to normalization. Views and analyses of Soviet leaders, diplomats, party functionaries, and scholars helps us grasp the underlying dynamics behind these changing attitudes. Placing them in the larger context of republican history—delineating phases in the Kemalist paradigm of development and discerning its various rises and falls—will enrich our knowledge of the transnational history of Kemalism.<ref>Vahram Ter-Matevosyan. "Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation." London & New York, Palgrave Macmillan. 2019.</ref><br />
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The [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] viewed Kemalist Turkey as a "postgenocidal paradise" worthy of emulation.<ref name=Avedian>{{cite journal |last1=Avedian |first1=Vahagn |title=Justifying genocide: Germany and the Armenians from Bismarck to Hitler, by Stefan Ihrig, Cambridge, MA, Harvard, 460 pp., $35.00 (HC), ISBN 978-0674504790 |orig-year=2016 |journal=Nationalities Papers |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=532–535 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=20 November 2018|doi=10.1080/00905992.2017.1390980|s2cid=159627934 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |authorlink=Margaret L. Anderson|last1=Anderson |first1=Margaret Lavinia |title=Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination. By Stefan Ihrig. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014. Pp. 311. Cloth $29.95. ISBN 978-0674368378. |journal=Central European History |date=March 2016 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=138–139 |doi=10.1017/S0008938916000236|s2cid=148167017 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4qt900k7 }}</ref> Nazis often stated that [[Nazism]] and Kemalism were very similar.<ref>{{cite book |authorlink=Stefan Ihrig|last1=Ihrig |first1=Stefan |title=Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination |date=2014 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-36837-8 |pages=114, ''passim'' |language=en}}</ref> In 1933, Nazis openly admired Kemalist Turkey. Hitler described Mustafa Kemal as the "star in the darkness".{{sfn|Ihrig|2014|pp=113–117}}<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title="Nazilere göre Atatürk'ün başarısının en önemli nedeni Ermenilerin yok edilmesiydi"|url=http://www.agos.com.tr/tr/yazi/9998/nazilere-gore-ataturkun-basarisinin-en-onemli-nedeni-ermenilerin-yok-edilmesiydi|access-date=2021-06-16|website=Agos|language=tr}}</ref><br />
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Although Kemalist secularism has deep roots in Enlightenment era thought, the [[Postmodernism|postmodernist]] movement in Western philosophy has, since the 1960s and 1970s, cast the Enlightenment in a negative light. Postmodernist thinkers like [[Jacques Derrida]] have assaulted the Western hegemony and imperialism associated with European colonialism. The declining appeal of secularism, perceived as a Western value, has given occasion to postmodernist [[cultural relativism]] emphasizing the populist appeal of collective religious identities like the [[political Islam]] espoused by [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]]'s AKP.<ref>Alaranta, T. (2014). [https://www.google.com/books/edition/Contemporary_Kemalism/eE_IAgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 Contemporary Kemalism: From Universal Secular-Humanism to Extreme Turkish Nationalism]. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.</ref><br />
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==See also==<br />
*[[Bourguibism]]<br />
*[[Liberal Kemalism]]<br />
*[[Peronism]]<br />
*[[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]]<br />
*[[Post-Kemalism]]<br />
*[[Three Principles of the People]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for guidance on adding references using<ref>tags--><br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Alaranta |first=Toni |title=Contemporary Kemalism: From Universal Secular-Humanism to Extreme Turkish Nationalism |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-91676-5 |language=en |ref=none}}<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Ciddi |first=Sinan |title=Kemalism in Turkish Politics: The Republican People's Party, Secularism and Nationalism |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-02559-6 |language=en |ref=none}}<br />
*{{Cite journal |last=Gürpınar |first=Doğan |date=2013 |title=The Reinvention of Kemalism: Between Elitism, Anti-Elitism and Anti-Intellectualism |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=454–476 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2013.783822 |s2cid=144626059 |ref=none |authorlink=Doğan Gürpınar}}<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Plaggenborg |first=Stefan |title=Ordnung und Gewalt: Kemalismus - Faschismus - Sozialismus |date=2012 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-486-71409-8 |language=de |ref=none}}<br />
*{{cite web|url=https://newsaboutturkey.com/2020/05/13/the-myth-of-new-turkey-kemalism-and-erdoganism-as-two-sides-of-the-same-coin/|title=The Myth of 'New Turkey': Kemalism and Erdoganism as Two Sides of the Same Coin|work=Dr. Ceren Şengül|publisher=News About Turkey}}<br />
{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Kemalism}}<br />
<!--Categories--><br />
[[Category:Kemalism| ]]<br />
[[Category:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]<br />
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[[Category:Secularism in Turkey]]<br />
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[[Category:Turkish nationalism]]<br />
[[Category:State ideologies]]</div>Cehilizmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kemalism&diff=1142910008Kemalism2023-03-05T00:07:04Z<p>Cehilizm: /* Philosophy */</p>
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<div>{{short description|Founding ideology of the Republic of Turkey, proclaimed in 1923}}<br />
[[File:Flag of the Republican People's Party (Turkey).svg|thumb|261x261px|[[The Six Arrows]]]]<br />
{{Atatürk sidebar}}<br />
{{Populism sidebar|expanded=Related}}<br />
{{Nationalism sidebar}}<br />
'''Kemalism''' ({{lang-tr|Kemalizm}}, also archaically ''Kamâlizm''<ref>''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kam%C3%A2lizm.pdf Kamâlizm]'' (1936) by [[Mehmet Şeref Aykut]]</ref>), also known as '''Ataturkism''' ({{lang-tr|Atatürkçülük, Atatürkçü düşünce}}), or '''The Six Arrows''' ({{lang-tr|Altı Ok}}), is the founding official ideology of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]].<ref name="EricPage181">Eric J. Zurcher, Turkey: A Modern History. New York, J.B. Tauris & Co ltd. page 181</ref> Kemalism, as it was implemented by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] after the [[Republic Day (Turkey)|declaration of Republic in 1923]], was defined by sweeping political, social, cultural and religious reforms designed to separate the new Turkish state from its [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] predecessor and embrace a Western-style modernized lifestyle,<ref name=cleveland13>Cleveland, William L., and Martin P. Bunton. ''A History of the Modern Middle East''. Boulder: Westview, 2013.</ref> including the establishment of [[Secularism in Turkey|secularism/laicism]] ({{lang-fr|laïcité}}), state support of the sciences, free education, and many more. Most of those were first introduced to and implemented in Turkey during Atatürk's presidency through [[Atatürk's reforms|his reforms]].<br />
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Many of the root ideas of Kemalism began during the late [[Ottoman Empire]] under various reforms to avoid the imminent [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|collapse of the Empire]], beginning chiefly in the early 19th-century [[Tanzimat]] reforms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cleveland |first1=William L |first2=Martin |last2=Bunton |title=A History of the Modern Middle East |edition=4th |publisher=Westview Press |year=2009 |pages=82}}</ref> The mid-century [[Young Ottomans]] attempted to create the ideology of Ottoman nationalism, or [[Ottomanism]], to quell the [[Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|rising ethnic nationalism]] in the Empire and introduce limited democracy for the first time while maintaining Islamist influences. In the early 20th century, the [[Young Turks]] abandoned Ottoman nationalism in favor of early [[Turkish nationalism]], while adopting a secular political outlook. After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, Atatürk, influenced by both the Young Ottomans and the Young Turks,<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Cuthell |first=David Cameron Jr. |year=2009 |editor1-last=Ágoston |editor1-first=Gábor |editor2-first=Bruce |editor2-last=Masters |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |chapter=Atatürk, Kemal (Mustafa Kemal) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA56 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Facts On File]] |pages=56–60 |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |lccn=2008020716 |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref> as well as by their successes and failures, led the declaration of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, borrowing from the earlier movements' ideas of secularism and Turkish nationalism, while bringing about, for the first time, free education<ref name=mango164>{{cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |author-link= Andrew Mango |title=Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey |publisher=[[The Overlook Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-58567-334-6 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nu68vd_AmuYC |page=164}}</ref> and other reforms that have been enshrined by later leaders into guidelines for governing Turkey.<br />
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==Philosophy==<br />
Kemalism is a modernization philosophy that guided the transition between the multi-religious, multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire to the [[Secular humanism|secular]], [[Democracy|democratic]], and [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[Republicanism|Republic of Turkey]]. Kemalism sets the boundaries of the social process in the [[Atatürk's reforms|Turkish Reformation]]. Atatürk was the founder of Kemalism, and his doctrine was implemented as [[Ideology|state ideology]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Webster |first=Donald Everett |title=The Turkey of Atatürk; Social Process in the Turkish Reformation |year=1973 |publisher=AMS Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-404-56333-2 |page=245}}</ref> but Atatürk refrained from being dogmatic and described his and his spiritual heirs' guide to be science and reason:<br />
{{blockquote|I do not leave any verses, dogmas, nor any frozen and moulded principles as spritual heritage. My spritual heritage is science and reason.<ref name="Giritli">{{lang-tr|"Ben, manevî miras olarak hiçbir nass-ı katı, hiçbir dogma, hiçbir donmuş ve kalıplaşmış kural bırakmıyorum. Benim manevî mirasım, ilim ve akıldır."}} İsmet Giritli, Kemalist Devrim ve İdeolojisi, İstanbul, 1980</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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==Principles==<br />
There are six principles (''ilke'') of the ideology: [[Republicanism]] ({{lang-tr|cumhuriyetçilik}}), [[Populism]] ({{lang-tr|halkçılık}}), [[Nationalism]] ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}), [[Laicism]] ({{lang-tr|laiklik}}), [[Statism]] ({{lang-tr|devletçilik}}), and [[Reform movement|Reformism]] ({{lang-tr|inkılapçılık}}). Together, they represent a kind of [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobinism]], defined by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] himself as a method of employing political despotism to break down the social despotism prevalent among the traditionally-minded Turkish-Muslim population, caused by, he believed, the bigotry of the ''[[Ulama|ulema]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0440|title=Kemalism - Oxford Islamic Studies Online|website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com|access-date=2019-05-01}}</ref><br />
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===Republicanism===<br />
[[Republicanism]] ({{lang-tr|cumhuriyetçilik}}) in the Kemalist framework replaced the [[absolute monarchy]] of the [[Ottoman dynasty]] with the [[rule of law]], [[popular sovereignty]] and [[civic virtue]], including an emphasis on liberty practiced by citizens. Kemalist republicanism defines a type of constitutional republic, in which representatives of the people are elected, and must govern in accordance with existing constitutional law limiting governmental power over citizens. The head of state and other officials are chosen by election rather than inheriting their positions, and their decisions are subject to judicial review. In defending the change from the Ottoman State, Kemalism asserts that all laws of the Republic of Turkey should be inspired by actual needs here on Earth as a basic tenet of national life.<ref>Mustafa Kemal as quoted in "A World View of Criminal Justice (2005)" by Richard K. Vogler, p. 116</ref> Kemalism advocates a republican system as the best representative of the wishes of the people.<br />
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Among the many types of [[republic]], the Kemalist republic is a [[representative democracy|representative]], [[Liberal democracy|liberal]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Soyak |first=Hasan Rıza |title=Atatürk'ten Hatıralar |pages=58 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=İlhan |first=Atilla |title=Hangi Atatürk |pages=111 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kili |first=Suna |title=Türk Devrim Tarihi |pages=240 |language=tr}}</ref> [[Parliamentary republic|parliamentary democracy]] with a Parliament chosen in general elections, a [[President (government title)|president]] as head of state elected by Parliament and serving for a limited term, a [[prime minister]] appointed by the president, and other ministers appointed by Parliament. The Kemalist president does not have direct executive powers, but has limited veto powers, and the right to contest with referendum. The day-to-day operation of government is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers formed by the prime minister and the other ministers. There is a [[separation of powers]] between the executive (president and Council of Ministers), the legislative (Parliament) and the judiciary, in which no one branch of government has authority over another—although parliament is charged with the supervision of the Council of Ministers, which can be compelled to resign by a vote of no-confidence.<br />
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The Kemalist republic is a [[unitary state]] in which three [[Separation of powers|organs of state]] govern the nation as a single unit, with one [[constitution]]ally created [[legislature]]. On some issues, the [[Power (social and political)|political power]] of [[government]] is transferred to lower levels, to local elected assemblies represented by mayors, but the [[central government]] retains the principal governing role.<br />
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===Populism===<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| align = right<br />
| direction = vertical<br />
| header = Dimensions of Populism<br />
| width = 150<br />
| image1 = GNAT speakers.jpg<br />
| caption1 = "[[Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the People|Sovereignty belongs, without any restrictions or conditions, to the nation]]" is embossed behind the speaker's seat at the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|GNA]]<br />
| image2 = Nicosia 01-2017 img17 View from Shacolas Tower.jpg<br />
| caption2 = The motto, "[[How happy is the one who says I am a Turk|Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]]", embossed on the [[Kyrenia Mountains]] in [[Northern Cyprus]].<br />
}}<br />
[[Populism]] ({{lang-tr|halkçılık}}) is defined as a social revolution aimed to transfer the political power to [[citizenship]]. Kemalist populism intends not only to establish popular sovereignty but also the transfer of the social-economic transformation{{clarify|date=May 2021}} to realize a true populist state. However, Kemalists reject [[class conflict]] and [[Collective farming|collectivism]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler (Örgün Yayınları)|publisher=Afet İnan|year=1930s|pages=212}}</ref> Kemalist populism believes [[national identity]] is above all else. Kemalist populism envisions a sociality that emphasizes [[class collaboration]] and national unity like [[Solidarity|solidarism]]. Populism in Turkey is to create a unifying force that brings a sense of the Turkish state and the power of the people to bring in that new unity.<ref name="jstor.org">Kili, Suna. “Kemalism in Contemporary Turkey.” International Political Science Review, vol. 1, no. 3, 1980, pp. 381–404. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1601123.</ref><br />
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Kemalist populism is an extension of the Kemalist modernization movement, aiming to make Islam compatible with the modern nation-state. This included state supervision of religious schools and organizations. Mustafa Kemal himself said "everyone needs a place to learn religion and faith; that place is a ''[[Wiktionary:mektep#Turkish|mektep]]'', not a ''[[madrasa]]''". This was intended to combat the "corruption" of Islam by the ''ulema''. Kemal believed that during the Ottoman period, the ''ulema'' had come to exploit the power of their office and manipulate religious practices to their own benefit. It was also feared that, were education not brought under state control, unsupervised ''madrasa''s could exacerbate the rising problem of ''[[tariqa|tarikat]]'' insularity that threatened to undermine the unity of the Turkish state.<ref name="AKMAK, DİREN 2009, pp. 825">ÇAKMAK, DİREN. “Pro-Islamic Public Education in Turkey: The Imam-Hatip Schools.” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 45, no. 5, 2009, pp. 825–846. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40647155.</ref><br />
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====Sovereignty====<br />
Kemalist social theory (populism) does not accept any adjectives placed before the definition of a nation [a nation of ...] Sovereignty must belong solely to people without any term, condition, etc.:<br />
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{{Blockquote|[[Sovereignty]] belongs to the nation unrestrictedly and unconditionally.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DC. |first=Embassy of the Republic of Turkey, Washington |url=http://www.turkishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188&Itemid=165 |title=Constitution and Foundations of the State System |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070115010917/http://www.turkishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188&Itemid=165 |archive-date=January 15, 2007 }}</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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====Motto====<br />
Populism was used against the political domination of sheiks, tribal leaders, and [[Islamism]] (Islam as a political system) of the Ottoman Empire. Initially, the declaration of the republic was perceived as ''"Returning to the days of the [[Rashidun|first caliphs]]"''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Mango |title=Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey |orig-year=1999 |edition=Paperback |year=2002 |publisher=Overlook Press, Peter Mayer Publishers, Inc |location=Woodstock, NY |isbn=1-58567-334-X |page=[https://archive.org/details/ataturk00andr/page/394 394] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ataturk00andr/page/394 }}</ref> However, Atatürk's nationalism aimed to shift the political legitimacy from [[autocracy]] (by the [[Ottoman dynasty]]), [[theocracy]] (based in the [[Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman caliphate]]), and [[feudalism]] (tribal leaders) to the active participation of its citizenry, the Turks. Kemalist social theory wanted to establish the value of Turkish citizenship. A sense of pride associated with this citizenship would give the needed psychological spur for people to work harder and achieve a sense of unity and national identity. Active participation, or the "will of the people", was established with the republican regime and Turkishness replacing the other forms of affiliations that had been promoted in the Ottoman Empire (such as the allegiance to the different millets that eventually led to divisiveness in the empire). The shift in affiliation was symbolized with:<br />
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{{Blockquote|{{lang-tr|links=no|[[Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]].}}<br />
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({{lang-en|How happy is the one who calls themself a [[Turkish people|Turk]].}})|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
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The motto "[[How happy is the one who says I am a Turk|Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]]" was promoted against such mottoes as "long live the Sultan," "long live the Sheikh", or "long live the Caliph."<br />
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===Laicism===<br />
{{Main|Secularism in Turkey|Islam in Turkey}}<br />
{{See also|Freedom of religion in Turkey}}<br />
[[Laicism]] ({{lang-tr|laiklik}}) in Kemalist ideology aims to banish religious interference in government affairs, and vice versa. It differs from the passive Anglo-American concept of secularism,<ref name="Kösebalaban2011">{{cite book |last=Kösebalaban |first=Hasan |title=Turkish Foreign Policy: Islam, Nationalism, and Globalization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3dnGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |date=12 April 2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-11869-0 |page=9}}</ref> but is similar to the concept of [[Secularism in France|laïcité]] in France.<br />
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The roots of Kemalist secularism lie in the reform efforts in the late Ottoman Empire, especially the [[Tanzimat]] period and the later [[Second Constitutional Era]]. The Ottoman Empire was an [[Islamic state]] in which the head of the Ottoman state held the position of the Caliph. The social system was organized according to various systems, including the religiously organized Millet system and [[Sharia|Shari'ah law]], allowing religious ideology to be incorporated into the Ottoman administrative, economic, and political system. This way of life is today defined as [[Islamism]] (political Islam): "the belief that Islam should guide social and political as well as personal life".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Berman |first=Sheri| author-link=Sheri Berman |title=Islamism, Revolution, and Civil Society |journal=Perspectives on Politics |volume=1 |issue=2 |year=2003 |page=258 |doi=10.1017/S1537592703000197|s2cid=145201910}}</ref> In the Second Constitutional Era, the [[General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Parliament]] pursued largely secular policies, although techniques of religious populism and attacks on other candidates' piety still occurred between [[List of political parties in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman political parties]] during [[Elections in the Ottoman Empire|elections]]. These policies were stated as the reason for the [[31 March Incident|countercoup of 1909]] by Islamists and absolute monarchists. The secular policies of the Ottoman parliament also factored in the [[Arab Revolt]] during World War I.<br />
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When secularism was implemented in the fledgling Turkish state, it was initiated by the abolition of the centuries-old [[caliphate]] in March 1924. The office of [[Shaykh al-Islām]] was replaced with the [[Directorate of Religious Affairs|Presidency of Religious Affairs]] ({{lang-tr|Diyanet}}). In 1926, the ''[[Mecelle|mejelle]]'' and shari'ah law codes were abandoned in favor of an adapted [[Swiss Civil Code]] and a penal code modeled on the German and Italian codes. Other religious practices were done away with, resulting in the dissolution of [[Sufism|Sufi]] orders and the penalization of wearing a ''[[Fez (hat)|fez]]'', which was viewed by Atatürk as a tie to the Ottoman past.<ref name=cleveland13/><br />
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====State and religion (Laïcité)====<br />
Atatürk was profoundly influenced by the triumph of ''[[Secularism in France|laïcité]]'' in France.<ref name=page153>{{cite book |authorlink=M. Şükrü Hanioğlu|last=Hanioglu |first=Sükrü |title=Ataturk: An Intellectual Biography |year=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=153}}</ref> Atatürk perceived the French model as the authentic form of secularism. Kemalism strove to control religion and transform it into a private affair rather than an institution interfering with politics, as well as scientific and social progress.<ref name=page153/> "Sane reason," and "the liberty of [one's] fellow man," as Atatürk once put it.<ref>Ruşen Eşref Ünaydin, 1954, "Atatürk -Tarih ve Dil Kurumları Hatıraları" Türk Tarih Kurumu. pp. 28–31.</ref> It is more than merely creating a separation between state and religion. Atatürk has been described as working as if he were [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo the Isaurian]], [[Martin Luther]], the [[Baron d'Holbach]], [[Ludwig Büchner]], [[Émile Combes]], and [[Jules Ferry]] rolled into one in creating Kemalist secularism.<ref name=page153/> Kemalist secularism does not imply nor advocate [[agnosticism]] or [[nihilism]]; it means freedom of thought and independence of the institutions of the state from the dominance of religious thought and religious institutions. The Kemalist principle of laicism is not against moderate and apolitical religion, but against religious forces opposed to and fighting modernization and democracy.<br />
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According to the Kemalist perception, the Turkish state is to stand at an equal distance from every religion, neither promoting nor condemning any set of religious beliefs. Kemalists, however, have called for not only separation of church and state but also a call for the state control of the Turkish Muslim religious establishment{{fact|date=November 2022}}. For some Kemalists{{who|date=November 2022}}, this means that the state must be at the helm of religious affairs, and all religious activities are under the supervision of the state. This, in turn, drew criticism from the religious conservatives. Religious conservatives were vocal in rejecting this idea, saying that to have a secular state, the state can't control the activities of religious institutions. Despite their protest, this policy was officially adopted by the 1961 constitution.<ref name="jstor.org"/><br />
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Kemalism must stamp out the religious element within society. After Turkish independence from the Western powers, all education was under the control of the state in both secular and religious schools. It centralized the education system, with one curriculum in both religious and secular public schools, in the hope this would eliminate or lessen the appeal of religious schools. The laws were meant to abolish the [[Sufism|Sufi]] religious schools or orders ''([[Tariqa|tarikats]])'' and their lodges ''([[khanqah|tekke]]s)''. Titles like ''[[sheikh]]'' and ''[[dervish]]'' were abolished, and their activities were banned by the government. The day of rest was changed by the government from Friday to Sunday. But the restrictions on personal choice extended to both religious duty and naming. Turks had to adopt a surname and were not allowed to perform the [[hajj]] (pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]).<ref name="jstor.org"/><ref name="AKMAK, DİREN 2009, pp. 825"/><br />
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====Politics and religion (Secularism)====<br />
The Kemalist form of [[Separation of church and state#Turkey|separation of state and religion]] sought the reform of a complete set of institutions, interest groups (such as [[List of political parties in Turkey|political parties]], unions, and lobbies), the relationships between those institutions, and the political norms and rules that governed their functions (constitution, election law). The biggest change in this perspective was the abolishment of the [[Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman caliphate]] on March 3, 1924, followed by the removal of its political mechanisms. The article stating that "the established religion of Turkey is Islam" was removed from the constitution on April 10, 1928.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.atam.gov.tr/index.php?Page=DergiIcerik&IcerikNo=560 |title=Atatürk ve Laiklik |access-date=2017-07-28 |publisher=Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, Issue: 24, Volume: VIII}}</ref><br />
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From a political perspective, Kemalism is anti-clerical, in that it seeks to prevent religious influence on the democratic process, which was a problem even in the largely secular politics of the [[Second Constitutional Era]] of the Ottoman Empire, when even non-religiously affiliated political parties like the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] and the [[Freedom and Accord Party]] feuded over matters such as the Islamic piety of their candidates in the [[1912 Ottoman general election|Ottoman elections of 1912]].<ref name=HK>Hasan Kayalı (1995) [http://psi203.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Kayali,%20Elections%20in%20the%20Ott%20Empire%20(1995).pdf "Elections and the Electoral Process in the Ottoman Empire, 1876-1919"] ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'', Vol. 27, No. 3, pp 273–274. "The prominent leaders of the Entente [Freedom and Accord Party] were Turkish-speaking and no different from the Unionists as far as their basic attitudes toward Islam were concerned. Nevertheless, they sought to frustrate the CUP by encouraging non-Turkish groups to attack it for pursuing a policy of Turkification and by pointing out to the conservatives its alleged disregard for Islamic principles and values. The overall effect of this propaganda was to instill ethnic and sectarian-religious discord, which survived the Entente's defeat at the polls ... The Unionists proved to be less vulnerable to accusations of disregard for Islamic precepts and values. Some of the Entente members were known for their cosmopolitan attitudes and close relations with foreign interests. But this did not keep the Entente from accusing the CUP of violating Islamic principles and attempting to restrict the prerogatives of the sultan-caliph in its pamphlets. One such pamphlet, ''Afiksoz'' (Candid Words), appealed to the religious-national sentiments of Arabs and claimed that Zionist intrigue was responsible for the abandonment of [[Libya]] to the Italians. Such propaganda forced the CUP to seize the role of the champion of Islam. After all, the secular integrationist Ottomanism that it had preached was failing, and the latest manifestation of this failure was the Entente's appeal to segments of Christian communities. The Unionists used Islamic symbols effectively in their election propaganda in 1912. They accused the Entente of trying to separate the offices of the caliphate and the sultanate and thus weakening Islam and the Muslims. There seemed no end to the capital to be gained from the exploitation and manipulation of religious rhetoric. In Izmir, the Entente attacked the CUP's intention to amend Article 35 of the constitution by arguing that the Unionists were thus denouncing the "thirty" days of fasting and "five" daily prayers. This led the town's mufti to plead that "for the sake of Islam and the welfare of the country" religion not be used to achieve political objectives. As with the rhetoric on Turkification, Islam too remained in political discourse long after the elections were over."</ref> Thus, in the Kemalist political perspective, politicians cannot claim to be the protector of any religion or religious sect, and such claims constitute sufficient legal grounds for the permanent banning of political parties.<br />
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====Insignia====<br />
The Ottoman social system was based on religious affiliation. Religious insignia extended to every social function. Clothing identified citizens with their own particular religious grouping; headgear distinguished rank and profession. [[Turban]]s, [[Fez (hat)|fez]]es, [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnet]]s, and head-dresses denoted the sex, rank, and profession — both civil and military — of the wearer. Religious insignia outside of worship areas became banned.<br />
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While Atatürk considered women's religious coverings as antithetical to progress and equality, he also recognized that headscarves were not such a danger to the separation of church and state to warrant an outright ban.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/jlg/vol332/661-686.pdf|title=Politics of the Headscarf in Turkey: Masculinities, Feminism, and the Construction of Collective Identities|first=Valorie K.|last=Vojdik|journal=Harvard Journal of Law & Gender|volume= 33|pages=661–686|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416012819/http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/jlg/vol332/661-686.pdf|archive-date=16 April 2012}}</ref> But the Constitution was amended in 1982, following the 1980 coup by the Kemalist-leaning military, to prohibit women's use of Islamic coverings such as the ''[[hijab]]'' at higher education institutions.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Journal of Political Inquiry |url=http://www.jpinyu.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/roots-of-the-headscarf-debate-laicism-and-secularism-in-france-and-turkey.pdf |title=Roots of the Headscarf Debate: Laicism and Secularism in France and Turkey |first=Gulce |last=Tarhan |year=2011 |issue=4 |pages=1–32 |access-date=2014-10-04 }}</ref> [[Joost Lagendijk]], a [[member of the European Parliament]] and chair of the Joint Parliamentary Committee with Turkey, has publicly criticized these [[dress code|clothing restrictions]] for Muslim women,<ref>Lagendijk, Joost (2006-03-22). [http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2006/03/22/siy113.html Başörtüsü yasağı savunulamaz]. ''Sabah''.</ref> whereas the [[European Court of Human Rights]] has ruled in numerous cases that such restrictions in public buildings and educational institutions do not constitute a violation of human rights.<ref>[http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=9958 ECHR Rules for Turkish Headscarf Ban] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604102452/http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=9958 |date=2009-06-04 }}: The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled in favor of Turkey's policy of banning headscarves at universities. (Today's Zaman, 30 June 2004)</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131226050047/http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=40196 ECHR Insists on Headscarf Ban], [[Journal of Turkish Weekly]], 2006-10-17</ref><br />
<br />
===Reformism===<br />
[[Reform movement|Reformism]] ({{lang-tr|inkılapçılık}}) is a principle which calls for the country to replace the traditional institutions and concepts with modern institutions and concepts. This principle advocated the need for fundamental social change through [[reform]] as a strategy to achieve a modern society. The core of the reform, in the Kemalist sense, was an accomplished fact.<ref name="durkiem">{{Cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Peter |title=Emile Durkheim: Critical Assessments |year=1995 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-11046-7 |page=69}}</ref> In a Kemalist sense, there is no possibility of return to the old systems because they were deemed backward.<br />
<br />
The principle of reformism went beyond the recognition of the reforms made during Atatürk's lifetime. Atatürk's reforms in the social and political spheres are accepted as irreversible. Atatürk never entertained the possibility of a pause or transition phase during the course of the progressive unfolding or implementation of the reform. The current understanding of this concept can be described as "active modification".<ref name="durkiem" /> Turkey and its society, taking over institutions from Western Europe, must add Turkish traits and patterns to them and adapt them to Turkish culture, according to Kemalism.<ref name="durkiem" /> The implementation of the Turkish traits and patterns of these reforms takes generations of cultural and social experience, which results in the collective memory of the Turkish nation.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}<br />
<br />
===Nationalism===<br />
[[Nationalism]] ({{lang-tr|milliyetçilik}}): The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire. Atatürk's nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his [[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]. The Kemalist perception of social contract was facilitated by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]], which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "millet" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]]. Atatürk's nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakup, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".<br />
<br />
{{Blockquote|In the administration and defense of the Turkish Nation; national unity, national awareness and national culture are the highest ideals that we fix our eyes upon.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Forces |first=Republic Of Turkey Turkish Armed |url=http://www.tsk.mil.tr/eng/Anitkabir/milli.html |title=Ataturks Principles |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government }}{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
<br />
Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish Nation" ({{lang-tr|Türk Ulusu}}) as a nation of [[Turkish people]] who always love and seek to exalt their family, country and nation, who know their duties and responsibilities towards the democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law, founded on [[human rights]], and on the tenets laid down in the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Turkey.<ref name="TurkishNational" /> Atatürk defines the Turkish Nation by saying<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|The folk which constitutes the Republic of Turkey is called the Turkish Nation.|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}<br />
<br />
Similar to its CUP predecessors, it can be said that Kemalism endorsed [[social Darwinism]] in some way by desiring the Turkish youth to be healthy and physically strong.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ter-Matevosyan |first1=Vahram |title=Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation |date=2019 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-97403-3 |page=163|quote=Both the Young Turks and the Kemalists had an elitist conception of society; they saw themselves as the nation’s “social physicians,” the only ones capable of enlightening the “masses.”78 Other defnitions and fashionable currents of thought that defned different facets of fascism—biological materialism, positivism, social Darwinism, and the quest for magic formulas—were also incorporated by both regimes in Turkey.7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Zurcher |first1=Erik-Jan |title=Late Ottoman Society |chapter=Ottoman sources of Kemalist thought |year=2013 |pages=36–49 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203481387-10 |isbn=978-0-203-48138-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/ottoman-sources-kemalist-thought-erik-jan-zurcher/e/10.4324/9780203481387-10 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Criteria====<br />
{{See also|Turkish nationality law}}<br />
Kemalist criteria for national ''identity'' or simply being Turkish ({{lang-tr|Türk}}) refers to a shared [[language]], and/or shared [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] defined as a common history, and the will to share a future. Kemalist ideology defines the "[[Turkish people]]" as:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|Those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation.<ref name="TurkishNational">{{Cite web |last=Education |first=Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of National |url=http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm |title=Turkish National Education System |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020612122337/http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm|archive-date=12 June 2002}}</ref>|author=|title=|source=}}<br />
<br />
Membership is usually gained through birth within the borders of the state and also the principle of [[jus sanguinis]]. The Kemalist notion of nationality is integrated into the [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Every citizen is recognized as a Turk, regardless of ethnicity, belief, and gender, etc. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>Citizenship is defined in the {{Ws|[[s:Constitution of the Republic of Turkey#66|1982 constitution, Article 66]]}} (amended on October 17, 2001).</ref><br />
<br />
Kemalists saw non-Muslims as only nominal citizens, and they have often been treated as [[Second-class citizen|second-class citizens]] in the Republic of Turkey.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dağı |first1=İhsan |title=Why Turkey Needs a Post-Kemalist Order |journal=Insight Turkey |date=1 January 2012 |url=https://www.insightturkey.com/commentaries/why-turkey-needs-a-post-kemalist-order |language=tr|quote= Non-Muslims, whose citizenship was only nominal in the eyes of the Kemalists, faced [[pogrom]]s. This relationship of the Kemalist regime with the people of different ethnicity, religion, and life-style positioned the state with its loyal Kemalist elite as a hegemonic power vis-à-vis the society.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=İçduygu |first1=Ahmet |last2=Toktaş |first2=Şule |last3=Soner |first3=B. Ali |title=The politics of population in a nation-building process: emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |date=1 February 2008 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=358–389 |doi=10.1080/01419870701491937|s2cid=143541451 }}</ref> The identity of [[Kurds in Turkey]] was [[Denial of Kurds by Turkey|denied for decades]] with Kurds described as "[[Denial of Kurds by Turkey|Mountain Turks]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ataman |first1=M. |title=Özal Leadership and Restructuring of Turkish Ethnic Policy in the 1980s |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |date=1 October 2002 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=123–142 |doi=10.1080/714004493|s2cid=144430188 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moustakis |first1=Fotios |last2=Chaudhuri |first2=Rudra |title=Turkish-Kurdish Relations and the European Union: An Unprecedented Shift in the Kemalist Paradigm? |journal=Mediterranean Quarterly |date=28 November 2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=77–89 |doi=10.1215/10474552-16-4-77 |s2cid=153382746 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/190579/summary |language=en |issn=1527-1935}}</ref> Kemal stated in 1930:<br />
{{blockquote|Within the political and social unity of today's Turkish nation, there are citizens and co-nationals who have been incited to think of themselves as [[Kurds]], [[Circassians]], [[Laz people|Laz]] or [[Bosniaks|Bosnians]]. But these erroneous appellations - the product of past periods of tyranny - have brought nothing but sorrow to individual members of the nation, with the exception of a few brainless reactionaries, who became the enemy's instruments.<ref name=mangokurds20>[[Andrew Mango]], ''Atatürk and the Kurds'', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.35, No.4, 1999, 20</ref>}}<br />
<br />
In 2005, the [[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal code made it a crime to insult Turkishness ({{lang-tr|Türklük}}), but under pressure of the EU, this was changed in 2008 to protect the "Turkish nation" instead of Turkish ethnicity in 2008, an 'imagined' nationhood of people living within the [[Misak-ı Millî|National Pact]] ({{lang-tr|Misak-ı Milli}}) borders.<ref name="osmansdream">{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire |year=2006 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |pages=549–550 |isbn=0-465-02396-7}}</ref><br />
<br />
=====Pan-Turkism=====<br />
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}<br />
Kemalism focused on the nation-state's narrower interests, renouncing the concern for the "Outside Turks".<ref name="Pan-Turkism">{{Cite book |authorlink=Jacob M. Landau|last=Landau |first=Jacob M. |title=Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1995 |page=275 |isbn=0-253-20960-9}} Page 186-187</ref><br />
<br />
Pan-Turkism was an [[Ethnocentrism|ethnocentric]] ideology [to unite all ethnically Turkic nations] while Kemalism is polycentric [united under a " common will"] in character.<ref name="Pan-Turkism" /> Kemalism wants to have an equal footing among the mainstream world civilizations. Pan-Turkists have consistently emphasized the special attributes of the [[Turkic peoples]], and wanted to unite all of the Turkic peoples. Kemalism wants an equal footing (based on respect) and does not aim to unite the people of Turkey with all the other Turkic nations. Most Kemalists were not interested in Pan-Turkism and from 1923 to 1950 (the single state period) reacted with particular firmness.<ref name="Pan-Turkism"/> Further more, Atatürk opposed Pan-Turkism in his book [[Nutuk]] as following:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|Gathering various nations under a common and general title and establishing a strong state by keeping these various groups of elements under the same law and conditions is a bright and attractive political view; but it is deceptive. In fact, it is an impossible goal to unite all the Turks in the world into a state, without any borders. This is a truth that centuries and people who have lived for centuries brought about through very painful and bloody events.<br />
<br />
It cannot be seen in history that panislamism and panturanism were successful and were practiced in the world. Though, the results of the ambitions for the establishment of a state, covering all humanity, regardless of race, are written in history.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Atatürk |first=Mustafa Kemal |title=Nutuk |publisher=Kaynak Yayınları |pages=336–337 |language=tr}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
However, Atatürk owned the idea of taking Turkicness as one of the identities of Turkish nation. [[Turkish History Thesis]] started under Atatürk's order and administration, which contained ethno-racial ideas based on Turkish origins coming from [[Central Asia]]. Also Atatürk era high school books contained education of [[Old Turkic script|Orkhon alphabet]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic Of Turkey|year=1931|pages=79–80}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}} and a unit under the title of "Greater Turkic history and Civilization".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic of Turkey|year=1931|pages=25–53}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}} The book also gave detailed information about empires which are Turkic such as [[Göktürks]] or "claimed to be Turkic" such as [[Scythians]], [[Xiongnu]], and so on.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic of Turkey|year=1931}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}}<br />
<br />
With the supports of newly founded Turkish Republic, [[Pan-Turkism|Pan-Turkist]] organization known as "[[Turkish Hearths]]", re-established in Atatürk's era to get Turkists' support during the [[Atatürk's reforms|revolutions]]. Atatürk was frequently giving speeches on Turkish Hearths after important events occurred in Turkey.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Akçiçek|first=Eren|title=Atatürk'ün Türk Ocakları'nı Ziyaretleri ve Yaptığı Konuşmalar|publisher=Turkish Hearths Ankara Branch|year=2008|location=Ankara, Turkey|language=Turkish}}</ref> Also reopening of Turkish magazine "[[Türk Yurdu]]" which was an organ of Turkish Hearts, was supported.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Georgeon|first=François|title=Aux origines du nationalisme Turc|publisher=Éditions A.D.P.F|year=1980|isbn=2865380084|location=Paris|pages=44}}</ref> Later, in 1931, Turkish Hearts were closed by Atatürk after they lost their non-political stance, because of their Pan-Turkist views and movements; and with all of its premises, it merged to the ruling party [[Republican People's Party|CHP]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Emine|last=Merdim|date=2011-07-13|title=Türk Ocakları Merkez Binası'ndan Ankara Devlet Resim ve Heykel Müzesi'ne|url=https://www.arkitera.com/haber/turk-ocaklari-merkez-binasindan-ankara-devlet-resim-ve-heykel-muzesine/|access-date=2021-06-21|website=Arkitera|language=tr-TR}}</ref><br />
<br />
Atatürk also described his opinions about [[Timur]], a [[Central Asia]]n [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] military commander as "If I lived in Timur's timeline, I wouldn't be able to accomplish his work but if he lived in my timeline, he would do greater than I did".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bozkurt|first=Mahmut Esat|title=Aksak Demir'in Devlet Politikası - Timurlenk Üzerine İnceleme|publisher=Yeni Sabah Neşriyatı|year=1943|isbn=975-343-413-8|location=Galatasaray - Istanbul|pages=84|language=Turkish}}</ref><br />
[[File:Atatürk looking into Central asia.jpg|thumb|Atatürk analyzing [[First Turkic Khaganate|Turkic Khaganate]] map.]]<br />
<br />
=====Turanism=====<br />
{{Main|Turanism}}<br />
Kemalist center of view focused on the Turkish people, within both living and historical cultures and peoples of [[Anatolia]], especially [[Hittites]],<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal|last=Erimtan|first=Can|title=Hittites, Ottomans and Turks: Ağaoğlu Ahmed Bey and the Kemalist Construction of Turkish Nationhood in Anatolia|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20455417|journal= Anatolian Studies|year=2008|volume=58|pages=158|doi=10.1017/S0066154600008711 |jstor=20455417|s2cid=163040610 }}</ref> and the culture and civilization of [[Turkic peoples]].<br />
<br />
Turanism centered the nation as the union of all [[Turan|Turanian]] peoples ([[Tungusic peoples|Tungus]], [[Hungarians]], [[Finns]], [[Mongols]], [[Estonians]] and [[Koreans]]) stretching from the [[Altai Mountains]] in [[East Asia|Eastern Asia]] to the [[Bosporus|Bosphorus]].<ref>Paksoy, H.B., [http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-6/cae12.html ‘Basmachi’: Turkestan National Liberation Movement 1916-1930s], ''Modern Encyclopedia of Religions in Russia and the Soviet Union'', Florida: Academic International Press, 1991, Vol. 4</ref> Kemalism had a narrower definition of language, which sought to remove (purify) the Persian, Arabic, Greek, Latin, etc. words from the Turkish language and replace them with either Turkic originated words or derive new words with Turkic roots. Turanist leaders, such as [[Enver Pasha]], wanted an evolving language common to all Turanian peoples, minimizing differences and maximizing similarities between them.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}<br />
<br />
==== Kemalism and the Hittites ====<br />
{{Main|Turkish History Thesis}}<br />
[[File:Turkije3 2014 010 (15080445834).jpg|thumb|One of the lions at "[[Anıtkabir#Road of Lions|Road of Lions]]" in [[Anıtkabir]], which are replicas of ancient [[Hittites|Hittite]] lion statues.]]<br />
Kemalism gave an important place to [[Hittites]] and the Hittite symbolism to construct the Turkish identity and nationhood. Kemalist researchers, such as [[Ahmet Ağaoğlu]] (who was an advisor to Atatürk and a politician who played an important role on creating [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|Turkey's constitution of 1924]]), believed in that the nation has to portray Hittites as a world-domineering Turkish race with firm roots in Anatolia.<ref name=":04"/><br />
Modern genetic researches on Turkish samples show that [[Turkish people|Anatolian Turks]] are mixage of [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkic tribes]] and Anatolian natives, however, unlike [[Turkish History Thesis|Kemalist thoughts]], these two admixtures aren't originated from same ethnicity, race or identity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The genetic structure of the Turkish population - Ethnicity Prediction|url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1pHvOMVZPtNDuwVabSXD7OxdFMTYQGvfjq7Z-L6IiII0/edit#gid=450884960|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Statism===<br />
{{Main|Social market economy}}<br />
<br />
[[Statism]] ({{lang-tr|devletçilik}}): Atatürk made clear in his statements and policies that Turkey's complete [[Modernization theory|modernization]] was very much dependent on economic and technological development. The principle of Kemalist statism is generally interpreted to mean that the state was to regulate the country's general economic activities and engage in areas where private enterprises are not willing to do so. This was the result of post-revolutionary Turkey needing to redefine the relationship between societal and international capitalism. The revolution left Turkey in ruins, as the Ottoman Empire was focused on raw materials and was an [[open market]] in the international capitalist system. Post-revolutionary Turkey has been largely defined by its agricultural society, which includes many landlords and merchants. The control of people in the Turkish economy is quite evident from 1923 to the 1930s, but they still managed, through foreign joint investment, to establish a state economic enterprise. However, after the 1930s depression, there was a shift to more inward-looking development strategies during an era generally referred to as "etatism". During this era, the state had an active involvement in both capital accumulation and investment as well as in taking the interest of private businesses into consideration. The state often stepped into economic areas that the private sector did not cover, either due to not being strong enough or having simply failed to do so. These were often infrastructure projects and power stations, but also iron and steel industries, while the masses shouldered the burden of the capital accumulation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Aydın|first=Zülküf|title=The Political Economy of Turkey|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2005|pages=25–56|doi=10.2307/j.ctt18dzt8j}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Analysis==<br />
{{See also|White Turks}}<br />
<br />
===Kemalism and Turkey's political parties===<br />
[[File:Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi Logo.svg|thumb|200px|"''Six Arrows''" as depicted by the [[Republican People's Party|CHP]]'s logo]]<br />
The [[Republican People's Party]] (CHP) was established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk on September 9, 1923, not long before the declaration of the Republic of Turkey on October 29. The Republican People's Party did not attempt to update or define the philosophical roots of it party Kemalism from the 1940s to the 1960s. However, since the 1960s, there has been a move to the left-of-center. The supporter of the left-of-center accepts the tented of the Kemalism also entrained the idea that structural changes brought forth by the government are necessary for modernization. Later in the 1970s, the CHP had to make fundamental changes to its party platform as the country Abandonment of Kemalism. The party thought several programs as being labeled the democratic left. Most still believe in the six principles of Kemalism while others seek to reduce the role of statism in Turkish society.<ref>İrem, Nazım. “Undercurrents of European Modernity and the Foundations of Modern Turkish Conservatism: Bergsonism in Retrospect.” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 40, no. 4, 2004, pp. 79–112. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4289929</ref> The Turkish Justice Minister [[Mahmut Esat Bozkurt]] equated the Kemalist policies to the [[Italian fascism]] of [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kieser|first=Hans-Lukas|author-link=Hans-Lukas Kieser|date=2016-01-19|title=Dersim Massacre, 1937-1938 {{!}} Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network|url=http://dersim-massacre-1937-1938.html/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-22|website=dersim-massacre-1937-1938.html|language=en}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Bozkurt is also mentioned together with [[Ahmet Cevat Emre]] and [[Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu]] as one of the few who introduced the term Kemalism with its political aspects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ter-Matevosyan|first=Vahram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XtaIDwAAQBAJ&dq=Muhit+kemalist+magazine&pg=PA48|title=Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation|date=2019-02-19|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-97403-3|pages=48|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Kemalism and Turkey's constitutional law===<br />
The six principles were solidified on 5 February 1937, 14 years after establishment of the Republic of Turkey.<br />
<br />
In the [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|1924 Constitutional Law]] Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|Turkey is republican, nationalist, attached to the people, interventionist, secular, and revolutionary.}}<br />
<br />
Both the [[1960 Turkish coup d'état|military coup of 1960]] and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état|military coup of 1980]] were followed by fundamental revisions of the Turkish Constitution. The texts of the new constitutions were approved by popular referendum in each case.<br />
<br />
In the [[Turkish Constitution of 1961|1961 Constitutional Law]] Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|The Turkish Republic is a nationalistic, democratic, secular and social state, governed by the rule of law, based on human rights and fundamental tenets set forth in the preamble.}}<br />
<br />
In the [[Constitution of Turkey|1982 Constitutional Law]] Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:<br />
[[File:Turkse_arbeiders_met_het_bronzen_hoofd_van_Atatürk_-_Turkish_workers_carrying_the_bronze_head_of_Atatürk_(6941436439).jpg|thumb|Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of a statue of Atatürk. Turkey, 1933. Atatürk' statues placed in all public buildings in the nation and his values are coded in the constitution.]]<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|The Republic of Turkey is a democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law; bearing in mind the concepts of public peace, national solidarity and justice; respecting human rights; loyal to the nationalism of Atatürk, and based on the fundamental tenets set forth in the Preamble.}}<br />
<br />
Only the principles of [[Secularism in Turkey|secularism]], [[Turkish nationalism|nationalism]] and democracy were maintained in each change to the constitution. The 1961 Constitution more strongly emphasized human rights, the rule of law, and the welfare state than the original 1924 constitution, while the 1982 constitution focused on the peace of the community and national solidarity, but also explicitly referenced some of Atatürk's principles and included them as well.<br />
<br />
===External interpretations of Kemalism===<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, Turkey's domestic transformations and the evolution of the Kemalist system of ideological and political principles were closely observed in Germany, France, Britain, the US, and beyond, including several nations farther East. In recent years, scholarly interest in the transnational history of Kemalism has expanded. Some scholars have focused on the interwar period in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Albania, Yugoslavia, and Egypt to reveal how, as a practical tool, Kemalism was relocated as a global movement, whose influence is still felt today.<ref>"Kemalism: Transnational Politics in the Post Ottoman World.", eds. N. Clayer, F. Giomi, E. Szurek. London. I.B. Tauris. 2018.</ref> Some scholars have examined the impact of Atatürk's reforms and his image on the Jewish community in British-ruled Palestine before the establishment of Israel,<ref>Jacob Landau. "A Note on Kemalizm in the Hebrew Press of<br />
Palestine." 2018. Middle Eastern Studies 54 (4): 723–728</ref> some went farther East—to Persia, Afghanistan, China, India,<ref>Amin Saikal. "Kemalism: Its Influences on Iran and Afghanistan." 1982. International Journal of Turkish Studies 2 (2): 25–32</ref> and other parts of the Muslim world—to assess the influence wielded by Mustafa Kemal and his modernization project. These works explore perceptions of Kemalism that are mostly positive in their respective countries providing few critical insights into Kemalism's evolution and its reception as an ideological project. <br />
Against this background, one of the critical partners of Turkey in the interwar period – the Soviet Union, its leaders, party bureaucrats, journalists and scholars initially interpreted Kemalism as an ideological ally in the struggle against the West. Since the late 1920s until the 1950s, Kemalism was viewed negatively by the Communists. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Soviet position returned to normalization. Views and analyses of Soviet leaders, diplomats, party functionaries, and scholars helps us grasp the underlying dynamics behind these changing attitudes. Placing them in the larger context of republican history—delineating phases in the Kemalist paradigm of development and discerning its various rises and falls—will enrich our knowledge of the transnational history of Kemalism.<ref>Vahram Ter-Matevosyan. "Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation." London & New York, Palgrave Macmillan. 2019.</ref><br />
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The [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] viewed Kemalist Turkey as a "postgenocidal paradise" worthy of emulation.<ref name=Avedian>{{cite journal |last1=Avedian |first1=Vahagn |title=Justifying genocide: Germany and the Armenians from Bismarck to Hitler, by Stefan Ihrig, Cambridge, MA, Harvard, 460 pp., $35.00 (HC), ISBN 978-0674504790 |orig-year=2016 |journal=Nationalities Papers |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=532–535 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=20 November 2018|doi=10.1080/00905992.2017.1390980|s2cid=159627934 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |authorlink=Margaret L. Anderson|last1=Anderson |first1=Margaret Lavinia |title=Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination. By Stefan Ihrig. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014. Pp. 311. Cloth $29.95. ISBN 978-0674368378. |journal=Central European History |date=March 2016 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=138–139 |doi=10.1017/S0008938916000236|s2cid=148167017 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4qt900k7 }}</ref> Nazis often stated that [[Nazism]] and Kemalism were very similar.<ref>{{cite book |authorlink=Stefan Ihrig|last1=Ihrig |first1=Stefan |title=Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination |date=2014 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-36837-8 |pages=114, ''passim'' |language=en}}</ref> In 1933, Nazis openly admired Kemalist Turkey. Hitler described Mustafa Kemal as the "star in the darkness".{{sfn|Ihrig|2014|pp=113–117}}<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title="Nazilere göre Atatürk'ün başarısının en önemli nedeni Ermenilerin yok edilmesiydi"|url=http://www.agos.com.tr/tr/yazi/9998/nazilere-gore-ataturkun-basarisinin-en-onemli-nedeni-ermenilerin-yok-edilmesiydi|access-date=2021-06-16|website=Agos|language=tr}}</ref><br />
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Although Kemalist secularism has deep roots in Enlightenment era thought, the [[Postmodernism|postmodernist]] movement in Western philosophy has, since the 1960s and 1970s, cast the Enlightenment in a negative light. Postmodernist thinkers like [[Jacques Derrida]] have assaulted the Western hegemony and imperialism associated with European colonialism. The declining appeal of secularism, perceived as a Western value, has given occasion to postmodernist [[cultural relativism]] emphasizing the populist appeal of collective religious identities like the [[political Islam]] espoused by [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]]'s AKP.<ref>Alaranta, T. (2014). [https://www.google.com/books/edition/Contemporary_Kemalism/eE_IAgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 Contemporary Kemalism: From Universal Secular-Humanism to Extreme Turkish Nationalism]. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.</ref><br />
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==See also==<br />
*[[Bourguibism]]<br />
*[[Liberal Kemalism]]<br />
*[[Peronism]]<br />
*[[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]]<br />
*[[Post-Kemalism]]<br />
*[[Three Principles of the People]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for guidance on adding references using<ref>tags--><br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Alaranta |first=Toni |title=Contemporary Kemalism: From Universal Secular-Humanism to Extreme Turkish Nationalism |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-91676-5 |language=en |ref=none}}<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Ciddi |first=Sinan |title=Kemalism in Turkish Politics: The Republican People's Party, Secularism and Nationalism |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-02559-6 |language=en |ref=none}}<br />
*{{Cite journal |last=Gürpınar |first=Doğan |date=2013 |title=The Reinvention of Kemalism: Between Elitism, Anti-Elitism and Anti-Intellectualism |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=454–476 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2013.783822 |s2cid=144626059 |ref=none |authorlink=Doğan Gürpınar}}<br />
*{{Cite book |last=Plaggenborg |first=Stefan |title=Ordnung und Gewalt: Kemalismus - Faschismus - Sozialismus |date=2012 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-486-71409-8 |language=de |ref=none}}<br />
*{{cite web|url=https://newsaboutturkey.com/2020/05/13/the-myth-of-new-turkey-kemalism-and-erdoganism-as-two-sides-of-the-same-coin/|title=The Myth of 'New Turkey': Kemalism and Erdoganism as Two Sides of the Same Coin|work=Dr. Ceren Şengül|publisher=News About Turkey}}<br />
{{Turkish nationalism}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Kemalism}}<br />
<!--Categories--><br />
[[Category:Kemalism| ]]<br />
[[Category:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]<br />
[[Category:Political ideologies]]<br />
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]<br />
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[[Category:Republican People's Party (Turkey)]]<br />
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[[Category:Turkish nationalism]]<br />
[[Category:State ideologies]]</div>Cehilizm